document_title: Mammary gland

question_text: what part of the mammary gland produces milk

text: Mammary gland

text: Structure[edit]

text: The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the alveoli (hollow cavities, a few millimeters large) lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by myoepithelial cells. These alveoli join to form groups known as lobules. Each lobule has a lactiferous duct that drains into openings in the nipple. The myoepithelial cells contract under the stimulation of oxytocin, excreting the milk secreted by alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple. As the infant begins to suck, the oxytocin-mediated "let down reflex" ensues and the mother's milk is secreted — not sucked from the gland — into the baby's mouth.

text: All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is called a "simple mammary gland"; in a "complex mammary gland" all the simple mammary glands serve one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland consists of 10–20 simple glands. The presence of more than two nipples is known as polythelia and the presence of more than two complex mammary glands as polymastia.

text: Maintaining the correct polarized morphology of the lactiferous duct tree requires another essential component – mammary epithelial cells extracellular matrix (ECM) which, together with adipocytes, fibroblast, inflammatory cells, and others, constitute mammary stroma.[4] Mammary epithelial ECM mainly contains myoepithelial basement membrane and the connective tissue. They not only help to support mammary basic structure, but also serve as a communicating bridge between mammary epithelia and their local and global environment throughout this organ's development.[5][6]

text: Histology[edit]

text: A mammary gland is a specific type of apocrine gland specialized for manufacture of colostrum when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified sweat glands.[7][8][9] Some authors dispute that and argue instead that they are sebaceous glands.[7]

text: Development[edit]

text: Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones,[4] but is also under the (local) regulation of paracrine communication between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP).[10] This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching.[4] At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by PTHrP, such as BMP4. These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system.[11] A basement membrane, mainly containing laminin and collagen, formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree. These components of the extracellular matrix are strong determinants of duct morphogenesis.[12]

text: Biochemistry[edit]

text: Estrogen and growth hormone (GH) are essential for the ductal component of mammary gland development, and act synergistically to mediate it.[13][14][15][16][17] Neither estrogen nor GH are capable of inducing ductal development without the other.[14][15][16][17] The role of GH in ductal development has been found to be mostly mediated by its induction of the secretion of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which occurs both systemically (mainly originating from the liver) and locally in the mammary fat pad through activation of the growth hormone receptor (GHR).[14][15][16][17][18] However, GH itself also acts independently of IGF-1 to stimulate ductal development by upregulating estrogen receptor (ER) expression in mammary gland tissue, which is a downstream effect of mammary gland GHR activation.[17] In any case, unlike IGF-1, GH itself is not essential for mammary gland development, and IGF-1 in conjunction with estrogen can induce normal mammary gland development without the presence of GH.[17] In addition to IGF-1, other paracrine growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β),[19] amphiregulin,[20] fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)[21] are involved in breast development as mediators downstream to sex hormones and GH/IGF-1.[22][23][24]

text: During embryonic development, IGF-1 levels are low, and gradually increase from birth to puberty.[25] At puberty, the levels of GH and IGF-1 reach their highest levels in life and estrogen begins to be secreted in high amounts in females, which is when ductal development mostly takes place.[25] Under the influence of estrogen, stromal and fat tissue surrounding the ductal system in the mammary glands also grows.[26] After puberty, GH and IGF-1 levels progressively decrease, which limits further development until pregnancy, if it occurs.[25] During pregnancy, progesterone and prolactin are essential for mediating lobuloalveolar development in estrogen-primed mammary gland tissue, which occurs in preparation of lactation and nursing.[13][27]

text: Androgens such as testosterone inhibit estrogen-mediated mammary gland development (e.g., by reducing local ER expression) through activation of androgen receptors expressed in mammary gland tissue,[27][28] and in conjunction with relatively low estrogen levels, are the cause of the lack of developed mammary glands in males.[29]

text: Timeline[edit]

text: Before birth[edit]

text: Mammary gland development is characterized by the unique process by which the epithelium invades the stroma. The development of the mammary gland occurs mainly after birth. During puberty, tubule formation is coupled with branching morphogenesis which establishes the basic arboreal network of ducts emanating from the nipple.[30]

text: Developmentally, mammary gland epithelium is constantly produced and maintained by rare epithelial cells, dubbed as mammary progenitors which are ultimately thought to be derived from tissue-resident stem cells.[citation needed]

text: Embryonic mammary gland development can be divided into a series of specific stages. Initially, the formation of the milk lines that run between the fore and hind limbs bilaterally on each side of the midline occurs around embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5). The second stage occurs at E11.5 when placode formation begins along the mammary milk line.  This will eventually give rise to the nipple. Lastly, the third stage occurs at E12.5 and involves the invagination of cells within the placode into the mesenchyme, leading to a mammary anlage (biology).[31]

text: The primitive (stem) cells are detected in embryo and their numbers increase steadily during development [32]

text: Growth[edit]

text: Postnatally, the mammary ducts elongate into the mammary fat pad. Then, starting around four weeks of age, mammary ductal growth increases significantly with the ducts invading towards the lymph node. Terminal end buds, the highly proliferative structures found at the tips of the invading ducts, expand and increase greatly during this stage. This developmental period is characterized by the emergence of the terminal end buds and lasts until an age of about 7–8 weeks.

text: By the pubertal stage, the mammary ducts have invaded to the end of the mammary fat pad. At this point, the terminal end buds become less proliferative and decrease in size. Side branches form from the primary ducts and begin to fill the mammary fat pad. Ductal development decreases with the arrival of sexual maturity and undergoes estrous cycles (proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus). As a result of estrous cycling, the mammary gland undergoes dynamic changes where cells proliferate and then regress in an ordered fashion.[33]

text: Pregnancy[edit]

text: During pregnancy, the ductal systems undergo rapid proliferation and form alveolar structures within the branches to be used for milk production. After delivery, lactation occurs within the mammary gland; lactation involves the secretion of milk by the luminal cells in the alveoli. Contraction of the myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli will cause the milk to be ejected through the ducts and into the nipple for the nursing infant. Upon weaning of the infant, lactation stops and the mammary gland turns in on itself, a process called involution. This process involves the controlled collapse of mammary epithelial cells where cells begin apoptosis in a controlled manner, reverting the mammary gland back to a pubertal state.

text: Postmenopausal[edit]

text: During postmenopause, due to much lower levels of estrogen, and due to lower levels of GH and IGF-1, which decrease with age, mammary gland tissue atrophies and the mammary glands become smaller.

