document_title: House of Burgesses

question_text: who authorized the creation of a legislative assembly in 1619

root

text: House of Burgesses

text: Name[edit]

text: Originally a synonym of burgher or bourgeois, the word "burgess" came to mean a borough representative in local or parliamentary government.

tag: p

text: Early years[edit]

text: The Colony of Virginia was founded by an English stock company, the Virginia Company, as a private venture, though under a royal charter. Early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties. As early crises with famine, disease, Native American attempts to keep their  good land, the need to establish cash crops, insufficient skilled or committed labor, the colony needed to attract enough new and responsible settlers if it were to grow and prosper.

text:
To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in November, 1618 the Virginia Company's leaders gave instructions to the new Governor Sir George Yeardley, which became known as "the great charter."[4]
Emigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land and not be mere tenants. Civil authority would control the military. In 1619, based on the instructions, Governor Yeardley initiated the election 22 burgesses by the settlements and Jamestown, who, together with the royally-appointed Governor and six-member Council of State, would form the first General Assembly as a unicameral body. The governor could veto its actions and the Company still maintained overall control of the venture, but the settlers would have a limited say in the management of their own affairs, including their finances.[5] A House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda (which had also been settled by the Virginia Company, and was by then managed by its offshoot, the Somers Isles Company) and held its first session in 1620.[citation needed]

text: A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash, and soap ash, were initially denied the political rights of English settlers.  They downed tools in protest, but returned to work after being declared free (probably in the sense of civil liberty) and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company.[6]

text: First session[edit]

text: On July 30, 1619, Governor Yeardley convened the General Assembly as the first representative legislature in the Americas for a six-day meeting at the new brick church on Jamestown Island, Virginia. The unicameral Assembly was composed of the Governor, a Council of State appointed by the Virginia Company and the 22 locally elected representatives.[7]

text: The House's first session of July 30, 1619, accomplished little, being cut short by an outbreak of malaria.[citation needed] The assembly had 22 members from the following constituencies: James City (Captain William Powell, Ensign William Spense), Charles City (Sergeant Samuel Sharpe, Samuel Jordan), the City of Henricus (Thomas Dowse, John Polentine or Plentine), Kicoughtan (Captain William Tucker, William Capps), Martin-Brandon (Captain John Martin's Plantation) (Thomas Davis, Robert Stacy), Smythe's Hundred (Captain Thomas Graves, Walter Shelley), Martin's Hundred (John Boys, John Jackson), Argall's Gift Plantation (Thomas Pawlett, Edward Gourgainy), Flowerdew (or Flowerdieu) Hundred Plantation (Ensign Edmund Rossingham, John Jefferson), Captain Lawne's Plantation (Captain Christopher Lawne, Ensign Washer), and Captain Ward's Plantation (Captain John Warde or Ward, Lieutenant John Gibbs or Gibbes).[8]

text: Later 17th century[edit]

text: Especially after the massacre of almost 400 colonists on March 22, 1621/22 by Native Americans, and epidemics in the winters before and after the massacre, the governor and council ruled arbitrarily, showing great contempt for the assembly and allowed no dissent.[9] By 1624, the royal government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony and revoked the charter of the Virginia Company. Virginia became a crown colony and the governor and council would be appointed by the king. Nonetheless, the Assembly maintained management of local affairs with some informal royal assent, although it was not royally confirmed until 1639.[5]

text: In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires (later renamed counties) for purposes of government, administration, and the judicial system. By 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable and clerks, were appointed positions. Only the burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote. Only free and white men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote.[5]

text: In 1642, Governor William Berkeley urged creation of a bicameral legislature, which the Assembly promptly implemented; the House of Burgesses was thus formed and met separately from the Council of State.[10]

text: In 1652, the parliamentary forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to being taken over by the English government. Again, the colonists were able to retain the General Assembly as their governing body. Only taxes agreed to by the assembly were to be levied. Still, most Virginia colonists were loyal to Prince Charles, and were pleased at his restoration as King Charles II in 1660. He went on directly or indirectly to restrict some of the liberties of the colonists, such as requiring tobacco to be shipped only to England, only on English ships, with the price set by the English merchant buyers;[11] but the General Assembly remained.[5]

text: A majority of the members of the General Assembly of 1676 were supporters of Nathaniel Bacon. They enacted legislation designed to further popular sovereignty and representative government and to equalize opportunities.[12] Bacon took little part in the deliberations since he was busy fighting the Native Americans.[13]

text: The statehouse in Jamestown burned down for the fourth time on October 20, 1698. The General Assembly met temporarily in Middle Plantation, 11 miles (18 km) inland from Jamestown, and then in 1699 permanently moved the capital of the colony to Middle Plantation, which they renamed Williamsburg.[14]

text: Moving toward independence[edit]

text: Though not a unique occurrence on the frontier, colonists remained loyal to the British crown during the French and Indian War in North America from 1754 to 1763. The conflict, which somewhat uniquely began in the Ohio Valley and spread to Europe, resulted in local colonial losses and economic disruption. Higher taxes were to follow, and adverse local reactions to these and how they were determined would drive events well into the next decade.[15]

text: In 1764, desiring revenue from its North American colonies, Parliament passed the first law specifically aimed at raising colonial money for the Crown. The Sugar Act increased duties on non-British goods shipped to the colonies.[16] The same year, the Currency Act prohibited American colonies from issuing their own currency.[17] These angered many American colonists and began colonial opposition with protests. By the end of the year, many colonies were practicing non-importation, a refusal to use imported English goods.[16] In 1765 the British Quartering Act, which required the colonies to provide barracks and supplies to British troops, further angered American colonists; and to raise more money for Britain, Parliament enacted the Stamp Act on the American colonies, to tax newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, broadsides, legal documents, dice, and playing cards.[18] American colonists responded to Parliament's acts with organized protest throughout the colonies. A network of secret organizations known as the Sons of Liberty was created to intimidate the stamp agents collecting the taxes, and before the Stamp Act could take effect, all the appointed stamp agents in the colonies had resigned.[19]  The Massachusetts Assembly suggested a meeting of all colonies to work for the repeal of the Stamp Act, and all but four colonies were represented.[20] The colonists also increased their non-importation efforts,[21][better source needed] and sought to increase in local production.

text: In May 1765, Patrick Henry presented a series of resolves that became known as the Virginia Resolves, denouncing the Stamp Act and denying the authority of the British parliament to tax the colonies, since they were not represented by elected members of parliament. Newspapers around the colonies published all his resolves, even the most radical ones which had not been passed by the assembly.[22] The assembly also sent a 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance to Parliament.

