document_title: History of coal mining

question_text: why coal came to be the dominant fuel source during the industrial revolution

text: History of coal mining

text: Early history[edit]

text: Early coal extraction was small-scale, the coal lying either on the surface, or very close to it. Typical methods for extraction included drift mining and bell pits. As well as drift mines, small scale shaft mining was used. This took the form of a bell pit, the extraction working outward from a central shaft, or a technique called room and pillar in which 'rooms' of coal were extracted with pillars left to support the roofs. Both of these techniques however left considerable amount of usable coal behind.

text: Archeological evidence in China indicates surface mining of coal and household usage after approximately 3490 BC. [5]

text: The earliest reference to the use of coal in metalworking is found in the geological treatise On stones (Lap. 16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC):

text: Among the materials that are dug because they are useful, those known as coals are made of earth, and, once set on fire, they burn like charcoal. They are found in Liguria... and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road; and they are used by those who work in metals.[6]

text: The earliest known use of coal in the Americas was by the Aztecs who used coal for fuel and jet (a type of lignite) for ornaments.[1]

text: In Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting all major coalfields (save those of North and South Staffordshire) by the late 2nd century AD.[7] While much of its use remained local, a lively trade developed along the North Sea coast supplying coal to Yorkshire and London.[7] This also extended to the continental Rhineland, where bituminous coal was already used for the smelting of iron ore.[7] It was used in hypocausts to heat public baths, the baths in military forts, and the villas of wealthy individuals. Excavation has revealed coal stores at many forts along Hadrian's Wall as well as the remains of a smelting industry at forts such as Longovicium nearby.[citation needed]

text: After the Romans left Britain, in AD 410, there are few records of coal being used in the country until the end of the 12th century. One that does occur is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 852 when a rent including 12 loads of coal is mentioned.[8] In 1183 a smith was given land for his work, and was required to "raise his own coal"[9]:171–2 Shortly after the signing of the Magna Carta, in 1215, coal began to be traded in areas of Scotland and the north-east England, where the carboniferous strata were exposed on the sea shore, and thus became known as "sea coal". This commodity, however, was not suitable for use in the type of domestic hearths then in use, and was mainly used by artisans for lime burning, metal working and smelting. As early as 1228, sea coal from the north-east was being taken to London.[10]:5 During the 13th century, the trading of coal increased across Britain and by the end of the century most of the coalfields in England, Scotland and Wales were being worked on a small scale.[10]:8 As the use of coal amongst the artisans became more widespread, it became clear that coal smoke was detrimental to health and the increasing pollution in London led to much unrest and agitation. As a result of this, a Royal proclamation was issued in 1306 prohibiting artificers of London from using sea coal in their furnaces and commanding them to return to the traditional fuels of wood and charcoal.[10]:10 During the first half of the 14th century coal began to be used for domestic heating in coal producing areas of Britain, as improvements were made in the design of domestic hearths.[10]:13 Edward III was the first king to take an interest in the coal trade of the north east, issuing a number of writs to regulate the trade and allowing the export of coal to Calais.[10]:15 The demand for coal steadily increased in Britain during the 15th century, but it was still mainly being used in the mining districts, in coastal towns or being exported to continental Europe.[10]:19 However, by the middle of the 16th century supplies of wood were beginning to fail in Britain and the use of coal as a domestic fuel rapidly expanded.[10]:22

text: In 1575, Sir George Bruce of Carnock of Culross, Scotland, opened the first coal mine to extract coal from a "moat pit" under the sea on the Firth of Forth. He constructed an artificial loading island into which he sank a 40 ft shaft that connected to another two shafts for drainage and improved ventilation. The technology was far in advance of any coal mining method in the late medieval period and was considered one of the industrial wonders of the age.[11]

text: During the 17th century a number of advances in mining techniques were made, such the use of test boring to find suitable deposits and chain pumps, driven by water wheels, to drain the collieries.[10]:57–9

text: North American coal deposits were first discovered by French explorers and fur traders along the shores of Grand Lake in central New Brunswick, Canada in the 1600s. Coal seams were exposed where rivers flowed into the lake and was dug by hand off the surface and from tunnels dug into the seam. About 1631 the French made their fur trading post at the mouth of the Saint John River their main post in Acadia and started construction of a new fort. The main residence at the fort was designed with two 11 foot wide fireplaces which were stocked with wood and coal from up river. As early as 1643, the French were sending coal and other supplies to the British colony at Boston. [12][13][14][15]

text: Industrial Revolution[edit]

text: The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century, and later spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan, was based on the availability of coal to power steam engines. International trade expanded exponentially when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships during the Victorian era. Coal was cheaper and much more efficient than wood fuel in most steam engines. As central and Northern England contains an abundance of coal, many mines were situated in these areas as well as the South Wales coalfield and Scotland. The small-scale techniques were unsuited to the increasing demand, with extraction moving away from surface extraction to deep shaft mining as the Industrial Revolution progressed.[16]

text: As steamships traveled overseas from the industrialized countries of Europe their need for coal served as trigger for coal mining to start at various locations across the globe. An example of this is the coal mining in Zona Centro Sur, Chile, that began as a response to the arrival of steamships to Talcahuano.[17]

text: Beginning of the 20th century[edit]

text:
Coal Production of the World, around 1905[18]

Country
Year
Short Tons

Europe

United Kingdom
1905
236,128,936

Germany (coal)

121,298,167

Germany (lignite)

52,498,507

France

35,869,497

Belgium

21,775,280

Austria (coal)

12,585,263

Austria (lignite)

22,692,076

Hungary (coal)
1904
1,031,501

Hungary (lignite)

5,447,283

Spain
1905
3,202,911

Russia
1904
19,318,000

Netherlands

466,997

Bosnia (lignite)

540,237

Romania

110,000

Serbia
1904
183,204

Italy (coal and lignite)
1905
412,916

Sweden

322,384

Greece (lignite)
1904
466,997

Asia

India
1905
8,417,739

Japan
1905
11,542,000

Sumatra
1904
207,280

Africa

Transvaal
1904
2,409,033

Natal
1905
1,129,407

Cape Colony
1904
154,272

North and South America

United States
1905
350,821,000

Canada
1904
7,509,860

Mexico

700,000

Peru
1905
72,665

Australasia

New South Wales
1905
6,632,138

Queensland

529,326

Victoria

153,135

Western Australia

127,364

Tasmania

51,993

New Zealand

1,585,756

text: Great Britain[edit]

text: Pre 1900[edit]

text: Although some deep mining took place as early as the 1500s (in North East England, and along the Firth of Forth coast)[19][20] deep shaft mining in the UK began to develop extensively in the late 18th century, with rapid expansion throughout the 19th century and early 20th century when the industry peaked. The location of the coalfields helped to make the prosperity of Lancashire, of Yorkshire, and of South Wales. The Yorkshire pits which supplied Sheffield were only about 300 feet deep. Northumberland and Durham were the leading coal producers and they were the sites of the first deep pits. In much of Britain coal was worked from drift mines, or scraped off when it outcropped on the surface. Small groups of part-time miners used shovels and primitive equipment.

text: Scottish miners had been bonded to their "maisters" by a 1606 Act "Anent Coalyers and Salters". A Colliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775, recognised this to be "a state of slavery and bondage" and formally abolished it; this was made effective by a further law in 1799.[21][22]

text: Before 1800 a great deal of coal was left in places as extraction was still primitive. As a result, in the deep Tyneside pits (300 to 1,000 ft deep) only about 40 percent of the coal could be extracted. The use of wooden pit props to support the roof was an innovation first introduced about 1800. The critical factor was circulation of air and control of dangerous explosive gases. At first fires were burned at the bottom of the "upcast" shaft to create air currents and circulate air, but replaced by fans driven by steam engines. Protection for miners came with the invention of the Davy lamp and Geordie lamp, where any firedamp (or methane) burnt harmlessly within the lamp. It was achieved by restricting the ingress of air with either metal gauze or fine tubes, but the illumination from such lamps was very poor. Great efforts were made to develop better safe lamps, such as the Mueseler produced in the Belgian pits near Liège.

text: Coal was so abundant in Britain that the supply could be stepped up to meet the rapidly rising demand. In 1700 the annual output of coal was just under 3 million tons. Between 1770 and 1780 the annual output of coal was some 6¼ million long tons (or about the output of a week and a half in the 20th century). After 1790 output soared, reaching 16 million long tons by 1815 at the height of the Napoleonic War. By 1830 this had risen to over 30 million tons[23] The miners, less affected by imported labour or machines than were the cotton mill workers, had begun to form trade unions and fight their grim battle for wages against the coal owners and royalty-lessees.[24]

text: Use of women and children (at a fraction of the cost of men) was common until abolished in an Act of August 1842.[25]

text: In South Wales, the miners showed a high degree of solidarity. They lived in isolated villages where the miners comprised the great majority of workers. There was a high degree of equality in life style; combined with an evangelical religious style based on Methodism this led to an ideology of egalitarianism. They forged a "community of solidarity" - under the leadership of the Miners Federation. The union supported first the Liberal Party, then after 1918 Labour, with some Communist Party activism at the fringes.[26]

text: The need to maintain coal supplies (a primary energy source) had figured in both world wars.[27] As well as energy supply, coal became a very political issue, due to conditions under which colliers worked and the way they were treated by colliery owners. Much of the 'old Left' of British politics can trace its origins to coal-mining areas, with the main labour union being the Miners' Federation of Great Britain, founded in 1888. The MFGB claimed 600,000 members in 1908. (The MFGB later became the more centralised National Union of Mineworkers).

text: Although other factors were involved, one cause of the UK General Strike of 1926 was concerns colliers had over very dangerous working conditions, reduced pay and longer shifts.

