document_title: U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)

question_text: when did the first football player take a knee

text: Meaning behind protesting the U.S. national anthem[edit]

text: It is a longstanding tradition in the United States to play The Star-Spangled Banner, the national anthem, before sporting events.[6] Those present should stand at attention with right hand over heart.[7][8] NFL players were not mandated to be on the field for the playing of the national anthem until 2009.[9] The NFL has stated that "players are encouraged but not required to stand during the playing of the National Anthem"; its game operations manual reads that players "should stand" for the anthem.[10]

text: Americans are divided on the intended meaning of the anthem. Some believe it salutes military and police officers who have died on duty; for others, it honors America generally.[6][11] Kaepernick and his 49er teammate Eric Reid say they choose to kneel during the anthem to call attention to the issues of racial inequality and police brutality. "After hours of careful consideration, and even a visit from Nate Boyer, a retired Green Beret and former NFL player, we came to the conclusion that we should kneel, rather than sit, ... during the anthem as a peaceful protest," said Reid. "We chose to kneel because it’s a respectful gesture. I remember thinking our posture was like a flag flown at half-mast to mark a tragedy."[12] Others believe that kneeling during the national anthem is an unacceptable way to draw attention to social issues and find it highly disrespectful to members of the military and police officers who have died or been wounded in service of the United States.[13]

text: Reasons for the protest and related charity[edit]

text: Criminal justice reform is one of the top issues that NFL players have been protesting.[14] Kaepernick was initially moved to protest by the deaths of African Americans by police actions or while in police custody that gained prominence through the Black Lives Matter movement and through general reporting in recent years.[15] During a post-game interview on August 26, 2016, he stated, "I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder", adding that he would continue to protest during the anthem until he feels like "[the American flag] represents what it's supposed to represent."[16][17]

text: After that interview, Kaepernick pledged to donate the first $1 million of his $11.9 million salary from the 2016–2017 season to different organizations that help communities in need.[18] He pledged to donate $100,000 per month for 10 months to various organizations.[19] Days later, the San Francisco 49ers matched Kaepernick by pledging $1 million to two organizations addressing racial and social inequality.[20] Kaepernick has been following through on his commitment and has donated $900,000 as of September 2017 to groups including Meals on Wheels, United We Dream, Black Veterans for Social Justice and many others.[21][22] Kaepernick has also held “Know Your Rights” camps for young people of color.[23] The camps include legal education from attorneys that give advice on how to interact with police when being detained and lectures from prominent academics on the history of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.[24][25] The NFL Player’s Union named Kaepernick the Week One MVP in September 2017 for his charity work related to the protest.[26]

text: Trump calls for firing protesting players[edit]

text: In September 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump, speaking at a rally in Huntsville, Alabama, said NFL owners should fire players who kneel during the national anthem, and encouraged fans to walk out. Trump advised NFL owners to say "Get that son of a bitch off the field right now, out, he's fired. He's fired!"[27] Trump called the players' protest "a total disrespect of our heritage."[28][29] He went on to say that new NFL safety rules meant to protect players from concussions are ruining the game.[30] His statement came after new research indicates NFL players are at high risk for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) due to the likelihood of multiple head injuries.[31]

text: Although 70 percent of NFL players were black,[32] Trump denied his criticism of the protesters was related to race. "This has to do with respect for our country and respect for our flag," he said.[33] In the games immediately following Trump's statements, the protest gained broader participation when over 200 players sat or kneeled during the anthem, others linked arms with their teammates or raised fists, and three teams chose to stay in the locker room for the anthem.[34][4][5][35] However, the response was more a reaction to Trump than Kaepernick's original protests of racial injustice.[35][36][37] Reasons cited by players, owners, and coaches included supporting freedom of speech and opposing what they considered intimidation by Trump.[35] Others said they took offense to Trump demeaning the integrity of their primarily African American colleagues, when a month earlier he had called some of the white nationalists who protested in Charlottesville, Virginia, "Very fine people".[38][39] The reaction to Trump's remarks overshadowed other ongoing issues his administration was facing, including failed attempts at healthcare reform, the primary election loss of Trump-backed candidate Luther Strange for the Alabama seat in the U.S. Senate, recovery efforts for Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico and Hurricane Harvey in Houston, and relations with North Korea over their nuclear and missile testing.[40]

text: NFL protests[edit]

text: 2016 preseason[edit]

text: Kaepernick began sitting during the national anthem at the start of the 2016 NFL preseason. His actions went unnoticed for two weeks before he was questioned by the media.[41] In the 49ers' final 2016 preseason game on September 1, 2016, after talking to Boyer, Kaepernick opted to kneel during the U.S. national anthem rather than sit as he did in their previous games. He explained his decision to switch was an attempt to show more respect to former and current U.S. military members while still protesting during the anthem. Reid joined Kaepernick in kneeling during the national anthem during the final preseason game.[42] Seattle Seahawks player Jeremy Lane also did not stand for the anthem during his final preseason game the same day, stating, "It's something I plan to keep on doing until justice is being served."[43]

text: 2016 season[edit]

text: In Week 1, eleven NFL players joined Kaepernick's protests.[44] Denver Broncos player Brandon Marshall knelt during the national anthem prior to the start of the Kickoff game, which was broadcast on NBC.[45] The act of kneeling as protest has been referred to as "taking a knee".[46][47][48] Kaepernick and Marshall were teammates at the University of Nevada.[45] On September 11, Kansas City Chiefs player Marcus Peters raised his fist while the rest of the team interlocked their arms showing solidarity.[49] Two members of the New England Patriots, Devin McCourty and Martellus Bennett, raised their fists on Sunday Night Football. The entire Seattle Seahawks team stood and interlocked arms.[50] Jelani Jenkins, Arian Foster, Kenny Stills, and Michael Thomas of the Miami Dolphins all kneeled during the National Anthem.[51] At the same time, a group of Jacksonville Jaguars players, led by cornerback Prince Amukamara, initially planned to join the protest but chose not to do so after photographs of Kaepernick wearing socks with a crude anti-police message during training camp were made public.[52]

text: On November 13, 2016, following the election of Donald Trump as the President-elect, Mike Evans wide-receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers decided to sit during the national anthem. According to Sports Illustrated, Evans said, "If this happens, then America's not right right now. I said this a long time ago. When he ran, I thought it was a joke, and the joke continues. I'm not a political person that much, but I got common sense. And I know when something's not right."[53] However, his protest began the day following Veterans Day, so he received criticism. He quickly changed his method of protesting and joined his teammates during the following game against the Kansas City Chiefs. He apologized to veterans and other members of the military for his actions – citing that the timing of his protest was poor. "On the field, I'm going to continue to do what I do – play hard. I'm playing hard because I've got this right – freedom, because of the vets. I'm going to reach out to organizations, organizations that I feel are doing the best job to help the minority ... women, LGBT, African Americans, Latinos, people that are in fear of Donald Trump and his presidency."[54]

text: 2017 season[edit]

text: Cleveland Browns tight end Seth DeValve became the first white football player to kneel or sit during the anthem on the team's August 21, 2017 preseason game against the New York Giants.[55]

