document_title: Dixiecrat

question_text: who did southern democrats run for president under the newly formed dixiecrat party in 1948

text: Dixiecrat

text: Background

text: By the 1870s, the conservative voters of southern United States were heavily voting Democratic in national and presidential elections, and apart from minor pockets of Republican electoral strength in Appalachia plus Gillespie and Kendall Counties of central Texas, forming what was known as the "Solid South". The social and economic systems of the Solid South were based on Jim Crow, a combination of legal and informal segregation acts that made blacks second-class citizens with little or no political power anywhere within the southern United States.[5]

text: Three-time Democratic Party presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan opposed a highly controversial resolution at the 1924 Democratic National Convention condemning the Ku Klux Klan, expecting the organization would soon fold. Bryan disliked the Klan but never publicly attacked it.[6]

text: In the 1930s a realignment occurred courtesy of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. While many of the Democratic Party members in the southern United States had shifted toward favoring economic intervention,[citation needed] their own recognition of full civil rights for Black Americans was not yet incorporated within the New Deal agenda, as Southerners controlled many of the key positions of power within the U.S. Congress.

text: With the entry of the United States military into the Second World War, Jim Crow was indirectly challenged as two million Black Americans would serve in the U.S. military during World War II, receiving equal pay while serving within segregated units, and becoming equally entitled to receive veterans' benefits from the United States government.

text: Members of the Republican Party (nominating Governor of New York Thomas E. Dewey in 1944 and 1948), along with many Democrats from the northern United States, supported civil rights legislation that the Deep South Democrats in Congress almost unanimously opposed.[7][8]

text: 1948 presidential election

text: After Roosevelt died, the new president Harry Truman established a highly visible President's Committee on Civil Rights and issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military in 1948. A group of Southern governors such as Strom Thurmond of South Carolina and Fielding L. Wright of Mississippi met to consider the place of Southerners within the Democratic Party. After a tense meeting with DNC chairman and Truman confidant J. Howard McGrath, the Southern governors agreed to convene their own convention in Birmingham if Truman and civil rights supporters emerged victorious at the 1948 Democratic National Convention.[9] In July, the convention re-nominated Truman and adopted a plank proposed by Northern liberals led by Hubert Humphrey calling for civil rights; 35 southern delegates walked out. The move was on to remove Truman's name from the ballot in the southern United States. This political maneuvering required the organization of a new and distinct political party, which the Southern defectors from the Democratic Party chose to brand as the States' Rights Democratic Party.

text: Just days after the 1948 Democratic National Convention, the States' Rights Democrats held their own convention at Municipal Auditorium in Birmingham, Alabama on July 17.[10] While several leaders from the Deep South such as Strom Thurmond and James Eastland attended, most major Southern Democrats did not attend the conference.[11] Among those absent were Georgia Senator Richard Russell, Jr., who had finished with the second most delegates in the Democratic presidential ballot.[11]

text: Prior to their own States' Rights Democratic Party convention, it was not clear whether the Dixiecrats would seek to field their own candidate or simply try to prevent Southern electors from voting for Truman.[11] Many in the press predicted that if the Dixiecrats did nominate a ticket, Arkansas Governor Benjamin Travis Laney would be the presidential nominee and South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond or Mississippi Governor Fielding L. Wright would be the vice presidential nominee.[11] Laney traveled to Birmingham during the convention, but he ultimately decided that he did not want to join a third party and remained in his hotel during the convention.[11] Thurmond himself had doubts about a third-party bid, but party organizers convinced him to accept the party's nomination, with Fielding Wright as his running mate.[11] Wright's supporters had hoped that Wright would lead the ticket, but Wright deferred to Thurmond, who had greater national stature.[11] The selection of Thurmond received fairly positive reviews from the national press, as Thurmond had pursued relatively moderate policies on civil rights and did not employ the fiery rhetoric used by other segregationist leaders.[12]

text: The States' Rights Democrats did not formally declare themselves as being a new third party, but rather said that they were only "recommending" that state Democratic Parties vote for the Thurmond-Wright ticket.[11] The goal of the party was to win the 127 electoral votes of the Solid South in the hopes of throwing the election to the Representatives.[11] Once in the House, the Dixiecrats hoped to throw their support to whichever party would agree to their segregationist demands.[11] Even if the Republicans won an outright majority of electoral votes (as many expected in 1948), the Dixiecrats hoped that their third-party run would help the South retake its dominant position in the Democratic Party.[11] In implementing their strategy, the States' Rights Democrats faced a complicated set of state election laws, with different states having different processes for choosing presidential electors.[11] The States' Rights Democrats eventually succeeded in making the Thurmond-Wright ticket the official Democratic ticket in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina.[13] In other states, they were forced to run as a third-party ticket.[13]

text: In numbers greater than the 6,000 that attended the first, the States' Rights Democrats held a boisterous second convention in Oklahoma City, on August 14, 1948,[14] where they adopted their party platform which stated:[15]

text: We stand for the segregation of the races and the racial integrity of each race; the constitutional right to choose one's associates; to accept private employment without governmental interference, and to earn one's living in any lawful way. We oppose the elimination of segregation, the repeal of miscegenation statutes, the control of private employment by Federal bureaucrats called for by the misnamed civil rights program. We favor home-rule, local self-government and a minimum interference with individual rights.

text: The platform went on to say:[15]

text: We call upon all Democrats and upon all other loyal Americans who are opposed to totalitarianism at home and abroad to unite with us in ignominiously defeating Harry S. Truman, Thomas E. Dewey and every other candidate for public office who would establish a Police Nation in the United States of America.

text: In Arkansas, Democratic gubernatorial nominee Sid McMath vigorously supported Truman in speeches across the state, much to the consternation of the sitting governor, Benjamin Travis Laney, an ardent Thurmond supporter. Laney later used McMath's pro-Truman stance against him in the 1950 gubernatorial election, but McMath won re-election handily.

text: Efforts by States' Rights Democrats to paint other Truman loyalists as turncoats generally failed, although the seeds of discontent were planted which in years to come took their toll on Southern moderates.

text: On election day 1948, the Thurmond-Wright ticket carried the previously solid Democratic states of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina, receiving 1,169,021 popular votes and 39 electoral votes. Progressive Party nominee Henry A. Wallace drew off a nearly equal number of popular votes (1,157,172) from the Democrats' left wing, although he did not carry any states. The splits in the Democratic Party in the 1948 election had been expected to produce a victory by GOP nominee Dewey, but Truman defeated Dewey in an upset victory.

text: Subsequent elections

text: The States' Rights Democratic Party dissolved after the 1948 election, as Truman, the Democratic National Committee, and the New Deal Southern Democrats acted to ensure that the Dixiecrat movement would not return in the 1952 presidential election. Some Southern diehards, such as Leander Perez of Louisiana, attempted to keep it in existence in their districts.[16] Former Dixiecrats received some backlash at the 1952 Democratic National Convention, but all Southern delegations were seated after agreeing to a party loyalty pledge.[17] Moderate Alabama Senator John Sparkman was selected as the Democratic vice presidential nominee in 1952, helping to boost party loyalty in the South.[17] Regardless of the power struggle within the Democratic Party concerning segregation policy, the South remained a strongly Democratic voting bloc for local, state, and federal Congressional elections, but increasingly not in presidential elections.


document_title: Hell (Father Ted)

question_text: who did graham norton play in father ted

root

text: Hell (Father Ted)

text:
"Hell"

Father Ted episode

Episode no.
Series 2
Episode 1

Directed by
Declan Lowney

Written by

Graham Linehan
Arthur Mathews

Produced by
Lissa Evans

Featured music
The Divine Comedy

Editing by

Mykola Pawluk
Tim Waddell

Guest appearance(s)

Pat Shortt as Tom
Joe Taylor as Sewage Supervisor
Luke Hayden as Mr Gleason
Ann Hayden as Mrs Gleason
Robert English as Policeman
Tony Guilfoyle as Father Larry Duff
Graham Norton as Father Noel Furlong
Tom Farrelly as Gerry Fields
Yvonne Shanley as Janine Reilly
Stephen Gallagher as Tony Lynch
Sharon Carroll as Nuala Ryan
Laura Bermingham as Woman on Yacht

