document_title: North Carolina General Assembly

question_text: what are the names of the 2 parts of nc's legislatures called

question_tokens: what are the names of the 2 parts of nc 's legislatures called

text: North Carolina General Assembly

text: Purpose[edit]

text: The General Assembly drafts and legislates the state laws of North Carolina, also known as the General Statutes. The General Assembly is a bicameral legislature, consisting of the North Carolina House of Representatives (formerly the North Carolina House of Commons until 1868) and the North Carolina Senate. The House has 120 members, while the Senate has 50.[1] There are no term limits for either chamber.

text: Terms[edit]

text: Legislators in both chambers serve two-year terms. Starting with the 2002 election, each legislator represents a single-member House or Senatorial district; prior to 2002, some districts elected multiple legislators.

text: Location[edit]

text: The General Assembly meets in the state capital of Raleigh (except for special occasions, when legislators might decide to hold a ceremonial session in some other city). It met in the Capitol building until 1963, when the legislature relocated to the new North Carolina State Legislative Building.[2]

text: North Carolina Senate[edit]

text: The Senate has 50 members.  Though its members represent districts that are larger than those of their colleagues in the House, its prerogatives and powers are no greater.

text: The President of the Senate is the Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina, but the Lt. Governor has very limited powers and only votes to break a tie.  Before the office of Lt. Governor was created in 1868, the Senate was presided over by a "Speaker." After the 1988 election of James Carson Gardner, the first Republican Lt. Governor since Reconstruction, Democrats in control of the Senate shifted most of the power held by the Lt. Governor to the senator who is elected President Pro Tempore (or Pro-Tem).  The President pro tempore appoints members to standing committees of the Senate, and holds great sway over bills.

text: The qualifications to be a senator are found in the state Constitution: "Each Senator, at the time of his election, shall be not less than 25 years of age, shall be a qualified voter of the State, and shall have resided in the State as a citizen for two years and in the district for which he is chosen for one year immediately preceding his election."

text: According to the state constitution, the Senate is also the "Court for the Trial of Impeachments".  The House of Representatives has the power to impeach state officials, after which the Senate holds a trial, as in the federal system.  If the Governor or Lt. Governor is the official who has been impeached, the Chief Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court presides.

text: North Carolina House of Representatives[edit]

text: The 120 members of the House are led by a Speaker, who holds powers similar to those of the Senate President pro-tem.

text: The qualifications to be a member of the House are found in the state Constitution: "Each Representative, at the time of his election, shall be a qualified voter of the State, and shall have resided in the district for which he is chosen for one year immediately preceding his election."  Elsewhere, the constitution specifies that no elected official shall be under twenty-one years of age and that no elected officials may deny the existence of God, although this provision is not enforced.

text: History[edit]

text: The North Carolina legislature traces its roots to the first assembly for the "County of Albemarle," which was convened in 1665 by Governor William Drummond.[3] Albemarle County was the portion of the British colony of Carolina (under the control of the "Lords Proprietors" before becoming a royal province in 1729) that would eventually become North Carolina.

text: From approximately 1666 to 1697, the Governor, his council, and representatives of various precincts and towns, elected by male freeholders, sat together as a unicameral legislature. By 1697, this evolved into a bicameral body, with the Governor and his council as the upper house, and the House of Burgesses as the elected lower house. The House, sometimes known simply as "the Assembly," could only meet when called by the Governor, but it was allowed to set its own rules and to elect its own Speaker.

text: According to one early compilation of the "Laws of North Carolina",[4] the first "General Biennial Assembly" was held "at the House of Capt. Richard Sanderson, at Little-River begun on the 17th day of November, 1715 and continued by several Adjournments, until the 19th Day of January, 1715 [sic]."[5]  At that session the Assembly adopted many of the laws of England that remained in effect through most of the 20th Century.  Notable in this category is the Statute of Elizabeth or the Statute of Frauds,[6] which was not repealed until the General Assembly adopted the Uniform Fraudulent Transfer Act in July 1997.[7]

text: The House also controlled the salary of the Governor, and withheld that salary when the Governor displeased a majority of the House.  Naturally, conflicts between the Governor and the legislature were frequent.  In 1774 and 1775, the people of the colony elected a provincial Congress, independent of the royal governor, as the American Revolution began.  Most of its members were also members of what would be the last House of Burgesses.

text: There were five Provincial Congresses.  The fifth Congress approved the first constitution (1776).  With the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the United States became an independent nation with very different legislatures in each part of the colony. Because of the history of distrust of the executive, the constitution firmly established the General Assembly, as it was now called, as the most powerful organ of the state.  The bicameral legislature, whose members would all be elected by the people, would itself elect all the officers of the executive and judicial branches.  As William S. Powell wrote in North Carolina: A History,  "The legislative branch henceforth would have the upper hand.  The governor would be the creature of the assembly, elected by it and removable by it….The governor could not take any important step without the advice and consent of the 'council of state,' and he had no voice in the appointment or removal of [council of state members]."  This constitution was not submitted to a vote of the people.  The Congress simply adopted it and elected Richard Caswell, the last president of the Congress, as acting Governor until the new legislature was elected and seated.

text: The new General Assembly, which first convened in April 1777, consisted of a Senate, which had one member from each county (regardless of population), and a House of Commons, which had two members representing each county, plus one each from certain towns.  Only land-owning (100 acres for the House of Commons, 300 acres (1.2 km2) for the Senate), Protestant men could serve. The constitution provided for more rights for freedmen and free men of color. The 9th Amendment on this constitution states, "That no freeman shall be convicted of any crime, but by the unanimous verdict of a jury of good lawful men, in open court, as heretofore used."

text: Lillian Exum Clement became the first female member of the General Assembly in 1921.[8]

text: Post-independence: Federal period to Civil War[edit]

text: In the early 19th century, free men of color with sufficient property were allowed to vote. Following Nat Turner's slave rebellion of 1831, the state legislature passed more restrictive laws, making it illegal to teach a slave how to read or write. They also narrowed rights of free people of color, rescinding their franchise and the right to bear arms, and forbidding them from attending school or learning to read and write, as well as forbidding them from preaching in public.[9]

text: In 1835, the constitution was amended to make the Governor elected by the people, but the legislature elected all other officials, including US Senators.  Amendments set the number of senators at 50 and the number of commoners (representatives to the House) at 120. Senators were to be elected from districts representing approximately equal numbers of citizens, rather than by geographic counties. Members of the House were still elected by county, but more populous counties were entitled to more representatives.

text: Reconstruction to Disfranchisement[edit]

text: In 1868, a new constitution was passed by the Reconstruction era legislature, a biracial body dominated by Republicans. It changed the name of the House of Commons to the House of Representatives.  It established the office of Lieutenant Governor. Previously, the Speaker of the Senate was the constitutional successor to the Governor in case of death or resignation. Property qualifications for holding office were abolished in order to enlarge opportunity. Finally, the legislature made executive officers and judges subject to popular election rather than appointment by the legislature.

text: African-American men were first elected to the state legislature in 1868. Despite efforts by Red Shirts and other white Democratic paramilitary groups to disrupt Republican meetings and suppress black voting in order to ensure the Democratic takeover, some African Americans continued to be elected in the 19th century, especially to local offices. George Henry White was elected as US Congressman in 1894. But shortly before the turn of the century, the Democrats regained control of the state legislature (after a biracial coalition between Republicans and Populists had briefly held power) and passed laws to create barriers to voter registration through poll taxes, literacy tests and other devices.[10][11][12]

text: Applied subjectively by white administrators, these methods effectively disenfranchised most blacks in the state. Black voters were eliminated by 1904. An estimated 75,000 black male citizens lost the vote.[13][14] Congressman White did not run for a third term and, like many other talented black men, left the state for better opportunities in the North. African Americans were closed out of politics in North Carolina for decades, with most not regaining the ability to vote until after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and federal overview and enforcement.

text: 1966, One Man, One Vote[edit]

text: As was the case in other states where rural legislators hung on to power despite changes in state demographics, North Carolina eventually had to redefine its method of electing house members and to reapportion congressional seats, which was supposed to be done after every decennial census. At a time of civil rights legislation to end segregation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) and enforce the constitutional right to vote for African Americans and other minorities (Voting Rights Act of 1965), the US Supreme Court made rulings that resulted in corrections to state legislature representation and apportionment in several states.