text: From 1769 -1775 Thomas Jefferson represented Albemarle County as a delegate in the Virginia House of Burgesses.[23] He pursued reforms to slavery and introduced legislation allowing masters to take control over the emancipation of slaves in 1769, taking discretion away from the royal Governor and General Court. Jefferson persuaded his cousin Richard Bland to spearhead the legislation's passage, but reaction was strongly negative.[24]

text: In 1769 the Virginia House of Burgesses passed several resolutions condemning Britain's stationing troops in Boston following the Massachusetts Circular Letter of the previous year; these resolutions stated that only Virginia's governor and legislature could tax its citizens.[25] The members also drafted a formal letter to the King, completing it just before the legislature was dissolved by Virginia's royal governor.[26]

text: In 1774, after Parliament passed the Boston Port Act to close Boston Harbor, the House of Burgesses adopted resolutions in support of the Boston colonists which resulted in Virginia's royal governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, dissolving the assembly. The burgesses then reassembled on their own and issued calls for the first of five Virginia Conventions. These conventions were essentially meetings of the House of Burgesses without the governor and Council, Peyton Randolph the Speaker of the House would serve as the President of the Convention, and they would elect delegates to the Continental Congress.[3] The First Continental Congress passed their Declaration and Resolves, which inter alia claimed that American colonists were equal to all other British citizens, protested against taxation without representation, and stated that Britain could not tax the colonists since they were not represented in Parliament.[27]

text: In 1775 the burgesses, meeting in conventions, listened to Patrick Henry deliver his "give me liberty or give me death" speech and raised regiments. The House of Burgesses was called back by Lord Dunmore one last time in June 1775 to address British Prime Minister Lord North's Conciliatory Resolution. Randolph, who was a delegate to the Continental Congress, returned to Williamsburg to take his place as Speaker. Randolph indicated that the resolution had not been sent to the Congress (it had instead been sent to each colony individually in an attempt to divide them and bypass the Continental Congress). The House of Burgesses rejected the proposal, which was also later rejected by the Continental Congress.[28] The burgesses formed a Committee of Safety to take over governance in the absence of the royal governor, Dunmore, who had organized loyalists forces but after defeats he took refuge on a British warship.[29]

text:
In 1776 the House of Burgesses ended. The final entry in the Journals of the House of Burgesses is "6th of May. 16 Geo. III. 1776 … FINIS."[30] Edmund Pendleton, a member of the House of Burgesses (and President of the Committee of Safety) who was present at the final meeting, wrote in a letter to Richard Henry Lee on the following day, "We met in assembly yesterday, and determined not to adjourn, but let that body die."
Later on the same morning, the members of the fifth and final Virginia Revolutionary Convention met in the chamber of the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg and elected Pendleton its president. The convention voted for independence from Britain.[31] The former colony had become the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the convention created the Constitution of Virginia with a new General Assembly, composed of an elected Senate and an elected House of Delegates. The House of Delegates acceded to the role of the former House of Burgesses.[3]

text: Meeting places[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (January 2015)

tag: table

text: In 1619, the GeneralAssembly first met in the church in Jamestown. Subsequent meetings continued to take place in Jamestown.[32]

text: In 1700, the seat of the House of Burgesses was moved from Jamestown to Middle Plantation, near what was soon renamed Williamsburg.[33] The Burgesses met there, first (1700 to 1704) in the Great Hall of what is now called the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, while the Capitol was under construction. When the Capitol burned in 1747, the legislature moved back into the College until the second Capitol was completed in 1754. The present Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg is a reconstruction of the earlier of the two lost buildings.

text: In 1779, and effective in April 1780, the House of Delegates moved the capital city to Richmond during the American Revolutionary War for safety reasons.[34]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates in 1776, retaining its status as the lower house of the General Assembly, the legislative branch of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Through the General Assembly and House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World.[35]

text: In honor of the original House of Burgesses, every four years, the Virginia General Assembly traditionally leaves the current Capitol in Richmond, and meets for one day in the restored Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg. The most recent commemorative session (the 26th) was held in January 2016.[36][37]

text: In January 2007, the Assembly held a special session at Jamestown to mark the 400th anniversary of its founding as part of the Jamestown 2007 celebration, including an address by then-Vice-President Dick Cheney.[38]


document_title: Interlobular arteries

question_text: where would the interlobar blood vessels be found

text: Interlobular arteries

text:
Interlobular arteries
Scheme of renal tubule and its vascular supply.DetailsSource
Arcuate arteries of the kidneyBranches
Afferent arteriolesVein
Interlobular veinsSupplies
GlomeruliIdentifiersLatin
Arteriae interlobulares renis, arteriae corticales radiataeTA
A05.8.01.057 A08.1.03.004FMA
70498
Anatomical terminology[edit on Wikidata]

text: Interlobular arteries (or cortical radiate arteries  or cortical radial arteries) are renal blood vessels given off at right angles from the side of the arcuate arteries looking toward the cortical substance. The interlobular arteries pass directly outward between the medullary rays to reach the fibrous tunic, where they end in the capillary network of this part.

text: These vessels do not anastomose with each other, but form end-arteries.

text: In their outward course, they give off lateral branches, which are the afferent arterioles that supply the renal corpuscles.  The afferent arterioles, then, enter Bowman's capsule and end in the glomerulus.

text: From each glomerulus, the corresponding efferent arteriole arises and then exits the capsule near the point where the afferent arteriole enters.  Distally, efferent arterioles branch out to form dense plexuses (i.e., capillary beds) around their adjacent renal tubules.  For cortical nephrons, a single network of capillaries, known as the peritubular capillaries, surrounds the entire renal tubule, whereas for juxtamedullary nephrons, the peritubular capillaries surround only the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, while another network branching from the efferent arteriole, known as the straight arterioles of kidney, surrounds the nephron loop (of Henle).


document_title: Western Roman Empire

question_text: why did roman empire split into east and west

text: Western Roman Empire

text: Background[edit]

text: As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial governors had de facto rule in the name of the Roman Republic.

text: Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.

text: Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal). These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings.

text: Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures, all were often said to experience gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines.

text: Rebellions, uprisings, and political developments[edit]

text: Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime, as for example in the Great Jewish Revolt.

text: In a full-blown military campaign, the legions, under generals such as Vespasian, were far more numerous. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. The rule of Nero ended only with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", were often perceived as being of dubious loyalty. Following their example, the legions at the borders increased participation in the civil wars.

text: The main enemy in the West was arguably the Germanic tribes behind the rivers Rhine and Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them but ultimately pulled back after the Teutoburg reversal.

text: The Parthian Empire, in the East, on the other hand, was too remote and powerful to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated; similarly, Parthians repelled some attempts of Roman invasion, however, even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan and Septimius Severus. Those distant territories were forsaken to prevent unrest and also to ensure a more healthy and lasting peace with the Persians. The Parthians were followed by the Sasanian Empire, which continued hostilities with the Roman Empire.

text: Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes, however, controlling both frontiers altogether during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors.

text: Economic stagnation in the West[edit]

text: Rome and the Italian peninsula began to experience an economic slowdown as industries and money began to move outward. By the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the economic stagnation of Italia was seen in the provincial-born Emperors, such as Trajan and Hadrian. Economic problems increased in strength and frequency.[citation needed]

text: Crisis of the 3rd century[edit]

text: Starting on 18 March 235, with the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year civil war, now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sassanid dynasty in Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east. Demonstrating the increased danger, Emperor Valerian was captured by Shapur I in 259. His eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus - the local governor of the German provinces — rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known as the Gallic Empire emerged.

text: Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces and over all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes than other Romans. However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded under the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.

text: In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention was turned to the West, taking the Gallic Empire a year later. Because of a secret deal between Aurelian and Gallic Emperor Tetricus I and his son Tetricus II, the Gallic army was swiftly defeated. In exchange, Aurelian spared their lives and gave the two former rebels important positions in Italy.