Episode chronology

← Previous
""Grant Unto Him Eternal Rest""
Next →
""Think Fast, Father Ted""

List of Father Ted episodes

tag: table

text: "Hell" is the first episode of the second series of the Channel 4 sitcom Father Ted, and the seventh episode overall.

tag: p

text: In this episode, Graham Norton makes his first of three appearances as Father Noel Furlong.

text: Plot[edit]

text: The episode begins as Ted struggles to remember why the day, 19 July, feels important to him. He and Dougal think for several minutes, before Jack emerges in swim wear and flip-flops. They realize it is time for their annual holiday. They decide to go on to Kilkelly Caravan Park, staying in the caravan of a friend. When Dougal protests, Ted reminds him that the caravan they're using this year is different from the one they used last year. Approaching the park, they see a large, luxurious caravan which they mistake as theirs. In fact, it belongs to a young couple who are showering as the priests enter. The priests are reported and are soon in trouble with the gardaí. Dougal wonders which caravan is theirs, with Ted realizing it is the small, squalid model at the other end. There is barely enough room for the three priests. Dougal has left the trailer containing all their toys and games behind by forgetting to attach it to the car. He has even forgotten the "Normal Scrabble" and the "Travel Scrabble".

text: Ted and Dougal decide to put Jack to sleep (by putting a cardboard box over his head) and search for entertainment. However, all that is available are St Kevin's Stump (an ordinary tree stump whose name is unexplained) and the Magic Road (a location in which the laws of gravity disappear). Unfortunately, a rainstorm keeps them confined to the caravan. Ted and Dougal pass their time by playing hide-and-seek inside the caravan and repeatedly boiling the kettle. Ted, using model animals and ultimately in vain, tries to explain to Dougal the difference between 'small' and 'far away'. Once they set out to visit the places of interest, Father Jack falls victim to the Magic Road and is sent plummeting over a cliff edge.

text: The holiday meets another setback as Ted and Dougal return to the caravan to find Father Noel Furlong and his youth group squeezed inside and having a sing-song. Noel is excitable, talkative and very camp. He manages to annoy Ted, as well as his long-suffering youth group, while Dougal is merely confounded. Eventually, Noel's behaviour is enough to make Ted and Dougal decide to leave. As Ted tries to enter the nearby outhouse, he realizes too late that the stall is occupied by the woman from the luxury caravan. Her husband, clad in only a towel, pursues the priests as they attempt to escape in their car. The man manages to jump onto the bonnet and rides along for miles, his towel blowing away. Ted finally stops, depositing the man on the road below. Furious, the man finds a glass bottle and uses it to puncture Ted's tyres. He walks away still naked. Ted and Dougal decide that they are not going to back to the caravan. Meanwhile, Noel and his youth group tip over the caravan by dancing in it. The priests try to hitchhike back to the parochial house. They are discovered by the island eccentric Tom, who is transporting raw sewage. When Tom tries to open his truck's doors, he accidentally releases his cargo, showering the priests in excrement. Meanwhile, Jack is seen alive and well on a yacht. He is approached by three beautiful women who offer him a generous choice of drinks. Jack can hardly believe his luck.

text: The episode ends with Ted and Dougal back in the caravan, with Dougal unable to find Ted during another exceedingly easy game of hide and seek.

text: Production[edit]

text: The Caravan site is located at Fanore Beach, County Clare, on the west coast of Ireland.

text: The writers based the episode on their own childhood experiences. The caravan park was based on Graham Linehan's memories of being taken on 2-week long holidays to grim caravan parks where it would always rain and there would be a plentiful supply of children to bully him. He would describe it as a "holiday in Hell", hence the episode's title. The unusual attractions such as The Magic Road were based on real-life locations Arthur Mathews had visited.

text: During the filming of the scene in Entertaining Father Stone where the priests are playing crazy golf in a rain storm, which caused the actors to get soaking wet, Dermot Morgan joked that next time the writers will probably get them covered in raw sewage. This is the entire reason why the scene where Ted and Dougal are sprayed with sewage was written. The actors did not realise that the substance made up to look like sewage was extremely cold - this caused them to run away from it very quickly when it was sprayed on them, and the writers to feel guilty about making them do it.


document_title: Public Protector

question_text: who was the first public protector in south africa

text: Public Protector

text: Public Protector Busisiwe Mkhwebane[edit]

text: The Public Protector, since October 2016, is Busisiwe Mkhwebane. She succeeded former Law Reform Commissioner and advocate, Thuli Madonsela who took up the post in October 2009. Madonsela succeeded Lawrence Mushwana, who took office on 15 October 2002. Selby Baqwa, Mushwana's predecessor, was the first person to hold that office from its inception in 1995.

text: The office of the Public protector has been faced with harsh criticism by parliament specifically by the majority party[11] for requesting an increase of R200m in the budget allocation for additional resources. With the justice portfolio committee chairman Mathole Motshekga[12] being critical of the budget and strategic presentation presented by Adv. Thuli Madonsela.

text: During the budget speech of 2015 the office of the Public Protector was allocated a total budget for 2015/16 of R 246.1 million [13] an increase of R 60 million, as opposed to the increase of R 200 million initially requested. With R 15 million going to the employment of additional investigators and the retention of the 70 investigator who were previously appointed on contract.

text: The office of the Public Protector is required to appear before the National Assembly at least once every year. During the Adv. Thuli Madonsela's budget and strategic presentation, the advocate was requested to present progress reports before parliament on a quarterly basis.[14]

text: Organisational structure[edit]

text: The Public Protector has an executive office which administers three major programmes:[15]

text:
The Investigations and Outreach
The Executive Management
The Corporate Support Services

tag: ul

text: Mandate[edit]

text: The Public Protector receives its mandate from the Public Protector Act of 1994. The Public Protector is one of six State Institutions Supporting Democracy in South Africa. These institutions are independent of the government, subject only to South Africa's Constitution and the law, and report annually to Parliament.

text: The preamble of the Public Protector Act states, in part:

text: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa ... provides for the establishment of the office of Public Protector to investigate matters and to protect the public against matters such as maladministration in connection with the affairs of government, improper conduct by a person performing a public function, improper acts with respect to public money, improper or unlawful enrichment of a person performing a public function and an act or omission by a person performing a public function resulting in improper prejudice to another person.

text: The Act also gives the Public Protector the authority to order other state institutions take appropriate remedial action against any impropriety or prejudice made by government.

text: Any aggrieved complainant may lodge a complaint to the office provided that it falls within powers of the Public Protector in terms of the Public Protector act 23 of 1994.The Public Protector may investigate and take the appropriate remedial action on his/her findings.

text: History[edit]

text: Functions of the Public Protector[edit]

text: The powers of the Public Protector are regulated by the national legislation. Additional powers may also be granted by the national legislator. However, court decisions may not be investigated by the office.It receives and investigates complaints from the public government.

text: Appointment[edit]

text: The Public Protector is appointed by the president, in accordance with the provisions of section 193 of the Constitution. The candidate must be a South African Citizen who-

text:
is a Judge of a High Court; or
is admitted as an advocate or an attorney and has, for a cumulative period of at least 10 years after having been so admitted, practised as an advocate or an attorney; or
is qualified to be admitted as an advocate or an attorney and has, for a cumulative period of at least 10 years after having so qualified, lectured in law at a university; or
has specialised knowledge of or experience, for a cumulative period of at least 10 years, in the administration of justice, public administration or public finance; or
has, for a cumulative period of at least 10 years, been a member of Parliament.

text: " – Sub-s. (1A)Act 23 of 1994

text: Tenure[edit]

text: Under chapter nine of the constitution, the Public Protector may only serve a non-renewable period of seven years in office.

text: Investigation Reports[edit]

text: Reports made by the Public Protector must be open to the public and be accessible to anyone. However certain reports maybe kept confidential under exceptional circumstances.[16] The Public Protector has to date investigated at least 40 000 cases.[17]

text: One of the most prominent cases is the investigation into allegations of impropriety and unethical conduct relating to the installation and implementation of security measures by the Department of Public Works at and in respect of the private residence of President Jacob Zuma at Nkandla in the KwaZulu-Natal province

text: Jurisdiction[edit]

text: Any matters in which the Public Protector has jurisdiction may be reported to the office of the Public Protector by any person.

