document_title: Confederate States Army

question_text: which state provided the most soldiers for the confederate army

question_tokens: which state provided the most soldiers for the confederate army

text: Confederate States Army

text: Prelude[edit]

text: By the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4, 1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U.S. Army forts, within its borders. Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U.S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. By the time Lincoln was sworn in as president, the Provisional Confederate Congress had authorized the organization of a large Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS).

text: Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C.S. troops under the command of General P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, 1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The United States were outraged by the Confederacy's attack and demanded war. It rallied behind Lincoln's call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the United States intact. Four more slave states then joined the Confederacy. Both the United States and the Confederate States began in earnest to raise large, mostly volunteer, armies with the objectives of putting down the rebellion and preserving the Union, on the one hand, or of establishing independence from the United States, on the other.

text: Establishment[edit]

text: The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army. It was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. The provisional, volunteer army was established by an act of the Provisional Confederate Congress passed on February 28, 1861, one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization, passed on March 6. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army.

text:
The Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS) began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a higher rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army. If the war had ended successfully for them, the Confederates intended that the PACS would be disbanded, leaving only the ACSA.[9]
The Army of the Confederate States of America (ACSA) was the regular army and was authorized to include 15,015 men, including 744 officers, but this level was never achieved. The men serving in the highest rank as Confederate States generals, such as Samuel Cooper and Robert E. Lee, were enrolled in the ACSA to ensure that they outranked all militia officers.[9] ACSA ultimately existed only on paper. The organization of the ACSA did not proceed beyond the appointment and confirmation of some officers. Three state regiments were later denominated "Confederate" regiments but this appears to have had no practical effect on the organization of a regular Confederate Army and no real effect on the regiments themselves.

text: Members of all the Confederate States military forces (the army, the navy, and the marine corps) are often referred to as "Confederates", and members of the Confederate army were referred to as "Confederate soldiers". Supplementing the Confederate army were the various state militias of the Confederacy:

text: Confederate States State Militias were organized and commanded by the state governments, similar to those authorized by the United States' Militia Act of 1792.

text: Control and conscription[edit]

text: Control and operation of the Confederate army was administered by the Confederate States War Department, which was established by the Confederate Provisional Congress in an act on February 21, 1861. The Confederate Congress gave control over military operations, and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the President of the Confederate States of America on February 28, 1861, and March 6, 1861. On March 8 the Confederate Congress passed a law that authorized Davis to issue proclamations to call up no more than 100,000 men.[10] The War Department asked for 8,000 volunteers on March 9, 20,000 on April 8, and 49,000 on and after April 16. Davis proposed an army of 100,000 men in his message to Congress on April 29.[11]

text: On August 8, 1861, the Confederacy called for 400,000 volunteers to serve for one or three years. In April 1862,[12] the Confederacy passed the first conscription law in either C.S. or U.S. history, the Conscription Act,[13] which made all able bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 liable for a three-year term of service in the PACS. It also extended the terms of enlistment for all one-year soldiers to three years. Men employed in certain occupations considered to be most valuable for the home front (such as railroad and river workers, civil officials, telegraph operators, miners, druggists and teachers) were exempt from the draft.[14] The act was amended twice in 1862. On September 27, the maximum age of conscription was extended to 45.[15] On October 11, the Confederate Congress passed the so-called "Twenty Negro Law",[16] which exempted anyone who owned 20 or more slaves, a move that caused deep resentment among conscripts who did not own slaves.

text: The Confederate Congress made several more amendments over the course of the war to address losses suffered in battle as well as the United States’ greater supply of manpower. In December 1863, they abolished the practice of allowing a rich drafted man to hire a substitute to take his place in the ranks. Substitution had also been practiced in the United States, leading to similar resentment from the lower classes. In February 1864, the age limits were extended to between 17 and 50.[17] Challenges to the subsequent acts came before five state supreme courts; all five upheld them.[18]

text: Morale and motivations[edit]

text: In his 2010 book Major Problems in the Civil War, historian Michael Perman says that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:

text: Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that, no matter what he thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight.

text: Educated soldiers drew upon their knowledge of American history to justify their costs. McPherson says:

text: The most popular press coming out of Richmond before and during the Civil War sought to inspire a sense of patriotism, Confederate identity, and moral high ground in the southern population though newspaper media.[21]

text: Religion[edit]

text: The southern churches met the shortage of Army chaplains by sending missionaries. The Southern Baptists started in 1862 and had a total of 78 missionaries. Presbyterians were even more active with 112 missionaries and early 1865. Other missionaries were funded and supported by the Episcopalians, Methodists, and Lutherans. One result was wave after wave of revivals in the Army. [22] Religion played a major part in the lives of Confederate soldiers. Some men with a weak religious affiliation became committed Christians, and saw their military service in terms of God's wishes. Religion strengthened the soldiers' loyalty to comrades and the Confederacy.[23][24][25][26] Military historian Samuel J. Watson argues that Christian faith was a major factor in combat motivation. The soldiers' faith was consoling for the loss of comrades; it was a shield against fear; it helped cut down on drinking and fighting; it enlarged the soldiers community of close friends and helped make up for long-term separation from home.[27][28]

text: Slavery and white supremacism[edit]

text: In his 1997 book For Cause and Comrades, which examines the motivations of the American Civil War's soldiers, historian James M. McPherson contrasts the views of Confederate soldiers regarding slavery to that of the colonial American revolutionaries of the 18th century.[29] He stated that while the American colonists of the 1770s saw an incongruity with slave ownership and proclaiming to be fighting for liberty, the Confederacy's soldiers did not, as the Confederate ideology of white supremacy negated any contradiction between the two:

text: Unlike many slaveholders in the age of Thomas Jefferson, Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their own liberty while holding other people in slavery. Indeed, white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought.

text: McPherson states that Confederate soldiers did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as United States soldiers did, because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery and thus did not feel the need to debate over it:

text: [O]nly 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries. As one might expect, a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from nonslaveholding families expressed such a purpose: 33 percent, compared with 12 percent. Ironically, the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater, as the next chapter will show. There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox. Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial. Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial. They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern 'rights' and institutions for which they fought, and did not feel compelled to discuss it.

text: Continuing, McPherson also stated that of the hundreds of Confederate soldiers' letters he had examined, none of them contained any anti-slavery sentiment whatsoever:

text: Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries, none at all dissented from that view.

text: But McPherson admits flaws in his sampling of letters. Soldiers from slaveholding families were overrepresented by 100%:

text: Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample. Indeed, while about one-third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families, slightly more than two-thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so.

text: In some cases, Confederate men were motivated to join the army in response to the United States’ actions in regards to opposition to slavery.[32] After U.S. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, some Confederate soldiers welcomed the move, as they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy and thus, lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate army.[32]

text: One Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that "we are fighting for our property",[33] contrasting this with the motivations of Union soldiers, who he claimed were fighting for the "flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo".[33] One Louisianan artillery soldier stated, "I never want to see the day when a negro is put on an equality with a white person. There is too many free niggers . . . now to suit me, let alone having four millions."[34] A North Carolinian soldier stated, "[A] white man is better than a nigger."[34]

text: In 1894, Virginian and former Confederate soldier John S. Mosby, reflecting back on his role in the war, stated in a letter to a friend that "I've always understood that we went to war on account of the thing we quarreled with the North about. I've never heard of any other cause than slavery."[35][36]

text: Desertion[edit]

text: At many points during the war, and especially near the end, Confederate armies were very poorly fed. Back home their families were in worsening condition and faced starvation and marauders. Many soldiers went home temporarily ("absent without official leave") and quietly returned when their family problems had been resolved. By September 1864, however, President Davis publicly admitted that two thirds of the soldiers were absent, "most of them without leave." The problem escalated rapidly after that, and fewer and fewer men returned.[37] Soldiers who were fighting in defense of their homes realized that they had to desert to fulfill that duty. Historian Mark Weitz argues that the official count of 103,400 deserters is too low. He concludes that most of the desertions came because the soldier felt he owed a higher duty to his own family than to the Confederacy.[38]

text: Confederate policies generally were severe. For example, on August 19, 1862 General Stonewall Jackson approved the court-martial sentence of execution for three soldiers for desertion. He rejected pleas for clemency from the soldier's regimental commander. Jackson's goal was to maintain discipline in a volunteer army whose homes were under threat of enemy occupation.[39][40]

text: Historians have emphasized how soldiers from poor families deserted because they were urgently needed at home. Local pressures mounted as United States forces occupied more and more of the Confederacy, putting more and more families at risk.[41] One Confederate officer at the time noted, "The deserters belong almost entirely to the poorest class of non slave-holders whose labor is indispensable to the daily support of their families" and that "When the father, husband or son is forced into the service, the suffering at home with them is inevitable. It is not in the nature of these men to remain quiet in the ranks under such circumstances."[42]

text: Some soldiers also deserted from ideological motivations.[43] A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the slave power. Many of their soldiers deserted, returned home, and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them.[44][45] North Carolina lost 23% of its soldiers (24,122) to desertion. The state provided more soldiers per capita than any other Confederate state, and had more deserters as well.[46][47]

text: Young Mark Twain deserted long before he became a famous writer and lecturer, but he often commented upon the episode in comic fashion. Beneath his desertion from a Missouri State Guard unit was his deep unease about losing his personal honor, his fear of facing death as a soldier, and his rejection of a Southern identity as a professional author.[48]

text: Organization[edit]

text: Because of the destruction of any central repository of records in Richmond in 1865 and the comparatively poor record-keeping of the time, there can be no definitive number that represents the strength of the Confederate States Army. Estimates range from 500,000 to 2,000,000 men who were involved at any time during the war. Reports from the War Department began at the end of 1861 (326,768 men), 1862 (449,439), 1863 (464,646), 1864 (400,787), and "last reports" (358,692). Estimates of enlistments throughout the war were 1,227,890 to 1,406,180.[49]

text: The following calls for men were issued:

text:
March 6, 1861: 100,000 volunteers and militia
January 23, 1862: 400,000 volunteers and militia
April 16, 1862, the First Conscription Act: conscripted white men ages 18 to 35 for the duration of hostilities[50]
September 27, 1862, the Second Conscription Act: expanded the age range to 18 to 45,[51] with implementation beginning on July 15, 1863
February 17, 1864, the Third Conscription Act: ages 17 to 50[52]
March 13, 1865, authorized up to 300,000 African American troops but was never fully implemented.[53]

text: The CSA was initially a (strategically) defensive army, and many soldiers were resentful when Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia in an invasion of the North in the Antietam Campaign.