text: Tetrarchy[edit]

text: The external borders were mostly stable for the remainder of the Crisis of the Third Century, although, between the death of Aurelian in 275 and the accession of Diocletian ten years later, at least eight emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops.

text: Under Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted Maximian to the rank of Augustus (Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (Caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's Mediolanum (now Milan) and Constantius' Trier. In the East, the capitals were Sirmium and Nicomedia. On 1 May 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down, and their respective Caesars were promoted to Augusti and appointed two new Caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy.

text: Constantine the Great[edit]

text: The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Roman Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain. A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In 308, the Augustus of the East, Galerius, arranged a conference at Carnuntum which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named Licinius. Constantine was far more interested in conquering the whole empire. Through a series of battles in the East and the West, Licinius and Constantine stabilized their respective parts of the Roman Empire by 314, and began to compete for sole control of a reunified state. Constantine emerged victorious in 324 after the surrender and murder of Licinius following the Battle of Chrysopolis.

text: The Tetrarchy ended, but the idea of dividing the Roman Empire between two emperors had been validated. Very strong emperors would reunite it under their single rule, but with their death the Roman Empire would be divided again and again between the East and the West.

text: Second division[edit]

text: Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324.[2] The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, civil war erupted among his three sons, dividing the Empire into three parts. The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius; after Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred in 353, with Constantius II.

text: Constantius II focused most of his power in the East and is regarded as the first emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium - only recently re-founded as Constantinople - was fully developed as a capital. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled only until 364.

text: Final division[edit]

text: Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (tribes) intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle into the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Valens also died. The campaigns to subdue them were only partly successful, and they officially became semi-independent foederati under their own leaders.

text: More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western half of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome. Theodosius I later decreed a ban on all religions except orthodox Christianity.

text: The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I restored him to power. In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as Emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again clashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire; his older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the younger Honorius got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian magister militum Flavius Stilicho while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements were exploited by the Gothic leader Alaric I who again rebelled following the death of Theodosius I. Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so.

text: Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invaded Gaul in large numbers. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410.

text: Economic factors[edit]

text: The West, less urbanized with a spread-out populace, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces. Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities) to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East was not so destitute, especially as Emperors like Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even in major defeats, the East could, certainly not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom.

text: The political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources remained safe in Constantinople, which was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. In contrast, the Western Empire was more fragmented. Its capital was transferred to Ravenna in 402 largely for defensive reasons, and it had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but was isolated in other aspects as it was surrounded by swamps and marshes. The economic power remained focused on Rome and its hyper-rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Gallienus banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life. In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as the capital of the Empire and many leading Western generals were Barbarians. After the civil war in 394 between Theodosius I and Eugenius, the new Western government installed by Theodosius I increasingly had to divert military resources from Britain and the Rhine to protect Italy. This, in turn, led to further rebellions and civil wars because the Western imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed against the barbarians.

text: The Western Empire's resources were much limited, and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders, where the Western Empire would often have difficulties paying. In certain cases deals were struck with the leaders of barbaric mercenaries rewarding them with land, which led to the Empire's decline as less land meant there would be less tax revenue to support the military.

text: As the central power weakened, the State gradually lost control of its borders and provinces, as well as control over the Mediterranean Sea. Roman Emperors tried to maintain control of the sea, but, once the Vandals conquered North Africa, imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources. The loss of the African provinces might have been the worse reversal on the West's fortunes, since they were among its wealthiest territories and supplied the essential grain imports to Italy. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, such as Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption.

text: Sack of Rome and Fall of the Western Roman Empire[edit]

text: Remaining as emperor after the death of Stilicho in 408, Honorius reigned until his own death in 423. His reign was filled with usurpations and invasions. In 410, Rome was sacked by Alaric's forces. This event made a great impression on contemporaries, as this was the first time since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC that the city had fallen to a foreign enemy. Under Alaric's successors, the Goths then settled in Gaul (412–418), from where they operated as Roman allies against the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi in Spain, and against the usurper Jovinus (413). Meanwhile, another usurper, Constantine (406–411), had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons, Angli, and the Jutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards.

text: Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government with the force of arms installed Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Ravenna, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help, he defeated the Burgundians, who had occupied part of southern Gaul after 407, and settled them in Savoy as Roman allies (433). Later that century, as Roman power faded away, the Burgundians extended their rule to the Rhone valley.

text: Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under their king Gaiseric to cross over from Spain in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia (435) before moving eastward and capturing Carthage, from where they established an independent state with a powerful navy (439). The Vandal fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean.

text: In 444, the Huns, who had been employed as Roman allies by Aetius, were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Attila then received a plea for help and the ring of Honoria, the Emperor's sister. Threatening war, he claimed half of the Western Empire's territory as his dowry.

text: Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul and was only stopped in the battle of the Catalaunian Plains by a combined Roman-Germanic army led by Aetius. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, Pope Leo's plea for peace, and reports of a campaign of Marcianus directed at his headquarters in Pannonia induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453).

text: Aetius was slain in 454 by Valentinian, who was then himself murdered by the dead general's supporters a year later. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, a new period of dynastic struggle ensued. The Vandals took advantage of the unrest and sailed up to Rome, which they plundered in 455.

text: The instability caused by usurpers throughout the Western Empire helped these tribes in their conquests, and by the 450s the Germanic tribes had become usurpers themselves. During the next twenty years, several Western Emperors were installed by Constantinople, but their authority relied upon barbarian commanders (Ricimer (456–472), Gundobad (473–475)). Majorian was the last emperor to campaign in Gaul and Spain in 458-460 before being deposed and murdered by Ricimer. From the 460s onwards, imperial control was effectively restricted to Italy and southern Gaul as the remaining Western provinces refused to accept Ricimer's appointment of Libius Severus in 461.

text: In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Emperor Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Romulus Augustus as emperor. In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes was killed and Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, installed himself as ruler over Italy and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople. Although isolated pockets of Roman rule continued even after 476, the city of Rome itself was under the rule of the barbarians, and the control of Rome over the West had effectively ended.

text: Three rump states continued under Roman rule in some form or another after 476: Julius Nepos controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. Lastly, a Roman-Moor realm survived in north Africa, resisting Vandal incursions, and becoming a part of the Eastern Roman Empire c.533 when Belisarius defeated the Vandals.

text: Last Emperor[edit]

text: By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, but the historical record calls this determination into question.

text: Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West, and ruled a rump state in Dalmatia. He was recognized as such by Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno and by Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul, known today as the Domain of Soissons.

text: Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Julius Nepos. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy.

text: Political change after the empire's fall[edit]

text: Theodoric[edit]

text: The last hope for a reunited Empire came in 493, as Odoacer was replaced by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric had been forced to appear subservient to Zeno in order to deal with a dangerous Odoacer. While in principle Theodoric was a subordinate, a viceroy of the Emperor of the East, in fact he was his equal.

text: Following Theodoric's death in 526, the Western half of the Empire was now fully controlled by Germanic tribes (though many of them continued to recognize Roman law and made claims to continuity), while the Eastern half had established itself under the Justinian dynasty. While the East would make some attempts to recapture the West, the Roman Empire was never reunited.