text: Physiology[edit]

text: Hormonal control[edit]

text: Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating hormones. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during puberty. Estrogen promotes branching differentiation,[34] whereas in males testosterone inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct terminal end buds (TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts[5][35] and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "niche" can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally.[36] Important players include beta-1 integrin, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), laminin-1/5, collagen-IV, matrix metalloproteinase(MMPs), heparan sulfate proteoglycans, and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to multipotent cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into myoepithelial and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads.[37][38] On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to integrin and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more “pushing-forward” working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue.[5] Degraded basement membrane fragments (laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration.[39] Whereas, laminin-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor dystroglycan negatively regulates this side branching process in case of cancer.[40] These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.

text: There is preliminary evidence that soybean intake mildly stimulates the breast glands in pre- and postmenopausal women.[41]

text: Pregnancy[edit]

text: Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in adipose tissue and a richer blood flow. In gestation, serum progesterone remains at a stably high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one of the transcribed genes, Wnts secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely to induce more neighboring cells' branching.[42][43] When the lactiferous duct tree is almost ready, "leaves" alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after giving birth, colostrum is secreted. Milk secretion (lactation) begins a few days later due to reduction in circulating progesterone and the presence of another important hormone prolactin, which mediates further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and tight junction function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1 integrin on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process.[44][45] Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts.[44][45] Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby.

text: Weaning[edit]

text: During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. It is the (passive) process of a child or animal ceasing to be dependent on the mother for nourishment. In some species there is complete or partial involution of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. The glands in the breast do secrete fluid also in nonlactating women.[46] In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures collapse by programmed cell death (apoptosis) and autophagy for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones.[47][48] At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary endothelial cells speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various proteinase is under the control of somatostatin and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors.[49] This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Tumorigenesis in mammary glands can be induced biochemically by abnormal expression level of circulating hormones or local ECM components,[50] or from a mechanical change in the tension of mammary stroma.[51] Under either of the two circumstances, mammary epithelial cells would grow out of control and eventually result in cancer. Almost all instances of breast cancer originate in the lobules or ducts of the mammary glands.

text: Other mammals[edit]

text: General[edit]

text: The breasts of the adult human female vary from most other mammals that tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands. The number and positioning of mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The protruding teats and accompanying glands can be located anywhere along the two milk lines. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of teats varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs). The Virginia opossum has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number.[52][53] The following table lists the number and position of teats and glands found in a range of mammals:

text:
Species[54]

Anterior(thoracic)

Intermediate(abdominal)

Posterior(inguinal)

Total

Goat, sheep, horse guinea pig

0

0

2

2

Cattle

0

0

4

4

Cat

2

2

4

8

Dog[55]

4

2

2 or 4

8 or 10

Mouse

6

0

4

10

Rat

6

2

4

12

Pig

6

6

6

18

proboscideans, primates

2

0

0

2

text: Male mammals typically have rudimentary mammary glands and nipples, with a few exceptions: male mice do not have nipples,[56] and male horses lack nipples and mammary glands.[citation needed] The male Dayak fruit bat has lactating mammary glands.[57] Male lactation occurs infrequently in some species, including humans.[citation needed]

text: Mammary glands are true protein factories[citation needed], and several labs have constructed transgenic animals, mainly goats and cows, to produce proteins for pharmaceutical use.[58] Complex glycoproteins such as monoclonal antibodies or antithrombin cannot be produced by genetically engineered bacteria, and the production in live mammals is much cheaper than the use of mammalian cell cultures.

text: Evolution[edit]

text: The evolution of the mammary gland is difficult to explain; this is because mammary glands are typically required by mammals to feed their young. There are many theories on how mammary glands evolved. For example, it is thought that the mammary gland is a transformed sweat gland, more closely related to apocrine sweat glands.[59] Because mammary glands do not fossilize well, supporting such theories with fossil evidence is difficult. Many of the current theories are based on comparisons between lines of living mammals—monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. One theory proposes that mammary glands evolved from glands that were used to keep the eggs of early mammals moist[60][61] and free from infection[62][63] (monotremes still lay eggs). Other theories suggest that early secretions were used directly by hatched young,[64] or that the secretions were used by young to help them orient to their mothers.[65]

text: Lactation is thought to have developed long before the evolution of the mammary gland and mammals; see evolution of lactation.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Cross section of the breast of a human female

Human

Dog

Cattle

Cat

Pig

Goat

Elephant


document_title: Justice League (film)

question_text: who plays batman in the movie justice league

root

text: Justice League (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Thousands of years ago, Steppenwolf and his legions of Parademons attempts to take over Earth with the combined energies of three Mother Boxes. They are foiled by a unified army that included the Olympian Gods, Amazons, Atlanteans, mankind, and the Green Lantern Corps. After repelling Steppenwolf's army, the Mother Boxes are separated and hidden in locations on the planet. In the present, mankind is in mourning over Superman, whose death triggers the Mother Boxes to reactivate and Steppenwolf's return to Earth in an effort to regain favor with his master, Darkseid. Steppenwolf aims to gather the artifacts to form "The Unity", which will destroy Earth's ecology and terraform it in the image of Steppenwolf's homeworld.

tag: p

text: Steppenwolf retrieves the Mother Box from Themyscira, prompting Queen Hippolyta to warn her daughter Diana of Steppenwolf's return. Diana joins Bruce Wayne in his attempt to unite other metahumans to their cause, with Wayne going after Arthur Curry and Barry Allen, while Diana tries to locate Victor Stone. Wayne fails to persuade Curry, but manages to recruit an enthusiastic Allen onto the team. Although Diana fails to convince Stone to join, he agrees to help them locate the threat if he discovers their location. Stone later joins the team after his father Silas, along with several other S.T.A.R. Labs employees, is kidnapped by Steppenwolf seeking to acquire the Mother Box from mankind.

text: Steppenwolf attacks Atlantis to retrieve the next Mother Box, forcing Curry into action. The team receives intel from Commissioner James Gordon leading them to Steppenwolf's army, based in an abandoned facility under Gotham Harbor. Although the group manages to rescue the kidnapped employees, the facility is flooded during combat, which traps the team until Curry helps delay the flood so they can escape. Stone retrieves the last Mother Box, which he had hidden, for the group to analyze. Stone reveals that his father used the Mother Box to rebuild Stone's body after an accident almost cost him his life. Facing overwhelming odds against Steppenwolf's army, Wayne decides to use the Mother Box to resurrect Superman, not only to help them fight off Steppenwolf's invasion, but also to restore hope to mankind. Diana and Curry are hesitant about the idea, but Wayne forms a secret contingency plan in case Superman returns as a nemesis.

