document_title: FIFA U-20 World Cup

question_text: who won the last under 20 world cup

question_tokens: who won the last under 20 world cup

text: FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: Qualification[edit]

text: 24 teams appear in the final tournament. 23 countries, including the defending champions, have to qualify in the youth championships of the six confederations. The host country automatically qualifies.

text:
Confederation
Championship

AFC (Asia)
AFC U-19 Championship

CAF (Africa)
African Youth Championship

CONCACAF (North, Central America and Caribbean)
CONCACAF Under-20 Championship

CONMEBOL (South America)
South American Youth Championship

UEFA (Europe)
UEFA European U-19 Championship

OFC (Oceania)
OFC Under 20 Qualifying Tournament

text: Results[edit]

text: Summaries[edit]

text: FIFA World Youth Championship[edit]

text:
Year
Hosts

Final

Third place match

Number of teams

Champions
Score
Runners-up
Third place
Score
Fourth place

1977
Details
 Tunisia

Soviet Union
2–2 (a.e.t.)
9–8 (p)

Mexico

Brazil
4–0

Uruguay
16

1979
Details
 Japan

Argentina
3–1

Soviet Union

Uruguay
1–1 (a.e.t.)
5–3 (p)

Poland
16

1981
Details
 Australia

West Germany
4–0

Qatar

Romania
1–0

England
16

1983
Details
 Mexico

Brazil
1–0

Argentina

Poland
2–1 (a.e.t.)

South Korea
16

1985
Details
 Soviet Union

Brazil
1–0 (a.e.t.)

Spain

Nigeria
0–0 (a.e.t.)
3–1 (p)

Soviet Union
16

1987
Details
 Chile

Yugoslavia
1–1 (a.e.t.)
5–4 (p)

West Germany

East Germany
2–2 (a.e.t.)
3–1 (p)

Chile
16

1989
Details
 Saudi Arabia

Portugal
2–0

Nigeria

Brazil
2–0

United States
16

1991
Details
 Portugal

Portugal
0–0 (a.e.t.)
4–2 (p)

Brazil

Soviet Union
1–1 (a.e.t.)
5–4 (p)

Australia
16

1993
Details
 Australia

Brazil
2–1

Ghana

England
2–1

Australia
16

1995
Details
 Qatar

Argentina
2–0

Brazil

Portugal
3–2

Spain
16

1997
Details
 Malaysia

Argentina
2–1

Uruguay

Republic of Ireland
2–1

Ghana
24

1999
Details
 Nigeria

Spain
4–0

Japan

Mali
1–0

Uruguay
24

2001
Details
 Argentina

Argentina
3–0

Ghana

Egypt
1–0

Paraguay
24

2003
Details
 UAE

Brazil
1–0

Spain

Colombia
2–1

Argentina
24

2005
Details
 Netherlands

Argentina
2–1

Nigeria

Brazil
2–1

Morocco
24

text: FIFA U-20 World Cup[edit]

text:
Year
Hosts

Final

Third place match

Number of teams

Champions
Score
Runners-up
Third place
Score
Fourth place

2007
Details
 Canada

Argentina
2–1

Czech Republic

Chile
1–0

Austria
24

2009
Details
 Egypt

Ghana
0–0 (a.e.t.)
4–3 (p)

Brazil

Hungary
1–1 (a.e.t.)
2–0 (p)

Costa Rica
24

2011
Details
 Colombia

Brazil
3–2 (a.e.t.)

Portugal

Mexico
3–1

France
24

2013
Details
 Turkey

France
0–0 (a.e.t.)
4–1 (p)

Uruguay

Ghana
3–0

Iraq
24

2015
Details
 New Zealand

Serbia
2–1 (a.e.t.)

Brazil

Mali
3–1

Senegal
24

2017
Details
 South Korea

England
1–0

Venezuela

Italy
0–0
4–1 (p)

Uruguay
24

text:
Key:

a.e.t. – after extra time
pen. – match won on penalty shootout

text: Performances by countries[edit]

text: Below are the 36 nations that have reached at least the semifinal in the U-20 World Cup finals.

text:
Rank
Team
Titles
Runners-up
Third Place
Fourth Place

1
 Argentina
6 (1979, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2007)
1 (1983)

1 (2003)

2
 Brazil
5 (1983, 1985, 1993, 2003, 2011)
4 (1991, 1995, 2009, 2015)
3 (1977, 1989, 2005)

3
 Portugal
2 (1989, 1991)
1 (2011)
1 (1995)

4
 Serbia
2 (19871, 2015)

5
 Ghana
1 (2009)
2 (1993, 2001)
1 (2013)
1 (1997)

6
 Spain
1 (1999)
2 (1985, 2003)

1 (1995)

7
 Soviet Union
1 (1977)
1 (1979)
1 (1991)
1 (1985)

8
 West Germany
1 (1981)
1 (1987)

9
 England
1 (2017)

1 (1993)
1 (1981)

10
 France
1 (2013)

1 (2011)

11
 Uruguay

2 (1997, 2013)
1 (1979)
3 (1977, 1999, 2017)

12
 Nigeria

2 (1989, 2005)
1 (1985)

13
 Mexico

1 (1977)
1 (2011)

14
 Qatar

1 (1981)

 Japan

1 (1999)

 Czech Republic

1 (2007)

 Venezuela

1 (2017)

18
 Mali

2 (1999, 2015)

19
 Poland

1 (1983)
1 (1979)

 Chile

1 (2007)
1 (1987)

21
 Romania

1 (1981)

 East Germany

1 (1987)

 Republic of Ireland

1 (1997)

 Egypt

1 (2001)

 Colombia

1 (2003)

 Hungary

1 (2009)

 Italy

1 (2017)

28
 Australia

2 (1991, 1993)

29
 South Korea

1 (1983)

 United States

1 (1989)

 Paraguay

1 (2001)

 Morocco

1 (2005)

 Austria

1 (2007)

 Costa Rica

1 (2009)

 Iraq

1 (2013)

 Senegal

1 (2015)

text: 1 As Yugoslavia.

text: Performances by continental zones[edit]

text: All continental confederations except for the OFC (Oceania) have made an appearance in the final match of the tournament. To date, CONMEBOL (South America) leads with eleven titles, followed by UEFA (Europe) with nine titles and CAF (Africa) with one title. Teams from the AFC (Asia) and CONCACAF (North America, Central America, Caribbean) have made the tournament final three times, but were defeated by strong UEFA sides. No current OFC member has ever made the semifinals. Australia reached the semifinals as an OFC member in 1991 and 1993, finishing fourth on both occasions, but the country joined the AFC in 2006.

text:
Confederation (continent)
Performances

Winners
Runners-up
Third
Fourth

CONMEBOL (South America)
11 titles: Argentina (6), Brazil (5)
8 times: Brazil (4), Uruguay (2), Argentina (1), Venezuela (1)
6 times: Brazil (3), Chile (1), Colombia (1), Uruguay (1)
6 times: Uruguay (3), Argentina (1), Chile (1), Paraguay (1)

UEFA (Europe)
9 titles: Portugal (2), Serbia1 (2), England (1), France (1), West Germany (1), Spain (1), USSR (1)
6 times: Spain (2), Czech Republic (1), West Germany (1), Portugal (1), USSR (1)
9 times: England (1), East Germany (1), Hungary (1), Rep. of Ireland (1), Italy (1), Poland (1), Portugal (1), Romania (1), USSR (1)
6 times: Austria (1), England (1), France (1), Poland (1), Spain (1), USSR (1)

CAF (Africa)
1 title: Ghana (1)
4 times: Ghana (2), Nigeria (2)
5 times: Mali (2), Egypt (1), Ghana (1), Nigeria (1)
3 times: Ghana (1), Morocco (1), Senegal (1)

AFC (Asia)
None
2 times: Japan (1), Qatar (1)
None
2 times: Iraq (1), South Korea (1)

CONCACAF (North, Central America and Caribbean)
None
1 time: Mexico (1)
1 time: Mexico (1)
2 times: Costa Rica (1), United States (1)

OFC (Oceania)
None
None
None
2 times: Australia2 (2)

text: Awards[edit]

text: Golden Ball[edit]

text: The Adidas Golden Ball award is awarded to the player who plays the most outstanding football during the tournament. It is selected by the media poll. Since the 2007 tournament, those who finish as runners-up in the vote receive the Silver Ball and Bronze Ball awards as the second and third most outstanding players in the tournament respectively.

text:
World Cup
Golden Ball
Silver Ball
Bronze Ball
Ref(s)

1977 Tunisia
 Volodymyr Bessonov
 Júnior Brasília
 Cléber
[2]

1979 Japan
 Diego Maradona
 Julio César Romero
 Ramón Díaz
[3]

1981 Australia
 Romulus Gabor
 Michael Zorc
 Roland Wohlfarth
[4]

1983 Mexico
 Geovani
 Roberto Zárate
 Luis Islas
[5]

1985 Soviet Union
 Paulo Silas
 Gérson
 Juan Carlos Unzué
[6]

1987 Chile
 Robert Prosinečki
 Zvonimir Boban
 Marcel Witeczek
[7]

1989 Saudi Arabia
 Bismarck
 Kasey Keller
 Christopher Nwosu
[8]

1991 Portugal
 Emílio Peixe
 Giovane Élber
 Paulo Torres
[9]

1993 Australia
 Adriano

[10]

1995 Qatar
 Caio
 Dani
 Joaquín Irigoytía
[11]

1997 Malaysia
 Nicolás Olivera
 Marcelo Zalayeta
 Pablo Aimar
[12]

1999 Nigeria
 Seydou Keita
 Pius Ikedia
 Pablo Couñago
[13]

2001 Argentina
 Javier Saviola
 Andrés D'Alessandro
 Djibril Cissé
[14]

2003 United Arab Emirates
 Ismail Matar
 Dudu
 Dani Alves
[15]

2005 Netherlands
 Lionel Messi
 John Obi Mikel
 Taye Taiwo
[16]

2007 Canada
 Sergio Agüero
 Maxi Moralez
 Giovani dos Santos
[17]

2009 Egypt
 Dominic Adiyiah
 Alex Teixeira
 Giuliano
[18]

2011 Colombia
 Henrique Almeida
 Nélson Oliveira
 Jorge Enríquez
[19]

2013 Turkey
 Paul Pogba
 Nicolás López
 Clifford Aboagye
[20]

2015 New Zealand
 Adama Traoré
 Danilo
 Sergej Milinković-Savić
[21]

2017 South Korea
 Dominic Solanke
 Federico Valverde
 Yangel Herrera
[22]

text: Golden Shoe[edit]

text: The Adidas Golden Shoe is awarded to the topscorer of the tournament. If more than one players are equal by same goals, the players will be selected based by the most assists during the tournament.