text: East Roman reconquest[edit]

text: Throughout Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, laid claims on areas of the West which had been occupied by several tribes. In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire. The most successful were the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554. The Vandal-occupied former Roman territory in North Africa was regained, particularly the territory centered around the city of Carthage. Less than a year later, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Dalmatia, and the Balearic Islands were easily captured by the invading Roman legions. The campaign eventually moved into Italy and the Byzantines reconquered it completely. Minor territories were taken as far west as the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Only three years after Justinian had died, the Lombards had invaded Italy, but the wealthiest parts of the province remained securely in Roman hands throughout the seventh century.[3]

text: Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of war with Sasanian Iran and then the rise of Arab power. For a while, the West remained important, with the Emperor Constans II ruling from Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s, but thereafter imperial attention declined rapidly, with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost to the Romans once and for all. The Emperor Leo III restored order, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the Iconoclastic Controversy, proved extremely unpopular in the West, and led to the final breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself.

text: Byzantine rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs over the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in Calabria ultimately provided a base for modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under "Roman" rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further Byzantine civil war, and the slow conquest of the region by the Byzantines' former mercenaries, the Normans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered the provinces upheld many Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly converted to official imperial Christianity, gaining more loyalty from the local Roman populations, as well as the recognition and support of the powerful Bishop of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman Law and gradually incorporated it as well.

text: Roman Law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern Civil law stands. In contrast, Common law is based on the Germanic Anglo-Saxon law.

text: Latin as a language never really disappeared. It combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to many modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide.

text: Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English, German, and Dutch; all surviving Celtic languages, Albanian, and such Slavic languages as Polish and Czech, and even the non-Indo-European Hungarian. It survives in its "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church (the Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969), and was used as a lingua franca between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship.

text: The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the splits of I into I and J and of U into U, V, and in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish) W; it is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. Roman numerals continue to be used, but were mostly replaced by Arabic numerals.

text: The ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler continued to appeal to many powerful rulers. Under the principle of translatio imperii, the Holy Roman Empire explicitly proclaimed itself as the continuation of the Western Roman Empire. The title of the Western Roman Emperor was revived when Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Lombards, was crowned as Emperor of the Romans of the West by Pope Leo III in 800. The status of the Holy Roman Emperor as the rightful Western Roman Emperor in the medieval era was further legitimated by the recognition as "co-emperor" from the Eastern Roman Emperor, who was in direct succession to the ancient Roman Emperors. The Holy Roman Empire continued to regard itself as the successor state of the Western Roman Empire until its downfall in 1806. The French King Louis XIV, as well as French Emperor Napoleon I, and the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, among others, also tried to resurrect the Empire, albeit unsuccessfully.

text: A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church. The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century. In many cases the only source of law and civil administration was the local bishop, often himself a former governor like St. Ambrose of Milan and St. Germanus of Auxerre. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ.

text: List of Western Roman Emperors[edit]

text: Gallic Emperors (259 to 273)[edit]

text:
Postumus: 259 to 268
Laelianus: 268 Usurper
Marcus Aurelius Marius: 268
Victorinus: 268 to 271
Domitianus: 271 Usurper
Tetricus I: 271 to 273

Tetricus II: 271 to 273 Son and co-emperor of Tetricus I

tag: ul

text: Tetrarchy (293 to 313)[edit]

text: Augusti are shown with their Caesares and regents further indented

text:
Maximian: 293 to 305

Constantius Chlorus: 293 to 305

Constantius Chlorus: 305 to 306

Flavius Valerius Severus: 305 to 306

Flavius Valerius Severus: 306 to 307

Constantine I: 306 to 313

Maxentius/Maximian: 307 to 308
Licinius: 308 to 313
Maxentius: 308 to 312 Usurper
Domitius Alexander: 308 to 309 African usurper

text: Constantinian dynasty (313 to 363)[edit]

text:
Constantine the Great: 306 to 337 Sole emperor of the empire from 324 to 337
Constantine II: 337 to 340 Emperor of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania
Constantius II: 337 to 361 Emperor of the east from 337 to 353, Sole emperor of the empire from 353 to 360
Constans I: 337 to 350 Emperor of Italy and Africa 337-340, emperor of the west from 340 to 350
Magnentius: 350 to 353 Usurper
Julian: 355 to 363 Emperor of the west from 355 to 361, Sole emperor of the empire from 361 to 363

text: Non-dynastic (363 to 364)[edit]

text: Jovian: 363 to 364

text: Valentinian dynasty (364 to 392)[edit]

text:
Valentinian I: 364 to 375

Gratian: 367 to 375

Gratian: 375 to 383

Valentinian II: 375 to 383

Magnus Maximus: 383 to 388 Usurper
Valentinian II: 383 to 392

text: Non-dynastic (392 to 394)[edit]

text: Eugenius: 392 to 394

text: Theodosian dynasty (394 to 455)[edit]

text:
Theodosius I: 394 to 395 Sole emperor
Honorius: 395 to 423

Flavius Stilicho: 395 to 408 Power behind the throne
Constantius III: 421

Constantine III: 407 to 411 Usurper
Priscus Attalus: 409 to 410/414 to 415 Usurper
Jovinus: 411 to 412 Usurper
Valentinian III: 423 to 455

Galla Placidia: 423 to 433 Regent
Aëtius: 433 to 454 Regent

Joannes: 423 to 425 Usurper

text: Non-dynastic (455 to 480)[edit]

text:
Petronius Maximus: 455 not recognized in Constantinople
Avitus: 455 to 456 not recognized in Constantinople

Ricimer: 456 to 472 Power behind the throne

Majorian: 457 to 461
Libius Severus: 461 to 465 not recognized in Constantinople
Anthemius: 467 to 472
Olybrius: 472 not recognized in Constantinople
Glycerius: 473 to 474 not recognized in Constantinople
Julius Nepos: 474 to 480 In exile 475 to 480
Romulus Augustus: 475 to 476 not recognized in Constantinople

Flavius Orestes: 475 to 476 Power behind the throne

text: Flavius Orestes was killed by revolting Germanic mercenaries. Their chieftain, Odoacer, assumed control of Italy as a de jure representative of Julius Nepos and Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno.


document_title: List of Presidents of the United States by home state

question_text: which state has produced the most us presidents

text: Birth places[edit]

text: Twenty-one states claim the distinction of being the birthplace of a president. One president's birth state is in dispute; North and South Carolina (British colonies at the time) both lay claim to Andrew Jackson, who was born in 1767, in the Waxhaw region along their common border. Jackson himself considered South Carolina as his birth state.[1] Born on December 5, 1782, Martin Van Buren was the first president born an American citizen (and not a British subject).[2]

text: The term Virginia dynasty is sometimes used to describe the fact that four of the first five U.S. presidents were from Virginia. The number of presidents born per state, counting Jackson as being from South Carolina, are:

text:
One: Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina
Two: North Carolina, Texas, and Vermont
Four: Massachusetts
Five: New York
Seven: Ohio
Eight: Virginia

text:
Note: Dates of birth sort by month and day     = Colony, pre–1776, rather than state.