text: Command[edit]

text: The army did not have a formal overall military commander, or general-in-chief, until late in the war. The Confederate President, Jefferson Davis, himself a former U.S. Army officer and U.S. Secretary of War, served as commander-in-chief and provided the strategic direction for Confederate land and naval forces. The following men had varying degrees of control:

text:
Robert E. Lee was "charged with the conduct of military operations in the armies of the Confederacy" from March 13 to May 31, 1862. He was referred to as Davis' military adviser but exercised broad control over the strategic and logistical aspects of the Army, a role similar in nature to the current Chief of Staff of the United States Army. On June 1, he assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia, which was considered the most important of all the Confederate field armies.
Braxton Bragg was similarly "charged with the conduct of military operations in the armies of the Confederacy" from February 24, 1864 (after he was relieved of field command following the Battle of Chattanooga) to January 31, 1865. This role was a military advisory position under Davis.
Lee was formally designated general-in-chief by an act of Congress (January 23, 1865) and served in this capacity from January 31 to April 9, 1865.

text: The lack of centralized control was a strategic weakness for the Confederacy, and there are few instances of multiple armies acting in concert across multiple theaters to achieve a common objective. (An exception to this was in late 1862 when Lee's invasion of Maryland was coincident with two other actions: Bragg's invasion of Kentucky and Earl Van Dorn's advance against Corinth, Mississippi. All three initiatives were unsuccessful, however.) Likewise, an extreme example of "States Rights" control of C.S. soldiers was Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown, who not only reportedly tried to keep Georgia troops from leaving the State of Georgia in 1861 but also tried to keep them from C.S. government control when U.S. forces entered Georgia in 1864.[citation needed]

text: Many of the Confederacy's senior military leaders (including Robert E. Lee, Albert Sidney Johnston, James Longstreet) and even President Jefferson Davis were former U.S. Army and, in smaller numbers, U.S. Navy officers who had been opposed to, disapproved of, or were at least unenthusiastic about secession but resigned their U.S. commissions upon hearing that their states had left the Union. They felt that they had no choice but to help defend their homes. President Abraham Lincoln was exasperated to hear of such men who professed to love their country but were willing to fight against it.

text: Personnel organization[edit]

text: As in the U.S. Army, the Confederate army's soldiers were organized by military specialty. The combat arms included infantry, cavalry and artillery.

text: Although fewer soldiers might comprise a squad or platoon, the smallest infantry maneuver unit in the Army was a company of 100 soldiers. Ten companies were organized into an infantry regiment, which theoretically had 1,000 men. In reality, as disease, desertions and casualties took their toll, and the common practice of sending replacements to form new regiments took hold, most regiments were greatly reduced in strength. By the mid-war, most regiments averaged 300–400 men, with Confederate units slightly smaller on average than their U.S. counterparts. For example, at the pivotal Battle of Chancellorsville, the average U.S. Army infantry regiment's strength was 433 men, versus 409 for Confederate infantry regiments.[54]

text: Rough unit sizes for CSA combat units during the war:[55]

text:
Corps - 24,000 to 28,000
Division - 6,000 to 14,000
Brigade - 800 to 1,700
Regiment - 350 to 400
Company - 35 to 40

text: Regiments, which were the basic units of army organization through which soldiers were supplied and deployed, were raised by individual states. They were generally referred by number and state, for example 1st Texas, 12th Virginia. To the extent the word "battalion" was used to describe a military unit, it referred to a multi-company task force of a regiment or a near-regimental size unit. Throughout the war, the Confederacy raised the equivalent of 1,010 regiments in all branches, including militias, versus 2,050 regiments for the U.S. Army.[56]

text: Four regiments usually formed a brigade, although as the number of men in many regiments became greatly reduced, especially later in the war, more than four were often assigned to a brigade. Occasionally, regiments would be transferred between brigades. Two to four brigades usually formed a division. Two to four divisions usually formed a corps. Two to four corps usually formed an army. Occasionally, a single corps might operate independently as if it were a small army. The Confederate States Army consisted of several field armies, named after their primary area of operation. The largest Confederate field army was the Army of Northern Virginia, whose surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in 1865 marked the end of major combat operations in the US Civil War.

text: Companies were commanded by captains and had two or more lieutenants. Regiments were commanded by colonels. Lieutenant colonels were second in command. At least one major was next in command. Brigades were commanded by brigadier generals although casualties or other attrition sometimes meant that brigades would be commanded by senior colonels or even a lower grade officer. Barring the same type of circumstances which might leave a lower grade officer in temporary command, divisions were commanded by major generals and corps were commanded by lieutenant generals. A few corps commanders were never confirmed as lieutenant generals and exercised corps command for varying periods of time as major generals. Armies of more than one corps were commanded by (full) generals.

text:
Corporal of the Artillery division of the Confederate States of America Army.

Confederate mortar crew at Warrington, Florida in 1861, across from Fort Pickens.

Confederate artillery at Charleston Harbor, 1863.

text: Ranks and insignia[edit]

text:
Officer rank structure of the Confederate Army

General
Colonel
Lieutenant colonel
Major
Captain
First lieutenant
Second lieutenant

text:
General (CSA)

Colonel (Infantry shown)

Lieutenant-colonel (Headquarters shown)

Major (Medical Corps shown)

Captain (Marine Corps shown)

1st Lieutenant (Artillery shown)

2nd Lieutenant (Cavalry shown)

text: There were four grades of general officer (general, lieutenant general, major general, and brigadier general), but all wore the same insignia regardless of grade. This was a decision made early in the conflict. The Confederate Congress initially made the rank of brigadier general the highest rank. As the war progressed, the other general-officer ranks were quickly added, but no insignia for them was created. (Robert E. Lee was a notable exception to this. He chose to wear the rank insignia of a colonel.) Only seven men achieved the rank of (full) general;[57] the highest ranking (earliest date of rank) was Samuel Cooper, Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate States Army.

text: Officers' uniforms bore a braid design on the sleeves and kepi, the number of adjacent strips (and therefore the width of the lines of the design) denoting rank. The color of the piping and kepi denoted the military branch. The braid was sometimes left off by officers since it made them conspicuous targets. The kepi was rarely used, the common slouch hat being preferred for its practicality in the Southern climate.

text:
Enlisted rank structure

Sergeant Major
Quartermaster Sergeant
Ordnance Sergeant
First Sergeant

Sergeant
Corporal
Musician
Private

no insignia
no insignia

text: Branch colors were used for color of chevrons—blue for infantry, yellow for cavalry, and red for artillery. This could differ with some units, however, depending on available resources or the unit commander's desire. Cavalry regiments from Texas, for example, often used red insignia and at least one Texas infantry regiment used black.

text: The CSA differed from many contemporaneous armies in that all officers under the rank of brigadier general were elected by the soldiers under their command. The Confederate Congress authorized the awarding of medals for courage and good conduct on October 13, 1862, but war time difficulties prevented the procurement of the needed medals. To avoid postponing recognition for their valor, those nominated for the awards had their names placed on a Roll of Honor, which would be read at the first dress parade after its receipt and be published in at least one newspaper in each state.

text: Armies and prominent leaders[edit]

text: The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted, renamed, and disbanded as needs arose, particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the United States. These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions (in comparison to the U.S. Army’s custom of naming armies after rivers). Armies were usually commanded by full generals (there were seven in the C.S. Army) or lieutenant generals. Some of the more important armies and their commanders were:

text:
Army of Arkansas – Sterling Price, Edmund Kirby Smith
Army of Central Kentucky – Simon B. Buckner, Albert Sidney Johnston
Army of East Tennessee – Edmund Kirby Smith (later renamed Army of Kentucky)
Army of Eastern Kentucky – Humphrey Marshall
Army of the Kanawha – Henry A. Wise, John B. Floyd, Robert E. Lee
Army of Kentucky – Edmund Kirby Smith (eventually commander of all forces West of the Mississippi)
Army of Louisiana – Braxton Bragg. Paul O. Hébert
Army of Mississippi

March 1862 – November 1862: P. G. T. Beauregard, Albert Sidney Johnston, Braxton Bragg, William J. Hardee, Leonidas Polk, (also known as the Army of the Mississippi; redesignated Army of Tennessee on November 20, 1862)
December 1862 – July 1863: John C. Pemberton, Earl Van Dorn, (1863) William W. Loring (also known as Army of Vicksburg)
July 1863 – June 1864: William J. Hardee, Leonidas Polk, William W. Loring (also known as the Army of the Mississippi; redesignated III Corps, Army of Tennessee in May 1864, but continued to use its old name)

Army of Middle Tennessee – John C. Breckinridge
Army of Missouri – Sterling Price
Army of Mobile – Jones M. Withers, Braxton Bragg, John B. Villepigue, Samuel Jones, William L. Powell, John H. Forney
Army of New Mexico – Henry H. Sibley
Army of Northern Virginia – Joseph E. Johnston, Gustavus W. Smith, Robert E. Lee

First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
Second Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
Third Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
Fourth Corps, Army of Northern Virginia, often styled "Anderson's Corps"
Cavalry Corps, Army of Northern Virginia

Army of the Northwest – Robert S. Garnett, Henry R. Jackson, William W. Loring, Edward Johnson
Army of the Peninsula – John B. Magruder, Daniel H. Hill
Army of Pensacola – Adley H. Gladden, Braxton Bragg, Samuel Jones
Army of the Potomac – P. G. T. Beauregard, Joseph E. Johnston
Army of the Shenandoah – Joseph E. Johnston
Army of Tennessee – Braxton Bragg, Samuel Gibbs French, William J. Hardee, Daniel H. Hill, John Bell Hood, Joseph E. Johnston, Richard Taylor

First Corps, Army of Tennessee
Second Corps, Army of Tennessee
Third Corps, Army of Tennessee
Forrest's Cavalry Corps – Nathan Bedford Forrest

Army of the Trans-Mississippi – Thomas C. Hindman, Theophilus Holmes, Edmund Kirby Smith (also known as the Army of the Southwest)
Army of the Valley (also known as Second Corps, Army of Northern Virginia) – Jubal Early
Army of the West – Earl van Dorn, John P. McCown, Dabney H. Maury, Sterling Price
Army of West Tennessee – Earl Van Dorn
Army of Western Louisiana – Richard Taylor, John G. Walker

text: Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, James Longstreet, J. E. B. Stuart, Gideon Pillow, and A. P. Hill.