text: Clark Kent's body is exhumed and placed in the amniotic fluid of the genesis chamber of the Kryptonian ship alongside the Mother Box, which in turn activates and successfully resurrects Superman. However, Superman's memories have not returned, and he attacks the group after Stone accidentally launches a projectile at him. On the verge of being killed by Superman, Batman enacts his contingency plan: Lois Lane. Superman calms down and leaves with Lane to his family home in Smallville, where he reflects and tries to recover his memories. With the final Mother Box unguarded, Steppenwolf retrieves it with ease. Without Superman to aid them, the five heroes travel to a village in Russia where Steppenwolf aims to unite the Mother Boxes once again and remake Earth. The team fights their way through the Parademons to reach Steppenwolf, although they are unable to distract him enough for Stone to separate the Mother boxes. Superman arrives and assists Allen in evacuating the city, as well as Stone in separating the Mother Boxes. The team defeats Steppenwolf, who, overcome with fear, is attacked by his own Parademons before they all teleport away.

text: In the aftermath of the battle, Bruce and Diana agree to setup a base of operations for the team, with room for more members. Diana steps back into the public spotlight as a hero; Barry acquires a job in Central City's police department, impressing his father; Victor continues to explore and enhance his abilities with his father in S.T.A.R. Labs; Arthur returns to Atlantis; and Superman resumes his life as reporter Clark Kent. In a post-credits scene, Lex Luthor escapes from Arkham Asylum and recruits Slade Wilson to form their own league.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman:
A wealthy socialite, and the owner of Wayne Enterprises. He dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld as a highly trained, masked vigilante equipped with various tools and weapons.
Henry Cavill as Clark Kent / Superman:
A member of, and inspiration for, the Justice League, a Kryptonian survivor, and a journalist for the Daily Planet based in Metropolis.
Amy Adams as Lois Lane:
An undaunted and compassionate award-winning journalist for the Daily Planet and the love interest for Kent.[7]
Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman:
An antiquities dealer, acquaintance of Wayne, and an immortal Amazonian warrior, who is the crown princess of Themyscira and daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus. She is endowed with metahuman attributes and abilities inherited from her parents.
Ezra Miller as Barry Allen / The Flash:
A Central City University student, who can move at superhuman speeds with his ability to tap into the Speed Force.
Jason Momoa as Arthur Curry / Aquaman:
The heir to the throne of the undersea nation of Atlantis.[8] His metahuman aquatic abilities and physical attributes originate from his Atlantean physiology.
Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg:
A former college athlete who, after being cybernetically reconstructed after a nearly fatal car accident, is turned into a techno-organic being enhanced by reactive, adaptive biomimetic alien technology. Fisher portrays the character through the use of motion capture for the cybernetic portion of his body.[9]
Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth: Wayne's butler, chief of security, and trusted confidant.[10]
Diane Lane as Martha Kent: Kent's adoptive mother.[7]
Connie Nielsen as Hippolyta: Diana's mother and Queen of the Amazons.[7]
J. K. Simmons as James Gordon: The Commissioner of the Gotham City Police Department, and close ally of Batman.[7]
Ciarán Hinds as the voice of Steppenwolf: An alien military officer from Apokolips who leads an army of Parademons and is searching for the three Mother Boxes held on Earth. The character is described as "old, tired" and trying to find a way to escape his role of servitude under Darkseid.[11] Hinds portrayed the villain through use of motion capture and received some advice in the process from Liam Neeson, who had recently done similar work in A Monster Calls.[12]

tag: ul

text: The Olympian Old Gods Zeus, Ares and Artemis are portrayed by fitness model Sergi Constance, stuntman Nick McKinless, and MMA fighter Aurore Lauzeral, respectively.[13][14] All three were required to reach a specific degree of physicality, with Snyder instructing McKinless to sport "veins like worms and paper thin skin". In the finished film, McKinless' face was replaced with David Thewlis's face, and Thewlis received credit as Ares.[13] Robin Wright reprises her role as Antiope during a flashback sequence.[15] Julian Lewis Jones appears as King Atlan, the ancient king of Atlantis, while Amber Heard portrays the Atlantean Mera.[16][7] Joe Morton reprises his role as Silas Stone, Victor Stone's father and S.T.A.R. Labs' head while Billy Crudup appears as Henry Allen, Barry Allen's father.[15] Joe Manganiello and Jesse Eisenberg appear uncredited in a post-credits scene as Slade Wilson / Deathstroke and Lex Luthor, respectively.[17] Michael McElhatton appears as a bank robber who clashes with Wonder Woman early in the film,[18] while Holt McCallany makes an uncredited appearance as a burglar.[19] Marc McClure, who portrayed Jimmy Olsen in the Christopher Reeve Superman film series, has a cameo as a police officer.[20] An unidentified Green Lantern appears at the beginning of the film, created by use of CGI and embodied by an uncredited actor. Willem Dafoe and Kiersey Clemons filmed scenes as Nuidis Vulko and Iris West, respectively, although their roles were cut from the final film. Both actors are signed for multiple films and will appear in future installments of the franchise, Aquaman and Flashpoint, respectively.[21][22] Early in production, a scene depicting Green Lanterns Kilowog and Tomar-Re visiting Batman was filmed as another post-credits scene, further teasing Green Lantern Corps. The scene was later scrapped.[23]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In February 2007, it was announced that Warner Bros. had hired husband and wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film.[24] The news came around the same time that Joss Whedon's long-developed Wonder Woman film was cancelled,[25] as well as The Flash, written and directed by David S. Goyer.[26] Reportedly titled Justice League: Mortal,[27] Michele and Kiernan Mulroney submitted their script to Warner Bros. in June 2007, receiving positive feedback,[28] which prompted the studio to immediately fast track production in the hope of beginning filming before the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike.[29] Warner Bros. was less willing to proceed with development of a sequel to Superman Returns, having been disappointed with its box office. Brandon Routh was not approached to reprise the role of Superman in Justice League: Mortal,[30] nor was Christian Bale from Batman Begins.[31] Warner Bros. intended for Justice League: Mortal to be the start of a new film franchise, and to branch out into separate sequels and spin-offs.[32] Shortly after filming The Dark Knight,[33] Bale stated in an interview that "It'd be better if it doesn't tread on the toes of what our Batman series is doing," and felt it would make more sense for Warner Bros. to release the film after The Dark Knight Rises.[31] Jason Reitman was the original choice to direct Justice League, but he turned it down, as he considers himself an independent filmmaker and prefers to stay out of big budget superhero films.[34] George Miller signed to direct in September 2007,[29] with Barrie Osbourne producing[35] on a projected $220 million budget.[36]