text: Starting in 1966 (in the wake of Reynolds v. Sims, a US Supreme Court case establishing the principle of one man, one vote), members of the North Carolina State House were required to be elected from districts defined on the basis of roughly equal population, rather than from geographic counties. The county basis had resulted in a longstanding rural bias in the legislature. The new urban populations, including minorities and immigrants, were historically underrepresented in terms of legislative seats and funding, although the state's demographics and population had become increasingly urbanized. The court's ruling required changes also in other states with similar practices. The changes allowed full representation for the first time from some urban and more densely settled areas. It also meant that counties with low populations lost the chance to elect a resident member to the legislature for the first time in state history.

text: In the landmark Shelby County v. Holder case, Supreme Court judges invalidated sections of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 thereby freeing individual states to "change their election laws without advance federal approval."[15][16][17] In August 12, 2013 Republican Governor Pat McCrory signed omnibus election law bill—House Bill 589[18] which added requirements for voting such as photo identification.[18][19] In July 2016, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals struck down the restrictive election laws.[20]

text: Sessions[edit]

text: The General Assembly meets in regular session (or the "long session") beginning in January of each odd-numbered year, and adjourns to reconvene the following even-numbered year for what is called the "Short Session." Though there is no limit on the length of any session, the "long session" typically lasts for 6 months, and the "short session" typically lasts for 6 weeks.[1]

text: Occasionally, in the case of a special need, the Governor may call a Special Session of the General Assembly after it has adjourned for the year.

text: According to the state-published 2002 North Carolina Manual (no longer available online),

text: Prior to 1957, the General Assembly convened in January at a time fixed by the Constitution of North Carolina. From 1957 through 1967, sessions convened in February at a time fixed by the Constitution. The 1969 General Assembly was the first to convene on a date fixed by law after elimination of the constitutionally fixed date. The assembly now convenes on the third Wednesday after the second Monday in January after the November election.

text:
North Carolina General Assembly of 1777
North Carolina General Assembly of 1778
North Carolina General Assembly of 1779
North Carolina General Assembly of 1899–1900
North Carolina General Assembly of 2001–2002
North Carolina General Assembly of 2003–2004
North Carolina General Assembly of 2005–2006
North Carolina General Assembly of 2007–2008
North Carolina General Assembly of 2009–2010
North Carolina General Assembly of 2011–2012
North Carolina General Assembly of 2013–2014

text: Elections[edit]

text: Elections for all seats in both houses are held in each even-numbered year.  If a seat should become vacant between elections, there are no by-elections or special elections.  Rather, the local leaders of the political party of the person who vacated the seat nominate a replacement, to serve until the next election.  The Governor, ordinarily, accepts the nomination, and appoints that person.

text:
North Carolina General Assembly election, 2002
North Carolina General Assembly election, 2004
North Carolina Senate election, 2008
North Carolina Senate elections, 2014

text: Until 1982, a legislator's term in office was said to begin immediately upon his or her election.  Since then terms begin on January 1 after a legislator's election.

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Though the General Assembly is Republican, critics worry that it seeks to destroy local government and small government, as they often override city legislation at the state level. This has been seen in the HB2 bill, which was later declared unconstitutional in federal court,[21] the redrawing the Greensboro town council,[22] and forced state name changes of regionally managed facilities.[23]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b "Structure of the North Carolina General Assembly". Official North Carolina General Assembly Website. Retrieved 2006-07-23.

Jump up ^ "State Capitol of NC". NC Department of Cultural Resources. Retrieved 2006-08-04.

Jump up ^ "Marker: A-13". Ncmarkers.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.

Jump up ^ (Iredell 1791)

Jump up ^ (Iredell 1791, p. 9).  All marginal referenced to year of enactment of various chapters reference 1715, therefore the obvious error in the year maybe presumed to be the year of adjournment rather than the year the session convened.

Jump up ^ (Iredell 1791, Chapter 38)

Jump up ^ S.L. 1997-291. Ncleg.net (1997-10-01). Retrieved on 2013-08-09.

Jump up ^ "Women In The North Carolina General Assembly 1921-2007" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2007-10-21.

Jump up ^ North Carolina legislation

Jump up ^ J. Morgan Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880-1910, p.104

Jump up ^ North Carolina History Project "Fusion Politics"

Jump up ^ The North Carolina Collection, UNC Libraries "The North Carolina Election of 1898"

Jump up ^ Albert Shaw, The American Monthly Review of Reviews, Vol.XXII, Jul-Dec 1900, p.274

Jump up ^ Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol. 17, 2000, pp. 12-13

Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (June 25, 2013). "Supreme Court Invalidates Key Part of Voting Rights Act". New York Times. Retrieved July 29, 2016.

Jump up ^ Reilly, Ryan J. (27 Feb 2013). "Voting Rights Act Supreme Court Case: Scalia Condemns The 'Perpetuation Of Racial Entitlement'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 13 July 2013.

Jump up ^ Lengell, Sean (Feb 28, 2013). "Scalia 'racial' comment on voting rights law draws fire". The Washington Times. Retrieved 13 July 2013.

^ Jump up to: a b Byrne, Nick (August 27, 2013), "North Carolina Restricts Voting Access in the Name of Reform", Jurist, retrieved July 29, 2016

Jump up ^ Blinder, Alan (July 29, 2016). "Federal Appeals Court Strikes Down North Carolina Voter ID Provision". New York Times. Retrieved July 29, 2016.

Jump up ^ Ann E. Marimow (July 29, 2016). "Appeals court strikes down North Carolina's voter-ID law". Washington Post. Retrieved July 29, 2016.

Jump up ^ "UNC cannot enforce part of HB2, federal judge rules". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved 2017-12-24.

Jump up ^ "Greensboro mayor blasts legislature after council redrawn". newsobserver. Retrieved 2017-12-24.

Jump up ^ "State legislators propose name change for Fayetteville State". The Daily Tar Heel. Retrieved 2017-12-24.


document_title: List of the largest trading partners of the United States

question_text: what percentage of us trade is with china

root

text: The 20 largest trade partners of the United States represent 76.6% of U.S. exports, and 81.0% of U.S. imports as of December 2014[update].[1] These figures do not include services or foreign direct investment.

tag: p

text: The largest US partners with their total trade (sum of imports and exports) in millions of US dollars for calendar year 2016 are as follows:[2]

text:
Rank
Country/District
Exports
Imports
Total Trade
Trade Balance

-
World
1,454,624
2,188,940
3,643,564
-734,316

-
 European Union[3]
270,325
416,666
686,991
-146,340

1
 China
115,775
462,813
578,588
-347,038

2
 Canada
266,827
278,067
544,894
-11,240

3
 Mexico
230,959
294,151
525,110
-63,192

4
 Japan
63,264
132,202
195,466
-68,938

5
 Germany
49,362
114,227
163,589
-64,865

6
 South Korea
42,266
69,932
112,198
-27,666

7
 United Kingdom
55,396
54,326
109,722
+1,070

8
 France
30,941
46,765
77,706
-15,824

9
 India
21,689
45,998
67,687
-24,309

10
 Taiwan
26,045
39,313
65,358
-13,268

11
 Italy
16,754
45,210
61,964
-28,456

12
  Switzerland
22,701
36,374
59,075
-13,673

13
 Netherlands
40,377
16,152
56,529
+24,225

14
 Brazil
30,297
26,176
56,473
+4,121

15
 Ireland
9,556
45,504
55,060
-35,948

16
 Vietnam
10,151
42,109
52,260
-31,958

17
 Belgium
32,271
17,020
49,291
+15,251

18
 Malaysia
11,867
36,687
48,554
-24,820

19
 Singapore
26,868
17,801
44,669
+9,067

20
 Hong Kong
34,908
7,386
42,294
+27,522

21
 Thailand
10,573
29,493
40,066
-18,920

22
 Israel
13,197
22,206
35,403
-9,009

23
 Saudi Arabia
18,023
16,926
34,949
+1,097

24
 Australia
22,225
9,534
31,759
+12,691

25
 Colombia
13,099
13,796
26,895
-697

26
 United Arab Emirates
22,382
3,356
25,738
+19,026

27
 Indonesia
6,037
19,203
25,240
-13,166

28
 Spain
10,373
13,468
23,841
-3,095

29
 Chile
12,941
8,799
21,740
+4,142

30
 Russia
5,798
14,512
20,310
-8,714

-
Top 30
1,272,922
1,979,506
3,252,428
-706,584

-
Remaining Countries
181,702
209,434
391,136
-27,732

tag: table

text:
Imports / Exports / Trade Deficits of the United States in 2014 ($Millions)[4][5]

