document_title: Mount Vesuvius

question_text: what is the risk level of mt. vesuvius today

question_tokens: what is the risk level of mt . vesuvius today

root

text: Mount Vesuvius

text: Mythology[edit]

text: Vesuvius has a long historic and literary tradition. It was considered a divinity of the Genius type at the time of the eruption of AD 79: it appears under the inscribed name Vesuvius as a serpent in the decorative frescos of many lararia, or household shrines, surviving from Pompeii. An inscription from Capua[6] to IOVI VESVVIO indicates that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter; that is, Jupiter Vesuvius.[7]

tag: p

text: The historian Diodorus Siculus relates a tradition that Hercules, in the performance of his labors, passed through the country of nearby Cumae on his way to Sicily and found there a place called "the Phlegraean Plain" (phlegraion pedion, "plain of fire"), "from a hill which anciently vomited out fire ... now called Vesuvius."[8] It was inhabited by bandits, "the sons of the Earth," who were giants. With the assistance of the gods he pacified the region and went on. The facts behind the tradition, if any, remain unknown, as does whether Herculaneum was named after it. An epigram by the poet Martial in 88 AD suggests that both Venus, patroness of Pompeii, and Hercules were worshipped in the region devastated by the eruption of 79.[9] Mount Vesuvius was regarded by the Romans as being devoted to the hero and demigod Hercules.[10]

text: Origin of the name[edit]

text: Vesuvius was a name of the volcano in frequent use by the authors of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. Its collateral forms were Vesaevus, Vesevus, Vesbius and Vesvius.[11] Writers in ancient Greek used Οὐεσούιον or Οὐεσούιος. Many scholars since then have offered an etymology. As peoples of varying ethnicity and language occupied Campania in the Roman Iron Age, the etymology depends to a large degree on the presumption of what language was spoken there at the time. Naples was settled by Greeks, as the name Nea-polis, "New City", testifies. The Oscans, a native Italic people, lived in the countryside. The Latins also competed for the occupation of Campania. Etruscan settlements were in the vicinity. Other peoples of unknown provenance are said to have been there at some time by various ancient authors.

text: Some theories about its origin are:

text:
From Greek οὔ = "not" prefixed to a root from or related to the Greek word σβέννυμι = "I quench", in the sense of "unquenchable".[11][12]
From Greek ἕω = "I hurl" and βίη "violence", "hurling violence", *vesbia, taking advantage of the collateral form.[13]
From an Indo-European root, *eus- < *ewes- < *(a)wes-, "shine" sense "the one who lightens", through Latin or Oscan.[14]
From an Indo-European root *wes = "hearth" (compare e.g. Vesta)

tag: ul

text: Physical appearance[edit]

text: Vesuvius is a distinctive "humpbacked" peak, consisting of a large cone (Gran Cono) partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure called Mount Somma.[15] The Gran Cono was produced during the A.D. 79 eruption. For this reason, the volcano is also called Somma-Vesuvius or Somma-Vesuvio.

text: The caldera started forming during an eruption around 17,000 (or 18,300) years ago[16][17][18] and was enlarged by later paroxysmal eruptions,[19] ending in the one of AD 79. This structure has given its name to the term "somma volcano", which describes any volcano with a summit caldera surrounding a newer cone.[20]

text: The height of the main cone has been constantly changed by eruptions but was 1,281 m (4,203 ft) in 2010.[17] Monte Somma is 1,132 m (3,714 ft) high, separated from the main cone by the valley of Atrio di Cavallo, which is 5 km (3.1 mi) long. The slopes of the volcano are scarred by lava flows, while the rest are heavily vegetated, with scrub and forests at higher altitudes and vineyards lower down. Vesuvius is still regarded as an active volcano, although its current activity produces little more than sulfur-rich steam from vents at the bottom and walls of the crater. Vesuvius is a stratovolcano at the convergent boundary where the African Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. Layers of lava, ash, scoria and pumice make up the volcanic peak. Their mineralogy is variable, but generally silica-undersaturated and rich in potassium, with phonolite produced in the more explosive eruptions.[21]

text: Formation[edit]

text: Vesuvius was formed as a result of the collision of two tectonic plates, the African and the Eurasian. The former was subducted beneath the latter, deeper into the earth. As the water-saturated sediments of the oceanic African plate were pushed to hotter depths inside the planet, the water boiled off and caused the melting point of the upper mantle to drop enough to create partial melting of the rocks. Because magma is less dense than the solid rock around it, it was pushed upward. Finding a weak spot at the Earth's surface, it broke through, thus forming the volcano.

text: The volcano is one of several which form the Campanian volcanic arc. Others include Campi Flegrei, a large caldera a few kilometers to the north west, Mount Epomeo, 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the west on the island of Ischia, and several undersea volcanoes to the south. The arc forms the southern end of a larger chain of volcanoes produced by the subduction process described above, which extends northwest along the length of Italy as far as Monte Amiata in Southern Tuscany. Vesuvius is the only one to have erupted within recent history, although some of the others have erupted within the last few hundred years. Many are either extinct or have not erupted for tens of thousands of years.

text: Eruptions[edit]

text: Mount Vesuvius has erupted many times. The famous eruption in AD 79 was preceded by numerous others in prehistory, including at least three significantly larger ones, the best known being the Avellino eruption around 1800 BC which engulfed several Bronze Age settlements. Since AD 79, the volcano has also erupted repeatedly, in 172, 203, 222, possibly in 303, 379, 472, 512, 536, 685, 787, around 860, around 900, 968, 991, 999, 1006, 1037, 1049, around 1073, 1139, 1150, and there may have been eruptions in 1270, 1347, and 1500.[19] The volcano erupted again in 1631, six times in the 18th century (especially in 1779 and 1794), eight times in the 19th century (notably in 1872), and in 1906, 1929 and 1944. There have been no eruptions since 1944, and none of the eruptions after AD 79 were as large or destructive as the Pompeian one.

text: The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed Plinian after Pliny the Younger, a Roman writer who published a detailed description of the 79 AD eruption, including his uncle's death.[22] On occasion, eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash; in 472 and 1631, Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople (Istanbul), over 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) away. A few times since 1944, landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust, raising false alarms of an eruption.

text: Before AD 79[edit]

text: Scientific knowledge of the geologic history of Vesuvius comes from core samples taken from a 2,000 m (6,600 ft) plus bore hole on the flanks of the volcano, extending into Mesozoic rock. Cores were dated by potassium–argon and argon–argon dating.[23] The volcano started forming 25,000 years ago. Although the area has been subject to volcanic activity for at least 400,000 years, the lowest layer of eruption material from the Somma caldera lies on top of the 40,000 year‑old Campanian ignimbrite produced by the Campi Flegrei complex, and was the product of the Codola Plinian eruption 25,000 years ago.[15]

text: It was then built up by a series of lava flows, with some smaller explosive eruptions interspersed between them. However, the style of eruption changed around 19,000 years ago to a sequence of large explosive Plinian eruptions, of which the AD 79 one was the most recent. The eruptions are named after the tephra deposits produced by them, which in turn are named after the location where the deposits were first identified:[24]

text:
18,300 years ago: the Basal Pumice (Pomici di Base) eruption, VEI 6, the original formation of the Somma caldera. The eruption was followed by a period of much less violent, lava-producing eruptions.[18]
16,000 years ago: the Green Pumice (Pomici Verdoline) eruption, VEI 5.[15]
Around 11,000 years ago: the Lagno Amendolare eruption), smaller than the Mercato eruption.
8,000 years ago: the Mercato eruption (Pomici di Mercato) – also known as Pomici Gemelle or Pomici Ottaviano, VEI 6.[15]
Around 5,000 years ago: two explosive eruptions smaller than the Avellino eruption.
3,800 years ago: the Avellino eruption (Pomici di Avellino), VEI 5; its vent was apparently 2 km (1.2 mi) west of the current crater and the eruption destroyed several Bronze Age settlements of the Apennine culture. Several carbon dates on wood and bones offer a range of possible dates of about 500 years in the mid-2nd millennium BC. In May 2001, near Nola, Italian archaeologists using the technique of filling every cavity with plaster or substitute compound recovered some remarkably well-preserved forms of perishable objects, such as fence rails, a bucket and especially in the vicinity thousands of human footprints pointing into the Apennines to the north. The settlement had huts, pots and goats. The residents had hastily abandoned the village, leaving it to be buried under pumice and ash in much the same way that Pompeii and Herculaneum were later preserved.[25][26] Pyroclastic surge deposits were distributed to the northwest of the vent, travelling as far as 15 km (9.3 mi) from it, and lie up to 3 m (9.8 ft) deep in the area now occupied by Naples.[27]
The volcano then entered a stage of more frequent, but less violent eruptions, until the most recent Plinian eruption, which destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The last of these may have been in 217 BC.[19] There were earthquakes in Italy during that year and the sun was reported as being dimmed by gray haze or dry fog. Plutarch wrote of the sky being on fire near Naples and Silius Italicus mentioned in his epic poem Punica[28] that Vesuvius had thundered and produced flames worthy of Mount Etna in that year, although both authors were writing around 250 years later. Greenland ice core samples of around that period show relatively high acidity, which is assumed to have been caused by atmospheric hydrogen sulfide.[29]

text: The volcano was then quiet (for 295 years, if the 217 BC date for the last previous eruption is true) and was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards, except at the top, which was craggy. The volcano may have had only one summit at that time, judging by a wall painting, "Bacchus and Vesuvius", found in a Pompeian house, the House of the Centenary (Casa del Centenario).

text: Several surviving works written over the 200 years preceding the AD 79 eruption describe the mountain as having had a volcanic nature, although Pliny the Elder did not depict the mountain in this way in his Naturalis Historia:[30]

text:
The Greek historian Strabo (ca 63 BC–AD 24) described the mountain in Book V, Chapter 4 of his Geographica[31] as having a predominantly flat, barren summit covered with sooty, ash-coloured rocks and suggested that it might once have had "craters of fire". He also perceptively suggested that the fertility of the surrounding slopes may be due to volcanic activity, as at Mount Etna.
In Book II of De architectura,[32] the architect Vitruvius (c.a. 80–70 BC -?) reported that fires had once existed abundantly below the peak and that it had spouted fire onto the surrounding fields. He went on to describe Pompeiian pumice as having been burnt from another species of stone.
Diodorus Siculus (c.a. 90 BC–c.a. 30 BC), another Greek writer, wrote in Book IV of his Bibliotheca Historica that the Campanian plain was called fiery (Phlegrean) because of the peak, Vesuvius, which had spouted flames like Etna and showed signs of the fire that had burnt in ancient history.[33]

text: Eruption of AD 79[edit]

text: On August 24, in the year AD 79, Vesuvius erupted in one of the most catastrophic and famous eruptions of all time. Historians have learned about the eruption from the eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger, a Roman administrator and poet.[34]

text: The volcano ejected a cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6×105 cubic metres (7.8×105 cu yd) per second, ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima-Nagasaki bombings.[3] The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by pyroclastic surges and the ruins buried under dozens of feet of tephra.[3][34]

text: Precursors and foreshocks[edit]

text: The AD 79 eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake seventeen years beforehand on February 05 of AD 62, which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples, and particularly to Pompeii.[35] Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted.[36] The deaths of 600 sheep from "tainted air" in the vicinity of Pompeii indicates that the earthquake of AD 62 may have been related to new activity by Vesuvius[37]

text: The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region; the writer Pliny the Younger even wrote that they "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania". Small earthquakes started taking place on 20 August 79[36] becoming more frequent over the next four days, but the warnings were not recognized.[a]

text: Scientific analysis of the eruption[edit]

text: Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features. The eruption lasted two days. The morning of the first day was perceived as normal by the only eyewitness to leave a surviving document, Pliny the Younger. In the middle of the day an explosion threw up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. Rescues and escapes occurred during this time. At some time in the night or early the next day pyroclastic surges in the close vicinity of the volcano began. Lights were seen on the peak interpreted as fires. People as far away as Misenum fled for their lives. The flows were rapid-moving, dense and very hot, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating all population remaining there and altering the landscape, including the coastline. These were accompanied by additional light tremors and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples. By late afternoon of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.