text: The following month, roughly 40 actors and actresses auditioned for the ensemble superhero roles, among them Joseph Cross, Michael Angarano, Max Thieriot, Minka Kelly, Adrianne Palicki and Scott Porter. Miller had intended to cast younger actors, as he wanted them to "grow" into their roles over the course of several films.[33] D. J. Cotrona was cast as Superman,[32] along with Armie Hammer as Batman.[37] Jessica Biel reportedly declined to play Wonder Woman role after negotiations.[38] The character was also linked to actresses Teresa Palmer and Shannyn Sossamon, along with Mary Elizabeth Winstead, who confirmed that she had auditioned.[39] Ultimately, Megan Gale was cast as Wonder Woman,[40] while Palmer was cast as Talia al Ghul, whom Miller had in mind to act with a Russian accent.[41] The script for Justice League: Mortal would have featured John Stewart as Green Lantern, a role originally offered to Columbus Short.[42] Hip hop recording artist and rapper Common was cast,[43] with Adam Brody as Barry Allen / Flash,[44] and Jay Baruchel as the lead villain, Maxwell Lord.[45] Longtime Miller collaborator Hugh Keays-Byrne had been cast in an unnamed role, rumored to be Martian Manhunter. Aquaman had yet to be cast.[33][36] Marit Allen was hired as the original costume designer before her untimely death in November 2007,[46] and the responsibilities were assumed by Weta Workshop.[47]

text: However, the writers strike began that same month and placed the film on hold. Warner Bros. had to let the options lapse for the cast,[48] but development was fast tracked once more in February 2008 when the strike ended. Warner Bros. and Miller wanted to start filming immediately,[49] but production was pushed back three months.[32] Originally, the majority of Justice League: Mortal was to be shot at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney,[36] with other locations scouted nearby at local colleges,[35] and Sydney Heads doubling for Happy Harbor.[27] The Australian Film Commission had a say with casting choices, giving way for George Miller to cast Gale, Palmer and Keays-Bryne, all Australian natives. The production crew was composed entirely of Australians, but the Australian government denied Warner Bros. a 40 percent tax rebate as they felt they had not hired enough Australian actors.[36][50] Miller was frustrated, stating that "A once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the Australian film industry is being frittered away because of very lazy thinking. They're throwing away hundreds of millions of dollars of investment that the rest of the world is competing for and, much more significantly, highly skilled creative jobs."[51] Production offices were then moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada. Filming was pushed back to July 2008, while Warner Bros was still confident they could produce the film for a summer 2009 release.[52][53]

text: With production delays continuing, and the success of The Dark Knight in July 2008,[54] Warner Bros. decided to focus on the development of individual films featuring the main heroes, allowing director Christopher Nolan to separately complete his Batman trilogy with The Dark Knight Rises in 2012. Gregory Noveck, senior vice president of creative affairs for DC Entertainment, stated, "we're going to make a Justice League movie, whether it's now or 10 years from now. But we're not going to do it and Warners is not going to do it until we know it's right."[55] Actor Adam Brody joked "They [Warner Brothers] just didn't want to cross their streams with a whole bunch of Batmans in the universe."[56] Warner Bros. relaunched development for a solo Green Lantern film, released in 2011 as a critical and financial disappointment. Meanwhile, film adaptations for The Flash and Wonder Woman continued to languish in development, while filming for a Superman reboot commenced in 2011 with Man of Steel, produced by Nolan and written by Batman screenwriter David S. Goyer. Shortly after filming on Man of Steel was complete, Warner Bros hired Will Beall to write the script for a new Justice League film.[57] Warner Bros. president Jeff Robinov explained that Man of Steel would be "setting the tone for what the movies are going to be like going forward. In that, it's definitely a first step."[58] The film included references to the existence of other superheroes in the DC Universe,[59] and set the tone for a shared fictional universe of DC Comics characters on film.[60] Goyer stated that should Green Lantern appear in a future installment, it would be a rebooted version of the character, unconnected to the 2011 film.[61]

text: With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013, Goyer was hired to write a sequel, as well as a new Justice League, with the Beall draft being scrapped.[62] The sequel was later revealed to be Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, a team-up film featuring Henry Cavill as Superman, Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Ezra Miller as The Flash, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, and Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg, the latter three in minor roles that became more significant in the Justice League film. The universe is separate from Nolan and Goyer's work on The Dark Knight trilogy, although Nolan was still involved as an executive producer for Batman v Superman.[63] In April 2014, it was announced that Zack Snyder would also direct Goyer's Justice League script.[64] Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July, after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[65] On October 15, 2014, Warner Bros. announced the film would be released in two parts, with Part One on November 17, 2017, and Part Two on June 14, 2019. Snyder was set to direct both films.[66] In early July 2015, EW revealed that the script for Justice League Part One had been completed by Terrio.[67] Zack Snyder stated that the film would be inspired by the New Gods comic series by Jack Kirby.[68] Although Justice League was initially announced as a two-part film, with the second part set for release two years after the first, Snyder stated in June 2016 that they would be two distinct, separate films and not one film split into two parts, both being stand-alone stories.[69][70]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In April 2014, Ray Fisher was cast as Victor Stone / Cyborg. He first cameod in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, followed by a larger role in Justice League.[71][72] Henry Cavill, Ben Affleck, Gal Gadot, Diane Lane and Amy Adams also reprised their roles from Batman v Superman.[66][73] In October 2014, Jason Momoa was cast as Arthur Curry / Aquaman and debuted as the character in Dawn of Justice.[74][75] On October 20, 2014, Momoa told ComicBook.com that the Justice League film would be released first, and that is what they were preparing for. He thought the solo Aquaman film may be Aquaman's origin story.[76] On January 13, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Amber Heard was in negotiations to appear in the film as Aquaman's love interest Mera.[77] In March 2016, producer Charles Roven said that Green Lantern would not appear in any film before Justice League Part Two, and stated that they "could put Green Lantern in some introduction in Justice League 2, or barring that, a movie after."[78] Also in March, The Hollywood Reporter announced that J. K. Simmons had been cast as Commissioner James Gordon,[79] and Heard was confirmed to join the cast as Mera.[80] Adams also confirmed that she would reprise her role as Lois Lane in both Justice League films.[81][82] By April 2016, Willem Dafoe had been cast in an undisclosed role,[83] later revealed to be Nuidis Vulko,[84] while Cavill confirmed that he would return for both Justice League films.[85] In May 2016, Jeremy Irons confirmed he would appear as Alfred Pennyworth.[10] That same month, Jesse Eisenberg stated that he would reprise his role as Lex Luthor, and in June 2016, confirmed his return in an interview with Shortlist magazine.[86][87] In July 2016, Julian Lewis Jones was cast in an undisclosed role, later revealed to be Atlan, the king of Atlantis.[16] Laurence Fishburne, who portrays Perry White in the DCEU, said he declined to reprise his role in the film due to scheduling conflicts.[88] In April 2017, Michael McElhatton revealed that he had a role in Justice League, which was later revealed to be a bank robber who faces off against Wonder Woman.[18]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography commenced on April 11, 2016, with shooting taking place at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, as well as various locations around London and Scotland. Additional filming took place in Chicago, Illinois, Los Angeles, and Djúpavík, in the Westfjords[89] of Iceland.[83][90][91] The old herring factory in Djúpavík was one Iceland filming location (Ben Affleck appeared to be standing near the herring oil tanks in the "Heroes" trailer). Snyder's longtime cinematographer Larry Fong was replaced by Fabian Wagner due to scheduling conflicts.[91] Affleck also served as executive producer.[92] In May 2016, it was revealed that Geoff Johns and Jon Berg would produce the Justice League films, and would also be in charge of the DC Extended Universe, after the largely negative critical reception of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[93] The same month, Irons stated that the Justice League storyline would be more linear and simple, compared to the theatrical version of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[94] Johns confirmed on June 3, 2016 that the title of the film is Justice League,[95] and later stated that the film would be "hopeful and optimistic" in comparison to previous DCEU films.[96] Filming wrapped in October 2016.[97][98][99]