text: In Week 3 of the season the majority of games were played two days after Trump made his statements.[56] The protest gained broader participation when over 200 players sat or kneeled during the anthem.[5][4][34] Many players, coaches and NFL teams protested and/or issued statements expressing dismay with Trump's comments:[57]

text:
Twenty-seven members of the Baltimore Ravens and Jacksonville Jaguars kneeled during the American National Anthem at their game at Wembley Stadium in London.[58] Retired Ravens star and honorary Team Captain Ray Lewis kneeled with members of his team.[59] All of the players stood for the British national anthem "God Save the Queen" with many remaining in locked arms.[60]
Several members of the Philadelphia Eagles raised their fists during the anthem before their game against the New York Giants. Before the same game, various Giants players stood with arms locked while others kneeled.[61]
The Seattle Seahawks and the Tennessee Titans did not take the field during the playing of the anthem, staying in their locker rooms until it concluded. The players of the Seahawks released a statement saying, "We will not stand for the injustice that has plagued people of color in this country. Out of love for our country and in honor of the sacrifices made on our behalf, we unite to oppose those that would deny our most basic freedoms."[57] Meghan Linsey, the Nashville singer who performed the anthem, kneeled when she completed the song.[62]
Before the opening of their game against the Houston Texans, various New England Patriots players and staff also expressed their concerns, including quarterback Tom Brady locking arms with Phillip Dorsett, and head coach Bill Belichick crossing his arms in front of him. Sixteen members of the Patriots kneeled during the anthem.[63] Patriots owner Robert Kraft said he was disappointed at the tone in which Trump's comments were made.[61]
Several members of the Miami Dolphins wore "#IMWITHKAP" T-shirts on the field during the pregame warmup, in support of Kaepernick's actions.[63] The team locked arms during the anthem, with five members kneeling. The opposing team, the New York Jets, also linked arms during the anthem.[64]
All Pittsburgh Steelers players except Alejandro Villanueva, who served as an Army Ranger, refused to leave the locker room during the anthem. On the sideline, the Chicago Bears players locked their arms while the anthem was performed.[65] Villanueva has since expressed regret for his actions.[66]
The majority of the Oakland Raiders either sat or knelt during the anthem, with several members of the opposing Washington Redskins either kneeling or joining arms as well.[67]
Thirty-two members of the Denver Broncos kneeled during the anthem.[68] At least ten members of the Buffalo Bills also kneeled during the anthem, while other team members locked arms.[69] Running back LeSean McCoy said "My message to him (Trump) is, be a president, be respectful, man. You know, us Americans, we are together. Stop trying to divide us."[70] McCoy performed stretches during the national anthem.
The Dallas Cowboys and Arizona Cardinals players locked arms during the anthem, while everyone on the Cowboys, including owner and general manager Jerry Jones, kneeled before the anthem was played.[71]
The New Orleans Saints established a plan with their team prior to their game against the Miami Dolphins on how they will handle the national anthem before the game. Drew Brees stood and stated the thoughts of his team as a whole by tweeting "As a way to show respect to all, our #Saints team will kneel in solidarity prior to the national anthem & stand together during the anthem."[72]
More than ten Indianapolis Colts and about 20 Cleveland Browns players kneeled on one knee while the remaining players locked arms during the playing of "The Star-Spangled Banner" in Indianapolis, Indiana which was met by boos from the crowd[clarification needed] at Lucas Oil Stadium.[73][74] Indiana is the home state of Vice President Mike Pence, who weeks later intentionally walked out of a Colts game against the 49ers.[75]

text: In Week 8 at Seattle, the majority of the Texans' players kneeled during the anthem after Houston owner Bob McNair had commented about having the "inmates running the prison" during a league owner meeting regarding the ongoing protest. McNair had apologized, stating that he was not referring to the players, but rather to the "relationship between the league office and team owners."[76][77] It was the first time a Texans' player had knelt during the anthem.[78]

text: Other athletes join[edit]

text: Soccer[edit]

text: Seattle Reign FC and U.S. women's national soccer team player Megan Rapinoe knelt during the national anthem in a game on September 5, 2016, explaining that her decision was a "nod to Kaepernick and everything that he's standing for right now".[79] In a subsequent match at the Washington Spirit, Spirit owner Bill Lynch – anticipating Rapinoe's protest – moved the national anthem's performance without warning or notice to occur before the players' appearances on the pitch. Jeff Plush, the league's commissioner, was present at the game and told reporters that he was unaware of Lynch's plans and disagreed with the act of moving the anthem's performance.[80] The Spirit's players issued a joint statement also disagreeing with Lynch's decision to move the anthem without first consulting the team's players or coaches.[81]

text: As a member of the U.S. women's national soccer team, Rapinoe also knelt before an international friendly match against Thailand on September 16, despite public statements of disagreement with her protest methods issued before the match by the U.S. Soccer Federation and her coach Jill Ellis.[82] U.S. Soccer proceeded to pass a policy that now requires all of its players to stand “respectfully” during the national anthem making it the first American sports league or governing body to do so.[83]

text: College[edit]

text: On September 7, 2016, three volleyball players from West Virginia Tech knelt during the national anthem.[84][85]

text: On October 1, at East Carolina University, about 19 members of the band kneeled, while about another two held the American flag during the national anthem at the beginning of the football game against the University of Central Florida.[86] There have been almost no such incidents involving college football players, for the simple reason that college players and coaches are typically in the locker room when the anthem is played. There has been at least one exception to the rule, however. During a September 2016 away game at Northwestern, where players are traditionally on the field during the anthem, three Nebraska players knelt on the sideline.[87][88] The NCAA football rule book does not address the issue of pregame ceremonies (patriotic or otherwise) at all, except to say that team captains must be present for a coin toss three minutes before the first-half kickoff.

text: High school[edit]

text: On September 2, 2016, a football player at Brunswick High School in Ohio knelt during the national anthem after he heard his teammates saying "nigger".[85] After his protest, the player received racial threats.[89] On September 9, high school players across the country knelt during the national anthem. On September 23, four players from Withrow High School, three black and one white, in Cincinnati knelt during the national anthem before their football game.[85]

text: In September 2017, Principal Waylon Bates of Parkway High School in Louisiana referred to the national anthem protests as a "disruption" and threatened to kick any player off of the football team if he knelt during the national anthem.[90] Two black students on the Victory & Praise Christian Academy football team protested during the anthem. Immediately after the anthem concluded, their coach removed them from the team, having them take off their uniforms on the sidelines.[91]

text: Baseball[edit]

text: On September 23, 2017, Bruce Maxwell of the Oakland Athletics knelt during the national anthem, becoming the first MLB player to join the protest. His team backed him up by saying, "The Oakland A's pride ourselves on being inclusive. We respect and support all of our players' constitutional rights and freedom of expression."[92][93] Maxwell received a standing ovation from A's fans before his first at-bat following his protest.[94]

text: Basketball[edit]

text: On September 24, 2017, prior to Game 1 of the 2017 WNBA Finals, players from the Los Angeles Sparks chose to stay in the locker room during the national anthem, while members of the Minnesota Lynx locked arms on the court.[95]

text: Ice hockey[edit]

text: On October 7, 2017, J. T. Brown of the Tampa Bay Lightning raised his fist while standing on the bench during the national anthem. He had also done the same in a preseason game, in an attempt to "bring awareness to police brutality against minorities and racial inequality."[96] He stated that he had "received death threats" after the protest.[97]