text: In terms of the Public Protector act 23 of 1994[18] and other legislative acts, the Public Protector may investigate, on the basis of a complaint or on his or her own initiative, any level of government. This includes national, provincial and local government, any public office bearer, any parastatal and any statutory council.

text: Relationship with other chapter nine institutions[edit]

text:
Part of a series on

Chapter nine institutions

State Institutions supporting Constitutional Democracy

Public Protector
South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC)
CRL Rights Commission
Commission for Gender Equality (CGE)
Auditor-General
Independent Electoral Commission (IEC)

Constitution of South Africa

Chapters

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14

 South Africa portal

v
t
e

text: Similar to other bodies under the Chapter nine institution under the Constitution, the office of the Public Protector is independent of government and must be impartial and must exercise their powers and perform their function without any influence or prejudice.

text: Budget[edit]

text: Currently the office of The Public Protector manages an estimated 40,000 cases, with a staff of 314.[19] During the 2013/14 budget, the office was allocated R199.3m, with an increase of R18.3m for the 2014/15 financial year.

text: During the budget of 2015, the office was allocated an additional increase of R60m instead of the R200m initially requested at the justice portfolio committee. As a result, the office of the Public Protector was required to make drastic cutbacks.[20]

text: As a result of the funding difficulties, the spokesman of the office the Public Protector office cited that they would look at external agencies to help fund the office. The executive management of the office of the Public Protector has held meetings with development partners from German, Japan and Belgium.[21]


document_title: Water fluoridation in Australia

question_text: when was fluoride added to water in melbourne

text: Water fluoridation in Australia

text: Tasmania[edit]

text: The first town to fluoridate the water supply in Australia was Beaconsfield, Tasmania in 1953.[9][10] Although all public water supplies in Tasmania are fluoridated, approximately 15% of the residents do not have access to public water supplies.[11] The fluoridation of drinking water supplies in Tasmania is regulated by the Fluoridation Act 1968.[12] Under the Act, the need to add fluoride to a water supply is assessed by a fluoridation committee, which then provides a recommendation to the Health Minister. The Health Minister may then choose to direct the water authority to add fluoride to the water.

text: New South Wales[edit]

text: Approximately 95% of the population has access to fluoridated water (September 2011). Fluoridation commenced in New South Wales with Yass in 1956,[13] with Sydney fluoridating in 1968.[3] The use of fluoride is regulated by the Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Act 1957,[14] and the Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Regulation 2007.[15]

text: Australian Capital Territory[edit]

text: Fluoride has been added to water supplies in Canberra and the City of Queanbeyan since 1964. The addition of fluoride is regulated by the Electricity and Water (Amendment) Act (No. 2) 1989 [16] and the Public Health (Drinking Water) Code of Practice 2007 (No 1).[17] There was a brief period in 1989 where fluoridation was suspended following a formal review of the effectiveness of fluoridation on oral health.[3] As only one water supplier provides all of the water for these areas, the percentage of the population with access to fluoridated water has always been 100% during the times in which it was added.

text: Western Australia[edit]

text: Water fluoridation was introduced in Western Australia in Perth in 1968, and is regulated by the Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Act 1966.[18] As of 2012, around 92% of the population is provided with fluoridated water through a drinking water supply.[19] An exception exists in the Busselton, Vasse and Wonnerup townsites (approximately 20,000 residents), where fluoride is not artificially added to the water because it has naturally occurring fluoride.[20] Proposals for the addition of fluoride to a public water supply or matters relating to the Act and its administration are dealt with by the Advisory Committee for the Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies.[21]

text: South Australia[edit]

text: Water fluoridation commenced in Adelaide in 1971. There is no legal requirement to add fluoride to drinking water supplies. As of 2010, 90% of the state’s communities have access to reticulated water with appropriate levels of fluoride.[22]

text: Northern Territory[edit]

text: Fluoride has been added to public water supplies in Darwin (since 1972), Katherine, and Gove. Similarly to South Australia, there is no legal requirement to add fluoride to the Northern Territory's water supplies, but a position paper [23] published in November 2010 strongly encourages water providers to add fluoride where possible. Supplies south of Elliott have naturally occurring fluoride at levels sufficient to provide an oral health benefit.[24] Approximately 9% of the population of Northern Territory have naturally fluoridated water.[3] As of 2012, 70% of the population in the Northern Territory has access to fluoridated water, and there are plans to extend access to more residents by 2015.[25]

text: Victoria[edit]

text: Fluoride was first added to the drinking water for the Victorian town of Bacchus Marsh in 1962, with Melbourne beginning fluoridation in 1977.[26] The towns of Portland, Nhill, Port Fairy, Barnawartha, and Kaniva have naturally occurring fluoride in their drinking water.[27] In August 2012 approximately 90% of the Victorian population had access to fluoridated water.[28] The fluoridation of Victoria's drinking water supplies is regulated by the Health (Fluoridation) Act 1973, by the Department of Health.[29]

text: Queensland[edit]

text: On 29 November 2012 the Queensland Parliament, with a Liberal National Party government, reversed the previous Labor government's mandate requiring certain public potable water supplies to add fluoride to the water. As a consequence of these changes local councils in Queensland have the choice to add fluoride to drinking water supplies, similar to the conditions in place under the previous legislation. In January 2013 the Cairns council decided to discontinue water fluoridation.[30]

text: The previous government, under Queensland Premier Anna Bligh, announced on 5 December 2007 that the mandatory fluoridation of most of Queensland's water supplies will begin in 2008.[31] When it was enacted the Water Fluoridation Act 2008 required the addition of fluoride to any water supply supplying potable water to at least 1000 members of the public, unless an exemption is granted based on safety or naturally occurring levels that meet the required levels.[32] The fluoridation of drinking water supplies is regulated by Queensland Health,[33] with implementation supported by the former Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation.[34] Prior to this legislation Queensland was the only Australian state without a formal statewide program for the addition of fluoride to drinking water.

text: The accompanying Water Fluoridation Regulation 2008 listed 134 drinking water supplies that were to be fluoridated by 31 December 2012.[35] Of the drinking water supplies listed in the Regulation, 32 comprised the SEQ Water Grid located in Southeast Queensland. The fluoridation of these supplies by the end of 2009 accounted for the largest increase in people currently receiving fluoridated water in Queensland (approximately 2.6 million people in 2006 or 68% of the Queensland population).

text: Before the 2008 legislation the addition of fluoride to water supplies was regulated by the Fluoridation of Water Supplies Act 1963.[36] Under this legislation only 5% of drinking water supplies were fluoridated. Queensland was unique in that it did not pursue water fluoridation like all the other Australian States and Territories, with only 7 of the 850 fluoridated supplies in 1984 operating in Queensland.[4] Those supplies operated in the towns of Biloela, Dalby, Gatton, Mareeba, Moranbah, and Townsville/Thuringowa, with some adding fluoride to their drinking water since 1972. A few of these towns stopped adding fluoride prior to the Water Fluoridation Act 2008.[37]

text: Several areas of Queensland, such as Julia Creek, Quilpie, Thargomindah and Adavale are known to have naturally occurring fluoride present in their drinking water, a characteristic that has been studied since the late 1920s.[38][39]

text: In 2009 an accident occurred at the North Pine treatment plant, and some homes received water having many times the recommended level of fluoride.[40][41]

text: Gladstone Regional Council has voted to remove fluoride from their water supply.[42]

text: Mackay council votes to remove fluoride from their water supply. [43]


document_title: Large intestine

question_text: where is water absorbed in the large intestine

text: Large intestine

text: Structure[edit]

text: The colon is the last part of the digestive system. It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which flora-aided (largely bacterial) fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.[9]

text: The length of the adult human male colon is 166 cm (range of 80 to 313 cm), on average, for females it is 155 cm (range of 80 to 214 cm).[10]

text: Sections[edit]

text: In mammals, the colon consists of five sections: the cecum plus the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon,  the sigmoid colon, and the rectum.[1]

text: Sections of the colon are:

text:
The ascending colon including the cecum and appendix
The transverse colon including the colic flexures and transverse mesocolon
The descending colon
The sigmoid colon – the s-shaped region of the large intestine
The rectum

text: The parts of the colon are either intraperitoneal or behind it in the retroperitoneum. Retroperitoneal organs in general do not have a complete covering of peritoneum, so they are fixed in location. Intraperitoneal organs are completely surrounded by peritoneum and are therefore mobile.[12] Of the colon, the ascending colon, descending colon and rectum are retroperitoneal, while the cecum, appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon are intraperitoneal.[13] This is important as it affects which organs can be easily accessed during surgery, such as a laparotomy.