Country
Exports
Imports
Trade Deficit

 China

123,676

446,754

343,078

 European Union

276,142

418,754

142,059

 Germany

49,363

123,260

73,897

 Japan

66,827

134,004

67,117

 Mexico

240,249

294,074

53,825

 Canada

312,421

347,798

35,377

 Saudi Arabia

18,705

47,041

28,336

 Ireland

7,806

33,956

26,150

 Italy

16,968

42,115

25,147

 South Korea

44,471

69,518

25,047

 India

21,608

45,244

23,636

 Malaysia

13,068

30,420

17,352

 France

31,301

46,874

15,573

 Thailand

11,810

27,123

15,313

 Taiwan

26,670

40,581

13,911

  Switzerland

22,176

31,191

9,015

 Israel

15,083

22,962

7,879

 United Kingdom

53,823

54,392

569

text:
Balance of Trade 2014[6]

China
Euro Area
Japan
Mexico
Pacific
Canada
Middle East
Lat. America
Total by Product

Computer
-151.9
3.4
-8.0
-11.0
-26.1
20.9
5.8
12.1

-155.0

Oil, Gas, Minerals
1.9
6.4
2.4
-20.8
1.1
-79.8
-45.1
-15.9

-149.7

Transportation
10.9
-30.9
-46.2
-59.5
-0.5
-6.1
17.1
8.8

-106.3

Apparel
-56.3
-4.9
0.6
-4.2
-6.3
2.5
-0.3
-1.1

-69.9

Electrical Equipment
-35.9
-2.4
-4.0
-8.5
-3.3
10.0
1.8
2.0

-40.4

Misc. Manufacturing
-35.3
4.9
2.7
-2.8
-1.4
5.8
-1.5
1.8

-25.8

Furniture
-18.3
-1.2
0.0
-1.6
-2.1
0.4
0.2
0.0

-22.6

Machinery
-19.9
-27.0
-18.8
3.9
7.6
18.1
4.5
9.1

-22.4

Primary Metals
-3.1
3.1
-1.8
1.0
1.9
-8.9
-0.9
-10.4

-19.1

Fabricated Metals
-17.9
-5.9
-3.5
2.8
-4.3
7.3
1.2
1.9

-18.5

Plastics
-15.7
-1.9
-2.0
5.7
-4.1
2.6
-0.1
0.5

-15.0

Textile
-12.3
-1.1
-0.3
2.8
-4.6
1.5
-0.9
0.2

-14.7

Beverages, Tobacco
1.3
-9.9
0.6
-3.3
0.0
1.0
0.2
-0.6

-10.6

Nonmetallic Minerals
-6.1
-1.9
-0.4
-1.2
0.1
1.9
-0.5
-0.8

-8.9

Paper
-2.7
1.2
1.1
4.3
1.2
-9.8
0.9
-1.9

-5.8

Chemical
-3.9
-39.5
-1.5
19.1
3.2
4.6
-2.4
15.8

-4.7

Food
0.7
-3.6
6.1
4.9
0.9
0.1
1.4
-1.1

9.5

Agriculture
17.8
6.2
7.3
-3.0
5.7
-0.8
2.8
-6.5

29.5

Petroleum
0.6
-1.2
0.1
16.6
-2.0
-0.1
0.6
18.3

32.9

Total by Country/Area
-346.1
-106.1
-65.6
-54.9
-33.0
-29.0
-15.1
32.3

text: Countries of which United States is the largest trading partner[edit]

text: The United States is also the primary export or import partner of several countries. The percentages on these tables are based on 2014 data as shown on the CIA World Factbook. Some countries are repeated from the previous table.

text:
Exports[7]

Region
Percentage

 American Samoa
100%

 Haiti
83.2%

 Mexico
80.2%

 Chad
77.6%

 Canada
76.8%

 Nicaragua
52.3%

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
49.9%

 El Salvador
46.5%

 Ecuador
43.9%

 Dominican Republic
40.1%

 Jamaica
39.5%

 Costa Rica
38.4%

 Guatemala
36.1%

 Honduras
35.2%

 Venezuela
34.6%

 Suriname
32.1%

 Guyana
31.9%

 Trinidad and Tobago
29.1%

 Israel
26.9%

 Colombia
26.3%

 Sri Lanka
25.0%

 Cambodia
24.1%

 Ireland
20.6%

 Belize
20.5%

 Vietnam
20.0%

 Panama
19.8%

 Japan
18.9%

 China
16.9%

 Jordan
15.8%

 Bangladesh
14.3%

 India
13.4%

 Pakistan
12.4%

 Fiji
11.8%

Imports[8]

Region
Percentage

 Aruba
56.0%

 Canada
54.5%

 Mexico
48.8%

 Dominican Republic
45.8%

 Costa Rica
44.4%

 Honduras
43.3%

 El Salvador
41.0%

 Guatemala
40.3%

 Jamaica
39.3%

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
39.3%

 Trinidad and Tobago
34.6%

 Ecuador
31.9%

 Suriname
31.3%

 Bahamas
30.8%

 Colombia
28.5%

 Panama
25.1%

 Venezuela
24.2%

 Equatorial Guinea
23.5%

 Guyana
21.9%

 Belize
21.8%

 Peru
21.0%

 Nicaragua
16.2%

 Kuwait
12.7%

 Israel
11.8%

 Qatar
11.5%


document_title: List of UEFA Champions League broadcasters

question_text: what channel is the champions league on in usa

text: This is a list of television broadcasters which provide coverage of the UEFA Champions League, European football's top level continental competition, as well as the UEFA Super Cup. Starting from 2018–19 season, during the group stage, two matches will kick off at 18:55 CET and the rest of the matches, including the knockout phase will kick-off at 21:00 CET.[1]

text: UEFA sells the broadcast rights in a three-season basis and various packages are available for bidders, with UEFA weighing balance between free and pay television under the UEFA and European Union (EU) agreement. While balancing between free and pay television, if the rights do not sell within "sales windows", the rights may be sold on an individual basis to pay-per-view television broadcasters.[2]

text: The 2010 final attracted an audience of 109 million people around the world, a record number for the competition, and replaced the Super Bowl as the most-watched annual sports event.[3]

text: Broadcasters[edit]

text: 2018–2021 seasons[edit]

text:
Territory
Free
Pay
Ref

Albania

Tring
[4]

Andorra

beIN Sports
[5]

Austria

Sky Sport
DAZN

[6]

Belgium

RTL
SBS
Medialaan

Proximus
[7][8][9][10]

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Arena Sport
[11]

Canada

DAZN
[12][13][14]

Caribbean

Flow Sports
SportsMax

[15]

Croatia
HRT
Vipnet
[11][16][17]

Cyprus

CytaVision
[18]

Czech Republic

O2 TV
[19][20]

Denmark
MTG
MTG
[21]

Finland
MTV3
C More
[22]

France

SFR Sport
[23]

Georgia

Silk Sport
[11]

Germany

Sky Sport
DAZN
Telekom Sport

[6][24]

Greece

Cosmote Sport
[25]

Hungary
MTVA
TV2
[26][27]

Iceland

Stöð 2 Sport
[28]

Ireland

RTÉ
TV3

Virgin Media
BT Sport

[29][30][31][32]

Israel

Sport 5
[11][33]

Italy
RAI
Sky Sport
[34][35]

Japan

DAZN
[36][37]

Kosovo

Kujtesa
[38]

Latin America

ESPN
Fox Sports

[39][40]

Macedonia

Arena Sport
[11]

MENA

beIN Sports
[41]

Moldova
GMG

[11]

Montenegro

Arena Sport
[11]

Netherlands
Talpa TV
Ziggo
[42][43]

Norway

MTG
TV 2

MTG
[21][44]

Poland
Polsat
Polsat Sport
[45]

Portugal

Eleven Sports
[46]

Puerto Rico
Univision

Turner Sports
UDN

[47][48]

San Marino
RAI
Sky Sport
[34][35]

Serbia
RTS
Arena Sport
[11]

Slovakia

O2 TV
[19][20]

Slovenia
Pro Plus
Sport Klub
[11]

South Africa

SuperSport
[49]

Spain

beIN Sports
[5][50]

Sub-Saharan Africa

SuperSport
Canal+ Afrique

[11][49]

Sweden
MTG
MTG
[21]

Switzerland

SRG SSR
Teleclub

Teleclub
[51][52]

Turkey

beIN Sports
[53]

United Kingdom

BT Sport
[32][54]

United States
Univision

Turner Sports
UDN

[47][48]