text: Technological development throughout the 19th and 20th centuries helped both to improve the safety of colliers and the productive capacity of collieries they worked. In the late 20th century, improved integration of coal extraction with bulk industries such as electrical generation helped coal maintain its position despite the emergence of alternative energies supplies such as oil, natural gas and, from the late 1950s, nuclear power used for electricity. More recently coal has faced competition from renewable energy sources and bio-fuels.

text: Most of the coal mines in Britain were purchased by the government in 1947 and put under the control of the National Coal Board, with only the smaller mines left in private ownership. The NUM had campaigned for nationalisation for decades and, once it was achieved, sought to work with the NCB in managing the industry and discouraged strikes. Under the chairmanship of Alf Robens, pit closures became widespread as coal's place in energy generation declined. The NUM leadership continued to resist calls for strike action, but an unofficial strike began in 1969 after a conference pledge on the hours of surface-workers was not acted upon. This was a watershed moment that led to increased spending on the coal industry and a much slower rate of pit closures, as well as the election of more militant officials to the NUM leadership. Under the government of Ted Heath, an official strike in 1972 won increased wages after the Wilberforce Commission. Less than two years later, Heath called a general election over another official strike, called after an overtime ban had led to a Three Day Week in Britain, and lost the election to the Labour Party. The wage demands were then met and spending on the industry continued to increase, including the establishment of the new Selby Coalfield.

text: By the early 1980s, many pits were almost 100 years' old and were considered uneconomic[28] to work at then current wage rates compared to cheap North Sea oil and gas, and in comparison to subsidy levels in Europe. The Miners' Strike of 1984 failed to stop the Conservative government's plans under Margaret Thatcher to shrink the industry, and a break-away Union of Democratic Mineworkers was founded by miners, mostly in the Midlands, who felt that the NUM had broken its own democratic rules in calling the strike. The National Coal Board (by then British Coal), was privatised by selling off a large number of pits to private concerns through the mid-1990s. Because of exhausted seams, high prices and cheap imports, the mining industry disappeared almost completely, despite the militant protests of some miners.[27][29]

text: In January 2008, the South Wales Valleys last deep pit mine, Tower Colliery in Hirwaun, Rhondda Cynon Taff closed with the loss of 120 jobs. The coal was exhausted.[30] Until 2015 coal was still mined at Hatfield, Kellingley and Thoresby Collieries, and is extracted at several very large opencast pits in South Wales, Scotland and elsewhere. Kellingley Colliery was the last deep coal mine in operation in the UK and its last coaling shift was on 18 December 2015 when coaling operations ceased with the loss of 450 jobs bringing deep coal mining in the UK to an end in its entirety, a skeleton team of men will remain to service the colliery until it is finally dismantled.

text: Coal mining was never a major industry in Ireland, apart from a spell in the mid-19th century when east Tyrone collieries were at their peak. Deerpark Mines was the largest opencast site. In 1919 it got rail connections and reached peak production in the 1950s.[31]

text: United States[edit]

text: Anthracite (or "hard" coal), clean and smokeless, became the preferred fuel in cities, replacing wood by about 1850. Bituminous (or "soft coal") mining came later. In the mid-century Pittsburgh was the principal market. After 1850 soft coal, which is cheaper but dirtier, came into demand for railway locomotives and stationary steam engines, and was used to make coke for steel after 1870.[32]

text: Total coal output soared until 1918; before 1890, it doubled every ten years, going from 8.4 million short tons in 1850 to 40 million in 1870, 270 million in 1900, and peaking at 680 million short tons in 1918. New soft coal fields opened in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, as well as West Virginia, Kentucky and Alabama. The Great Depression of the 1930s lowered the demand to 360 million short tons in 1932.[33]

text: Under John L. Lewis, the United Mine Workers (UMW) became the dominant force in the coal fields in the 1930s and 1940s, producing high wages and benefits.[34] In 1914 at the peak there were 180,000 anthracite miners; by 1970 only 6,000 remained. At the same time steam engines were phased out in railways and factories, and bituminous coal was used primarily for the generation of electricity. Employment in bituminous peaked at 705,000 men in 1923, falling to 140,000 by 1970 and 70,000 in 2003. UMW membership among active miners fell from 160,000 in 1980 to only 16,000 in 2005, as coal mining became more mechanized and non-union miners predominated in the new coal fields.

text: In the 1960s a series of mergers saw coal production shift from small, independent coal companies to large, more diversified firms. Several oil companies and electricity producers acquired coal companies or leased Federal coal reserves in the west of the United States. Concerns that competition in the coal industry could decline as a result of these changes were heightened by a sharp rise in coal prices in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. Coal prices fell in the 1980s, partly in response to oil price movements, but primarily in response to the large increase in supply worldwide which was brought about by the earlier price surge. During this period, the industry in the U.S. was characterized by a move towards low-sulfur coal.[35]

text: In 1987 Wyoming became the largest coal producing state. It uses strip mining exclusively. Wyoming's coal reserves total about 69.3 billion tons, or 14.2% of the U.S. coal reserve.[36]

text: In 2008, competition was intense in the US coal mining industry with some U.S. mines approaching the end of their useful life (mine closure).[citation needed] Other coal-producing countries also stepped up production to win a share of traditional US export markets. Coal is used primarily to generate electricity, but the rapid drop in natural gas prices after 2008 created severe competition.

text: Australia[edit]

text: In 1984 Australia surpassed the US as the world's largest coal exporter. One-third of Australia's coal exports were shipped from the Hunter Valley region of New South Wales, where coal mining and transport had begun nearly two centuries earlier. Coal River was the first name given by British settlers to the Hunter River after coal was found there in 1795. In 1804 the Sydney-based administration established a permanent convict settlement near the mouth of the Hunter River to mine and load the coal, predetermining the town's future as a coal port by naming it Newcastle. Today, Newcastle, NSW, is the largest coal port in the world. Now the state of Queensland is Australia's top coal producer, with its Bowen Basin the main source of black coal, and plans by miners such as Gina Rinehart to open up the Galilee and Surat Basins to coal mining.

text: Canada[edit]

text: Canadian coal mining started in New Brunswick and also occurred in Alberta, British Columbia, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan. The United States has been a major supplier for the industrial regions of Ontario. By 2000 about 19% of Canada's energy was supplied by coal, much of it imported from the U.S while Eastern Canadian ports import considerable coal from Venezuela.

text: New Brunswick[edit]

text: The first coal mining in North America began in New Brunswick, Canada in the early 1600s. Coal was found by French explorers and fur traders along the shores of Grand Lake where rivers and erosion had exposed the coal. Small amounts of coal were dug from surface deposits and tunnels dug into the coal seams, and this coal supplied Fort Saint Marie, built by the French about 1632 at the mouth of the Saint John River. The French sold coal to the British colony at Boston as early as 1639. Due to this earliest export of coal in North America, Grand Lake has been recognized as a Canadian Historic Site . Coal mining expanded after the British took control of the area in the mid 1700s and encouraged permanent settlements in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario by British Loyalists. Beginning in 1765, over 11,000 Loyalists settled in N.B., most along the lower 100 miles of the Saint John River and around Grand Lake. Approximately 200,000 tons of coal were dug at Grand Lake between 1639 and 1887 using surface collection, vertical shafts and the room and pillar system. By 1920, the use of draglines and other modern equipment made strip mining possible and the privately owned Grand Lake area mines produced over 200,000 tons per year. Most of this coal was used by the railroad and large businesses. By 1936, a coal burning electric power generating plant at Newcastle Creek was operating with two 33,000 volt lines going to Fredericton and one 66,000 volt line going to Marysville. By 1950, coal production at Grand Lake often reached 1 million tons per year. In 1969, all the privately owned Grand Lake area coal companies and approximately 1,000 employees were consolidated into one provincial government controlled company named N.B. Coal Ltd.. In 2009, the increasing availability of oil and environmental concerns with coal use caused the closing of the Grand Lake coal mines and New Brunswick's coal mining industry.

text: Nova Scotia[edit]

text: The first coal mining in Nova Scotia began in the 18th century with small hand-dug mines close to the sea at Joggins, Nova Scotia and in the Sydney area of Cape Breton Island. Large scale coal mining began in the late 1830s when the General Mining Association (GMA), a group of English mining investors, obtained a coal mining monopoly in Nova Scotia. They imported the latest in mining technology including steam water pumps and railways to develop large mines in the Stellarton area of Pictou County, Nova Scotia, including the Foord Pit which by 1866 was the deepest coal mine in the world.[37] Coal mining also developed in Springhill and Joggins in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. After the GMA monopoly expired, the largest and longest lasting mines developed at Cape Breton in Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia was the major supplier of Canadian coal until 1945.[38] At its peak in 1949 25,000 miners dug 17 million metric tons of coal from Nova Scotian mines. The miners, who lived in company towns, became politically active in left-wing politics during labour struggles for safety and fair wages. Westray Mine near Stellarton closed in 1992 after an explosion killed 26 miners. All the subsurface mines were closed by 2001, although some open pit coal mining continues near Stellarton. The Nova Scotia Museum of Industry at Stellarton explores the history of mining in the province from its location on the site of the Foord Pit.

text: Alberta[edit]

text: Coal was easy to find in what is now Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. The Atlas Coal Mine National Historic Site has turned this coalfield into a museum. This museum interprets how the Blackfoot and Cree knew about the "black rock that burned." After many explorers reported coal in the area, a handful of ranchers and homesteaders dug out the coal for their homes. Sam Drumheller started the coal rush in this area when he bought the land from a local rancher, which he then sold to the Canadian National Railway. Sam Drumheller also registered a coal mine. However, before his mine opened Jesse Gouge and Garnet Coyle beat him to it by opening the Newcastle Mine. Once the railway was built thousands of people came to mine this area.