text: The latest scientific studies of the ash produced by Vesuvius reveals a multi-phase eruption.[38] The initial major explosion produced a column of ash and pumice ranging between 15 and 30 kilometres (49,000 and 98,000 ft) high, which rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum upwind. The chief energy supporting the column came from the escape of steam superheated by the magma, created from seawater seeping over time into the deep faults of the region, that came into interaction with magma and heat.

text: Subsequently, the cloud collapsed as the gases expanded and lost their capability to support their solid contents, releasing it as a pyroclastic surge, which first reached Herculaneum but not Pompeii. Additional blasts reinstituted the column. The eruption alternated between Plinian and Peléan six times. Surges 3 and 4 are believed by the authors to have buried Pompeii.[39] Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross-bedding formations, which are not produced by fallout.

text: Another study used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of roof-tile and plaster fragments collected around Pompeii to estimate equilibrium temperature of the pyroclastic flow.[40] The magnetic study revealed that on the first day of the eruption a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres (1.2 in) fell for several hours.[41] It heated the roof tiles up to 140 °C (284 °F).[42] This period would have been the last opportunity to escape.

text: The collapse of the Plinian columns on the second day caused pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) that devastated Herculaneum and Pompeii. The depositional temperature of these pyroclastic surges ranged up to 300 °C (572 °F).[43] Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped, as the city was surrounded by gases of incinerating temperatures. The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs. These were as low as 100 °C (212 °F).[44]

text: The Two Plinys[edit]

text: The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus.[4] Pliny the Younger describes, amongst other things, the last days in the life of his uncle, Pliny the Elder. Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano, approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi), the elder Pliny launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend. His nephew declined to join the party. One of the nephew's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle's experiences.[45][46] In a second letter the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle.[47][48]

text: The two men saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the peak. This cloud and a request by a messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate. His nephew attempted to resume a normal life, but that night a tremor awoke him and his mother, prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard. Further tremors near dawn caused the population to abandon the village and caused disastrous wave action in the Bay of Naples.

text: The early light was obscured by a black cloud through which shone flashes, which Pliny likens to sheet lightning, but more extensive. The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia (Capri) across the bay. Fearing for their lives, the population began to call to each other and move back from the coast along the road. A rain of ash fell, causing Pliny to shake it off periodically to avoid being buried. Later that same day the pumice and ash stopped falling and the sun shone weakly through the cloud, encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder.

text: Pliny's uncle Pliny the Elder was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel. As the ship was preparing to leave the area, a messenger came from his friend Rectina (wife of Tascius[49]) living on the coast near the foot of the volcano explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue. Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast. He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina's party.

text: He set off across the bay but in the shallows on the other side encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice and pieces of rock. Advised by the helmsman to turn back, he stated "Fortune favors the brave" and ordered him to continue on to Stabiae (about 4.5 kilometers from Pompeii).

text: Pliny the Elder and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the crater. After staying overnight, the party was driven from the building by an accumulation of material, presumably tephra, which threatened to block all egress. They woke Pliny, who had been napping and emitting loud snoring. They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from the raining debris. They approached the beach again but the wind prevented the ships from leaving. Pliny sat down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not rise even with assistance when his friends departed. Though Pliny the Elder died, his friends ultimately escaped by land.[50]

text: In the first letter to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger suggested that his uncle's death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous, sulphurous gas that wafted over the group. However, Stabiae was 16 km from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated) and his companions were apparently unaffected by the volcanic gases, and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause, such as a stroke or heart attack.[51] His body was found with no apparent injuries on the next day, after dispersal of the plume.

text: Casualties from the eruption[edit]

text: Along with Pliny the Elder, the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa (a son of the Herodian Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix) and his wife.[52]

text: By 2003, around 1,044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii, with the scattered bones of another 100.[53] The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980).[54] What percentage these numbers are of the total dead or the percentage of the dead to the total number at risk remain completely unknown.

text: Thirty-eight percent of the 1,044 were found in the ash fall deposits, the majority inside buildings. These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses, with the smaller number of victims found outside of buildings probably being killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano. The remaining 62% of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits,[53] and thus were probably killed by them – probably from a combination of suffocation through ash inhalation and blast and debris thrown around. In contrast to the victims found at Herculaneum, examination of cloth, frescoes and skeletons show that it is unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause. Herculaneum, which was much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction, but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges. It is likely that most, or all, of the known victims in this town were killed by the surges.

text: People caught on the former seashore by the first surge died of thermal shock. The rest were concentrated in arched chambers at a density of as high as 3 persons per square metre. As only 85 metres (279 ft) of the coast have been excavated, casualties may be waiting to be excavated.

text: Later eruptions from the 3rd to the 19th centuries[edit]

text: Since the eruption of AD 79, Vesuvius has erupted around three dozen times. It erupted again in 203, during the lifetime of the historian Cassius Dio. In 472, it ejected such a volume of ash that ashfalls were reported as far away as Constantinople. The eruptions of 512 were so severe that those inhabiting the slopes of Vesuvius were granted exemption from taxes by Theodoric the Great, the Gothic king of Italy. Further eruptions were recorded in 787, 968, 991, 999, 1007 and 1036 with the first recorded lava flows. The volcano became quiescent at the end of the 13th century and in the following years it again became covered with gardens and vineyards as of old. Even the inside of the crater was moderately filled with shrubbery.

text: Vesuvius entered a new phase in December 1631, when a major eruption buried many villages under lava flows, killing around 3,000 people. Torrents of lahar were also created, adding to the devastation. Activity thereafter became almost continuous, with relatively severe eruptions occurring in 1660, 1682, 1694, 1698, 1707, 1737, 1760, 1767, 1779, 1794, 1822, 1834, 1839, 1850, 1855, 1861, 1868, 1872, 1906, 1926, 1929 and 1944.

text: Eruptions in the 20th century[edit]

text: The eruption of April 05 in 1906,[55][56] killed more than 100 people and ejected the most lava ever recorded from a Vesuvian eruption. Italian authorities were preparing to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics when Mount Vesuvius violently erupted, devastating the city of Naples and surrounding comunes. Funds were diverted to the reconstruction of Naples, requiring a new location for the Olympics to be found.

text: The last major eruption was in March 1944. It destroyed the villages of San Sebastiano al Vesuvio, Massa di Somma, Ottaviano, and part of San Giorgio a Cremano.[57] From March 18 to 23, 1944, lava flows appeared within the rim. There were outflows. Small explosions then occurred until the major explosion took place on March 18, 1944.[58]

text: At the time of the eruption, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) 340th Bombardment Group was based at Pompeii Airfield near Terzigno, Italy, just a few kilometres from the eastern base of the volcano. The tephra and hot ash damaged the fabric control surfaces, the engines, the Plexiglas windscreens and the gun turrets of the 340th's B-25 Mitchell medium bombers. Estimates ranged from 78 to 88 aircraft destroyed.[59]

text: The eruption could be seen from Naples. Different perspectives and the damage caused to the local villages were recorded by USAAF photographers and other personnel based nearer to the volcano.[60]

text: Future[edit]

text: Large Vesuvian eruptions which emit volcanic material in quantities of about 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi), the most recent of which overwhelmed Pompeii and Herculaneum, have happened after periods of inactivity of a few thousand years. Sub-Plinian eruptions producing about 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi), such as those of 472 and 1631, have been more frequent with a few hundred years between them. Following the 1631 eruption until 1944 every few years saw a comparatively small eruption which emitted 0.001–0.01 km³ of magma. It seems that for Vesuvius, the amount of magma expelled in an eruption increases very roughly linearly with the interval since the previous one, and at a rate of around 0.001 cubic kilometres (0.00024 cu mi) for each year. This gives an approximate figure of 0.06 cubic kilometres (0.014 cu mi) for an eruption after 60 years of inactivity.[61]

text: Magma sitting in an underground chamber for many years will start to see higher melting point constituents such as olivine crystallizing out. The effect is to increase the concentration of dissolved gases (mostly sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide) in the remaining liquid magma, making the subsequent eruption more violent. As gas-rich magma approaches the surface during an eruption, the huge drop in internal pressure caused by the reduction in weight of the overlying rock (which drops to zero at the surface) causes the gases to come out of solution, the volume of gas increasing explosively from nothing to perhaps many times that of the accompanying magma. Additionally, the removal of the higher melting point material will raise the concentration of felsic components such as silicates potentially making the magma more viscous, adding to the explosive nature of the eruption.

text: The government emergency plan for an eruption therefore assumes that the worst case will be an eruption of similar size and type to the 1631 VEI 4[62] one. In this scenario the slopes of the volcano, extending out to about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the vent, may be exposed to pyroclastic surges sweeping down them, whilst much of the surrounding area could suffer from tephra falls. Because of prevailing winds, towns and cities to the south and east of the volcano are most at risk from this, and it is assumed that tephra accumulation exceeding 100 kilograms per square metre (20 lb/sq ft) – at which point people are at risk from collapsing roofs – may extend out as far as Avellino to the east or Salerno to the south-east. Towards Naples, to the north west, this tephra fall hazard is assumed to extend barely past the slopes of the volcano.[61] The specific areas actually affected by the ash cloud will depend upon the particular circumstances surrounding the eruption.

text: The plan assumes between two weeks and 20 days' notice of an eruption and foresees the emergency evacuation of 600,000 people, almost entirely comprising all those living in the zona rossa ("red zone"), i.e. at greatest risk from pyroclastic flows.[5][63] The evacuation, by trains, ferries, cars, and buses is planned to take about seven days, and the evacuees will mostly be sent to other parts of the country rather than to safe areas in the local Campania region, and may have to stay away for several months. However, the dilemma that would face those implementing the plan is when to start this massive evacuation, since if it is left too late then thousands could be killed, while if it is started too early then the precursors of the eruption may turn out to have been a false alarm. In 1984, 40,000 people were evacuated from the Campi Flegrei area, another volcanic complex near Naples, but no eruption occurred.[63]

text: Ongoing efforts are being made by the government at various levels (especially of Campania) to reduce the population living in the red zone, by demolishing illegally constructed buildings, establishing a national park around the whole volcano to prevent the future construction of buildings[63] and by offering sufficient financial incentives to people for moving away.[64] One of the underlying goals is to reduce the time needed to evacuate the area, over the next 20 or 30 years, to two or three days.[65]

text: The volcano is closely monitored by the Osservatorio Vesuvio in Naples with extensive networks of seismic and gravimetric stations, a combination of a GPS-based geodetic array and satellite-based synthetic aperture radar to measure ground movement and by local surveys and chemical analyses of gases emitted from fumaroles. All of this is intended to track magma rising underneath the volcano. No magma has been detected within 10 km of the surface, and so the volcano is classified by the Observatory as at a Basic or Green Level.[66]

text: Vesuvius today[edit]

text: The area around Vesuvius was officially declared a national park on June 5, 1995.[67] The summit of Vesuvius is open to visitors and there is a small network of paths around the volcano that are maintained by the park authorities on weekends. There is access by road to within 200 metres (660 ft) of the summit (measured vertically), but thereafter access is on foot only. There is a spiral walkway around the volcano from the road to the crater.