text: Reaction[edit]

text: The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Political figures[edit]

text: In September 2016, President Barack Obama stated that Kaepernick was "exercising his constitutional right" to protest. He went on: "I don't doubt his sincerity. I think he cares about some real, legitimate issues that have to be talked about. If nothing else, he's generated more conversation about issues that have to be talked about."[98]

text: Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg criticized the protest as "dumb and disrespectful," stating that athletes have the right to protest "if they want to be stupid." The Supreme Court later issued a statement from Ginsburg stating that her comments were "inappropriately dismissive and harsh. I should have declined to respond."[99]

text: On September 25, 2017, U.S. Representative Sheila Jackson Lee knelt on the floor of the House of Representatives.[100] Fellow congressman Mark Pocan kneeled on the floor of the House the next day.[101]

text: On October 8, 2017, Vice President Mike Pence left a game between the NFL's Indianapolis Colts and the San Francisco 49ers, members of which had knelt during the anthem, "because President Trump and I will not dignify any event that disrespects our soldiers, our Flag, or our National Anthem."[102]

text: Oklahoma senator James Lankford said Russian internet trolls, seeking to polarize Americans, helped fuel a debate.[103][104][105]

text: ”We watched, even this weekend, the Russians and their troll farms, their internet folks, start hashtagging out #TakeAKnee and also hashtagging out #BoycottNFL,” he said during a hearing on threats faced by the United States.“They were taking both sides of the argument this weekend ... to try to raise the noise level of America and make a big issue seem like an even bigger issue as they are trying to push divisiveness in this country.”

text: Corporations[edit]

text: Major sports sponsors Nike, Under Armour, and Ford all issued statements in support of athlete's freedom of expression after Trump's comments regarding the NFL. Nike's statement read, "Nike supports athletes and their right to freedom of expression on issues that are of great importance to our society.”[106] In September 2016, after Brandon Marshall knelt during the national anthem, Century Link and Air Academy Federal Credit Union dropped him as a paid sponsor.[107] Radio station WFAY dropped a broadcast of an East Carolina University football game on the station after the marching band took part in the protest, calling it an insult to the U.S. Armed Forces.[108] John Schnatter of sponsor Papa John's Pizza blamed the protests for a drop in sales and a 24% fall in stock during 2017, saying that the "controversy is polarizing the customer, polarizing the country."[109] Later that day, the company announced that the NFL shield or "official sponsor" designation on Papa John's commercials and advertising would be removed.[110] In December 2017 Sanderson Farms CEO questioned whether the NFL protests were to blame for falling chicken wing prices.[111]

text: Athletes and sports media[edit]

text: Throughout the remainder of the 2016 season, Kaepernick received public backlash for his protest, with an anonymous NFL executive calling Kaepernick "a traitor".[112] He also stated that he received death threats.[113]

text: Sportscaster Bob Costas offered support for Kaepernick stating, "Patriotism comes in many forms and what has happened is it's been conflated with a bumper-style kind of flag-waving and with the military only so that people cannot see that in his own way Colin Kaepernick, however imperfectly, is doing a patriotic thing."[114]

text: Trent Dilfer criticized Kaepernick. "The big thing that hit me through all this was this is a backup quarterback whose job is to be quiet, and sit in the shadows and get the starter ready to play Week 1," Dilfer said on Sunday NFL Countdown. "Yet he chose a time where all of a sudden he became the center of attention. And it has disrupted that organization. It has caused friction. And it's torn at the fabric of the team."[115]

text: The September 2016 police shootings of Terence Crutcher and Keith Lamont Scott bolstered support for his protest and concurrently silenced some critics.[116][better source needed] Kaepernick said of the Terence Crutcher shooting, "this is a perfect example of what this is about."[113] Boxer Floyd Mayweather, however, still criticized Kaepernick, stating, “You know, a lot of times, we get stuck, and we are followers. When you hear one person say ‘black lives matter’ or ‘blue lives matter,’ all lives matter.” Adding moments later, “With me being a fighter, and my hands being registered, if I hit a guy for breaking in my house, or breaking in my car, it’s gonna cost me more money, so I gotta work smarter, not harder. I’m gonna call the cops.”[117]

text: In August 2017, discussion continued. Baseball Hall of Famer Hank Aaron said, "I think he's getting a raw deal" from the NFL.[118] That same month, Pro Football Hall of Famer and longtime civil rights activist Jim Brown, who a year earlier supported Kaepernick "100 percent,"[119] now criticized him, suggesting Kaepernick ought to decide whether to be an athlete or an activist.[120] "I'm an American," said Brown. "I don't desecrate my flag and my national anthem. … This is my country, and I'll work out the problems, but I'll do it in an intelligent manner."[121]

text: Jim Harbaugh, Kaepernick's former coach, penned a strong statement of support for him as part of Time's "100 Most Influential People" series. Harbaugh wrote, "His willingness to take a position at personal cost is now part of our American story. How lucky for us all and for our country to have among our citizens someone as remarkable as Colin Kaepernick."[122]

text: NASCAR team owners Richard Petty and Richard Childress have supported Trump and said that they would fire drivers and employees who would not stand for the national anthem.[123] Petty said, "Anybody that don’t stand up for the anthem ought to be out of the country. Period." Childress said, "It’ll get you a ride on a Greyhound bus" if anyone on his team protested the anthem.[124] Driver Dale Earnhardt Jr., however, expressed support for the peaceful protests, quoting President John F. Kennedy, "Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable."[125] NASCAR released a statement on September 25 in response to the protests that said, "Sports are a unifying influence in our society, bringing people of differing backgrounds and beliefs together. Our respect for the national anthem has always been a hallmark of our pre-race events. Thanks to the sacrifices of many, we live in a country of unparalleled freedoms and countless liberties, including the right to peacefully express one’s opinion."[126]

text: Jemele Hill, an ESPN anchor who called Trump a "white supremacist" in a series of tweets earlier in the month, tweeted, "Just so we're clear: the president's comments will only incite more player protests, not quell them." following the Trump's initial response to the protests.[127][128] Hill was later put on a two-week suspension for "a second violation of our social media guidelines," after Hill suggested people direct their disagreements towards advertisers of Dallas Cowboys owner, Jerry Jones, after Jones stated he will bench any player who protested the national anthem on October 9, 2017.[129][130]

text: On September 25, 2017, Bill Russell posted a photo to Twitter while kneeling and wearing his Presidential Medal of Freedom.[131] On September 26, 2017, Joey Odoms, the national anthem singer for the home games of the Ravens, resigned citing the "tone/actions of a large number of NFL fans in the midst of our country's cultural crisis."[132]

text: Former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka commented, “If you don't respect our country, then you shouldn't be in this country playing football…So I would say, adios." He added that he was “not condemning anybody or criticizing anybody" in his remarks. According to Ditka, "there has been no oppression in the last 100 years that I know of.”[133]

text: Entertainment[edit]

text: Stevie Wonder knelt during the 2017 Global Citizen Festival on September 23, saying "Tonight, I'm taking a knee for America".[134]