text: The average inner diameter of sections of the colon in centimeters (with ranges in parentheses) are cecum 8.7 (8.0-10.5), ascending colon 6.6 (6.0-7.0), transverse colon 5.8 (5.0-6.5), descending/sigmoid colon 6.3 (6.0-6.8) and rectum near rectal/sigmoid junction 5.7 (4.5-7.5).[11]

text: Cecum and appendix[edit]

text: The cecum is the first section of the colon and involved in the digestion, while the appendix which develops embryologically from it, is a structure of the colon, not involved in digestion and considered to be part of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. The function of the appendix is uncertain, but some sources believe that the appendix has a role in housing a sample of the colon's microflora, and is able to help to repopulate the colon with bacteria if the microflora has been damaged during the course of an immune reaction.  The appendix has also been shown to have a high concentration of lymphatic cells.

text: Ascending colon[edit]

text: The ascending colon is the first of four sections of the large intestine. It is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum. The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon for approximately eight inches (20 cm).

text:
One of the main functions of the colon is to remove the water and other key nutrients from waste material and recycle it. As the waste material exits the small intestine through the ileocecal valve, it will move into the cecum and then to the ascending colon where this process of extraction starts. The unwanted waste material is moved upwards toward the transverse colon by the action of peristalsis.
The ascending colon is sometimes attached to the appendix via Gerlach's valve. In ruminants, the ascending colon is known as the spiral colon.[14][15][16]
Taking into account all ages and sexes, colon cancer occurs here most often (41%).[17]

text: Transverse colon[edit]

text: The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the  hepatic flexure, also known as the right colic, (the turn of the colon by the liver) to the  splenic flexure also known as the left colic, (the turn of the colon by the spleen). The transverse colon hangs off the stomach, attached to it by a large fold of peritoneum  called the greater omentum. On the posterior side, the transverse colon is connected to the posterior abdominal wall by a mesentery known as the transverse mesocolon.

text: The transverse colon is encased in peritoneum, and is therefore mobile (unlike the parts of the colon immediately before and after it).

text: The proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon is perfused by the middle colic artery, a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), while the latter third is supplied by branches of the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). The "watershed" area between these two blood supplies, which represents the embryologic division between the midgut and hindgut, is an area sensitive to ischemia.

text: Descending colon[edit]

text: The descending colon is the part of the colon from the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. One function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store feces that will be emptied into the rectum. It is retroperitoneal in two-thirds of humans. In the other third, it has a (usually short) mesentery.[18] The arterial supply comes via the left colic artery. The descending colon is also called the distal gut, as it is further along the gastrointestinal tract than the proximal gut. Gut flora are very dense in this region.

text: Sigmoid colon[edit]

text: The sigmoid colon is the part of the large intestine after the descending colon and before the rectum. The name sigmoid means S-shaped (see sigmoid; cf. sigmoid sinus). The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular, and contract to increase the pressure inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum.

text: The sigmoid colon is supplied with blood from several branches (usually between 2 and 6) of the sigmoid arteries, a branch of the IMA. The IMA terminates as the superior rectal artery.

text: Sigmoidoscopy is a common diagnostic technique used to examine the sigmoid colon.

text: Rectum[edit]

text: The rectum is the last section of the large intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting elimination via defecation.

text: Appearance[edit]

text: The cecum – the first part of the large intestine

text:
Taeniae coli – three bands of smooth muscle
Haustra – bulges caused by contraction of taeniae coli
Epiploic appendages – small fat accumulations on the viscera

text: The taenia coli run the length of the large intestine.  Because the taenia coli are shorter than the large bowel itself, the colon becomes sacculated, forming the haustra of the colon which are the shelf-like intraluminal projections.[19]

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: Arterial supply to the colon comes from branches of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). Flow between these two systems communicates via a "marginal artery" that runs parallel to the colon for its entire length. Historically, it has been believed that the arc of Riolan, or the meandering mesenteric artery (of Moskowitz), is a variable vessel connecting the proximal SMA to the proximal IMA that can be extremely important if either vessel is occluded. However, recent studies conducted with improved imaging technology have questioned the actual existence of this vessel, with some experts calling for the abolition of the terms from future medical literature.[citation needed]

text: Venous drainage usually mirrors colonic arterial supply, with the inferior mesenteric vein draining into the splenic vein, and the superior mesenteric vein joining the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein that then enters the liver.

text: Lymphatic drainage[edit]

text: Lymphatic drainage from the ascending colon and proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon is to the colic lymph nodes and the superior mesenteric lymph nodes, which drain into the cisterna chyli.[20] The lymph from the distal one-third of the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the upper rectum drain into the inferior mesenteric and colic lymph nodes.[20] The lower rectum to the anal canal above the pectinate line drain to the internal iliac nodes.[21] The anal canal below the pectinate line drains into the superficial inguinal nodes.[21] The pectinate line only roughly marks this transition.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text:
Sympathetic supply : Superior & inferior mesenteric ganglia
Parasympathetic supply : Vagus & pelvic nerves

text: Development[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2017)

text: Variation[edit]

text: One variation on the normal anatomy of the colon occurs when extra loops form, resulting in a colon that is up to five metres longer than normal. This condition, referred to as redundant colon, typically has no direct major health consequences, though rarely volvulus occurs, resulting in obstruction and requiring immediate medical attention.[22][23] A significant indirect health consequence is that use of a standard adult colonoscope is difficult and in some cases impossible when a redundant colon is present, though specialized variants on the instrument (including the pediatric variant) are useful in overcoming this problem.[24]

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: Colonic crypts[edit]

text: The wall of the large intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelium with invaginations.  The invaginations are called the intestinal glands or colonic crypts.

text: The colon crypts are shaped like microscopic thick walled test tubes with a central hole down the length of the tube (the crypt lumen). Four tissue sections are shown here, two cut across the long axes of the crypts and two cut parallel to the long axes.  In these images the cells have been stained by immunohistochemistry to show a brown-orange color if the cells produce a mitochondrial protein called cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CCOI).  The nuclei of the cells (located at the outer edges of the cells lining the walls of the crypts) are stained blue-gray with haematoxylin. As seen in panels C and D, crypts are about 75 to about 110 cells long.  Baker et al.[26] found that the average crypt circumference is 23 cells.  Thus, by the images shown here, there are an average of about 1,725 to 2530 cells per colonic crypt.  Nooteboom et al.[27] measuring the number of cells in a small number of crypts reported a range of 1500 to 4900 cells per colonic crypt.  Cells are produced at the crypt base and migrate upward along the crypt axis before being shed into the colonic lumen days later.[26]  There are 5 to 6 stem cells at the bases of the crypts.[26]

text: As estimated from the image in panel A, there are about 100 colonic crypts per square millimeter of the colonic epithelium.[11]  Since the average length of the human colon is 160.5 cm[10] and the average inner circumference of the colon is 6.2 cm,[11] the inner surface epithelial area of the human colon has an average area of about 995 sq cm, which includes 9,950,000 (close to 10 million) crypts.

text: In the four tissue sections shown here, many of the intestinal glands have cells with a mitochondrial DNA mutation in the CCOI gene and appear mostly white, with their main color being the blue-gray staining of the nuclei.  As seen in panel B, a portion of the stem cells of three crypts appear to have a mutation in CCOI, so that 40% to 50% of the cells arising from those stem cells form a white segment in the cross cut area.