text: Post-production[edit]

text: In May 2017, Snyder stepped down during post-production of the film to properly deal with the death of his daughter. Joss Whedon, whom Snyder had previously brought on to rewrite some additional scenes, took over to handle post-production duties in Snyder's place.[100] In July 2017, it was announced the film was undergoing two months of reshoots in London and Los Angeles, with Warner Bros. putting about $25 million into them (more than the typical $6–10 million additional filming costs).[101] The reshoots coincided with Cavill's schedule for Mission: Impossible – Fallout, for which he had grown a moustache which he was contracted to keep while filming, so Justice League's VFX team used special effects to digitally remove the moustache in post-production.[102] Warner Bros. later announced that Whedon would receive a screenwriting credit on the film alongside Chris Terrio.[103]

text: Music[edit]

text: In March 2016, Hans Zimmer, who co-composed the score for Man of Steel and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, stated that he had officially retired from the "superhero business".[104] Junkie XL, who wrote and composed the soundtrack of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice with Zimmer, was originally scoring the film.[105] In June 2017, Danny Elfman was announced to have replaced Junkie XL.[106] Elfman had previously composed the films Batman and Batman Returns, and the theme music for Batman: The Animated Series. Elfman confirmed that he would use the Batman theme music from the 1989 film for Batman in the film, and would also briefly use John Williams' Superman theme during "a dark, twisted moment" in the film.[107][108] The film features a cover of Leonard Cohen's "Everybody Knows" performed by Sigrid, "Icky Thump" performed by the White Stripes, and a cover of the Beatles' "Come Together" performed by Gary Clark Jr. and Junkie XL.[109]

text: Release[edit]

text: Justice League held its world premiere in Beijing on October 26, 2017, and was theatrically released in North America in standard, RealD 3D and IMAX on November 17, 2017.[110] Justice League was released on Digital HD on February 13, 2018, and is scheduled to be released on Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, 4K Ultra-HD Blu-ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.[111]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of February 25, 2018[update], Justice League has grossed $228.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $428.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $657.7 million, against a production budget of $300 million.[3] It had a worldwide opening of $278.8 million, the 24th biggest of all-time.[112][113] The estimated gross worldwide for the film to break even is around $750 million.[114]

text: In the United States and Canada, industry tracking initially forecast the film debuting to $110–120 million from 4,051 theaters (including 400 IMAX screens).[115] It made $13 million from Thursday night previews, up from the $11 million made by Wonder Woman the previous June.[116] However, after making $38.8 million on its first day (including Thursday previews), weekend projections were lowered to $95 million. It ended up debuting to $93.8 million, down 45% from Batman v Superman's opening of $166 million, and being the first film of the DCEU to open under $100 million. Deadline.com attributed the low figure to lukewarm audience reaction to the film and most of its predecessors, as well as poor critical reception, and partly Warner-owned[not in citation given] film review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes not posting their aggregated score until the day before release, causing speculation and doubt from filmgoers.[117] In its second weekend, the film dropped 56% to $41.1 million, finishing second at the box office, behind newcomer Coco.[118] It was the second-best second weekend hold of the DCEU, behind Wonder Woman's 43%, but the lowest overall gross.[119] In its third week it again finished second behind Coco, grossing $16.7 million.[120]

text: Internationally, the film was projected to debut to $215–235 million for a worldwide opening of $325–355 million.[121] It made $8.5 million on its first day from nine countries, including South Korea, France and Brazil.[116] It ended up having a $185 million international debut from 65 countries, including $57.1 million from China, $9.8 million from the United Kingdom, $9.6 million from Mexico and $8.8 million from South Korea. The film broke a record in the Philippines with a debut of $1.12M (PHP 57.3M), making it the biggest industry opening day for a film there in 2017.[122] In Brazil, the film opened to $14.2 million, the biggest opening in the country's history.[112]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Justice League received mixed reviews, with critics praising the action sequences and solid performances (primarily Gadot and Miller) while criticizing the writing, pacing, and CGI, as well as the plot (regarded as thin), and the villain (regarded as underdeveloped).[123] On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 40%, based on 303 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Justice League leaps over a number of DC movies, but its single bound isn't enough to shed the murky aesthetic, thin characters, and chaotic action that continue to dog the franchise."[124] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 45 out of 100, based on 52 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[125] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale,[117] whereas PostTrak surveyed audiences scored the film 4 out of 5.[126]

text: Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast, especially Gadot, and saying "It's a putting-the-band-together origins movie, executed with great fun and energy."[127] Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a positive review and wrote, "Justice League... has been conceived, in each and every frame, to correct the sins of Batman v Superman. It's not just a sequel—it's an act of franchise penance. The movie... is never messy or bombastic. It's light and clean and simple (at times almost too simple), with razory repartee and combat duels that make a point of not going on for too long."[128]

text: Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast but criticizing the action sequences and writing, saying: "The scenes of the League members together, bickering and bonding, spike the film with humor and genuine feeling, creating a rooting interest in the audience. Without it, the film would crumble."[129] Conversely, Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter, while praising Gadot and Miller, called the film visually ugly and boring, saying, "Fatigue, repetition and a laborious approach to exposition are the keynotes of this affair, which is also notable for how Ben Affleck, donning the bat suit for the second time, looks like he'd rather be almost anywhere else but here."[130]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film's poster was nominated for "Best Action Poster" by the Golden Trailer Awards in June 2017.[131] In December 2017, Ezra Miller was nominated for "Best Comedic Performance" for his role as Barry Allen by the San Diego Film Critics Society.[132] Justice League was nominated for "Most Disappointing Film" by the Oklahoma Film Critics Circle Awards, and it was tied in second place with The Dark Tower.[133]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: A sequel was scheduled to be released in June 2019,[66] but has since been delayed to accommodate the release for a standalone Batman film.[134] By March 2017, producer Charles Roven announced that Zack Snyder would return as director.[135] In October 2017, J. K. Simmons stated that the studio is working on a sequel script, alongside The Batman.[136] Shortly after the release of Justice League, Henry Cavill stated that he is under contract with Warner Bros. to play Superman for one more film.[137]