text: Supply and logistics[edit]

text: The supply situation for most Confederate armies was dismal, even when they were victorious on the battlefield. The central government was short of money so each state government had to supply its own regiments. The lack of central authority and the ineffective railroads, combined with the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Confederate army's demise. The Confederacy early on lost control of most of its major river and ocean ports to capture or blockade. The road system was poor, and it relied more and more on a heavily overburdened railroad system. U.S. forces destroyed track, engines, cars, bridges and telegraph lines as often as possible, knowing that new equipment was unavailable to the Confederacy.[59] Occasional raids into the North were designed to bring back money and supplies. In 1864, the Confederates burned down Chambersburg, a Pennsylvania city they had raided twice in the years before, due to its failure to pay an extortion demand.[60]

text: As a result of severe supply problems, as well as the lack of textile factories in the Confederacy and the successful U.S. naval blockade of Southern ports, the typical Confederate soldier was rarely able to wear the standard regulation uniform, particularly as the war progressed. While on the march or in parade formation, Confederate armies often displayed a wide array of dress, ranging from faded, patched-together regulation uniforms; rough, homespun uniforms colored with homemade dyes such as butternut (a yellow-brown color), and even soldiers in a hodgepodge of civilian clothing. After a successful battle, it was not unusual for victorious Confederate troops to procure U.S. Army uniform parts from captured supplies and dead U.S. soldiers; this would occasionally cause confusion in later battles and skirmishes.[61]

text: Individual states were expected to supply their soldiers, which led to a lack of uniformity. Some states (such as North Carolina) were able to better supply their soldiers, while other states (such as Texas) were unable for various reasons to adequately supply their troops as the war continued.

text: Furthermore, each state often had its own uniform regulations and insignia, which meant that the "standard" Confederate uniform often featured a variety of differences based on the state the soldier came from. For example, uniforms for North Carolina regiments often featured a colored strip of cloth on their shoulders to designate what part of the service the soldier was in. Confederate soldiers also frequently suffered from inadequate supplies of shoes, tents, and other gear, and would be forced to innovate and make do with whatever they could scrounge from the local countryside. While Confederate officers were generally better-supplied and were normally able to wear a regulation officer's uniform, they often chose to share other hardships – such as the lack of adequate food – with their troops.

text: Confederate soldiers were also faced with inadequate food rations, especially as the war progressed. There was plenty of meat in the Confederacy. The unsolvable problem was shipping it to the armies, especially when Lee's army in Virginia was at the end of a long, tenuous supply line. United States victory at Vicksburg in 1863 shut off supplies from Texas and the west.[62]

text: By 1863 Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee often spent as much time and effort searching for food for their men as they did in planning strategy and tactics. Individual commanders often had to "beg, borrow or steal" food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured U.S. depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania (a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, especially food.[63]

text: General Sherman's total warfare reduced the ability of the South to produce food and ship it to the armies or its cities. Coupled with the U.S. blockade of all ports the devastation of plantations, farms and railroads meant the Confederacy increasingly lost the capacity to feed its soldiers and civilians.

text: Native Americans and the Confederate army[edit]

text: Native Americans served in both the United States and Confederate military during the American Civil War.[64][65] They fought knowing they might jeopardize their freedom, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War.[64][66] During the Civil War 28,693 Native Americans served in the U.S. and Confederate armies, participating in battles such as Pea Ridge, Second Manassas, Antietam, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and in Federal assaults on Petersburg.[64][65] Many Native American tribes, such as the Creek and the Choctaw, were slaveholders themselves, and thus, found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy.[67]

text: At the beginning of the war, Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one such treaty was the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws conducted in July 1861. The treaty covered sixty-four terms covering many subjects like Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty, Confederate States of America citizenship possibilities, and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America. The Cherokee, Choctaw, Seminole, Catawba, and Creek tribes were the only tribes to fight on the Confederate side. The Confederacy wanted to recruit Indians east of the Mississippi River in 1862, so they opened up a recruiting camp in Mobile, Alabama "at the foot of Stone Street".[68] The Mobile Advertiser and Register would advertise for a chance at military service.

text: A Chance for Active Service. The Secretary of War has authorized me to enlist all the Indians east of the Mississippi River into the service of the Confederate States, as Scouts. In addition to the Indians, I will receive all white male citizens, who are good marksmen. To each member, Fifty Dollars Bounty, clothes, arms, camp equipage &c: furnished. The weapons shall be Enfield Rifles. For further information address me at Mobile, Ala. (Signed) S. G. Spann, Comm'ing Choctaw Forces.

text: Cherokee[edit]

text: Stand Watie, along with a few Cherokee, sided with the Confederate army, in which he was made colonel and commanded a battalion of Cherokee.[64] Reluctantly, on October 7, 1861, Chief Ross signed a treaty transferring all obligations due to the Cherokee from the United States to the Confederate States.[64] In the treaty, the Cherokee were guaranteed protection, rations of food, livestock, tools and other goods, as well as a delegate to the Confederate Congress at Richmond.[64]

text: In exchange, the Cherokee would furnish ten companies of mounted men, and allow the construction of military posts and roads within the Cherokee Nation. However, no Indian regiment was to be called on to fight outside Indian Territory.[64] As a result of the Treaty, the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles, led by Col. John Drew, was formed. Following the Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7–8, 1862, Drew's Mounted Rifles defected to the United States forces in Kansas, where they joined the Indian Home Guard. In the summer of 1862, U.S. troops captured Chief Ross, who was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington and Philadelphia proclaiming Cherokee loyalty to the United States Army.[64]

text: William Holland Thomas, the only white chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, recruited hundreds of Cherokees for the Confederate army, particularly for Thomas' Legion. The Legion, raised in September 1862, fought until the end of the War.

text: Choctaw[edit]

text: Choctaw Confederate battalions were formed in Indian Territory and later in Mississippi in support of the southern cause. The Choctaws, who were expecting support from the Confederates, got little. Webb Garrison, a Civil War historian, describes their response: when Confederate Brigadier General Albert Pike authorized the raising of regiments during the fall of 1860, Seminoles, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Cherokees responded with considerable enthusiasm. Their zeal for the Confederate cause, however, began to evaporate when they found that neither arms nor pay had been arranged for them. A disgusted officer later acknowledged that "with the exception of a partial supply for the Choctaw regiment, no tents, clothing, or camp, and garrison equipage was furnished to any of them."[69]

text: African Americans and the Confederate Army[edit]

text: With so many white males conscripted into the army and roughly 40% of its population unfree, the work required to maintain a functioning society in the Confederacy ended up largely on the backs of slaves.[76] Even Georgian governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support."[77] African American slave labor was used in a wide variety of logistical support roles for the Confederacy, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.[78][79]

text: Using slaves as soldiers[edit]

text: The Confederacy did not allow African Americans to join the army, including both free blacks and slaves. The idea of arming the Confederacy's slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but such proposals were not seriously considered by Jefferson Davis or others in the Confederate administration until late in the war, when severe manpower shortages were faced.[80] Gary Gallagher says, "When Lee publicly advocated arming slaves in early 1865, he did so as a desperate expedient that might prolong Southern military resistance.".[81] After acrimonious debate the Confederate Congress agreed in March, 1865. The war was nearly over by then and very few slaves ended up being enlisted before the Confederate armies all surrendered.[12]

text: Opposition from Confederates[edit]

text: As early as November 1864, some Confederates knew that the chance of securing victory against the U.S. was slim.[82] Despite lacking foreign assistance and recognition and facing slim chances of victory against superior U.S. assets, Confederate newspapers such as the Georgian Atlanta Southern Confederacy continued to maintain their position and oppose the idea of armed black men in the Confederate army, even late in the war as January 1865.[83] They stated that it was incongruous with the Confederacy's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery. The Georgian newspaper opined that using black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children, saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor, they should not be used as armed soldiers, opining that:

text: Prominent Confederates such as R. M. T. Hunter and Georgian Democrat Howell Cobb opposed arming slaves, saying that it was "suicidal" and would run contrary to the Confederacy's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army.[84][85][86][87]

text: The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:

text: [F]or a great many of the most powerful southerners the idea of arming and freeing the slaves was repugnant because the protection of slavery had been and still remained the central core of Confederate purpose... Slavery was the basis of the planter class's wealth, power, and position in society. The South's leading men had built their world upon slavery and the idea of voluntarily destroying that world, even in the ultimate crisis, was almost unthinkable to them. Such feelings moved Senator R. M. T. Hunter to deliver a long speech against the bill to arm the slaves.[88]

text: Though most Confederates were opposed to the idea of using black soldiers, a small number suggested the idea. An acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne[89] urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation; Jefferson Davis refused to consider the proposal and issued instructions forbidding the matter from being discussed.[90] It would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction.[91]

text: On March 13, 1865,[12] the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14[92][93] by a single vote in the Confederate senate,[12][94] and Jefferson Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but as it was late in the war, only a few African American companies were raised in the Richmond area before the town was captured by the U.S. Army and placed back under U.S. control.[95]

text: According to historian James M. McPherson in 1994, "no black soldiers fought in the Confederate army, unless they were passing as white."[dubious – discuss] [12] He noted that some Confederates brought along "their body servants, who in many cases had grown up with them" and that "on occasion some of those body servants were known to have picked up a rifle... But there was no official recruitment of black soldiers in the Confederate army until the very end of the war", when it was brought about only by a "desperate shortage of manpower."[12]

text: Treatment of black civilians[edit]

text: In some cases, the Confederates forced their African American slaves to fire upon U.S. soldiers at gunpoint,[74][75] such as at the first Battle of Bull Run. According to John Parker, one such slave who was forced by the Confederates to fight U.S. soldiers, "Our masters tried all they could to make us fight... They promised to give us our freedom and money besides, but none of us believed them; we only fought because we had to." Parker stated that had he been given an opportunity, he would have turned against his Confederate captors, and "could do it with pleasure".[74][75] According to abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet in 1862, he had met a slave who "had unwillingly fought on the side of Rebellion", but said slave had since defected to "the side of Union and universal liberty."[75]

text: During the Siege of Yorktown (1862), The United States Army's elite sniper unit, the 1st United States Sharpshooters, was devastatingly effective at shooting Confederate artillerymen defending the city. In response, some Confederate artillery crews started forcing slaves to load the cannons. "They forced their negroes to load their cannon," reported a U.S. officer. “They shot them if they would not load the cannon, and we shot them if they did.”[96]

text: In other cases, under explicit orders from their commanders, Confederate armies would often forcibly kidnap free African American civilians during their incursions into U.S. territory, sending them south into Confederate territory and thus enslaving them, as was the case with the Army of Northern Virginia when it invaded Pennsylvania in 1863.[97][98]

text: Treatment of black prisoners of war[edit]

text: The usage of black men as U.S. soldiers by the U.S., combined with Abraham Lincoln's issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation, profoundly angered the Confederacy,[99] with the Confederates calling it uncivilized.[100] As a response, in May 1863 the Confederacy passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation" against the United States, stating that any black person captured in "arms against the Confederate States" or giving aid and comfort to their enemies would be turned over to state authorities, where they could be tried as slave insurrectionists; a capital offense punishable with a sentence of death.[101][102] However, Confederate authorities feared retaliation, and as such no black prisoner was ever put on trial and executed.[103]