text: Eddie Vedder, Pharrell Williams, Dave Matthews, John Legend and Roger Waters knelt to support the protests during concerts on September 24.[135] The same day Sonequa Martin-Green posted in her Instagram account a picture of several members from Star Trek: Discovery's cast alongside producer Akiva Goldsman and herself kneeling.[136] Shonda Rhimes posted a photo kneeling with the cast of Grey's Anatomy.[137]

text: Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny posted a photo on Twitter of themselves kneeling with arms locked on September 26.[138]


document_title: Land

question_text: how much area of the earth is covered with land

root

text: Land

text: Etymology and terminology[edit]

text: This section  possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The word 'land' is derived from Middle English land, lond and Old English land, lond (“earth, land, soil, ground; defined piece of land, territory, realm, province, district; landed property; country (not town); ridge in a ploughed field”), from Proto-Germanic *landą (“land”), and from Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ- (“land, heath”). Cognate with Scots land (“land”), West Frisian lân (“land”), Dutch land (“land”), German Land (“land, country, state”), Swedish land (“land, country, shore, territory”), Icelandic land (“land”). Non-Germanic cognates include Old Irish lann (“heath”), Welsh llan (“enclosure”), Breton lann (“heath”), Old Church Slavonic lędо from Proto-Slavic *lenda (“heath, wasteland”) and Albanian lëndinë (“heath, grassland”) from lëndë (“matter, substance”).

tag: p

text: A continuous area of land surrounded by ocean is called a "landmass". Although it may be most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage "land mass"—the measure of land area—it is also used as two words. Landmasses include supercontinents, continents, and islands. There are four major continuous landmasses on Earth: Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, Antarctica and Australia. Land, capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops, is called arable land.[2] A country or region may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its people. Many countries and other places have names incorporating -land (e.g. New Zealand).

text: History of land on Earth[edit]

text: The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 7017144129870720000♠4.5672±0.0006 bya (billion years ago);[3] therefore, the Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. By 7017143271504000000♠4.54±0.04 bya,[4] the primordial Earth had formed. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disc, which the planets then grow out of in tandem with the star. A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust (including primordial nuclides). In nebular theory, planetesimals commence forming as particulate matter accrues by cohesive clumping and then by gravity. The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 10–7014631152000000000♠20 myr.[5]

text: Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, proto-planets, and comets.[6] In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at 70% luminosity.[7] By 7017110451600000000♠3.5 bya, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[8] The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface.[9]

text: The crust, which currently forms the Earth's land, was created when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid mass as the accumulated water vapor began to act in the atmosphere. Once land became capable of supporting life, biodiversity evolved over hundreds of million years, expanding continually except when punctuated by mass extinctions.[10]

text: The two models[11] that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms[12] or, more likely, a rapid growth[13] early in Earth history[14] followed by a long-term steady continental area.[15][16][17] Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly 7016236682000000000♠750 mya (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–7016170411040000000♠540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart 7015568036800000000♠180 mya.[18]

text: Land mass[edit]

text: "Land mass" refers to the total surface area of the land of a geographical region or country (which may include discontinuous pieces of land such as islands). It is written as two words to distinguish it from the usage "landmass", the contiguous area of land surrounded by ocean. Earth's total land mass is approximately 148,939,063.133 km2 (57,505,693.767 sq mi) which is about 29.2% of its total surface. Water covers approximately 70.8% of Earth's surface, mainly in the form of oceans and ice formations.[19]

text:
Land Cover[20][21] (million ha = 10 000 km2)

FAO code

type[22]

1992

2001

2015

share

change fm 92

note

[6970]

Artificial surfaces (including urban and associated areas)

26.04

34.33

55.40

0.37%

29.35

[6971]

Herbaceous crops

1,716.22

1,749.58

1,712.15

11.50%

-4.06

Arable land

[6972]

Woody crops

162.86

181.32

199.90

1.34%

37.04

Arable land

[6973]

Multiple or layered crops

Arable land

[6974]

Tree-covered areas

4,434.92

4,393.70

4,335.00

29.11%

-99.93

large decrease

[6975]

Mangroves

18.06

18.39

18.74

0.13%

0.67

[6976]

Shrub-covered areas

1,685.00

1,669.65

1,627.34

10.93%

-57.66

large decrease

[6977]

Shrubs and/or herbaceous vegetation, aquatic or regularly flooded

202.61

194.77

185.39

1.24%

-17.23

[6978]

Sparsely natural vegetated areas

891.78

878.69

868.07

5.83%

-23.71

[6979]

Terrestrial barren land

2,001.25

2,000.87

1,884.00

12.65%

-117.25

large decrease

[6980]

Permanent snow and glaciers

78.59

84.32

84.29

0.57%

5.70

[6981]

Inland water bodies

432.60

435.00

444.57

2.98%

11.97

[6982]

Coastal water bodies and intertidal areas

[6983]

Grassland

1,793.65

1,806.50

1,801.14

12.09%

7.50

Total Land Mass

14,893.91

100%

text: Cultural perspectives[edit]

text: Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the world by a supernatural deity or deities, including accounts wherein the land is separated from the oceans and the air. The Earth itself has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures, the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. To the Aztecs, Earth was called Tonantzin—"our mother"; to the Incas, Earth was called Pachamama—"mother earth". The Chinese Earth goddess Hou Tu[23] is similar to Gaia, the Greek goddess personifying the Earth. Bhuma Devi is the goddess of Earth in Hinduism, influenced by Graha. In Norse mythology, the Earth giantess Jörð was the mother of Thor and the daughter of Annar. Ancient Egyptian mythology is different from that of other cultures because Earth (Geb) is male and sky (Nut) is female.

text: In the past, there were varying levels of belief in a flat Earth. The Jewish conception of a flat earth is found in both biblical and post-biblical times.[note 1][neutrality is disputed][note 2][neutrality is disputed]

text: In early Egyptian[24] and Mesopotamian thought, the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the ocean. The Egyptian universe was pictured as a rectangular box with a north-south orientation and with a slightly concave surface, with Egypt in the center. A similar model is found in the Homeric account of the 8th century BC in which "Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the begetter of all life and possibly of all gods."[25] The biblical earth is a flat disc floating on water.[26]

text: The Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts reveal that the ancient Egyptians believed Nun (the ocean) was a circular body surrounding nbwt (a term meaning "dry lands" or "islands"), and therefore believed in a similar Ancient Near Eastern circular Earth cosmography surrounded by water.[27][28][29]

text: The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers, a belief espoused by Pythagoras. Contrary to popular belief, most people in the Middle Ages did not believe the Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "Myth of the Flat Earth". As evidenced by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, the European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread by this point in time.[30] Prior to circumnavigation of the planet and the introduction of space flight, belief in a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets.[31]

text: Extraterrestrial land[edit]

text: Most planets known to humans are either gaseous Jovian planets or solid terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These inner planets have a rocky surface with metal interiors.[32] The Jovian planets consist of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. While these planets are larger, their only land surface is a small rocky core surrounded by a large, thick atmosphere.[33] The gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to have surface layers composed of liquid hydrogen rather than solid land; however, their planetary geology is not well understood. The possibility of Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) possessing hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their thick atmospheres has been hypothesised.  While their composition is still not fully understood, a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz et al. ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean" existing on Neptune,[34] though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of liquid diamond are possible.[35] The entire surface of a rocky planet or moon is considered land, even with a lack of seas or oceans for contrast. Planetary bodies that have a thin atmosphere often have land that is marked by impact craters since atmospheric conditions would normally break-down incoming objects and erode rough impact sites.[36] Land on planetary bodies other than Earth can also be bought and sold although ownership of extraterrestrial real estate is not recognized by any authority.[37]