text: In December 2017, it was reported that there were "no immediate plans" for Zack Snyder to direct a Justice League sequel, or any other DC films, with Snyder instead being relegated to an executive producer position. This comes after a reshuffling of film production staff at Warner Bros. due to the film's financial performance.[138]


document_title: Magnum P.I. (2018 TV series)

question_text: where is the new magnum pi filmed at

question_tokens: where is the new magnum pi filmed at

text: Magnum P.I. (2018 TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Jay Hernandez as Thomas Magnum, a former Navy Seal who works as a security consultant for the successful novelist Robin Masters and a private investigator.
Perdita Weeks as Juliet Higgins, a former MI6 agent who is major-domo to Robin Masters, she and Magnum bicker but become allies.
Zachary Knighton as Orville "Rick" Wright, an ex-Marine who runs his own bar and is also a playboy.
Stephen Hill as Theodore "TC" Calvin, an ex-Marine helicopter pilot who runs helicopter tours of Hawaii and is a member of Magnum's team.
Amy Hill as Kumu, the cultural curator of Robin Masters' estate.
Tim Kang as Detective Gordon Katsumoto, Magnum's ally.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Domenick Lombardozzi as Sebastian Nuzo
Kimee Balmilero as medical examiner Noelani Cunha, a crossover character from Hawaii Five-0.

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Taylor Wily as entrepreneur Kamekona Tupuola, a crossover character from Hawaii Five-0.
Faith Fay as Monica
Sung Kang as Lieutenant Yoshi Tanaka
Carl Weathers as Dan Sawyer
Ken Jeong as Luther H. Gillis, private investigator.
Cyndi Lauper as Vanessa Nero
Elisabeth Röhm as Brooke Mason

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)1"I Saw the Sun Rise"Justin LinPeter M. Lenkov & Eric GuggenheimSeptember 24, 2018 (2018-09-24)MPI1018.12[5]
2"From the Head Down"Karen GaviolaPeter M. Lenkov & Eric GuggenheimOctober 1, 2018 (2018-10-01)MPI1026.23[6]
3"The Woman Who Never Died"Sylvain WhiteJoe GazzamOctober 8, 2018 (2018-10-08)MPI1036.08[7]
4"Six Paintings, One Frame"Antonio NegretAshley GableOctober 15, 2018 (2018-10-15)MPI1045.48[8]
5"Sudden Death"David GrossmanDavid FuryOctober 22, 2018 (2018-10-22)MPI1065.63[9]
6"Death is Only Temporary"Duane ClarkGene Hong & Scarlett LaceyOctober 29, 2018 (2018-10-29)MPI1055.69[10]
7"The Cat Who Cried Wolf"[11]Eagle EgilssonNeil TolkinNovember 5, 2018 (2018-11-05)MPI107TBD
8"Die He Said"[12]Peter WellerJoe GazzamNovember 12, 2018 (2018-11-12)TBATBD

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On October 20, 2017, CBS announced a pilot commitment for a remake of the original series to be written by Peter M. Lenkov and Eric Guggenheim. The pilot would be co-produced by CBS Studios and Universal Television, the latter of which holds the rights to the original series.[13] In February 2018, CBS announced that pilot production had been greenlit. Justin Lin was set to direct.[14][15]

text: On May 11, 2018, the network picked up the series.[16] Co-creator and executive producer Peter M. Lenkov will serve as the showrunner. On May 16, 2018, CBS released a first video trailer for new series. The pilot episode was aired as a special preview prior to the series San Diego Comic-Con panel.[17]

text: On July 19, 2018, Lenkov announced that multiple crossovers have been planned with the ninth season of Hawaii Five-0. Lenkov confirmed that Kimee Balmilero and Taylor Wily will make guest appearances as their Hawaii Five-0 characters, medical examiner Noelani Cunha and entrepreneur Kamekona Tupuola respectively. Balmilero is set to appear in episode one while Wily is set to appear in episode two. Meanwhile, Alex O'Loughlin's character, Steve McGarrett, is set to cross paths with Hernandez's character later in the season.[18][19]

text: On Wednesday, August 22, 2018, with the anticipated landfall of Hurricane Lane, a Category 4 hurricane, in Hawaii CBS reported that they "were closely monitoring the situation" but that production would continue as planned.[20][21] The following day CBS temporarily shut down production of both Magnum P.I. and Hawaii Five-0 until further notice.[22][23]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On February 20, 2018, Jay Hernandez was announced as the new Magnum.[24] It was announced on March 2, 2018 that Perdita Weeks will play Juliet Higgins.[25] According to a May 16, 2018 announcement, Magnum's best friend from U.S. Marines, Rick Wright, will be portrayed by Zachary Knighton.[26] Three days later, it was announced that another one of Magnum's friends, Theodore "T.C." Calvin, will be played by Stephen Hill.[27] On July 20, 2018, it was announced that Tim Kang would join the cast as Honolulu PD detective Gordon Katsumoto, who will develop a friendly rivalry with Magnum as they work cases.[28] Finally, it was announced on July 25, 2018 that Amy Hill had been cast in a recurring role.[29] Hill and Kang both debuted in the series' third episode.

text: Filming[edit]

text: Following production of the pilot earlier in the year, filming for the first season began on July 23, 2018 with a traditional Hawaiian blessing.[30]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Magnum P.I. has been met with mixed reviews. On review aggregation Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 53% with an average rating of 5.88/10, based on 15 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "The rebooted Magnum P.I. may not be quite distinctive enough to hold up to comparisons with its source material, but a charismatic star, slickly staged action, and a handful of modern twists hint at greater potential."[31] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 47 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."[32]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Air date
Rating/share(18–49)
Viewers(millions)
DVR(18–49)
DVR viewers(millions)
Total(18–49)
Total viewers(millions)

1

"I Saw the Sun Rise"

September 24, 2018
1.2/5
8.12[5]
0.7
3.86
1.9
11.99[33]

2

"From the Head Down"

October 1, 2018
0.9/4
6.23[6]
0.6
2.90
1.5
9.14[34]

3

"The Woman Who Never Died"

October 8, 2018
0.9/4
6.08[7]
0.5
2.76
1.4
8.84[35]

4

"Six Paintings, One Frame"

October 15, 2018
0.9/4
5.48[8]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

5

"Sudden Death"

October 22, 2018
0.8/3
5.63[9]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

6

"Death is Only Temporary"