text:
World Cup
Golden Shoe
Goals
Silver Shoe
Goals
Bronze Shoe
Goals
Ref(s)

1977 Tunisia
 Guina
4
 Hussein Saeed
3
 Luis Placencia
3
[2]

1979 Japan
 Ramón Díaz
8
 Diego Maradona
6
 Andrzej Palasz
5
[3]

1981 Australia
 Mark Koussas
4
 Taher Amer
4
 Ralf Loose
4
[4]

1983 Mexico
 Geovani
6
 Joachim Klemenz
5
 Jorge Luis Gabrich
4
[5]

1985 Soviet Union
 Sebastián Losada
3
 Fernando
3
 Odiaka Monday
3
[6]

1987 Chile
 Marcel Witeczek
7
 Davor Šuker
6
 Camilo Pino
5
[7]

1989 Saudi Arabia
 Oleg Salenko
5
 Marcelo
3
 Christopher Ohen
3
[8]

1991 Portugal
 Sergei Sherbakov
5
 Ismael Urzaiz
4
 Pedro Pineda
4
[9]

1993 Australia
 Henry Zambrano
3
 Chris Faklaris
3
 Vicente Nieto
3
[10]

1995 Qatar
 Joseba Etxeberria
7
 Dani
4
 Caio
4
[11]

1997 Malaysia
 Adaílton Martins Bolzan
10
 David Trezeguet
5
 Kostas Salapasidis
4
[12]

1999 Nigeria
 Pablo Couñago
5
 Mahamadou Dissa
5
 Taylor Twellman
4
[13]

2001 Argentina
 Javier Saviola
11
 Adriano
6
 Djibril Cissé
6
[14]

2003 United Arab Emirates
 Eddie Johnson
4
 Daisuke Sakata
4
 Fernando Cavenaghi
4
[15]

2005 Netherlands
 Lionel Messi
6
 Fernando Llorente
5
 Oleksandr Aliyev
5
[16]

2007 Canada
 Sergio Agüero
6
 Adrián
5
 Maxi Moralez
4
[17]

2009 Egypt
 Dominic Adiyiah
8
 Vladimir Koman
5
 Aarón
4
[18]

2011 Colombia
 Henrique Almeida
5
 Álvaro Vázquez
5
 Alexandre Lacazette
5
[19]

2013 Turkey
 Ebenezer Assifuah
6
 Bruma
5
 Jesé
5
[20]

2015 New Zealand
 Viktor Kovalenko
5
 Bence Mervo
5
 Marc Stendera
4
[21]

2017 South Korea
 Riccardo Orsolini
5
 Josh Sargent
4
 Jean-Kévin Augustin
4
[22]

text: Golden Glove[edit]

text: The Golden Glove Award is awarded to the best goalkeeper of the tournament.

text:
World Cup
Golden Glove
Ref(s)

2009 Egypt
 Esteban Alvarado
[18]

2011 Colombia
 Mika
[19]

2013 Turkey
 Guillermo de Amores
[20]

2015 New Zealand
 Predrag Rajković
[21]

2017 South Korea
 Freddie Woodman
[22]

text: FIFA Fair Play Award[edit]

text: FIFA Fair Play Award is given to the team who has the best fair play record during the tournament with the criteria set by FIFA Fair Play Committee.

text:
Tournament
FIFA Fair Play Award
Ref(s)

1977 Tunisia
 Brazil
[2]

1979 Japan
 Poland
[3]

1981 Australia
 Australia
[4]

1983 Mexico
 South Korea
[5]

1985 USSR
 Colombia
[6]

1987 Chile
 West Germany
[7]

1989 Saudi Arabia
 United States
[8]

1991 Portugal
 Soviet Union
[9]

1993 Australia
 England
[10]

1995 Qatar
 Japan
[11]

1997 Malaysia
 Argentina
[12]

1999 Nigeria
 Croatia
[13]

2001 Argentina
 Argentina
[14]

2003 United Arab Emirates
 Colombia
[15]

2005 Netherlands
 Colombia
[16]

2007 Canada
 Japan
[17]

2009 Egypt
 Brazil
[18]

2011 Colombia
 Nigeria
[19]

2013 Turkey
 Spain
[20]

2015 New Zealand
 Ukraine
[21]

2017 South Korea
 Mexico
[22]

text: Records and statistics[edit]

text: 2, three players:

text:
Fernando Brassard ( Portugal, 1989, 1991)
João Vieira Pinto ( Portugal, 1989, 1991)
Sergio Agüero ( Argentina, 2005, 2007)


document_title: Shot heard round the world

question_text: who said the shot heard round the world

question_tokens: who said the shot heard round the world

root

text: Shot heard round the world

text: Skirmish at the North Bridge[edit]

text:
By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled,
Here once the embattled farmers stood,
And fired the shot heard round the world.

 − Emerson, "Concord Hymn"

tag: div

text: The phrase comes from the opening stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Concord Hymn" (1837) and refers to the first shot of the American Revolution at the Old North Bridge in Concord, Massachusetts, where the first British soldiers fell in the battles of Lexington and Concord. Historically, no single shot can be cited as the first shot of the battle or the war. Shots were fired earlier at Lexington, Massachusetts where eight Americans were killed and a British soldier was slightly wounded, but accounts of that event are confused and contradictory.[1] The North Bridge skirmish did see the first shots by Americans acting under orders, the first organized volley by Americans, the first British fatalities, and the first British retreat.

tag: p

text: The towns of Lexington and Concord have debated over the point of origin for the Revolutionary War since 1824, when the Marquis de Lafayette visited the towns. He was welcomed to Lexington hearing it described as the "birthplace of American liberty", but he was then informed in Concord that the "first forcible resistance" was made there. President Ulysses Grant considered not attending the 1875 centennial celebrations in the area to evade the issue. In 1894, Lexington petitioned the state legislature to proclaim April 19 as "Lexington Day", to which Concord objected; the current name for the holiday is Patriots' Day.[1]

text: Emerson lived in a house known as the Old Manse at the time when he was composing the "Concord Hymn," from which his grandfather and father (then a young child) had witnessed the skirmish. The house is located approximately 300 feet (91 m) from the North Bridge.

text: Assassination of Franz Ferdinand[edit]

text: The phrase "shot heard round the world" (alternatively "shots heard round the world" or "shot heard around the world")[2][3] has also become associated with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, an event considered to be one of the immediate causes of World War I.[4][5][6][7] Serbian Gavrilo Princip fired two shots, the first hitting Franz Ferdinand's wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, and the second hitting the Archduke himself. The death of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, propelled Austria-Hungary and the rest of Europe into World War I.

text: Widespread idiomatic use[edit]

text: The phrase "Shot heard round the world" continues to be a stock phrase in the 21st century, widely used to refer to extraordinary events in general.[8] The phrase has been applied to several dramatic moments in sports history, for example. In baseball, the "Shot Heard 'Round the World" refers to the game-winning walk-off home run by New York Giants outfielder Bobby Thomson off Brooklyn Dodgers pitcher Ralph Branca to win the National League pennant on October 3, 1951. The Giants won the game 5-4 as a result of the home run, defeating their traditional rivals in the pennant playoff series, although they eventually lost the World Series to the Yankees.[9]


document_title: Joshua Tree National Park

question_text: when did joshua tree became a national park

text: Joshua Tree National Park

text: History[edit]

text: Early[edit]

text: The earliest known residents of the land in and around what later became Joshua Tree National Park were the people of the Pinto Culture, who lived and hunted here between 8000 and 4000 BCE.[5] Their stone tools and spear points, discovered in the Pinto Basin in the 1930s, suggest that they hunted game and gathered seasonal plants, but little else is known about them.[5] Later residents included the Serrano, the Cahuilla, and the Chemehuevi peoples. All three lived at times in small villages in or near water, particularly the Oasis of Mara in what non-aboriginals later called Twentynine Palms. They were hunter-gatherers who subsisted largely on plant foods supplemented by small game, amphibians, and reptiles while using other plants for making medicines, bows and arrows, baskets, and other articles of daily life.[6] A fourth group, the Mojaves, used the local resources as they traveled along trails between the Colorado River and the Pacific coast. In the 21st century, small numbers of all four peoples live in the region near the park; the Twentynine Palms Band of Mission Indians, descendants of the Chemehuevi, own a reservation in Twentynine Palms.[7]

text: In 1772, a group of Spaniards led by Pedro Fages, made the first European sightings of Joshua trees while pursuing native converts to Christianity who had run away from a mission in San Diego. By 1823, the year Mexico achieved independence from Spain, a Mexican expedition from Los Angeles, in what was then Alta California, is thought to have explored as far east as the Eagle Mountains in what later became the park. Three years later, Jedediah Smith led a group of American fur trappers and explorers along the nearby Mojave Trail, and others soon followed. Two decades after that, the United States defeated Mexico in the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and took over about half of Mexico's original territory, including California and the future parkland.[8]

text: After 1870[edit]

text: In 1870, non-natives began grazing cattle on the tall grasses that grew in the park. In 1888, a gang of cattle rustlers moved into the region near the Oasis of Mara. Led by brothers James. B. and William S. McHaney, they hid stolen cattle in a box canyon at Cow Camp.[9] Throughout the region, ranchers dug wells and built rainwater catchments called "tanks", such as White Tank and Barker Dam.[10]  In 1900,[11] C. O. Barker, a miner and cattleman, built the original Barker Dam, later improved by William "Bill" Keys, a rancher.[12] Grazing continued in the park through 1945.[10] Barker Dam was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1975.[11]

text: Between the 1860s and the 1940s, miners worked about 300 pit mines, mostly small, in what later became the park.[13] The most successful, the Lost Horse Mine, produced gold and silver worth about $5 million in today's currency.[14] Johnny Lang and others, the original owners of the Lost Horse Mine, installed a two-stamp mill to process ore at the site, and the next owner, J.D. Ryan, replaced it with a 10-stamp steam-powered mill.[14] Ryan pumped water from his ranch to the mill and cut timber from the nearby hills to heat water to make steam.[14] Most of the structures associated with the mine fell apart, and for safety reasons the National Park Service plugged the mine, which had collapsed.[14] The Desert Queen Mine on Keys' Desert Queen Ranch was another productive gold mine.[13] In the early 1930s, Keys bought a gasoline-powered two-stamp mill, the Wall Street Mill, and moved it to his ranch to process ore.[15] The ranch and mill were added to the NRHP in 1975[15][16] and the mine in 1976.[17] Some of the mines in the park yielded copper, zinc, and iron.[13]

text: On August 10, 1936, after Minerva Hoyt and others persuaded the state and federal governments to protect the area, President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the power of the 1906 Antiquities Act to establish Joshua Tree National Monument. It protected about 825,000 acres (334,000 ha).[18] In 1950, the size of the park was reduced by about 290,000 acres to open the land to more mining.[19] The park was elevated to a National Park on October 31, 1994, by the Desert Protection Act, which also added 234,000 acres to the park.[20]