text: By the end of 1912, there were nine working coal mines, in Newcastle, Drumheller, Midland, Rosedale, and Wayne. In years to follow more mines sprang up: Nacmine, Cambria, Willow Creek, Lehigh, and East Coulee. The timing of the Drumheller mine industry was "lucky" according to the Atlas National Historical Site, in that the United Mine Workers union had recently won the right for better working conditions. As a result of union action, child labour laws were passed to prevent boys under 14 years old working underground.[39]

text: Miners' camps in this area were called "hell's holes" because miners lived in tents and shacks. These camps were filled with drinking, gambling and watching fistfights as forms of recreation. With time, living conditions improved: little houses took the place of the tents, and more women joined the men and started families. With new activities such as hockey, baseball and theatre the camps were no longer "hell's holes" but became "the wonder town of the west."

text: Between 1911 and 1979, 139 mines were registered in the Drumheller Valley, of which only 34 were productive for many years. The beginning of the end for the Drumheller mining industry was the discovery of oil at Leduc No. 1 in 1947, after which natural gas became the predominant fuel for heating homes in western Canada. As the demand for coal dropped, mines closed and communities suffered. Some communities, Willow Creek for example, completely vanished while others went from boomtowns to ghost towns.

text: Atlas #4 Mine shipped its last load of coal in 1979, after which the Atlas Coal Mine National Historic Site has preserved the last of the Drumheller mines. Also nearby, East Coulee School Museum interprets the life of families in mine towns for its visitors.[40]

text: France[edit]

text: Pierre-Francois Tubeuf laid the foundations of the modern industry in France, starting in 1770 in Languedoc.[41] Labor unions emerged with an emphasis on the safety issue in the late 19th century. In 1885, there were 175 injuries per thousand workers per year. Deaths were low in most years 2 per 1000 workers), but major disaster was always a threat. 1099 men died in the Courrières mine disaster of 1906.[42] The campaign for mine safety enabled miners to break from their peasant psychology and create solidarity that came from sharing dangerous work, and to develop a working-class consciousness. Unions gain strength by setting up a system of worker elected mine-safety delegates. The national government encouraged the mine safety movement as a means of limiting strife in the sometimes turbulent coal fields.[43] Nevertheless, strikes remained very common, and coal miners took the lead in political organization.[44] Germany seized control of some mining districts in the First World War, leaving them devastated. Polish, Spanish and other immigrants were brought in to provide a stable labor force at the end of the war.[45]

text: Germany[edit]

text: The first important mines appeared in the 1750s, in the valleys of the rivers Ruhr, Inde and Wurm where coal seams outcropped and horizontal adit mining was possible. In 1782 the Krupp family began operations near Essen. After 1815 entrepreneurs in the Ruhr Area, which then became part of Prussia took advantage of the tariff zone (Zollverein) to open new mines and associated iron smelters. New railways were built by British engineers around 1850. Numerous small industrial centres sprang up, focused on ironworks, using local coal. The iron and steel works typically bought mines, and erected coking ovens to supply their own requirements in coke and gas. These integrated coal-iron firms ("Huettenzechen") became numerous after 1854; after 1900 they became mixed firms called "Konzern."

text: The average output of a mine in 1850 was about 8,500 short tons; its employment about 64. By 1900, the average mine's output had risen to 280,000 and the employment to about 1,400.[46] Total Ruhr coal output rose from 2.0 million short tons in 1850 to 22 in 1880, 60 in 1900, and 114 in 1913, on the verge of war. In 1932 output was down to 73 million short tons, growing to 130 in 1940. Output peaked in 1957 (at 123 million), declining to 78 million short tons in 1974.[47] At the end of 2010 five coal mines were producing in Germany.

text: The miners in the Ruhr region were divided by ethnicity (with Germans and Poles) and religion (Protestants and Catholics). Mobility in and out of the mining camps to nearby industrial areas was high. The miners split into several unions, with an affiliation to a political party. As a result, the socialist union (affiliated with the Social Democratic Party) competed with Catholic and Communist unions until 1933, when the Nazis took over all of them. After 1945 the socialists came to the fore.[26]

text: Belgium[edit]

text: By 1830 when iron and later steel became important in Wallonia the Belgian coal industry had long been established, and used steam engines for pumping. The Belgian coalfield lay near the navigable River Meuse, so coal was shipped downstream to the ports and cities of the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta. The opening of the Saint-Quentin Canal in 1810 allowed coal to go by barge to Paris. The Belgian coalfield outcrops over most of its area, and the highly folded nature of the coal seams, part of the geological Rhenohercynian Zone, meant that surface occurrences of the coal were very abundant. Deep mines were not required at first, so a large number of small operations sprang up. There was a complex legal system for concessions, and often multiple layers had different owners. Entrepreneurs started going deeper and deeper, thanks to the good pumping system. In 1790, the maximum depth of mines was 220 meters (720 ft). By 1856, the average depth in the Borinage was 361 meters (1,184 ft), and in 1866, 437 meters (1,434 ft) and some pits had reached down 700 to 900 meters (2,300 to 3,000 ft); one was 1,065 meters (3,494 ft) deep, probably the deepest coal mine in Europe at this time. Gas explosions were a serious problem, and Belgium had high coal miner fatality rates. By the late 19th century the seams were becoming exhausted, and the steel industry was importing some coal from the Ruhr.[48] André Dumont's discovery in 1900 of coal in the Campine basin, in the Belgian Province Limburg, prompted entrepreneurs from Liège to open coal mines, mainly producing coal for the steel industry. An announced reorganisation of the Belgian coal mines in 1965 resulted in strikes and a revolt which led to the death of two coal miners in 1966 at the Zwartberg mine. Coal was mined in the Liège basin until 1980, in the Southern Wallonian basin until 1984, and in the Campine basin until 1992.

text: Poland[edit]

text: The first permanent coal mine in Poland was established in Szczakowa near Jaworzno in 1767. In 19th century development of iron, copper and lead mining and processing in southern Poland (notably in the Old-Polish Industrial Region and later in the region of Silesia) led to a quick development of coal mining. Among the most prominent deposits are those located in what are now the Upper Silesian Industrial Region and Rybnik Coal Area (formerly part of Prussia) and the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie on the Russian side of the border.

text: In modern times coal is still considered a strategic resource for Poland's economy, as it covers roughly 65% of energetic needs. Before and after World War II Poland has been one of the major coal producers worldwide, usually listed among the five largest. However, after 1989 the coal production is in decline, with the overall production for 1994 reaching 132 million metric tons, 112 million metric tons in 1999 and 104 million metric tons in 2002.

text: Russia[edit]

text: From the 1860s large deposits in the Don Basin ("Donbas") in southern Russia supplied 87% of Russia's coal. It was used by railways and the iron and steel industry. After 1900 smaller deposits near Dombrovo, Zabaikal and Cheremkhovo in Siberia were opened. Small older mines south of Moscow also operated. Coal production was controlled by inefficient Russo-British syndicates, and there were shortages of workers, so the companies set up welfare systems for them. Their smallish output and the weak Russian railway system centered on the Ekaterininskaia (Krivoi Rog) Railway held back the growth of Russian heavy industry.[49][50][51]

text: In the Second World War the loss of 60% of the mining areas to German invaders forced the rapid expansion of mines in the Urals, as well as greater use of mines in the Kuznetsk Basin in Siberia. In 1939 the Urals produced only half the fuel needed by local industry. During the war the mines were expanded and over 700 factories were evacuated from the west, greatly increasing the demand for Ural coal. Prisoners from the Gulag were sent to the mines; up to a third of the workers were women. The miners were given much higher rations of food. Output doubled and the share of the region in the total national coal production rose from 8% to 22%.[52]

text: In 1989-91 militant coal miners in Russia and Ukraine were the mainstay of the revolutionary forced which finally overthrew the Communist system in 1991.[53]

text: Today the Donets Basin is the major coal-mining district in eastern Ukraine and adjacent portions of Russia. Production during 2009 was 68.7 million tons in the Ukrainian and 4.9million tons in the Russian part of the basin, but coal gas is a major hazard.[54]

text: China[edit]

text: The industry in China goes back many centuries.[55] In recent decades has become the main energy source of what (from 2010) is the world's second largest economy.[56] Thus China is by far the largest producer of coal in the world, producing over 2.8 billion tons of coal in 2007, or approximately 39.8 percent of all coal produced in the world during that year.[57] For comparison, the second largest producer, the United States, produced more than 1.1 billion tons in 2007. An estimated 5 million people work in China's coal-mining industry. As many as 20,000 miners die in accidents each year.[58] Most Chinese mines are deep underground and do not produce the surface disruption typical of strip mines.[59]

text: India[edit]

text: Commercial exploitation began in 1774, John Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of the East India Company setting up operations in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of river Damodar. Due to a lack of demand growth was sluggish until 1853, with the introduction of steam locomotives to the fast-expanding rail system.

text: As late as 1895, India imported large quantities of coal from Britain, but as domestic production increased and was found to be suitable for locomotives and ships, demand for coal imports declined dramatically. India's export of coal increased, especially to Burma, Ceylon, and the Malay states.[60]

text: By 1900 production had risen to an annual average of 1 million tonne (mt) and India was producing 6.12 mts. per year by 1900[citation needed] and 18 mts per year by 1920.[citation needed] Temporary wartime demand (1914-1918) was followed by a slump in the 1930s. The production reached a level of 29 mts. by 1942 and 30 mts. by 1946.