text: Funiculì, Funiculà[edit]

text: The first funicular cable car on Mount Vesuvius opened in 1880. It was later destroyed by the March 1944 eruption. "Funiculì, Funiculà", a famous Neapolitan language song with lyrics by journalist Peppino Turco set to music by composer Luigi Denza, commemorates its opening.


document_title: Mens sana in corpore sano

question_text: who said sound mind in a sound body

question_tokens: who said sound mind in a sound body

text: Mens sana in corpore sano

text: Look up mens sana in corpore sano in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

tag: table

text: Mens sana in corpore sano is a Latin phrase, usually translated as "a healthy mind in a healthy body". The phrase is widely used in sporting and educational contexts to express the theory that physical exercise is an important or essential part of mental and psychological well-being.

text: History[edit]

text: The phrase comes from Satire X of the Roman poet Juvenal (10.356). It is the first in a list of what is desirable in life:

text:
English translation:

You should pray for a healthy mind in a healthy body.
Ask for a stout heart that has no fear of death,
and deems length of days the least of Nature's gifts
that can endure any kind of toil,
that knows neither wrath nor desire and thinks
the woes and hard labors of Hercules better than
the loves and banquets and downy cushions of Sardanapalus.
What I commend to you, you can give to yourself;
For assuredly, the only road to a life of peace is virtue.

text:
In original Latin:

orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano.
fortem posce animum mortis terrore carentem,
qui spatium vitae extremum inter munera ponat
naturae, qui ferre queat quoscumque labores,
nesciat irasci, cupiat nihil et potiores
Herculis aerumnas credat saevosque labores
et venere et cenis et pluma Sardanapalli.
monstro quod ipse tibi possis dare; semita certe
tranquillae per virtutem patet unica vitae.

—Roman poet Juvenal (10.356-64)

text: Traditional commentators believe that Juvenal's intention was to teach his fellow Roman citizens that in the main, their prayers for such things as long life are misguided. That the gods had provided man with virtues which he then lists for them.

text: Over time and separated from its context, the phrase has come to have a range of meanings. It can be construed to mean that only a healthy mind can lead to a healthy body, or equally that only a healthy body can produce or sustain a healthy mind. Its most general usage is to express the hierarchy of needs: with physical and mental health at the root.

text: An earlier, similar saying is attributed to the pre-Socratic philosopher Thales:

text: Usages[edit]

text:
Usage in other writings

John Locke (1632–1704) uses the phrase in his book Some Thoughts Concerning Education.
Heinrich von Treitschke used this phrase in his work titled The Army. He uses the phrase to highlight a sound principle of his German nationalistic doctrine. His work echoes the principles of late nineteenth century Prussian society.
Dr. K. Keyer, leader of the Public Health Council of the Netherlands during the Second World War, used the phrase as goal for public health care.[2]

Usage as the motto of athletic clubs:

Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata
Georgetown Hoyas
R.S.C. Anderlecht
The Turners Organization American Turners[3] and their local organizations like the Los Angeles turners.[4]
Carlton Football Club
Asociacion Atletica Argentinos Juniors
The Israeli Institute of Technology athletics teams
Mens Sana Basket
Beale Gaelic Football Club from County Kerry
Torrens Rowing Club
Sydney Rowing Club
UCLUFC

Usage as the motto of military institutions:

Royal Marines physical training instructors (PTI).
Riverside Military Academy in Gainesville, Georgia
Hargrave Military Academy in Chatham, Virginia
Army Physical Training Corps (APTC)
PERI (Physical Education & Recreation Instructors), which is part of the Canadian Military
New Zealand Defence Force Physical Training Instructors.

Usage as the motto of educational institutions:

Windham High School (Ohio)
Hiranandani Foundation School, Mumbai, India
Rosario High School, Mangalore, India
Teacher's College of Columbia University has this phrase engraved on its Horace Mann hall, on 120th Street in New York City
The University College London Men's Rugby Football Club, Based out of the Bloomsbury in London
Grant Medical College and Sir J.J. Hospital, Mumbai
Widener University and the State University of New York at Buffalo
The phrase appears in stone on the western facade of the HPER (School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation) at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana
The phrase appears in stone above the entranceway to the Athletic Center at Mount Allison University in Sackville, New Brunswick
Albert Schweitzer Pastoral Medicine Institute
Dhaka Physical Education College in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Sparta High School in Sparta, New Jersey
Charleston Female Seminary
Detroit Country Day School in Beverly Hills, Michigan
Erskine Academy in South China, Maine
Roger Bacon High School, St. Bernard, Ohio
Bjelke-Petersen School of Physical Culture, Australia
Bridgewater Junior Senior High School in Bridgewater, Nova Scotia
Kongsbakken videregående skole in Tromsø, Norway
Lakefield College School in Lakefield, Canada
Polish Association of Sport named SOKÓŁ before World War I. Poland, Galicja in that time Austria
The Internado Nacional Barros Arana in Santiago, Chile.
Albert Einstein School in Cotabato (Philippines)
Used as a line in the school song of Bangor Grammar School, in Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland.
Used as motto for Lundsbergs skola, an elite school in Sweden.
Used as motto for Foxcroft School, an all-girls' boarding school in Middleburg, Virginia.
Westholme School, an independent school set on the edge of the countryside of Blackburn, England
Loyola High School in Montreal, Canada

Usage in other cases:

The phrase was a favorite of Harry S. Truman former President of the United States of America.
The sports equipment company Asics takes its name from an acronym of a variant: "anima sana in corpore sano" 'a healthy soul in a healthy body'.[5]
Mensa, the High IQ Society, derives its name both from the Latin word for table, "mensa" as well as a pun on the phrase "mens sana".
Used as the title of the television programme Holby City broadcast on 9 July 2013.
Sound Body Sound Mind, a United States nonprofit organization (501(c)(3) that promotes self-confidence and healthy lifestyle choices among children.
Used in a dialogue by Utpal Dutta in th movie "Agantuk" directed/screenplay by Satyajit Ray.
Used as motto for fictional "Willowbrook Psychiatric Hospital" in television show Psych during season 7: Psych: The Musical
Used as motto for fictional "Blackwood Pines Sanatorium" in the 2015 video game Until Dawn.


document_title: Nursing school

question_text: where was the first nursing school in history located

text: Nursing school

text: History of nursing schools[edit]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Florence Nightingale was one of the pioneers in establishing the idea of nursing schools from her base at St Thomas' Hospital, London in 1860 when she opened the 'Nightingale Training School for Nurses', now part of King's College London.[1]

text: Her intention was to train nurses to a qualified and specialized level, with the key aim of learning to develop observation skills and sensitivity to patient needs, then allow them to work in hospital posts across the United Kingdom and abroad.[2] Her influence flourished and nursing is now a course taught at a number of British universities.

text: Apart from the nursing school of King's College London, the direct descendant of Nightingale's school, the University of Manchester was one of the first English institutions to offer the course at degree level.[3] A new building for the Manchester Medical School was opened in the early 1970s and degree courses in nursing were established about the same time. Nursing education at the university expanded greatly in 1996 when a new School of Nursing and Midwifery was created by transferring the Manchester College of Midwifery and Nursing into the university's Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing.[4]

text: Entry level courses, sought by most universities, are often five Standard Grades/GCSEs, including English, maths and a science (preferably biology), and two Highers/A-Levels. Mature students, over the age of twenty-one, have the option of entering upon completion of a college access course, and experience in jobs such as being a health/nursing assistant are also worthy for consideration into the course.

text: Currently, nursing is a three-year course in the UK, with students choosing the branch they want to study from day One e.g. adult, child, mental health, learning disability, or combinations of two (called dual-field). The course consists of a balance between course work in classes and practical placements in a health care setting. The first year is foundation, where students learn anatomy and physiology and basic health care. Newly qualified nurses then have to register with the Nursing and Midwifery Council in order to apply for jobs and legally practice.

text: United States[edit]

text: The history of nursing education had a long and varied role in the United States. Before the late 1800s little formal education was available to train nursing students. Education was primarily based on an apprenticeship with a senior nurse who taught bedside care within a hospital or clinic setting. Over time this model changed dramatically. A short chronology of Schools of Nursing in the United States is:

text:
In 1873, the Bellevue Hospital School of Nursing, of New York City, was founded. It was the first school of nursing in the United States to be founded on the principles of nursing established by Florence Nightingale. The School operated at Bellevue Hospital until its closure in 1969.
1883: The Medical University of South Carolina College of Nursing has been traced to its beginning in 1883 when the South Carolina Training School for Nurses was established at the request of Roper Hospital (known then as City Hospital) in Charleston, SC.  [5] Due to an earthquake in 1886 which destroyed the City Hospital, the effort only lasted a few years. However, once the new hospital was built the nursing program was reestablished in 1895 as the Charleston Training School. In 1916, the Board of Commissioners of the Roper Hospital proposed the transfer of the training school to the Medical College of the State of South Carolina, whose school of medicine had been established in Charleston in 1824 and whose faculty was already providing most of the nursing instruction. The proposal was accepted by both the hospital and the Medical College, and in 1919 the Roper Hospital Training School for Nurses became the School of Nursing of the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. In 1969 when the Medical College was designated the Medical University of South Carolina, the School of Nursing became the College of Nursing.[6]
1889: The Johns Hopkins School of Nursing was founded in conjunction with the creation of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. As one of the earliest hospital-based nursing schools in the United States school leaders consulted with Florence Nightingale on the program of education. These same nurse leaders also established what would be become the National League for Nursing Education and helped in establishing the American Nurses Association.[7]
In 1909, the University of Minnesota offered the first university based nursing program. It offered the first Bachelor of Science in Nursing degree and graduated the first bachelor's degree educated nurse.[8][9][10][11]
By 1916 13 universities and 3 colleges had developed bachelor's nursing degree programs.[9]
In 1923, the Yale School of Nursing was founded. It became the first School of Nursing to adopt the educational standards from the 1923 Goldmark Report that was requested by the Rockefeller Foundation. The curriculum was based on an educational plan rather than on hospital service needs.[12]
In 1956, the Columbia University School of Nursing became the first in the United States to grant a master's degree in a clinical nursing specialty.[13]

text: United States curriculum[edit]

text: Pre-requisites often include math, English, and other basic level courses. Basic courses in biology, anatomy and physiology are required. Depending on the nursing school, credits can be taken elsewhere, and transferred in, although limitations on time span between taking pre-requisites and applying to nursing programs exist, usually around 5 years, although some schools set no parameters.

text: Core coursework includes anatomy, physiology, pathology, and pharmacology. Additionally, a strong emphasis is placed on procedural education such as insertion of intravenous and urinary catheters, sterile dressing changes, proper administration of medications, physical examinations, caring bedside manner, and other vital skills. After the first semester basic skills are obtained, students rotate through Obstetrics, Mental Health, Medical, Surgical, Oncology, Critical Care and Pediatric Units to get a holistic view of nursing and what it encompasses. Many nursing students and nursing schools use medical and healthcare educational software as a study or training aid.