Vietnam

K+
[55]


document_title: Jayanthi Kuru-Utumpala

question_text: who climbed mount everest first in sri lanka

text: Jayanthi Kuru-Utumpala

text:
Jayanthi Kuru-Utumpala
Jayanthi Kuru-Utumpala waving the Sri Lankan flag on the summit of Mount Everest at 5:03 am on 21st May 2016Personal informationBirth name
Jayanthi Kuru-UtumpalaMain discipline
Women's Rights Advocate, MountaineerBorn
3 September 1979Sri LankaNationality
Sri LankanCareerNotable ascents
First Sri Lankan to Summit Mount Everest; First Sri Lankan Woman to Summit Imja Tse (Island Peak) 6,189mFamous partnerships
Johann Peries

text: Jayanthi Kuru-Utumpala (born 3 September 1979), a past pupil of Bishop's College is the first Sri Lankan to summit Mount Everest. Kuru-Utumpala reached the summit of Mount Everest at 5:03 AM on 21 May 2016. Along with Johann Peries, she formed the Sri Lankan Everest Expedition, 2016. Peries attained a height of 8,400 m, which is beyond Camp IV (the final camp on the southern ascent route, on the South Col).[1][2]

text: Jayanthi Kuru-Utumpala's summit makes Sri Lanka the fourth country in the world, in which a woman has been the first person to reach the top of Mount Everest. The other countries are Poland, South Africa and Croatia.

text: The expedition was supported by the mountaineering company International Mountain Guides who provided them with guide support, Sherpa support, logistics, meals and accommodation during their expedition. Kuru-Utumpala and Peries were accompanied by Nepalese Sherpa Ang Karma (Kuru-Utumpala) and Ang Pasang (Peries).[3][4][5]


document_title: List of National Football League career sacks leaders

question_text: who had the most sacks in the nfl

question_tokens: who had the most sacks in the nfl

text: This is a list of National Football League (NFL) players who have reached the 100-sack milestone.

text: The NFL began to keep track of sacks in 1982. Sacks before this date are not included in this list.

text:
Bold denotes an
active player
Elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame

text:
Rank[1]
Pos.
Player
Seasons by team
Total sacks[2]
Year of induction into
Pro Football Hall of Fame
Ref.

1
DE
Bruce Smith
Buffalo Bills (1985–1999)
Washington Redskins (2000–2003)
200
2009
[3]

2
DE
Reggie White
Philadelphia Eagles (1985–1992)
Green Bay Packers (1993–1998)
Carolina Panthers (2000)
198
2006
[4]

3
LB
Kevin Greene
Los Angeles Rams (1985–1992)
Pittsburgh Steelers (1993–1995)
Carolina Panthers (1996, 1998–1999)
San Francisco 49ers (1997)
160
2016
[5][6]

4
DE / OLB
Julius Peppers
Carolina Panthers (2002–2009, since 2017)
Chicago Bears (2010–2013)
Green Bay Packers (2014–2016)
151.0
Active
[7]

5
DE
Chris Doleman
Minnesota Vikings (1985–1993, 1999)
Atlanta Falcons (1994–1995)
San Francisco 49ers (1996–1998)
150.5
2012
[8]

6
DE
Michael Strahan
New York Giants (1993–2007)
141.5
2014
[5][9]

7
DE
Jason Taylor
Miami Dolphins (1997–2007, 2009, 2011)
Washington Redskins (2008)
New York Jets (2010)
139.5
2017
[10]

8
OLB / DE
DeMarcus Ware
Dallas Cowboys (2005–2013)
Denver Broncos (2014–2016)
138.5
Eligible in 2022
[11]

9
DT
John Randle
Minnesota Vikings (1990–2000)
Seattle Seahawks (2001–2003)
137.5
2010
[12]

DE
Richard Dent
Chicago Bears (1983–1993, 1995)
San Francisco 49ers (1994)
Indianapolis Colts (1996)
Philadelphia Eagles (1997)
137.5
2011
[13]

11
DE
Jared Allen
Kansas City Chiefs (2004–2007)
Minnesota Vikings (2008–2013)
Chicago Bears (2014–2015)
Carolina Panthers (2015)
136
Eligible in 2021
[14]

12
DE / OLB
John Abraham
New York Jets (2000–2005)
Atlanta Falcons (2006–2012)
Arizona Cardinals (2013–2014)
133.5
Eligible in 2020
[15]

13
DE
Leslie O'Neal
San Diego Chargers (1986–1995)
St. Louis Rams (1996–1997)
Kansas City Chiefs (1998–1999)
132.5
Z—
[16]

LB
Taylor, LawrenceLawrence Taylor
New York Giants (1981–1993)
1999
[17]

15
LB
Rickey Jackson
New Orleans Saints (1981–1993)
San Francisco 49ers (1994–1995)
128
2010
[18]

16
LB
Derrick Thomas
Kansas City Chiefs (1989–1999)
126.5
2009
[19]

17
OLB
Dwight Freeney
Indianapolis Colts (2002–2012)
San Diego Chargers (2013–2014)
Arizona Cardinals (2015)
Atlanta Falcons (2016)
Seattle Seahawks (2017–present)
123.5
Active

18
OLB
Robert Mathis
Indianapolis Colts (2003–2016)
123
Eligible in 2022
[20]

19
DE
Simeon Rice
Arizona Cardinals (1996–2000)
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2001–2006)
Denver Broncos (2007)
Indianapolis Colts (2007)
122
Z—
[21]

20
DE
Clyde Simmons
Philadelphia Eagles (1986–1993)
Arizona Cardinals (1994–1995)
Jacksonville Jaguars (1996–1997)
Cincinnati Bengals (1998)
Chicago Bears (1999–2000)
121.5
Z—
[22]

21
OLB/DE
Terrell Suggs
Baltimore Ravens (2003–present)
119.0
ZActive
[23]

22
DE
Sean Jones
Los Angeles Raiders (1984–1987)
Houston Oilers (1988–1993)
Green Bay Packers (1994–1996)
113
Z—
[24]

23
DE
Greg Townsend
Los Angeles Raiders (1983–1993)
Philadelphia Eagles (1994)
Oakland Raiders (1997)
109.5
Z—
[25]

24
LB
Pat Swilling
New Orleans Saints (1986–1992)
Detroit Lions (1993–1994)
Oakland Raiders (1995–1998)
107.5
Z—
[26]

25
DE
Trace Armstrong
Chicago Bears (1989–1994)
Miami Dolphins (1995–2000)
Oakland Raiders (2001–2003)
106
Z—
[27]

26
DE
Neil Smith
Kansas City Chiefs (1987–1996)
Denver Broncos (1997–1999)
San Diego Chargers (2000)
104.5
Z—
[28]

DE
Kevin Carter
St. Louis Rams (1995–2000)
Tennessee Titans (2001–2004)
Miami Dolphins (2005–2006)
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2007–2008)
104.5
Z—
[29]

28
DE
Elvis Dumervil
Denver Broncos (2006–2012)
Baltimore Ravens (2013–2016)
San Francisco 49ers (2017–present)
102.5
Z—
[30]

DE
Jim Jeffcoat
Dallas Cowboys (1983–1994)
Buffalo Bills (1995–1997)
Z—
[31]

29
LB / DE
Charles Haley
San Francisco 49ers (1986–1991, 1998–1999)
Dallas Cowboys (1992–1996)
100.5
2015
[5][32]

DE
William Fuller
Houston Oilers (1986–1993)
Philadelphia Eagles (1994–1996)
San Diego Chargers (1997–1998)
Z—
[33]

31
LB
Andre Tippett
New England Patriots (1982–1993)
100
2009
[34]


document_title: Gamma-ray burst

question_text: short duration gamma-ray bursts are thought to be caused by

text: Gamma-ray burst

text: History[edit]

text: Gamma-ray bursts were first observed in the late 1960s by the U.S. Vela satellites, which were built to detect gamma radiation pulses emitted by nuclear weapons tested in space. The United States suspected that the Soviet Union might attempt to conduct secret nuclear tests after signing the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. On July 2, 1967, at 14:19 UTC, the Vela 4 and Vela 3 satellites detected a flash of gamma radiation unlike any known nuclear weapons signature.[11] Uncertain what had happened but not considering the matter particularly urgent, the team at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, led by Ray Klebesadel, filed the data away for investigation. As additional Vela satellites were launched with better instruments, the Los Alamos team continued to find inexplicable gamma-ray bursts in their data. By analyzing the different arrival times of the bursts as detected by different satellites, the team was able to determine rough estimates for the sky positions of sixteen bursts[11] and definitively rule out a terrestrial or solar origin. The discovery was declassified and published in 1973.[12]

text: Most early theories of gamma-ray bursts posited nearby sources within the Milky Way Galaxy. From 1991, the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) and its Burst and Transient Source Explorer (BATSE) instrument, an extremely sensitive gamma-ray detector, provided data that showed the distribution of GRBs is isotropic—not biased towards any particular direction in space.[13] If the sources were from within our own galaxy they would be strongly concentrated in or near the galactic plane. The absence of any such pattern in the case of GRBs provided strong evidence that gamma-ray bursts must come from beyond the Milky Way.[14][15][16][17] However, some Milky Way models are still consistent with an isotropic distribution.[14][18]