text: After India became independent, the new government stressed the rapid growth of heavy industry. The National Coal Development Corporation was founded in 1956 (as a Government of India) undertaking. The founding of this body was major step in the development of an indigenous Indian coal sector. Especially important was the development of the vast Dhanbad coal-mining complex with such major operations as Tata Steel, BCCL, ECL and IISCO (Indian Iron And Steel Company), as well as the Indian School of Mines to train engineers, geologists and managers.[61]

text: Other countries[edit]

text: In the 21st century, Indonesia has expanded its coal mining and by 2011 ranked #5 globally in production.[62] By 2011 Kazakhstan ranks in the top ten in terms of coal production and reserves. Lignite ("brown coal") remains important with Germany, China and Russia the largest producers.[63]

text: Disasters[edit]

text: Mining has always been especially dangerous, because of explosions, roof cave-ins, and the difficulty of underground rescue. The worst single disaster in British coal mining history was at Senghenydd in the South Wales coalfield. On the morning of 14 October 1913 an explosion and subsequent fire killed 436 men and boys. Only 72 bodies were recovered. It followed a series of many extensive Mining accidents in the late 19th century, such as The Oaks explosion of 1866 and the Hartley Colliery Disaster of 1862. Most of the explosions were caused by firedamp ignitions followed by coal dust explosions. At Hartley there was no explosion, but the miners entombed when the single shaft was blocked by a broken cast iron beam from the haulage engine. Deaths were mainly caused by carbon monoxide poisoning, known as afterdamp.[64]

text: The Courrières mine disaster, Europe's worst mining accident, caused the death of 1,099 miners in Northern France on 10 March 1906. The Benxihu Colliery accident in China on April 26, 1942, killed 1,549 miners.[65]

text: As well as disasters directly affecting mines, there have been disasters attributable to the impact of mining on the surrounding landscapes and communities. The Aberfan disaster in 1966 buried a school in South Wales when a huge slag heap collapsed, killing 116 children and 28 adults.


document_title: List of Overlord episodes

question_text: when is overlord season 2 episode 12 coming out

root

text: List of Overlord episodes

text: Overlord[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Original airdate

1
"End and Beginning"
"Owari to Hajimari" (終わりと始まり)
July 7, 2015

Yggdrasil is a Dive Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game released in 2126 that is discontinued after 12 years of standing as the top DMMO-RPG. Momonga, guildmaster of Ainz Ooal Gown, is conversing with guild mate Herohero during the last moments of Yggdrasil in their guild hall, The Great Tomb of Nazarick. Herohero bids farewell to Momonga and logs out. Momonga is enraged about his friends leaving the game, but cools down after noting that they didn't abandon the guild - it was that they had real life issues to deal with. Now all alone in Nazarick except for NPCs and still engrossed in the memories of the past, he takes the Staff of Ainz Ooal Gown and heads to the throne room. On the way he orders Sebas and his battle maids to follow and meets Albedo there. On a whim, he changes her settings to be in love with him as its originally setting created by Tabula was that she was an absolute "bitch". Momonga closes his eyes to await the forced logout by server but realizes something is wrong as he isn't ejected and remains in the game. He discovers, to his astonishment, that the NPCs have developed their own personalities and can be directly communicated with as if they were humans. Albedo, in particular, begins exhibiting the personality traits based on the settings Momonga made, much to his shock. Momonga attempts to test the limits of this new discovery but is forcefully calmed down. He also notices he can smell now, which was not possible in the game so far. Dazed at all that has occurred, Momonga orders Albedo to call every guardian except those from 4th and 8th floor to meet him in the arena floor. He teleports himself to the arena to test his skills.

2
"Floor Guardians"
"Kaisō shugo-sha" (階層守護者)
July 14, 2015

The floor guardians of Nazarick are introduced. Sebas reports that the guild hall was somehow moved to an unknown locatiom. Momonga continues to test his capabilities in the new world and sets up some countermeasures for any potential threat with the help of Mare and Sebas Tian.

3
"The Battle of Carne Village"
"Karune-mura no tatakai" (カルネ村の戦い)
July 21, 2015

While using a magic mirror to examine nearby lands with the help of Sebas, Momonga discovers a village under attack from knights of unknown affiliation. At first, Momonga intends to ignore the slaughter but when he remembers the debt he owed to his guild mate 'Touch Me', he decides to save the villagers. Meanwhile, a group of warriors led by a man named Gazef encounter sacked villages, looking for survivors.

4
"Ruler of Death"
"Shi no shihai-sha" (死の支配者)
July 28, 2015

Nigun Grid Luin, the captain of the Sunlight Scripture of the Slane Theocracy marches on Carne Village with a team of magic casters to kill Gazef. Realizing this, Gazef attempts to convince Ainz Ooal Gown (Momonga's new name) to defend the village to no avail, so he sets out with his men to confront them while Ainz assists the villagers in escaping. Gazef and his men fight bravely, but they are beaten severely by Nigun's men. Before Nigun's magic casters can deal the final blow, an item that Ainz had previously given Gazef activates and swaps the latter and his men with Ainz and Albedo. Ainz reveals that his whole scheme was to test the power that the Slane Theocracy's men had, and that he was using Gazef to do so. Immediately, Ainz begins effortlessly batting away the attacks of Nigun's men, much to their shock. This leads Nigun to activate a 7th tier spell, summoning a powerful angel to attack Ainz. The attack barely inflicts pain on Ainz, which he scoffs about. Albedo, however, is infuriated that someone hurt her "beloved" Ainz and threatens to massacre them. Ainz calms her down, and then proceeds to obliterate the angel with a black hole. Dumbfounded and horrified at the power Ainz displayed, Nigun begins to beg for his life. Laughing, Ainz responds by quoting one of Nigun's previous statements. After the battle, Ainz returns to Nazarick to announce his name change and their goal of spreading his new name, Ainz Ooal Gown, across these new lands. However, his servants misinterpret this as a declaration that he wishes to rule the world.

5
"Two Adventurers"
"Futari no bōken-sha" (二人の冒険者)
August 4, 2015

Ainz and Narbeal (one of the Battle Maids of Nazarick) take on the aliases of Momon and Nabe, respectively, in order to join the adventurer's guild to learn more about the world. Several complications arise when "Momon" finds it troublesome to keep "Nabe" from blowing their cover. while rowdy adventurers try to win Nabe's attention (which only annoys her). Meanwhile, a dangerous necromancer and a bloodthirsty female assassin plot a takeover of Re-Estize.

6
"Journey"
"Tabiji" (旅路)
August 11, 2015

Hired by Nfirea, Momon, Nabe and the Swords of Darkness accompany him to Carne Village. On the journey the party is attacked by a large group of Goblin and Ogre. A battle plan is made quickly while the Swords of Darkness pick off the goblins, Momon and Nabe would eliminate the ogres. As the fight proceeds, Momon immediately breaks formation and instantly bifurcates several ogres to the shock of the Swords of Darkness. The other goblins and ogres panic and retreat at the sight of Momon cutting down their kin. Later, around a campfire, Momon and Nabe share a tense moment with the rest of the group when one of the Swords inquires about Momon's past.

7
"Wise King of Forest"
"Mori no ken-ō" (森の賢王)
August 18, 2015

Momon's group arrives at Carne Village and meet Enri Emmot and her Goblin Troop. Enri tells Nfirea why the village is fortified and she also mentions Ainz Ooal Gown, the red potion that healed her, and Albedo which leads Nfirea to conclude that Momon is Ainz Ooal Gown. Nfirea apologizes to Ainz for deceiving him and Ainz tells him not to reveal his identity to anyone. Overhearing this, Nabe immediately becomes distraught as she was responsible for Nfirea uncovering Momon's identity. Later, as Nfirea requests the Swords of Darkness along with Momon and Nabe to help him collect medical herbs in the forest, Momon learns of the "Wise King of the Forest", a supposedly powerful magical creature. Seeing an opportunity to gain fame, Momon contacts Aura back in Nazarick and has her draw out the beast from its den. The beast angrily runs out of its den and charges Momon. Momon immediately recognizes the beast as a giant Djungarian hamster, a species that one of his guild mates kept as a pet in real life. Noting how much of a disappointment the Wise King was, Momon instead opts to use Aura of Dread level 1 to scare the beast into submission. Aura, seeing this, asks if she can take its pelt, but Momon decides to make the King his servant instead. Naming the Wise King Hamsuke, Momon introduces Hamsuke to the Swords of Darkness who are in awe over its wisdom. Momon, however, is floored by their perception of Hamsuke as he can't see her as anything other than a giant cute hamster. After successfully collecting the herbs, the group returns to E-Rantel. Momon and Nabe then part ways with the group to register Hamsuke while the Swords of Darkness return to the pharmacy for their payment from Nfirea. The group is intercepted by Clementine, however, who menacingly mocks the group.

8
"Twin Swords of Slashing Death"
"Shi o kirisaku sōken" (死を切り裂く双剣)
August 25, 2015

Clementine appears in front of Nfirea to kidnap him. The Swords of Darkness attempt to buy time for Nfirea and Ninya to escape but Khajiit blocks their way of escape and the adventurers are slaughtered. After registering Hamsuke at the Adventurer's Guild, Momon's group meets Lizzie Bareare and guides them to her house. However, they find the Swords of Darkness turned into zombies. After killing them off, Momon immediately deduces three things: first, whoever did it didn't hide the bodies, meaning they didn't care to cover their tracks. Second, a piercing weapon was used to kill the Swords. Third, their target was Nfirea. With this knowledge, Momon asks Lizzie if she wants to hire him to save her grandson at the cost of all she has. Agreeing to the pseudo "Faustian Contract", Momon uses several locator spells to track Clementine to an old cemetery on the edge of town. Using Crystal Monitor, Momon discovers an undead army with Nfirea at its center. Ordering Lizzie to alert the guild and town, Momon immediately rushes to the cemetery. Upon arriving at the gate, Momon astonishes the guards by single-handedly annihilating the undead attacking them despite being only a copper plate. Along with Nabe and Hamsuke, Momon carves a path to Khajiit and Clementine. Confronting them, he mocks Khajiit and demands that they hand over Nfirea while also drawing out Clementine. Momon then leaves Nabe to deal with Khajiit while he and Clementine leave to take their battle elsewhere. As Momon and Clementine are walking, the latter attempts to psychologically taunt Momon. Momon brushes it off with laughter, and then enrages Clementine by declaring he doesn't need to fight seriously to kill her.