text: Geography and botany[edit]

text: Mojave Desert[edit]

text: The higher and cooler Mojave Desert is the special habitat of Yucca brevifolia, the Joshua tree for which the park is named. It occurs in patterns from dense forests to distantly spaced specimens. In addition to Joshua tree forests, the western part of the park includes some of the most interesting geologic displays found in California's deserts. The dominant geologic features of this landscape are hills of bare rock, usually broken up into loose boulders. These hills are popular among rock climbing and scrambling enthusiasts. The flatland between these hills is sparsely forested with Joshua trees. Together with the boulder piles and Skull Rock, the trees make the landscape otherworldly. Temperatures are most comfortable in the spring and fall, with an average high/low of 85 and 50 °F (29 and 10 °C) respectively. Winter brings cooler days, around 60 °F (16 °C), and freezing nights. It occasionally snows at higher elevations. Summers are hot, over 100 °F (38 °C) during the day and not cooling much below 75 °F (24 °C) until the early hours of the morning.[21]

text: Joshua trees dominate the open spaces of the park, but in among the rock outcroppings are piñon pine, California juniper (Juniperus californica), Quercus turbinella (desert scrub oak), Quercus john-tuckeri (Tucker's oak), and Quercus cornelius-mulleri (Muller's oak).[22] These communities are under some stress, however, as the climate was wetter until the 1930s, with the same hot and dry conditions that provoked the Dust Bowl affecting the local climate. These cycles were nothing new, but the original vegetation did not prosper when wetter cycles returned. The difference may have been human development. Cattle grazing took out some of the natural cover and made it less resistant to the changes. But the bigger problem seems to be invasive species, such as cheatgrass, which during wetter periods fill in below and among the pines and oak. In drier times, they die back, but do not quickly decompose. This makes wildfires hotter and more destructive, which kills some of the trees that would have otherwise survived. When the area regenerates, these non-native grasses form a thick layer of turf that makes it harder for the pine and oak seedlings to get a roothold.

text: Colorado Desert[edit]

text: Below 3,000 feet (910 m), the Colorado Desert encompasses the eastern part of the park and features habitats of Creosote bush scrub, Ocotillo, desert Saltbush and mixed scrub including Yucca and Cholla cactus (Cylindropuntia bigelovii). There are areas of such cactus density they appear as natural gardens. The lower Coachella Valley is on the southeastern side of the Park with sandy soil grasslands and desert dunes.

text: The only palm native to California, the California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera), occurs naturally in five oases in the park, rare areas where water occurs naturally year round and all forms of wildlife abound.[4]

text: Geology[edit]

text: The park's oldest rocks, Pinto gneiss among them, are 1.7 billion years old. They are exposed in places on the park's surface in the Cottonwood, Pinto, and Eagle mountains. Much later, from 250 to 75 million years ago, tectonic plate movements forced volcanic material toward the surface at this location and formed granites, including monzogranite common to the Wonderland of Rocks, parts of the Pinto, Eagle, and Coxcomb mountains, and elsewhere. Erosion eventually exposed the harder rocks, gneiss and granite, in the uplands and reduced the softer rocks to debris that filled the canyons and basins between the ranges. The debris, moved by gravity and water, formed alluvial fans at the mouths of canyons as well as bajadas where the alluvial fans overlapped.[23]

text: The rock formations of Joshua Tree National Park owe their shape partly to groundwater, which filtered through the roughly rectangular joints of the monzonite and eroded the corners and edges of blocks of stone, and to flash floods, which washed away covering ground and left piles of rounded boulders.[24] These prominent outcrops are known as inselbergs.[25]

text: Of the park's six blocks of mountains, five—the Little San Bernardino, Hexie, Pinto, Cottonwood, and Eagle—are among the Transverse Ranges, which trend generally east–west in locations between the Eagle Mountains on the east and the northern Channel Islands, in the Pacific Ocean west of Santa Barbara, on the west. Tectonic forces along the San Andreas Fault system compressed and lifted the crust material that formed these ranges. The San Andreas Fault itself passes southwest of the park, but related parallel faults including the Dillon, Blue Cut, and Pinto, run through the park, and movements along them have caused earthquakes. The easternmost range in the park, the Coxcomb Mountains, runs generally north–south and is part of the Basin and Range Province.[23]

text: Recreation[edit]

text: Camping[edit]

text: Nine established campgrounds exist in the park, two of which (Black Rock Campground and Cottonwood Campground) provide water and flush toilets. A fee is charged per night for each camping spot.[26] Reservations are accepted at Black Rock Campground, Cottonwood Campground, Indian Cove Campground, and Jumbo Rocks Campground for October through May, while the other campgrounds are first-come, first-served. Backcountry camping, for those who wish to backpack, is permitted with a few regulations.[27]

text: Hiking[edit]

text: There are several hiking trails within the park, many of which can be accessed from a campground. Shorter trails, such as the one mile hike through Hidden Valley, offer a chance to view the beauty of the park without straying too far into the desert. A section of the California Riding and Hiking Trail meanders for 35 miles (56 km) through the western side of the park.[28] The lookout point at Keys View, towards the south of the park, offers views of the Coachella Valley, the Salton Sea, the San Andreas Fault, the Santa Rosa Mountains, and the city of Palm Springs.[29]

text: Nature walks inside the park include:

text:
Hidden Valley
Indian Cove
Cholla Cactus Garden

tag: ul

text: Longer trails include:

text:
Boy Scout Hiking and Equestrian Trail
Contact Mine
Fortynine Palms Oasis
Lost Horse Mine
Lost Palms Oasis
Ryan Mountain
Warren Peak

text: Due to graffiti on at least 17 sites on trails, officials have closed them to the public. The closed sites include Native American sites, at the Southern California park's Rattlesnake Canyon and Barker Dam. They blame the increase in vandalism on the increased use of social media.[30]

text: Climbing[edit]

text: The park is popular with rock climbers and was originally a winter practice area while Yosemite Valley and other parts of the Sierra Nevada were snowbound, but later became an area of interest in its own right. There are thousands of named climbing routes, at all levels of difficulty. The routes are typically short, the rocks being rarely more than 230 ft (70 m) in height, but access is usually a short, easy walk through the desert, and it is possible to do a number of interesting climbs in a single day. The rocks are all composed of quartz monzonite, a very rough type of granite made even more so as there is no snow or ice to polish it as in places like Yosemite.

text: Some routes are permanently closed while others are closed temporarily to protect sensitive wildlife in certain seasons. Climbing and bouldering routes that are permanently closed include Energy Crisis, the Schwarzenegger Wall, Zombie Woof Rock, the Maverick Boulder formation, Pictograph Boulder, Shindig, Lonely Stones Area #3, The Shipwreck formation, Indian Wave Boulders (except for Native Arete), and Wormholes. As of  March 14, 2018[update], seasonal closures include the Slatanic Area, Towers of Uncertainty, Patagonia Pile, and Jerry's Quarry.[31]

text: Driving[edit]

text: The paved main road allows visitors to drive to major attractions and through the park. The unpaved roads may require a vehicle with high ground clearance, and four-wheel drive. An example is the Geology Tour Road in the center of the park. Visitors with a four-wheel drive vehicle can use this road for a self-guided tour with stops that describe the region's geology.[32]

text: Birding[edit]

text: There are over 250 species of bird in the park including resident desert birds such as the greater roadrunner and cactus wren as well as mockingbirds, Le Conte's thrasher, verdin and Gambel's quail. There are also many transient species that may spend only one or two seasons in the park. Noted birding spots in the park include: fan palm oases, Barker Dam and Smith Water Canyon. Queen Valley and Lost Horse Valley also provide good birding but with a different range of species because of the lack of water. These are often good places to see ladder-backed woodpecker and oak titmouse. A USGS Bird Checklist [33] of "what, when, and status" has 239 species listed for the park.[33]

text: Astronomy[edit]

text: Joshua Tree is a popular observing site in Southern California for amateur astronomy and stargazing,[34] along with nearby Anza-Borrego Desert State Park. The park is well known for its naturally dark night skies, which are far away from and largely free of the light pollution typical in the urban areas. The park's elevation and dry desert air, along with the relatively stable atmosphere in the region, often make for excellent seeing conditions.

text: On clear nights around new moon, the sky darkness of Joshua Tree is rated a Class 2–4 on the Bortle scale.[35][36] This ranges from an "average dark sky" (Class 2) in the easternmost region of the park to a sky quality typical of a rural/suburban transition (Class 4) in the western regions near Palm Springs.[36][37] In the easternmost regions of the park, visitors with optimal vision can expect to see the Andromeda (M31) and Triangulum (M33) galaxies with unaided eyes. The central Milky Way appears highly structured to the naked eye from this site, and zodiacal light appears as a faint yellowish glow when visible.[37] In the western regions of the park, the Andromeda Galaxy is still visible, and only the brightest structures around the Galactic Center of the Milky Way can be distinguished; zodicial light is visible halfway to the zenith.[37]

text: Wildlife[edit]

text: Many animals make their homes in Joshua Tree. Birds, lizards, and ground squirrels are most likely to be seen because they are largely active during the day. However, it is at night that desert animals come out to roam. Mostly nocturnal animals include snakes, bighorn sheep, kangaroo rats, coyotes, lynx, and black-tailed jackrabbits.[38]

text: Animals that thrive in Joshua Tree often have special adaptations for dealing with limited water and high summer temperatures. The smaller mammals and all reptiles take refuge from the heat underground. Desert mammals make more efficient use of their bodies’ water supply than does the human body. Reptiles are physiologically adapted to getting along with little water, and birds can fly to water sources when they need to drink. Nevertheless, the springs and seeps in the park are necessary to the survival of many animals.[38]

text: Most of the reptiles and many small rodents and insects go into an inactive state of hibernation during the winter. However, winter is the time of greatest bird concentrations in the park, because of the presence of many migrant species.[38]

text: A good place to view wildlife is at Barker Dam, a short hike from a parking area near Hidden Valley. Desert bighorn sheep and mule deer sometimes stop by the dam for a drink. Tours of the Barker Dam area are available.