BirthOrder
President
Date of birth/death
Birthplace
State of birth
In office

1
George Washington
02-22February 22, 1732 - December 14, 1799
Westmoreland County
Virginia
(1st) April 30, 1789 – March 4, 1797

2
John Adams
10-30 October 30, 1735 - July 4, 1826
Braintree
Massachusetts
(2nd) March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801

3
Thomas Jefferson
04-13 April 13, 1743 - July 4, 1826
Shadwell
Virginia
(3rd) March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809

4
James Madison
03-16 March 16, 1751 - June 28, 1836
Port Conway
Virginia
(4th) March 4, 1809 – March 4, 1817

5
James Monroe
04-28 April 28, 1758 - July 4, 1831
Monroe Hall
Virginia
(5th) March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825

6
John Quincy Adams
07-11 July 11, 1767 - February 23, 1848
Braintree
Massachusetts
(6th) March 4, 1825 – March 4, 1829

7
Andrew Jackson
03-15 March 15, 1767 - June 8, 1845
Waxhaws Region
South/North Carolina
(7th) March 4, 1829 – March 4, 1837

8
Martin Van Buren
12-05 December 5, 1782 - July 24, 1862
Kinderhook
New York
(8th) March 4, 1837 – March 4, 1841

9
William Henry Harrison
02-09 February 9, 1773 - April 4, 1841
Charles City County
Virginia
(9th) March 4, 1841 – April 4, 1841

10
John Tyler
03-29 March 29, 1790 - January 18, 1862
Charles City County
Virginia
(10th) April 4, 1841 – March 4, 1845

11
James K. Polk
11-02 November 2, 1795 - June 15, 1849
Pineville
North Carolina
(11th) March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849

12
Zachary Taylor
11-24 November 24, 1784 - July 9, 1850
Barboursville
Virginia
(12th) March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850

13
Millard Fillmore
01-07 January 7, 1800 - March 8, 1874
Summerhill
New York
(13th) July 9, 1850 – March 4, 1853

14
Franklin Pierce
11-23 November 23, 1804 - October 8, 1869
Hillsborough
New Hampshire
(14th) March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857

15
James Buchanan
04-23 April 23, 1791 - June 1, 1868
Cove Gap
Pennsylvania
(15th) March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861

16
Abraham Lincoln
02-12 February 12, 1809 - April 15, 1865
Sinking Spring
Kentucky
(16th) March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865

17
Andrew Johnson
12-29 December 29, 1808 - July 31, 1875
Raleigh
North Carolina
(17th) April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869

18
Ulysses S. Grant
04-27 April 27, 1822 - July 23, 1885
Point Pleasant
Ohio
(18th) March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877

19
Rutherford B. Hayes
10-04 October 4, 1822 - January 17, 1893
Delaware
Ohio
(19th) March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881

20
James A. Garfield
11-19 November 19, 1831 - September 19, 1881
Moreland Hills
Ohio
(20th) March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881

21
Chester A. Arthur
10-05 October 5, 1829 - November 18, 1886
Fairfield
Vermont
(21st) September 19, 1881 – March 4, 1885

22
Grover Cleveland
03-18 March 18, 1837 - June 24, 1908
Caldwell
New Jersey
(22nd) March 4, 1885 – March 4, 1889

23
Benjamin Harrison
08-20 August 20, 1833 - March 13, 1901
North Bend
Ohio
(23rd) March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893

24
Grover Cleveland
03-18 March 18, 1837 - June 24, 1908
Caldwell
New Jersey
(24th) March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897

25
William McKinley
01-29 January 29, 1843 - September 14, 1901
Niles
Ohio
(25th) March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901

26
Theodore Roosevelt
10-27 October 27, 1858 - January 6, 1919
New York City
New York
(26th) September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909

27
William H. Taft
09-15 September 15, 1857 - March 8, 1930
Cincinnati
Ohio
(27th) March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913

28
Woodrow Wilson
12-28 December 28, 1856 - February 3, 1924
Staunton
Virginia
(28th) March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921

29
Warren G. Harding
11-02 November 2, 1865 - August 2, 1923
Blooming Grove
Ohio
(29th) March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923

30
Calvin Coolidge
07-04 July 4, 1872 - January 5, 1933
Plymouth
Vermont
(30th) August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929

31
Herbert Hoover
08-10 August 10, 1874 - October 20, 1964
West Branch
Iowa
(31st) March 4, 1929 – March 4, 1933

32
Franklin D. Roosevelt
01-30 January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945
Hyde Park
New York
(32nd) March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945

33
Harry S. Truman
05-08 May 8, 1884 - December 26, 1972
Lamar
Missouri
(33rd) April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953

34
Dwight D. Eisenhower
10-14 October 14, 1890 - March 28, 1969
Denison
Texas
(34th) January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961

35
John F. Kennedy
05-29 May 29, 1917 - November 22, 1963
Brookline
Massachusetts
(35th) January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963

36
Lyndon B. Johnson
08-27 August 27, 1908 - January 22, 1973
Stonewall
Texas
(36th) November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1969

37
Richard Nixon
01-09 January 9, 1913 - April 22, 1994
Yorba Linda
California
(37th) January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974

38
Gerald Ford
07-14 July 14, 1913 - December 26, 2006
Omaha
Nebraska
(38th) August 9, 1974 – January 20, 1977

39
Jimmy Carter
10-01 October 1, 1924
Plains
Georgia
(39th) January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981

40
Ronald Reagan
02-06 February 6, 1911 - June 5, 2004
Tampico
Illinois
(40th) January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989

41
George H. W. Bush
06-12 June 12, 1924
Milton
Massachusetts
(41st) January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993

42
Bill Clinton[3]
08-19 August 19, 1946
Hope
Arkansas
(42nd) January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001

43
George W. Bush[4]
07-06 July 6, 1946
New Haven
Connecticut
(43rd) January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009

44
Barack Obama[5]
08-04 August 4, 1961
Honolulu
Hawaii
(44th) January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2017

45
Donald J. Trump
06-14 June 14, 1946
New York City
New York
(45th) January 20, 2017 – Incumbent

text: Presidential birthplace and early childhood historic sites[edit]

text: The birthplaces and early childhood residences of many U.S. presidents have been preserved or replicated. In instances where a physical structure is absent, a monument or roadside marker has been erected to denote the site's historic significance. All sites in the table below are listed in the National Register of Historic Places.

text: A dramatic shift in childbirth from home to hospital occurred in the United States in the early 20th century (mid–1920s to 1940).[6] Reflective of this trend, all presidents born after World War II (Bill Clinton and every president since) have been born in a hospital, not a private residence.

text:
President

Image

Historic site

George Washington

George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Colonial Beach, Virginia

John Adams

John Adams Birthplace, Quincy, Massachusetts

James Madison

Belle Grove Plantation, Port Conway, Virginia

James Monroe

James Monroe Family Home Site, Colonial Beach, Virginia

John Quincy Adams

John Quincy Adams Birthplace, Quincy, Massachusetts

William Henry Harrison

Berkeley Plantation, Charles City County, Virginia

John Tyler

Greenway Plantation, Charles City County, Virginia

James Buchanan

Buchanan's Birthplace State Park, Cove Gap, Pennsylvania

James K. Polk

President James K. Polk Historic Site, Pineville, North Carolina

Franklin Pierce

Franklin Pierce Homestead, Hillsborough, New Hampshire

Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park, Hodgenville, Kentucky

Ulysses S. Grant

Grant Birthplace, Point Pleasant, Ohio

Chester A. Arthur

Chester Alan Arthur State Historic Site, Fairfield, Vermont

Grover Cleveland

Grover Cleveland Birthplace, Caldwell, New Jersey

William McKinley

McKinley Birthplace Home and Research Center, Niles, Ohio

Woodrow Wilson

Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library, Staunton, Virginia

William Howard Taft

William Howard Taft National Historic Site, Cincinnati, Ohio

Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site, New York City, New York