9
"The Dark Warrior"
"Shikkoku no senshi" (漆黒の戦士)
September 1, 2015

Momon and Nabe begin their respective fights against Khajiit and Clementine. Khajiit summons two skeletal dragons that he declares are impervious to magic, but this is proven partially false as Nabe easily obliterates both the dragons and Khajiit with a seventh tier spell (as the dragons can only block six and below.) Momon, continuing to give Clementine a handicap, clashes with her repeatedly. Furious at how Momon repeatedly mocks her as weak, Clemetine charges Momon with a full force attack and stabs him in both eyes with elemental strikes. Laughing, Momon brushes off the move to Clementine's shock and pins her with a one-armed bear hug. Revealing his true nature as an undead elder lich, Ainz torments Clementine that she was defeated by a magic caster that didn't even use magic. Visibly shaken, Clementine snaps and flails relentlessly while thrashing at Ainz to release her. Her efforts prove futile, and Ainz crushes her body with both arms, killing her. Ainz then returns victorious with Narberal, Hamsuke and Nfriea and for his efforts is immediately promoted to Mythril rank. As he discusses his new promotion with Narberal, Ainz contacts Albedo who alerts him that Shalltear Bloodfallen has rebelled against Nazarick.

10
"True Vampire"
"Shinso" (真祖)
September 8, 2015

Shalltear is outside Nazarick, trying to find Martial Arts users with Sebas and Solution. After encountering some bandits, she sends Sebas and Solution back to the kingdom and goes to the Bandits base, where she confronts their leader, Brain Unguls, who knows martial arts. However he is so weak, compared to her, that she does not even realize that he is using them. She then goes into a Blood Frenzy and kills all of the Bandits except Brain who escapes. She tries to follow him, but encounters Adventurers, who are there to fight the Bandits. She kills all of them except Brita, who had Ainz's red potion which makes her believe that Ainz wanted her alive. When she realizes that one adventurer was set to run away before hand should it all go bad, she tries to find him, but ends up being attacked by some unknown people who attack her with a weapon. but not before she manages to wound the user.
After Ainz hears that she has Betrayed Nazarick, he decides to go to her and find out why.

11
"Confusion and Understanding"
"Konran to haaku" (混乱と把握)
September 15, 2015

Ainz and Albedo find Shalltear but Ainz states that even though Shalltear is under mind control, she was left behind without any orders. Ainz attempts to use a Super Tier magic item to free her, but it fails. Ainz then discovers that Shalltear has been mind controlled by a World Class Item, the strongest of all types of items. He decides to equip the NPC's with the World Class items that Nazarick has before he goes to fight Shalltear, but revealing that Shalltear is one of the Strongest NPCs in Nazarick and that he might not be able to beat her.

12
"The Bloody Valkyrie"
"Senketsu no ikusaotome" (鮮血の戦乙女)
September 22, 2015

Ainz finally goes and confronts Shalltear, who proves to be on par with Ainz, but Ainz beats her with a special move, after which she uses a skill to prevent her death, at the cost of using up all her mana. However Ainz then states how everything has been going according to his plan.

13
"Player VS Non Player Character"
(PVN)
September 29, 2015

Ainz and Shalltear Bloodfallen continue their fight. However it is revealed that outcome of their fight was already predicted by Ainz. Using the knowledge about Shalltear, provided by her creator and his friend Peroronchino, he had the whole battle preplanned. With his MP reduced, he changed to warrior class and used the world champion armor. Then using various other cash shop items and finally using a super tier spell, Ainz defeats and kills Shalltear. Then back at Nazarick, Ainz resurrects Shalltear using 500 million gold. However Shalltear has no memory of her time under mind control, although it is revealed that The Slane Theocracy was responsible for it. Momon and Nabe return for taking the job from the guild and it is shown that he has been promoted directly to adamantite class, making them the third of the Adamantite party in the kingdom.

OVA
"Ple Ple Pleiades - Nazarick's Greatest Crisis"
"Pure Pure Pureadesu - Nazarikku Saidai no Kiki" (ぷれぷれぷれあです - なざりっく最大の危機)
September 30, 2016

"And So, "Total Maniac-Modified" Activates!"
"Sonna wake de "Kanzen Naru Kyousou-Kai" Hatsudou!" (そんなワケで「完全なる狂躁・改」発動!)

"Meeting With Pleiades"
"Pureadesu to Machiawase" (ぷれあですと待ち合わせ)

"Let's Chat With Shalltear!/Let's Tangle With the Twins and the Bugs!/Pairing Up the Two Who Don't Get Along"
"Sharutia to Hanashitemiyou!/Futago to Mushi to Karandemiyou!/Nakayokunai Futari Narabetemita Ken" (シャルティアと話してみよう!/双子と虫とからんでみよう!/仲良くない二人ならべてみた件)

"The Three are in Treasure House"
"Sannin wa Houmotsuden Nau" (三人は宝物殿なう)

"NvN"

Ainz summons all Guardians (except Gargantua and Victim) and Pleiades Combat Maids, and shows them the item "Total Maniac-Modified", which Yuri points out has the power to destroy the world. Upon activation, Shalltear becomes a self-loathing person, Cocytus starts saying perverted things openly, Demiurge starts adding weird random words to his sentences, and Aura and Mare act more childish. Ainz states that the item has an effect that makes them open their heart, and agrees with Demiurge's explanation that this is an experiment to how they act upon affected by mental condition.
Ainz orders the Pleiades to help him to watch over the Guardians, who have been affected by the "Total Maniac-Modified". Narberal points out that it has no effects on the Pleiades Maids for some reason. When Ainz orders them to act casually, he sensed that Yuri is still traumatized from last time. He also points out that Sebas wasn't exposed to "Total Maniac" last time, but nothing happened to him. Lupusregina states that Sebas' heart may have been in chaos, but he's desperately trying to hold himself together, though the others doubt it. She was right, though.

Ainz interviews Shalltear in his room, accompanied by CZ and (uninvited) Albedo. Shalltear and Albedo waste no time to start bickering with each other. When asked about the reason they always fighting, Shalltear states that the main reason is about their chest size, since all men thinks that "big breasts are justice". Ainz denies this, and states that there are people who likes flat chest too, and stuttered "hinnu" instead of "hinyuu" (flat-chested), though the others think that the term is cute. Then Ainz is asked the question: does he like big breast or small breast? To avoid any problems, Ainz ends the segment there and then.

Ainz interviews Aura, Mare and Cocytus, accompanied by Entoma. Ainz notes that Aura hasn't change much, which Aura states it's because she is always honest with herself. Cocytus keeps spouting perverted delusion (similar to the usual Albedo), so Ainz asks him to be silent, which makes him crying. In an attempt to cheer him, Entoma takes out a cockroach, which frightens Cocytus. Mare catches the cocroach, and the siblings roast it. Entoma points out that cockroach is more delicious to be eaten raw, and starts eating. In the midst of the chaos, Mare asks Ainz about the person he likes, shocking him. Albedo feels like she was called by Ainz, and Lupusregina jokes that it's a skill that big breasted people have, shocking Shalltear. Ainz asks them what they like the most, and Aura, Mare and Entoma all answers "Lord Ainz", but Cocytus almost says "breast", though he corrects his answer before he spouts it.

Ainz interviews Demiurge and Sebas, accompanied by Entoma and Solution. Demiurge still add random words to his sentences. Sebas tries to restraint himself from acting wildly, though he really wants to. He get the chance to do so when Demiurge said that Ainz asks them to act casually, but Solution states that the Sebas now is his true self, so he has no option but to restraint himself and act like everything is normal. Solution suddenly becomes plump, shocking Sebas (who screams), and in return shocking Ainz (whose emotion gets regulated). Ainz states that Solution takes a challenge to eat 10 humans at once, causing her to get fat.

Yuri, Lupusregina and Narberal arrives in the Treasure Room. She states that the "Total Maniac-Modified" is different from the one she saw last time, and accuses that it is made by Pandora's Actor, because the puppet's face on the item looks exactly like Pandora's real face. Demiurge joins the talk, and reveals that the item actually has no effect on him, and him talking weirdly is just an act. Pandora explains that since making item that affect personality is hard, he had a prototype that turns someone's personality to simple quality - sexually open, self-loathe on their complexes, amplifying childish tendencies, in short, changes into any character. In the end, it is revealed that Ainz actually took the prototype, since the prototype and the real has no differences in shape prior to being used (Even Pandora can't tell the differences).