text: Wildlife of the park includes:

text:
The California tree frog, Pseudacris cadaverina, is found in the rocky, permanent water sources created by the Pinto Fault along the northern edge of the park.[39]
The red-spotted toad, Bufo punctatus, is a true denizen of the desert, where it spends most of its life underground. Found from one end of the park to the other, it appears after good, soaking rains.[39]
Golden eagles hunt in the park regularly.[40]
The roadrunner is an easily recognized resident.[40]
The call of Gambel's quail can frequently be heard.[40]
The tarantula Aphonopelma iodium, the green darner Anax junius, and the giant desert scorpion Hadrurus arizonensis are arthropods that can grow to be more than 4 inches (10 cm) long.[41]
The yucca moth Tegeticula paradoxa is responsible for pollinating the Joshua trees after which the park is named.[41]

text: Wilderness[edit]

text: Of the park's total land area of 790,636 acres (319,959 ha), 429,690 acres (173,890 ha) are designated wilderness and managed by the National Park Service (NPS) in accordance with the Wilderness Act. The NPS requires registration for overnight camping at specific locations called registration boards. Other requirements include the use of a camp stove (since open campfires are prohibited) and employing Leave No Trace camping techniques (also known as "pack it in, pack it out").[42] Although bicycles are not allowed in wilderness areas, horses are, but a permit must be obtained in advance for travel in the backcountry.  Cellular signals are weak to non-existent and should not be depended on while visiting the park.

text: Vandalism[edit]

text: On April 1, 2015, graffiti artist André was convicted and fined for vandalizing ancient rock formations in the park.[43] André posted photos of his vandalizations on Instagram. The web site Modern Hiker and its readers aided the National Park Service in tracking down and identifying André's vandalism.[44] Before the conviction, André attempted to silence the reporting with legal threats.[45]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: In 1972, the album cover photos for Eagles were shot in Joshua Tree National Park.[46]

text: In 1973, Phil Kaufman attempted to cremate singer/songwriter Gram Parsons' remains here.[47] To this day, people continue to visit in tribute to Parsons.

text: In 1987, Irish rock band U2 released their fifth studio album, The Joshua Tree, named after a tree with which the band were photographed near Darwin, California. It is a common misconception that the site of this tree is within Joshua Tree National Park, when in fact it is over 200 miles away.

text: In 1994, American Tejano singer Selena recorded her music video for "Amor Prohibido" at Joshua Tree National Park.[48]

text: The black comedy crime film Seven Psychopaths (2012) was partly filmed in the park,[49] as were many other film and television productions[50] beginning with Borderland (1937), a Hopalong Cassidy feature.[51]

text: In 2016, Donald Glover (a.k.a. Childish Gambino) performed six sold-out shows in Joshua Tree in promotion of his new album, "Awaken, My Love!". The three-day event went by the name Pharos.[52]

text: In 2017, American rock band Walk the Moon recorded the video "One Foot" in the park during that summer's solar eclipse.[53]


question_text: who does archie end up with in the comic books

text: Background[edit]

text: In May 2009, Archie Comics released plans for what they would call "The Archie Story Of The Century" and announced that Archie Andrews would ask Veronica Lodge to marry him in Archie Comics # 600,[1] the first issue of a six-part story arc detailing their engagement, marriage and life together. The publishers of Archie Comics did not expect the response they would get from readers and longtime fans telling them they made a mistake in Archie's choice. The New York Times would later reveal that the whole story is simply a fantasy and that the first half of the story would show Archie's life with Veronica, and the second half would show his life with Betty.[2]

text: Plot[edit]

text: Part 1: Archie Marries Veronica: "The Proposal"[edit]

text: "The Proposal" is Part 1 in the 6 issue story arc of Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty that was originally presented in Archie # 600.[3] The story features a futuristic look into the life of Riverdale teen Archie Andrews and his subsequent engagement to Veronica Lodge after his college graduation.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: The night before the gang's graduation from Riverdale High, The Archies play their final concert and mourn the oncoming changes. Archie comes home and after getting heat from his father about picking a college, he takes a walk down Memory Lane... literally. Archie realizes he's never walked up Memory Lane before and switches directions. After traveling through a yellow wood, Memory Lane splits into two dirt roads. He chooses the left one and "saves the right one for another day." Archie is then cast four years into the future on the eve of his college graduation. Archie soon makes it back to his house no longer wearing his high school lettermen's jacket but one that reads "State U" on the back. His mother exclaims how excited she is for her son's graduation and Fred states how he wishes Archie had majored in business instead of history and that he's still excited he's graduating from college. Archie dismisses this when Mary states that Veronica Lodge is waiting for him inside the house. He and Veronica discuss the changes in their lives, but both accept growing up.

text: After a successful graduation, Veronica hosts a party at her mansion with Josie and the Pussycats headlining. Archie learns that Veronica is planning to work for her father's company in either London or Hong Kong. As for the rest of the gang, Moose Mason is going to manage his uncle's burger joint on Staten Island while his girlfriend Midge Klump will be running her own nail salon in Bayonne, New Jersey. Dilton Doiley is going to M.I.T. for his doctorate in quantum mechanics, Reggie Mantle will fulfill his destiny as a used car salesman in Atlanta and Jughead Jones will stick around Riverdale grilling burgers at Pop Tate's Choklit Shoppe until he figures things out. Finally, Betty Cooper will be working as a buyer at Saks Fifth Avenue in New York City.

text: After the party, Archie is given a large sum of money by his parents. A few weeks later, he uses it for the down payment on an engagement ring for Veronica. He proposes to her in "Spiffany's" just as Betty and Jughead happen to walk by and witness. Veronica accepts and Betty runs weeping in an unknown direction. Jughead later chastises Archie for not telling him his plan. Eventually, Archie and Veronica tell Mr. Lodge, who accepts Archie as his future son-in-law as long as he works for Lodge Industries. Without any other jobs lined up, Archie goes along with it as his fiancee plans the biggest wedding Riverdale has ever seen.

text: The residents of Riverdale are overwhelmed with shock that Archie finally chose between his two favorite gals, but also concerned with Betty's well being. In the end, Veronica calls Betty and asks her to be her maid of honor. Instead of answering, Betty simply leaves the phone on her bed.

text: Part 2: Archie Marries Veronica: "The Wedding"[edit]

text: "The Wedding" is Part 2 in the 6 issue story arc of Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty that was originally presented in Archie # 601.[4] The story features the continuation of a futuristic look into the life of Riverdale teen Archie Andrews and his wedding to longtime girlfriend Veronica Lodge.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Archie is preparing for his upcoming nuptials with his groomsmen, Reggie Mantle, Moose Mason, Dilton Doiley, and best man Jughead Jones. Meanwhile, Veronica is treating her bridesmaids Midge Klump, Ethel Muggs, and Nancy Woods to a day at the spa. Veronica is sad that Betty Cooper is not there. However, Betty shows up at that moment and her position as Veronica's maid of honor is cemented. Betty brings along a “friend” of hers named Henry who works with her. Ethel states that he reminds her of Archie as Betty rushes him out the door. On the eve of the wedding, Archie and Veronica discuss their future.

text: The big day comes and everything seems to be going as planned. All of Riverdale is attending the wedding. Before the ceremony, Archie asks Betty to take a walk with him. He tells her that she was his first friend when his family moved to Riverdale and how he always enjoyed dating her, but then Veronica moved to town. Archie tells Betty that he loves her like a sister and asks her to promise to always be his friend. Betty obliges after they tell each other they love one another.

text: The wedding goes smoothly. Mr. and Mrs. Lodge walk Veronica down the aisle as all of Riverdale watches. Archie and Veronica become husband and wife as Betty looks on tearfully, but happily. At the reception, Archie and Veronica share their first dance to "Sugar, Sugar", speeches are made, the cake is cut, and the bouquet is tossed. Betty catches it and walks away trying to hide her tears. Veronica catches up to her to make sure she's okay. Archie and Veronica then depart on their honeymoon to a remote island in the Caribbean owned by the Lodges.

text: One year later, Archie is a big executive at Lodge Enterprises. Reggie shows up and asks for a job after he's been laid off and Archie gives him a job in sales. It's obvious that he's running himself ragged with work. When he comes home exhausted, Veronica reminds him of a dinner date they have with Ethel and her fiancé. Archie is simply too tired and refuses to move, until Veronica announces that she's pregnant and he promptly faints.

text: Part 3: Archie Marries Veronica: "It's Twins!"[edit]

text: "It's Twins" is Part 3 in the 6 issue story arc of Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty that was originally presented in Archie # 602.[5] The story features the continuation of a futuristic look into the life of Archie Andrews and Veronica Lodge as they raise a pair of fraternal twins.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Archie announces Veronica's pregnancy to his parents, Fred and Mary. At that moment, Jughead, Reggie, and Moose burst in with congratulations and mention the various ways they will add to "Little Archie" or "Little Veronica's" life. Archie then breaks the news to Mr. Lodge who immediately has his will changed to bestow his most prized possession, a sled named "Rosebuddy" to his grandchild.

text: Meanwhile, Veronica flies to New York City to meet with Betty at a run down diner. Betty hasn't been faring well in the city. She's recently been laid off and her relationship with Henry has ended because it's "hard to meet nice guys in the city." Veronica announces that she is pregnant and asks Betty to be the godmother, to which she agrees.

text: Two trimesters later, Archie and Veronica begin Lamaze class, which proves to be a slapstick disaster for Archie. One night when Veronica's ill, Jughead fills in for her replete with a pillow under his shirt and hilarity ensues. Despite all of this, Archie promises to be calm when the big day arrives. Shortly thereafter, Veronica goes into labor and he drives her to the hospital with minimal drama. Soon, Veronica delivers a redheaded boy named Archie, and a black haired girl named Veronica.

text: Time passes and Archie and Veronica move back to Riverdale and buy a minivan. Parenting is exhausting for both of them, but they lovingly raise their children past diapers and bottles. When the children are around three, the Andrews and the Lodges celebrate Christmas together. The children are sent to bed and Archie and Veronica discuss their happiness. Archie claims that he would be just as happy without the money. "All you need is love," he says.

text: Archie tucks his children to bed and reads them "The Road Not Taken" by Robert Frost in its entirety. Before wrapping up the rest of the presents, Archie insists on going for a walk during the first snow of the season. He and Veronica exchange "I Love You's" and he heads out the door, looking distraught. He walks up Memory Lane and comes to the yellow wood and begins walking down the right fork in the road.

text: Part 4: Archie Marries Betty: "Will You Marry Me?"[edit]

text: "Will You Marry Me?" is Part 4 in the 6 issue story arc of Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty that was originally presented in Archie # 603.[6] The story features a futuristic look into the life of Riverdale teen Archie Andrews and his subsequent engagement to Betty Cooper after college in an alternate reality.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Archie, still in his winter coat from his walk during the first snow of the season, arrives back in time right before his college graduation and meets Jughead, Reggie, and Moose. He is confused at first by the summer heat and his apparent time travel. Archie then rushes home to get ready for graduation, and the ceremony proceeds much as it did in Part 1, with Dilton giving the valedictorian address. After graduation, Archie, Reggie, and Jughead drive to Pop Tate's Choklit Shoppe for a party. Reggie comments on how unlikely marriage is after college. Jughead is relieved at this statistic, but Archie seems optimistic and announces that he has finally made his choice between Veronica and Betty, but he refuses to tell “until he talks to the girls first.”