text: Counterpart objects as candidate sources[edit]

text: For decades after the discovery of GRBs, astronomers searched for a counterpart at other wavelengths: i.e., any astronomical object in positional coincidence with a recently observed burst. Astronomers considered many distinct classes of objects, including white dwarfs, pulsars, supernovae, globular clusters, quasars, Seyfert galaxies, and BL Lac objects.[19] All such searches were unsuccessful,[nb 1] and in a few cases particularly well-localized bursts (those whose positions were determined with what was then a high degree of accuracy) could be clearly shown to have no bright objects of any nature consistent with the position derived from the detecting satellites. This suggested an origin of either very faint stars or extremely distant galaxies.[20][21] Even the most accurate positions contained numerous faint stars and galaxies, and it was widely agreed that final resolution of the origins of cosmic gamma-ray bursts would require both new satellites and faster communication.[22]

text: Afterglow[edit]

text: Several models for the origin of gamma-ray bursts postulated that the initial burst of gamma rays should be followed by slowly fading emission at longer wavelengths created by collisions between the burst ejecta and interstellar gas.[23] This fading emission would be called the "afterglow". Early searches for this afterglow were unsuccessful, largely because it is difficult to observe a burst's position at longer wavelengths immediately after the initial burst. The breakthrough came in February 1997 when the satellite BeppoSAX detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 970228[nb 2]) and when the X-ray camera was pointed towards the direction from which the burst had originated, it detected fading X-ray emission. The William Herschel Telescope identified a fading optical counterpart 20 hours after the burst.[24] Once the GRB faded, deep imaging was able to identify a faint, distant host galaxy at the location of the GRB as pinpointed by the optical afterglow.[25][26]

text: Because of the very faint luminosity of this galaxy, its exact distance was not measured for several years. Well before then, another major breakthrough occurred with the next event registered by BeppoSAX, GRB 970508. This event was localized within four hours of its discovery, allowing research teams to begin making observations much sooner than any previous burst. The spectrum of the object revealed a redshift of z = 0.835, placing the burst at a distance of roughly 6 billion light years from Earth.[27] This was the first accurate determination of the distance to a GRB, and together with the discovery of the host galaxy of 970228 proved that GRBs occur in extremely distant galaxies.[25][28] Within a few months, the controversy about the distance scale ended: GRBs were extragalactic events originating within faint galaxies at enormous distances. The following year, GRB 980425 was followed within a day by a bright supernova (SN 1998bw), coincident in location, indicating a clear connection between GRBs and the deaths of very massive stars. This burst provided the first strong clue about the nature of the systems that produce GRBs.[29]

text: BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and CGRO (with BATSE) was deorbited in 2000. However, the revolution in the study of gamma-ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs, especially in the earliest moments following the explosion. The first such mission, HETE-2,[30] launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006, providing most of the major discoveries during this period. One of the most successful space missions to date, Swift, was launched in 2004 and as of 2016 is still operational.[31][32] Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma ray detector as well as on-board X-ray and optical telescopes, which can be rapidly and automatically slewed to observe afterglow emission following a burst. More recently, the Fermi mission was launched carrying the Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor, which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year, some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi's Large Area Telescope. Meanwhile, on the ground, numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the Gamma-ray Burst Coordinates Network. This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB, often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma-ray emission itself is still ongoing.[33][34]

text: New developments since the 2000s include the recognition of short gamma-ray bursts as a separate class (likely from merging neutron stars and not associated with supernovae), the discovery of extended, erratic flaring activity at X-ray wavelengths lasting for many minutes after most GRBs, and the discovery of the most luminous (GRB 080319B) and the former most distant (GRB 090423) objects in the universe.[35][36] The most distant known GRB, GRB 090429B, is now the most distant known object in the universe.

text: Classification[edit]

text: The light curves of gamma-ray bursts are extremely diverse and complex.[37] No two gamma-ray burst light curves are identical,[38] with large variation observed in almost every property: the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes, there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses, and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading. Some bursts are preceded by a "precursor" event, a weak burst that is then followed (after seconds to minutes of no emission at all) by the much more intense "true" bursting episode.[39] The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns.[22]

text: Although some light curves can be roughly reproduced using certain simplified models,[40] little progress has been made in understanding the full diversity observed. Many classification schemes have been proposed, but these are often based solely on differences in the appearance of light curves and may not always reflect a true physical difference in the progenitors of the explosions. However, plots of the distribution of the observed duration[nb 3] for a large number of gamma-ray bursts show a clear bimodality, suggesting the existence of two separate populations: a "short" population with an average duration of about 0.3 seconds and a "long" population with an average duration of about 30 seconds.[41] Both distributions are very broad with a significant overlap region in which the identity of a given event is not clear from duration alone. Additional classes beyond this two-tiered system have been proposed on both observational and theoretical grounds.[42][43][44][45]

text: Short gamma-ray bursts[edit]

text: Events with a duration of less than about two seconds are classified as short gamma-ray bursts. These account for about 30% of gamma-ray bursts, but until 2005, no afterglow had been successfully detected from any short event and little was known about their origins.[47] Since then, several dozen short gamma-ray burst afterglows have been detected and localized, several of which are associated with regions of little or no star formation, such as large elliptical galaxies and the central regions of large galaxy clusters.[48][49][50][51] This rules out a link to massive stars, confirming that short events are physically distinct from long events. In addition, there has been no association with supernovae.[52]

text: The true nature of these objects was initially unknown, and the leading hypothesis was that they originated from the mergers of binary neutron stars[53] or a neutron star with a black hole. Such mergers were theorized to produce kilonovae,[54] and evidence for a kilonova associated with GRB 130603B was seen.[55][56][57] The mean duration of these events of 0.2 seconds suggests (because of causality) a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms; less than 0.2 light-seconds (about 60,000 km or 37,000 miles—four times the Earth's diameter). This further suggests a very compact object as the source.[citation needed] The observation of minutes to hours of X-ray flashes after a short gamma-ray burst is consistent with small particles of a primary object like a neutron star initially swallowed by a black hole in less than two seconds, followed by some hours of lesser energy events, as remaining fragments of tidally disrupted neutron star material (no longer neutronium) remain in orbit to spiral into the black hole, over a longer period of time.[47] A small fraction of short gamma-ray bursts are probably produced by giant flares from soft gamma repeaters in nearby galaxies.[58][59]

text: The origin of short GRBs in kilonovae was confirmed when short GRB 170817A was detected only 1.7 s after the detection of gravitational wave GW170817, which was a signal from the merger of two neutron stars.[60][53]

text: Long gamma-ray bursts[edit]

text: Most observed events (70%) have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma-ray bursts. Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows, they have been observed in much greater detail than their short counterparts. Almost every well-studied long gamma-ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation, and in many cases to a core-collapse supernova as well, unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars.[61] Long GRB afterglow observations, at high redshift, are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star-forming regions.[62]

text: Ultra-long gamma-ray bursts[edit]

text: These events are at the tail end of the long GRB duration distribution, lasting more than 10,000 seconds. They have been proposed to form a separate class, caused by the collapse of a blue supergiant star,[63] a tidal disruption event[64][65] or a new-born magnetar.[64][66] Only a small number have been identified to date, their primary characteristic being their gamma ray emission duration. The most studied ultra-long events include GRB 101225A and GRB 111209A.[65][67][68] The low detection rate may be a result of low sensitivity of current detectors to long-duration events, rather than a reflection of their true frequency.[65] A 2013 study,[69] on the other hand, shows that the existing evidence for a separate ultra-long GRB population with a new type of progenitor is inconclusive, and further multi-wavelength observations are needed to draw a firmer conclusion.