text: Many schools offer an accelerated bachelor's degree in nursing program. A variation of the Second Degree BSN is the Accelerated BSN. In addition to giving credit for having completed liberal arts requirements, an Accelerated BSN program allows students to complete their undergraduate nursing program's course requirements more quickly than students enrolled in a traditional BSN program. Accelerated BSN programs usually take 12 months to complete, though some programs may run for 16 to 24 months.

text: The traditional BSN programs may take much longer time. For example, in California, where nursing is a relatively high-paid and in high demand profession, the completion of BSN (including pre-requisites, major courses in the program, and General Education courses of college) may take 5 to 6 years. A 3.0 GPA is often an entrance requirement for many programs. Some more prestigious schools require much higher GPA score to be competitive. Many programs now also require TEAS-V test scores to evaluate potential students for entry.  Also, there are other options of Associate Degree for RN and LPN programs (which in term of nursing training is much shorter and the scope of practice is different than RN). Lastly, the Master level is for experienced RNs to reach a higher education and may expand their scope of practice.

text: In the United States, students graduate from nursing education programs qualified to take one of the NCLEX (National Council Licensure Examination) exams, the NCLEX-PN for Licensed Practical Nurses (LPNs) or the NCLEX-RN for Registered Nurses RNs.

text: Degrees granted[edit]

text:
Diploma in Nursing
Associate of Science in Nursing
Bachelor of Science in Nursing
Master of Science in Nursing
Doctor of Nursing Practice
Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing (PhD)

text: See articles on individual degrees for variations on the exact name.


document_title: Baloo

question_text: what kind of bear is baloo in the jungle book

text: Baloo

text: Name and species[edit]

text: He is described in Kipling's work as "the sleepy brown bear". Robert Armitage Sterndale, from whom Kipling derived most of his knowledge of Indian fauna, used the Hindi word "Bhalu" for several bear species, though Daniel Karlin, who edited the Penguin reissue of The Jungle Book in 1989, states that, with the exception of colour, Kipling's descriptions of Baloo are consistent with the sloth bear, as brown bears and Asian black bears do not occur in the Seoni area where the novel takes place. Also, the name sloth can be used in the context of sleepiness. Karlin states, however, that Baloo's diet of "only roots and nuts and honey" is a trait more common to the Asian black bear than to the sloth bear.[1] Nevertheless, this may be single observation only; according to the dietary habits of sloth bears, while sloth bears prefer termites and ants (which is also described as Baloo's special treat in The Jungle Book), their main sources of food are honey and fruits most of the year.

text: In the 2016 adaptation, Baloo is stated to be a sloth bear by Bagheera, though his appearance is similar to that of a Himalayan brown bear. Though this subspecies of the brown bear is absent from historical records on Seoni, it might have ranged across most of northern India.[2]

text: In film, television, and theatre[edit]

text: Disney versions[edit]

text:
Baloo

Baloo as he appears in the Walt Disney's The Jungle Book (1967).

First appearance
The Jungle Book (1967)

Last appearance
The Jungle Book (2016)

Created by
Rudyard Kipling
Walt Disney

Voiced by

Phil Harris (The Jungle Book)
A.J. Henderson (Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli)
Ed Gilbert (TaleSpin)
Pamela Adlon (Jungle Cubs)
John Goodman (The Jungle Book 2)
Steven Curtis Chapman (The Jungle Book Groove Party)
Kevin Carolan (The Jungle Book Musical)
Joel McCrary (currently)
Bill Murray (2016 adaptation)
Andy Serkis (2018 adaptation)

text: Baloo, based on Kipling's creation, has appeared in various Disney productions, starting with the company's 1967 feature-length animated film The Jungle Book. In this version, Baloo (voiced by Phil Harris) is portrayed as a friendly and even-tempered character who lives a responsibility-free lifestyle, seemingly far removed from the law teacher in Kipling's book. Baloo is one of Mowgli's mentors and friends. Baloo is also patient and strong; apparently, his only weakness is that he's ticklish. Baloo is initially opposed to bringing Mowgli to the Man Village, wanting to raise him as a son. However, when Bagheera explains that Mowgli is easy prey for Shere Khan the tiger and that he's not safe in the jungle, even with Baloo's diligent protection, Baloo realizes that he's right, and reluctantly tries to tell Mowgli the difficult truth. Mowgli turns on Baloo and runs away, prompting him and Bagheera to split up and search for the boy. Baloo isn't seen again until the climax of the film, when he sees Mowgli preparing to battle Shere Khan. Baloo attempts to stop the tiger, but almost gets killed in the process. After Mowgli follows a girl named Shanti into the village and decides to stay there, Baloo is slightly disappointed, but ultimately is relieved that Mowgli is safe at last. He and Bagheera then return to the jungle as they sing a reprise of "The Bare Necessities" together.

text: Baloo returns in the 2003 animated sequel The Jungle Book 2 in which he is voiced by John Goodman. He is eager to reunite with Mowgli, in spite of Bagheera's exasperation and the return of a vindictive Shere Khan, humiliated by his previous defeat at Mowgli's hands. He sneaks into the Man Village at night after eluding Bagheera and Colonel Hathi's herd to visit Mowgli and takes him off into the jungle after being caught by Shanti, who felt bad for getting Mowgli in trouble, and unknowingly saves him from Shere Khan, who also came to the village. This leads Shanti, Ranjan, and the villagers to go into the jungle to search for him. Mowgli tells Baloo all about the negative aspects of the village while hiding his actual feelings about the place. When Baloo makes fun of Mowgli's life in the village and scares Shanti like Mowgli asked him to, he unintentionally hurts Mowgli's feelings and annoys him. Baloo and Shanti continue to hate each other until they both say they're trying to save Mowgli from Shere Khan (who ambushed Mowgli when he went after Shanti and Ranjan to apologize) during an argument. From then on, they acknowledge one another as friends. After he, Mowgli, and Shanti trap Shere Khan under a statue on a rocky outcrop in a lava lake, Baloo understands that Mowgli's place is in the village and sadly says good-bye to him. However, the next day, it is revealed that, with Shere Khan gone, the jungle is now "certified as safe", and Mowgli, Shanti, and Ranjan therefore have the village leader's permission to go into the jungle. The movie ends with Baloo, Shanti, and Mowgli singing a reprise of "The Bare Necessities" while Ranjan plays with Bagheera.

text: Baloo became a popular character after the success of the Disney films. He was made famous by the song "The Bare Necessities", sung by Phil Harris, in which he tells Mowgli how to live off the land and still have a life of luxury.

text: TaleSpin[edit]

text: In the 1990 Disney animated TV series TaleSpin, Baloo (voiced by Ed Gilbert) is the main character of the series and is based primarily on the character from Disney's The Jungle Book, but he wears a flight cap and a yellow shirt. He also has four-fingered hands instead of his Jungle Book counterpart's claws. He has an easy-going and cheeky personality just like the Jungle Book version. Although juvenile, scruffy, directionless, and a slacker, he is also an excellent pilot and capable of dangerous aerial maneuvers. He flies a cargo plane called the Sea Duck. He will also bravely come to the aid of people in need of help. Some of his mannerisms survive from The Jungle Book, including his nickname of "Papa Bear" given by his young friend Kit Cloudkicker, which Mowgli had given to him in The Jungle Book. He also calls Kit "Little Britches", as he did with

text: 1994 live-action film[edit]

text: In the 1994 Disney live-action film The Jungle Book, Baloo, like all the other animals featured, does not speak. He first meets Mowgli as a cub when Mowgli finds him trapped inside a broken log. Mowgli frees him and they become fast friends. In a later scene, while Mowgli is escorting his childhood sweetheart Katherine "Kitty" Brydon through the jungle, Baloo appears and playfully wrestles with Mowgli, in the process temporarily scaring Kitty until Mowgli introduces his jungle friends to her. In a later tussle against soldiers working for Captain William Boone, the main villain, Baloo is shot and left for dead, but Mowgli finds him and locates Dr. Julius Plumford to save his life. In the final scene, after Boone's defeat, Dr. Plumford is shown to have successfully saved Baloo, and is seen standing with Baloo beside a waterfall.

text: Jungle Cubs[edit]

text: In the 1996 Disney animated TV series Jungle Cubs, Baloo (voiced by Pamela Adlon) is a kind-hearted and genial cub. He likes to play with his friends (including his best friend Louie) and sometimes plays tricks on Bagheera in order to snap the latter out of his haughty attitude.

text: Stage adaptation[edit]

text: Disney's 2013 stage adaptation of The Jungle Book, directed by Mary Zimmerman, features Kevin Carolan as Baloo.

text: 2016 live-action film[edit]

text: In the 2016 Disney live-action film The Jungle Book, Baloo is voiced by Bill Murray.

text: Baloo first appears when Kaa is about to devour Mowgli, and rescues him from the python before she can eat him. Baloo then takes Mowgli back to his cave and tells him to help him gather honey in exchange for saving his life. Eventually, Baloo and Mowgli form a strong attachment with Mowgli deciding that he wants to stay with Baloo until the winter season arrives. When Bagheera shows up, Mowgli reveals that he wants to live with Baloo. Baloo then speaks with Bagheera, and Baloo reluctantly agrees to send Mowgli away to the Man-village so he is safe from Shere Khan. To this end, he says he and Mowgli were never friends, hoping his lie will coerce Mowgli into going to the Man-village. However, before Mowgli can decide, monkeys under the command of the Gigantopithecus, King Louie, abduct him. Baloo and Bagheera track down the monkeys back to their temple, and fight them off long enough for Mowgli to hide from Louie. The ensuing chase results in Louie's apparent death. When Mowgli learns of Akela's death by Shere Khan from Louie, he angrily decides to face Shere Khan, and steals a torch from the man-village, accidentally starting a fire in the jungle. Baloo and Bagheera follow him in close pursuit and help to distract Shere Khan alongside Raksha and the rest of Mowgli's wolf pack so that Mowgli can set a trap that later kills Shere Khan. After Shere Khan is defeated and the fire extinguished, Mowgli is last seen sometime later with Baloo and Bagheera, having at last found his true home in the jungle.

text: Japanese anime[edit]

text: In the 1989 Japanese anime television series Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli also based on The Jungle Book, Baloo, (voiced by Banjō Ginga in Japanese and A.J. Henderson in the English dub) is more faithfully depicted as a strict teacher of Mowgli, not above getting physical in his displeasure when the boy is being difficult.

text: 1998 live-action series[edit]

text: In the live-action TV series Mowgli: The New Adventures of the Jungle Book based on the original Jungle Book stories, Baloo is once again given a more sensible personality faithful to that of the books.

text: 2010 animated series[edit]

text: In the Indian computer animated TV series The Jungle Book, Baloo (voiced by Jimmy Hibbert) is once again given a more conservative personality faithful to that of the books. He is also depicted in this series as wearing glasses and as bipedal.

text: 2018 live-action film[edit]

text: In the 2018 Warner Bros. live-action film Jungle Book, Baloo will be played by Andy Serkis, who is also serving as the film's director.

text: Trivia[edit]

text: Different species of bears have been used to portray Baloo.

text: In the original novel, Baloo is described as a brown bear.

text: In the 1967 version of Walt Disney's "The Jungle Book", he's portrayed as a Sloth Bear, meanwhile in the Russian version, he's portrayed as an Asian Black Bear.

text: In the 1994 remake of "The Jungle Book", Baloo is portrayed by a Cinnamon Bear.

text: In the live-action television shows and movies, they have Baloo portrayed by an American Black Bear.