Calvin Coolidge

Calvin Coolidge Homestead District, Plymouth, Vermont

Herbert Hoover

Herbert Hoover National Historic Site, West Branch, Iowa

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, Hyde Park, New York

Harry S. Truman

Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site, Lamar, Missouri

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site, Denison, Texas

Lyndon B. Johnson

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, Stonewall, Texas

Ronald Reagan

Birthplace of Ronald Reagan, Tampico, Illinois

Richard Nixon

Birthplace of Richard Nixon, Yorba Linda, California

Gerald R. Ford

Gerald R. Ford Birthsite and Gardens, Omaha, Nebraska

John F. Kennedy

John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site, Brookline, Massachusetts

Bill Clinton

President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site, Hope, Arkansas

text: States of primary affiliation[edit]

text: A list of U.S. Presidents including the state with which each was primarily affiliated, due to residence, professional career, and electoral history. This is not necessarily the state in which the president was born. Nineteen Presidents (denoted with an asterisk) primarily resided in states other than their respective birth states, which are listed above.

text:
State
#
Presidents (in order of presidency)

 New York

7

Martin Van Buren (8), Millard Fillmore (13), Chester A. Arthur* (21), Grover Cleveland* (22, 24), Theodore Roosevelt (26), Franklin D. Roosevelt (32), Donald Trump (45)

 Ohio

6

William Henry Harrison* (9), Rutherford B. Hayes (19), James A. Garfield (20), William McKinley (25), William Howard Taft (27), Warren G. Harding (29)

 Virginia

5

George Washington (1), Thomas Jefferson (3), James Madison (4), James Monroe (5), John Tyler (10)

 Massachusetts

4

John Adams (2), John Quincy Adams (6), Calvin Coolidge* (30), John F. Kennedy (35)

 California

3

Herbert Hoover* (31), Richard Nixon (37), Ronald Reagan*  (40)

 Tennessee

3

Andrew Jackson* (7), James K. Polk* (11), Andrew Johnson* (17)

 Texas

3

Lyndon B. Johnson (36), George H. W. Bush*  (41), George W. Bush*  (43)

 Illinois

3

Abraham Lincoln* (16), Ulysses S. Grant* (18), Barack Obama* (44)

 Arkansas

1

Bill Clinton (42)

 Georgia

1

Jimmy Carter (39)

 Indiana

1

Benjamin Harrison* (23)

 Kansas

1

Dwight D. Eisenhower* (34)

 Kentucky

1

Zachary Taylor* (12)

 Michigan

1

Gerald Ford* (38)

 Missouri

1

Harry S. Truman (33)

 New Hampshire

1

Franklin Pierce (14)

 New Jersey

1

Woodrow Wilson* (28)

 Pennsylvania

1

James Buchanan (15)


document_title: Type III hypersensitivity

question_text: an example of a type iii hypersensitivity is

text: Type III hypersensitivity

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: Type III hypersensitivity occurs when there is an excess of antigen, leading to small immune complexes being formed that fix complement and are not cleared from the circulation. It involves soluble antigens that are not bound to cell surfaces (as opposed to those in type II hypersensitivity). When these antigens bind antibodies, immune complexes of different sizes form.[1] Large complexes can be cleared by macrophages but macrophages have difficulty in the disposal of small immune complexes. These immune complexes insert themselves into small blood vessels, joints, and glomeruli, causing symptoms. Unlike the free variant, a small immune complex bound to sites of deposition (like blood vessel walls) are far more capable of interacting with complement; these medium-sized complexes, formed in the slight excess of antigen, are viewed as being highly pathogenic.[2]

text: Such depositions in tissues often induce an inflammatory response,[3] and can cause damage wherever they precipitate. The cause of damage is as a result of the action of cleaved complement anaphylotoxins C3a and C5a, which, respectively, mediate the induction of granule release from mast cells (from which histamine can cause urticaria), and recruitment of inflammatory cells into the tissue (mainly those with lysosomal action, leading to tissue damage through frustrated phagocytosis by PMNs and macrophages).[4]

text: The reaction can take hours, days, or even weeks to develop, depending on whether or not there is immunological memory of the precipitating antigen. Typically, clinical features emerge a week following initial antigen challenge, when the deposited immune complexes can precipitate an inflammatory response. Because of the nature of the antibody aggregation, tissues that are associated with blood filtration at considerable osmotic and hydrostatic gradient (e.g. sites of urinary and synovial fluid formation, kidney glomeruli and joint tissues respectively) bear the brunt of the damage. Hence, vasculitis, glomerulonephritis and arthritis are commonly associated conditions as a result of type III hypersensitivity responses.[5]

text: As observed under methods of histopathology, acute necrotizing vasculitis within the affected tissues is observed concomitant to neutrophilic infiltration, along with notable eosinophilic deposition (fibrinoid necrosis). Often, immunofluorescence microscopy can be used to visualize the immune complexes.[5] Skin response to a hypersensitivity of this type is referred to as an Arthus reaction, and is characterized by local erythema and some induration. Platelet aggregation, especially in microvasculature, can cause localized clot formation, leading to blotchy hemorrhages. This typifies the response to injection of foreign antigen sufficient to lead to the condition of serum sickness.[4]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Some clinical examples:

text:
Disease
Target antigen
Main effects

Systemic lupus erythematosus
Nuclear antigens

Nephritis
Skin lesions
Arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis
Antibody complexes: specifically IgM to IgG

Arthritis

Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
Streptococcal cell wall antigens

Nephritis

Polyarteritis nodosa
Hepatitis B virus surface antigen

Systemic vasculitis

Reactive arthritis
Several bacterial antigens

Acute arthritis

Serum sickness
Various

Arthritis
Vasculitis
Nephritis

Arthus reaction
Various

Cutaneous vasculitis

Farmer's Lung
Inhaled antigens (often mould or hay dust)

Alveolar inflammation

Henoch–Schönlein purpura
Unknown, likely respiratory pathogen

Purpura
Glomerulonephritis

Unless else specified in boxes, then ref is:[6]

text: Other examples are:

text:
Subacute bacterial endocarditis[7]
Symptoms of malaria


document_title: United States presidential election, 1824

question_text: who won the popular vote in the presidential election of 1824

text: Background[edit]

text: The Era of Good Feelings, closely associated with the administration of President James Monroe (1817–1825), was characterized by the dissolution of national political identities.[2] With the discredited Federalists in decline nationally, the "amalgamated" or hybridized Republicans adopted key Federalist economic programs and institutions, further erasing party identities and consolidating their victory.[3][4] The economic nationalism of the Era of Good Feelings that would authorize the Tariff of 1816 and incorporate the Second Bank of the United States portended an abandonment of the Jeffersonian political formula for strict construction of the constitution, limited central government and commitments to the primacy of Southern agrarian interests.[5][6][7]

text: The end of opposition parties also meant the end of party discipline and the means to suppress internecine factional animosities. Rather than produce political harmony, as President James Monroe had hoped, amalgamation had led to intense rivalries among Republicans.[8] Bereft of any party apparatus to contain these outbursts, Monroe attempted to enlist the leading statesmen of his day into his cabinet so as to commit them to advancing his policies. Of the five politicians who would run for president in 1824, three were in Monroe's cabinet: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford of Georgia, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, a commander in the regular US Army, was tapped for high-profile military assignments. Only Speaker of the House of Representatives Henry Clay of Kentucky held political power independent of the Monroe administration. Monroe’s efforts to bring Clay into his cabinet failed, and the Speaker remained a persistent critic of the Monroe administration.