text: Energetics and beaming[edit]

text: Gamma-ray bursts are very bright as observed from Earth despite their typically immense distances. An average long GRB has a bolometric flux comparable to a bright star of our galaxy despite a distance of billions of light years (compared to a few tens of light years for most visible stars). Most of this energy is released in gamma rays, although some GRBs have extremely luminous optical counterparts as well. GRB 080319B, for example, was accompanied by an optical counterpart that peaked at a visible magnitude of 5.8,[70] comparable to that of the dimmest naked-eye stars despite the burst's distance of 7.5 billion light years. This combination of brightness and distance implies an extremely energetic source. Assuming the gamma-ray explosion to be spherical, the energy output of GRB 080319B would be within a factor of two of the rest-mass energy of the Sun (the energy which would be released were the Sun to be converted entirely into radiation).[35]

text: No known process in the universe can produce this much energy in such a short time. Rather, gamma-ray bursts are thought to be highly focused explosions, with most of the explosion energy collimated into a narrow jet.[71][72] The approximate angular width of the jet (that is, the degree of spread of the beam) can be estimated directly by observing the achromatic "jet breaks" in afterglow light curves: a time after which the slowly decaying afterglow begins to fade rapidly as the jet slows and can no longer beam its radiation as effectively.[73][74] Observations suggest significant variation in the jet angle from between 2 and 20 degrees.[75]

text: Because their energy is strongly focused, the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected. When a gamma-ray burst is pointed towards Earth, the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically. When this effect is taken into account, typical gamma-ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 1044 J, or about 1/2000 of a Solar mass (M☉) energy equivalent[75]—which is still many times the mass-energy equivalent of the Earth (about 5.5 × 1041 J). This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib/c supernova and within the range of theoretical models. Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs.[29] Additional support for focusing of the output of GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova[76] and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic.[77]

text: Short (time duration) GRBs appear to come from a lower-redshift (i.e. less distant) population and are less luminous than long GRBs.[78] The degree of beaming in short bursts has not been accurately measured, but as a population they are likely less collimated than long GRBs[79] or possibly not collimated at all in some cases.[80]

text: Progenitors[edit]

text: Because of the immense distances of most gamma-ray burst sources from Earth, identification of the progenitors, the systems that produce these explosions, is challenging. The association of some long GRBs with supernovae and the fact that their host galaxies are rapidly star-forming offer very strong evidence that long gamma-ray bursts are associated with massive stars. The most widely accepted mechanism for the origin of long-duration GRBs is the collapsar model,[81] in which the core of an extremely massive, low-metallicity, rapidly rotating star collapses into a black hole in the final stages of its evolution. Matter near the star's core rains down towards the center and swirls into a high-density accretion disk. The infall of this material into a black hole drives a pair of relativistic jets out along the rotational axis, which pummel through the stellar envelope and eventually break through the stellar surface and radiate as gamma rays. Some alternative models replace the black hole with a newly formed magnetar,[82][83] although most other aspects of the model (the collapse of the core of a massive star and the formation of relativistic jets) are the same.

text: The closest analogs within the Milky Way galaxy of the stars producing long gamma-ray bursts are likely the Wolf–Rayet stars, extremely hot and massive stars, which have shed most or all of their hydrogen to radiation pressure. Eta Carinae and WR 104 have been cited as possible future gamma-ray burst progenitors.[84] It is unclear if any star in the Milky Way has the appropriate characteristics to produce a gamma-ray burst.[85]

text: The massive-star model probably does not explain all types of gamma-ray burst. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and no massive stars, such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos.[78] The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars. According to this model, the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other because gravitational radiation releases energy[86][87] until tidal forces suddenly rip the neutron stars apart and they collapse into a single black hole. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma-ray bursts, including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole, the accretion-induced collapse of a neutron star, or the evaporation of primordial black holes.[88][89][90][91]

text: An alternative explanation proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg is that in the course of a gravitational collapse and in reaching the event horizon of a black hole, all matter disintegrates into a burst of gamma radiation.[92]

text: Tidal disruption events[edit]

text: This new class of GRB-like events was first discovered through the detection of GRB 110328A by the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission on 28 March 2011. This event had a gamma-ray duration of about 2 days, much longer than even ultra-long GRBs, and was detected in X-rays for many months. It occurred at the center of a small elliptical galaxy at redshift z = 0.3534. There is an ongoing debate as to whether the explosion was the result of stellar collapse or a tidal disruption event accompanied by a relativistic jet, although the latter explanation has become widely favoured.

text: A tidal disruption event of this sort is when a star interacts with a supermassive black hole shredding the star, and in some cases creating a relativistic jet which produces bright emission of gamma ray radiation. The event GRB 110328A (also denoted Swift J1644+57) was initially argued to be produced by the disruption of a main sequence star by a black hole of several million times the mass of the Sun,[93][94][95] although it has subsequently been argued that the disruption of a white dwarf by a black hole of mass about 10 thousand times the Sun may be more likely.[96]

text: Emission mechanisms[edit]

text: The means by which gamma-ray bursts convert energy into radiation remains poorly understood, and as of 2010 there was still no generally accepted model for how this process occurs.[97] Any successful model of GRB emission must explain the physical process for generating gamma-ray emission that matches the observed diversity of light curves, spectra, and other characteristics.[98] Particularly challenging is the need to explain the very high efficiencies that are inferred from some explosions: some gamma-ray bursts may convert as much as half (or more) of the explosion energy into gamma-rays.[99] Early observations of the bright optical counterparts to GRB 990123 and to GRB 080319B, whose optical light curves were extrapolations of the gamma-ray light spectra,[70][100] have suggested that inverse Compton may be the dominant process in some events. In this model, pre-existing low-energy photons are scattered by relativistic electrons within the explosion, augmenting their energy by a large factor and transforming them into gamma-rays.[101]

text: The nature of the longer-wavelength afterglow emission (ranging from X-ray through radio) that follows gamma-ray bursts is better understood. Any energy released by the explosion not radiated away in the burst itself takes the form of matter or energy moving outward at nearly the speed of light. As this matter collides with the surrounding interstellar gas, it creates a relativistic shock wave that then propagates forward into interstellar space. A second shock wave, the reverse shock, may propagate back into the ejected matter. Extremely energetic electrons within the shock wave are accelerated by strong local magnetic fields and radiate as synchrotron emission across most of the electromagnetic spectrum.[102][103] This model has generally been successful in modeling the behavior of many observed afterglows at late times (generally, hours to days after the explosion), although there are difficulties explaining all features of the afterglow very shortly after the gamma-ray burst has occurred.[104]

text: Rate of occurrence and potential effects on life[edit]

text: Gamma ray bursts can have harmful or destructive effects on life. Considering the universe as a whole, the safest environments for life similar to that on Earth are the lowest density regions in the outskirts of large galaxies. Our knowledge of galaxy types and their distribution suggests that life as we know it can only exist in about 10% of all galaxies. Furthermore, galaxies with a redshift, z, higher than 0.5 are unsuitable for life as we know it, because of their higher rate of GRBs and their stellar compactness.[106][107]

text: All GRBs observed to date have occurred well outside the Milky Way galaxy and have been harmless to Earth. However, if a GRB were to occur within the Milky Way and its emission were beamed straight towards Earth, the effects could be harmful and potentially devastating for the ecosystems. Currently, orbiting satellites detect on average approximately one GRB per day. The closest observed GRB as of March 2014 was GRB 980425, located 40 megaparsecs (130,000,000 ly)[108] away (z=0.0085) in an SBc-type dwarf galaxy.[109] GRB 980425 was far less energetic than the average GRB and was associated with the Type Ib supernova SN 1998bw.[110]

text: Estimating the exact rate at which GRBs occur is difficult; for a galaxy of approximately the same size as the Milky Way, estimates of the expected rate (for long-duration GRBs) can range from one burst every 10,000 years, to one burst every 1,000,000 years.[111] Only a small percentage of these would be beamed towards Earth. Estimates of rate of occurrence of short-duration GRBs are even more uncertain because of the unknown degree of collimation, but are probably comparable.[112]

text: Since GRBs are thought to involve beamed emission along two jets in opposing directions, only planets in the path of these jets would be subjected to the high energy gamma radiation.[113]

text: Although nearby GRBs hitting Earth with a destructive shower of gamma rays are only hypothetical events, high energy processes across the galaxy have been observed to affect the Earth's atmosphere.[114]

text: Effects on Earth[edit]

text: Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays, so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself. The immediate effect on life on Earth from a GRB within a few parsecs would only be a short increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level, lasting from less than a second to tens of seconds. This ultraviolet radiation could potentially reach dangerous levels depending on the exact nature and distance of the burst, but it seems unlikely to be able to cause a global catastrophe for life on Earth.[115][116][unreliable source?]

text: The long-term effects from a nearby burst are more dangerous. Gamma rays cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving oxygen and nitrogen molecules, creating first nitrogen oxide then nitrogen dioxide gas. The nitrogen oxides cause dangerous effects on three levels. First, they deplete ozone, with models showing a possible global reduction of 25–35%, with as much as 75% in certain locations, an effect that would last for years. This reduction is enough to cause a dangerously elevated UV index at the surface. Secondly, the nitrogen oxides cause photochemical smog, which darkens the sky and blocks out parts of the sunlight spectrum. This would affect photosynthesis, but models show only about a 1% reduction of the total sunlight spectrum, lasting a few years. However, the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth's climate, producing a "cosmic winter" (similar to an impact winter, but without an impact), but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability. Thirdly, the elevated nitrogen levels in the atmosphere would wash out and produce nitric acid rain. Nitric acid is toxic to a variety of organisms, including amphibian life, but models show that it cannot reach levels that would cause a serious global effect. The nitrates might in fact be of benefit to some plants.[115][116][unreliable source?]