text: Overall, the percent of crypts deficient for CCOI is less than 1% before age 40, but then increases linearly with age.[25] Colonic crypts deficient for CCOI in women reaches, on average, 18% in women and 23% in men by 80–84 years of age.[25]

text: Crypts of the colon can reproduce by fission, as seen in panel C, where a crypt is fissioning to form two crypts, and in panel B where at least one crypt appears to be fissioning.  Most crypts deficient in CCOI are in clusters of crypts (clones of crypts) with two or more CCOI-deficient crypts adjacent to each other (see panel D).[25]

text: Mucosa[edit]

text: About 150 of the many thousands of protein coding genes expressed in the large intestine, some are specific to the mucous membrane in different regions and include CEACAM7.[28]

text: Function[edit]

text:
The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation), thiamine and riboflavin.[citation needed] It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the anus in defecation.
The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl-. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis.
Recycling of various nutrients takes place in colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.[29][citation needed]

text: The appendix is attached to the inferior surface of the cecum, and contains a small amount of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains endocrine cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for homeostasis during early growth and development.[30] The appendix can be removed with no apparent damage or consequence to the patient.[citation needed]

text: By the time the chyme has reached this tube, most nutrients and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the descending colon.[31]

text: The bacteria break down some of the fiber for their own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment.[32] No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10% of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet;[33] in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet.  The large intestine[34] produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).[35]

text: Standing gradient osmosis[edit]

text: Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid. This hypertonic fluid creates an osmotic pressure that drives water into the lateral intercellular spaces by osmosis via tight junctions and adjacent cells, which then in turn moves across the basement membrane and into the capillaries, while more sodium ions are pumped again into the intercellular fluid.[36] Although water travels down an osmotic gradient in each individual step, overall, water usually travels against the osmotic gradient due to the pumping of sodium ions into the intercellular fluid. This allows the large intestine to absorb water despite the blood in capillaries being hypotonic compared to the fluid within the intestinal lumen.

text: Gut flora[edit]

text: The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet.[37] The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered" or in other words, the "forgotten organ".[38]

text: The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.[39]

text: These bacteria also produce large amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin K and biotin (a B vitamin), for absorption into the blood. Although this source of vitamins, in general, provides only a small part of the daily requirement, it makes a significant contribution when dietary vitamin intake is low. An individual who depends on absorption of vitamins formed by bacteria in the large intestine may become vitamin-deficient if treated with antibiotics that inhibit the vitamin producing species of bacteria as well as the intended disease-causing bacteria.[40]

text: Other bacterial products include gas (flatus), which is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of the gases hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide.  Bacterial fermentation of undigested polysaccharides produces these. Some of the fecal odor is due to indoles, metabolized from the amino acid tryptophan. The normal flora is also essential in the development of certain tissues, including the cecum and lymphatics.[citation needed]

text: They are also involved in the production of cross-reactive antibodies. These are antibodies produced by the immune system against the normal flora, that are also effective against related pathogens, thereby preventing infection or invasion.

text: The two most prevalent phyla of the colon are firmicutes and bacteroides. The ratio between the two seems to vary widely as reported by the Human Microbiome Project.[41] Bacteroides are implicated in the initiation of colitis and colon cancer. Bifidobacteria are also abundant, and are often described as 'friendly bacteria'.[42][43]

text: A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.[44]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Disease[edit]

text: Following are the most common diseases or disorders of the colon:

text:
Angiodysplasia of the colon
Appendicitis
Chronic functional abdominal pain
Colitis
Colorectal cancer
Colorectal polyp
Constipation
Crohn's disease
Diarrhea
Diverticulitis
Diverticulosis
Hirschsprung's disease (aganglionosis)
Ileus
Intussusception
Irritable bowel syndrome
Pseudomembranous colitis
Ulcerative colitis and toxic megacolon

text: Colonoscopy[edit]

text: Colonoscopy is the endoscopic examination of the large intestine and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions. Colonoscopy can remove polyps as small as one millimetre or less. Once polyps are removed, they can be studied with the aid of a microscope to determine if they are precancerous or not. It takes 15 years or less for a polyp to turn cancerous.

text: Colonoscopy is similar to sigmoidoscopy—the difference being related to which parts of the colon each can examine. A colonoscopy allows an examination of the entire colon (1200–1500 mm in length). A sigmoidoscopy allows an examination of the distal portion (about 600 mm) of the colon, which may be sufficient because benefits to cancer survival of colonoscopy have been limited to the detection of lesions in the distal portion of the colon.[45][46][47]

text: A sigmoidoscopy is often used as a screening procedure for a full colonoscopy, often done in conjunction with a fecal occult blood test (FOBT).  About 5% of these screened patients are referred to colonoscopy.[48]

text: Virtual colonoscopy, which uses 2D and 3D imagery reconstructed from computed tomography (CT) scans or from nuclear magnetic resonance (MR) scans, is also possible, as a totally non-invasive medical test, although it is not standard and still under investigation regarding its diagnostic abilities. Furthermore, virtual colonoscopy does not allow for therapeutic maneuvers such as polyp/tumour removal or biopsy nor visualization of lesions smaller than 5 millimeters.  If a growth or polyp is detected using CT colonography, a standard colonoscopy would still need to be performed. Additionally, surgeons have lately been using the term pouchoscopy to refer to a colonoscopy of the ileo-anal pouch.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The large intestine is truly distinct only in tetrapods, in which it is almost always separated from the small intestine by an ileocaecal valve. In most vertebrates, however, it is a relatively short structure running directly to the anus, although noticeably wider than the small intestine. Although the caecum is present in most amniotes, only in mammals does the remainder of the large intestine develop into a true colon.[49]

text: In some small mammals, the colon is straight, as it is in other tetrapods, but, in the majority of mammalian species, it is divided into ascending and descending portions; a distinct transverse colon is typically present only in primates. However, the taeniae coli and accompanying haustra are not found in either carnivorans or ruminants. The rectum of mammals (other than monotremes) is derived from the cloaca of other vertebrates, and is, therefore, not truly homologous with the "rectum" found in these species.[49]

text: In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.[49]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Intestines

Colon. Deep dissection. Anterior view.


document_title: James Bond Theme

question_text: who is the composer of the james bond theme song

text: James Bond Theme

text: Authorship and origin[edit]

text: Monty Norman has been credited with writing the "James Bond Theme", and has received royalties since 1962. Norman collected around £485,000 in royalties between the years 1976 and 1999. For Dr. No, the tune was arranged by John Barry, who would later go on to compose the soundtracks for eleven James Bond films. Courts have ruled twice that the theme was written by Monty Norman, despite claims and testimony by Barry that he had actually written the theme. Norman has consequently won two libel actions against publishers for claiming that Barry wrote the theme, most recently against The Sunday Times in 2001.

text: Norman describes the distinctive rhythm of the guitar in the first few bars of the "James Bond Theme" as "Dum di-di dum dum". He claims that it was inspired by the song "Good Sign Bad Sign" sung by Indian characters in A House for Mr Biswas, a musical he composed based on a novel by V.S. Naipaul set in the Indian community in Trinidad. Norman showed his manuscript music from A House for Mr Biswas in a filmed interview and sang its lyrics. In 2005, Norman released an album called Completing the Circle that features "Good Sign Bad Sign", the "James Bond Theme," and a similar-sounding song titled "Dum Di-Di Dum Dum." For these songs Norman added lyrics that explain the origin and history of the "James Bond Theme".

text: Though the "James Bond Theme" is identified with John Barry's jazz arrangement, parts of it are heard throughout Monty Norman's score for Dr. No in non-jazzy guises. Barry's arrangement is repeated ("tracked") in various scenes of the first Bond film. This is consistent with the account given by Barry and some of the film makers, contained in supplementary material on the DVD release of Dr. No: Barry was called in to make an arrangement of Norman's motif after Norman had completed the score. There is no information about the distinctive ostinati, countermelodies, and bridges introduced by Barry that are juxtaposed with Norman's motif in order to flesh out the arrangement. These added musical figures have become as recognizable to listeners as Norman's motif, which is probably responsible for the controversy over the authorship of the "James Bond Theme" as listeners have come to know it.