In Ainz's room, everything became chaotic. In order to cure the effect, Pandora takes out the hammer-looking item "Total Calmness", which cancels the effect of "Total Maniac-Modified" upon hitting the affected people. As the leader of the Guardians, Albedo takes charge in resolving the problem - Solution and Lupusregina confront Shalltear, Entoma and CZ confront Cocytus, Sebas (still affected) confronts Aura and Mare, Yuri and Narberal guard the door, and Demiurges to hit the targets with "Total Calmness" (Albedo assigns herself to guard Ainz, which the latter doesn't want to tsukkomi). Upon healed, the affected people forgot what happened, and Demiurge told a lie that the destruction of Ainz's room is caused by Yuri's Flying Head Attack. For safety, Ainz hits Demiurge and Albedo with "Total Calmness" before decides to do the same thing upon himself. Afterwards, Pandora, in an attempt of getting screentime, states that it's just a beginning towards more madness (denied by Ainz). Alone in his room, Ainz thought that they can talk honestly with each other while bathing, and a mind-reading CZ points out it could be a foreshadowing.

tag: table

text: Overlord II[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Original airdate

1
"The Dawn of Despair"
"Zetsubō no Makuake" (絶望の幕開け)
January 9, 2018

In the Slane Theocracy, the Captain of the Black Scripture & Zesshi Zetsumei discuss the mystery of Magic Caster Ainz Ooal Gown for his growing celebrity as a magic caster, and a recent vampire attack which killed two Scripture members and severely wounded Lady Kaire. Zesshi expresses intrigue in Ainz, as she seeks a man capable of defeating her so as to sire for her a more powerful child. Meanwhile in another location, former adventurer Rigrit of the original 13 Heroes & the Platinum Dragon Lord discuss the possibility that a dark and powerful player from Yggdrasil may have arrived to this New World. In the Re-Estize Capital, Gazef Stronoff is with the King as the Counts of the Kingdom decide to bring the annual war to Baharuth, and the King apologizes for not having sent full support for the events of Carne Village. After a brief visit by Princess Renner & her squire Climb, The King asks Gazef to request a meeting with Ainz Ooal Gown to show his gratitude for saving Gazef. After Ainz finishes a job as Momon, he returns to Nazarick to give a debriefing to Albedo (simply ecstaticed of his return) of what he has learned in relation to the notable nation states in the known world in proximity of Nazarick's position on the map. Meanwhile, Shalltear (guilt-ridden by her mind control attack Ainz) drinks herself into a stupor while Eclair, Sebas' assistant Butler, fails at trying to cheer her up. Cocytus is sent to start a war with the Lizardmen and claim the fallen for a later army of undead. In the village of the Lizardmen, Green Claw Tribe Chieftain Shasryu discuss daily life with his younger brother Zaryusu when a monstrous entity comes from the clouds.

2
"Departure"
"Tabidachi" (旅立ち)
January 16, 2018

The dark entity which descends from the sky is a Herald forewarning the Lizardmen of the Green Claw Tribe of an invasion in eight days time. Zaryusu advises an alliance with the other Lizardmen tribes- Small Fang, Razor tail, Dragon Tusk, and Red Eye. But as Dragon Tusk has survivors of defeated Tribes Yellow Speckle & Sharp Edge, there is little to no hope of alliance with them. Zaryusu is permitted by his brother the Chieftain to be the envoy to seek an alliance with the other tribes. Reaching the Red Eye tribe, Zaryusu meets Crusch Lulu the Interim Chief/Priestess of the village. Enamored by her, he instinctively lets out a mating cry desiring to marry her. After an awkward start, the two discuss an alliance and reach a consensus. Planning to build an alliance, Zaryusu & Crusch arrive in the Dragon Tusk village and meet the Chieftain Zenburu Gugu, who also received the Herald's message, but will only join the alliance if Zaryusu can prove his worth in combat. Back in Nazarick, Demiurge talks with Eclair, and it is revealed both are aware of Eclair's hidden agenda to usurp Nazarick's Throne as that was his design by Ankoro Mochi Mochi. As a decoy replica of Nazarick is under construction, Cocytus is informed by his subordinates of Demiurge's scroll mission and the need to report regularly. Cocytus takes this news, and readys his army for the coming war in a few days. Aura, overseeing the construction of the decoy replica of Nazarick, receives a gift from Ainz in the form of a talking wristwatch with the voice of her creator Lady Bukubuku Chagama dictating Lunch Hour.

3
"Lizard Men, Gathering"
"Tsudou, Rizādoman" (集う、蜥蜴人)
January 23, 2018

Zenburu fights Zaryusu, and they wager the role of Chief & Crusch for a mate. Zaryusu realizes his physical strength is less than Zanburu, but uses his Frost Pain axe item to freeze Zenburu with each attack, causing Zenburu to yield realizing he can't keep fighting an item which will kill him as he fights. The group parties to discuss the alliance, and Dragon Tusk joins in. Heading to the Razor Tail Tribe, the First attack site of the Hearld's message, Shasryu greets the trio and everyone gathers for a scout reports the odds are against them with forces 3:1. Cocytus views on a crystal monitor their gathering & orders the attack. The Lizardmen put up a moderate resistance, until the five Chiefs use their Magic Caster abilities to quickly summon Swamp Elementals. Entoma informs Lord Ainz, who views the situation with the Battle as unexpected. Cocytus messages Demiurge for insight, the latter informing him to think for himself as to how to ration and deploy troops against the Lizardmen, as it may be the undisclosed wish of Lord Ainz. Cocytus orders an Elder Lich Caster Commander into the fight, tearing down resistance with relative ease. Seeing their chance to enter the fight, Zaryusu sacrifices his steed Hydra Snake Rororo to get in close to the Lich to fight alongside Crusch & Zenburu, who are later rendered incapacitated, leaving Zaryusu to muster what strength he has left to trap himself and the Lich Commander in a massive ice cage. After much pain and many attacks, Zaryusu is victorious by surprise attacking the Lich in a fog and driving his Frost Pain into the former's brain. With the Lizardmen victorious in the battle, Cocytus must answer to Ainz.

4
"Army of Death"
"Shi no Gunzei" (死の軍勢)
January 30, 2018

The Lizardmen celebrate victory; Zaryus & Crusch are alone in a tent blushing, when Zenburu barges in wondering if their "having fun"- much to their shock. Back in Nazarick, Ainz introduces 8th Floor Guardian 'Victim' to the others, to prepare for unforeseen encounters; Demiurge was successful in making higher quality scrolls using Sheep Beastmen; Ainz promises to fulfill Shalltear's need for punishment later on. Lastly, as Cocytus was defeated, Ainz explains he gave Cocytus a weak army so he'd learn to adapt & reapply resources as a leader. As all of Cocytus' forces were low Tier undead, there was no risk for Nazarick. But Cocytus must face punishment: he is to eradicate the Lizardmen. Cocytus instead asks the Lizardmen be spared into servitude of Nazarick. When Ainz asks why, Demiurge steps in proposing it could benefit them to see how governing a new people under Nazarick would work, as they may have to again in the future and starting now would help prepare them. Ainz agrees, but demands Cocytus rule them by means without fear. Ainz only wanted to hear Cocytus' free opinion, demanding his Guardians think over their orders so as to bring greater benefit to Nazarick. After departing, Demiurge states to the Guardians that Ainz intended for all this, wishing they learn to be more interdependent in their goal for conquest, and Cocytus' mission was also a probe of the Lizardmen. In his bedroom, Momonga is happy his guardians are learning to evolve, and also notices a familiar floral scent (Albedo's). The next day, the Guardians & Ainz himself return to the battlefield in a grand show of force: freezing the lake, Gargantua (twice the height of the forest) throws a massive stone in the center of the lake, & the undead perform a royal procession for Ainz to sit atop the stone and speak before the Lizardmen. When the Shasha brothers act as representatives, Demiurge uses controller magic to have them bow properly before Ainz' decree: Cocytus will arrive in 4 hours time to fight them on his own, and if they win they're forever free of Nazarick. The Five Tribe leaders discuss sending only themselves, with Crusch to stay behind & lead. As she argues against this, the Tribe Leaders leave Zaryusu to talk with her- they both accept that there will be death and Crusch demands Zaryusu impregnate her to preserve their love.

5
"The Freezing God"
"Hyōketsu no Bushin" (氷結の武神)
February 6, 2018

The Lizardmen champions- The Shasha Brothers, Zenburu, with Kyuku Zuzu and Sukyu Juju (Razor Tail & Small Fang Chieftains respectively) prepare for battle with Cocytus. During this preparation, Ainz & his guardians enter a temporary base of operations while Victim Guards the First Floor as they're out. Upon seeing a make shift throne for himself by his guardians, he opts to use Shalltear as a chair as her due punishment (when really he felt uneasy about sitting in a chair made of bones); this enrages Albedo but hyper stimulates Shalltear's pleasure. While observing the Lizardmen, the Mirror of Remote Viewing stumbles on Zaryusu & Crusch having sex- which starts a conversation Ainz forces to be quiet. The Lizardmen champions stand ready, and Cocytus arrives to do battle equipped in his Floor Guardian gear. Many Lizardmen die leaving only the Shasha brothers. Cocytus asks for their names and grants them the honor of death by his God Slaying Emperor Blade. Repeating the fog & surprise attack maneuver, they're easily countered & Shasryu is killed. Later, Ainz congratulates Cocytus for his victory & summons Crusch over for a deal: report & monitor her people for any signs of rebellion and Ainz will revive Zaryusu. Crusch agrees and Ainz resurrects Zaryusu (suffering confusion & level loss from the Yggdrasil rez function) among the villagers- who now worship him a god. After pledging their fidelity, Zaryusu asks for his brother & Zenburu be returned as well, and Ainz takes it into consideration having the Lizardmen keep their bodies safeguarded. Tired, Zaryusu & Crusch go to get rest.

6
"Those who pick up, Those who are picked up"
"Hirou mono, Hirowa reru mono" (拾う者、拾われる者)
February 13, 2018

While still in the Re-Estize capital, Sebas goes to the Magician's Guild to purchase a spell scroll, and on his way back to the mansion stumbles upon a brutalized young woman who, after remembering the words of his creator Player Touch Me, takes her to safety. The man who threw her away begs Sebas not to as he will be killed by the Eight Fingers crime syndicate for allowing an asset to be taken; Sebas gives the man money to flee town as a response. Upon his return, Solution is taken aback by Sebas' care for the young girl & having Solution heal her of injury. Waking up she is fed, and breaks down crying for being shown the level of kindness Sebas has given, and revealing her name is Tuare. Sebas orders Solution not inform Lord Ainz, stating it is not worth his time knowing about a meager human girl. Meanwhile, Gazef has breakfast with Brain Unglaus, who is in a depressive state following his encounter with Shalltear, and Gazef tries to help him. Out in a secluded region, Adamantite Adventurer Team Blue Rose destroys an illegal crop used in the production of a powerful narcotic called Black Dust. While scouting, Blue Rose member Evileye finds a parchment with code which can lead them to the leaders of Eight Fingers. As the same time, the heads of Eight Fingers discuss the crop burning and the girl's rescue by Sebas. At the table, Zero, head of Eight Fingers Security, promises Coco Doll, head of the Slave Department, that his men will return the girl to their possession.