text: All in all, a GRB within a few parsecs, with its energy directed towards Earth, will mostly damage life by raising the UV levels during the burst itself and for a few years thereafter. Models show that the destructive effects of this increase can cause up to 16 times the normal levels of DNA damage. It has proved difficult to assess a reliable evaluation of the consequences of this on the terrestrial ecosystem, because of the uncertainty in biological field and laboratory data.[115][116][unreliable source?]

text: Ordinary supernova explosions can have the same effects as GRBs on Earth's atmosphere if they are close enough.[further explanation needed] Locally, supernovas are much more frequent events than GRBs, with a possibility of occurring closer to Earth. In the field of astrobiology, the rate and distribution of supernovas are used to define what is known as the Galactic Habitable Zone.[116][unreliable source?]

text: Hypothetical effects on Earth in the past[edit]

text: GRBs close enough to affect life in some way might occur once every five million years or so — around a thousand times since life on Earth began.[117]

text: The major Ordovician–Silurian extinction events 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB. The late Ordovician species of trilobites that spent portions of their lives in the plankton layer near the ocean surface were much harder hit than deep-water dwellers, which tended to remain within quite restricted areas. This is in contrast to the usual pattern of extinction events, wherein species with more widely spread populations typically fare better. A possible explanation is that trilobites remaining in deep water would be more shielded from the increased UV radiation associated with a GRB. Also supportive of this hypothesis is the fact that during the late Ordovician, burrowing bivalve species were less likely to go extinct than bivalves that lived on the surface.[9]

text: A case has been made that the 774–775 carbon-14 spike was the result of a short GRB,[118][119] though a very strong solar flare is another possibility.[120]

text: WR 104: A nearby GRB candidate[edit]

text: A Wolf–Rayet star in WR 104, about 8,000 light-years (2,500 pc) away, is considered a nearby GRB candidate that could have destructive effects on terrestrial life. It is expected to explode in a core-collapse-supernova at some point within the next 500,000 years and it is possible that this explosion will create a GRB. If that happens, there is a small chance that Earth will be in the path of its gamma ray jet.[121][122][123]

text: GRB candidates in the Milky Way[edit]

text: No gamma-ray burst from within our own galaxy, the Milky Way, has been observed, and the question of whether one has ever occurred remains unresolved. In light of evolving understanding of gamma-ray bursts and their progenitors, the scientific literature records a growing number of local, past, and future GRB candidates. Long duration GRBs are related to superluminous supernovae, or hypernovae, and most luminous blue variables (LBVs), and rapidly spinning Wolf–Rayet stars are thought to end their life cycles in core-collapse supernovae with an associated long-duration GRB. Knowledge of GRBs, however, is from metal-poor galaxies of former epochs of the universe's evolution, and it is impossible to directly extrapolate to encompass more evolved galaxies and stellar environments with a higher metallicity, such as the Milky Way.[124][125][126]


document_title: Forest cover by state in India

question_text: which state of india has lowest forest area

text: Forest cover by state in India

text:
States and union
territories of India
ordered by

Area
Population

Abbreviations
Capitals
Child Nutrition
Crime rate
Electricity penetration
Fertility rate
Forest cover
GDP (per capita)
Highest point
HIV awareness
HDI
Home ownership
Household size
Human Trafficking
Institutional delivery
Life expectancy at birth
Literacy rate
Media exposure
Number of Vehicles
Number of voters
Obesity
Open defecation
Origin of name
Places of worship
Poverty
Power capacity
Safe Drinking Water
Safety of Women
School Enrollment Rate
Sex ratio
Suicides
Tax revenues
TV ownership
Toilet availability
Transport network
Underweight people
Unemployment
Vaccination coverage

v
t
e

text: The forest cover (in square kilometres) in 2017 in India by state and union territory as published by the Forest Survey of India.[1]

text:
State / UT
Geographical Area
Very dense
Moderately dense
Open forest
Total forest area
% of forested area
% change since 2015

Andhra Pradesh
162,968
1,957
14,051
12,139
28,147
17.27%
+1.31%

Arunachal Pradesh
83,743
20,721
30,955
15,288
66,964
79.96%
-0.23%

Assam
78,438
2,797
10,192
15,116
28,105
35.83%
+0.72%

Bihar
94,163
332
3,260
3,707
7,299
7.75%
+0.05%

Chhattisgarh
135,192
7,064
32,215
16,268
55,547
41.09%
-0.01%

Delhi
1,483
7
56
129
192
12.97%
+0.25%

Goa
3,702
538
576
1,115
2,229
60.21%
+0.51%

Gujarat
196,244
378
5,200
9,179
14,757
7.52%
+0.02%

Haryana
44,212
28
452
1,108
1,588
3.59%
+0.02%

Himachal Pradesh
55,673
3,110
6,705
5,285
15,100
27.12%
+0.71%

Jammu & Kashmir
222,236
4,075
8,579
10,587
23,241
10.46%
+0.11%

Jharkhand
79,716
2,598
9,686
11,269
23,553
29.55%
+0.04%

Karnataka
191,791
4,502
20,444
12,604
37,550
19.58%
+0.57%

Kerala
38,852
1,663
9,407
8,251
20,321
52.30%
+2.68%

Madhya Pradesh
308,252
6,563
34,571
36,280
77,414
25.11%
-0.00%

Maharashtra
307,713
8,736
20,652
21,294
50,682
16.47%
-0.01%

Manipur
22,327
908
6,510
9,928
17,346
77.69%
+1.18%

Meghalaya
22,429
453
9,386
7,307
17,146
76.76%
-0.52%

Mizoram
21,081
131
5,861
12,194
18,186
86.27%
-2.52%

Nagaland
16,579
1,279
4,587
6,623
12,489
75.33%
-2.71%

Odisha
155,707
6,967
21,370
23,008
51,345
32.98%
+0.57%

Punjab
50,362
8
806
1,023
1,837
3.65%
+0.13%

Rajasthan
342,239
78
4,340
12,154
16,572
4.84%
+0.14%

Sikkim
7,096
1,081
1,575
688
3,344
47.13%
-0.13

Tamil Nadu
130,060
3,672
10,979
11,630
26,281
20.21%
+0.06%

Telangana
112,077
1,596
8,738
10,085
20,419
18.22%
+0.50%

Tripura
10,486
656
5,246
1,824
7,726
73.68%
-1.56%

Uttar Pradesh
240,928
2,617
4,069
7,993
14,679
6.09%
+0.12%

Uttarakhand
53,483
4,969
12,884
6,442
24,295
45.43%
+0.04%

West Bengal
88,752
2,994
4,147
9,706
16,847
18.98%
+0.02%

Andaman & Nicobar Islands
8,249
5,678
684
380
6,742
81.73%
-0.11%

Chandigarh
114
1
14
6
22
18.91%
-0.09%

Dadra & Nagar Haveli
491
0
80
127
207
42.16%
+0.20%

Daman & Diu
111
1
6
13
20
18.46%
+0.79%

Lakshadweep
30
0
17
10
27
90.33%
0.13%

Puducherry
490
0
18
36
54
10.95%
-0.67%

Total
3,287,469
98,158
308,318
301,797
708,273
21.54%
+0.21%


document_title: List of large Hindu temples

question_text: which is the biggest temple in south india

text: List of large Hindu temples

text: This is a list of Hindu Temples in terms of area. [1]

text:
Rank
Name of the temple
Photo
Area (m²)
Place
Country
Architecture/Timeline

1
Angkor Wat

820,000
Angkor
 Cambodia
Angkor Wat is a temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation — first Hindu, dedicated to the god Vishnu, then Buddhist.[2]

2
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam

631,000
Tiruchirappalli
 India
Srirangam temple is often listed as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world (the still larger Angkor Wat being the largest existing temple). The temple occupies an area of 156 acres (631,000 m²) with a perimeter of 4,116m (10,710 feet) making it the largest temple in India[3] and one of the largest religious complexes in the world. The temple is enclosed by seven concentric walls (termed prakarams (outer courtyard) or mathil suvar) with a total length of 32,592 feet or over six miles. These walls are enclosed by 21 Gopurams. The Ranganathanswamy Temple complex with 49 shrines, all dedicated to Lord Vishnu, is so huge that it is like a city within itself. However, the entire temple is not used for the religious purpose, the first three out of seven concentric walls are used by private commercial establishments such as restaurants, hotels, flower market, and residential homes.[4] Taking this detail into account, still the temple ranks third to in the list of large Hindu temples after Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram and Tiruvannamalai Annamalaiyar Temple.