October 29, 2018
0.8/3
5.69[10]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


document_title: 1957 Chevrolet

question_text: what is the most horsepower (highest rated engine) you could get in a brand new 1957 chevy belair

question_tokens: what is the most horsepower ( highest rated engine ) you could get in a brand new 1957 chevy belair

text: 1957 Chevrolet

text: History[edit]

text: Initially, General Motors executives wanted an entirely new car for 1957, but production delays necessitated the 1955–56 design for one more year. Ed Cole, chief engineer for Chevrolet, dictated a series of changes that significantly increased the cost of the car. These changes included a new dashboard, sealed cowl, and the relocation of air ducts to the headlight pods, which resulted in the distinctive chrome headlight that helped make the '57 Chevrolet a classic. Fourteen-inch wheels replaced the fifteen-inch wheels from previous years to give the car a lower stance, and a wide grille was used to give the car a wider look from the front. The now famous '57 Chevrolet tailfins were designed to duplicate the wide look in the rear. Bel Air models were given gold trim: the mesh grille insert and front fender chevrons, as well as the "Chevrolet" script on the hood and trunk, were all rendered in anodized gold. The 1957 Chevrolets did not have an oil pressure gauge or a voltmeter.[3] The base engine was an inline 6-cylinder called the Blue Flame Six. The engine was smoother running than the V-8. Carburetion came from a single one-barrel carburetor.

text: "Tri-Five" 1955–1957 V8[edit]

text: The 1955 model year Chevrolet introduced its now-famous small-block V-8 — the first V-8 available in a Chevrolet since 1918.[4] It has a displacement of 265 cu in (4,340 cc). Prior to 1955, Chevrolet offered an inline 235 cu in (3,850 cc) displacement in-line 6-cylinder engine only. The 1955 model, like its engine, was all new. The "shoebox" design, so named because it was the first Chevrolet to feature streamlined rear fenders, was a watershed for Chevrolet. The lightweight car, coupled with a powerful overhead valve V-8, became a showroom draw, but also thrust the company into the arena of competitive motorsports. 1955 Chevrolets went on to dominate drag racing and became a formidable force in circle track racing. In 1956, the design was lengthened somewhat in front and given a more squarish treatment; under the hood, engine power increased and a Chevrolet Corvette engine was available for the first time in a full-size passenger car. The V-shaped trim on the tail fins was filled with a ribbed aluminum insert exclusive to the Bel Air. The fuel-injected engine represented the first time that an internal combustion gasoline engine in a passenger car reached an advertised one horsepower for each cubic inch benchmark, although the Chrysler 300B beat that by a year in their 355-horsepower, 354 c.i.d dual-carburetored engine, and the Alfa Romeo Giulietta Sprint was introduced a year earlier than that (1954), with a 79 cubic inch (1290cc) engine that produced 80 hp. In NASCAR racing the 283 with its increased horsepower gave the '57 a dramatic advantage over the smaller 265 V8 the '55 and '56 had. NASCAR held the competition, especially the '55–'57 Chevrolet to a cubic inch restriction because of all the races the '57s were winning. This restriction stayed with the '55–'57 till they were grandfathered out of the lower NASCAR divisions in the 1970s as the '57 was still beating virtually all in their class.

text: Body styles[edit]

text: Body choices for 1957 included 2- and 4-door sedans (identified by the "posts" between door windows), the two-door "Sport Coupe" (a two-door hardtop - the car has no post between the front and back window when the windows are lowered), the "Sport Sedan" (a four-door hardtop), the two-door Utility Sedan, a two-door sedan with a package shelf instead of a rear seat, the Delray "club coupe", which was a Two-Ten model 2-door sedan with a de luxe interior, two styles of two-door station wagon, the top-of-the-line Bel Air Nomad with a sloped pillar behind the hardtop door and sliding windows at the rear seat, and the basic Handyman with an upright sedan B-pillar and a C-pillar, where the four-door wagons have one, available only in One-Fifty and Two-Ten trims. The four-door, six-passenger station wagon, the four-door, nine-passenger station wagon (both called Townsman in the One-Fifty series and Beauville for the Bel Air version), and the convertible. Unlike most competitors, the Chevrolet 4-door hardtop featured a reinforced rear roof structure that gave the car added rigidity and a unique appearance in silhouette. The 1957 Chevrolet was called by some a "Baby Cadillac", because of many similar styling cues to Cadillacs of the time. V8-optioned cars got a large gold "V" under the Chevrolet script on the hood and trunk lid.

text: The 2-door Bel Air Nomad station wagon had its own distinctive styling, mainly in the roof line and rear deck.

text:
1957 Chevrolet One-Fifty 2-door Sedan

1957 Chevrolet Bel Air 4-door Sedan

1957 Chevrolet Bel Air Sport Coupe

1957 Chevrolet Bel Air Sport Sedan

1957 Chevrolet Bel Air Convertible

1957 Chevrolet Bel Air Nomad 2-door 6-passenger Station Wagon

1957 Chevrolet Two-Ten Townsman 4-door 6-passenger Station Wagon

1957 Chevrolet One-Fifty Sedan Delivery (non-standard wheels)

text: Engines[edit]

text: For 1957 there were four standard engine options, a 235.5 cu in (3,859 cc) inline 6-cylinder producing 140 hp (104 kW), a 265 cu in (4,340 cc) V8 "Turbo-Fire" producing 162 hp (121 kW), and two 283 cu in (4,640 cc) V8s: a "Turbo-Fire" twin-barrel carburetor producing 185 hp (138 kW) and a "Super "Turbo-Fire" four-barrel carburetor developing 220 hp (164 kW).[5]

text: Another optional engine was offered with two four barrel carburetors, the legendary "Duntov" cam and solid lifters. This engine produced 270 hp. 1957 was the first year that Chevrolet ever offered fuel injection as an option. A 283 cu in (4,640 cc) engine fitted with solid lifters, the "Duntov" cam and fuel injection was rated at 283 hp (211 kW).[6] This was the first time in history that a General Motors vehicle achieved 1-hp-per-cu-in in a production vehicle. Fuel injection continued as an option throughout the early 1960s. However, most mechanics of the time didn't have the experience to keep the units running properly. This prompted most buyers to opt for conventional carburetion.

text: Options[edit]

text: There were many options available, most of which were designed to make the car more comfortable and luxurious. Air conditioning was offered though rarely ordered, as was a padded dash. Power steering and power brakes were available, as well as a signal-seeking AM[6] radio and power antenna. Power windows and power seats were also available. A rear speaker could be purchased which required a separate volume knob to be installed in the dashboard, beside the radio — this rear speaker was touted as providing "surround" sound. An "Autronic eye" was offered; it was a device that bolted onto the dashboard and sensed the light from oncoming traffic, dimming the headlights automatically.[7] One unique option was an electronic shaver, connected to the dashboard.[8] The ‘57 radio used tubes that required only 12 volts of plate voltage and a transistor for the output stage. This lowered the power drain on the battery to an insignificant amount when the engine was off. Playing the radio with conventional tubes for extended periods occasionally drained the battery to the extent that it could not start the car. The clock was electrically self-wound and moving the hands to correct the time resulted in actually regulating the going rate. After a few corrections, the clock was remarkably accurate.