7
"Blue Roses"
"Aoi no Bara" (蒼の薔薇)
February 20, 2018

As Ainz reviews the New World finances, he finds it difficult to manage funds for the Lizardmen budget & the undercover Nazarick agents. Narberal, as Nabe, comes to Ainz in regards to the various ore samples he had bought to do an appraisal experiment on the Exchange Box, to see which ore from where yields the most gold. He gives Nabe all the money he has left, reminding her to be covert & pleasant to humans for their covers, and silently frets on financial woes. Elsewhere, Climb is given a sparring session by Gazef, who informs Climb of Ainz Ooal Gown, having saved his life, for the young bodyguard to remember. After the spar, Gazef notes to his Vice-Chief that Climbs power can't go pass that of a Gold ranked Adventurer and his efforts won't change that, but he can still learn from experience. Across the way, Gazef sees Prince Zanac talking with Marquis Raven, likely forming an alliance dispite Kingdom factions as Raven is an opportunist. Meeting with Princess Renner, Climb is introduced to Blue Rose Leader Lakyus Alvein Dale Aindra along with Blue Rose Twin Assassin Tina. Under Renner's guidance, they learn the code they discovered at the Black Dust crop is really a list of locations of importance to Eight Fingers in the capital city. One location not listed, is an underground brothel in the capital, and Blue Rose brings Climb to investigate alongside them; however, remembering a Nobleman's daughter serves as one of Renner's maids, they worry of their plans having been uncovered. Meanwhile, Sebas has Tuare serve as the maid of the manor he & Solution are using as cover to better sell that identity, but are later found by Succulent (an Eight Fingers agent) & Constable Staffan Havish. The two 'ask' for compensation for Sebas' purchasing Tuare despite the Anti-Slave laws, so as to be pardoned for his 'crime'. Permitting Sebas two days to think over their proposal, the two take their leave. As Sebas goes on a "walk" to clear his mind, Solution messages Ainz to inform him Sebas may have been compromised.

8
"A Boy's Feeling"
"Shōnen no Omoi" (少年の思い)
February 27, 2018

Climb heads to an Inn where Gagaran & Evileye are having lunch and informs both of them Lakyus wants both of them to be ready to mobilize. As the conversation goes on, Evileye informs the both of them of the new Adamantite team "Darkness" with adventurers Momon & Nabe, with The Wise King of the Forest as a pet- leaving Gagaran astounded by their reported feats. Climb wishes to be capable of such strength, but the duo advise him to go his own pace, and not to lose his humanity in pursuit of power. Meanwhile, Brain Unglaus runs errands for Gazef, and goes past a crowd watching a group of drunk men assaulting a boy for simply bumping into them; Climb also goes by the crowd and moves to stop the matter. Both see Sebas move with skill & speed to resolve the matter in one punch. They separately follow the butler into an alleyway, where Climb enthusiastically asks Sebas for a quick lesson in strength after witnessing him recently. Sebas sees Climb as trustworthy and gives him a lesson: how to overcome fear of death. By flooding Climb's sense with killing intent, Climb dodges at the last possible instance by overcoming his fear, by thinking of Renner. Brain, having witnessed this around the corner, is moved by Climb's ability to overcome intense fear, and asks to also learn from Sebas. However, the trio are beset by five assassin's sent by Succulent- which Sebas downs three, for the last two to be handled by Brain & Climb. With their attackers downed, Sebas uses a skill to easily interrogate one of them on where to find Succulent & the Eight Fingers. The trio move together out of a grown respect for each other, and move to destroy Eight Fingers in the Capital of Re-Estize. They head for Succulent's brothel- the same place Sebas rescued Tuare from.

9
"Soaring Sparks of Fire"
"Mai Agaru Hi no ko" (舞い上がる火の粉)
March 6, 2018

Sebas, Brain & Climb arrive at the brothel and use two entryways: the front door to the main brothel, and the side entrance to the underground storage area. Climb & Brain take the latter door, while Sebas charges the front. Sebas forewarns the duo that if needed, he will kill opposition inside if he is forced to, with the both of them understanding; they only ask that the Eight Fingers leaders Coco Doll & Succulent be captured. Sebas easily removes the steel door and knocks away the guards, and comes across Constable Staffan Havish mercilessly assaulting a slave girl for pleasure. Sebas bitch slaps Staffan into a bloody state, and after the Constables pleas for mercy with money, Sebas concludes he is unworthy of life and kicks him in half. Brain & Climb stop their opposition and locate a trap door (courtesy of items by Gagaran) leading to the underground storage. While Brain scouts further in having Climb stand watch, Coco Doll & Succulent arrive by a hidden passage in front of the young warrior. Succulent uses his illusion magic to gravely injure Climb, until Brain returns & defeats him with his God Slash Technique. The trio are successful in apprehending two of the Eight Fingers, and return to their respective homes: Brain returns to Gazef's home and the two have dinner discussing Climb's progress & Shalltear by name; Sebas returns to the manor, only for Solution to be in her Pleadies attire, telling him Ainz is in the next room waiting to speak with him; Climb returns to Renner, who is pleased he is safe. After Climb retires for the night, Renner calls in the maid she knows is spying on her to tell her about how amazing Climb was- only for her to actually plan on killing the maid for disrespecting Climb within her earshot. Late at night, Zero gathers the remaining members of Six Arms, to kill Sebas, Climb & Brain for opposing them.

10
"Disturbance Begins in the Royal Capital"
"Ōto Dōran Joshō" (王都動乱序章)
March 13, 2018

Ainz (really Pandora's Actor in disguise) investigates Sebas' possible betrayal, with Demiurge, Victim, & Cocytus as witnesses. He orders Sebas to kill Tuare to see if he is loyal. Sebas does so proving his merit, and having his attacked blocked by Cocytus, who confirms the butler as a steadfast servant to Nazarick. Ainz (Pandora's Actor) departs with Victim to Nazarick, and Sebas talks with Tuare in the hall, where Sebas will petition Ainz for her bad memories to be erased, but she also wishes to continue serving Sebas; the butler relents, agreeing to ask his master, having an overjoyed Tuare to kissed him in delight. After the real Ainz arrives, the Overlord hears the girl's name & knows she is the sister of Ninya (the spell caster from the Swords of Darkness), thus he allows Sebas' request of having her as a provisional maid- at the cost of his role as head of the Pleadies, with the youngest sister Aureole Omega transition to the role of Pleadies and having Yuki Alpha serve a deputy leader. In the Re-Estize capital, Renner & Blue Rose meet to discuss the raids on Eight Fingers, but Marquis Raeven & Prince Zanac arrive with a solution. After a mild topic of Renner's true persona, she reveals she has damning intelligence on the Royal & Noble Factions, she coerces Raeven to lend his private army to the simultaneous raids of Eight Fingers. He reluctantly agrees, and Zanac reveals their eldest brother Barbro has a hidden storehouse in trade with Eight Fingers, which is now added to the map. Renner also reveals her ace against the syndicate, aside from Blue Rose's aid, is Gazef himself. After a long day of acquiring materials for Demiurge to feed his livestock of Arbelion Sheep, Sebas & Solution return to the manor to find Tuare missing & a note from Six Arms challenging Sebas for her freedom. Solution reminds Sebas of Ainz's words, and they message their master of the situation. Ainz, preoccupied as Momon elsewhere, relays to Albedo to send reinforcements. While initially hesitant to aid a human, she relents & sends the forces for Demiurge to command onsite to destroy Eight Fingers. Albedo, to herself, then thinks of the name Ainz Ooal Gown after the Guild name to be ridiculous, preferring Momonga- as evident by his original player banner draped on the wall, and the guild flag on the floor.

11
"Jaldabaoth"
"Yarudabaoto" (ヤルダバオト)
March 20, 2018

After Sebas departs to rescue Tuare from Six Arms, Demiurge lays out the plan for his "Operation: Gehenna" to the Pleadies, Mare, & Shalltear. Meanwhile in the Royal Encampment, Climb and Brain are teamed up with former adventurer Lockmyer to raid one of the known Eight Fingers bases; they later meet Sebas, who was summoned to the same base as the trio to fight the Six Arms. Lockmyer gives a recon report, allowing a plan for Sebas to move in to fight Six Arms while Climb, Brain, & Lockmyer infiltrate to rescue Tuare. When Sebas encounters Six Arms, he finds four of them present, surrounded by henchmen & corrupt patrons watching. With introductions out of the way, Sebas takes a few seconds to kill the Six Arms members, while Solution reports that she hasn't found Zero amidst the patrons. Elsewhere at Hilma's residence, she wakes up to find her home encased in shrubbery. Encountering Mare, Hilma tries to see why he is in her home, but is taken aback when she sees Enotma in a corner eating the severed limb of a servant; Mare breaks her leg to drag her away, leaving Entoma to empty the manor. When Entoma is snacking on a human body part, Gagaran has a chance encounter with her & fights the bug maid thinking she is with Eight Fingers. As they fight, Tia from Blue Rose offers aid to Gagaran but both are overwhelmed, until Evileye arrives to save them using her original magic "Vermin Bane"- a pesticide magic. Entoma, an insectoid, is greatly damaged by the spell- losing her voice & mask/face bugs; she then rampages on the Blue Rose trio with what she has left. They overpower and defeat Entoma, but the bug maid is rescued by Jaldabaoth and taken to safety. Seeing the immense power the demon has, Evileye screams for her comrades to run away, but they are killed by the demon's Hellfire Wall stun attack. Evileye rages in attacks at the demon, to no avail; planning to go down swinging, Evileye charges at the demon but is halted by the arrival of Momon.