text: Land and climate[edit]

text: The land of the Earth interacts with and influences climate heavily since the surface of the land heats up and cools down faster than air or water.[38] Latitude, elevation, topography, reflectivity, and land use all have varying effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much solar radiation reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes.[38] The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and precipitation on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat.[38] As air rises, this cooling effect causes condensation and precipitation. Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary albedo and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected or transferred to Earth.[39] Vegetation has a relatively low albedo meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun’s energy. Forests have an albedo of 10–15% while grasslands have an albedo of 15–20%. In comparison, sandy deserts have an albedo of 25–40%.[39] Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.[38]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The picture of the universe in Talmudic texts has the Earth in the center of creation with heaven as a hemisphere spread over it. Biblical writings, such as the Genesis creation story and the various Psalms that extol the firmament, the stars, the sun, and the earth, give similar explanations. The Hebrews saw the earth as an almost flat surface consisting of a solid and a liquid part and the sky as the realm of light in which heavenly bodies move. The earth rested on cornerstones and could not be moved except by Jehovah (as in an earthquake). According to the Hebrews, the sun and the moon were only a short distance from one another. "Cosmology." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online, 2012. Author: Giorgio Abetti, Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri-Firenze.

Jump up ^ The Earth is usually described as a disk encircled by water. Cosmological and metaphysical speculations were not to be cultivated in public nor were they to be committed to writing. Rather, they were considered to be "secrets of the Torah not to be passed on to all and sundry" (Ketubot 112a). While study of God's creation was not prohibited, speculations about "what is above, what is beneath, what is before, and what is after" (Mishnah Hagigah: 2) were restricted to the intellectual elite. (Topic Overview: Judaism, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Ed. J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen. Vol. 2. New York: Macmillan Reference, 2003. pp. 477–483. Hava Tirosh-Samuelson).

tag: ol


document_title: Australian of the Year

question_text: when is the australian of the year announced

text: Australian of the Year

text: History[edit]

text: Since 1960 the award for the Australian of the Year has been bestowed as part of the celebrations surrounding Australia Day (26 January), during which time it has grown steadily in significance to become one of the nation's pre-eminent awards. The Australian of the Year announcement has become a notable part of the annual Australia Day celebrations. The official announcement has grown to become a public event, and the Canberra ceremony is televised nationally. The award offers an insight into Australian identity, reflecting the nation's evolving relationship with world, the role of sport in Australian culture, the impact of multiculturalism, and the special status of Indigenous Australians. It has also provoked spirited debate about the fields of endeavour that are most worthy of public recognition.

text: The award program promotes active citizenship and seeks to elevate certain people as role models. Three companion awards have been introduced, recognising both Young and Senior Australians, and proclaiming the efforts of those who work at a grass roots level through the "Australia's Local Hero" award.

text: Sponsorship[edit]

text: The Australian of the Year award receives substantial sponsorship from private companies, including a relationship in excess of thirty years with the Commonwealth Bank of Australia. The close relationship with the Australian Government ensures that the award's profile and reputation is significantly enhanced.

text: Awards history, by decade[edit]

text: During the 1960s, a network of state-based organisations worked hard to increase the profile of Australia Day. The most active and best resourced of these was the Victorian Australia Day Council, which had grown out of the Australian Natives' Association. In January 1960 the council's chairman, the unabashed patriot Sir Norman Martin, announced the introduction of a new annual award for the 'Australian of the Year'. He explained that Australia Day was a fitting occasion on which to give proper recognition to a leading citizen, whose contribution to the nation's culture, economy, sciences or arts was particularly outstanding.

text: For the first two decades the Australian of the Year was chosen by a panel of five, which included the Victorian Premier, the Anglican Archbishop of Melbourne, the Vice-Chancellor of Melbourne University, the Lord Mayor of Melbourne and the President of the National Council for Women. Although the panel was certainly distinguished, it would in time become too closely associated with Melbourne to be appropriate for a national award. The panel's first choice of Nobel Prize winning immunologist Sir Macfarlane Burnet gained general approval. The editors of The Age proclaimed the new honour was symptomatic of Australia's growing confidence as a nation: 'We are beginning to count for something in the world and we should be intensely proud of this fact.'[1][2]

text: International achievement remained a key criterion during the award's first decade. Several sporting heroes were honoured, from America's Cup skipper Jock Sturrock and swimmer Dawn Fraser, to world champion motor racer Sir Jack Brabham and boxer Lionel Rose. The pioneering neurologist Sir John Eccles followed Burnet's example, becoming the second of five Australians to take out the Nobel Prize/Australian of the Year double. Achievers in the artistic realm were also well represented, including opera singer Joan Sutherland, renowned dancer and choreographer Robert Helpmann and the four members of the chart-topping singing group The Seekers – Judith Durham, Athol Guy, Keith Potger and Bruce Woodley. The focus on international achievement reflected the philosophy of the award organisers, who described the Australian of the Year as 'the person who has brought the greatest honour to Australia in the year under review.'[3]

text: 1970s and 1980s[edit]

text: During its first two decades, the Australian of the Year award grew steadily in national prominence, but it increasingly suffered from its close association with the Victorian Australia Day Council. A competing Australian of the Year award was established by newspaper The Australian in 1971.[4] In 1975 the newly formed Canberra Australia Day Council also began to name a rival Australian of the Year. The Canberra council was run by a vibrant group of local inhabitants, who pursued a more progressive agenda than their Victorian counterparts. In particular, the Canberra council was sympathetic to the emerging republican movement, while the Victorian council was staunchly committed to constitutional ties with Britain. The Victorian council also battled a common perception that it was an exclusive organisation that represented the Melbourne Establishment. Australia's turbulent political climate nourished this division and the Australian of the Year award was embroiled in a wider debate about Australian nationalism.

text: Between 1975 and 1979, the Canberra Australia Day Council named four Australians of the Year. Prime Minister Gough Whitlam lent his support to the Canberra award when he presented the inaugural honour to Major General Alan Stretton, the commander of the emergency response to Cyclone Tracy. The Canberra council also made good use of the federal parliamentary press boxes to promote its award to the national media. The Victorian council was singularly unimpressed that a rival Australia Day organisation had copied its idea – in 1977 it described its own winner, Dame Raigh Roe, as 'the real Australian of the Year'. The impasse was only resolved when the Fraser Government created the National Australia Day Council (NADC) in 1979. The Victorian council willingly transferred responsibility for its award to the new national body, while the Canberra council agreed to discontinue its rival program. In 1982, the Victorian council was further sidelined when that state's Australian Labor Party government led by John Cain created a new Victorian Australia Day Committee within the Premier's Department, which joined the NADC's official national network.