document_title: Pericardium

question_text: inner lining of the fibrous pericardium is formed by

text: Pericardium

text: Structure[edit]

text: The pericardium is a tough double layered fibroserous sac which covers the heart.[1] The space between the two layers of serous pericardium (see below), the pericardial cavity, is filled with serous fluid which protects the heart from any kind of external jerk or shock. There are two layers to the pericardial sac: the outermost fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium.

text: Fibrous pericardium[edit]

text: The fibrous pericardium is the most superficial layer of the pericardium. It is made up of dense and loose connective tissue,[2] which acts to protect the heart, anchoring it to the surrounding walls, and preventing it from overfilling with blood. It is continuous with the outer adventitial layer of the neighboring great blood vessels.

text: Serous pericardium[edit]

text: The serous pericardium, in turn, is divided into two layers, the parietal pericardium, which is fused to and inseparable from the fibrous pericardium, and the visceral pericardium, which is part of the epicardium. Both of these layers function in lubricating the heart to prevent friction during heart activity.

text: The visceral layer extends to the beginning of the great vessels (the large blood vessels serving the heart) becoming one with the parietal layer of the serous pericardium. This happens at two areas: where the aorta and pulmonary trunk leave the heart and where the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins enter the heart.[3]

text: In between the parietal and visceral pericardial layers there is a potential space called the pericardial cavity, which contains a supply of lubricating serous fluid known as the pericardial fluid.

text: When the visceral layer of serous pericardium comes into contact with heart (not the great vessels) it is known as the epicardium. The epicardium is the layer immediately outside of the heart muscle proper (the myocardium).[3] The epicardium is largely made of connective tissue and functions as a protective layer. During ventricular contraction, the wave of depolarization moves from the endocardial to the epicardial surface.

text: Anatomical relationships[edit]

text:
Surrounds heart and bases of pulmonary artery and aorta.
Deep to sternum and anterior chest wall.
The right phrenic nerve passes to the right of the pericardium.
The left phrenic nerve passes over the pericardium of the left ventricle.
Pericardial arteries supply blood to the dorsal portion of the pericardium.

text: Functions[edit]

text:
Sets heart in mediastinum and limits its motion
Protects it from infections coming from other organs (such as lungs)
Prevents excessive dilation of the heart in cases of acute volume overload
Lubricates the heart

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Inflammation of the pericardium is called pericarditis, and may be detected by the medical sign pericardial friction rub.

text: An excess of fluid in the cavity (such as in a pericardial effusion) can result in cardiac tamponade (compression of the heart within the pericardial sac). A pericardiectomy is sometimes needed to remedy this. The surgical removing of the epicardium is referred to as epicardiectomy.[citation needed]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Cutaway illustration of pericardial sac

Fibrous pericardium


document_title: Ken Norton

question_text: who won the fight between norton and holmes

text: Ken Norton

text: Early life[edit]

text: Norton was an outstanding athlete at Jacksonville High School. He was selected to the all-state team Football team on defense as a senior in 1960. His track coach entered him in eight events, and Norton placed first in seven of them. As a result, the "Ken Norton Rule", which limits participation of an athlete to a maximum of four track and field events, was instituted in Illinois high school sports. After graduating from high school, Norton went to Northeast Missouri State University (now Truman State University) on a football scholarship and studied elementary education.[2] In an interview with ESPN Fitness Magazine in 1985, Norton said that he would have become a teacher or a policeman if he had not taken up boxing.[3]

text: Amateur career[edit]

text: Norton started boxing when he was in the United States Marine Corps from 1963 to 1967, compiling a 24–2 record en route to three All-Marine Heavyweight titles. In time, he became the best boxer to ever fight for the Marines, and was awarded the North Carolina AAU Golden Gloves, International AAU and Pan American titles.[4][5][6] Following the National AAU finals in 1967, he turned professional.

text: Professional career[edit]

text: Norton built up a steady string of wins, some against journeyman fighters and others over fringe contenders like the giant Jack O'Halloran. He was learning and improving. But he suffered a surprise defeat, ironically just after The Ring magazine had profiled him as a prospect, at the hands of heavy hitting Venezuelan boxer Jose Luis Garcia in 1970. It was justifiably Garcia's career peak. But Garcia was overpowered, both then as rated contenders, in their rematch five years later.

text: Norton was given the motivational book Think and Grow Rich by Napoleon Hill,[7][8][9] which, as he states in his autobiography, Going the Distance, changed his life.[10] Shortly before he died, Norton stated "Think and Grow Rich changed my life dramatically. I was going to fight Muhammad Ali. I was a green fighter, but yet I won, all through reading this book."[11] Upon reading Think and Grow Rich, he went on a 14-fight winning streak, including the shocking victory noted above over Muhammad Ali in 1973 to win the North American Boxing Federation heavyweight champion title.[12][13] To quote Norton from his autobiography noted above, "These words (from Napoleon Hill's Think and Grow Rich) were the final inspiration in my victory over Ali: Life's battles don't always go to the stronger or faster man, but sooner or later the man who wins is the man who thinks he can."[14] Norton also took a complete course by Napoleon Hill on gaining wealth and peace of mind. "It can be related to anybody, to be the best in a career, to think positive", said Norton.[15]

text: An article which appeared in The Southeast Missourian[16] discussed that Norton credited Napoleon Hill's philosophy for his success. To quote from the article, "Norton says he's a believer in Napoleon Hill's philosophy, that a person can do anything he puts his mind to. 'So I train for my fights,' he says, 'mentally as well as physically. One thing I do is only watch films of the fights in which I've done well or in which my opponent has done poorly.'"

text: Norton once said, "In boxing, and in all of life, nobody should ever stop learning!"[17]

text: Norton vs. Ali I, II[edit]

text: 'Name' opponents were elusive in Norton's early career. His first big break came with a clear win over respected contender Henry Clark. This helped get him his world recognition break when Ali agreed to a match. Joe Frazier, who'd sparred with Norton, presciently said of Ali, "He'll have plenty of trouble!" Though both were top boxers in the mid 1970s, Norton and Frazier never fought each other, in part because they shared the same trainer, Eddie Futch, and also that they were friends.[18]

text: For the first match, on March 31, 1973, Muhammad Ali entered the ring at the San Diego Sports Arena[19] wearing a robe given to him by Elvis Presley as a 5–1 favorite versus Ken Norton, then rated a number 6 world contender[20] in a bout televised by ABC's Wide World of Sports.[21] Norton won a 12-round split decision over Ali in his adopted hometown of San Diego to win the NABF heavyweight title.[13] In this bout, Norton broke Ali's jaw (he maintains in round eleven, though Angelo Dundee said it was earlier), leading to only the second defeat for "The Greatest" in his career. (Ali's only previous loss was to Joe Frazier, and Ali would later go on to defeat George Foreman to regain the heavyweight title in 1974.)

text: Almost six months later at The Forum in Inglewood, California, on September 10, 1973, Ali avenged the Norton loss but only after he got the return by a split decision.[22] Norton weighed in at 205 lbs (5 pounds lighter than his first match with Ali) and boxing scribes discussed that his preparation was too intense and that perhaps he had overtrained. There were some furious exchanges in this hard-fought battle. From Ali's point of view, a loss here would have seriously dented his claim of ever being "The Greatest." During the ABC broadcast of the fight, broadcaster (and Ali confidant and friend) Howard Cosell repeatedly told viewers a dancing and jabbing Ali was dominating the action despite Norton's constant offense and Ali's inability to penetrate Norton's awkward defensive style. The close and controversial scoring was in stark contrast to Cosell's fight-long insistence that Ali had matters well in hand.

text: Norton vs. Foreman[edit]

text: In 1974, Norton fought George Foreman for the world heavyweight championship and was knocked out in the second round at Poliedro of Caracas, Venezuela. After an even first round, Foreman staggered Norton with an uppercut a minute into round two, buckling him into the ropes. Norton did not hit the canvas, but continued on wobbly legs, clearly not having recovered, and shortly he went down a further two times in quick succession, with the referee intervening and stopping the fight. This fight would become known as the "Caracas Caper".

text: In 1975, Norton regained the NABF heavyweight title when he impressively defeated Jerry Quarry by TKO in the fifth round. Norton then avenged his above-mentioned 1970 loss to Jose Luis Garcia by decisively knocking out Garcia in round five.

text: Norton vs. Ali III[edit]

text: On September 28, 1976, at Yankee Stadium in New York City, Norton would again fight Ali,[22] who was now the world heavyweight champion since regaining the title with an eighth-round knockout of George Foreman in 1974. Many observers have felt this was the beginning of Ali's decline as a boxer. It was a tough bruising battle for Ali. In one of the most disputed fights in history, the fight was even on the judges' scorecards going into the final round, which Ali won on both the referee's and judges' scorecards to retain the world heavyweight championship. The judges scored the bout 8–7 for Ali, and the referee scored it 8–6 for Ali. At the end of the last round, the commentator announced he would be "very surprised" if Norton has not won the fight.[23]

text: At the time of the third Ali-Norton bout, the last time a heavyweight champion had lost the title by decision was Max Baer to Jim Braddock 41 years earlier, and Ali-Norton III did not set a new marker. The January 1998 issue of Boxing Monthly listed Ali-Norton as the fifth most disputed title fight decision in boxing history. The unofficial UPI scorecard was 8–7 for Norton, the unofficial AP scorecards were 9–6 for Ali (Ed Schuyler), 8-7 Norton (Wick Temple) and Sports Illustrated was 8-7 Norton (Mark Kram).

text: But Ali had received a pounding. His tactics were to try to push Norton back, but they had failed. He'd refused to 'dance' until the 9th when in sheer desperation, although the crowd massively roared its appreciation. Norton has said the third fight with Ali was the last boxing match for which he was fully motivated, owing to his disappointment at having lost a fight he believed he had clearly won.

text: Aftermath: Norton becomes champion & Young match[edit]

text: 1977 was a top year for Norton. He knocked out previously unbeaten top prospect Duane Bobick in just one round. Then dispatched European title holder Lorenzo Zanon in a 'tune-up' fight. Light-hitting but fast, Zanon was actually well ahead until a burst of heavy punches put him down and out.

text: Norton next beat polished number two contender Jimmy Young (who himself had beaten George Foreman and Ron Lyle) via 15-round split decision in a WBC title-elimination bout, with the winner to face reigning WBC champion Ali. (However, Ali's camp told Ring Magazine they did not want to fight Norton for a fourth time.) Both boxers fought a smart fight, with Norton using a heavy body attack whilst Young moved well and countered. The decision was controversial, with many observers thinking Young had done enough to win.

text: Plans, however, changed on February 15, 1978. On that night, in front of a nationwide television audience, Ali lost his title to Leon Spinks. The WBC then ordered a match between the new champion and its number one contender, but Spinks chose instead to give the fallen champion the first shot at taking his title[24] rather than face Norton.[25] The WBC responded on March 18, 1978, by retroactively giving title fight status to Norton's victory over Young the year before and awarded Norton their championship, which split the heavyweight championship for the first time since Jimmy Ellis and Joe Frazier were both recognized as champions in the early 1970s.[4][26]

text: Larry Holmes title fight[edit]

text: In his first defense of the WBC title on June 9, 1978, Norton and new #1 contender Larry Holmes met in a classic fight. After 15 brutal rounds, Holmes was awarded the title via an extremely close split decision. The three judges' cards were as follows: 143–142 for Holmes, 143–142 for Holmes, and 143–142 for Norton.[27] The Associated Press scored it 143–142 for Norton.[28] The March 2001 edition of The Ring magazine listed the final round of the Holmes-Norton bout as the 7th most exciting round in boxing history. As noted above, Holmes-Norton is ranked as the 10th greatest heavyweight fight of all time by Monte D. Cox, a member of the International Boxing Research Organization (IBRO). Holmes went on to become the third-longest reigning world heavyweight champion in the history of boxing, behind Joe Louis and Wladimir Klitschko. Years later, Holmes wrote of his experience that this was his toughest match in over 70 contests.