text: James McPherson states that "Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications."[104][105] African American USCT soldiers were often singled out by the Confederates and suffered extra violence when captured by them.[70] They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates,[70] most notably at Fort Pillow in Tennessee and at the Battle of the Crater in Virginia.[106][107]

text: Prisoner exchanges with the United States[edit]

text: The Confederate law declaring black U.S. soldiers as being insurrectionist slaves, combined with the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers, became a stumbling block for prisoner exchanges between the United States and the Confederacy, as the U.S. government in the Lieber Code officially objected to the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of color.[108][109] The Republican Party's platform of the 1864 presidential election reflected this view, as it too condemned the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers.[110] According to the authors of Liberty, Equality, Power, "Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused."[108]

text: Statistics and size[edit]

text: Incomplete and destroyed records make an accurate count of the number of men who served in the Confederate army impossible. Historians provide estimates of the actual number of individual Confederate soldiers between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men.[111]

text: The exact number is unknown. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served in each army at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the armies at any given date. Confederate casualty figures are as incomplete and unreliable as the figures on the number of Confederate soldiers. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers appear to be about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in U.S. prison camps. In contrast, about 25,000 U.S. soldiers died as a result of accidents, drowning, murder, killed after capture, suicide, execution for various crimes, execution by the Confederates (64), sunstroke, other and not stated. Confederate casualties for all these reasons are unavailable. Since some Confederate soldiers would have died for these reasons, more total deaths and total casualties for the Confederacy must have occurred. One estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026; another is 226,000. At the end of the war 174,223 men of the Confederate forces surrendered to the U.S. Army.[112][113]

text: Compared to the U.S. Army at the time, the Confederate army was not very ethnically diverse. Ninety-one percent of Confederate soldiers were native-born white men and only 9% were foreign-born white men, Irishmen being the largest group with others including Germans, French, Mexicans, and British. A small number of Asian men were forcibly inducted into the Confederate army against their will when they arrived in Louisiana from overseas.[114][115]


document_title: American Graffiti

question_text: who drove the deuce coupe in american graffiti

root

text: American Graffiti

text: Plot[edit]

text: In early September 1962 in Modesto, California, on the last evening of summer vacation, recent high school graduates and longtime friends, Curt Henderson and Steve Bolander, meet John Milner, the drag-racing king of the town, and Terry "The Toad" Fields in the parking lot of the local Mel's Drive-In diner. Curt and Steve are scheduled to travel the next morning to the Northeastern United States to start college. Despite receiving a $2,000 scholarship from the local Moose Lodge, Curt has second thoughts about leaving Modesto. Steve gives Toad his 1958 Chevrolet Impala to watch while he's away at college until he returns at Christmas. Steve's girlfriend, Laurie, who is also Curt's sister, arrives in her car. Steve suggests to Laurie, who is already glum about him going to college, that they see other people while he is away in order to "strengthen" their relationship. Though not openly upset, she is displeased with his proposal which affects their interactions the rest of the evening.

tag: p

text: Curt accompanies Steve, last year's high school student class president, and Laurie, the current head cheerleader, to the back-to-high-school sock hop. In one story line, Curt is desperate to find a beautiful blonde girl driving a white 1956 Ford Thunderbird that he sees en route to the dance: at a stoplight, she appears to say "I love you" before disappearing around the corner. After leaving the hop, Curt is coerced by a group of greasers ("The Pharaohs") to participate in an initiation rite that involves hooking a chain to a police car and ripping out its back axle. The Pharaohs tell Curt that "The Blonde" is a trophy wife or prostitute, but he refuses to believe either. Determined to get a message to the blonde girl, Curt drives to the local radio station to ask DJ Wolfman Jack, who is omnipresent on the car radios, to announce a message for the blonde girl. Inside the radio station, Curt encounters a bearded man who tells him that the voice of The Wolfman is pre-taped from afar. The man still accepts the message from Curt to see what he could do. As he is leaving the station, Curt sees the man talking into the microphone and hears the voice of The Wolfman, and realizes the man is the actual DJ himself. Sure enough, The Wolfman eventually reads the message on the radio for "The Blonde" to meet Curt or call him at a number which happens to be a telephone booth. Curt waits by the telephone booth and early the next morning, he is awakened by the phone ringing. It turns out to be "The Blonde" who says she knows him and maybe she would see him cruising the coming night. Curt replies probably not, intimating that he decided to go to college and will be leaving that morning.

text: The Toad, in Steve's car, and John, in his yellow 1932 Ford Deuce Coupé hot rod, cruise the strip of Modesto. Toad, who is normally socially inept with girls, successfully picks up a flirtatious, and somewhat rebellious, girl named Debbie. John inadvertently picks up Carol, an annoying 12-year-old who seems fond of him. Another drag racer, the handsome and arrogant Bob Falfa, is searching out John in order to challenge him to a race.

text: Steve and Laurie have a series of arguments and make-ups through the evening. They finally split and, as the story lines intertwine, Bob Falfa picks up Laurie in his black 1955 Chevrolet One-Fifty Coupé. Bob finally finds John and goads him into racing. A parade of cars follows them to "Paradise Road" to watch the race. Laurie rides shotgun with Bob as Toad starts the race. As Bob begins taking a lead in the race, he loses control of the car when a front tire blows, and the car plunges into a ditch and rolls over. Steve and John leap out of their cars and rush to the wreck as a dazed Bob and Laurie stagger out of the car before it explodes. Distraught, Laurie grips Steve tightly and begs him not to leave her. He assures her that he will stay in Modesto.

text: At the airfield in the morning, Curt says goodbye to his parents, his sister Laurie, Steve, John and The Toad. As the plane takes off, Curt, gazing out of the window, sees the white Ford Thunderbird belonging to the mysterious blonde driving down a country road.

text: An on-screen epilogue reveals that John is killed by a drunk driver in December 1964, Toad is reported missing in action near An Lộc in December 1965, Steve is an insurance agent in Modesto, California, and Curt is a writer living in Canada.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Richard Dreyfuss as Curt Henderson
Ron Howard as Steve Bolander
Paul Le Mat as John Milner
Charles Martin Smith as Terry "The Toad" Fields
Cindy Williams as Laurie Henderson
Candy Clark as Debbie Dunham
Mackenzie Phillips as Carol Morrison
Wolfman Jack as himself
Bo Hopkins as Joe Young
Manuel Padilla, Jr. as Carlos
Harrison Ford as Bob Falfa
Lynne Marie Stewart as Bobbie Tucker
Terry McGovern as Mr. Wolfe
Kathleen Quinlan as Peg
Scott Beach as Mr. Gordon
Susan Richardson as Judy
Kay Lenz as Jane
Joe Spano as Vic
Debralee Scott as Falfa's Girl
Suzanne Somers as "The Blonde" in T-Bird

tag: ul

text: Development[edit]

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: During the production of THX 1138 (1971), producer Francis Ford Coppola challenged co-writer/director George Lucas to write a script that would appeal to mainstream audiences.[2] Lucas embraced the idea, using his early 1960s teenage experiences cruising in Modesto, California. "Cruising was gone, and I felt compelled to document the whole experience and what my generation used as a way of meeting girls," Lucas explained.[2] As he developed the story in his mind, Lucas included his fascination with Wolfman Jack. Lucas had considered doing a documentary about the Wolfman when he attended the USC School of Cinematic Arts, but dropped the idea.[3]

text: Adding in semi-autobiographical connotations, Lucas set the story in his hometown of 1962 Modesto.[2] The characters Curt Henderson, John Milner and Terry "The Toad" Fields also represent different stages from his younger life. Curt is modeled after Lucas's personality during USC, while Milner is based on Lucas's teenage street racing and junior college years, and hot rod enthusiasts he had known from the Kustom Kulture in Modesto. Toad represents Lucas's nerd years as a freshman in high school, specifically his "bad luck" with dating.[4] The filmmaker was also inspired by Federico Fellini's I Vitelloni (1953).[5]

text: After the financial failure of THX 1138, Lucas wanted the film to act as a release for a world-weary audience:[6]

text: [THX] was about real things that were going on and the problems we're faced with. I realized after making THX that those problems are so real that most of us have to face those things every day, so we're in a constant state of frustration. That just makes us more depressed than we were before. So I made a film where, essentially, we can get rid of some of those frustrations, the feeling that everything seems futile.[6]

text: United Artists[edit]

text: After Warner Bros. abandoned Lucas's early version of Apocalypse Now (1979) (during the post-production of THX 1138), the filmmaker decided to continue developing Another Quiet Night in Modesto, eventually changing its title to American Graffiti.[3] To co-write a fifteen-page film treatment, Lucas hired Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz, who also added semi-autobiographical material to the story.[7] Lucas and producer Gary Kurtz began pitching the American Graffiti treatment to various Hollywood studios and production companies in an attempt to secure the financing needed to expand it into a screenplay,[2] but they were unsuccessful. The potential financiers were concerned that music licensing costs would cause the film to go way over budget. Along with Easy Rider (1969), American Graffiti was one of the first films to eschew a traditional film score and successfully rely instead on synchronizing a series of popular hit songs with individual scenes.[8]

text: THX 1138 was released in March 1971[2] and Lucas was offered opportunities to direct Lady Ice (1973), Tommy (1975) or Hair (1979). He turned down those offers, determined to pursue his own projects despite his urgent desire to find another film to direct.[9][10] During this time, Lucas conceived the idea for a space opera (as yet untitled) which later became the basis for his Star Wars franchise. At the May 1971 Cannes Film Festival, THX was chosen for the Directors' Fortnight competition. There, Lucas met David Picker, then president of United Artists, who was intrigued by American Graffiti and Lucas's space opera. Picker decided to give Lucas $10,000 to develop Graffiti as a screenplay.[9]

text: Lucas planned to spend another five weeks in Europe, and hoped that Huyck and Katz would agree to finish the screenplay by the time he returned, but they were about to start on their own film, Messiah of Evil (1972),[7] so Lucas hired Richard Walter, a colleague from the USC School of Cinematic Arts for the job. Walter was flattered, but initially tried to sell Lucas on a different screenplay called Barry and the Persuasions, a story of East Coast teenagers in the late 1950s. Lucas held firm—his was a story about West Coast teenagers in the early 1960s. Walter was paid the $10,000, and he began to expand the Lucas/Huyck/Katz treatment into a screenplay.[9]