text: The NADC made immediate changes to the selection process, appointing an independent panel of ten leading Australians from diverse fields. Despite this rigorous approach, the panel's first choice of historian Manning Clark did not please conservative politicians, as Clark had been critical of the Fraser Government's social policy. If nothing else, the controversy was a clear sign that the award had become a prominent and valued feature of the Australia Day celebrations. In time the selection of the annual winner fell to the board of the NADC itself, whose members are appointed by the Prime Minister of the day. Former NADC chairman Phillip Adams recalls that heated debates were common. Typically the Australian of the Year was chosen at a special two-day board meeting, which Adams likened to the election of a Pope: 'We would go into conclave, there would be lots of hot air, then a puff of smoke.'[5]

text: The Australian has continued to publish its own annual award, which sometimes coincides with the choice of the National Australia Day Council.[6]

text: During the 1980s, there was an expectation that corporate sponsorship would replace Government funding and that the NADC would become self-sufficient. The list of former Australians of the Year provides circumstantial evidence of this shift towards a more popular imperative. Economist Sir John Crawford and judge Sir Edward Williams thoroughly deserved their awards, but were perhaps not well placed to promote the importance of Australia Day to mainstream Australia, or to secure corporate sponsorship for the NADC. Subsequent winners included marathon runner Robert de Castella, comedian and actor Paul Hogan, singer John Farnham and cricketer Allan Border, who were far more likely to attract public attention. In 1988, the editor of The Sydney Morning Herald expressed concern at this development: 'One worrying trend with the award is its attachment to ratings. This year's candidates appear to have been people who held high public profiles.'[7] Yet the steadily rising numbers of nominations indicated that the award was capturing the public imagination.

text: During the 1990s, the Australian of the Year award intersected noticeably with the politics of national identity. In its attempt to encourage unified national celebrations, the NADC was a strong promoter of both multiculturalism and reconciliation. The council was also linked to the growing republican movement and the campaign to change the national flag. Australians of the Year in this period included Yothu Yindi lead singer and prominent aboriginal identity Mandawuy Yunupingu; environmentalist and republican Ian Kiernan; and Chinese-Australian paediatrician John Yu. Yunupingu's award continued a strong tradition of honouring Indigenous Australians. The first Aboriginal winner was boxer Lionel Rose, who quipped: "One hundred and eighty-two years ago one of my mob would have been a dead cert' for this."[8] Since then a further seven Indigenous people have been named Australian of the Year, for achievements in sport, music, politics, law, public service and academia. Many have played a role in Indigenous advocacy and some have raised concerns about the celebration of Australia Day on 26 January, most notably the 1985 recipient Lowitja O'Donoghue.

text: Prior to 1994 the award was given for the outstanding Australian of the previous year; that is, the 1992 Australian of the Year was announced on Australia Day in 1993. From 1994 onward the award became one for the year ahead, so that the 1994 Australian of the Year was announced on Australia Day in 1994. This resulted in there being no Australian of the Year for 1993.[9]

text: 2000s onwards[edit]

text: Debates about the Australian of the Year award often revolve around the relative balance between sport, science and the arts. Fourteen winners have excelled in sports as diverse as cricket, swimming, athletics, sailing, tennis, boxing and motor racing. A recurring criticism that sport features too regularly peaked in 2004, when Steve Waugh was the fourth sporting winner in seven years and the third Test Cricket Captain to be honoured. Despite the perception of an over-emphasis on sport, the list of past winners reveals a strong endorsement for scientific achievement; by 2009 thirteen Australian scientists have received the honour, including a remarkable ten from the medical sciences. A long-term view also reveals that Australia's talented artists have not been neglected; ten winners have excelled in creative pursuits, including six musicians, a dancer, a painter, a comedian and a Nobel Prize winning novelist.

text: Many Australians of the Year do not fit neatly into categories such as sport, science and the arts. Phillip Adams once described the past winners as "an eclectic collection of people who reflect the diversity of achievement in this country".[10] Australians of the Year have also excelled in public administration, the military, social and community work, business enterprise, academia, religious leadership and philanthropy. There has been relatively little public debate about the gender balance of past winners. In 1961 several news outlets incorrectly referred to Sir Macfarlane Burnet as 'Man of the Year'; the mistake was not allowed to continue, as Joan Sutherland took out the second award, but it is certainly true that women are under-represented. By 2009, 11 winners out of a total of 56 were women.

text: In 2016, Miranda Devine of The Daily Telegraph criticised the selection process, with the national selection panel having to choose from the eight candidates appointed by variously-structured, state-based selection panels. Devine also said, "the award, which ought to reflect and unite this great nation, has evolved into a mere plaything of social engineers", noting also that three of the eight finalists were jointly involved in the same events.[11][12] Concern was also been raised as to how a person who has not lived in a state "for 40-something years" (Cate McGregor) could be nominated as that state's representative.[13] Following criticism of both the award process and of the priorities of the 2016 recipient David Morrison, an editorial in The Sydney Morning Herald said, "The Herald knows the selection board will look closely at the 2016 process and work to improve public confidence in the awards in time for a better Australia Day in 2017".[14]

text: While the selection of a single Australian of the Year is bound to stimulate debate, the awards program as a whole recognises a much wider range of achievement. In 1979 the NADC named its first 'Young Australian of the Year', community service volunteer Julie Sochacki. Twenty years later the veteran country music star Slim Dusty received the inaugural 'Senior Australian of the Year' award. In 2003 the NADC introduced an award for 'Australia's Local Hero', which honours outstanding contributions to local communities. With four award categories and a system of state and national finals, the NADC now recognises a total of 128 inspiring Australian role models every year.

text: Young Australian of the Year[edit]

text: For the first twenty years of the Australian of the Year Awards there was no specific honour reserved for younger Australians. Nevertheless, in this period several young sports stars won the main award, including Dawn Fraser, Shane Gould, Lionel Rose and Evonne Goolagong. Gould remains the youngest person to be named Australian of the Year.

text: Shortly after the formation of the NADC in October 1979, the Northern Territory representative Dr. Ella Stack convinced her fellow board members to introduce a new award that focussed specifically on the achievements of younger Australians. The inaugural winner, youth unemployment worker Julie Sochacki, was named Young Australian of the Year in January 1980. The NADC coordinated the announcement with the Victorian Australia Day Council, which chose the Australian of the Year for the last time. The following year, the NADC assumed responsibility for both awards.

text: Senior Australian of the Year[edit]

text: The Senior Australian of the Year award initially had no connection with the NADC. When the United Nations declared 1999 the 'International Year of Older Persons,' the Minister for Aged Care Bronwyn Bishop approached National Seniors Australia with a plan to increase the prominence of the award. The Department of Health and Ageing took over responsibility for the program and Prime Minister John Howard presented the award to veteran country music star Slim Dusty in October 1999. Bishop arranged for the NADC to administer the program on behalf of the Department of Health and Ageing, but the award continued to be presented in October, with no discernible link to Australia Day. Three years later the NADC streamlined its awards programs. The council was running three separate awards, as even the Young Australian of the Year was announced earlier in January and had a separate nominations process. The Senior Australian of the Year announcement moved from October to January (skipping 2002 altogether) and joined the other two awards. By integrating the various programs, the NADC increased the prominence of the companion awards by announcing them at the same function as the Australian of the Year. Since then, many remarkable Senior Australians have been honoured on a national stage on Australia Day Eve.