text: Amid these reconfigured political landscapes arose two pivotal events: the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri crisis of 1820.[9] Both the alarming economic disaster, which fell heavily upon both agrarian and industrial workers, and the distressing sectional disputes over slavery expansion, produced widespread social unrest and calls for increased democratic control over the future of the American republic.[10] From these disaffected social groups would be assembled the popular base on which political parties would be revived, though these were only beginning to take shape at the time of the 1824 presidential election.[11]

text: General election[edit]

text: Campaign[edit]

text: The previous competition between the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party collapsed after the War of 1812 due to the disintegration of the Federalists' popular appeal, and U.S. President James Monroe of the Democratic-Republican Party was able to run without opposition in the election of 1820. Like previous presidents who had been elected to two terms, James Monroe declined to seek re-nomination for a third term.[12]

text: Monroe's vice president, Daniel D. Tompkins, was considered unelectable due to his overwhelming unpopularity and major health problems (Tompkins died in June 1825, a little over three months after he left office). The presidential nomination was thus left wide open within the Democratic-Republican Party, the only major national political entity remaining in the United States.

text: Candidates[edit]

text:
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams

House Speaker Henry Clay from Kentucky

Senator Andrew Jackson from Tennessee

Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford

text: Andrew Jackson was recruited to run for the office of the president by the state legislature of Tennessee. Jackson did not seek the task of running for president. Instead, he wished to retire to his estate on the outskirts of Nashville called the Hermitage. However, Andrew Jackson was not one to decline such request.[13]

text: Candidates who withdrew before election[edit]

text:
Secretary of War John C. Calhoun

Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson

text: Nomination process[edit]

text:
Congressional caucus balloting

Presidential candidate
Ballot
Vice Presidential candidate
Ballot

William H. Crawford
64
Albert Gallatin
57

Henry Clay
2
Erastus Root
2

John Quincy Adams
2
John Quincy Adams
1

Andrew Jackson
1
William Eustis
1

William Rufus King
1

William Lowndes
1

Richard Rush
1

Samuel Smith
1

John Tod
1

text: The traditional Congressional caucus nominated Crawford for president and Albert Gallatin for vice-president, but it was sparsely attended and was widely attacked as undemocratic. With the breakdown of the congressional nominating caucus, legislatures convened state caucuses to nominate candidates.[14] Gallatin later withdrew from the contest for the vice presidency, after quickly becoming disillusioned by repeated attacks on his credibility made by the other candidates. He was replaced by North Carolina senator Nathaniel Macon. A serious impediment to Crawford's candidacy was created by the effects of a stroke he suffered in 1823. Among other candidates, John Quincy Adams had more support than Henry Clay because of his huge popularity among the old Federalist voters in New England. By this time, even the traditionally Federalist Adams family had come to terms with the Democratic-Republican Party.

text: The election was as much a contest of favorite sons as it was a conflict over policy, although positions on tariffs and internal improvements did create some significant disagreements. In general, the candidates were favored by different sections of the country: Adams was strong in the Northeast; Jackson in the South, West and mid-Atlantic; Clay in parts of the West; and Crawford in parts of the South.

text: Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who was a fifth candidate in the early stages of consideration, declined to run for president, but did decide to seek the vice presidency. For president, he backed Jackson, whose political beliefs he considered more compatible with those of most voters in the southern states. Both Adams and Jackson supporters backed Calhoun's candidacy as vice president; thus, he easily secured the majority of electoral votes he needed to secure that office. In reality, Calhoun was vehemently opposed to nearly all of Adams's policies, but he did nothing to dissuade Adams supporters from voting for him for vice president.

text: The campaigning for presidential election of 1824 took many forms. Contrafacta, or well known songs and tunes whose lyrics have been altered, were used to promote political agendas and presidential candidates. Below can be found a sound clip featuring "Hunters of Kentucky", a tune written by Samuel Woodsworth in 1815 under the title "The Unfortunate Miss Bailey". Contrafacta such as this one, which promoted Andrew Jackson as a national hero, have been a long-standing tradition in presidential elections. Another form of campaigning during this election was through newsprint. Political cartoons and partisan writings were best circulated among the voting public through newspapers. Presidential candidate John C. Calhoun was one of the candidates most directly involved through his participation in the publishing of the newspaper The Patriot as a member of the editorial staff. This was a sure way to promote his own political agendas and campaign. In contrast, most candidates involved in early 19th century elections did not run their own political campaigns. Instead it was left to volunteer citizens and partisans to speak on their behalf.[15][16][17][18]

text:
Hunters of Kentucky

Jackson supporters used this Battle of New Orleans anthem as their campaign song.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: Results[edit]

text: The 1824 presidential election marked the final collapse of the Republican-Federalist political framework. Considering the large numbers of candidates and strong regional preferences, it is not surprising that the results of the election of 1824 were inconclusive. The electoral map confirmed the candidates' sectional support, with Adams winning outright in the New England states, Jackson gleaning success in states throughout the nation, Clay attracting votes from the West, and Crawford attracting votes from the eastern South. Andrew Jackson received more electoral and popular votes than any other candidate, but not the majority of 131 electoral votes needed to win the election. Since no candidate received the required majority of electoral votes, the presidential election was decided by the House of Representatives (see "Contingent election" below). Meanwhile, John C. Calhoun easily defeated his rivals in the race for the vice presidency, as the support of both the Adams and Jackson camps quickly gave him an unassailable lead over the other candidates. This means that 1824 marks the only election in U.S. history where only the vice presidential candidate had been successfully elected to an executive office by Electoral College. Despite Clay himself finishing last in the electoral college, his running-mate, Nathan Sanford actually finished second behind Calhoun in the vice presidential vote, mostly because nearly half of the electors pledged to Crawford voted for candidates other than his designated running-mate, Nathaniel Macon, with New York senator Martin Van Buren being the main beneficiary.

text:
Presidential candidate
Party
Home state
Popular vote[a]
Electoral vote

Count
Percentage

Andrew Jackson[b]
Democratic-Republican
Tennessee
151,271
41.4%
99

John Quincy Adams[c]
Democratic-Republican
Massachusetts
113,122
30.9%
84

William Harris Crawford[d]
Democratic-Republican
Georgia
40,856
11.2%
41

Henry Clay[e]
Democratic-Republican
Kentucky
47,531
13.0%
37

(Massachusetts unpledged electors)
None
Massachusetts
6,616
1.8%
0

Other
6,437
1.8%
0

Total
365,833
100.0%
261

Needed to win
131

text:
Vice Presidential candidate
Party
State
Electoral vote[20]