text: Lucas was dismayed when he returned to America in June 1971 and read Walter's script, which was written in the style and tone of an exploitation film, similar to 1967's Hot Rods to Hell. "It was overtly sexual and very fantasy-like, with playing chicken and things that kids didn't really do," Lucas explained. "I wanted something that was more like the way I grew up."[11] Walter's script also had Steve and Laurie going to Nevada to get married without their parents' permission.[5] Walter rewrote the screenplay, but Lucas nevertheless fired him due to their creative differences.[9]

text: After paying Walter, Lucas had exhausted his development fund from United Artists. He began writing a script, completing his first draft in just three weeks. Drawing upon his large collection of vintage records, Lucas wrote each scene with a particular song in mind as its musical backdrop.[9] The cost of licensing the 75 songs Lucas wanted was one factor in United Artists' ultimate decision to reject the script; the studio also felt it was too experimental—"a musical montage with no characters". United Artists also passed on Star Wars, which Lucas shelved for the time being.[10]

text: Universal Pictures[edit]

text: Lucas spent the rest of 1971 and early 1972 trying to raise financing for the American Graffiti script.[10] During this time, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox and Columbia Pictures all turned down the opportunity to co-finance and distribute the film.[12] Lucas, Huyck and Katz rewrote the second draft together, which, in addition to Modesto, was also set in Mill Valley and Los Angeles. Lucas also intended to end American Graffiti showing a title card detailing the fate of the characters, including the death of Milner and the disappearance of Toad in Vietnam. Huyck and Katz found the ending depressing and were incredulous that Lucas planned to include only the male characters. Lucas argued that mentioning the girls meant adding another title card, which he felt would prolong the ending. Because of this, Pauline Kael later accused Lucas of chauvinism.[12]

text: Lucas and producer Gary Kurtz took the script to American International Pictures, who expressed interest, but ultimately believed American Graffiti was not violent or sexual enough for the studio's standards.[13] Lucas and Kurtz eventually found favor at Universal Pictures, who allowed Lucas total artistic control and the right of final cut privilege on the condition that he make American Graffiti on a strict, low budget.[10] This forced Lucas to drop the opening scene, in which the Blonde Angel, Curt's image of the perfect woman, drives through an empty drive-in cinema in her Ford Thunderbird, her transparency revealing she does not exist.[14]

text: Universal initially projected a $600,000 budget, but added an additional $175,000 once producer Francis Ford Coppola signed on. This would allow the studio to advertise American Graffiti as "from the Man who Gave you The Godfather (1972)". However, Lucas was forced to concede final cut privilege. The proposition also gave Universal first look deals on Lucas's next two planned projects, Star Wars (1977) and Radioland Murders (1994).[13] As he continued to work on the script, Lucas encountered difficulties on the Steve and Laurie storyline. Lucas, Katz and Huyck worked on the third draft together, specifically on the scenes featuring Steve and Laurie.[15]

text: Production proceeded with virtually no input or interference from Universal. American Graffiti was a low-budget film, and executive Ned Tanen had only modest expectations of its commercial success. However, Universal did object to the film's title, not knowing what "American Graffiti" meant;[15] Lucas was dismayed when some executives assumed he was making an Italian movie about feet.[12] The studio therefore submitted a long list of over 60 alternative titles, with their favorite being Another Slow Night in Modesto[15] and Coppola's Rock Around the Block.[12] They pushed hard to get Lucas to adopt any of the titles, but he was displeased with all the alternatives and persuaded Tanen to keep American Graffiti.[15]

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: The film's lengthy casting process was overseen by Fred Roos, who worked with producer Francis Ford Coppola on The Godfather.[7] Because American Graffiti's main cast was for younger actors, the casting call and notices went through numerous high school drama groups and community theaters in the San Francisco Bay Area.[4] Among the actors was Mark Hamill, the future Luke Skywalker in Lucas' Star Wars trilogy.[14]

text: Over 100 unknown actors auditioned for Curt Henderson before Richard Dreyfuss was cast; George Lucas was impressed with Dreyfuss's thoughtful analysis of the role,[4] and, as a result, offered the actor his choice of Curt or Terry "The Toad" Fields.[14] Roos, a former casting director on The Andy Griffith Show, suggested Ron Howard for Steve Bolander; Howard accepted the role to break out of the mold of his career as a child actor.[4] Howard would later appear in the very similar role of Richie Cunningham on the Happy Days sitcom.[16] Bob Balaban turned down The Toad out of fear of becoming typecast, a decision which he later regretted. Charles Martin Smith, who, in his first year as a professional actor, had already appeared in two feature films including 20th Century Fox's The Culpepper Cattle Co. and four TV episodes, was eventually cast in the role.[17]

text: Although Cindy Williams was cast as Laurie Henderson, the actress hoped she would get the part of Debbie Dunham, which ended up going to Candy Clark.[7] Mackenzie Phillips, who portrays Carol, was only 12 years old, and under California law, producer Gary Kurtz had to become her legal guardian for the duration of filming.[14] For Bob Falfa, Roos cast Harrison Ford, who was then concentrating on a carpentry career. Ford agreed to take the role on the condition that he would not have to cut his hair. The character has a flattop in the script, but a compromise was eventually reached whereby Ford wore a stetson to cover his hair. Producer Francis Ford Coppola encouraged Lucas to cast Wolfman Jack as himself in a cameo appearance. "George Lucas and I went through thousands of Wolfman Jack phone calls that were taped with the public," Jack reflected. "The telephone calls [heard on the broadcasts] in the motion picture and on the soundtrack were actual calls with real people."[15]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Although American Graffiti is set in 1962 Modesto, California, Lucas believed the city had changed too much in 10 years and initially chose San Rafael as the primary shooting location.[14] Filming began on June 26, 1972. However, Lucas soon became frustrated at the time it was taking to fix camera mounts to the cars.[18] A key member of the production had also been arrested for growing marijuana,[12] and, in addition to already running behind the shooting schedule, the San Rafael City Council immediately became concerned about the disruption that filming caused for local businesses and therefore withdrew permission to shoot beyond a second day.[18]

text: Petaluma, a similarly small town approximately 20 miles north of San Rafael, became more cooperative and American Graffiti moved there without the loss of a single day of shooting. Lucas convinced the San Rafael City Council to allow two further nights of filming for general cruising shots, which he used to evoke as much of the intended location as possible in the finished film. Shooting in Petaluma began on June 28 and proceeded at a quick pace.[18] Lucas mimicked the filmmaking style of B movie producer Sam Katzman in attempting to save money and authenticated low-budget filming methods.[14]

text: In addition to Petaluma, other locations included Mel's Drive-In in San Francisco, Sonoma, Richmond, Novato, and the Buchanan Field Airport in Concord.[19] The freshman hop dance was filmed in the Gus Gymnasium, previously known as the Boys Gym, at Tamalpais High School in Mill Valley.[20]

text: More problems ensued during filming: Paul Le Mat was sent to the hospital after an allergic reaction to walnuts. Le Mat, Harrison Ford and Bo Hopkins were claimed to be drunk most nights and every weekend, and had conducted climbing competitions to the top of the local Holiday Inn sign.[21] One actor set fire to Lucas's motel room. Another night, Le Mat threw Richard Dreyfuss into a swimming pool, gashing Dreyfuss' forehead on the day before he was due to have his close-ups filmed. Dreyfuss also complained over the wardrobe that Lucas had chosen for the character. Ford was kicked out of his motel room at the Holiday Inn.[21] In addition, two camera operators were nearly killed when filming the climactic race scene on Frates Road outside Petaluma.[22] Principal photography ended on August 4, 1972.[19]

text: The final scenes in the film, shot at Buchanan Field, feature a Douglas DC-7C airliner of Magic Carpet Airlines which had previously been leased from owner Club America Incorporated by the rock band Grand Funk Railroad from March 1971 to June 1971.[20][23][24]

text: Cinematography[edit]

text: Lucas considered covering duties as the sole cinematographer, but dropped the idea.[14] Instead, he elected to shoot American Graffiti using two cinematographers (as he had done in THX 1138) and no formal director of photography. Two cameras were used simultaneously in scenes involving conversations between actors in different cars, which resulted in significant production time savings.[18] After CinemaScope proved to be too expensive,[14] Lucas decided that American Graffiti should have a documentary-like feel, and shot the film using Techniscope cameras. He believed that Techniscope, an inexpensive way of shooting on 35 mm film and utilizing only half of the film's frame, would give a perfect widescreen format resembling 16 mm. Adding to the documentary feel was Lucas's openness for the cast to improvise scenes. He also used goofs for the final cut, notably Charles Martin Smith's arriving on his scooter to meet Steve outside Mel's Drive-In.[25] Jan D'Alquen and Ron Eveslage were hired as the cinematographers, but filming with Techniscope cameras brought lighting problems. As a result, Lucas commissioned help from friend Haskell Wexler, who was credited as the "visual consultant".[18]

text: Editing[edit]

text: Lucas had wanted his wife, Marcia, to edit American Graffiti, but Universal executive Ned Tanen insisted on hiring Verna Fields, who had just finished editing Steven Spielberg's The Sugarland Express (1974).[26] Fields worked on the first rough cut of the film before she left to resume work on What's Up, Doc? (1972). After Fields's departure, Lucas struggled with editing the film's story structure. He had originally written the script so that the four (Curt, Steve, John and Toad) storylines were always presented in the same sequence (an "ABCD" plot structure). But the first cut of American Graffiti was three-and-a-half hours long, and in order to whittle the film down to a more manageable two hours, so many scenes had to be cut, shortened, or combined that the film's structure became increasingly loose, and no longer adhered to Lucas's original "ABCD" presentation.[25] Lucas completed his final cut of American Graffiti, which ran 112 minutes, in December 1972.[27] Walter Murch assisted Lucas in post-production for audio mixing and sound design purposes.[25] Murch suggested making Wolfman Jack's radio show the "backbone" of the film. "The Wolfman was an ethereal presence in the lives of young people," said producer Gary Kurtz, "and it was that quality we wanted and obtained in the picture."[28]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Lucas's choice of background music was crucial to the mood of each scene, but he was realistic about the complexities of copyright clearances and suggested a number of alternative tracks. Universal wanted Lucas and producer Gary Kurtz to hire an orchestra for sound-alikes. The studio eventually proposed a flat deal that offered every music publisher the same amount of money. This was acceptable to most of the companies representing Lucas's first choices, but not to RCA—with the consequence that Elvis Presley is conspicuously absent from the soundtrack.[10] Clearing the music licensing rights had cost approximately $90,000,[28] and as a result there was no money left for a traditional film score. "I used the absence of music, and sound effects, to create the drama," Lucas later explained.[27]

text: A soundtrack album for the film, 41 Original Hits from the Soundtrack of American Graffiti, was issued by MCA Records. The album contains all the songs used in the film (with the exception of "Gee" by the Crows, which was subsequently included on a second soundtrack album), presented in the order in which they appeared in the film.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Release[edit]