text: Australia's Local Hero[edit]

text: As the status of the Australian of the Year award grew, it became more common for critics to call for lesser-known winners whose achievements were not otherwise recognised. The NADC was certainly not dismissive of this view.

text: In 2003, the NADC addressed the issue by introducing a fourth award category known as the 'Local Hero Award'. The new award was part of a shift in thinking at the NADC towards the key goal of promoting good citizenship. It provides an important national forum for acknowledging those who work for the benefit of their fellow citizens.

text: Choosing the winners[edit]

text: The process of choosing the Australian of the Year has evolved considerably over half a century, including both the make-up of the selection committee and the system of nominations. In the 1960s Sir Norman Martin usually insisted that the decision of the small Victorian selection committee was unanimous. If this is true, then it is in stark contrast to the selection process in the 1990s, when Phillip Adams recalls that heated debates were common. In 1980 the NADC had formed an independent panel to decide the award, but eventually the selection fell to the NADC board itself. Typically the matter was considered at a special two-day board meeting, which Adams likened to the election of a new Pope: 'We would go into conclave, there would be lots of hot air, then a puff of smoke.'[5][15]

text: The most significant change in the selection procedure has been expansion of the nomination process. In the 1960s and 1970s, the committee usually chose the winner from a relatively small list of nominees; for example, in 1971 Evonne Goolagong edged out only 18 other nominees.[16] At a meeting in 1982, the directors of the NADC and its state based affiliates identified low nominee numbers as a cause for concern.[17] The problem persisted and board members were regularly encouraged to spread the word and encourage nominations.[18] A public relations report commissioned in 1989 recommended greater community involvement in the nominations process: 'Allow the "ordinary" citizens of Australia a chance to vote for, or in some way have a say in, who should be Australian of the Year.'[19] During the 1990s glossy brochures calling for nominations were distributed well in advance of the awards deadline.

text: More recently, the NADC has realised that the nominations process is important not only to the integrity of its various awards, but is also a crucial means of engaging with the Australian community. In 2004 NADC Chair Lisa Curry-Kenny proudly reported that nominations had doubled from the previous year: 'This is a key indication that increasing numbers of Australians of all walks of life are actively engaging with the awards program.'[20] Public interest in the awards serves a much broader purpose, as NADC Chief Executive Warren Pearson explains: 'The awards program is not primarily about choosing four national recipients; it is about engaging with Australians about citizenship.'[21] The introduction of the Local Hero award was directed towards this goal, as were various other changes made in 2004. Most importantly, the NADC introduced a new selection process based around state finals. This approach meant a more prominent role for the state-based Australia Day councils and committees, which now oversee the selection of the finalists and host official functions to announce the contenders in November each year. The NADC board now only chooses between the eight state and territory finalists in each category and organises the national announcement in January.

text: Statistical profiles[edit]

text: Award by category

text:
1960–69
1970–79
1980–89
1990–99
2000–09
2010–19
Total

Science (Non-medical)
1
2
0
0
2
1
6

Arts
3
2
2
1
1
1
10

Medical Science
1
0
0
3
3
2
9

Indigenous affairs
0
2
1
1
1

5

Religion
0
1
0
1
0

2

Community Service
0
1
0
1
0
2
4

Politics/Public office
1
1
1
0
0

3

Sport
4
2
3
2
2
1
14

Non-science academic
0
0
2
0
0

2

Military service
0
2
0
0
1

3

Business
0
1
1
0
0
2
4

text: Award by gender

text:
1960–69
1970–79
1980–89
1990–99
2000–09
2010–19
Total

Female
2
3
2
1
2
3
13

Male
7
11
8
8
8
6
48

text: Contemporary governance[edit]

text: The NADC's mission statement demonstrates how the awards program fits its wider purpose:

text: The National Australia Day Council works with and for the people and government of Australia to:

text:
Unite all Australians through celebration with a focus on Australia Day;
Promote the meaning of Australia Day through activity, education, reflection, discussion and debate; and
Promote good citizenship, values and achievement by recognising excellence and service to the communities and the nation.[22]

tag: ul

text: The third of these aims is predominantly addressed through the Australian of the Year Awards, which offer a high-profile moment for the celebration of outstanding achievement. The awards greatly assist the NADC in its central task, which is aptly summarised by its Chief Executive Warren Pearson: 'On 26 January each year, the National Australia Day Council encourages Australians to celebrate what's great about Australia and being Australian.'.[23]

text: Selection criteria[edit]

text: There has also been a significant shift in the criteria for the Australian of the Year award in fifty years. Initially the focus was on awarding the person who had 'brought the greatest honour to Australia'.[24] This emphasis on international acclaim was gradually relaxed and Australian-based achievement was recognised more often from the 1970s onwards. The official criteria have usually been suitably broad in their scope, so changes in approach are largely attributable to the membership of the NADC board and the political climate of the time. In the mid-1980s there was a notable shift towards high-profile winners, while in the 1990s some of those honoured reflected the prominent political issues of republicanism and reconciliation. Currently, the selection committees refer to three main criteria when considering nominees:

text:
Demonstrated excellence in their field;
Significant contribution to the Australian community and nation; and
An inspirational role model for the Australian community.

text: The third of these criteria supports the NADC's key goal of encouraging good citizenship.

text: Announcements[edit]

text: During the 1960s and 1970s, the Australian of the Year award was presented at Melbourne's Australia Day Luncheon, which was held in either the Town Hall or the Royale Ballroom. The winner was usually announced about two weeks earlier at a function that provided an opportunity to promote the upcoming Australia Day celebrations. This event was a public relations exercise that attempted to capture the imagination of the media and the nation, but in 1966 a journalist from The Age did not follow the script, preferring to poke fun at the stage-managed event:[25]

text: The patriotic tension in the boardroom on the 8th floor of the Australian Natives' Association building in Elizabeth Street yesterday morning was being stretched to breaking point. From four corners of the room hung Australian flags. At the Head of the long boardroom table sat Sir Norman Martin, chairman of the Australia Day Council. ...

text: There had been intense speculation earlier as to what the "special uniformed messenger" would be wearing when he arrived bearing a sealed envelope containing the Australian of the Year decision. ... He was made to walk from the lift door to Sir Norman twice to satisfy other television cameramen, until, rather thankfully, he at last handed the envelope over.

text: It was somehow an anticlimax when Sir Norman demanded: "Do you bear a message from the Premier?"

text: Since the 1960s, the annual announcement has become progressively more sophisticated. After the NADC took over in 1980 it usually presented the award at an Australia Day concert, which moved around the nation and was often televised. In the 1990s an Australia Day breakfast at Admiralty House in Sydney was the usual venue for the announcement, but more recently the concert has been revived and is held in the national capital.

text: A highly memorable Australian of the Year function occurred in 1994, when the guest of honour was Charles, Prince of Wales. The Australian of the Year, environmentalist Ian Kiernan, sat on the stage after receiving his award, when a gunshot was heard and an assailant rushed toward Prince Charles. Kiernan jumped to his feet and wrestled the intruder to the ground with the assistance of New South Wales Premier John Fahey. Kiernan later recalled: 'the Premier and I lay on the stage, panting as the adrenaline began to flow, and wondering what to do next.'[26] As it turned out, the man was armed only with a toy cap pistol, but the incident was a serious security breach and somewhat upstaged Kiernan's award.