text: Upon entering Pop's, Betty asks Archie for a dance, but he has Veronica on the brain and Betty points him in her direction. Veronica, surrounded by a group of handsome young men, is telling about a graduation trip around the world in 80 days. Archie asks to speak with her privately and starts to reminisce about the day she moved to Riverdale, but she keeps interrupting him. Reggie and Jughead spy from afar and are unclear if he's "proposing or letting her down easy." Before anything serious can be said, Moose demands that The Archies play a few songs. Even though the group hasn't played since high school, they entertain everyone with one of their hits, “Jingle Jangle”. Moose then starts a food fight that Jughead thoroughly enjoys.

text: After the gang cleans up their mess, Archie attempts to resume his conversation with Veronica, but she interrupts him again to tell him she's moving to Paris after her trip to run her father's fashion holdings. After this news, Archie has no need to continue his speech and asks Betty to share a malt with him while Veronica goes back to her bastion of beaux. Archie reminds Betty of how they first met and were always friends…sometimes more. He claims he can never fit into Veronica's high society world. Betty assumes he's going to ask her to “go steady,” but he claims that's not what he's thinking. Betty beats herself up and calls herself a jerk for assuming Archie wants to just date her. Archie laughs and calls her “the nicest, most loveable and beautiful jerk in Riverdale” and then pops the question. Betty, in shock for a moment, jumps for joy and answers yes. Archie and Betty kiss as Veronica watches in awe and disgust. Midge swoons at the romantic moment and prods her longtime boyfriend, Moose for a similar proposal, but he makes a joke instead. She slams his mortarboard over his head. Meanwhile, Reggie tries to make his move on Veronica, pretending to comfort her. She also breaks his mortarboard over his head. Veronica screams at Archie, claiming he missed his chance, but Archie defends his engagement to Betty in turn claiming that "she" was the one who missed her chance with him.

text: Later that evening, Archie and Betty tell both their parents about the engagement. The Andrews are very pleased with their son's choice of “marrying for love, not money.” The Coopers are also very happy. Betty then tells them that they plan to have a small, inexpensive wedding at Pop Tate's. Meanwhile, Veronica cries on her father's shoulder, but he assures her that there are plenty of men out there and “things always work out for the best.” All of Riverdale is gossiping about the upcoming nuptials, and whether Veronica's fortune should be a factor. On the night of Archie's bachelor party at Pop Tate's, his groomsmen, Jughead, Reggie, Moose, Dilton, and Chuck express concern for Veronica and her place among Betty's bridesmaids. Meanwhile, Betty goes to the Lodge estate and asks Veronica to be her maid of honor, who promptly slams the door in her face. But after seeing her so upset, Veronica agrees and tells Betty "she won Archie fair and square".

text: Later that night, Archie and Betty go for a walk. Archie has been sending out resumes, but is finding it difficult to find a job during the recession. He apologizes for not offering a better honeymoon than at the Blue Roof Inn in Centerville. Betty is entirely satisfied with it, however, and claims it's all part of “life with Archie.”

text: Part 5: Archie Marries Betty: "You May Kiss The Bride!"[edit]

text: "You May Kiss The Bride!" is Part 5 in the 6 issue story arc of Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty that was originally presented in Archie # 604.[7] The story features a futuristic look into the life of Archie Andrews and his wedding to Betty Cooper.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Archie continues to search for work with no luck. In desperation, he goes to meet with Mr. Lodge at his office. Mr. Lodge tells him that despite jilting his daughter, he thinks Archie is a bright fellow but that his company is not hiring. Archie tells Mr. Lodge that he didn't jilt Veronica, he chose Betty. Archie thanks Mr. Lodge for his time and goes back to his job search, but after applying for work everywhere from a recording studio to a coffee bar, he still has no success. In the midst of their wedding preparations, Betty reveals to Archie that she has received a job offer as a buyer for Saks 5th Avenue in New York City. She had applied before they became engaged because it was something she wanted to try, but plans to turn down the job in order to be a teacher and to be with Archie. He is shocked at first, but tells her that instead of putting everyone else first, she needs to follow her dreams for once, and decides they should move up their wedding day to the following weekend and then move to New York.

text: Everyone arrives to celebrate the party of the year. When Veronica arrives, escorted by Reggie, some expect trouble at first. Just as she is about to reveal the dress she bought hoping to draw attention away from the bride, the wedding cake that Betty made herself collapses and is ruined. Seeing this, Veronica decides to save the day by ordering the biggest most expensive wedding cake money can buy and changes into something she feels is more appropriate for the occasion, a waitress's uniform. Archie and Betty exchange their vows. The Bride and Groom then invite all the guests to join them in their first dance. When Betty tosses the bouquet, Miss Grundy catches it while Mr. Weatherbee looks on. The biggest surprise of the night comes when the wedding cake Veronica ordered arrives. Everyone is very proud of her, and Archie and Betty thank her for her very generous gift. Veronica asks them where they plan to go for their honeymoon, but they tell her that they can't afford one yet. She takes Archie aside and tells him that she will pay for a honeymoon for them. He thanks her for the offer but turns her down, saying that he is responsible for Betty now.

text: They say goodbye to their families, friends and Riverdale, and set off for New York City. Betty impresses Cassie, her new boss on her very first day on the job. Archie's efforts to find a job continue to be unsuccessful until he has a chance encounter with a club owner who is looking for someone who can play the guitar and sing. Several months pass and the Andrews attend Betty's first corporate dinner with Cassie and her boss, Mr. Hugo. When they first meet him he makes a crack about Archie's clothes and talent. Archie tries to defend himself, but Betty tries to pass it off as a joke. He tries to insult Archie again, but Betty loses it and tells him she would punch him if she wasn't as classy as her husband, and quits her job on the spot. Betty apologizes to Archie for not standing up for him sooner, and Archie calls her his hero. They decide to move back to Riverdale. The next day while packing their bags, Cassie shows up at their apartment with flowers, asking them to stay and tells Betty she still has a great future with the company. Betty thanks her and says she already has a great future with Archie back in their hometown. Cassie tells them both how lucky they are and wishes them well.

text: Back in Riverdale, Archie and Betty move in with Archie's parents, but Betty assures him it is temporary. She has found out from Mr. Weatherbee that a teaching position is available at Riverdale High, and lets Archie know that he wishes to speak to him about something important. Mr. Weatherbee offers him the position of the school's music teacher, and Archie accepts. That night, Archie and Betty celebrate their first anniversary with a romantic dinner and share a malt with three straws in it. Archie, confused and thinking that Veronica would be joining them, is told that the third straw isn't for her, but for someone he will love. Betty tells him she's pregnant, and Archie immediately faints.

text: Part 6: Archie Marries Betty: "Happily Ever After"[edit]

text: "Happily Ever After" is Part 6 in the 6 issue story arc of Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty that was originally presented in Archie # 605.[8] The story features a futuristic look into the life of Archie Andrews and Betty Cooper as they raise a pair of fraternal twins.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Archie & Betty discover many things have changed in Riverdale in the year they were in New York City. They run into Jughead & Midge and are shocked to learn that they are now married. Moose is now the custodian at Riverdale High and practises yoga and meditation and is "at peace with his inner self." When they all decide to go for dinner, Archie and Betty learn that Pop Tate is retiring and has sold the Chok'lit Shoppe to Jughead and Midge and it has been renamed "Juggie's". At the new Juggie's, the gang runs into Veronica & Reggie, and learn they have a surprise of their own; they are engaged. On their ride home, Archie & Betty argue about the news of their friends' engagement. Archie believes it is wrong, but Betty thinks that he is wishing it was him. He assures Betty that he thinks it is wrong of them to marry because he believes it will end badly, and that he only wants her money. Betty accepts his statement and they make up.

text: As the next few months pass, Archie & Betty become two of the most popular teachers at Riverdale High, and as Betty's pregnancy advances, they start to have less time for the rest of the old gang. Then one fall day, as Archie plans to go for a bike ride, Betty goes into labor while he goes into a panic. Instead of calling an ambulance, Archie calls the water department. Archie then drives Betty to the hospital, but they end up getting a flat tire. Luckily, Archie had his bike in the trunk, and takes her the rest of the way by bike. After a few misunderstandings at the admitting desk, Betty is rushed to the maternity ward, and soon gives birth to twins; a red haired boy named Archie and a blonde haired girl named Betty. Soon, Mr. & Mrs. Cooper and Mr. & Mrs. Andrews arrive along with all their friends and colleagues. Archie and Betty ask Jughead, Veronica and Reggie to be the twins' godparents, while Reggie & Veronica ask them to be their best man and maid of honor at their wedding. The next weekend they fly the whole gang out to Las Vegas for the star studded ceremony.

text: As Archie & Betty adjust to parenthood, life goes on in Riverdale. Jughead & Midge are soon expecting a child of their own. Mr. Weatherbee & Miss Grundy along with Miss Beazley & Mr. Svenson have started dating. Archie & Betty receive a postcard from Veronica & Reggie detailing all of their world travels and new ventures. Betty comments to him that could have been his life, but Archie tells her he doesn't want that life when he already has the best life with her. Betty suggests they go to bed early, but Archie says he's not tired and decides to go for a walk in the woods. He tells her not to wait up, and she says she'll be waiting no matter how long. He then decides to walk up Memory Lane, and soon finds himself back in the present... he is once again a teenager.

text: On his way home, he runs into Jughead who reminds him of the poetry recital in Miss Grundy's class the next day. Archie tells him he worries too much, while Jughead tells him to be prepared. As the two best friends walk home, he reads his part of the poetry reading, the last stanza of "The Road Not Taken" by Robert Frost.

text: Epilogue: Archie Gets Married: "Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow"[edit]

text: "Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow" is the epilogue that ties together Part 1 through 6 of the Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty storyline that was originally presented in Archie #606. Archie is left in a vision of the future and struggles to explain it to his friends... and Betty and Veronica.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: After his experiences walking up Memory Lane, Archie is left in a bewildered state. He tries talking about it to Betty and Veronica, but they are both too busy to talk to him. Needing to talk to someone about it he tells Reggie and Jughead about his strange visions. Reggie immediately thinks that he has gone nuts, but Jughead believes him.

text: In order to clear his mind Archie decides to go bowling with Reggie and Jughead. When Betty arrives Archie asks her if she wants to go on a date Saturday night, which she accepts. However, as he was overwhelmed with a kiss moments ago, Archie somehow mishears Betty and thinks she said "Friday". Later he goes to Lodge Mansion to ask Veronica for a date on the same night and she says yes.

text: When Saturday night arrives Archie realizes he asked both Betty and Veronica out on the same night. When the girls find out they respond by pouring two milkshakes on his head. The next day, Betty and Veronica are still mad at Archie, but he vows that he will make it up to both of them. When talking about the future, Archie asks Jughead if he ever thought about buying Pop's place after he retires. Jughead however denies this, because he would have to think about the future and prefers to live in the present.

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: The success of the Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty storyline led to the comic series, Life with Archie: The Married Life, and a similar storyline called "Archie Marries Valerie", depicting Archie marrying Valerie from Josie and the Pussycats, shown in Archie #631-634.

text: Life with Archie: The Married Life[edit]

text: Life with Archie: The Married Life was based on the Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty storyline, but was not a direct continuation on it. The series lasted from 2010 to 2014, ending with 37 issues. Issues 1-35 contained two stories each, the first story was Archie Marries Veronica and the second one was Archie Marries Betty. The last two issues, on the other hand, were structured differently. Instead of having two stories both issues had one, but were twice as long as the others. Also, neither issue made it clear whether Archie was married to Betty or Veronica. Together both issues make up The Death of Archie storyline.

text: Archie Marries Valerie[edit]

text: The "Archie Marries Valerie" storyline was similar to the Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty storyline, but had some major differences. For instance, Valerie was the one who walked up Memory Lane instead of Archie and she could see the future in portals rather than actually experiencing it. She sees a future in where she marries Archie, then they both quit their respective bands due to their touring schedules keeping them apart, and later have a little girl named Star who is gifted with her parents' musical talent. However, she decides to stop watching it after she sees that they cannot get a moment's peace due to Star becoming an object of attention for the media. Then she witness glimpses of other futures and in each one Archie is married to a different woman. Some of these futures had Archie being married to Cheryl Blossom, Sabrina Spellman, and even Josie. Seeing these futures Valerie runs out of Memory Lane and happily reunites with Archie.

text: Sources[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "Comic suspense: Archie Andrews pops question". CNN.com. 2009-05-28. Archived from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ "This time, Archie plans to marry Betty". .canada.com. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ Issue no. 600, October 2009
Jump up ^ Issue no. 601, November 2009
Jump up ^ Issue no. 602, December 2009
Jump up ^ Issue no. 603, January 2010
Jump up ^ Issue no. 604, February 2010
Jump up ^ Issue no. 605, March 2010

tag: ol

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Archie Comics publications

Imprints

Mighty Comics/Red Circle Comics/Dark Circle Comics
Archie Horror

Archies

Archie (2 volumes)
Little Archie
Life with Archie (2 volumes)
Archie and Me
Everything's Archie
Archie at Riverdale High
Archie Meets the Punisher
Afterlife with Archie
Archie vs. Predator
Archie vs. Sharknado
Archie (comic strip)
Archie's Girls Betty and Veronica
Archie's Pal Jughead Comics (2 volumes)
Jughead (3 volumes)
Jughead's Double Digest
Archie's Rival Reggie
Reggie
Reggie and Me
Laugh Comics (2 volumes)
Pep Comics
Archie's Pals 'n' Gals
Archie's Mad House
Archie Giant Series
Laugh Comics Digest
Archie's TV Laugh-Out
Archie Americana Series
Archie's Holiday Fun Digest
Tales from Riverdale
Josie and The Pussycats (2 volumes)
Sabrina the Teenage Witch (2 volumes)
Sabrina
Chilling Adventures of Sabrina
New Riverdale

Licensed
properties

Sonic the Hedgehog

Sonic the Hedgehog

issues

Knuckles the Echidna
Sonic X
Sonic Universe

Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures (3 volumes)
Mighty Mutanimals (2 volumes)

Other

Wild West C.O.W.-Boys of Moo Mesa (2 volumes)
Street Sharks (2 volumes)
Nights into Dreams
Mega Man

Superhero

Blue Ribbon Comics (2 volumes)
Top-Notch Comics
Shield-Wizard Comics
Zip Comics
Hangman Comics
Black Hood Comics
The Adventures of The Fly
Adventures of the Jaguar
Fly Man
Mighty Crusaders (2 volumes)
Black Hood
The Comet

Anthologies

Pep Comics
Jackpot Comics

Others

Super Duck Comics
Wilbur Comics
Katy Keene (2 volumes)
Li'l Jinx
Cosmo the Merry Martian
That Wilkin Boy

Storylines

"Archie Marries Veronica/Archie Marries Betty"
"Bad Boy Trouble"
"Love Showdown"

See also: List of Sabrina the Teenage Witch books, CDs and DVDs
Spire Christian Comics

tag: table

text: Storylines in comics2009 in comicsHumor comicsRomance comicsArchie Comics titlesWorks about wedding

text: Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from October 2009All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attentionArticles needing additional references from October 2009All articles needing additional referencesArticles with multiple maintenance issuesComics infobox image less alt textStory arc pop


document_title: Block (periodic table)

question_text: an element of atomic number 29 belongs to which block

text: Block (periodic table)

text: Periodic table[edit]

text: There is an approximate correspondence between this nomenclature of blocks, based on electronic configuration, and groupings of elements based on chemical properties. The s-block and p-block together are usually considered as the main group elements, the d-block corresponds to the transition metals, and the f-block are the lanthanides and the actinides. However, not everyone agrees on the exact membership of each set of elements, so that for example the group 12 elements Zn, Cd and Hg are considered as main group by some scientists and transition metals by others, because they are chemically and physically more similar to the p-block elements than the other d-block elements. Furthermore, the group 3 elements and the f-block are sometimes also considered main group elements due to their similarities to the s-block elements. Groups (columns) in the f-block (between groups 3 and 4) are not numbered.

text: Helium is coloured differently from the p-block elements surrounding it because is in the s-block, with its outer (and only) electrons in the 1s atomic orbital, although its chemical properties are more similar to the p-block noble gases due to its full shell. In addition to the blocks listed in this table, there is a hypothetical g-block which is not pictured here. The g-block elements can be seen in the expanded extended periodic table. Also, lanthanum and actinium are placed under scandium and yttrium to reflect their status as d-block elements, as they have no electrons in the 4f and 5f orbitals, respectively, while lutetium and lawrencium do.[2]

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Blocks in the periodic table

Group →
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

↓ Period

1
1
H

2
He

2
3
Li
4
Be

5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne

3
11
Na
12
Mg

13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar

4
19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc

22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr

5
37
Rb
38
Sr
39
Y

40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe

6
55
Cs
56
Ba
57
La

72
Hf
73
Ta
74
W
75
Re
76
Os
77
Ir
78
Pt
79
Au
80
Hg
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn

7
87
Fr
88
Ra
89
Ac

104
Rf
105
Db
106
Sg
107
Bh
108
Hs
109
Mt
110
Ds
111
Rg
112
Cn
113
Nh
114
Fl
115
Mc
116
Lv
117
Ts
118
Og

58
Ce
59
Pr
60
Nd
61
Pm
62
Sm
63
Eu
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb
71
Lu

90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
94
Pu
95
Am
96
Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No
103
Lr

s-block
p-block
d-block
f-block
Background color shows the block of the periodic table

Primordial

From decay

Synthetic
Border shows natural occurrence of the element

text: s-block[edit]

text: The s-block is on the left side of the periodic table that includes elements from the first two columns, the alkali metals (group 1) and alkaline earth metals (group 2), plus helium. Helium is a controversial element for the scientists as it can be placed in the s block as well as the p-block, but most scientists consider it to rest at the top of group 18 i.e. above neon (atomic number 10) as it has many properties similar to the group 18 elements.

text: Most s-block elements are highly reactive metals due to the ease with which their outer s-orbital electrons interact to form compounds. The first period elements in this block, however, are nonmetals. Hydrogen is highly chemically reactive, like the other s-block elements, but helium is a virtually unreactive noble gas.

text: S-block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost electrons) are in the s orbital. The s-orbital is a single spherical cloud which can contain only one pair of electrons; hence, the s-block consists of only two columns in the periodic table. Elements in column 1, with a single s-orbital valence electron, are the most reactive of the block. Elements in the second column have two s-orbital valence electrons, and, except for helium, are only slightly less reactive.

text: p-block[edit]

text: The p-block is on the right side of the periodic table and includes elements from the six columns beginning with column 13 and ending with column 18. Helium, though being in the top of group 18, is not included in the p-block.

text: The p-block is home to the biggest variety of elements and is the only block that contains all three types of elements: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Generally, the p-block elements are best described in terms of element type or group.

text: P-block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost electrons) are in the p orbital. The p orbital consists of six lobed shapes coming off a central point at evenly spaced angles. The p orbital can hold a maximum of six electrons, hence there are six columns in the p-block. Elements in column 13, the first column of the p-block, have one p-orbital electron. Elements in column 14, the second column of the p-block, have two p-orbital electrons. The trend continues this way until we reach column 18, which has six p-orbital electrons.

text: Metals[edit]

text: P-block metals have classic metal characteristics: they are shiny, they are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they lose electrons easily. Generally, these metals have high melting points and readily react with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. Ionic compounds form when a positive metal ion bonds with a negative nonmetal ion.

text: Of the p-block metals, several have fascinating properties. Gallium, in the 3rd row of column 13, is a metal that can melt in the palm of a hand. Tin, in the fourth row of column 14, is an abundant, flexible, and extremely useful metal. It is an important component of many metal alloys like bronze, solder, and pewter.

text: Sitting right beneath tin is lead, a toxic metal. Ancient people used lead for a variety of things, from food sweeteners to pottery glazes to eating utensils. It has been suspected that lead poisoning is related to the fall of Roman civilization,[3] but further research has shown this to be unlikely.[4][5] For a long time, lead was used in the manufacturing of paints. It was only within the last century that lead paint use has been restricted due to its toxic nature.

text: Metalloids[edit]

text: Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals, but the term 'metalloid' lacks a strict definition. All of the elements that are commonly recognized as metalloids are in the p-block: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. Metalloids tend to have lower electrical conductivity than metals, yet often higher than nonmetals. They tend to form chemical bonds similarly to nonmetals, but may dissolve in metallic alloys without covalent or ionic bonding. Metalloid additives can improve properties of metallic alloys, sometimes paradoxically to their own apparent properties. Some may give a better electrical conductivity, higher corrosion resistance, ductility, or fluidity in molten state, etc. to the alloy.

text: Boron has many carbon-like properties, but is very rare. It has many uses, for example a P type semiconductor dopant.

text: Silicon is perhaps the most famous metalloid. It is the second most abundant element in Earth's crust and one of the main ingredients in glass. It is used to make semiconductor circuits, from large power switches and high current diodes to microchips for computers and other electronic devices. It is also used in certain metallic alloys, e.g. to improve casting properties of alumimium. So valuable is silicon to the technology industry that Silicon Valley in California is named after it.

text: Germanium has properties very similar to silicon, yet this element is much more rare. It was once used for its semiconductor properties pretty much as silicon is now, and it has some superior properties at that, but is now a rare material in the industry.

text: Arsenic is a toxic metalloid that has been used throughout history as an additive to metal alloys, paints, and even makeup.

text: Antimony is used as a constituent in casting alloys such as printing metal.

text:
Not always considered as metalloids:

Carbon, in the same column with silicon and germanium, electrically fairly conductive unlike most other nonmetals, and to an extent preferred as a trace constituent in certain metallic alloys such as steel
Phosphorus has metallurgical uses among others, e.g. a constituent of some copper alloys
Selenium, once used as a semiconductor material, and also used to improve properties of metallic alloys
Aluminium is generally considered a metal, but it has some metalloid/non-metal properties such as negative oxidation states

text: Noble gases[edit]

text: Previously called inert gases, their name was changed as there are a few other gases that are inert but not noble gases, such as nitrogen. The noble gases are located in the far right column of the periodic table, also known as Group Zero or Group Eighteen. Noble gases are also called as aerogens but this nomenclature of the group is not officially accepted by the IUPAC.

text: All of the noble gases have full outer shells with eight electrons. However, at the top of the noble gases is helium, with a shell that is full with only two electrons. The fact that their outer shells are full means they rarely react with other elements, which led to their original title of "inert."

text: Because of their chemical properties, these gases are also used in the laboratory to help stabilize reactions that would usually proceed too quickly. As the atomic numbers increase, the elements become rarer. They are not just rare in nature, but rare as useful elements, too.

text:
Helium is best known for its low density, used to safely produce buoyancy for zeppelins and balloons
Neon is notorious as the red to yellow glow medium of old low power signal lamps and signs
Argon is used as a protective gas in MIG and TIG welding
Xenon is used as a plasma medium in high intensity arc lamps with tungsten electrodes. Automotive xenon lights, however, are mostly mercury vapor bulbs with low pressure xenon to help striking the arc and producing light instantly.
Krypton has many uses like arc flash medium. Krypton filled incandescent bulbs were once the most efficient variety, before being replaced by halogen technology.
Radon is radioactive, and one of the densest elements to remain in gas state at room temperature

text: Halogens[edit]

text: The second column from the right side of the periodic table, group 17, is the halogen family of elements. These elements are all just one electron shy of having full shells. Because they are so close to being full, they have the trait of combining with many different elements and are very reactive. They are often found bonding with metals and elements from Group One, as these elements in each have one electron.

text: Not all halogens react with the same intensity. Fluorine is the most reactive and combines with most elements from around the periodic table. As with other columns, reactivity decreases as the atomic number increases.

text: When a halogen combines with another element, the resulting compound is called a halide. One of the best examples of a halide is sodium chloride (NaCl).

text: d-block[edit]

text: The d-block is on the middle of the periodic table and includes elements from columns 3 through 12. These elements are also known as the transition metals because they show a transitivity in their properties i.e. they show a trend in their properties.

text: The d-block elements are all metals which exhibit two or more ways of forming chemical bonds. Because there is a relatively small difference in the energy of the different d-orbital electrons, the number of electrons participating in chemical bonding can vary. This results in the same element exhibiting two or more oxidation states, which determines the type and number of its nearest neighbors in chemical compounds.

text: D-block elements are unified by having in their outermost electrons one or more d-orbital electrons but no p-orbital electrons. The d-orbitals can contain up to five pairs of electrons; hence, the block includes ten columns in the periodic table.

text: f-block[edit]

text: The f-block is in the center-left of a 32-column periodic table but in the footnoted appendage of 18-column tables. These elements are not generally considered as part of any group. They are often called inner transition metals because they provide a transition between the s-block and d-block in the 6th and 7th row (period), in the same way that the d-block transition metals provide a transitional bridge between the s-block and p-block in the 4th and 5th rows.

text: The known f-block elements come in two series, the lanthanides of period 6 and the radioactive actinides of period 7. All are metals. Because the f-orbital electrons are less active in determining the chemistry of these elements, their chemical properties are mostly determined by outer s-orbital electrons. Consequently, there is much less chemical variability within the f-block than within the s-, p-, or d-blocks.

text: F-block elements are unified by having one or more of their outermost electrons in the f-orbital but none in the d-orbital or p-orbital. The f-orbitals can contain up to seven pairs of electrons; hence, the block includes fourteen columns in the periodic table.

text: g-block[edit]

text: The g-block is a hypothetical block of elements in the extended periodic table whose outermost electrons are posited to have one or more g-orbital electrons but no f-, d- or p-orbital electrons.


document_title: Four-minute mile

question_text: who ran the first under 4 minute mile

question_tokens: who ran the first under 4 minute mile

text: Four-minute mile

text: Record holders[edit]

text: Breaking the four-minute barrier was first achieved on 6 May 1954 at Oxford University's Iffley Road Track, by Englishman Roger Bannister,[4] with the help of fellow-runners as pacemakers.[5]

text: Two months later, during the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games hosted in Vancouver, B.C., two competing runners, Australia's John Landy and Bannister, ran the distance of one mile in under four minutes. The race's end is memorialised in a statue of the two (with Landy glancing over his shoulder, thus losing the race) placed in front of the Pacific National Exhibition entrance plaza.

text: New Zealand's John Walker, the first man to run the mile under 3:50, managed to run 135 sub-four-minute miles during his career (during which he was the first person to run over 100 sub-four-minute miles), and American Steve Scott has run the most sub-four-minute miles, with 136. Algeria's Noureddine Morceli was the first under 3:45. Currently, the mile record is held by Morocco's Hicham El Guerrouj, who ran a time of 3:43.13 in Rome in 1999.

text: In 1964, America's Jim Ryun became the first high-school runner to break four minutes for the mile, running 3:59.0 as a junior and a then American record 3:55.3 as a senior in 1965.[6] Tim Danielson (1966) and Marty Liquori (1967) also came in under four minutes, but Ryun's high-school record stood until Alan Webb ran 3:53.43 in 2001.[7] Ten years later, in 2011, Lukas Verzbicas became the fifth high-schooler under four minutes.[8] In 2015, Matthew Maton and Grant Fisher became the sixth and seventh high-schoolers to break four minutes, both running 3:59.38 about a month apart.[9] Webb was the first high schooler to run sub-4 indoors, running 3:59.86 in early 2001. On 6 February 2016, Andrew Hunter significantly improved upon Webb's mark, running 3:58.25 on the same New York Armory track[10] and 3:57.81 two weeks later.[11] Hunter achieved the 4 minute mile mark outdoors later in the season at the Prefontaine Classic. At that same meet Michael Slagowski ran his second sub-4 minute of the season.[12] Reed Brown dipped under the barrier on June 1st, 2017, running the 4th fastest high school mile time ever recorded in a race: 3:59.30. [13]

text: Another illustration of the progression of performance in the men's mile is that, in 1994, forty years after Bannister's breaking of the barrier, the Irish runner Eamonn Coghlan became the first man over the age of 40 to run a sub-four-minute mile.[14] Because Coghlan surpassed the mark indoors and before the IAAF validated indoor performances as being eligible for outdoor records, World Masters Athletics still had not recognised a sub-4-minute-mile performance as a record in the M40 division. Many elite athletes made the attempts to extend their careers beyond age 40 to challenge that mark. Over 18 years after Coghlan, that was finally achieved by UK's Anthony Whiteman, running 3:58.79 on 2 June 2012.[15]

text: No woman has yet run a four-minute mile. As of 2015[update], the women's world record is held by retired Russian Svetlana Masterkova, with a time of 4:12.56 in 1996.[16]

text: In 1997, Daniel Komen of Kenya ran two miles in less than eight minutes, doubling up on Bannister's accomplishment.[17] He did it again in February 1998, falling just 0.3 seconds behind his previous performance, and is still the only individual to accomplish the feat.[18]

text: Possible other claims[edit]

text: James Parrott[edit]

text: Some sources (including Olympic medalist Peter Radford[19]) contend the first successful four-minute mile was run in London by James Parrott on 9 May 1770.[20][21] Parrott's route began on Goswell Road, before turning down Old Street, finishing at St Leonard's, Shoreditch. Although timing methods at this time were – following the invention of the chronometer by John Harrison – accurate enough to measure the four minutes correctly, the record is not recognised by modern sporting bodies.[22] Neal Bascomb notes in The Perfect Mile that "even nineteenth-century historians cast a skeptical eye on the account."[23]

text: The Weller Run[edit]

text: Then in 1796, the Sporting Magazine reported that on 10 October of that year a young man called Weller, "undertook for a wager of three guineas (about 5 months' pay at that time) to run one mile on the Banbury road, in four minutes, which he performed two seconds within the time."[24]

text: In other words, the magazine reports that he ran a mile in three minutes, fifty eight seconds. By that time, a mile could be routinely measured to within a few inches; [25] watches, thanks to John Harrison, could measure 4 minutes to within 0.0009 sec (i.e. gain or lose 10 seconds a month),[26] and after about 1750 the mass production of highly accurate watches was well underway.[27]

text: Glenn Cunningham[edit]

text: It is also reputed that Glenn Cunningham achieved a four-minute mile in a workout in the 1920s. In addition to being unsubstantiated, a workout run would not count as a record.[28]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: In 1988, the ABC and the BBC co-produced The Four Minute Mile, a miniseries dramatisation of the race to the four-minute mile, featuring Richard Huw as Bannister and Nique Needles as John Landy (who was simultaneously pursuing the milestone). It was written by David Williamson and directed by Jim Goddard.

text: In 2004, Neal Bascomb wrote a book entitled The Perfect Mile about Roger Bannister, John Landy, and Wes Santee, portraying their individual attempts to break the four-minute mile and the context of the sport of mile racing. A second film version (entitled Four Minutes) was made in 2005, starring Jamie Maclachlan as Bannister.

text: In June 2011 the watch used to time the original event was donated by Jeffrey Archer to a charity auction for Oxford University Athletics Club; it sold for £97,250.[29]

text: In July 2016 the BBC broadcast the documentary Bannister: Everest on the Track, The Roger Bannister Story with firsthand interviews from Bannister and various other figures on the first sub-4 minute mile.[30][31]


document_title: Drug metabolism

question_text: the biotransformation or metabolism of a drug most often occurs in the

text: Drug metabolism

text: Permeability barriers and detoxification[edit]

text: The exact compounds an organism is exposed to will be largely unpredictable, and may differ widely over time; these are major characteristics of xenobiotic toxic stress.[1] The major challenge faced by xenobiotic detoxification systems is that they must be able to remove the almost-limitless number of xenobiotic compounds from the complex mixture of chemicals involved in normal metabolism. The solution that has evolved to address this problem is an elegant combination of physical barriers and low-specificity enzymatic systems.

text: All organisms use cell membranes as hydrophobic permeability barriers to control access to their internal environment. Polar compounds cannot diffuse across these cell membranes, and the uptake of useful molecules is mediated through transport proteins that specifically select substrates from the extracellular mixture. This selective uptake means that most hydrophilic molecules cannot enter cells, since they are not recognised by any specific transporters.[2] In contrast, the diffusion of hydrophobic compounds across these barriers cannot be controlled, and organisms, therefore, cannot exclude lipid-soluble xenobiotics using membrane barriers.

text: However, the existence of a permeability barrier means that organisms were able to evolve detoxification systems that exploit the hydrophobicity common to membrane-permeable xenobiotics. These systems therefore solve the specificity problem by possessing such broad substrate specificities that they metabolise almost any non-polar compound.[1] Useful metabolites are excluded since they are polar, and in general contain one or more charged groups.

text: The detoxification of the reactive by-products of normal metabolism cannot be achieved by the systems outlined above, because these species are derived from normal cellular constituents and usually share their polar characteristics. However, since these compounds are few in number, specific enzymes can recognize and remove them. Examples of these specific detoxification systems are the glyoxalase system, which removes the reactive aldehyde methylglyoxal,[3] and the various antioxidant systems that eliminate reactive oxygen species.[4]

text: Phases of detoxification[edit]

text: The metabolism of xenobiotics is often divided into three phases:- modification, conjugation, and excretion. These reactions act in concert to detoxify xenobiotics and remove them from cells.

text: Phase I – modification[edit]

text: In phase I, a variety of enzymes act to introduce reactive and polar groups into their substrates. One of the most common modifications is hydroxylation catalysed by the cytochrome P-450-dependent mixed-function oxidase system. These enzyme complexes act to incorporate an atom of oxygen into nonactivated hydrocarbons, which can result in either the introduction of hydroxyl groups or N-, O- and S-dealkylation of substrates.[5] The reaction mechanism of the P-450 oxidases proceeds through the reduction of cytochrome-bound oxygen and the generation of a highly-reactive oxyferryl species, according to the following scheme:[6]

text: Phase I reactions (also termed nonsynthetic reactions) may occur by oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, cyclization, decyclization, and addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen, carried out by mixed function oxidases, often in the liver. These oxidative reactions typically involve a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (often abbreviated CYP), NADPH and oxygen. The classes of pharmaceutical drugs that utilize this method for their metabolism include phenothiazines, paracetamol, and steroids. If the metabolites of phase I reactions are sufficiently polar, they may be readily excreted at this point. However, many phase I products are not eliminated rapidly and undergo a subsequent reaction in which an endogenous substrate combines with the newly incorporated functional group to form a highly polar conjugate.

text: A common Phase I oxidation involves conversion of a C-H bond to a C-OH. This reaction sometimes converts a pharmacologically inactive compound (a prodrug) to a pharmacologically active one. By the same token, Phase I can turn a nontoxic molecule into a poisonous one (toxification). Simple hydrolysis in the stomach is normally an innocuous reaction, however there are exceptions. For example, phase I metabolism converts acetonitrile to HOCH2CN, which rapidly dissociates into formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide, both of which are toxic.[7]

text: Phase I metabolism of drug candidates can be simulated in the laboratory using non-enzyme catalysts.[8] This example of a biomimetic reaction tends to give products that often contains the Phase I metabolites. As an example, the major metabolite of the pharmaceutical trimebutine, desmethyltrimebutine (nor-trimebutine), can be efficiently produced by in vitro oxidation of the commercially available drug. Hydroxylation of an N-methyl group leads to expulsion of a molecule of formaldehyde, while oxidation of the O-methyl groups takes place to a lesser extent.

text: Oxidation[edit]

text:
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system
Flavin-containing monooxygenase system
Alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase
Monoamine oxidase
Co-oxidation by peroxidases

text: Reduction[edit]

text: NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase

text: Cytochrome P450 reductase, also known as NADPH:ferrihemoprotein oxidoreductase, NADPH:hemoprotein oxidoreductase, NADPH:P450 oxidoreductase, P450 reductase, POR, CPR, CYPOR, is a membrane-bound enzyme required for electron transfer to cytochrome P450 in the microsome of the eukaryotic cell from a FAD- and FMN-containing enzyme NADPH:cytochrome P450 reductase The general scheme of electron flow in the POR/P450 system is: NADPH → FAD → FMN → P450 → O2

text: Reduced (ferrous) cytochrome P450

text: During reduction reactions, a chemical can enter futile cycling, in which it gains a free-radical electron, then promptly loses it to oxygen (to form a superoxide anion).

text: Hydrolysis[edit]

text:
Esterases and amidase
Epoxide hydrolase

text: Phase II – conjugation [edit]

text: In subsequent phase II reactions, these activated xenobiotic metabolites are conjugated with charged species such as glutathione (GSH), sulfate, glycine, or glucuronic acid. Sites on drugs where conjugation reactions occur include carboxyl (-COOH), hydroxyl (-OH), amino (NH2), and sulfhydryl (-SH) groups. Products of conjugation reactions have increased molecular weight and tend to be less active than their substrates, unlike Phase I reactions which often produce active metabolites. The addition of large anionic groups (such as GSH) detoxifies reactive electrophiles and produces more polar metabolites that cannot diffuse across membranes, and may, therefore, be actively transported.

text: These reactions are catalysed by a large group of broad-specificity transferases, which in combination can metabolise almost any hydrophobic compound that contains nucleophilic or electrophilic groups.[1] One of the most important classes of this group is that of the glutathione S-transferases (GSTs).

text:
Mechanism
Involved enzyme
Co-factor
Location
Sources

methylation
methyltransferase
S-adenosyl-L-methionine
liver, kidney, lung, CNS
[9]

sulphation
sulfotransferases
3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate
liver, kidney, intestine
[9]

acetylation

N-acetyltransferases
bile acid-CoA:amino acid N-acyltransferases

acetyl coenzyme A
liver, lung, spleen, gastric mucosa, RBCs, lymphocytes
[9]

glucuronidation
UDP-glucuronosyltransferases
UDP-glucuronic acid
liver, kidney, intestine, lung, skin, prostate, brain
[9]

glutathione conjugation
glutathione S-transferases
glutathione
liver, kidney
[9]

glycine conjugation
Two step process:

XM-ligase (forms a xenobiotic acyl-CoA)
Glycine N-acyltransferase (forms the glycine conjugate)

glycine
liver, kidney
[10]

text: Phase III – further modification and excretion[edit]

text: After phase II reactions, the xenobiotic conjugates may be further metabolised. A common example is the processing of glutathione conjugates to acetylcysteine (mercapturic acid) conjugates.[11] Here, the γ-glutamate and glycine residues in the glutathione molecule are removed by Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and dipeptidases. In the final step, the cystine residue in the conjugate is acetylated.

text: Conjugates and their metabolites can be excreted from cells in phase III of their metabolism, with the anionic groups acting as affinity tags for a variety of membrane transporters of the multidrug resistance protein (MRP) family.[12] These proteins are members of the family of ATP-binding cassette transporters and can catalyse the ATP-dependent transport of a huge variety of hydrophobic anions,[13] and thus act to remove phase II products to the extracellular medium, where they may be further metabolised or excreted.[14]

text: Endogenous toxins[edit]

text: The detoxification of endogenous reactive metabolites such as peroxides and reactive aldehydes often cannot be achieved by the system described above. This is the result of these species' being derived from normal cellular constituents and usually sharing their polar characteristics. However, since these compounds are few in number, it is possible for enzymatic systems to utilize specific molecular recognition to recognize and remove them. The similarity of these molecules to useful metabolites therefore means that different detoxification enzymes are usually required for the metabolism of each group of endogenous toxins. Examples of these specific detoxification systems are the glyoxalase system, which acts to dispose of the reactive aldehyde methylglyoxal, and the various antioxidant systems that remove reactive oxygen species.

text: Sites[edit]

text: Quantitatively, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the liver cell is the principal organ of drug metabolism, although every biological tissue has some ability to metabolize drugs. Factors responsible for the liver's contribution to drug metabolism include that it is a large organ, that it is the first organ perfused by chemicals absorbed in the gut, and that there are very high concentrations of most drug-metabolizing enzyme systems relative to other organs. If a drug is taken into the GI tract, where it enters hepatic circulation through the portal vein, it becomes well-metabolized and is said to show the first pass effect.

text: Other sites of drug metabolism include epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, kidneys, and the skin. These sites are usually responsible for localized toxicity reactions.

text: Factors that affect drug metabolism[edit]

text: The duration and intensity of pharmacological action of most lipophilic drugs are determined by the rate they are metabolized to inactive products. The Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system is the most important pathway in this regard. In general, anything that increases the rate of metabolism (e.g., enzyme induction) of a pharmacologically active metabolite will decrease the duration and intensity of the drug action. The opposite is also true (e.g., enzyme inhibition). However, in cases where an enzyme is responsible for metabolizing a pro-drug into a drug, enzyme induction can speed up this conversion and increase drug levels, potentially causing toxicity.

text: Various physiological and pathological factors can also affect drug metabolism. Physiological factors that can influence drug metabolism include age, individual variation (e.g., pharmacogenetics), enterohepatic circulation, nutrition, intestinal flora, or sex differences.

text: In general, drugs are metabolized more slowly in fetal, neonatal and elderly humans and animals than in adults.

text: Genetic variation (polymorphism) accounts for some of the variability in the effect of drugs. With N-acetyltransferases (involved in Phase II reactions), individual variation creates a group of people who acetylate slowly (slow acetylators) and those who acetylate quickly, split roughly 50:50 in the population of Canada. This variation may have dramatic consequences, as the slow acetylators are more prone to dose-dependent toxicity.

text: Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system enzymes can also vary across individuals, with deficiencies occurring in 1 – 30% of people, depending on their ethnic background.

text: Dose, frequency, route of administration, tissue distribution and protein binding of the drug affect its metabolism.

text: Pathological factors can also influence drug metabolism, including liver, kidney, or heart diseases.

text: In silico modelling and simulation methods allow drug metabolism to be predicted in virtual patient populations prior to performing clinical studies in human subjects.[15] This can be used to identify individuals most at risk from adverse reaction.

text: History[edit]

text: Studies on how people transform the substances that they ingest began in the mid-nineteenth century, with chemists discovering that organic chemicals such as benzaldehyde could be oxidized and conjugated to amino acids in the human body.[16] During the remainder of the nineteenth century, several other basic detoxification reactions were discovered, such as methylation, acetylation, and sulfonation.

text: In the early twentieth century, work moved on to the investigation of the enzymes and pathways that were responsible for the production of these metabolites. This field became defined as a separate area of study with the publication by Richard Williams of the book Detoxication mechanisms in 1947.[17] This modern biochemical research resulted in the identification of glutathione S-transferases in 1961,[18] followed by the discovery of cytochrome P450s in 1962,[19] and the realization of their central role in xenobiotic metabolism in 1963.[20][21]