text: The "James Bond Theme" was recorded on 21 June 1962, using five saxophones, nine brass instruments, a solo guitar and a rhythm section.[1] The guitar riff heard in the original recording of the theme was played by Vic Flick on a 1939 English Clifford Essex Paragon Deluxe guitar plugged into a Fender Vibrolux amplifier. Flick was paid a one-off fee of £6 for recording the famous James Bond Theme riff.[2] John Scott played the saxophone. Barry, who was paid £250 for his work, was surprised that his theme appeared so often in Dr No. He was told by Noel Rogers, the head of United Artists Music, that though the producers wouldn't give him any more money or a writing credit they would get in touch with him if there was another Bond film made.[3]

text: Use in the James Bond films[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Within the Bond films themselves, many different arrangements of the theme have been used, often reflecting the musical tastes of the specific times. The electric guitar version of the theme is most associated with the Sean Connery era although it was also used in some Roger Moore films, in Timothy Dalton's final film Licence to Kill and in the Bond films starring Pierce Brosnan with scores composed by David Arnold. For every Bond movie which John Barry scored, he orchestrated a slightly different version of the Bond theme, as can be heard during the gun barrel sequence. These specialised Bond themes often reflected the style and locations featured in the movie, and the actor playing Bond.

text: The "James Bond Theme" and its variations found in the movies are played during many different types of scenes. Early in the series, the theme provided background music to Connery's entrances. It was not until Goldfinger that John Barry began to use the theme as an action cue. Since then, the primary use of the "James Bond Theme" has been with action scenes.

text: Sean Connery (1962–67)[edit]

text: The first appearance of the "James Bond Theme" was in Dr. No. There it was used as part of the actual gunbarrel and main title sequence.

text: In From Russia with Love, the "James Bond Theme" appears not only in the gunbarrel pre-title sequence, but as part of the main title theme and in the track "James Bond with Bongos". It is a slower, jazzier, somewhat punchier rendition than the original orchestration. The original Barry arrangement from Dr. No is heard during a check of Bond's room for listening devices.

text: In Goldfinger, the "James Bond Theme" can be heard on the soundtrack in "Bond Back in Action Again" (gunbarrel and pre-title sequence). The "James Bond Theme" for this movie is heavily influenced by the brassy, jazzy theme song sung by Shirley Bassey.

text: Thunderball featured a full orchestral version of the theme in the track "Chateau Flight". Another full orchestral version was intended for the end titles of the film.

text: You Only Live Twice featured a funereal orchestration with Bond's "burial" at sea sequence in Hong Kong harbour. A full orchestral version of the theme was used in the Little Nellie autogyro fight scene.

text: George Lazenby (1969)[edit]

text: The George Lazenby film On Her Majesty's Secret Service used a unique high-pitched arrangement with the melody played on a Moog synthesizer. The cue is called "This Never Happened to the Other Feller" and a similar recording was used over the film's end credits. The film has a downbeat ending and the explosive burst of the "James Bond Theme" at the film's very end suggests Bond will return in spite of the situation he finds himself in at the climax of this movie.

text: Sean Connery (1971)[edit]

text: With the return of Sean Connery in Diamonds Are Forever, the guitar made a comeback along with a full orchestral version during a hovercraft sequence. On the soundtrack this track is named "Mr. Wint and Mr. Kidd/Bond to Holland."

text: Roger Moore (1973–85)[edit]

text: When Roger Moore came to the role, the "James Bond Theme" became a string orchestra driven piece. Likewise, in Live and Let Die, the James Bond theme was featured in a Funk-inspired version of the tune reflecting the music of Blaxploitation films popular at the time. After that in 1974 John Barry composed the theme and song but sung by Lulu. The brief quote of the theme in the pre-credits music of The Spy Who Loved Me, titled "Bond 77", featured a disco sound, reflecting a style of music which was very popular at the time. The Spy Who Loved Me returned briefly to using the surf-rock guitar associated with the theme from the early days. One unusual instance occurred in Octopussy, when Bond's contact, who is disguised as a snake charmer played a few notes of the tune for Roger Moore's James Bond, presumably as a pre-arranged identification signal; this is an example of the tune being used as diegetic music. In the last Bond film of Roger Moore, A View to a Kill the melody of the theme was played on strings.

text: Timothy Dalton (1987–89)[edit]

text: Timothy Dalton's first film The Living Daylights, which was the last Bond film scored by Barry, used a symphonic version with the melody played on strings. This version of the Bond theme is notable for its introduction of sequenced electronic rhythm tracks overdubbed with the orchestra - at the time, a relatively new innovation.

text: In Licence to Kill, the Bond theme was arranged by Michael Kamen using rock drums to symbolize a harder and more violent Bond. This gunbarrel is the first one since Dr. No not starting with the Bond theme but orchestral hits though the surf guitar makes returns soon after.

text: Pierce Brosnan (1995–2002)[edit]

text: The gunbarrel of the Pierce Brosnan film GoldenEye opened with a synthesized arrangement by Éric Serra which plays the guitar riff on (almost indistinct) kettle drums. A more traditional rendition by John Altman is heard in the film during the tank chase in St. Petersburg. This version of the "James Bond Theme" is not included in the GoldenEye soundtrack.

text: David Arnold's gunbarrel arrangements in Tomorrow Never Dies and The World Is Not Enough dropped the guitar melody line, jumping straight from the tune's opening to its concluding bars. An electronic rhythm was added to the gunbarrel of The World Is Not Enough. The typical Bond guitar line can be heard during some action scenes.

text: The Die Another Day gunbarrel recalls the version of From Russia with Love but with a more techno-influenced rhythm. It also contains the guitar riff of the "James Bond Theme".

text: Daniel Craig (since 2006)[edit]

text: Craig's first James Bond film, Casino Royale, does not feature the "James Bond Theme" in its entirety until the very end of the movie during a climactic scene. In Casino Royale, the main notes of the song "You Know My Name" are played throughout the film as a substitute for the "James Bond Theme". A new recording of the classic theme, titled "The Name's Bond…James Bond", only plays during the end credits to signal the beginning of the character's new arc as the 21st century version of James Bond. Although that is the first time the theme is played in its entirety, the first bars of the song (the chord progression) appeared as a slow background music in seven moments throughout the movie: after Bond's conversation with M (during his flight), after winning the Aston Martin, when he makes his first appearance in a tuxedo (accompanied by a few bars of the bridge), after he has survived the poisoned martini, when he wins the final match at Casino Royale, when Bond is following Vesper and one last time when Bond speaks with M on the phone. Then at the end of Quantum of Solace, the theme appears with Craig's new official gun-barrel sequence, unusually shown at the end of the film. The theme here is very similar to the classic style in Casino Royale. It appears sparingly throughout the score itself, never in an immediately recognizable variation. David Arnold said in an interview on the DVD extras for Tomorrow Never Dies that hearing the "James Bond Theme" is what he expects to hear as an audience member in action scenes, yet his scores for Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace only use it during the end credits.

text: The next film, Skyfall, includes the theme as part of the harmony to Adele's vocals and is used as the chord progression, including a faint surf guitar riff. Also, similar to Quantum of Solace, the gun-barrel sequence is shown at the end of Skyfall. The theme that plays along with the sequence and into the end credits is David Arnold's Casino Royale track "The Name's Bond…James Bond". Despite this, the film's score was composed by Thomas Newman, who also incorporated the "James Bond Theme" throughout the entire film. In Spectre, the theme appears at the beginning of the film as part of the opening gunbarrel sequence, indicating a return to the franchise's classic roots of 1962 - 2002.