text: Retirement looms[edit]

text: After losing to Holmes, Norton won his next fight by knockout over sixth-ranked Randy Stephens in 1978[29] before taking on Earnie Shavers in another compulsory WBC title eliminator fight in Las Vegas on March 23, 1979. It appeared for the first time that Norton's career had perhaps hit a decline, particularly after the Holmes match[30] as Shavers took the former champion out in the first round. But it also created a view that his confidence wasn't good against all-time great hitters Foreman, Shavers and later Cooney. Although Norton himself always denied this and he was past his prime when he was stopped by Shavers and Cooney.[31] (Norton's peak was 1973–1978.)[32]

text: In his next fight, he fought to a draw with unheralded but durable lower ranked contender Scott LeDoux at the Met Center in Minneapolis. Norton dominated until sustaining an injury when he took a thumb in the eye in the eighth round, which immediately changed the bout. LeDoux rallied from that point and Norton became decidedly fatigued. Norton was down two times in the final round, resulting in the draw; Norton fell behind on one scorecard, kept his lead on the second, and dropped to even on the third (the unofficial AP scorecard was 5–3–2 Norton).[33]

text: After the fight, Norton decided that at 37 it was time to retire from boxing.[34] However, not satisfied with the way he had gone out, Norton returned to the ring to face the undefeated Randall "Tex" Cobb in Cobb's home state of Texas on November 7, 1980. In an all action back-and-forth fight, Norton escaped with a split decision, with referee Tony Perez and judge Chuck Hassett voting in his favor and judge Arlen Bynum giving the fight to Cobb.

text: The win over the title-contending Cobb gave Norton another shot at a potential title-fight, and on May 11, 1981. at Madison Square Garden he stepped into the ring with top contender Gerry Cooney, who, like Cobb, was undefeated entering the fight. Very early in the fight it became clear that Norton was no longer the caliber of fighter he once was, as Cooney's first punch caused Norton's legs to buckle. Norton continued to take shots from Cooney in his corner for nearly a full minute before Perez, who refereed his last fight, stepped in to stop the bout 54 seconds in, as Norton was slumped in his corner. Norton decided to retire following the match and turned his attention to charitable pursuits.[35] Norton's enduring legacy as a fighter is that he is considered second to Joe Frazier as Ali's main nemesis and toughest opponent. Norton fought Ali to three decisions and was never hurt or knocked down. All three bouts were close and subject to controversy. Unfortunately, Norton was less successful against three of the greatest punchers of all time, losing by KO to Foreman and Shavers and by TKO to Cooney.[36] Norton was considered past his prime in boxing from 1979 to 1981.[32]

text: Boxing style[edit]

text: Norton was a forward-pressing fighter/boxer who was notable for his unusual guard/stance characterised by the cross arm defence. The left arm low across the torso and right hand up by the right or left ear. But when under heavy pressure both arms were brought up high across at face level whilst one leant forward. This left the opponent little target in theory. The guard was also used by the legendary Archie Moore. George Foreman later used it very effectively during his famous comeback years. Tim Witherspoon was another practitioner. Joe Frazier even borrowed it for occasions in his third Ali match. The style is named the "cross-armed defense". It tends to look crablike. Norton would bob and weave from a crouch, firing well placed heavy punches. Norton was best when advancing. He'd drag or slide the right foot along from behind. By comparison, most conventional boxers have elbows in at the torso with forearms vertically parallel to each another, the gloves then being both near sides of the face. Most trainers believe the conventional style is a better defense and that the cross-arm style leaves the user open far too often.

text: Angelo Dundee wrote that Norton's best punch was the left hook. Many others lauded his infamous overhand right. In a Ring Magazine article, Norton himself said that a right uppercut to Jerry Quarry was the hardest blow he recalled landing.

text: Unlike many boxers, Norton would often not attempt to stare down an opponent while announcements were made before the match started. Instead, he'd often look down at the floor and gather his thoughts. He was also widely noted for his fine athletic build.

text: Awards and recognitions[edit]

text: Norton is a 1989 inductee of the World Boxing Hall of Fame, a 1992 inductee of the International Boxing Hall of Fame,[37] a 2004 inductee into the United States Marine Corps Sports Hall of Fame,[4] and a 2008 inductee into the WBC Hall of Fame.

text: The 1998 holiday issue of The Ring ranked Norton #22 among "The 50 Greatest Heavyweights of All Time." Norton received the Boxing Writers Association of America J. Niel trophy for "Fighter of the Year" in 1977.

text: Norton, a proponent of motivational author Napoleon Hill's writings [38] (e.g. Think and Grow Rich [12][39] as noted above and Success Through A Positive Mental Attitude[25] by Hill and W. Clement Stone) also received the "Napoleon Hill Award" for positive thinking in 1973.[10]

text: In 2001, Norton was inducted by the San Diego Hall of Champions into the Breitbard Hall of Fame honoring San Diego's finest athletes both on and off the playing surface.[40] Norton was also inducted into the Marine Corps Hall of Fame in 2004 and into the California Sports Hall of Fame in 2011.[41]

text: Later media career[edit]

text: Norton worked as an actor and TV boxing commentator following his retirement from boxing. He also was a member of the Sports Illustrated Speakers Bureau and started the Ken Norton Management Co., which represented athletes in contract negotiations.

text: Norton continued making TV, radio and public speaking appearances until suffering injuries in a near-fatal car accident in 1986. It left him with slow and slurred speech.[39][42][43]

text: He appeared along with Ali, Foreman, Frazier and Holmes in a video, Champions Forever, discussing their best times, and in 2000 he published his autobiography, Going the Distance.

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Ken Norton was twice voted "Father of the Year" by the Los Angeles Sentinel and the Los Angeles Times in 1977.[39][44] To quote Norton from his biography, Believe: Journey From Jacksonville: "Of all the titles that I've been privileged to have, the title of 'dad' has always been the best."[39]

text: His son, Ken Norton Jr, played football at UCLA and had a long successful career in the NFL. In tribute to his father's boxing career, Ken Jr. would strike a boxing stance in the end zone each time he scored a defensive touchdown and throw a punching combination at the goalpost pad. Ken Jr was a member of three Super Bowl champion teams as a player and one as an assistant coach. He later became the linebackers' coach for the Seattle Seahawks and currently works as the defensive coordinator for the Oakland Raiders.

text: Ken Norton's other son, Keith Norton, was once the weekend sports anchor for KPRC in Houston, Texas.[45] He followed his father in serving in the Marine Corps.[46]

text: Death[edit]

text: Norton died at a care facility in Las Vegas on September 18, 2013.[47] He was 70 years old and had suffered a series of strokes in later life.[48] Across the boxing world tributes were paid, with George Foreman calling him "the fairest of them all" and Larry Holmes saying that he "will be incredibly missed in the boxing world and by many".[49]

text: Professional boxing record[edit]

text:
Professional record summary
[hide]

50 fights
42 wins
7 losses

By knockout
33
4

By decision
9
3

Draws
1

text:
No.
Result
Record
Opponent
Type
Round, time
Date
Location
Notes

50
Loss
42–7–1
 Gerry Cooney
TKO
1 (10), 0:54
May 11, 1981
 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S.

49
Win
42–6–1
 Randall Cobb
SD
10
Nov 7, 1980
 HemisFair Arena, San Antonio, Texas, U.S.

48
Draw
41–6–1
 Scott LeDoux
SD
10
Aug 19, 1979
 Metropolitan Sports Center, Bloomington, Minnesota, U.S.

47
Loss
41–6
 Earnie Shavers
KO
1 (12), 1:58
Mar 23, 1979
 Las Vegas Hilton, Winchester, Nevada, U.S.

46
Win
41–5
 Randy Stephens
KO
3 (10), 2:42
Nov 10, 1978
 Caesars Palace, Paradise, Nevada, U.S.

45
Loss
40–5
 Larry Holmes
SD
15
Jun 9, 1978
 Caesars Palace, Paradise, Nevada, U.S.
Lost WBC heavyweight title

44
Win
40–4
 Jimmy Young
SD
15
Nov 5, 1977
 Caesars Palace, Paradise, Nevada, U.S.

43
Win
39–4
 Lorenzo Zanon
KO
5 (10), 3:08
Sep 14, 1977
 Caesars Palace, Paradise, Nevada, U.S.

42
Win
38–4
 Duane Bobick
TKO
1 (12), 0:58
May 11, 1977
 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S.

41
Loss
37–4
 Muhammad Ali
UD
15
Sep 28, 1976
 Yankee Stadium, New York City, New York, U.S.
For WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal heavyweight titles

40
Win
37–3
 Larry Middleton
TKO
10 (10), 2:17
Jul 10, 1976
 Sports Arena, San Diego, California, U.S.

39
Win
36–3
 Ron Stander
TKO
5 (12), 1:19
Apr 30, 1976
 Capital Centre, Landover, Maryland, U.S.

38
Win
35–3
 Pedro Lovell
TKO
5 (12), 1:40
Jan 10, 1976
 Las Vegas Convention Center, Paradise, Nevada, U.S.

37
Win
34–3
 Jose Luis Garcia
KO
5 (10), 1:50
Aug 14, 1975
 Civic Center, Saint Paul, Minnesota, U.S.

36
Win
33–3
 Jerry Quarry
TKO
5 (12), 2:29
Mar 24, 1975
 Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, U.S.
Won vacant NABF heavyweight title

35
Win
32–3
 Rico Brooks
KO
1 (10), 1:34
Mar 4, 1975
 Red Carpet Inn, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S.

34
Win
31–3
 Boone Kirkman
RTD
7 (10)
Jun 25, 1974
 Center Coliseum, Seattle, Washington, U.S.

33
Loss
30–3
 George Foreman
TKO
2 (15), 2:00
Mar 26, 1974
 Poliedro, Caracas, Venezuela
For WBA, WBC, The Ring, and lineal heavyweight titles

32
Loss
30–2
 Muhammad Ali
SD
12
Sep 10, 1973
 Forum, Inglewood, California, U.S.
Lost NABF heavyweight title

31
Win
30–1
 Muhammad Ali
SD
12
Mar 31, 1973
 Sports Arena, San Diego, California, U.S.
Won NABF heavyweight title

30
Win
29–1
 Charlie Reno
UD
10
Dec 13, 1972
 San Diego, California, U.S.

29
Win
28–1
 Henry Clark
TKO
9 (10)
Nov 21, 1972
 Sahara Tahoe, Stateline, Nevada, U.S.

28
Win
27–1
 James J. Woody
RTD
8 (10)
Jun 30, 1972
 San Diego, California, U.S.

27
Win
26–1
 Herschel Jacobs
UD
10
Jun 5, 1972
 San Diego, California, U.S.

26
Win
25–1
 Jack O'Halloran
UD
10
Mar 17, 1972
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

25
Win
24–1
 Charlie Harris
TKO
3 (10)
Feb 17, 1972
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

24
Win
23–1
 James J. Woody
UD
10
Sep 29, 1971
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

23
Win
22–1
 Chuck Haynes
KO
7 (10), 1:08
Aug 7, 1971
 Civic Auditorium, Santa Monica, California, U.S.

22
Win
21–1
 Vic Brown
KO
5 (10)
Jun 12, 1971
 Civic Auditorium, Santa Monica, California, U.S.

21
Win
20–1
 Steve Carter
TKO
3 (10)
Jun 12, 1971
 Valley Music Theater, Woodland Hills, California, U.S.

20
Win
19–1
 Roby Harris
KO
2 (10), 1:35
Oct 16, 1970
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

19
Win
18–1
 Chuck Leslie
UD
10
Sep 26, 1970
 Valley Music Theater, Woodland Hills, California, U.S.

18
Win
17–1
 Roy Wallace
KO
4 (10)
Aug 29, 1970
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

17
Loss
16–1
 Jose Luis Garcia
KO
8 (10)
Jul 2, 1970
 Grand Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles, California, U.S.

16
Win
16–0
 Ray Junior Ellis
KO
2 (10), 0:53
May 8, 1970
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

15
Win
15–0
 Bob Mashburn
KO
4 (10), 1:40
Apr 7, 1970
 Cleveland Arena, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.

14
Win
14–0
 Stamford Harris
TKO
3 (10), 1:59
Mar 13, 1970
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

13
Win
13–0
 Aaron Eastling
KO
2 (10), 3:06
Feb 4, 1970
 Silver Slipper, Paradise, Nevada, U.S.

12
Win
12–0
 Julius Garcia
TKO
3 (10)
Oct 21, 1969
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

11
Win
11–0
 Gary Bates
TKO
8 (10)
Jul 25, 1969
 Coliseum, San Diego, California, U.S.

10
Win
10–0
 Bill McMurray
TKO
7 (10)
Jul 25, 1969
 Grand Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles, California, U.S.

9
Win
9–0
 Pedro Sanchez
TKO
2 (10)
Mar 31, 1969
 International Sports Center, San Diego, California, U.S.

8
Win
8–0
 Wayne Kindred
TKO
9 (10)
Feb 20, 1969
 Grand Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles, California, U.S.

7
Win
7–0
 Joe Hemphill
TKO
3 (10), 1:52
Feb 11, 1969
 Valley Music Theater, Woodland Hills, California, U.S.

6
Win
6–0
 Cornell Nolan
KO
6 (10)
Dec 8, 1968
 Grand Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles, California, U.S.

5
Win
5–0
 Wayne Kindred
TKO
6 (10)
Jul 23, 1968
 Circle Arts Theatre, San Diego, California, U.S.

4
Win
4–0
 Jimmy Gilmore
KO
7 (8), 1:20
Mar 26, 1968
 Community Concourse, San Diego, California, U.S.

3
Win
3–0
 Harold Dutra
KO
3 (6)
Feb 6, 1968
 Memorial Auditorium, Sacramento, California, U.S.

2
Win
2–0
 Sam Wyatt
PTS
6
Jan 16, 1968
 Community Concourse, San Diego, California, U.S.

1
Win
1–0
 Grady Brazell
TKO
5 (6)
Nov 14, 1967
 Community Concourse, San Diego, California, U.S.
Professional debut


document_title: List of Major League Baseball All-Star Games

question_text: when was the last time the national league won an all star game

text: Game results[edit]

text:
Date

Winning League (All-Time Record)

Score

Venue

Host Team

Attendance

MVP

Winning Pitcher

Losing Pitcher

July 6, 1933

American(1–0–0 AL)

4–2

Comiskey Park

Chicago White Sox

47,595

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

Bill Hallahan, St. Louis (NL)

July 10, 1934

American(2–0–0 AL)

9–7

Polo Grounds

New York Giants

48,368

Mel Harder, Cleveland (AL)

Van Mungo, Brooklyn (NL)

July 8, 1935

American(3–0–0 AL)

4–1

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

69,812

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

Bill Walker, St. Louis (NL)

July 7, 1936

National(3–1–0 AL)

4–3

National League Park

Boston Bees

25,556

Dizzy Dean, St. Louis (NL)

Lefty Grove, Boston, (AL)

July 7, 1937

American(4–1–0 AL)

8–3

Griffith Stadium

Washington Senators

31,391

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

Dizzy Dean, St. Louis (NL)

July 6, 1938

National(4–2–0 AL)

4–1

Crosley Field

Cincinnati Reds

27,067

Johnny Vander Meer, Cincinnati (NL)

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

July 11, 1939

American(5–2–0 AL)

3–1

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

62,892

Tommy Bridges, Detroit (AL)

Bill Lee, Chicago (NL)

July 9, 1940

National(5–3–0 AL)

4–0

Sportsman's Park

St. Louis Cardinals

32,373

Paul Derringer, Cincinnati (NL)

Red Ruffing, New York (AL)

July 8, 1941

American(6–3–0 AL)

7–5

Briggs Stadium

Detroit Tigers

54,674

Eddie Smith, Chicago (AL)

Claude Passeau, Chicago (NL)

July 6, 1942

American(7–3–0 AL)

3–1

Polo Grounds

New York Giants

34,178

Spud Chandler, New York (AL)

Mort Cooper, St. Louis (NL)

July 13, 1943

American(8–3–0 AL)

5–3

Shibe Park

Philadelphia Athletics

31,938

Dutch Leonard, Washington (AL)

Mort Cooper, St. Louis (NL)

July 11, 1944

National(8–4–0 AL)

7–1

Forbes Field

Pittsburgh Pirates

29,589

Ken Raffensberger, Philadelphia (NL)

Tex Hughson, Boston (AL)

1945

Not held because of World War II

July 9, 1946

American(9–4–0 AL)

12–0

Fenway Park

Boston Red Sox

34,906

Bob Feller, Cleveland (AL)

Claude Passeau, Chicago (NL)

July 8, 1947

American(10–4–0 AL)

2–1

Wrigley Field

Chicago Cubs

41,123

Spec Shea, New York (AL)

Johnny Sain, Boston (NL)

July 13, 1948

American(11–4–0 AL)

5–2

Sportsman's Park

St. Louis Browns

34,009

Vic Raschi, New York (AL)

Johnny Schmitz, Chicago (NL)

July 12, 1949

American(12–4–0 AL)

11–7

Ebbets Field

Brooklyn Dodgers

32,577

Virgil Trucks, Detroit (AL)

Don Newcombe, Brooklyn (NL)

July 11, 1950

National(12–5–0 AL)

4–3(14)

Comiskey Park

Chicago White Sox

46,127

Ewell Blackwell, Cincinnati (NL)

Ted Gray, Detroit (AL)

July 10, 1951

National(12–6–0 AL)

8–3

Briggs Stadium

Detroit Tigers

52,075

Sal Maglie, New York (NL)

Ed Lopat, New York (AL)

July 8, 1952

National(12–7–0 AL)

3–2(rain,5)

Shibe Park

Philadelphia Phillies

32,785

Bob Rush, Chicago (NL)

Bob Lemon, Cleveland (AL)

July 14, 1953

National(12–8–0 AL)

5–1

Crosley Field

Cincinnati Reds

30,846

Warren Spahn, Milwaukee (NL)

Allie Reynolds, New York (AL)

July 13, 1954

American(13–8–0 AL)

11–9

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

69,751

Dean Stone, Washington (AL)

Gene Conley, Milwaukee (NL)

July 12, 1955

National(13–9–0 AL)

6–5(12)

County Stadium

Milwaukee Braves

45,643

Gene Conley, Milwaukee (NL)

Frank Sullivan, Boston (AL)

July 10, 1956

National(13–10–0 AL)

7–3

Griffith Stadium

Washington Senators

28,843

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

Billy Pierce, Chicago (AL)

July 9, 1957

American(14–10–0 AL)

6–5

Busch Stadium

St. Louis Cardinals

30,693

Jim Bunning, Detroit (AL)

Curt Simmons, Philadelphia (NL)

July 8, 1958

American(15–10–0 AL)

4–3

Memorial Stadium

Baltimore Orioles

48,829

Early Wynn, Chicago (AL)

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

July 7, 1959

National(15–11–0 AL)

5–4

Forbes Field

Pittsburgh Pirates

35,277

Johnny Antonelli, San Francisco (NL)

Whitey Ford, New York (AL)

August 3, 1959

American(16–11–0 AL)

5–3

Memorial Coliseum

Los Angeles Dodgers

55,105

Jerry Walker, Baltimore (AL)

Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

July 11, 1960

National(16–12–0 AL)

5–3

Municipal Stadium

Kansas City Athletics

30,619

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

Bill Monbouquette, Boston (AL)

July 13, 1960

National(16–13–0 AL)

6–0

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

38,362

Vern Law, Pittsburgh (NL)

Whitey Ford, New York (AL)

July 11, 1961

National(16–14–0 AL)

5–4(10)

Candlestick Park

San Francisco Giants

44,115

Stu Miller, San Francisco (NL)

Hoyt Wilhelm, Baltimore (AL)

July 31, 1961

TIE(16–14–1 AL)

1–1

Fenway Park

Boston Red Sox

31,851

N/A

N/A

N/A

July 10, 1962

National(16–15–1 AL)

3–1

D.C. Stadium

Washington Senators

45,480

Maury Wills, Los Angeles (NL)

Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)

Camilo Pascual, Minnesota (AL)

July 30, 1962

American(17–15–1 AL)

9–4

Wrigley Field

Chicago Cubs

38,359

Leon Wagner, Los Angeles (AL)

Ray Herbert, Chicago (AL)

Art Mahaffey, Philadelphia (NL)

July 9, 1963

National(17–16–1 AL)

5–3

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

44,160

Willie Mays, San Francisco (NL)

Larry Jackson, Chicago (NL)

Jim Bunning, Detroit (AL)

July 7, 1964

National (17–17–1)

7–4

Shea Stadium

New York Mets

50,850

Johnny Callison, Philadelphia (NL)

Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)

Dick Radatz, Boston (AL)

July 13, 1965

National(18–17–1 NL)

6–5

Metropolitan Stadium

Minnesota Twins

46,706

Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)

Sandy Koufax, Los Angeles (NL)

Sam McDowell, Cleveland (AL)

July 12, 1966

National(19–17–1 NL)

2–1(10)

Busch Memorial Stadium

St. Louis Cardinals

49,936

Brooks Robinson, Baltimore (AL)

Gaylord Perry, San Francisco (NL)

Pete Richert, Washington (AL)

July 11, 1967

National(20–17–1 NL)

2–1(15)

Anaheim Stadium

California Angels

46,309

Tony Pérez, Cincinnati Reds (NL)

Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

Catfish Hunter, Kansas City (AL)

July 9, 1968

National(21–17–1 NL)

1–0

Astrodome

Houston Astros

48,321

Willie Mays, San Francisco (NL)

Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

Luis Tiant, Cleveland (AL)

July 23, 1969

National(22–17–1 NL)

9–3

RFK Stadium

Washington Senators

45,259

Willie McCovey, San Francisco (NL)

Steve Carlton, St. Louis (NL)

Mel Stottlemyre, New York (AL)

July 14, 1970

National(23–17–1 NL)

5–4(12)

Riverfront Stadium

Cincinnati Reds

51,838

Carl Yastrzemski, Boston (AL)

Claude Osteen, Los Angeles (NL)

Clyde Wright, California Angels (AL)

July 13, 1971

American(23–18–1 NL)

6–4

Tiger Stadium

Detroit Tigers

53,559

Frank Robinson, Baltimore (AL)

Vida Blue, Oakland (AL)

Dock Ellis, Pittsburgh (NL)

July 25, 1972

National(24–18–1 NL)

4–3(10)

Atlanta Stadium

Atlanta Braves

53,107

Joe Morgan, Cincinnati (NL)

Tug McGraw, New York (NL)

Dave McNally, Baltimore (AL)

July 24, 1973

National(25–18–1 NL)

7–1

Royals Stadium

Kansas City Royals

40,849

Bobby Bonds, San Francisco (NL)

Rick Wise, St. Louis (NL)

Bert Blyleven, Minnesota (AL)

July 23, 1974

National(26–18–1 NL)

7–2

Three Rivers Stadium

Pittsburgh Pirates

50,706

Steve Garvey, Los Angeles (NL)

Ken Brett, Pittsburgh (NL)

Luis Tiant, Boston (AL)

July 15, 1975

National(27–18–1 NL)

6–3

County Stadium

Milwaukee Brewers

51,480

Bill Madlock, Chicago (NL)Jon Matlack, New York (NL)

Jon Matlack, New York (NL)

Catfish Hunter, New York (AL)

July 13, 1976

National(28–18–1 NL)

7–1

Veterans Stadium

Philadelphia Phillies

63,974

George Foster, Cincinnati (NL)

Randy Jones, San Diego (NL)

Mark Fidrych, Detroit (AL)

July 19, 1977

National(29–18–1 NL)

7–5

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

56,683

Don Sutton, Los Angeles (NL)

Don Sutton, Los Angeles (NL)

Jim Palmer, Baltimore (AL)

July 11, 1978

National(30–18–1 NL)

7–3

San Diego Stadium

San Diego Padres

51,549

Steve Garvey, Los Angeles (NL)

Bruce Sutter, Chicago (NL)

Rich Gossage, New York (AL)

July 17, 1979

National(31–18–1 NL)

7–6

Kingdome

Seattle Mariners

58,905

Dave Parker, Pittsburgh (NL)

Bruce Sutter, Chicago (NL)

Jim Kern, Texas (AL)

July 8, 1980

National(32–18–1 NL)

4–2

Dodger Stadium

Los Angeles Dodgers

56,088

Ken Griffey, Sr., Cincinnati (NL)

Jerry Reuss, Los Angeles (NL)

Tommy John, New York (AL)

August 9, 1981

National(33–18–1 NL)

5–4

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

72,086

Gary Carter, Montreal (NL)

Vida Blue, San Francisco (NL)

Rollie Fingers, Milwaukee (AL)

July 13, 1982

National(34–18–1 NL)

4–1

Olympic Stadium

Montreal Expos

59,057

Dave Concepción, Cincinnati (NL)

Steve Rogers, Montreal (NL)

Dennis Eckersley, Boston (AL)

July 6, 1983

American(34–19–1 NL)

13–3

Comiskey Park

Chicago White Sox

43,801

Fred Lynn, California (AL)

Dave Stieb, Toronto (AL)

Mario Soto, Cincinnati (NL)

July 10, 1984

National(35–19–1 NL)

3–1

Candlestick Park

San Francisco Giants

57,756

Gary Carter, Montreal (NL)

Charlie Lea, Montreal (NL)

Dave Stieb, Toronto (AL)

July 16, 1985

National(36–19–1 NL)

6–1

Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

Minnesota Twins

54,960

LaMarr Hoyt, San Diego (NL)

LaMarr Hoyt, San Diego (NL)

Jack Morris, Detroit (AL)

July 15, 1986

American(36-20-1 NL)

3–2

Astrodome

Houston Astros

45,774

Roger Clemens, Boston (AL)

Roger Clemens, Boston (AL)

Dwight Gooden, New York (NL)

July 14, 1987

National(37–20–1 NL)

2–0(13)

Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum

Oakland Athletics

49,671

Tim Raines, Montreal (NL)

Lee Smith, Chicago (NL)

Jay Howell, Oakland (AL)

July 12, 1988

American(37–21–1 NL)

2–1

Riverfront Stadium

Cincinnati Reds

55,837

Terry Steinbach, Oakland (AL)

Frank Viola, Minnesota (AL)

Dwight Gooden, New York (NL)

July 11, 1989

American(37–22–1 NL)

5–3

Anaheim Stadium

California Angels

64,036

Bo Jackson, Kansas City (AL)

Nolan Ryan, Texas (AL)

John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

July 10, 1990

American(37–23–1 NL)

2–0

Wrigley Field

Chicago Cubs

39,071

Julio Franco, Texas (AL)

Bret Saberhagen, Kansas City (AL)

Jeff Brantley, San Francisco (NL)

July 9, 1991

American(37–24–1 NL)

4–2

SkyDome

Toronto Blue Jays

52,383

Cal Ripken, Jr., Baltimore (AL)

Jimmy Key, Toronto (AL)

Dennis Martínez, Montreal (NL)

July 14, 1992

American(37–25–1 NL)

13–6

Jack Murphy Stadium

San Diego Padres

59,372

Ken Griffey, Jr., Seattle (AL)

Kevin Brown, Texas (AL)

Tom Glavine, Atlanta (NL)

July 13, 1993

American(37–26–1 NL)

9–3

Oriole Park at Camden Yards

Baltimore Orioles

48,147

Kirby Puckett, Minnesota (AL)

Jack McDowell, Chicago (AL)

John Burkett, San Francisco (NL)

July 12, 1994

National(38–26–1 NL)

8–7(10)

Three Rivers Stadium

Pittsburgh Pirates

59,568

Fred McGriff, Atlanta (NL)

Doug Jones, Philadelphia (NL)

Jason Bere, Chicago (AL)

July 11, 1995

National(39–26–1 NL)

3–2

The Ballpark in Arlington

Texas Rangers

50,920

Jeff Conine, Florida (NL)

Heathcliff Slocumb, Philadelphia (NL)

Steve Ontiveros, Oakland (AL)

July 9, 1996

National(40–26–1 NL)

6–0

Veterans Stadium

Philadelphia Phillies

62,670

Mike Piazza, Los Angeles (NL)

John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

Charles Nagy, Cleveland (AL)

July 8, 1997

American(40–27–1 NL)

3–1

Jacobs Field

Cleveland Indians

44,916

Sandy Alomar, Cleveland (AL)

José Rosado, Kansas City (AL)

Shawn Estes, San Francisco (NL)

July 7, 1998

American(40–28–1 NL)

13–8

Coors Field

Colorado Rockies

51,267

Roberto Alomar, Baltimore (AL)

Bartolo Colón, Cleveland (AL)

Ugueth Urbina, Montreal (NL)

July 13, 1999

American(40–29–1 NL)

4–1

Fenway Park

Boston Red Sox

34,187

Pedro Martínez, Boston (AL)

Pedro Martínez, Boston (AL)

Curt Schilling, Philadelphia (NL)

July 11, 2000

American(40–30–1 NL)

6–3

Turner Field

Atlanta Braves

51,323

Derek Jeter, New York (AL)

James Baldwin, Chicago (AL)

Al Leiter, New York (NL)

July 10, 2001

American(40–31–1 NL)

4–1

Safeco Field

Seattle Mariners

47,364

Cal Ripken, Jr., Baltimore (AL)

Freddy García, Seattle (AL)

Chan Ho Park, Los Angeles (NL)

July 9, 2002

TIE(40–31–2 NL)

7–7(11)

Miller Park

Milwaukee Brewers

41,871

N/A

N/A

N/A

July 15, 2003

American(40–32–2 NL)

7–6

U.S. Cellular Field

Chicago White Sox

47,609

Garret Anderson, Anaheim (AL)

Brendan Donnelly, Anaheim (AL)

Éric Gagné, Los Angeles (NL)

July 13, 2004

American(40–33–2 NL)

9–4

Minute Maid Park

Houston Astros

41,886

Alfonso Soriano, Texas (AL)

Mark Mulder, Oakland (AL)

Roger Clemens, Houston (NL)

July 12, 2005

American(40–34–2 NL)

7–5

Comerica Park

Detroit Tigers

41,617

Miguel Tejada, Baltimore (AL)

Mark Buehrle, Chicago (AL)

John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

July 11, 2006

American(40–35–2 NL)

3–2

PNC Park

Pittsburgh Pirates

38,904

Michael Young, Texas (AL)

B. J. Ryan, Toronto (AL)

Trevor Hoffman, San Diego (NL)

July 10, 2007

American(40–36–2 NL)

5–4

AT&T Park

San Francisco Giants

43,965

Ichiro Suzuki, Seattle (AL)

Josh Beckett, Boston (AL)

Chris Young, San Diego (NL)

July 15, 2008

American(40–37–2 NL)

4–3(15)

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

55,632

J. D. Drew, Boston (AL)

Scott Kazmir, Tampa Bay (AL)

Brad Lidge, Philadelphia (NL)

July 14, 2009

American (40–38–2 NL)

4–3

Busch Stadium

St. Louis Cardinals

46,760

Carl Crawford, Tampa Bay (AL)

Jonathan Papelbon, Boston (AL)

Heath Bell, San Diego (NL)

July 13, 2010

National (41–38–2 NL)

3–1

Angel Stadium of Anaheim

Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim

45,408

Brian McCann, Atlanta (NL)

Matt Capps, Washington (NL)

Phil Hughes, New York (AL)

July 12, 2011

National (42–38–2 NL)

5–1

Chase Field

Arizona Diamondbacks

49,033

Prince Fielder, Milwaukee (NL)

Tyler Clippard, Washington (NL)

C. J. Wilson, Texas (AL)

July 10, 2012

National (43–38–2 NL)

8–0

Kauffman Stadium

Kansas City Royals

40,933

Melky Cabrera, San Francisco (NL)

Matt Cain, San Francisco (NL)

Justin Verlander, Detroit (AL)

July 16, 2013

American (43–39–2 NL)

3–0

Citi Field

New York Mets

45,186

Mariano Rivera, New York (AL)

Chris Sale, Chicago (AL)

Patrick Corbin, Arizona (NL)

July 15, 2014

American (43–40–2 NL)

5–3

Target Field

Minnesota Twins

41,048

Mike Trout, Los Angeles (AL)

Max Scherzer, Detroit (AL)

Pat Neshek, St. Louis (NL)

July 14, 2015

American (43–41–2 NL)

6–3

Great American Ball Park

Cincinnati Reds

43,656

Mike Trout, Los Angeles (AL)

David Price, Detroit (AL)

Clayton Kershaw, Los Angeles (NL)

July 12, 2016

American (43–42–2 NL)

4–2

Petco Park

San Diego Padres

42,386

Eric Hosmer, Kansas City (AL)

Corey Kluber, Cleveland (AL)

Johnny Cueto, San Francisco (NL)

July 11, 2017

American (43–43–2)

2–1(10)

Marlins Park

Miami Marlins

37,188

Robinson Canó, Seattle (AL)

Craig Kimbrel, Boston (AL)

Wade Davis, Chicago (NL)

July 17, 2018

American (44–43–2 AL)

8–6(10)

Nationals Park

Washington Nationals

43,843

Alex Bregman, Houston (AL)

Edwin Diaz, Seattle (AL)

Ross Stripling, Los Angeles (NL)

text:
American League (44 Wins)

National League (43 Wins)

text: Future MLB All-Star Games[edit]

text:
Date

Host team

Stadium

City

Television

Radio

July 9, 2019

Cleveland Indians

Progressive Field

Cleveland, Ohio

Fox Sports

ESPN

July 14, 2020

Los Angeles Dodgers

Dodger Stadium

Los Angeles, California

Fox Sports

ESPN

text: Notes[edit]

text: St. Petersburg (Tampa Bay Rays) is the only current MLB city that has not yet hosted (or been scheduled to host) an MLB All-Star Game.