3
Akshardham

240,000
Delhi
 India
Akshardham is a Hindu temple complex in Delhi, India.[5] Also referred to as Delhi Akshardham or Swaminarayan Akshardham, the complex displays millennia of traditional Indian and Hindu culture, spirituality, and architecture. The building was inspired and moderated by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the spiritual head of the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha, whose 3,000 volunteers helped 7,000 artisans construct Akshardham.[5][6]

4
Belur Math, Ramakrishna temple

160,000
Howrah
 India
Belūr Maṭh or Belur Mutt is the headquarters of the Ramakrishna Math and Mission, founded by Swami Vivekananda, a chief disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. It is located on the west bank of Hooghly River, Belur, West Bengal, India and is one of the significant institutions in Calcutta. This temple is the heart of the Ramakrishna Movement. The temple is notable for its architecture that fuses Hindu, Christian and Islamic motifs as a symbol of unity of all religions.[7]

5
Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

160,000
Chidambaram
 India
Thillai Natarajah Temple, Chidambaram - Chidambaram Thillai Natarajar-Koothan Kovil or Chidambaram temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva located in the centre of the temple town of Chidambaram, east-central South India. Chidambaram is a temple complex spread over 40 acres (160,000 m2) in the heart of the city. It is truly a large temple which is completely used for religious purpose. The main complex to Lord Shiva Nataraja also contains shrines to deities such as Sivakami Amman, Ganesh, Murugan and Vishnu in the form Govindaraja Perumal.

6
Prambanan, Trimurti temple compound

152,000
Yogyakarta
 Indonesia
Candi Prambanan or Candi Rara Jonggrang is a 9th-century Hindu temple compound in Central Java, Indonesia, dedicated to Shiva. It also houses shrines of Vishnu, Brahma and their consorts. The temple compound is located approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) northeast of the city of Yogyakarta on the boundary between Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces.[8]
The temple compound, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the largest Hindu temple site in Indonesia, and one of the biggest in Southeast Asia. It is characterized by its tall and pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the towering 47-metre-high (154 ft) central building (Shiva shrine) inside a large complex of individual temples.[9] Prambanan attracts many visitors from across the world.[10]

7
Brihadeeswarar Temple

102,400
Thanjavur
 India
Brihadeeswarar Temple also called The Big Temple was built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 CE and is dedicated to Shiva. The Big Temple is not only a magnificent edifice with its majestic vimana, sculptures, architecture and frescoes, but also has a wealth and richness of Tamil inscriptions engraved on stone in superb calligraphy. The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. One wonders of how such a big temple could be built in flat 6 years taking into account the amount stone and soil to be moved and the lack of powered machinery available in those days. The massive sized main Vimanam (Tower) is 200 feet high, possibly the highest in the world when it was built. The Vimanam has 16 elaborately articulated stories, and dominates the main quadrangle.It has a monolithic Nandhi weighing about 25 tonnes, and is about 12 feet high and 20 feet long.The presiding deity of lingam is 12 feet tall.[11]

8
Annamalaiyar Temple

101,171
Tiruvannamalai
 India
Annamalaiyar Temple is a noted Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, and it is the second largest temple (by the area used completely for religious purpose). It has got four stately towers on all the four sides and four high stone walls just like the rampart walls of a fort. The 11-tiered highest (217 feet (66 m)) Eastern Tower is called the Rajagopuram. The fortified walls pierced with four gopura entrances offer a formidable look to this vast complex.[12]

9
Rajagopalaswamy temple

93,000
Mannargudi
 India
Rajagopalaswamy temple is a Vaishnavite shrine located in the town of Mannargudi, Tamil Nadu, India.[1]The Front Temple tower is 156 feet tall. The presiding deity is Rajagopalaswamy, a form of Lord Krishna. The temple is spread over an area of 23 acres (93,000 m2) and The temple tank is called Haridra Nadhi, 1,158 feet long and 837 feet broad 23 acers (93,000 m2) is one of the important Vaishnavite shrines in India. The temple is called Dakshina Dwarka (Southern Dwarka) along with Guruvayoor by Hindus.[2]. The temple is also 23 acers and the Temple tank Haridra Nadhi is also 23 acers making it one of the largest temple tanks in India[2][4]

10
Ekambareswarar Temple

92,860
Kanchipuram
 India
Ekambareswarar Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, located in Kanchipuram in the state of India. It is one of the five major Shiva temples or Pancha Bootha Sthalams (each representing a natural element) representing the element Earth.

11
Varadharaja Perumal Temple

81,000
Kanchipuram
 India
Varadharaja Perumal Temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu located in the holy city of Kanchipuram, India. It is one of the Divya Desams, the 108 temples of Vishnu believed to have been visited by the 12 poet saints, or Alwars.[13] It is located in a suburb of Kanchipuram known as the Vishnu Kanchi that is a home for many famous Vishnu temples. One of the greatest Hindu scholars of Vaishnava VisishtAdvaita philosophy, Ramanuja is believed to have resided in this temple.

12
Tiruvarur Thyagarajaswamy Temple

80,937
Tiruvarur
 India
The ancient Sri Thyagaraja temple at Tiruvarur is dedicated to the Somaskanda aspect of Shiva. The temple complex has shrines dedicated to Vanmikanathar, Tyagarajar and the Kamalaamba, and covers an area of over 20 acres (81,000 m2) The Kamalalayam temple tank covers around 16 acres (65,000 m2),[14] one of the largest in the country. The temple chariot is the largest of its kind in Tamil Nadu.[15]

13
Jambukeswarar Temple, Thiruvanaikaval

72,843
Trichy
 India
Thiruvanaikaval (also Thiruvanaikal) is a Shiva temple in Tiruchirapalli (Trichy), in the state of India. The temple was built by Kocengannan (Kochenga Chola), one of the Early Cholas, around 1,800 years ago.[16]

14
Nellaiappar Temple

71,000
Tirunelveli
 India
This temple, dedicated to Shiva, was built 2500–3000 years ago. The river Tamirabharani referred to by poets as "Porunai" flows round the city. One of the famous temples in India steeped in tradition and history and also known for its musical pillars and other brilliant sculptural splendor. The temples were built by Muluthukanda Rama Pandiyan. The musical pillars in the Mani Mandapam which produce sound in various pitches when struck, the Somavara Mandapam, the 1000 pillared hall, and the Tamra sabha with intricate wood work, and the Vasantha Mandapam are some of the noteworthy points in this temple. The temple car belongs to this temple is the third largest temple car in India and it is more than 510 years ago and it is the oldest car festival in the world.

15
Meenakshi Amman Temple

70,050
Madurai
 India
Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple or Meenakshi Amman Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva — who is known here as Sundareswarar or Beautiful Lord — and his consort, Parvati who is known as Meenakshi. The temple forms the heart and lifeline of the 2500-year-old city of Madurai. The complex houses 14 magnificent Gopurams or towers including two golden Gopurams for the main deities, that are elaborately sculptured and painted showing the architectural and sculpting skills of the ancient Indian sthapathis.

16
Vaitheeswaran Koil

60,780
Vaitheeswaran Koil
 India
Vaitheeswaran Temple is located in India, dedicated to the god Shiva. In this temple, Lord Shiva is worshiped as "Vaitheeswaran" or the "God of medicine"; worshipers believe that prayers to Lord Vaitheeswaran can cure diseases.

17
Jagannath Temple, Puri

37,000
Puri
 India
The Jagannath Temple in Puri is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath (Vishnu) in the coastal town of Puri in the state of Odisha, India. The name Jagannath (Lord of the Universe) is a combination of the Sanskrit words Jagat (Universe) and Nath (Lord of).[17]

18
Birla Mandir

30,000
Delhi
 India
The Laxminarayan Temple (also known as the Birla Mandir) is a Hindu temple dedicated to Laxminarayan in Delhi, India. The temple is built in honour of Lakshmi (Hindu goddess of wealth) and her consort Narayana (Vishnu, Preserver in the Trimurti). The temple was built in 1622 by Vir Singh Deo and renovated by Prithvi Singh in 1793. During 1933-39, Laxmi Narayan Temple was built by Baldeo Das Birla of Birla family. Thus, the temple is also known as Birla Mandir. The famous temple is accredited to have been inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1939. At that time, Gandhi kept a condition that the temple would not be restricted to the Hindus and people from every caste would be allowed inside. Since then, funds for further renovations and support have come from the Birla family.[18]