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: Over 70 cover versions of the "James Bond Theme" have been recorded by artists such as:

text:
Barry Adamson
The Art of Noise
John Barry
Ray Barretto
Count Basie
bond
Biddu
Stanley Black
Al Caiola
Glen Campbell
Cannibal Corpse
Frank Chacksfield
Crazy Frog-named The Crazybond
Danny Davis
Taylor Davis
Fanfare Ciocărlia
Ferrante and Teicher
Lannie Flowers
Richard Fortus
The Four Esquires (vocal version)
Leroy Holmes
Johnny and the Hurricanes

George Martin Orchestra
Ray Martin
Hank Marvin
Meco
Moby
Hugo Montenegro
Franck Pourcel
Pendulum
Perez Prado
Poets of the Fall
The Selecter
Brian Setzer
Roland Shaw
The Skatalites
Ed Starink
Billy Strange
Akira Tana
The Ventures
Si Zentner
John Zorn

1963 cover version by Al Caiola

text: Moby re-version[edit]

text:
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)"

Single by Moby

from the album I Like to Score and Tomorrow Never Dies

Released
3 November 1997

Format

CD
12-inch

Length

3:13
3:23 (I Like to Score version)

Label

Mute
Elektra

Songwriter(s)
Monty Norman

Producer(s)
Moby

Moby singles chronology

"Come On Baby"
(1996)
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)"
(1997)
"Honey"
(1998)

"Come On Baby"
(1996)
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)"
(1997)
"Honey"
(1998)

text: American electronica musician Moby produced a remixed version of the theme entitled "James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" for the Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies. It first appeared as the second track on I Like to Score, a compilation of Moby's songs used in films, and later featured as the fifteenth and final track on the Tomorrow Never Dies soundtrack album. Moby has said "It did feel a little strange remixing something that was perfect in its original state",[attribution needed] further admitting that he "still thinks the original is miles better than the version I did".[attribution needed]

text: Released as a single, "James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" charted at number eight on the UK Singles Chart, besting "Go"'s number 10 peak six years earlier to become, at the time, Moby's highest-peaking single on the chart.[4]

text: The song features two samples of dialogue from the Bond films: Pierce Brosnan saying "Bond, James Bond" as heard in GoldenEye, and the conversation between Bond and Auric Goldfinger in Goldfinger: "Do you expect me to talk?" / "No, Mr. Bond. I expect you to die."

text: Track listing[edit]

text: CD single (CDMUTE210)

text:
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" – 3:13
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (Grooverider's Jeep Remix) – 7:42
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (Da Bomb Remix) – 7:51
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (CJ Bolland Remix) – 5:14
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (Dub Pistols Remix) – 5:51
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (CJ Bolland-Dubble-Oh Heaven Remix) – 6:07

tag: ol

text: 12-inch single (12MUTE210)

text:
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (...O Lieb's L.S.G. Remix) – 8:05
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (Moby's Extended Dance Mix) – 5:50
"James Bond Theme (Moby's Re-Version)" (Tenaglia Twilo Mix) – 11:57

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1997–98)
Peak
position

Australia (ARIA)[5]
65

Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[6]
44

Belgium Dance (Ultratop)[7]
14

Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[8]
7

France (SNEP)[9]
41

Germany (Official German Charts)[10]
48

Ireland (IRMA)[11]
18

Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[12]
27

Netherlands (Single Top 100)[13]
37

Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[14]
31

Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[15]
17

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[4]
8

UK Dance (Official Charts Company)[16]
14

US Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[17]
1

text: Video games[edit]

text:
An original cover recording for the "James Bond Theme" was also created by Richard Fortus as downloadable content for the video game Guitar Hero World Tour (a case of corporate synergy, as Guitar Hero publisher Activision also held the license to produce games based on the James Bond franchise at the time).[18] Fortus later played the tune live with Guns N' Roses during their 2012 tour.[19]
The opening gunbarrel sequence for the Nintendo 64 game GoldenEye 007 uses a rock-influenced version of the theme. The game's soundtrack also makes recurring use of its motifs throughout, with corresponding variations in rhythm, scale and instrumentation.
An electrified version of the theme is played in the credits of the GoldenEye 007 game for the Wii
An 8-bit recording of the song was used on James Bond's inaugural video game, James Bond 007. 10 years after that game's released, Sega recorded another 8-bit version for Game Gear/Master System and the first 16-bit version for Sega Genesis of the tune for James Bond 007: The Duel (known as 007 Shitou -007死闘- in Japan.)


document_title: Allied health professions

question_text: what skills should an allied health professional have

text: Allied health professions

text: Professions[edit]

text: In September 2012 the organization of International Chief Health Professions Officers (ICHPO) provided an agreed-upon definition of an allied health professional.[citation needed]

text: "Allied Health Professions are a distinct group of health professionals who apply their expertise to prevent disease transmission, diagnose, treat and rehabilitate people of all ages and all specialties. Together with a range of technical and support staff they may deliver direct patient care, rehabilitation, treatment, diagnostics and health improvement interventions to restore and maintain optimal physical, sensory, psychological, cognitive and social functions."

text: The International CHPO group is a network of chief officers with a professional and policy leadership role for allied health professions and supports knowledge exchange and partnership working across the international community ICHPO member countries: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, England, Hong Kong (SAR), Malaysia, Malta, Namibia, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, Republic of Ireland, and Wales.

text: Depending on the country and local health care system, a limited subset of the following professions (professional areas) may be represented, and may be regulated:

text:
Anesthesiologist assistant
Anesthesia technician
Art therapist/art psychotherapist
Athletic trainer
Autotransfusionist
Audiologist
Cardiovascular technologist
Clinical laboratory scientist
Medical transcriptionist
Medical coder
Clinical officer
Clinical psychologist
Dental hygienist
Dietitian/nutritionist
Electrocardiogram technician
Emergency medical technician
Environmental health officer
Exercise physiologist
Lactation consultant
Medical assistant
Medical interpreter
Medical laboratory scientist
Medical radiation scientist
Music therapist
Clinical neurophysiology
Occupational therapist
Operating department practitioner
Optometrist
Orthoptist
Orthotist/prosthetist
Paramedic
Pedorthist
Perfusionist
Phlebotomist
Physician Assistant
Public health epidemiologist
Physical therapist/physiotherapist
Radiotherapist/radiation therapist/medical dosimetrist
Radiographer (including specialist radiographers e.g. angiographer, mammographer, etc.)
Recreational therapist
Rehabilitation counselor
Renal dialysis technologist[2]
Respiratory therapist
Social workers
Sonographer (often, but not always, state-registered radiographers)
Speech and language pathologist
Surgical technologist

text: The precise titles, roles and requisites of allied health professionals may vary considerably from country to country.

text: Training and education[edit]

text: Some allied health professions are more specialized, and so must adhere to national training and education standards and their professional scope of practice. Often they must prove their skills through degrees, diplomas, certified credentials, and continuing education. Other allied health professions require no special training or credentials and are trained for their work by their employer through on-the-job training (which would then exclude them from consideration as an allied health profession in a country like Australia). Many allied health jobs are considered career ladder jobs because of the opportunities for advancement within specific fields.[3]

text: Allied health professions can include the use of many skills. Depending on the profession, these may include basic life support; medical terminology, acronyms and spelling; basics of medical law and ethics; understanding of human relations; interpersonal communication skills; counseling skills; computer literacy; ability to document healthcare information; interviewing skills; and proficiency in word processing; database management and electronic dictation.[4]

text: History[edit]

text: The explosion of scientific knowledge that followed World War II brought increasingly sophisticated and complex medical diagnostic and treatment procedures. Increasing public demand for medical services combined with higher health care costs provoked a trend toward expansion of service delivery from treating patients in hospitals to widespread provision of care in physician's private and group practices, ambulatory medical and emergency clinics, and mobile clinics and community-based care. In the developing world, international development assistance led to numerous initiatives for strengthening health workforce capacity to deliver essential health care services. What followed has been an increase in the need for skilled health care delivery personnel worldwide.