text: Another dashboard-mounted item was the traffic-light viewer, a ribbed plastic visor that was installed just above the speedometer. Because the roof extends so far forward of the driver, it is hard to see overhead traffic lights. The traffic light viewer captured the reflection of overhead traffic lights so that the driver didn't have to lean forward to see past the edge of the roof. A/C was also an option.[9]

text: In 1957, Chevrolet started to add safety features such as "crash proof door locks[10] "(first added in 1956), padded dash boards, safety-styled steering wheel with a recessed hub[11] (though not as much as Ford's), seat belts(also first in 1956[12]) and shoulder harnesses.[13][14] However, unlike Ford, Chevrolet did not promote these safety features heavily.

text: 1957 was also Chevrolet's first offering of a turbine transmission, known as the Turboglide. It was a design concept that Buick had developed with their Dynaflow transmission. However, due to a reliability reputation caused by its complexity, most automatic transmission buyers shunned the Turboglide in favor of the two-speed Powerglide that had been offered since 1950. At the time the Turboglide casing was the largest cast aluminum component ever put into mass production, but it never recovered from the reputation in 1957 and the option was discontinued in 1961. Manual transmissions were limited to three-speed, column shifted units (with synchromesh in second and third gear only). The Powerglide's shifter went P N D L R while the Turboglide's was P R N D Hr (although the 'Hr' was changed early in the production series to 'Gr'-Grade Retarder because of drivers' mistaken belief that 'Hr' meant High Range instead of the correct Hill Retarder.) .[15][16] An overdrive unit was available as an option on the three speed manually shifted transmission cars. Starting at the end of May 1957, a four speed manual transmission was also offered at an over-the-counter price of $188.00 but no installation kit (shifter and linkage) was ever offered by Chevrolet and, while an owner may have jury-rigged an installation in their own car, there is no evidence that any dealer ever actually installed the transmission in any car in 1957. A '57 equipped with this transmission mated to the 270 horsepower engine and limited slip differential was the one to beat on the drag strip and street into the early 1960s.

text: Post-production popularity[edit]

text: From a numbers standpoint, the '57 Chevrolet wasn't as popular as General Motors had hoped. Despite its popularity, rival Ford outsold Chevrolet for the 1957 model year for the first time since 1935. The main cause of the sales shift to Ford was that the '57 Chevrolet had tubeless tires, the first car to have them. This scared away sales to Ford as many people did not initially trust the new tubeless design. Also Ford's introduction of an all-new body styling that was longer, lower, and wider than the previous year's offerings helped Ford sales.[17]

text: However, the 1957 Ford — with the exception of the rare retractable hardtop model — is not nearly as prized by collectors today as the 1957 Chevrolet.[citation needed] Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the '57 Chevrolet was a popular used car and highly prized "street machine" or hot rod in 1957 terms. It was the final year of the "shoebox" Chevrolet, as 1958 saw the introduction of a much larger and heavier "X" framed Chevrolet. The ideal size of the '57, combined with its relatively light weight compared to newer full-sized cars, made it a favorite among drag racers. The engine bay was big enough to fit GM's big-block engines, first introduced in 1958 and popularized in the 1960s by the Beach Boys in the song "409". The relatively simple mechanical attributes of the car made it easy to maintain, customize, and upgrade with components such as disc brakes and air conditioning.

text: The big block, however, was not what put the '57 on the map on the street scene; it was the introduction of the low-priced small-block, 365-horsepower 327 in 1962 that was the blockbuster that made both the '55 and '57 Chevrolet able to beat the Ford hotrods with their flathead V8s.[citation needed] This was a major turning point in American hot rodding: Chevrolet had claimed the street scene from Ford. The '57 Chevrolet also won 49 Grand National "cup" NASCAR races (the most of any car in NASCAR history), won the Southern 500 (in 1957, 1958, and 1959); becoming the only car to win the 500 three times. The earliest victory for a '57 Chevrolet in a titled NASCAR Grand National Series race was the 1957 Virginia 500.

text: The '57 also won 26 NASCAR "convertible races," more than any make, and won all three possible driver's championships. The first in convertible class and winning car in the 1959 Daytona 500 was a '57 driven by Joe Lee Johnson. The convertibles started on the outside row and were approximately ten miles an hour slower than the hardtops and sedans because of their aerodynamics. No one figured that a convertible would win the race and they didn't but wonder who was driving the top finishing convertible.

text: The 283 engine placed from the factory behind the centerline of the front wheels made the '57 a superior handling car on the short tracks and the dirt tracks as well. This mechanical advantage, coupled with the high revving and reliable 283, earned the '57 the nickname "king of the short tracks"[citation needed] With the fuel injected 283, the One-Fifty model two door sedan version, called the "black widow," was the first car outlawed (and quickly so) by NASCAR as it proved almost unbeatable on virtually all the NASCAR tracks in early 1957. After the '57 was grandfathered out from the now "cup" division in 1960 and relegated to the lower local track sportsman divisions, they were still the car to beat for years. The '57s subsequently were used up in stock car racing at a very high rate. Surprisingly enough, the '57 Chevrolet also won a disproportionate amount of demolition derbies as well: With the radiator set back from the grille, the car was difficult to disable. The additional advantage of having the last double lined trunk, coupled with a strong frame, made it a surprisingly common winner in the demolition derbies during the late 1960s and early 1970s. By the 1970s, the '57 Chevrolet became a collector car.

text: Companies such as Danchuk Manufacturing, Inc. and Classic Chevy Club International began selling reproduction and restoration parts. In the early 1990s, the value of a meticulously restored '57 Chevrolet convertible was as high as $100,000.[citation needed] Though those peaks gave way significantly after 1992, the '57 Chevrolet has held its value and is now poised to exceed the previous peak.

text: Although restored original examples are increasingly rare, modern customizers and restorers are creating fast, powerful, ultra-modern hot rods that are winning the '57 Chevy a whole new generation of fans. As original cars become harder to find, fiberglass and all-steel reproductions (EMI in Detroit, Michigan was the first to build restoration bodies using original firewalls with VIN numbers - the steel reproduction bodyshells are manufactured by Real Deal Steel in Sanford, Florida, using reproduction sheetmetal) are making it possible for future generations to enjoy the '57 Chevrolet.