12
"The Final Battle of the Disturbance"
"Dōran Saishū Kessen" (動乱最終決戦)
March 27, 2018

Evileye requests Momon's help to Jaldabaoth, to which he obliges. Momon (Ainz) proves himself to be Jaldabaoth's (Demiruge) equal, while defending Evileye at the same time, which results in Evileye developing romantic feelings for Momon. Jaldabaoth eventually leaves the fight, stating that he needs to find an item from within the city, saying that he will guard the region the item is in. While Evileye wants to follow him, Momon decides not to, citing the reason to be that Jaldabaoth was still holding back, resulting in Evileye's belief that Momon is trying to protect her. She accidentally angers Momon and Nabe, when she mentions how Gagaran, Tia and herself, nearly killed Entoma, but when she points out that they failed to do so, he calms down instantly. Momon/Ainz suspects that Evileye is suspicious of him due to his sudden bloodlust on hearing of Entoma, mistaking her true affections. Evileye reveals that Lakyus can use 5th tier resurrection magic to save her comrades. Meanwhile, Brain, Climb and Lockmyer are escorting Tuare out, when the encounter Zero, who challenges Brain to a fight, while "Tuare" is revealed to be Succulent, waiting to ambush them, a fact that Brian and Lockmyer were already aware of. Together, Lockmyer and Climb manage to beat Succulent, with Climb using a special Martial art to release his body's full potential and Lockmyer using various tricks to distract Succulent and assist Climb. Brain and Zero (who as a monk, can harden his skin like iron and increase the strength of his blows exponentially) prove to be evenly matched, with each other. Sebas, who has rescued the real Tuare, wanders in and discovers the fight, which leaves Zero stunned, and in disbelief, refusing to believe that the Six arms were killed. He abandons his fight with Brain and unleashes his strongest attack on Sebas, who takes it without flinching and kills Zero with a single heel-drop kick straight to the head. Sebas leaves with Tuare, but promises to return the debt he owes to Climb and Brian for their assistance in helping save her. A circle of fire emerges within the city, seen by everyone, created by Jaldabaoth. Princess Renner arranges for the adventurers and the soldiers to enter the ring and kill the demons present inside, while Climb, Brain & Lockmyer attempt to save the citizens inside and Momon, Nabe & Evileye move into the center to fight Jaldabaoth. It is revealed that she intends to use the adventurers and soldiers as cannon fodder, while the Momon's group moves in to kill Jaldabaoth, and she has put Climb in a dangerous position, knowing he may die, but also knowing that Lakyus would be able to resurrect him, and that would allow her to care for the weakened Climb afterwards, without anyone's protest.

13
"The Ultimate Trump Card"
"Saikyō Saikō no Kirifuda" (最強最高の切り札)
April 3, 2018


document_title: Northern Inuit Dog

question_text: what dog is ghost in game of thrones

question_tokens: what dog is ghost in game of thrones

text: Northern Inuit Dog

text: Description[edit]

text: Appearance[edit]

text: The Northern Inuit Dog is of medium to large build, athletic but never racy. Females should be between 23 and 28 inches (58–71 cm) tall and weigh around 55–84 pounds (25–38 kg), while males should be between 25 and 30 inches (58–81 cm) tall and weigh 79–110 pounds (36–48 kg). The dog should have a double coat and a straight tail – curly tails are considered a fault.

tag: p

text: Temperament and health[edit]

text: The Northern Inuit dog is not for the novice owner as they can be very stubborn and are very quick-witted. The owner of a Northern Inuit must show themselves to be a strong leader or be prepared to be the underdog, and be taken advantage of.

text: They are more difficult to train than other, more biddable breeds. Separation anxiety may arise when they are left alone and unsupervised too long, leading to destructive behaviours but training to be left from a young age will rectify this. Training from the onset is a must for this breed. Often, they will do better with another dog for company. Socialization should begin when vaccinated and throughout as their play can be very rough and misinterpreted.

text: Some genetic problems have become apparent in Northern Inuit lines as with many breeds, including hip dysplasia and epilepsy, all of which should be tested for prior to breeding.

text: History[edit]

text: There are two stories regarding the history of the Northern Inuit Dog. In the late 1980s, the founder of the breed, Eddie Harrison, bred several mixed-breed rescue dogs of unknown origin or heritage with Siberian Huskies, Alaskan Malamutes, and a specific bloodline of German Shepherd Dogs to produce the early Northern Inuit dogs. The breed's intent was to create a dog that closely resembled a wolf in appearance while possessing the gentler, more trainable character of the domesticated dog.

text: The other story relating to this breed is that a few Canadian Eskimo Dogs or Labrador Huskys were brought into the UK from the USA in the late 70s or early 80s and crossbred with Alaskan Malamutes and German Shepherd Dogs. This version of events should be substantiated by the publication of importation and quarantine documents; however, this has never happened.

text: Over the years various groups have split from the original Northern Inuit Society to form their own breed groups.[citation needed] These have included The Inuit Dog Association, The British Timber dog, Anglo Wulfdog, The British Inuit Dog Club, and The Utonagan Society; the latter has also now splintered into different groups.[citation needed] None of these clubs have been accepted by larger organizations, such as the British Kennel Club.

text: In 2011 Northern Inuit dogs were cast as the direwolves in the first season of the HBO TV series Game of Thrones, based on the book series A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin.[2]


document_title: Golden Arches

question_text: what colour are the golden arches at the mcdonalds in sedona arizona

text: Golden Arches

text: History[edit]

text: In 1952, brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald decided they needed a new building to house their hamburger restaurant in San Bernardino, California. They wanted this building to have an entirely new design which would achieve two goals: even greater efficiency, and an eye-catching appearance. They interviewed at least four architects altogether, finally choosing Stanley Clark Meston, an architect practicing in nearby Fontana, in late 1952. The arches had a direct bearing on the interviewing process and their choice of Meston: the first architect they interviewed objected to the arches the brothers wanted; a second wanted to change the arches; a third, prominent Los Angeles architect Douglas Honnold, said that if the brothers were going to tell him what to do they would be better off doing it themselves.[1]

text: Along with their practical knowledge, the brothers brought Meston a rough sketch of two half-circle arches drawn by Richard. The idea of an arch had struck Richard as a memorable shape to make their stand more visible. After considering one arch parallel to the front of the building, he had sketched two half-circles on either side of the stand.[1] Meston, together with his assistant Charles Fish, responded with a design which included two 25-foot (7.6 m) yellow sheet-metal arches trimmed in neon, called "golden arches" even at the design stage. His design also included a third, smaller arch sign at the roadside with a pudgy character in a chef's hat, known as Speedee, striding across the top, trimmed in animated neon.

text: According to architectural historian Alan Hess, "Meston and Fish turned the crude half-circle suggested by Richard McDonald's sketch into a tapered, sophisticated parabola, with tense, springing lines conveying movement and energy."[1] In the same article Hess added this footnote: "Who first suggested the parabola is unclear. Richard McDonald and George Dexter, the sign contractor who fabricated the first arches, recalled that Dexter came up with the idea and added them to the plans. Charles Fish, who did the working drawings and aided Meston in the design, attributes the idea to his familiarity with the form from a school project in which he used structural parabolas for a hangar. The form was one of many advanced engineering solutions, including folded plate roofs, that were in common currency."[1]

text: The first franchised outlet bearing Meston's design opened in May 1953 in Phoenix, Arizona. Subsequent franchisees of the McDonald brothers were also required to use Meston's design, although Meston adapted the plans for each to the conditions and building codes of each site.[1]

text: In 1962, seeking to upgrade its image, the company sought a new logo. Fred Turner sketched a stylized "V", but the company's head of engineering and design, Jim Schindler, extended the "V" into an "M" resembling a McDonald's store viewed from an angle, with a red isosceles trapezoid "roof" serving as background for lettering.[2]

text: While McDonald's dropped the physical arches from nearly all of its restaurants in the 1960s[citation needed], the Golden Arches have remained in the logo, and as a commonly understood term for the company. This was partially due to Louis Cheskin's argument that the arches, which he likened to "mother McDonald's breasts", had "Freudian applications to the subconscious mind of the consumer and were great assets in marketing McDonald's food."[3] In Canada, all McDonald's stores and commercials have a maple leaf in the middle of the Golden Arches.

text: Alan Hess summarized the arch's origin in Googie architecture and ultimate significance as follows:

text: The arch was conceived by businessman Richard McDonald, an untrained designer with no knowledge of erudite architectural examples. His intent was pragmatic: to be noticed. This determined its scale, position, and simple shape visible over long distances following the precedent of earlier drive-ins with which he was familiar. To McDonald, the arch was an arbitrary form, without symbolic or historic associations, which he hoped would come to symbolize McDonald's. The arches' position implies no traditional use of the arch as an entry, nor are they structural. The architect delineated this formal concept determined by the client in the energetic lines and machine-like surfaces of a popular commercial vernacular style current in the 1940s and 1950s ... Meston's design proved successful as design and icon because of, not in spite of, its commercialism.[1]

text: The term "Golden Arches" is sometimes used as metonym, symbolizing capitalism or globalization in phrases such as the "Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention", since McDonald's is one of the more prominent American corporations that have become global in their reach (along with Coca-Cola and Nike).

text: Alternate versions[edit]

text: The McDonald's arches in Sedona, Arizona were made turquoise when the yellow colour had been deemed by government officials to be contrasting too much against the scenic red rock.[4]

text: The arches in the restaurant at 610 Del Monte Ave., Monterey, California, are in black.[5]

text: The restaurant at Champs-Elysées in Paris, France, includes a neon McDonald's sign with white arches. Also the new McDonald's in Bruges, Belgium, has the white arches.[6]