text: Changes in the health industry and emphasis on cost-efficient solutions to health care delivery will continue to encourage expansion of the allied health workforce. The World Health Organization estimates there is currently a worldwide shortage of about 2 million allied health professionals (considering all health workers aside from medical and nursing personnel) needed in order to meet global health goals.[5]

text: In recognition of the growth of the number and diversity of allied health professionals in recent years, the newly adopted 2008 version of the International Standard Classification of Occupations has increased the number of groups dedicated to allied health professions. Depending on the presumed skill level, they may either be identified as "health professionals" or "health associate professionals". For example, new categories have been created for delineating "paramedical practitioners"—grouping professions such as clinical officers, clinical associates, physician assistants, Feldshers, and assistant medical officers—as well as for community health workers; dietitians and nutritionists; audiologists and speech therapists; and others.[6]

text: Employment projections[edit]

text: Projections in the United States and many other countries have shown an expected long-term shortage of qualified workers to fill many allied health positions. This is primarily due to expansion of the health industry due to demographic changes (a growing and aging population), large numbers of health workers nearing retirement, the industry's need to be cost efficient, and a lack of sufficient investment in training programs to keep pace with these trends.[7][8]

text: Studies have also pointed to the need for increased diversity in the allied health workforce to realize a culturally competent health system in the United States[9] and elsewhere.

text: Workforce and health care experts anticipate that health services will increasingly be delivered via ambulatory and nursing care settings rather than in hospitals. According to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), the health care industry consists of three main sub-sectors, divided by the types of services provided at each facility:[10]

text:
Hospitals: primarily provides inpatient health services and may provide some outpatient services as a secondary activity.
Ambulatory health care settings: primarily provides outpatient services at facilities such as doctors' offices, outpatient clinics and clinical laboratories.
Nursing and residential care facilities: provides residential care, such as community care for the elderly or mental health and substance abuse facilities.

text: In the US, a larger proportion of the allied health care workforce is already employed in ambulatory settings. In California, nearly half (49.4 percent) of the allied health workforce is employed in ambulatory health care settings, compared with 28.7 percent and 21.9 percent employed in hospital and nursing care, respectively.[11] One source reported allied health professionals making up 60 percent of the total US health workforce.[12]

text: In the United Kingdom there are 12 distinct professions who are considered allied health professionals; in combination they account for about 6% of the NHS workforce. In 2013 the annual expenditure on services provided by allied health professionals amounted to around ₤2 billion, although there is a lack of evidence around the extent to which these services improve the quality of care.[13]

text: Advancements in medical technology also allow for more services that formerly required expensive hospital stays to be delivered via ambulatory care. For example, in California, research has predicted the total consumption of hospital days per person will decline from 4 days in 2010 to 3.2 days in 2020 to 2.5 days in 2030. In contrast, the number of ambulatory visits per person will increase from 3.2 visits per person in 2010 to 3.6 visits per person in 2020 to 4.2 visits in 2030.[14]

text: In developing countries, many national human resources for health strategic plans and international development initiatives are focusing on scaling up training of allied health professions, such as HIV/AIDS counsellors, clinical officers and community health workers, in providing essential preventive and treatment services in ambulatory and community-based care settings.[15]

text: With this growing demand for ambulatory health care, researchers expect to witness a heavier demand for professions that are employed within the ambulatory sector and other non-hospital settings—in other words, allied health.[16]


document_title: Congress of Vienna

question_text: who represented russia at the congress of vienna

text: Congress of Vienna

text: Preliminaries[edit]

text: The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814-15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades.[4] Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war".[5] The opening was scheduled for July 1814.[6]

text: Participants[edit]

text: The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.

text: Four Great Powers and Bourbon France[edit]

text: The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration:

text:
Austria was represented by Prince Metternich, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed.
The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the Duke of Wellington, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. In the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days.
Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.[7]
Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.
France, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) for Louis XVIII of France; the king, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.[8]

text: Other signatories of the Treaty of Paris, 1814[edit]

text: These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):

text:
Spain – Marquis Pedro Gómez de Labrador
Portugal – Plenipotentiaries: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela; António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo; Joaquim Lobo da Silveira.[9][10]
Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm

text: Others[edit]

text:
Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister.[11] King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna.
The Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court,[12][13] and Baron Hans von Gagern[14]
Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role.[15]
The Papal States – Cardinal Ercole Consalvi[16]
Republic of Genoa – Marquise Agostino Pareto, Senator of the Republic
On German issues,

Bavaria – Maximilian Graf von Montgelas
Württemberg – Georg Ernst Levin von Wintzingerode (de)
Hanover, then in a personal union with the British crown – Georg Graf zu Münster. (King George III had refused to recognize the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as Elector of Hanover to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the Kingdom of Hanover.)
Mecklenburg-Schwerin – Leopold von Plessen (de)[17]

text: Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress.[18] In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press.[19] The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke it did not move, but danced.[20]

text: Talleyrand's role[edit]

text: Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it,[21] once again abandoning his allies.

text: The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquis of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.[22]

text: Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget."[23] The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.

text: Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain.[24] Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna."[25] Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.[26]

text: Polish-Saxon crisis[edit]

text: The most dangerous topic at the Congress was the so-called Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would become king of Poland.[27] Austria was fearful this would make Russia much too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: Admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a secret treaty on 3 January 1815, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.[22]

text: When the tsar heard of the secret treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland, with the tsar as king ruling it independently of Russia. Russia, however, did not receive the province of Posen (Poznań), which was given to Prussia as the Grand Duchy of Posen, nor Kraków, which became a free city. Furthermore, the tsar was unable to unite the new domain with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony-later known as the Province of Saxony, with the remainder returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.

text: Final Act[edit]

text: The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (a few days before the Battle of Waterloo). Its provisions included:

text:
Russia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) and was allowed to keep Finland (which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and held until 1917).
Prussia was given three fifths of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (the Grand Duchy of Posen), Danzig, and the Rhineland/Westphalia.
A German Confederation of 39 states was created from the previous 300 of the Holy Roman Empire, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor. Only portions of the territory of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation.
The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approx. modern-day Belgium) were united in a monarchy, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange-Nassau providing the king (the Eight Articles of London).
To compensate for the Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were to form a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the German Confederation.[28]
Swedish Pomerania, given to Denmark a year earlier in return for Norway, was ceded by Denmark to Prussia. France received back Guadeloupe from Sweden in return for yearly installments to the Swedish king.
The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed.
Hanover gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to Denmark, but was enlarged by the addition of former territories of the Bishop of Münster and by the formerly Prussian East Frisia, and made a kingdom.
Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at Mainz.
Austria regained control of the Tyrol and Salzburg; of the former Illyrian Provinces; of Tarnopol district (from Russia); received Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden, and the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered.
Habsburg princes were returned to control of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena.
The Papal States were under the rule of the pope and restored to their former extent, with the exception of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, which remained part of France.
Britain was confirmed in control of the Cape Colony in Southern Africa; Tobago; Ceylon; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies and Martinique, were restored to their previous owners.
The King of Sardinia was restored in Piedmont, Nice, and Savoy, and was given control of Genoa (putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored Republic).
The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were given to Marie Louise, Napoleon's wife.
The Duchy of Lucca was created for the House of Bourbon-Parma, which would have reversionary rights to Parma after the death of Marie Louise.
The Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily was restored to control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the Neapolitan War by attacking Austria.
The slave trade was condemned.
Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably the Rhine and the Danube.

text: The Final Act was signed by representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain. Spain did not sign the treaty but ratified it in 1817.

text: Other changes[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795–1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria and Prussia.

text: Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on May 17, 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma).[29]

text: The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to the throne.[29]

text: A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for a couple of hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.

text: During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivença to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivença decreed in Article 105 of the Final Act, which stated that the Congress "understood the occupation of Olivença to be illegal and recognized Portugal's rights". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivença and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this question remains unresolved.[30][need quotation to verify] Great Britain received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris, Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands and the Seychelles.

text: Later criticism[edit]

text: The Congress of Vienna has frequently been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent.[1] It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the liberties and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized, so that a fair balance of power, peace and stability, might be achieved.[1]

text: In the 20th century, however, many historians came to admire the statesmen at the Congress, whose work prevented another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914). Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, A World Restored, on it. Historian Mark Jarrett argues that the Congress of Vienna and the Congress System marked "the true beginning of our modern era". He says the Congress System was deliberate conflict management, and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution."[2] Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium.[3] The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.

text: Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace.[31] Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia, Modena, Naples–Sicily, Parma, Piedmont–Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers.[32] Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.

text: The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years.[33] Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later.