text: Despite unanimous praise at a January 1973 test screening attended by Universal executive Ned Tanen, the studio told Lucas they wanted to re-edit his original cut of American Graffiti.[27] Producer Coppola sided with Lucas against Tanen and Universal, offering to "buy the film" from the studio and reimburse it for the $775,000 (equivalent to $4,534,089 in 2017)[29] it had cost to make it.[19] 20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures made similar offers to the studio.[3] Universal refused these offers and told Lucas they planned to have William Hornbeck re-edit the film.[30]

text: When Coppola's The Godfather (1972) won the Academy Award for Best Picture in March 1973, Universal relented, and agreed to cut only three scenes (about four minutes) from Lucas' cut—an encounter between Toad and a fast-talking car salesman, an argument between Steve and his former teacher Mr. Kroot at the sock hop, and an effort by Bob Falfa to serenade Laurie with "Some Enchanted Evening"—but decided that the film was fit for release only as a television movie.[19]

text: However, various studio employees who had seen the film began talking it up, and its reputation grew through word of mouth.[19] The studio dropped the TV movie idea and began arranging for a limited release in selected theaters in Los Angeles and New York.[8] Universal presidents Sidney Sheinberg and Lew Wasserman heard about the praise the film had been garnering in LA and New York, and the marketing department amped up its promotion strategy for it,[8] investing an additional $500,000 (equivalent to $2,756,372 in 2017)[29] in marketing and promotion.[3] The film was released in the United States on August 11, 1973[1] to sleeper hit reception.[31] The film had cost only $1.27 million (equivalent to $7,430,056 in 2017)[29] to produce and market, but yielded worldwide box office gross revenues of more than $55 million (equivalent to $303,200,900 in 2017)[29].[32] It had only modest success outside the United States, but became a cult film in France.[30]

text: Universal reissued Graffiti in 1978 and earned an additional $63 million (equivalent to $236,378,571 in 2017)[29], which brought the total revenue for the two releases to $118 million (equivalent to $442,740,816 in 2017)[29].[3] The reissue included stereophonic sound,[32] and the additional four minutes that the studio had removed from Lucas's original cut. All home video releases also included these scenes.[19] Also, the date of John Milner's death was changed from June 1964 to December 1964 to fit the narrative structure of the upcoming sequel More American Graffiti. At the end of its theatrical run, American Graffiti had one of the greatest cost-to-profit ratios of a motion picture ever.[3] Producer Francis Ford Coppola regretted having not financed the film himself. Lucas recalled, "He would have made $30 million (equivalent to $165,382,309 in 2017)[29] on the deal. He never got over it and he still kicks himself."[30] It was the 13th-highest-grossing film of all time in 1977,[31] and, adjusted for inflation, is currently the 43rd highest.[33] By the 1990s, American Graffiti had earned more than $200 million (equivalent to $374,630,667 in 2017)[29] in box office gross and home video sales.[3] In December 1997 Variety reported that the film had earned an additional $55.13 million in rental revenue (equivalent to $84,043,536 in 2017)[29].[34]

text: Universal Studios Home Entertainment first released the film on DVD in September 1998,[35] and once more as a double feature with More American Graffiti (1979) in January 2004.[36] Aside from the four minutes originally deleted from Lucas' original cut retained, the only major change in the DVD version is the main title sequence, particularly the sky background to Mel's Drive-In, which was redone by ILM. Universal released the film on Blu-ray on May 31, 2011.[37][38]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: American Graffiti received widespread critical acclaim. Based on 43 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 95% of the critics enjoyed the film with an average score of 8.4/10. The consensus reads: "One of the most influential of all teen films, American Graffiti is a funny, nostalgic, and bittersweet look at a group of recent high school grads' last days of innocence."[39] Roger Ebert gave the film a full four stars and praised it for being "not only a great movie but a brilliant work of historical fiction; no sociological treatise could duplicate the movie's success in remembering exactly how it was to be alive at that cultural instant".[40]

text: Jay Cocks of Time magazine wrote that American Graffiti "reveals a new and welcome depth of feeling. Few films have shown quite so well the eagerness, the sadness, the ambitions and small defeats of a generation of young Americans."[41] A.D. Murphy from Variety felt American Graffiti was a vivid "recall of teenage attitudes and morals, told with outstanding empathy and compassion through an exceptionally talented cast of unknown actors".[42] Dave Kehr, writing in the Chicago Reader, called the film a brilliant work of popular art that redefined nostalgia as a marketable commodity, while establishing a new narrative style.[43]

text: Themes[edit]

text: American Graffiti depicts multiple characters going through a coming of age, such as the decisions to attend college or reside in a small town.[7] The 1962 setting represents nearing an end of an era in American society and pop culture. The musical backdrop also links between the early years of rock and roll in the mid-late 1950s (i.e. Bill Haley & His Comets, Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly) and the early 1960s British Invasion, which Don McLean's "American Pie" and the 1972 revival of 1950s acts and oldies paralleled during the conception and filming. The setting is also before the outbreaks of the Vietnam War and the John F. Kennedy assassination[7] and before the peak years of the counterculture movement. American Graffiti evokes mankind's relationship with machines, notably the elaborate number of hot rods—having been called a "classic car flick", representative of the motor car's importance to American culture at the time it was made.[44] Another theme is teenagers' obsession with radio, especially with the inclusion of Wolfman Jack and his mysterious and mythological faceless (to most) voice.

text: Accolades[edit]

text: American Graffiti was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture but lost to The Sting (1973). Further nominations at the 46th Academy Awards included Best Director (George Lucas), Best Original Screenplay (Lucas, Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz), Best Supporting Actress (Candy Clark) and Best Film Editing (Verna Fields and Marcia Lucas).[45] The film won Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy) at the 31st Golden Globe Awards, while Paul Le Mat won Most Promising Newcomer. Lucas was nominated for Best Director and Richard Dreyfuss was nominated for Best Actor in a Comedy or Musical.[46] More nominations included Cindy Williams by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,[47] Lucas for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing,[48] and Lucas, Huyck and Katz by the Writers Guild of America for Best Original Comedy.[30]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #77[49]
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #43[50]
2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #62[51]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Internet reviewer MaryAnn Johanson acknowledged that American Graffiti rekindled public and entertainment interest in the 1950s and 1960s, and influenced other films such as The Lords of Flatbush (1974) and Cooley High (1975) and the TV series Happy Days.[52] Alongside other films from the New Hollywood era, American Graffiti is often cited for helping give birth to the summer blockbuster.[53] The film's box office success made George Lucas an instant millionaire. He gave an amount of the film's profits to Haskell Wexler for his visual consulting help during filming, and to Wolfman Jack for "inspiration". Lucas's net worth was now $4 million, and he set aside a $300,000 independent fund for his long cherished space opera project, which would eventually become the basis for Star Wars (1977).[19]

text: The financial success of Graffiti also gave Lucas opportunities to establish more elaborate development for Lucasfilm, Skywalker Sound, and Industrial Light & Magic.[32] Based on the success of the 1977 reissue, Universal began production for the sequel More American Graffiti (1979).[3] Lucas and writers Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz later collaborated on Radioland Murders (1994), also released by Universal Pictures, for which Lucas acted as executive producer. The film features characters intended to be Curt and Laurie Henderson's parents, Roger and Penny Henderson.[32] In 1995 American Graffiti was deemed culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.[54] In 1997 the city of Modesto, California, honored Lucas with a statue dedication of American Graffiti at George Lucas Plaza.[2]

text: Director David Fincher credited American Graffiti as a visual influence for Fight Club (1999).[55] Lucas's Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002) features references to the film. The yellow airspeeder that Anakin Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi use to pursue the bounty hunter, Zam Wesell, is based on John Milner's yellow deuce coupe,[56] while Dex's Diner is reminiscent of Mel's Drive-In.[57] Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman conducted the "rear axle" experiment on the January 11, 2004, episode of MythBusters.[58]

text: Given the popularity of the film's cars with customizers and hot rodders in the years since its release, their fate immediately after the film is ironic. All were offered for sale in San Francisco newspaper ads; only the '58 Impala (driven by Ronny Howard) attracted a buyer, selling for only a few hundred dollars. The yellow Deuce and the white T-bird went unsold, despite being priced as low as US$3,000.[59] The registration plate on Milner's yellow deuce coupe is THX 138 on a yellow, California license plate, slightly altered, reflecting Lucas's earlier science fiction film.


document_title: List of Jane the Virgin episodes

question_text: when does the new episodes of jane the virgin come out

text: List of Jane the Virgin episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
22
October 13, 2014 (2014-10-13)
May 11, 2015 (2015-05-11)

2
22
October 12, 2015 (2015-10-12)
May 16, 2016 (2016-05-16)

3
20
October 17, 2016 (2016-10-17)
May 22, 2017 (2017-05-22)

4
17[7]
October 13, 2017 (2017-10-13)
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)[8]

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Chapter One"
Brad Silberling
Teleplay by : Jennie Snyder Urman
October 13, 2014 (2014-10-13)
1.61[9]

2
2
"Chapter Two"
Uta Briesewitz
Jennie Snyder Urman
October 20, 2014 (2014-10-20)
1.36[10]

3
3
"Chapter Three"
Brad Silberling
Meredith Averill
October 27, 2014 (2014-10-27)
1.09[11]

4
4
"Chapter Four"
Debbie Allen
Corinne Brinkerhoff
November 3, 2014 (2014-11-03)
1.01[12]

5
5
"Chapter Five"
Edward Ornelas
Josh Reims
November 10, 2014 (2014-11-10)
1.22[13]

6
6
"Chapter Six"
Jann Turner
Paul Sciarrotta
November 17, 2014 (2014-11-17)
1.09[14]

7
7
"Chapter Seven"
Janice Cooke
David S. Rosenthal
November 24, 2014 (2014-11-24)
0.96[15]

8
8
"Chapter Eight"
Norman Buckley
Josh Reims & Carolina Rivera
December 8, 2014 (2014-12-08)
1.22[16]

9
9
"Chapter Nine"
Zetna Fuentes
Corinne Brinkerhoff
December 15, 2014 (2014-12-15)
1.28[17]

10
10
"Chapter Ten"
Elodie Keene
Meredith Averill & Christopher Oscar Peña
January 19, 2015 (2015-01-19)
1.39[18]

11
11
"Chapter Eleven"
Joanna Kerns
Gracie Glassmeyer
January 26, 2015 (2015-01-26)
1.55[19]

12
12
"Chapter Twelve"
Gina Lamar
David S. Rosenthal
February 2, 2015 (2015-02-02)
1.24[20]