text: Since 2004 the award presentation has been held on Australia Day Eve in Canberra. The 32 finalists enjoy an eventful day including morning tea with the Prime Minister at The Lodge, and lunch with the Governor General at Yarralumla. The winners are announced on a specially erected stage in front of Parliament House, witnessed by a crowd of thousands and a national television audience. Specially produced video packages describe the winners in each of the four categories. The scale of the event displays a marked contrast to Sir Norman Martin's modest press conferences of the 1960s.

text: Medallions and trophies[edit]

text: The various medallions and trophies that have been presented to the Australians of the Year over fifty years are, in themselves, an interesting insight into changing understandings of what it means to be Australian. Reflecting his lofty ambitions for the new award, Sir Norman Martin announced a 'worldwide competition' to design the inaugural trophy in 1960.[27] Sir Norman hoped to attract entries from the world's finest artists, but the eventual winner was Victor Greenhalgh, the head of the Arts School at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. Greenhalgh designed a bronze medallion, which reflected the prevailing mood as to the importance of Australia Day: its most prominent feature was a likeness of Governor Arthur Phillip, who was described on the medal as 'The Outstanding Australian [of] 1788.'[28] In 1961. The Age reported that Sir Macfarlane Burnet was anxious when a photographer asked him to display the medallion at the awards ceremony: 'The nervous scientist, whose hand with a pipette would be as steady as a rock, fumbled the medal and dropped it under the table.'[1]

text: Greenhalgh's bronze medallion was presented to winners of the Victorian-based Australian of the Year award for two decades. When the NADC assumed responsibility in 1980, it apparently overlooked the issue of a trophy, so Manning Clark received a framed certificate. For the 1986 award to Dick Smith, the NADC commissioned artist Michael Tracey to produce a more appropriate trophy, which the council described in its journal Australia Day Update: 'The trophy, symbolising achievement, incorporates a figure holding the Australian flag. The figure is made from steel and the lettering is in pewter.'[29] In the bicentenary year Tracey was asked to cast his trophy in bronze instead of steel.

text: In the early 1990s the NADC commissioned glass sculptor Warren Langley to create a new trophy based on the updated Australia Day logo. NADC chairman Phillip Adams had been criticised for removing the Australian flag from the logo and replacing it with a hand reaching for a star.[30] After Adams resigned his position in 1996, the NADC asked Langley to produce an alternative trophy, which featured a map of Australia.[31]

text: Melbourne-based artist Kristin McFarlane designed the current Australian of the Year trophy in 2004.[32] Like Langley, McFarlane works with glass, but she is also trained as a graphic designer; she combines both text and images and sets them in kilned glass to produce striking works of art. The task of designing a new trophy prompted McFarlane to think more deeply about national identity than she had before: 'It made me look at Australian identity and think about what was an Australian? Who is the archetypal Australian?' She quickly realised that an image of one person, or even a group of people, would not work, and that her images needed to be generic. She decided to use a map of Australia: 'It is one of the oldest continents in the world and it is a very recognisable form for anyone who lives here.'[33] McFarlane also chose to use the text of the Australian national anthem "Advance Australia Fair", but gave particularly prominence to the lesser-known second verse.

text: Australians of the Year Walk[edit]

text: The "Australians of the Year Walk" in Canberra was designed by the National Capital Authority[34] and comprises a series of plinths, seats and lighting. Incorporated in the pathway are five metal strips set flush in the concrete, representing the five music stave lines. The plinths are placed in musical note position to the score of the national anthem "Advance Australia Fair". Fixed to each plinth is an anodised aluminium plaque containing the names and images of an Australian of the Year, there is one plaque for each year of the award. The plaques are arranged chronologically, starting at the western end of the path near Commonwealth Avenue Bridge. The lake side is bordered by white paving stones, the land side by a white paved walkway.

text: The Walk is situated along a straight section of shoreline on Lake Burley Griffin between the National Library of Australia and the Commonwealth Avenue Bridge (35°17′42″S 149°07′44″E / 35.295°S 149.129°E / -35.295; 149.129 (Australians of the Year Walk)Coordinates: 35°17′42″S 149°07′44″E / 35.295°S 149.129°E / -35.295; 149.129 (Australians of the Year Walk)).

text: The Walk was opened by the then Prime Minister of Australia John Howard, on Australia Day, 26 January 2006.

text: In December 2007 journalist Mark McKenna visited the Australian of the Year Walk and interpreted it as a highly symbolic form of national memorial. The empty bollards stretching into the distance particularly intrigued him.[35]

text: These blank plaques – memorials to the future – stand as if waiting for the years to pass before they can be filled in and become whole. Yet strangely they seem more intriguing than the plaques that precede them. It is possible to imagine the line of blank plaques stretching on endlessly, and their emptiness begs the question: What sort of nation will Australia become over the next few decades?

text: Defining Australia[edit]

text: The Australian of the Year Awards represent only one of many ways in which national identity is expressed, but after fifty years they have become a significant part of the ongoing conversation about Australia's past, present and future. The awards have also attracted the interest of foreigners, including BBC correspondent Nick Bryant, who recently observed that the awards program 'offers an intriguing perspective on the Australian national character, which is both reinforcing and revelatory'.[36]

text: An ongoing challenge faced by the NADC is that it is hard to represent the diversity of Australian achievement when there is only one winner per category in each year. The ongoing debates about the numbers of winners from the sciences, arts and sport are evidence of this. In the future, these debates might revolve around other issues, including gender balance and ethnic diversity. Awards Director Tam Johnston suggests that the value of the awards program is best measured by consulting the complete list of finalists for each year.[37] In its 2005 Annual Report the NADC included a summary of the 111 finalists honoured nationally, which revealed a remarkable variety of achievement and a diversity of personal backgrounds.[38] Importantly, the NADC has recently devoted attention to promoting the state finals, which emphasises the wide variety of achievement that is recognised each year.

text: Not all of the debate and discussion generated by the awards program has been of a serious nature. A more light-hearted portrait can be found in the award-winning television satire We Can Be Heroes: Finding The Australian of the Year (2005), in which actor Chris Lilley plays five obscure nominees for the Australian of the Year award. One reviewer suggested that Lilley's creation was both a humorous mockumentary and a serious critique of the awards program: 'if you want a show that skewers the nation's pretensions and aspirations, while providing laugh-out-loud comedy, this is the real deal.'[39] All five characters have in one way or another inspired people in their local community, but none of them appears even a remotely suitable choice for Australian of the Year. Although primarily a vehicle for Lilley's comic talent, We Can Be Heroes is also a biting critique of what we look for in role models. In contrast, the magazine Eureka Street offers a strong endorsement of the awards program's potential:[40]

text: Critics might suggest that the awards are manipulated by politicians, or point to the fact that a number of former recipients such as Alan Bond subsequently fell from grace. But the fact remains that the naming of role models is an important community-building exercise. It assists young people to set goals for themselves, and encourages older people to take pride in what they have achieved.

text: The editors of Eureka Street suggest that the awards have been successful in achieving one of the core goals of the National Australia Day Council, which is to "promote good citizenship, values and achievement by recognising excellence and service to the communities and the nation".[22]