John C. Calhoun
Democratic-Republican
South Carolina
182

Nathan Sanford
Democratic-Republican
New York
30

Nathaniel Macon
Democratic-Republican
North Carolina
24

Andrew Jackson
Democratic-Republican
Tennessee
13

Martin Van Buren
Democratic-Republican
New York
9

Henry Clay
Democratic-Republican
Kentucky
2

Total
260

Needed to win
131

text: Results by state[edit]

text:
Andrew Jackson
Democratic-Republican
John Quincy Adams
Democratic-Republican
Henry Clay
Democratic-Republican
William Crawford
Democratic-Republican
State total

State
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#

Alabama
5
000136189,429
69.32
5
000136182,422
17.80
-
0004866996
0.71
-
000486691,656
12.17
-
13,603
AL

Connecticut
8
no ballots
7,494
70.39
8
no ballots
1,965
18.46
-
10,647
CT

Delaware
3
no popular vote
no popular vote
1
no popular vote
no popular vote
2
-
DE

Georgia
9
no popular vote
no popular vote
no popular vote
no popular vote
9
-
GA

Illinois
3
1,272
27.23
2
1,516
32.46
1
1,036
22.18
-
847
18.13
-
4,671
IL

Indiana
5
7,343
46.61
5
3,095
19.65
-
5,315
33.74
-
no ballots
15,753
IN

Kentucky
14
6,356
27.23
-
no ballots
16,982
72.77
14
no ballots
23,338
KY

Louisiana
5
no popular vote
3
no popular vote
2
no popular vote
no popular vote
-
LA

Maine
9
no ballots
10,289
81.50
9
no ballots
2,336
18.50
-
12,625
ME

Maryland
11
14,523
43.73
7
14,632
44.05
3
695
2.09
-
3,364
10.13
1
33,214
MD

Massachusetts
15
no ballots
30,687
72.97
15
no ballots
no ballots
42,056
MA

Mississippi
3
3,121
63.77
3
1,654
33.80
-
no ballots
119
2.43
-
4,894
MS

Missouri
3
1,166
33.97
-
159
4.63
-
2,042
59.50
3
32
0.93
-
3,432
MO

New Hampshire
8
no ballots
9,389
93.59
8
no ballots
643
6.41
-
10,032
NH

New Jersey
8
10,332
52.08
8
8,309
41.89
-
no ballots
1,196
6.03
-
19,837
NJ

New York
36
no popular vote
1
no popular vote
26
no popular vote
4
no popular vote
5
-
NY

North Carolina
15
20,231
56.03
15
no ballots
no ballots
15,622
43.26
-
36,109
NC

Ohio
16
18,489
36.96
-
12,280
24.55
-
19,255
38.49
16
no ballots
50,024
OH

Pennsylvania
28
35,929
76.04
28
5,436
11.50
-
1,705
3.61
-
4,182
8.85
-
47,252
PA

Rhode Island
4
no ballots
2,145
91.47
4
no ballots
200
8.53
-
2,345
RI

South Carolina
11
no popular vote
11
no popular vote
no popular vote
no popular vote
-
SC

Tennessee
11
20,197
97.45
11
216
1.04
-
no ballots
312
1.51
-
20,725
TN

Vermont
7
no popular vote
no popular vote
7
no popular vote
no popular vote
35,031
VT

Virginia
24
2,975
19.35
-
3,419
22.24
-
419
2.73
-
8,558
55.68
24
15,371
VA

TOTALS:
261
151,363
41.36
99
113,142
30.92
84
47,545
12.99
37
41,032
11.21
41
365,928
US

TO WIN:
131

text: Breakdown by ticket[edit]

text:
Total
Andrew
Jackson
John Q.
Adams
William H.
Crawford
Henry
Clay

Electoral votes for President:
261
99
84
40
38

For Vice President, John C. Calhoun
182
99
74
2
7

For Vice President, Nathan Sanford
30

2
28

For Vice President, Nathaniel Macon
24

24

For Vice President, Andrew Jackson
13

9
1
3

For Vice President, Martin Van Buren
9

9

For Vice President, Henry Clay
2

2

(No vote for Vice President)
1

1

text: 1825 contingent election[edit]

text: Since no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes, the presidential election was thrown into a contingent election in the U.S. House of Representatives. Following the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment, only the top three candidates in the electoral vote were admitted as candidates in the House: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and William Harris Crawford. Henry Clay, who happened to be Speaker of the House at the time, was left out. Clay detested Jackson and had said of him, "I cannot believe that killing 2,500 Englishmen at New Orleans qualifies for the various, difficult, and complicated duties of the Chief Magistracy."[21] Moreover, Clay's American System was far closer to Adams' position on tariffs and internal improvements than Jackson's or Crawford's, so Clay threw his support to Adams. Thus Adams was elected President on February 9, 1825, on the first ballot,[22][23] with 13 states, followed by Jackson with 7, and Crawford with 4.

text: Adams' victory shocked Jackson, who, as the winner of a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes, expected to be elected president. Not long before the results of the House election, an anonymous statement appeared in a Philadelphia paper, called the Columbian Observer. The statement, said to be from a member of Congress, essentially accused Clay of selling Adams his support for the office of Secretary of State. No formal investigation was conducted, so the matter was neither confirmed nor denied. When Clay was indeed offered the position after Adams was victorious, he opted to accept and continue to support the administration he voted for, knowing that declining the position would not have helped to dispel the rumors brought against him.[24] By appointing Clay his Secretary of State, President Adams essentially declared him heir to the Presidency, as Adams and his three predecessors had all served as Secretary of State. Jackson and his followers accused Adams and Clay of striking a "corrupt bargain". The Jacksonians would campaign on this claim for the next four years, ultimately attaining Jackson's victory in the Adams-Jackson rematch in 1828.

text: Results by state in House of Representatives[edit]

text:
Delegation winner
Adams vote
Jackson vote
Crawford vote

Maine
Adams
7
0
0

New Hampshire
Adams
6
0
0

Vermont
Adams
5
0
0

Massachusetts
Adams
12
1
0

Rhode Island
Adams
2
0
0

Connecticut
Adams
6
0
0

New York
Adams
18
2
14

New Jersey
Jackson
1
5
0

Pennsylvania
Jackson
1
25
0

Delaware
Crawford
0
0
1

Maryland
Adams
5
3
1

Virginia
Crawford
1
1
19

North Carolina
Crawford
1
2
10

South Carolina
Jackson
0
9
0

Georgia
Crawford
0
0
7

Alabama
Jackson
0
3
0

Mississippi
Jackson
0
1
0

Louisiana
Adams
2
1
0

Kentucky
Adams
8
4
0

Tennessee
Jackson
0
9
0

Missouri
Adams
1
0
0

Ohio
Adams
10
2
2

Indiana
Jackson
0
3
0

Illinois
Adams
1
0
0

Total votes[25]
Adams
87 (41%)
71 (33%)
54 (25%)

Votes by state
Adams
13 (54%)
7 (29%)
4 (17%)

text: Electoral College selection[edit]

text:
Method of choosing electors
State(s)

Each Elector chosen by voters statewide

Alabama
Connecticut
Indiana
Massachusetts
Mississippi
New Hampshire
New Jersey
North Carolina
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Virginia

Each Elector appointed by state legislature

Delaware
Georgia
Louisiana
New York
South Carolina
Vermont

State is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district by the voters of that district

Illinois
Kentucky
Maryland
Missouri
Tennessee

Two Electors chosen by voters statewide
One Elector chosen per Congressional district by the voters of that district

Maine