13
13
"Chapter Thirteen"
Howard Deutch
Josh Reims
February 9, 2015 (2015-02-09)
1.34[21]

14
14
"Chapter Fourteen"
Brad Silberling
Paul Sciarrotta
February 16, 2015 (2015-02-16)
1.31[22]

15
15
"Chapter Fifteen"
Melanie Mayron
Emmylou Diaz & David S. Rosenthal
March 9, 2015 (2015-03-09)
1.26[23]

16
16
"Chapter Sixteen"
Joanna Kerns
Josh Reims & Carolina Rivera
March 16, 2015 (2015-03-16)
1.10[24]

17
17
"Chapter Seventeen"
Uta Briesewitz
Amy Rardin & Jessica O'Toole
April 6, 2015 (2015-04-06)
0.93[25]

18
18
"Chapter Eighteen"
Edward Ornelas
Meredith Averill
April 13, 2015 (2015-04-13)
1.03[26]

19
19
"Chapter Nineteen"
Robert Luketic
Emmylou Diaz & David S. Rosenthal
April 20, 2015 (2015-04-20)
1.05[27]

20
20
"Chapter Twenty"
Debbie Allen
Corinne Brinkerhoff & Paul Sciarrotta
April 27, 2015 (2015-04-27)
1.06[28]

21
21
"Chapter Twenty-One"
Stuart Gillard
Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
May 4, 2015 (2015-05-04)
1.05[29]

22
22
"Chapter Twenty-Two"
Zetna Fuentes
Josh Reims & Jennie Snyder Urman
May 11, 2015 (2015-05-11)
1.24[30]

text: Season 2 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

23
1
"Chapter Twenty-Three"
Brad Silberling
Jennie Snyder Urman
October 12, 2015 (2015-10-12)
1.06[31]

24
2
"Chapter Twenty-Four"
Edward Ornelas
David S. Rosenthal
October 19, 2015 (2015-10-19)
0.84[32]

25
3
"Chapter Twenty-Five"
Robert Luketic
Corinne Brinkerhoff
October 26, 2015 (2015-10-26)
0.94[33]

26
4
"Chapter Twenty-Six"
Zetna Fuentes
Paul Sciarrotta
November 2, 2015 (2015-11-02)
1.09[34]

27
5
"Chapter Twenty-Seven"
Jann Turner
Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
November 9, 2015 (2015-11-09)
1.11[35]

28
6
"Chapter Twenty-Eight"
Melanie Mayron
Corinne Brinkerhoff & Micah Schraf
November 16, 2015 (2015-11-16)
1.10[36]

29
7
"Chapter Twenty-Nine"
Edward Ornelas
David S. Rosenthal & Dara Resnick Creasey
November 23, 2015 (2015-11-23)
0.98[37]

30
8
"Chapter Thirty"
Uta Briesewitz
Paul Sciarrotta & Carolina Rivera
December 14, 2015 (2015-12-14)
0.98[38]

31
9
"Chapter Thirty-One"
Joanna Kerns
Emmylou Diaz & Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
January 25, 2016 (2016-01-25)
0.99[39]

32
10
"Chapter Thirty-Two"
Jason Reilly
Micah Schraft
February 1, 2016 (2016-02-01)
1.04[40]

33
11
"Chapter Thirty-Three"
Uta Briesewitz
Michael J. Cinquemani
February 8, 2016 (2016-02-08)
0.94[41]

34
12
"Chapter Thirty-Four"
Howard Deutch
Madeline Hendricks
February 22, 2016 (2016-02-22)
0.94[42]

35
13
"Chapter Thirty-Five"
Melanie Mayron
Chantelle M. Wells
February 29, 2016 (2016-02-29)
0.91[43]

36
14
"Chapter Thirty-Six"
Uta Briesewitz
Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
March 7, 2016 (2016-03-07)
0.92[44]

37
15
"Chapter Thirty-Seven"
Melanie Mayron
Sarah Goldfinger
March 21, 2016 (2016-03-21)
0.77[45]

38
16
"Chapter Thirty-Eight"
Georgina Garcia Riedel
Micah Schraft
March 28, 2016 (2016-03-28)
0.94[46]

39
17
"Chapter Thirty-Nine"
Matthew Diamond
Carolina Rivera
April 11, 2016 (2016-04-11)
0.93[47]

40
18
"Chapter Forty"
Anna Mastro
Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
April 18, 2016 (2016-04-18)
0.96[48]

41
19
"Chapter Forty-One"
Gina Lamar
Joe Lawson
April 25, 2016 (2016-04-25)
0.84[49]

42
20
"Chapter Forty-Two"
Zetna Fuentes
Micah Schraft & Paul Sciarrotta
May 2, 2016 (2016-05-02)
0.86[50]

43
21
"Chapter Forty-Three"
Melanie Mayron
Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin & Paul Sciarrotta
May 9, 2016 (2016-05-09)
0.90[51]

44
22
"Chapter Forty-Four"
Jann Turner
Paul Sciarrotta & Jennie Snyder Urman
May 16, 2016 (2016-05-16)
0.97[52]

text: Season 3 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

45
1
"Chapter Forty-Five"
Gina Lamar
Jennie Snyder Urman
October 17, 2016 (2016-10-17)
1.09[53]

46
2
"Chapter Forty-Six"
Brad Silberling
David S. Rosenthal & Paul Sciarrotta
October 24, 2016 (2016-10-24)
1.10[54]

47
3
"Chapter Forty-Seven"
Eva Longoria Baston
Carolina Rivera & Micah Schraft
October 31, 2016 (2016-10-31)
0.97[55]

48
4
"Chapter Forty-Eight"
Melanie Mayron
Sarah Goldfinger & Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
November 7, 2016 (2016-11-07)
1.08[56]

49
5
"Chapter Forty-Nine"
Anna Mastro
Paul Sciarrotta
November 14, 2016 (2016-11-14)
0.93[57]

50
6
"Chapter Fifty"
Melanie Mayron
Valentina Garza & David S. Rosenthal
November 21, 2016 (2016-11-21)
1.01[58]

51
7
"Chapter Fifty-One"
Gina Lamar
Sarah Goldfinger & Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
November 28, 2016 (2016-11-28)
1.15[59]

52
8
"Chapter Fifty-Two"
Anna Mastro
Carolina Rivera & Micah Schraft
January 23, 2017 (2017-01-23)
0.99[60]

53
9
"Chapter Fifty-Three"
Gina Lamar
Chantelle M. Wells
January 30, 2017 (2017-01-30)
0.91[61]

54
10
"Chapter Fifty-Four"
Melanie Mayron
Micah Schraft & Jennie Snyder Urman
February 6, 2017 (2017-02-06)
0.93[62]

55
11
"Chapter Fifty-Five"
Brad Silberling
Paul Sciarrotta & Jennie Snyder Urman
February 13, 2017 (2017-02-13)
1.07[63]

56
12
"Chapter Fifty-Six"
Matthew Diamond
Valentina Garza
February 20, 2017 (2017-02-20)
1.06[64]

57
13
"Chapter Fifty-Seven"
Zetna Fuentes
Madeline Hendricks
February 27, 2017 (2017-02-27)
0.88[65]

58
14
"Chapter Fifty-Eight"
Melanie Mayron
Merigan Mulhern
March 20, 2017 (2017-03-20)
0.84[66]

59
15
"Chapter Fifty-Nine"
Anna Mastro
Deidre Shaw
March 27, 2017 (2017-03-27)
0.89[67]

60
16
"Chapter Sixty"
Micah Schraft
Carolina Rivera & Micah Schraft
April 24, 2017 (2017-04-24)
0.79[68]

61
17
"Chapter Sixty-One"
Melanie Mayron
Paul Sciarrotta
May 1, 2017 (2017-05-01)
0.77[69]

62
18
"Chapter Sixty-Two"
Fernando Sariñana
Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin & David S. Rosenthal
May 8, 2017 (2017-05-08)
0.99[70]

63
19
"Chapter Sixty-Three"
Gina Lamar
Paul Sciarrotta
May 15, 2017 (2017-05-15)
0.76[71]

64
20
"Chapter Sixty-Four"
Melanie Mayron
Micah Schraft & Jennie Snyder Urman
May 22, 2017 (2017-05-22)
0.96[72]

text: Season 4 (2017–18)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

65
1
"Chapter Sixty-Five"
Brad Silberling
Jennie Snyder Urman & Paul Sciarrotta
October 13, 2017 (2017-10-13)
0.68[73]

66
2
"Chapter Sixty-Six"
Gina Lamar
Valentina Garza & Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin
October 20, 2017 (2017-10-20)
0.61[74]

67
3
"Chapter Sixty-Seven"
Fernando Sariñana
Carolina Rivera & Micah Schraft
October 27, 2017 (2017-10-27)
0.60[75]

68
4
"Chapter Sixty-Eight"
Gina Lamar
Deirdre Shaw & Chantelle M. Wells
November 3, 2017 (2017-11-03)
0.69[76]

69
5
"Chapter Sixty-Nine"
Stuart Gillard
Paul Sciarrotta
November 10, 2017 (2017-11-10)
0.65[77]

70
6
"Chapter Seventy"
Melanie Mayron
Carolina Rivera & Micah Schraft
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)
0.61[78]

71
7
"Chapter Seventy-One"
Micah Schraft
Valentina Garza & Deidre Shaw
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)
0.65[79]

72
8
"Chapter Seventy-Two"
Melanie Mayron
Carolina Rivera & Paul Sciarrotta
January 26, 2018 (2018-01-26)
0.68[80]

73
9
"Chapter Seventy-Three"
Eric Lea
Valentina Garza & Chantelle M. Wells
February 2, 2018 (2018-02-02)
0.67[81]

74
10
"Chapter Seventy-Four"
Gina Rodriguez
Micah Schraft & Paul Sciarrotta
February 9, 2018 (2018-02-09)
0.80[82]

75
11
"Chapter Seventy-Five"[83]
Gina Lamar
Merigan Mulhern
March 2, 2018 (2018-03-02)[84]
TBD

76
12
"Chapter Seventy-Six"[85]
Melanie Mayron
Leah Longoria
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)[84]
TBD

77
13
"Chapter Seventy-Seven"[86]
Gina Lamar
Deirdre Shaw & Chantelle M. Wells
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)[84]
TBD

78
14
"Chapter Seventy-Eight"[84]
TBA
TBA
March 23, 2018 (2018-03-23)[84]
TBD

79
15
"Chapter Seventy-Nine"[84]
TBA
TBA
March 30, 2018 (2018-03-30)[84]
TBD

80
16
"Chapter Eighty"[84]
TBA
TBA
April 6, 2018 (2018-04-06)[84]
TBD

81
17
"Chapter Eighty-One"[84]
TBA
TBA
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)[84]
TBD

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Chapter One"
October 13, 2014 (2014-10-13)
0.6/2
1.61[9]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

2
"Chapter Two"
October 20, 2014 (2014-10-20)
0.5/1
1.36[10]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

3
"Chapter Three"
October 27, 2014 (2014-10-27)
0.4/1
1.09[11]
0.3
N/A
0.7[91]
N/A

4
"Chapter Four"
November 3, 2014 (2014-11-03)
0.4/2
1.01[12]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

5
"Chapter Five"
November 10, 2014 (2014-11-10)
0.5/1
1.22[13]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

6
"Chapter Six"
November 17, 2014 (2014-11-17)
0.4/1
1.11[14]
0.3
N/A
0.7[92]
N/A

7
"Chapter Seven"
November 24, 2014 (2014-11-24)
0.4/1
0.96[15]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

8
"Chapter Eight"
December 8, 2014 (2014-12-08)
0.5/1
1.22[16]
0.3
N/A
0.8[93]
N/A

9
"Chapter Nine"
December 15, 2014 (2014-12-15)
0.5/2
1.28[17]
0.3
0.62
0.8
1.90[94]

10
"Chapter Ten"
January 19, 2015 (2015-01-19)
0.5/1
1.39[18]
0.3
N/A
0.8[95]
N/A

11
"Chapter Eleven"
January 26, 2015 (2015-01-26)
0.6/2
1.55[19]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

12
"Chapter Twelve"
February 2, 2015 (2015-02-02)
0.5/1
1.24[20]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

13
"Chapter Thirteen"
February 9, 2015 (2015-02-09)
0.6/2
1.34[21]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

14
"Chapter Fourteen"
February 16, 2015 (2015-02-16)
0.6/2
1.31[22]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

15
"Chapter Fifteen"
March 9, 2015 (2015-03-09)
0.5/1
1.26[23]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

16
"Chapter Sixteen"
March 16, 2015 (2015-03-16)
0.5/1
1.10[24]
0.3
N/A
0.8[96]
N/A

17
"Chapter Seventeen"
April 6, 2015 (2015-04-06)
0.4/1
0.93[25]
0.3
N/A
0.7[97]
N/A

18
"Chapter Eighteen"
April 13, 2015 (2015-04-13)
0.4/1
1.03[26]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

19
"Chapter Nineteen"
April 20, 2015 (2015-04-20)
0.4/1
1.05[27]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

20
"Chapter Twenty"
April 27, 2015 (2015-04-27)
0.4/1
1.06[28]
0.3
N/A
0.7[98]
N/A

21
"Chapter Twenty-One"
May 4, 2015 (2015-05-04)
0.5/1
1.05[29]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

22
"Chapter Twenty-Two"
May 11, 2015 (2015-05-11)
0.5/1
1.24[30]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

text: Season 2 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Chapter Twenty-Three"
October 12, 2015 (2015-10-12)
0.4/1
1.06[31]
0.4
0.69
0.8
1.76[99]

2
"Chapter Twenty-Four"
October 19, 2015 (2015-10-19)
0.4/1
0.84[32]
N/A
0.68
N/A
1.52[100]

3
"Chapter Twenty-Five"
October 26, 2015 (2015-10-26)
0.3/1
0.94[33]
0.3
0.56
0.6
1.51[101]

4
"Chapter Twenty-Six"
November 2, 2015 (2015-11-02)
0.4/1
1.09[34]
0.4
0.71
0.8
1.81[102]

5
"Chapter Twenty-Seven"
November 9, 2015 (2015-11-09)
0.4/1
1.11[35]
0.3
0.65
0.7
1.76[103]

6
"Chapter Twenty-Eight"
November 16, 2015 (2015-11-16)
0.5/2
1.10[36]
N/A
0.55
N/A
1.67[104]

7
"Chapter Twenty-Nine"
November 23, 2015 (2015-11-23)
0.4/1
0.98[37]
0.3
0.62
0.7
1.60[105]

8
"Chapter Thirty"
December 14, 2015 (2015-12-14)
0.3/1
0.98[38]
0.4
0.63
0.7
1.61[106]

9
"Chapter Thirty-One"
January 25, 2016 (2016-01-25)
0.4/1
0.99[39]
0.3
0.69
0.7
1.68[107]

10
"Chapter Thirty-Two"
February 1, 2016 (2016-02-01)
0.4/1
1.04[40]
0.3
0.66
0.7
1.70[108]

11
"Chapter Thirty-Three"
February 8, 2016 (2016-02-08)
0.3/1
0.94[41]
0.4
0.74
0.7
1.68[109]

12
"Chapter Thirty-Four"
February 22, 2016 (2016-02-22)
0.3/1
0.94[42]
0.4
0.72
0.7
1.66[110]

13
"Chapter Thirty-Five"
February 29, 2016 (2016-02-29)
0.3/1
0.91[43]
0.4
0.70
0.7
1.61[111]

14
"Chapter Thirty-Six"
March 7, 2016 (2016-03-07)
0.4/1
0.92[44]
0.3
0.68
0.7
1.60[112]

15
"Chapter Thirty-Seven"
March 21, 2016 (2016-03-21)
0.3/1
0.77[45]
0.3
0.66
0.6
1.43[113]

16
"Chapter Thirty-Eight"
March 28, 2016 (2016-03-28)
0.4/1
0.94[46]
0.3
0.69
0.7
1.63[114]

17
"Chapter Thirty-Nine"
April 11, 2016 (2016-04-11)
0.4/1
0.97[47]
0.3
0.69
0.7
1.66[115]

18
"Chapter Forty"
April 18, 2016 (2016-04-18)
0.4/1
0.96[48]
0.4
0.68
0.8
1.64[116]

19
"Chapter Forty-One"
April 25, 2016 (2016-04-25)
0.4/1
0.84[49]
0.3
0.74
0.7
1.58[117]

20
"Chapter Forty-Two"
May 2, 2016 (2016-05-02)
0.3/1
0.86[50]
0.4
0.69
0.7
1.54[118]

21
"Chapter Forty-Three"
May 9, 2016 (2016-05-09)
0.3/1
0.90[51]
0.4
0.66
0.7
1.56[119]

22
"Chapter Forty-Four"
May 16, 2016 (2016-05-16)
0.4/1
0.97[52]
0.3
0.70
0.7
1.66[120]

text: Season 3 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Chapter Forty-Five"
October 17, 2016
0.4/2
1.09[53]
0.4
0.83
0.8
1.92[121]

2
"Chapter Forty-Six"
October 24, 2016
0.4/2
1.10[54]
0.4
0.77
0.8
1.88[122]

3
"Chapter Forty-Seven"
October 31, 2016
0.4/1
0.97[55]
0.4
0.88
0.8
1.85[123]

4
"Chapter Forty-Eight"
November 7, 2016
0.4/2
1.08[56]
0.4
0.72
0.8
1.80[124]

5
"Chapter Forty-Nine"
November 14, 2016
0.3/1
0.93[57]
0.4
N/A
0.7[125]
N/A

6
"Chapter Fifty"
November 21, 2016
0.4/2
1.01[58]
0.3
0.76
0.7
1.79[126]

7
"Chapter Fifty-One"
November 28, 2016
0.4/2
1.15[59]
0.4
0.70
0.8
1.85[127]

8
"Chapter Fifty-Two"
January 23, 2017
0.4/1
0.99[60]
0.3
0.72
0.7
1.70[128]

9
"Chapter Fifty-Three"
January 30, 2017
0.3/1
0.91[61]
0.3
0.68
0.6
1.59[129]

10
"Chapter Fifty-Four"
February 6, 2017
0.3/1
0.93[62]
0.4
0.76
0.7
1.69[130]

11
"Chapter Fifty-Five"
February 13, 2017
0.4/2
1.07[63]
0.3
0.64
0.7
1.71[131]

12
"Chapter Fifty-Six"
February 20, 2017
0.4/1
1.06[64]
0.3
0.61
0.7
1.67[132]

13
"Chapter Fifty-Seven"
February 27, 2017
0.3/1
0.88[65]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

14
"Chapter Fifty-Eight"
March 20, 2017
0.3/1
0.84[66]
0.4
0.71
0.7
1.55[133]

15
"Chapter Fifty-Nine"
March 27, 2017
0.3/1
0.89[67]
0.4
0.69
0.7
1.57[134]

16
"Chapter Sixty"
April 24, 2017
0.2/1
0.79[68]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

17
"Chapter Sixty-One"
May 1, 2017
0.2/1
0.77[69]
0.3
0.55
0.5
1.32[135]

18
"Chapter Sixty-Two"
May 8, 2017
0.4/1
0.99[70]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

19
"Chapter Sixty-Three"
May 15, 2017
0.2/1
0.76[71]
0.3
0.58
0.5
1.34[136]

20
"Chapter Sixty-Four"
May 22, 2017
0.3/1
0.96[72]
0.3
0.60
0.6
1.56[137]

text: Season 4 (2017–18)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Chapter Sixty-Five"
October 13, 2017
0.3/1
0.68[73]
0.3
0.67
0.6
1.35[138]

2
"Chapter Sixty-Six"
October 20, 2017
0.2/1
0.61[74]
0.3
0.58
0.5
1.19[139]

3
"Chapter Sixty-Seven"
October 27, 2017
0.3/1
0.60[75]
TBD
0.54
TBD
1.16[140]

4
"Chapter Sixty-Eight"
November 3, 2017
0.2/1
0.69[76]
0.3
0.55
0.5
1.24[141]

5
"Chapter Sixty-Nine"
November 10, 2017
0.3/1
0.65[77]
TBD
0.61
TBD
1.26[142]

6
"Chapter Seventy"
November 17, 2017
0.2/1
0.61[78]
0.3
0.55
0.5
1.16[143]

7
"Chapter Seventy-One"
December 8, 2017
0.3/1
0.65[79]
0.3
0.61
0.6
1.25[144]

8
"Chapter Seventy-Two"
January 26, 2018
0.2/1
0.68[80]
0.4
0.71
0.6
1.39[145]

9
"Chapter Seventy-Three"
February 2, 2018
0.3/1
0.67[81]
0.3
0.60
0.6
1.27[146]

10
"Chapter Seventy-Four"
February 9, 2018
0.3/1
0.80[82]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

11
"Chapter Seventy-Five"
March 2, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

12
"Chapter Seventy-Six"
March 9, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

13
"Chapter Seventy-Seven"
March 16, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

14
"Chapter Seventy-Eight"
March 23, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

15
"Chapter Seventy-Nine"
March 30, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

16
"Chapter Eighty"
April 6, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

17
"Chapter Eighty-One"
April 13, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD