document_title: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

question_text: when did guardians of the galaxy comic first come out

text: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Roy Thomas recounted,

text: 'Guardians of the Galaxy' started out as an idea of mine: about super-guerrillas fighting against Russians and Red Chinese who had taken over and divided the USA. I got a sort of general approval out of [editor-in-chief] Stan [Lee] (I think), and gave the idea to Arnold Drake, since I had not time to write and research it. Arnold went in for a conference with Stan, and Stan (maybe Arnold, too) decided to change it to an interplanetary situation. All the characters and situations in Guardians were created by Arnold and/or Stan.[1]

text: The team first appeared in the partial reprint title Marvel Super-Heroes with issue #18 (Jan. 1969), written by Arnold Drake and penciled by Gene Colan.[2] Despite strong sales on this issue, the Guardians of the Galaxy would not appear again for over five years, in Marvel Two-In-One #4–5 (July–Sept. 1974).[1] The story's writer, Steve Gerber, liked the team enough to use them again in Giant Size Defenders #5 and Defenders #26–29 (July–Nov. 1975). In each case, other heroes such as Captain America, the Thing, and the Defenders aid them in their war against the alien Badoon, necessitating the liberal use of time travel in these stories.

text: The Guardians were finally given their own series, Marvel Presents, starting with issue #3 (Feb. 1976). Steve Gerber, still handling the writing chores, reflected, "Most of the stories I was scripting were set in the present. I wanted to do something that combined the standard superhero elements with something a little different, so that I could give my imagination a bit more play. We had Dave Cockrum redesign the costumes, we created a new starship for them to pilot, and we revised the premise of the strip, so that they were no longer fighting the Badoon on Earth, and sent them off amongst the stars."[1] Gerber left the series after seven issues, leaving Roger Stern to take over with Marvel Presents #10. The series was cancelled shortly afterwards due to poor sales, with the final issue being #12 (August 1977).[1] This was followed by a series of appearances in Thor Annual #6 (1977), The Avengers #167–177 (Jan.–Nov. 1978) and #181 (March 1979), Ms. Marvel #23, Marvel Team-Up #86 (Oct. 1979), and Marvel Two-in-One #61–63 & #69 (Nov. 1980). Marvel Two-in-One #69 drastically changed the Guardians of the Galaxy story; due to changes made to the past of one of the members, the future which the Guardians of the Galaxy come from and the mainstream Marvel Universe are permanently separated, becoming alternate timelines to each other.[1] After this, the Guardians of the Galaxy were absent from published stories for over a decade.

text: In 1989, Marvel editor-in-chief Tom DeFalco decided to revive the Guardians of the Galaxy in order to cash in on the soaring popularity of the TV series Star Trek: The Next Generation.[1] DeFalco worked out a series concept using a new team of Guardians, but when he saw a series proposal for the original team that Jim Valentino had coincidentally been working on at the same time, he green lit Valentino's idea instead.[1] The Guardians' first self-titled comic launched in June 1990 and ran for 62 issues. This series was initially written and illustrated by Valentino, who deliberately gave it an action-oriented, "fun" feel that stood out from the typical "grim 'n' gritty" comics of the 1990s.[1] Though Valentino had plotted the series ahead as far as issue #50, his run was cut short when he co-founded Image Comics. Having taken on two new series and the foundation of a publication company, Valentino asked editor Craig Anderson if he could switch to just writing Guardians of the Galaxy, and in response Anderson dismissed him from the series.[1]

text: With issue #29 (Oct. 1992) Michael Gallagher commenced writing the title, and continued until its cancellation with issue #62 (July 1995). According to Kevin West, who became the penciller with issue #30 (Nov. 1992), he and Gallagher worked together closely on the series, employing the Marvel method of creation, and soon became good friends.[1] A spin-off four-issue miniseries, Galactic Guardians (July–Oct. 1994), also by Gallagher and West, appeared during this time. West explained why he did not draw the final issue of Guardians of the Galaxy: "When I heard we were getting the hook, I naturally started looking for a new job. I ended up at Malibu. There was a hold-up getting the Guardians plot finished so by the time I got it, I had to pass because I had a Malibu deadline to meet. Arrgh. Despite any minor qualms I had, I really did enjoy working on the series."[1]

text: A second volume was published in May 2008, written by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning. The title, set in a different timeline, features a new team, drawn from participants in the Annihilation: Conquest storyline.[3] The 1969 team made guest appearances in #12–17 and #25.

text: A new ongoing series starring the original Guardians, titled Guardians 3000 and written by Abnett, launched in 2014.[4]

text: Fictional team history[edit]

text: The Guardians are active in the 31st century in an alternative time-line of the Marvel Universe known as Earth-691. The original members of the team include Major Vance Astro (later known as Major Victory), an astronaut from 20th century Earth who spends a thousand years travelling to Alpha Centauri in suspended animation. He is also the future alternative universe counterpart of Vance Astrovik, the hero known as Justice.

text: Other original team members are Martinex T'Naga, a crystalline being from Pluto; Captain Charlie-27, a soldier from Jupiter; and Yondu Udonta, a blue-skinned "noble savage" from Centauri-IV (the fourth planet orbiting the star Alpha Centauri B). Each is apparently the last of their kind and they are forced to unite as a team against the actions of the Badoon, an alien race which attempts to conquer Earth's solar system.

text: During the course of the war against the Badoon, the team gains three more members—the mysterious husband and wife duo, Starhawk and Aleta, as well as Nikki, a genetically engineered young girl from Mercury seeking excitement in her life—and travel back in time, where they encounter several of the heroes of 20th century Earth, including Captain America and the Thing.[5]

text: The Guardians eventually defeat the Badoon, but soon find themselves facing a new foe called Korvac, who was in part a creation of the Badoon. After teaming with the Thunder God Thor to defeat Korvac in the 31st century,[6] the Guardians then follow Korvac to 20th century mainstream Earth, where together with the Avengers they fight a final battle.[7]

text: The Guardians reappear years later and have a series of adventures in their future,[8] with several others eventually joining the team: the Inhuman Talon, the Skrull Replica, the second Yellowjacket (alias Rita DeMara of the 20th century), and an aged Simon Williams (now called Hollywood, Man of Wonder).

text: Wanting to expand the Guardians to a multiple team organization, Martinex eventually leaves the team to look for additional members for a second unit, nicknamed the Galactic Guardians.[9]

text: Connection to the "Modern" Guardians[edit]

text: During their second mission, the team that was to become the Earth-616 incarnation of the Guardians discover a time displaced Vance Astro in a block of ice floating in space. It is his introduction as "Major Victory of the Guardians of the Galaxy" that inspires the team to take up the name. In #7 and #16 of the series, it was revealed a great "error" in the present day has caused the future to be destroyed—Starhawk is constantly trying to prevent it by time travel, causing the future (and the Guardians) to be altered. Only Starhawk, who is changed with each reboot but is "one who knows" about the changes, realizes anything is different, but each change still ends in a cataclysm. In #17, the universe of the Guardians' future had been taken over by the alien race called the Badoon, and only a small portion remained undestroyed. The Guardians sent a warning to the present day, though at the cost of the end of their own universe.

text: The Vance Astro of the modern-day Guardians is revealed to be a Major Victory from one of these altered futures, rather than the original. A second alternate Vance Astro appears in #17.

text: In #18, a third version of the Guardians' future was shown: this time led by Killraven against the Martians.

text: Membership[edit]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Various members of the original Guardians of the Galaxy team are featured in the film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, including Michael Rooker as Yondu Udonta (who was also in the first film), Sylvester Stallone as Stakar Ogord, Michael Rosenbaum as Martinex T'Naga, Ving Rhames as Charlie-27, Michelle Yeoh as Aleta Ogord, Krugarr and an uncredited Miley Cyrus as the voice of Mainframe. They are revealed to be an interstellar group of thieves, smugglers, and pirates known as the Ravagers. The Ravagers are broken into groups that follow a strong code and work ethic. Yondu broke the code by transporting children to Ego unaware of his evil intent. Upon learning of the truth, he saved Peter Quill from the same fate. Nevertheless, his actions resulted in Stakar exiling Yondu's faction from the rest of the Ravagers. In the film's climax, Yondu sacrifices himself to save Quill, earning the respect of the rest of the Ravagers and convincing them to get back together and form their own team.[10][11]

text: Collected editions[edit]

text:
Guardians of the Galaxy: Earth Shall Overcome (978-0785137863): Collects Marvel Super-Heroes #18, Marvel Two-in-One #4–5, Giant-Size Defenders #5, and Defenders #26–29.
Guardians of the Galaxy: The Power of Starhawk (9780785137887): Collects Marvel Presents #3–12.
Guardians of the Galaxy: Tomorrow's Avengers Vol. 1 (978-0785166870): Collects Marvel Super Heroes #18, Marvel Two-In-One #4–5, Giant -Size Defenders #5, Defenders #26–29, Marvel Presents 3–12
Guardians of the Galaxy: Tomorrow's Avengers Vol. 2 (978-0785167556): Collects Thor Annual #6; Avengers #167–168, 170–177, 181; Ms. Marvel #23; Marvel Team-Up #86; Marvel Two-In-One #61–63, 69
Guardians of the Galaxy: Quest for the Shield (0871358794): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #1–6. Released in February, 1992.
Guardians of the Galaxy by Jim Valentino Vol. 1 (978-0785184201): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #1–7 and Annual #1, plus material from Fantastic Four Annual #24, Thor Annual #16 and Silver Surfer Annual #4
Guardians of the Galaxy by Jim Valentino Vol. 2 (978-0785185635): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #8–20
Guardians of the Galaxy by Jim Valentino Vol. 3 (978-0785198123): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #21–29, Annual #2, Marvel Super-Heroes #18
Guardians of the Galaxy Classic by Jim Valentino Omnibus (978-1302904395): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #1–29, Annual #1–2, and Marvel Super-Heroes #18, plus material from Fantastic Four Annual #24, Thor Annual #16 and Silver Surfer Annual #4
Guardians of the Galaxy Classic: In the Year 3000 Vol. 1 (978-1302900618): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #30–39, Annual #3, and material from Marvel Comics Present #134
Guardians of the Galaxy Classic: In the Year 3000 Vol. 2 (978-1302902148): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #40–50, Galactic Guardians #1–4, and material from Annual #4
Guardians of the Galaxy Classic: In the Year 3000 Vol. 3 (978-1302904432): Collects Guardians of the Galaxy #51–62, and material from Annual #4
Guardians 3000 Vol. 1: Time After Time (978-0785193128): Collects Guardians 3000 #1–5, and material from Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 #13
Korvac Saga: Warzones! (978-0785193135): Collects Guardians 3000 #6–8, Korvac Saga #1–4


document_title: Toll roads in Great Britain

question_text: when was the first toll road in england invented

root

text: Toll roads in Great Britain

text: History[edit]

text: Medieval period[edit]

text: In the 14th century, pavage grants, which had previously been made for paving the market place or streets of towns, began also to be used for maintaining some roads between towns. These grants were made by letters patent, almost invariably for a limited term, presumably the time likely to be required to pay for the required works.

tag: p

text: Responsibility for the upkeep of most roads seems to have rested with landowners, however. This was probably not easily enforced against them. The Parliament of England placed the upkeep of bridges to local settlements or the containing county under the Bridges Act 1530 and in 1555 the care of roads was similarly devolved to the parishes as statute labour under the Highways Act 1555. Every adult inhabitant of the parish was obliged to work four consecutive days a year on the roads, providing their own tools, carts and horses. The work was overseen by an unpaid local appointee, the Surveyor of Highways.

text: It was not until 1654 that road rates were introduced. However, the improvements offered by paid labour were offset by the rise in the use of wheeled vehicles greatly increasing wear to the road surfaces. The government reaction to this was to use legislation to limit the use of wheeled vehicles and also to regulate their construction. A vain hope that wider rims would be less damaging briefly led to carts with sixteen inch wheels. They did not cause ruts but neither did they roll and flatten the road as was hoped.

text: Turnpikes[edit]

text: The first turnpike road, whereby travellers paid tolls to be used for road upkeep, was authorised in 1663 for a section of the Great North Road in Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire.[1] The term turnpike refers the military practice of placing a pikestaff across a road to block and control passage. Upon payment of the toll, the pike would be "turned" to one side to allow travellers through. Most English gates were not built to this standard; of the first three gates, two were found to be easily avoided.

text: The early turnpikes were administered directly by the Justices of the Peace in Quarter Sessions. The first trusts were established by Parliament through an Act of Parliament in 1706, placing a section of the London-Coventry-Chester road in the hands of a group of trustees.

text: The trustees could erect gates as they saw fit, demand statute labour or a cash equivalent, and appoint surveyors and collectors, in return they repaired the road and put up mileposts. Initially trusts were established for limited periods of often twenty one years. The expectation was that the trust would borrow the money to repair the road and repay that debt over time with the road then reverting to the parishes. In reality the initial debt was rarely paid off and the trusts were renewed as needed.

text: Shortly after the creation of the United Kingdom in 1707, turnpike acts began to be passed by the British Parliament to encourage the construction of toll roads in Scotland in the same way they had been used successfully in England and Wales. The first turnpike act for a road scheme in Scotland was passed in 1713 for the construction of a road in Midlothian.[2]

text: Although in the south of England common carriers' carts became frequent, they were not seen for a long time north of York or west of Exeter. Long trains of packhorses still carried goods through Settle until the Keighley and Kendal Turnpike was started in 1753.[3]:p.6

text: The decline of turnpikes[edit]

text: The rise of railway transport largely halted the improving schemes of the turnpike trusts. The London-Birmingham railway almost instantly halved the tolls income of the Holyhead Road. The system was never properly reformed but from the 1870s Parliament stopped renewing the acts and roads began to revert to local authorities, the last trust vanishing in 1895. However, some bridges have continued to be subject to tolls.

text: The Local Government Act 1888 created county councils and gave them responsibility for maintaining the major roads. The abiding relic of the English toll roads is the number of houses with names like "Turnpike Cottage", the inclusion of "Bar" in place names and occasional road name: Turnpike Lane in northern London has given its name to an Underground station.

text: Since the 1960s[edit]

text: Following the abolition of turnpikes a few private roads and toll bridges remained. Some bridges of the turnpike era were built by companies (rather than trusts) and have continued to charge tolls. Tolls on some bridges were abolished by county councils buying up the tolls and then declaring them county bridges. A recent example of this relates to the well-known Cob at Porthmadog, where tolls ceased in 2006, when it was nationalised by the Welsh Assembly.[4]

text: Tolls are similarly collected to finance the cost of building the Humber Bridge and Severn Bridge. In recent times, the concept of charging tolls to finance the building of roads has been revived, but so far the only new toll road is M6 Toll.

text: Tolls for the Forth Road Bridge were removed in 2008 following a divisive 3-year political debate during which it was proposed that variable congestion pricing tolls would be introduced.[5]

text: A new toll road is being planned in South Wales. The M4 is planned to have a relief road built and managed in the same way as the M6 Toll.[6]

text: Current tolls[edit]

text: M6 Toll

tag: ul

text: College Road, Dulwich

text:
Dartford Crossing (1963 and 1981)[7]
Humber Bridge
Mersey Tunnels (1886 & 1971)
Severn Bridge (1966)
Tyne Tunnel (1967)
Mersey Gateway (Cheshire)(2017)
more...

text:
London congestion charge
Durham congestion charge

text: Planned tolls[edit]

text: M4 relief road (South Wales)


document_title: Leaning Tower of Pisa

question_text: when did they start building the leaning tower of pisa

text: Leaning Tower of Pisa

text: Architect

text: There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano,[7] a well-known 12th-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. A piece of cast bearing his name was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820, but this may be related to the bronze door in the façade of the cathedral that was destroyed in 1595. A 2001 study[8] seems to indicate Diotisalvi was the original architect, due to the time of construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San Nicola and the Baptistery, both in Pisa.

text: Construction

text: Construction of the tower occurred in three stages over 199 years. Work on the ground floor of the white marble campanile began on August 14, 1173 during a period of military success and prosperity. This ground floor is a blind arcade articulated by engaged columns with classical Corinthian capitals.[citation needed]

text: The tower began to sink after construction had progressed to the second floor in 1178. This was due to a mere three-metre foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil, a design that was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Republic of Pisa was almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled.[citation needed] In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.[citation needed]

text: In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built upper floors with one side taller than the other. Because of this, the tower is curved.[9] Construction was halted again in 1284 when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.[citation needed]

text: The seventh floor was completed in 1319. The bell-chamber was finally added in 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower.[10] There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.[citation needed]

text: After a phase (1990–2001) of structural strengthening,[11] the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visible damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly pronounced due to the tower's age and its exposure to wind and rain.[12]

text: Timeline

text:
On January 5, 1172, Donna Berta di Bernardo, a widow and resident of the house of dell'Opera di Santa Maria, bequeathed sixty soldi to the Opera Campanilis petrarum Sancte Marie. The sum was then used toward the purchase of a few stones which still form the base of the bell tower.[13]
On August 9, 1173, the foundations of the tower were laid.
Nearly four centuries later Giorgio Vasari wrote: "Guglielmo, according to what is being said, in [this] year 1174 with Bonanno as sculptor, laid the foundations of the bell tower of the cathedral in Pisa."
On December 27, 1233, the worker Benenato, son of Gerardo Bottici, oversaw the continuation of the construction of the bell tower.[14]
On February 23, 1260, Guido Speziale, son of Giovanni, a worker on the cathedral Santa Maria Maggiore, was elected to oversee the building of the tower.[15]
On April 12, 1264, the master builder Giovanni di Simone and 23 workers went to the mountains close to Pisa to cut marble. The cut stones were given to Rainaldo Speziale, worker of St. Francesco.[16]
Giorgio Vasari indicated that Tommaso di Andrea Pisano was the designer of the belfry[17] between 1360 and 1370.

text: Builders

text:
One possible known builder of Pisa Tower was Gerardo di Gerardo. His name appears as a witness to the above legacy of Berta di Bernardo as "Master Gerardo", and as a worker whose name was Gerardo.[citation needed]
A more probable builder was Diotisalvi, because of the construction period and the structure's affinities with other buildings in Pisa, but he usually signed his works, and there is no signature by him in the bell tower.[citation needed]
Giovanni di Simone was known to be heavily involved in the completion of the tower, under the direction of Giovanni Pisano, who at the time was master builder of the Opera di Santa Maria Maggiore. Di Simone could be the same Giovanni Pisano who completed the belfry tower.[citation needed]

text: History following construction

text: Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannonballs of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their speed of descent was independent of their mass. However, the only primary source for this is the biography Racconto istorico della vita di Galileo Galilei (Historical Account of the Life of Galileo Galilei), written by Galileo's secretary Vincenzo Viviani and published in 1717, long after Viviani's death.[18][19]

text: During World War II, the Allies suspected that the Germans were using the tower as an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant sent to confirm the presence of German troops in the tower was impressed by the beauty of the cathedral and its campanile, and thus refrained from ordering an artillery strike, sparing it from destruction.[20][21]

text: Numerous efforts have been made to restore the tower to a vertical orientation or at least keep it from falling over. Most of these efforts failed; some worsened the tilt. On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was, however, considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.[22]

text: A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians, and historians gathered on the Azores islands to discuss stabilisation methods. It was found that the tilt was increasing in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilise the tower, including the addition of 800 tonnes of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.[23]

text: The tower and the neighbouring cathedral, baptistery, and cemetery are included in the Piazza del Duomo UNESCO World Heritage Site, which was declared in 1987.[24]

text: The tower was closed to the public on January 7, 1990, after more than two decades of stabilisation studies and spurred by the abrupt collapse of the Civic Tower of Pavia in 1989. The bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. The solution chosen to prevent the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten it to a safer angle by removing 38 cubic metres (1,342 cubic feet) of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower was straightened by 45 centimetres (17.7 inches), returning to its 1838 position. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001 and was declared stable for at least another 300 years.[23] In total, 70 metric tons (77 short tons) of earth were removed.[25]

text: In May 2008, engineers announced that the tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped moving for the first time in its history. They stated that it would be stable for at least 200 years.[25]

text: Alternative candidates

text: Two German churches have challenged the tower's status as the world's most lop-sided building: the 15th-century square Leaning Tower of Suurhusen and the 14th-century bell tower in the town of Bad Frankenhausen.[26] Guinness World Records measured the Pisa and Suurhusen towers, finding the former's tilt to be 3.97 degrees.[27] In June 2010, Guinness World Records certified the Capital Gate building in Abu Dhabi, UAE as the "World's Furthest Leaning Man-made Tower".[28] The Capital Gate tower has an 18-degree slope, almost five times more than the Pisa Tower; however the Capital Gate tower has been deliberately engineered to slant. The Leaning Tower of Wanaka in New Zealand, also deliberately built, leans at 53 degrees to the ground.[29]

text: Technical information

text:
Elevation of Piazza del Duomo: about 2 metres (6 feet, DMS)
Height from the ground floor: 55.863 metres (183 ft 3 in), 8 stories
Height from the foundation floor: 58.36 m (191 ft 5.64 in)
Outer diameter of base: 15.484 metres (50 ft 9.6 in)
Inner diameter of base: 7.368 metres (24 ft 2.1 in)
Angle of slant: 3.97 degrees[27] or 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the vertical[30]
Weight: 14,700 metric tons (16,200 short tons)
Thickness of walls at the base: 2.44 metres (8 ft 0 in)
Total number of bells: 7, tuned to musical scale, clockwise

1st bell: L'Assunta, cast in 1654 by Giovanni Pietro Orlandi, weight 3,620 kg (7,981 lb)
2nd bell: Il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by Vincenzo Possenti, weight 2,462 kg (5,428 lb)
3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719–1721 by Giovanni Andrea Moreni, weight 1,448 kg (3,192 lb)
4th bell: La Terza (1st small one), cast in 1473, weight 300 kg (661 lb)
5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia, cast in 1262 by Lotteringo, weight 1,014 kg (2,235 lb)
6th bell: Il Vespruccio (2nd small one), cast in the 14th century and again in 1501 by Nicola di Jacopo, weight 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)
7th bell: Dal Pozzo, cast in 1606 and again in 2004, weight 652 kg (1,437 lb)[31]

Number of steps to the top: 296[32]

text: About the 5th bell: The name Pasquareccia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day. However, this bell is older than the bell-chamber itself, and comes from the tower Vergata in Palazzo Pretorio in Pisa, where it was called La Giustizia (The Justice). The bell was tolled to announce executions of criminals and traitors, including Count Ugolino in 1289.[33] A new bell was installed in the bell tower at the end of the 18th century to replace the broken Pasquareccia.

text: Gallery

text:
View looking up

Entrance door to the bell tower

External loggia

Inner staircase from sixth to seventh floor

Inner staircase from seventh to eighth (the top) floor

View from the top

Assunta bell

Pasquareccia bell

View, looking down from the top

A popular photo opportunity with tourists is to pose as if one was either holding up or pushing over the tower


question_text: bubble in valerian and the city of a thousand planets

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the 28th century, the former International Space Station has been added to until its mass threatens to cause it to fall out of orbit. Relocated to deep space, it becomes Alpha, a space-traveling city inhabited by millions of species from thousands of planets. A special police division is created to preserve peace through the galaxy, including happy-go-lucky Major Valérian and his partner, no-nonsense Sergeant Laureline.

text: En route to a mission, Valerian dreams of a planet, Mül, where a low-tech humanoid race lives peacefully. They fish for pearls containing enormous amounts of energy, and use small animals to replicate them. Wreckage begins plummeting from the sky, followed by an apocalyptic explosion. Moments before her death a young princess manages to send out a telepathic signal.

text: Shaken, Valerian awakes. After an analysis reveals he might have received a signal from across time and space, he learns that his mission is to retrieve a "Mül converter", so-called for being able to replicate anything it eats. It is the last of its kind, and currently in the hands of black market dealer Igon Siruss. Before setting out, Valerian asks Laureline to marry him, but she brushes him off, due to his many affairs with female colleagues and his aversion to commitment.

text: Entering on planet Kirian a massive extra-dimensional bazaar called "Big Market", Valerian disrupts a meeting in a zone restricted to humans between Igon and two hooded figures who look like the humanoids from his vision. They also seek the converter, which is revealed to be one of the small animals he saw in his vision. Valerian and Laureline recover the converter, and he surreptitiously steals one of the pearls. Aboard their ship, he learns that Mül was destroyed 30 years earlier, and all information about it is classified.

text: They return to Alpha, where their superior, frosty Commander Arün Filitt, informs them the center of the station has been infected by an unknown force, rendering it highly toxic. Troops sent into the area have not returned, and the infection is growing. Laureline and Valerian are assigned to protect the commander during an interstation summit to discuss the crisis. Against the Commander's wishes, Laureline maintains possession of the converter.

text: During the summit, the humanoids suddenly attack, incapacitating everyone before kidnapping Filitt. Valerian chases the kidnappers to the infected area and crashes his vehicle. Evading arrest for insubordination, Laureline enlists the help of some aliens to track Valerian, and finds him unconscious at the edge of the infected zone. She wakes him, but is kidnapped by a primitive imperial tribe emigrated from planet Goara[17] called "Boulan Bathors" that lives nearby. Valerian infiltrates the tribe's territory with the help of a shape-shifting dancer, Bubble. They save Laureline and escape, but Bubble is mortally wounded. As she dies, she convinces Valerian to never give up on his feelings for Laureline.

text: Valerian and Laureline venture further into the infected area, realizing it is actually not toxic and contains some wrecks of antique spacecraft. They reach a large shielded hall where they find the humanoids, known as Pearls, with an unconscious Filitt. Their leader, Emperor Haban Limaï, explains that his people lived peacefully on Mül until a battle broke out in orbit between the human government's fleet and a government known as "Southern Territories". The human commander, Filitt, ordered the use of two powerful fusion missiles that disabled the enemy ship but caused it to crash into the planet, annihilating Mül. Upon dying, Princess Lihö-Minaa transferred her soul into Valerian's body. A small group of survivors took shelter in a crashed human spaceship. They managed to repair it, and learned of the humans' technology and history. They eventually came to Alpha, where they assimilated more knowledge and built a ship of their own. They needed only the converter and the pearl to launch the ship so they could find a planet to use their technology and recreate their homeworld. Filitt admits his role in the genocide, but argues that it was necessary to end the war, as was the cover-up to prevent the humans from being expelled from Alpha. Valerian and Laureline disagree, stating that the commander has only been trying to save himself from the consequences for his actions, before Valerian knocks him out again.

text: Valerian hands over the pearl he stole, and Laureline persuades him to return the converter too, ignoring procedures. While the Pearls' spacecraft prepares for takeoff, Filitt's pre-programmed robot K-Tron soldiers attack the Pearls, the government soldiers who were sent to assist Valerian, and their support staff, but are ultimately defeated. The spacecraft departs and Filitt is arrested. Valerian and Laureline are left adrift onboard a still working Apollo Command/Service Module, which is identified by radio technicians as "Destiny 2005", and Laureline finally answers Valerian's marriage proposal with a "maybe" as they wait for rescue.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Dane DeHaan as Major Valérian, a United Human Federation soldier and Laureline's partner/love interest[12]
Cara Delevingne as Sergeant Laureline, a United Human Federation soldier and Valerian's partner/love interest[12]
Clive Owen as Commander Arün Filitt, Valerian and Laureline's commander[12]
Rihanna as Bubble, a shapeshifting alien entertainer[13]
Ethan Hawke as Jolly the Pimp[12]
Herbie Hancock as the Defence Minister[13]
Kris Wu as Sergeant Neza[18][19]
Rutger Hauer as the President of the World State Federation
John Goodman as the voice of Igon Siruss, a Kodar'Khan pirate captain and the galaxy's most-wanted criminal[20]
Elizabeth Debicki as the voice of Emperor Haban Limaï[21]
Sasha Luss as Princess Lihö-Minaa
Sam Spruell as General Okto Bar
Ola Rapace as Major Gibson
Alain Chabat as Bob the Pirate
Thom Findlay as the voice of the Pirates
Mathieu Kassovitz as Camelot on Big Market
Jonas Bloquet as K-Tron Warrior/Control Room Soldier
Sand Van Roy as  Jessica Rabbit Creature
Louis Leterrier as Captain Welcoming Mercurys
Olivier Megaton as Captain Welcoming KCO2
Gavin Drea as Sergeant Cooper
Eric Lampaert as Guide Thaziit
Claire Tran as Control room Sergeant

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Although Luc Besson loved the Valerian comics growing up, he did not seriously consider adapting them into a movie until he was working on The Fifth Element. During development, Besson had tapped Valerian illustrator Jean-Claude Mézières to work on the film, who asked Besson, "Why are you doing this shitty film? Why you don’t do Valerian?"[22] At the time, Besson felt that making the film was "impossible" given the vast monster-to-human ratio.[22] The release of Avatar served as both a blessing and a curse for Besson; he has said, "technically, I could see that we can do everything now. The film proved that imagination is the only limit." However, he also felt that "James Cameron pushed all the levels so high," which made him believe that his script was not good enough, so he rewrote it.[22] Ultimately, the storyboarding for the film took seven months.[23]

text: The project was first publicly reported in 2012.[24] The two principal stars, Dane DeHaan and Cara Delevingne, were announced in May 2015.[25] On 19 August 2015, Clive Owen signed on to play Commander Arün Filitt in the film.[26] The budget, €197 million, is by far the largest ever assembled for a French film. Previously, Asterix at the Olympic Games was the most expensive, at €78 million, just ahead of Besson's The Fifth Element (€75 million).[27] By the end of August 2015, Besson said in an RTL radio interview that shooting the film in France was too expensive. Because it was filmed in a foreign language (English), Besson was unable to benefit from tax credits, despite preferring to produce the film in France and create jobs for 1,200 crew members.[27][28] The criteria to obtain these tax credits were then adapted accordingly. In May 2015, it was announced Fundamental Films would invest US$50 million in the film.[29]

text: Filming[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2018)

tag: table

text: Principal photography on the film began on 5 January 2016 in seven sound stages dedicated to the film at the Cité du cinéma, in Saint-Denis, north of Paris.[23][30] In total, there are 2,734 visual effect shots.[31] The humanoid race the Pearl were completely synthetic creations by Weta Digital, which generated the characters from performances by actors with motion-capture equipment for their face and bodies.[32]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The trailer featured the Beatles song "Because", which marked the first time a Beatles master recording had been featured in a non-Beatles film advertisement.[33]

text: Release[edit]

text: The first teaser for Valerian was released on 10 November 2016.[34] The teaser depicts Marmakas, an Entertainer (Bubble, identified as "Glamopod" in the film), Bagoulins, and Shingouz (known as "Doghan Daguis" in the film), who all appear in Ambassador of the Shadows. A special exclusive preview of Valerian was shown prior to the Fathom Events 4K restoration showing of The Fifth Element on 14 May and 17 May.[35][36]

text: Valerian was released in Israel on 20 July 2017,[37] on 21 July in the United States, on 26 July in France.[38] and on 2 August in the UK [39] Lionsgate handles the film's release in the United Kingdom and Ireland,[40] and STX Entertainment distributes the film in the United States.[41] The film was  released on 25 August 2017 in China.[42]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets was released digitally on November 7, 2017, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on November 21, 2017.[43][44]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The official Soundtrack for "Valerian" was released on July 21, 2017 on Vinyl, CD, and Digital download.[45] The total duration of this soundtrack album is exactly the same number of minutes as the duration of the film itself — 137 minutes.

text:
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets Film ScoreFilm score by Alexandre DesplatReleased
July 21, 2017Genre
Pop;Rock; Film ScoreLength
137:08Label
Valerian S.A.S.Producer
Xavier ForcioliAlexandre Desplat chronology

American Pastoral(2016)

Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets Film Score(2017)

The Shape of Water(2017)

Singles from Valerian

"A Million on My Soul"Released: May 24, 2017
"I Feel Everything"Released: July 20, 2017
"Bubble Dance"Released: August 12, 2017
"We Trying to Stay Alive"Released: December 18, 2017
"Rappcats"Released: February 24, 2018

text: Track listing[edit]

text: No.TitleArtist(s)Length1."Big Market" (written by Luc Besson)Alexandre Desplat2:052."Space Oddity"David Bowie5:183."I Feel Everything"Cara Delevingne3:024."Jamming"Bob Marley3:195."Bus Attack"Alexandre Desplat3:086."We Trying to Stay Alive"Wyclef Jean featuring Pras & John Forte3:137."Arriving on Alpha"Alexandre Desplat2:068."A Million on My Soul (Radio Edit)"Alexiane2:599."Rappcats (Instrumental)"Quasimoto2:0210."Bubble Dance"Julien Rey2:2511."Spaceship Chase"Alexandre Desplat3:3312."The World (Is Going up in Flames)"Charles Bradley3:2213."A Million on My Soul"Alexiane4:0714."Medusa"Alexandre Desplat1:5915."Pearls on Mul"Alexandre Desplat7:3616."Reading the Memo"Alexandre Desplat featuring Trug1:2317."Flight Above the Big Market"Alexandre Desplat2:4418."Showtime"Alexandre Desplat2:3819."Valerian in Trouble"Alexandre Desplat1:3820."Pearls Attack"Alexandre Desplat4:0521."Valerian's Armor" 2:0922."Submarine" 3:0023."Shoot" 1:3524."Fishing for Butterflies" 1:5825."Le souper du Roi" 1:5926."Boulanbator Combat" 3:0227."Bubble" 2:3228."Pearl’s World" 6:2429."The City of 1000 Planets" 3:5030."I Am a Soldier" 2:0431."Pearls Power" 1:4932."Final Combat" 7:06

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada and $184.7 million internationally (including $36.8 million in France), for a worldwide total of $225.2 million.[9] With a production budget around $180 million, the film would have needed to gross $400 million worldwide in order to break even and justify a sequel.[11]

text: In North America, Valerian opened alongside Dunkirk and Girls Trip, and was initially projected to gross $20–25 million from 3,553 theaters, although some insiders believed it would open in the teens.[16][46] It made $6.5 million on its first day, including $1.7 million from Thursday night previews at 2,600 theaters, lowering weekend projections to $16.5 million. The film ended up debuting to $17 million, finishing 5th at the box office, leading Deadline Hollywood to already label the film a domestic box office bomb,[8] and causing a 8.31% fall of the EuropaCorp stock on the following Monday.[15] In its second weekend, the film dropped 62% to $6.4 million, finishing 8th at the box office.[47] In its third and fourth weekends the film made $2.4 million and $901,323, finishing 12th and 17th and dropping another 62% both times.[48]

text: Outside North America, the film opened in 16 markets alongside the US and made $6.5 million over its opening weekend, including $2.5 million in Germany.[49] In France, the film made $3.72 million (€3.19 million) on its first day, the second-best opening day of 2017 there behind Despicable Me 3.[50] In China, the film made $9.9 million on its first day from 78,000 screens, becoming the first film to displace Wolf Warriors 2 at the country's box office.[51] It went on to open to $29 million, topping the box office.[52] The largest territory for the film was China, with US$62.1 million.[9]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Valerian received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its visuals while criticizing the plot and some of the casting.[16] On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 49% based on 237 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets uses sheer kinetic energy and visual thrills to overcome narrative obstacles and offer a viewing experience whose surreal pleasures often outweigh its flaws."[53] On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on reviews from 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[54] On French entertainment information website AlloCiné, the film has an average grade of 3.0/5, based on 31 critics.[55] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B–" on an A+ to F scale.[8]

text: David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a grade of B-, praising how "unapologetically idiosyncratic" the film is, while also saying "the vividness of this place only underscores the lifelessness of the people leading us through it .... There are 394 million stories on the City of a Thousand Planets, and Valerian’s might be the only one we’ve seen before. Still, any excuse to visit this place is one worth taking."[56] Peter Sciretta of /Film touted the first half of Valerian as "unpredictable and bonkers insane", while calling the second half more formulaic and "far less exciting", though he still encouraged seeing the film in 3D "on the biggest screen possible".[57] Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that it was "rare […] to see a film this extravagant that also feels, for better or worse, like the work of a single personality. The longer action scenes may not always rank with Besson’s early ’90s highlights [...] or the mania of the more recent Lucy, but there isn’t a moment in this ludicrous, lushly self-indulgent movie that doesn’t feel like its creator is having the time of his life."[58]

text: Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a negative review, saying: "The Razzies don't need to wait until the end of the year to anoint a winner for 2017 ... Hollywood studio chiefs can breathe easy that, this time, at least, they'll escape blame for making a giant summer franchise picture that nobody wants to see, since this one's a French import."[59] A. O. Scott of The New York Times was also less than happy with the film, writing the effort "feels as if it were made up on the spot, by someone so delighted by the gaudy genre packaging at his disposal that he lost track of what was supposed to be inside."[60] National Public Radio film critic, Mark Jenkins, additionally wrote in a negative review that the film's "perspective often seems more 19th- than 26th-century, notably in a sequence where Laureline is captured by members of a hostile species and forced to don a white dress to be presented to their emperor. The blobby computer-generated creatures resemble natives from the most racist of Tarzan movies."[61]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award

Date of ceremony

Category

Recipients

Result

Ref.

Saturn Awards

June 27, 2018

Best Science Fiction Film

Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets

Nominated

[62]

Best Production Design

Hugues Tissandier

Nominated

Best Costume Design

Olivier Bériot

Nominated

text: Possible sequel[edit]

text: Despite the film being a disappointment at the box office, director Luc Besson claims a sequel is still possible due to positive fan reaction.[63]


document_title: Tywin Lannister

question_text: who kills tywin lannister in game of thrones

text: Tywin Lannister

text: Character description[edit]

text: Tywin Lannister is Lord of Casterly Rock, Shield of Lannisport, and Warden of the West. He is a calculating, ruthless, and controlling man.

text: In his youth, Tywin was dismayed by his father Tytos, who overlooked numerous slights from his bannermen (most notably Houses Reyne and Tarbeck) in order to win their affection. When the Reynes and Tarbecks eventually revolted against the Lannisters' rule, Tywin personally led the Lannister army in exterminating the rebellious vassals, placing the bodies of their entire families on display at Casterly Rock.[citation needed] Impressed with his decisive action in ending the rebellion, Tywin's friend Aerys II Targaryen appointed him as Hand of the King. Despite his ruthlessness, Tywin proved himself a capable leader and his tenure was marked by peace and prosperity. The relationship between Aerys and Tywin grew bitter and he resigned as Hand after Aerys appointed Tywin's first son Jaime to the Kingsguard, directly denying him as Tywin's heir. Aerys grew increasingly insane, for which he was known as the Mad King.

text: Tywin eventually married his first cousin Joanna. When she died giving birth to their dwarf son Tyrion, he was devastated and it is said that "the best part of Tywin died with her." He never remarried. Tywin loves his children Cersei and Jaime, but he despises Tyrion for his dwarfism and promiscuity and blames him for Joanna's death. When Tywin discovered that the young Tyrion had eloped with a peasant's daughter, he fell into a cold rage, believing that a Lannister should never stoop so low as to marry lowborns. He had Tyrion's marriage annulled, telling him that the entire love affair was a plot by Jaime to get Tyrion to lose his virginity, his "love" being nothing more than a prostitute. Tywin then had the entire garrison of Casterly Rock gang-rape the girl.

text: During Robert Baratheon's rebellion, Tywin remained neutral until Robert had all but won the war. He then captured King's Landing through treachery and ordered the murder of the royal family before Ned could capture the city. Jaime killed the Mad King and Tywin's army devastated the city's inhabitants. Following the war, Tywin returns to Casterly Rock to rule the Westerlands, and remains there until the beginning of the series.

text: Tywin is tall and slender, with greying blonde hair and has a very powerful presence and easily intimidates those around him.

text: Family tree of House Lannister[edit]

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Descendants of Tytos Lannister

Tytos[a]

Jeyne
Marbrand[b]

Joanna[c]

Tywin[c]

Emmon
Frey[c]

Genna[c]

Kevan[c]

Dorna
Swyft[c]

Tygett[c]

Darlessa
Marbrand[c]

Gerion[c]

Briony[d]

Robert
Baratheon[c]

Cersei[c]

Jaime
"The Kingslayer"[c]

Tysha[e]

Tyrion
"The Imp"[c]

Sansa
Stark[f]

Amerei
Frey[g]

Lancel[c]

Martyn[c]

Willem[c]

Janei[c]

Tyrek[c]

Ermesande
Hayford[h]

Joy
Hill[c]

Joffrey
Baratheon[i][j]

Myrcella
Baratheon[i][j]

Margaery
Tyrell[k][l]

Tommen
Baratheon[i][j]

Tion
Frey[c]

"Red" Walder
Frey[m]

Jeyne
Darry[n]

Cleos
Frey[c]

Lyonel
Frey[m]

Melesa Crakehall

Tywin
Frey[n]

Willem
Frey[n]

References and notes:

^ Jump up to: a b Martin, George R. R. (1996). "Chapter 56: Tyrion". A Game of Thrones. p. 593. ISBN 978-0-553-89784-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Martin, George R. R.; García Jr., Elio M.; Antonsson, Linda (2014). The World of Ice & Fire. ISBN 978-0-553-80544-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Martin. "Appendix: House Lannister". A Game of Thrones. pp. 787–788.
Jump up ^ Martin; García Jr.; Antonsson. "Appendix: Lannister Lineage". The World of Ice & Fire.
Jump up ^ Tyrion's first wife was a peasant girl named Tysha. The marriage was later annulled by Lord Tywin's order.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 28: Sansa". A Storm of Swords. pp. 382–393. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2005). "Chapter 30: Jaime". A Feast for Crows. pp. 501–518. ISBN 978-0-553-90032-3.
Jump up ^ Martin. "Appendix: The King on the Iron Throne". A Storm of Swords. p. 1131.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martin. "Appendix: House Baratheon". A Game of Thrones. p. 783.
^ Jump up to: a b c Though officially Robert's children, Joffrey, Myrcella and Tommen are the products of an incestuous affair between Cersei and Jaime.
Jump up ^ Martin. "Appendix: The Queen Regent". A Feast for Crows. p. 782.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2011). "Appendix: The Boy King". A Dance with Dragons. p. 1055. ISBN 978-0-553-90565-6.  [m] [n]
^ Jump up to: a b Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Appendix: House Lannister". A Storm of Swords. ISBN 0-553-10663-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martin, George R. R. (2011). "Appendix: House Lannister". A Dance with Dragons. ISBN 978-0553801477.

text: Overview[edit]

text: Tywin Lannister is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as his son Tyrion Lannister.[4]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Books[edit]

text: A Game of Thrones[edit]

text: Tyrion is arrested by Catelyn Stark, who suspects him of attempting to assassinate her son Bran. Despite his contempt for Tyrion, Tywin views his kidnapping as a slight against his family and sends Gregor Clegane to raid Catelyn's homeland, the Riverlands. He raises a host of 60,000 men, half of whom are given to Jaime to besiege the Riverlands' capital Riverrun. Tywin's half of the force battle a Northern host led by Roose Bolton at the Battle of the Green Fork, but in the meantime Robb Stark's men rout Jaime's army and take him prisoner. Tywin is named Hand of the King by the new king, his grandson Joffrey Baratheon, but Tywin decides to remain in the Riverlands to continue the campaign against the Starks, sending Tyrion to King's Landing as acting Hand in his stead.

text: A Clash of Kings[edit]

text: Tywin retreats to Harrenhal, using it as a base for the war in the Riverlands. When Joffrey's uncle and rival claimant Renly Baratheon is killed and Joffrey's other uncle Stannis Baratheon besieges Storm's End, Tywin decides to use the distraction to march west in pursuit of Robb's army. Robb intends for Tywin's army to be gradually dismantled by the long march, but Robb's uncle Ser Edmure Tully, unaware of the plan, confronts Tywin's forces at the Battle of the Fords. Although Tywin suffers heavy losses, the delay in his march allows him to receive word that Stannis is now marching on King's Landing. Tywin quickly leads the army on King's Landing, joining forces with Renly's former bannermen House Tyrell along the way, and arrives at King's Landing in time to force Stannis to retreat. Joffrey subsequently declares Tywin the "Savior of the City".

text: A Storm of Swords[edit]

text: Tywin assumes his role as Hand of the King, demoting Tyrion to Master of Coin. He forces Tyrion to marry Sansa Stark, though his efforts to have Cersei wed to Willas Tyrell are rebuffed. Having learned that Robb has invalidated his marriage proposal to House Frey by marrying Jeyne Westerling, Tywin enters communication with Lord Walder Frey and Roose Bolton (who has lost faith in Robb after Theon Greyjoy's capture of Robb's castle Winterfell). The three conspire to have Robb and his army slaughtered while camped at The Twins for Edmure Tully's wedding, and the War of Five Kings results in victory for House Lannister. However, Joffrey is poisoned soon after during his own wedding and Tyrion is accused of the murder, ultimately being found guilty and sentenced to death. Jaime and Varys release Tyrion from his cell, Jaime confessing that he felt compelled to do so for lying about Tysha. Enraged, Tyrion enters Tywin's quarters, only finding his former mistress Shae in Tywin's bed and strangling her. Tyrion then confronts Tywin with a crossbow while he is on the privy; Tywin repeatedly dismisses Tysha as a "whore", and Tyrion shoots him with the crossbow.

text: A Feast for Crows[edit]

text: Tywin's corpse lies in state for seven days at the Great Sept of Baelor, before being returned to the Westerlands.

text: TV adaptation[edit]

text: Tywin Lannister is played by Charles Dance in the television adaption of the series of books.[5] Dance has received positive reviews for his role as Tywin in the TV series.[6]

text: First season[edit]

text: After Tyrion Lannister's arrest by Catelyn Stark, Tywin marches on the Riverlands with 60,000 men, giving half to Jaime Lannister to besiege House Tully's ancestral home of Riverrun. Tywin takes his force to the Trident to battle Robb Stark's men, but Robb instead leads his force on Riverrun and captures Jaime. When Joffrey Baratheon ascends as king, he names Tywin as his Hand but also executes the former Hand, Eddard Stark. Realising that Eddard's death prevents any chance of suing for peace, Tywin sends Tyrion to King's Landing as acting Hand, while he continues the campaign in the Riverlands.

text: Second season[edit]

text: Tywin and the Westermen regroup at Harrenhal, with Tywin taking Arya Stark as his cupbearer, whom he treats with respect although he is unaware of her true identity. When Stannis Baratheon sails on King's Landing, Tywin leads his forces and their new allies of House Tyrell on the city and arrives in time to defeat Stannis' remaining forces. After the battle, Tywin is named "Savior of the City".

text: Third season[edit]

text: Tywin furiously denies Tyrion his request to be named as heir to Casterly Rock, but does acquiesce to naming him Master of Coin. When he learns of Olenna Tyrell's plot to have Loras Tyrell wed Sansa Stark, he arranges to have Tyrion and Cersei marry Sansa and Loras respectively. He also allies with Robb Stark's dissatisfied bannermen, Walder Frey and Roose Bolton, conspiring with them to have Robb Stark assassinated at the Red Wedding.

text: Fourth season[edit]

text: Tywin has the Stark ancestral sword Ice melted down into two swords, one of which he gives to Jaime, though he disowns him after Jaime refuses to resign from the Kingsguard to become Tywin's heir. When Tyrion is accused of poisoning Joffrey, Tywin asks Prince Oberyn Martell to serve as one of the judges in Tyrion's trial. Though Oberyn despises Tywin for ordering the death of his sister, niece and nephew during the sack of King's Landing, he agrees when Tywin offers him justice against their murderer, Ser Gregor Clegane. Tywin also presses Cersei to wed Loras in order to use House Tyrell's wealth to pay off the Crown's debts to the Iron Bank of Braavos, but is forced to back down when Cersei threatens to reveal her incestuous affair with Jaime. Tywin has an affair with the prostitute Shae, formerly Tyrion's mistress. Tyrion discovers this during his escape from King's Landing and strangles Shae before confronting Tywin on the privy. When Tyrion admits that he loved Shae, Tywin repeatedly dismisses her as a whore, prompting Tyrion to shoot him with a crossbow, killing him.

text: Fifth season[edit]

text: Tywin's body lies in state in the Great Sept of Baelor before his burial, with Jaime and Cersei the first to pay their respects. Tywin's death greatly destabilises King's Landing, namely by allowing the rise to power of the High Sparrow and the Faith Militant.


document_title: Watt

question_text: unit of electrical power named after scottish inventor

text: Watt

text: Examples[edit]

text: When an object's velocity is held constant at one meter per second against a constant opposing force of one newton, the rate at which work is done is 1 watt.

text: In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at which electrical work is performed when a current of one ampere (A) flows across an electrical potential difference of one volt (V).

text: Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the above equation and Ohm's Law.

text:
Where ohm (

Ω

{\displaystyle \Omega }

) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance.

text:
A person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power.[i]
A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an average output of about 75 watts; higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals and by athletes.[2]

text: Origin and adoption as an SI unit[edit]

text: The watt is named after the Scottish inventor James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine. The measurement unit was recognized by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882, concurrent with the start of commercial power production from both water and steam. In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units (SI).

text: Multiples[edit]

text:
SI multiples for watt (W)

Submultiples

Multiples

Value
SI symbol
Name
Value
SI symbol
Name

10−1 W
dW
deciwatt
101 W
daW
decawatt

10−2 W
cW
centiwatt
102 W
hW
hectowatt

10−3 W
mW
milliwatt
103 W
kW
kilowatt

10−6 W
µW
microwatt
106 W
MW
megawatt

10−9 W
nW
nanowatt
109 W
GW
gigawatt

10−12 W
pW
picowatt
1012 W
TW
terawatt

10−15 W
fW
femtowatt
1015 W
PW
petawatt

10−18 W
aW
attowatt
1018 W
EW
exawatt

10−21 W
zW
zeptowatt
1021 W
ZW
zettawatt

10−24 W
yW
yoctowatt
1024 W
YW
yottawatt

Common multiples are in bold face

text: Femtowatt[edit]

text: The femtowatt (fW) is equal to one quadrillionth (10−15) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference(s) to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and signal-to-noise require that the RF energy applied to the antenna input be specified. These input levels are often stated in dBf (decibels referenced to 1 femtowatt). This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load; the specification takes into account the RF input impedance of the tuner.

text: Picowatt[edit]

text: The picowatt (pW), not to be confused with the much larger petawatt (PW), is equal to one trillionth (10−12) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics and in the science of radio astronomy. One picowatt is the international standard reference value of sound power when this quantity is expressed as a level in decibels.[3]

text: Nanowatt[edit]

text: The nanowatt (nW) is equal to one billionth (10−9) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers.

text: Microwatt[edit]

text: The microwatt (µW) is equal to one millionth (10−6) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in microwatts are typically stated in medical instrumentation systems such as the EEG and the ECG, in a wide variety of scientific and engineering instruments and also in reference to radio and radar receivers. Compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts.[4]

text: Milliwatt[edit]

text: The milliwatt (mW) is equal to one thousandth (10−3) of a watt. A typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt.[5] Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are often measured in dBm, referenced to one milliwatt.

text: Kilowatt[edit]

text: The kilowatt (kW) is equal to one thousand (103) watts. This unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a common unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio and television transmitters.

text: One kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 horsepower. A small electric heater with one heating element can use 1.0 kilowatt. The average electric power consumption of a household in the United States is about one kilowatt.[ii]

text: A surface area of one square meter on Earth receives typically about one kilowatt of sunlight from the sun (the solar irradiance) (on a clear day at mid day, close to the equator).[7]

text: Megawatt[edit]

text: The megawatt (MW) is equal to one million (106) watts. Many events or machines produce or sustain the conversion of energy on this scale, including large electric motors; large warships such as aircraft carriers, cruisers, and submarines; large server farms or data centers; and some scientific research equipment, such as supercolliders, and the output pulses of very large lasers. A large residential or commercial building may use several megawatts in electric power and heat. On railways, modern high-powered electric locomotives typically have a peak power output of 5 or 6 MW, although some produce much more. The Eurostar, for example, uses more than 12 MW, while heavy diesel-electric locomotives typically produce/use 3 to 5 MW. U.S. nuclear power plants have net summer capacities between about 500 and 1300 MW.[8]

text: The earliest citing of the megawatt in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a reference in the 1900 Webster's International Dictionary of English Language. The OED also states that megawatt appeared in a 28 November 1947 article in the journal Science (506:2).

text: Gigawatt[edit]

text: The gigawatt (GW) is equal to one billion (109) watts or 1 gigawatt = 1000 megawatts. This unit is often used for large power plants or power grids. For example, by the end of 2010 power shortages in China's Shanxi province were expected to increase to 5–6 GW[9] and the installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 25.8 GW.[10] The largest unit (out of four) of the Belgian Doel Nuclear Power Station has a peak output of 1.04 GW.[11] HVDC converters have been built with power ratings of up to 2 GW.[12]

text: Terawatt[edit]

text: The terawatt (TW) is equal to one trillion (1012) watts. The total power used by humans worldwide is commonly measured in terawatts (see primary energy). The most powerful lasers from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s produced power in terawatts, but only for nanosecond time frames. The average lightning strike peaks at 1 terawatt, but these strikes only last for 30 microseconds.

text: Petawatt[edit]

text: The petawatt (PW) is equal to one quadrillion (1015) watts and can be produced by the current generation of lasers for time-scales on the order of picoseconds (10−12 s). One such laser is the Lawrence Livermore's Nova laser, which achieved a power output of 1.25 PW (7015125000000000000♠1.25×1015 W) by a process called chirped pulse amplification. The duration of the pulse was roughly 0.5 ps (6987500000000000000♠5×10−13 s), giving a total energy of 600 J.[13] Another example is the Laser for Fast Ignition Experiments (LFEX) at the Institute of Laser Engineering (ILE), Osaka University, which achieved a power output of 2 PW for a duration of approximately 1 ps.[14][15]

text: Based on the average total solar irradiance[16] of 1.366 kW/m2, the total power of sunlight striking Earth's atmosphere is estimated at 174 PW (see: solar constant).

text: Conventions in the electric power industry[edit]

text: In the electric power industry, megawatt electrical (MWe[17] or MWe[18]) refers by convention to the electric power produced by a generator, while megawatt thermal or thermal megawatt[19] (MWt, MWt, or MWth, MWth) refers to thermal power produced by the plant. For example, the Embalse nuclear power plant in Argentina uses a fission reactor to generate 2109 MWt (i.e. heat), which creates steam to drive a turbine, which generates 648 MWe (i.e. electricity). Other SI prefixes are sometimes used, for example gigawatt electrical (GWe). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which maintains the SI-standard, states that further information about a quantity should not be attached to the unit symbol but instead to the quantity symbol (i.e., Pthermal = 270 W rather than P = 270 Wth) and so these units are non-SI.[20] In compliance with SI the energy company DONG Energy uses the unit megawatt for produced electrical power and the equivalent unit megajoule/s for delivered heating power in a combined heat and power station such as Avedøre Power Station.[21]

text: When describing alternating current (AC) electricity, another distinction is made between the watt and the volt-ampere. While these units are equivalent for simple resistive circuits, they differ when loads exhibit electrical reactance.

text: Radio transmission[edit]

text: Radio stations usually report the power of their transmitters in units of watts, referring to the effective radiated power. It refers to the relative power of the transmission when it is directed towards the horizon for maximum geographic coverage, rather than uniformly broadcast in all directions.

text: Distinction between watts and watt-hours[edit]

text: The terms power and energy are frequently confused. Power is the rate at which energy is generated or consumed and hence is measured in units (e.g. watts) that represent energy per unit time.

text: For example, when a light bulb with a power rating of 100W is turned on for one hour, the energy used is 100 watt hours (W·h), 0.1 kilowatt hour, or 360 kJ. This same amount of energy would light a 40-watt bulb for 2.5 hours, or a 50-watt bulb for 2 hours.

text: Power stations are rated using units of power, typically megawatts or gigawatts (for example, the Three Gorges Dam is rated at approximately 22 gigawatts). This reflects the maximum power output it can achieve at any point in time. A power station's annual energy output, however, would be recorded using units of energy (not power), typically gigawatt hours. Major energy production or consumption is often expressed as terawatt hours for a given period; often a calendar year or financial year. One terawatt hour of energy is equal to a sustained power delivery of one terawatt for one hour, or approximately 114 megawatts for a period of one year.

text: The watt second is a unit of energy, equal to the joule. One kilowatt hour is 3,600,000 watt seconds. The watt second is used, for example, to rate the energy storage of flash lamps used in photography, although the term joule is generally employed.[citation needed]

text: While a watt per hour exists in principle (as a unit of rate of change of power with time[iii]), it is not correct to refer to a watt (or watt hour) as a "watt per hour".[22]


document_title: Drill

question_text: what is a bench drill press used for

question_tokens: what is a bench drill press used for

text: Drill

text: History[edit]

text: Around 35,000 BC, Homo sapiens discovered the benefits of the application of rotary tools. This would have rudimentarily consisted of a pointed rock being spun between the hands to bore a hole through another material.[1] This led to the hand drill, a smooth stick, that was sometimes attached to flint point, and was rubbed between the palms. This was used by many ancient civilizations around the world including the Mayans.[2] The earliest perforated artifacts, such as bone, ivory, shells and antlers found, are from the Upper Paleolithic era.[3]

text: Bow drill  (strap-drills) are the first machine drills, as they convert a back and forth motion to a rotary motion, and they can be traced back to around 10,000 years ago. It was discovered that tying a cord around a stick, and then attaching the ends of the string to the ends of a stick(a bow), allowed a user to drill quicker and more efficiently.  Mainly used to create fire, bow-drills were also used in ancient woodwork, stonework and dentistry.  Archaeologists discovered a Neolithic grave yard in Mehrgrath, Pakistan dating from the time of the Harappans, around 7,500–9,000 years ago,  containing 9 adult bodies with a total of 11 teeth that had been drilled.[4] There are hieroglyphs depicting Egyptian carpenters and bead makers in a tomb at Thebes using bow-drills. The earliest evidence of these tools being used in Egypt dates back to around 2500 BCE.[5] The usage of bow-drills was widely spread through Europe, Africa, Asia and North America, during ancient times and is still used today. Over the years many slight variations of bow and strap drills have developed for the various uses of either boring through materials or lighting fires.

text: The core drill was developed in ancient Egypt by 3000 BC(5016 years before now).[6] The pump drill was invented during Roman times. It consists of a vertical spindle aligned by a piece of horizontal wood and a flywheel to maintain accuracy and momentum.[7]

text: The hollow-borer tip, first used around the 13th century, consisted of a stick with a tubular shaped piece of metal on the end, such as copper. This allowed a hole to be drilled while only actually grinding the outer section of it. This completely separates the inner stone or wood from the rest, allowing the drill to pulverize less material to create a similarly sized hole.[8]

text: While the pump-drill and the bow-drill were used in Western Civilization to bore smaller holes for a larger part of human history, the Auger was used to drill larger holes starting sometime between Roman and Medieval ages.[9] The auger allowed for more torque for larger holes. It is uncertain when the Brace and Bit was invented; however, the earliest picture found so far dates from the 15th century.[9] It is a type of hand crank drill that consists of two parts as seen in the picture. The brace, on the upper half, is where the user holds and turns it and on the lower part is the bit. The bit is interchangeable as bits wear down. The auger uses a rotating helical screw similar to the Archimedean screw-shaped bit that is common today. The gimlet is also worth mentioning as it is a scaled down version of an auger.

text: In the East, churn drills were invented as early as 221 BC during the Chinese Qin Dynasty,[10] capable of reaching a depth of 1500 m.[6] Churn drills in ancient China were built of wood and labor-intensive, but were able to go through solid rock.[11] The churn drill appears in Europe during the 12th century.[6] In 1835 Isaac Singer is reported to have built a steam powered churn drill based off the method the Chinese used.[12] Also worth briefly discussing are the early  drill presses; they were machine tools that derived from bow-drills but were powered by windmills and water wheels. Drill presses consisted of the powered drills that could be raised or lowered into a material, allowing for less force by the user.

text: The next great advancement in drilling technology, the electric motor, led to the invention of the electric drill. It is credited to Arthur James Arnot  and William Blanch Brain of Melbourne, Australia who patented the electric drill in 1889.[13] In 1895, the first portable handheld drill was created by brothers Wilhem & Carl Fein of Stuttgart, Germany. In 1917 the first trigger-switch, pistol-grip portable drill was patented by Black & Decker.[14] This was the start of the modern drill era. Over the last century the electric drill has been created in a variety of types and multiple sizes for an assortment of specific uses.

text: Types[edit]

text: There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use electricity (electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the motive power, and a minority are driven by an internal combustion engine (for example, earth drilling augers). Drills with a percussive action (hammer drills) are mostly used in hard materials such as masonry (brick, concrete and stone) or rock. Drilling rigs are used to bore holes in the earth to obtain water or oil.  Oil wells, water wells, or holes for geothermal heating are created with large drilling rigs. Some types of hand-held drills are also used to drive screws and other fasteners. Some small appliances that have no motor of their own may be drill-powered, such as small pumps, grinders, etc.

text: Hand drills[edit]

text: A variety of hand-powered drills have been employed over the centuries.  Here are a few, starting with approximately the oldest:

text:
Bow drill
Brace and bit
Gimlet
Hand drill, also known as an "eggbeater" drill, or (especially in the UK) a wheel brace
Breast drill, similar to an "eggbeater" drill, it has a flat chest piece instead of a handle
Push drill, a tool using a spiral ratchet mechanism
Pin chuck, a small hand-held jeweler's drill

text: Pistol-grip (corded) drill[edit]

text: Drills with pistol grips are the most common type in use today, and are available in a huge variety of subtypes. A less common type is the right-angle drill, a special tool used by tradesmen such as plumbers and electricians. The motor used in corded drills is often a universal motor due to its high power to weight ratio.

text: For much of the 20th century, many attachments could commonly be purchased to convert corded electric hand drills into a range of other power tools, such as orbital sanders and power saws, more cheaply than purchasing conventional, self-contained versions of those tools  (the greatest saving being the lack of an additional electric motor for each device).  As the prices of power tools and suitable electric motors have fallen, however, such attachments have become much less common.  A similar practice is currently employed for cordless tools where the battery, the most expensive component, is shared between various motorised devices, as opposed to a single electric motor being shared between mechanical attachments.

text: Hammer drill[edit]

text: The hammer drill is similar to a standard electric drill, with the exception that it is provided with a hammer action for drilling masonry. The hammer action may be engaged or disengaged as required. Most electric hammer drills are rated (input power) at between 600 and 1100 watts. The efficiency is usually 50-60% i.e. 1000 watts of input is converted into 500-600 watts of output (rotation of the drill and hammering action).

text: The hammer action is provided by two cam plates that make the chuck rapidly pulse forward and backward as the drill spins on its axis. This pulsing (hammering) action is measured in Blows Per Minute (BPM) with 10,000 or more BPMs being common. Because the combined mass of the chuck and bit is comparable to that of the body of the drill, the energy transfer is inefficient and can sometimes make it difficult for larger bits to penetrate harder materials such as poured concrete. The operator experiences considerable vibration, and the cams are generally made from hardened steel to avoid them wearing out quickly. In practice, drills are restricted to standard masonry bits up to 13 mm (1/2 inch) in diameter.  A typical application for a hammer drill is installing electrical boxes, conduit straps or shelves in concrete.

text: In contrast to the cam-type hammer drill, a rotary/pneumatic hammer drill accelerates only the bit. This is accomplished through a piston design, rather than a spinning cam.  Rotary hammers have much less vibration and penetrate most building materials. They can also be used as "drill only" or as "hammer only" which extends their usefulness for tasks such as chipping brick or concrete. Hole drilling progress is greatly superior to cam-type hammer drills, and these drills are generally used for holes of 19 mm (3/4 inch) or greater in size.  A typical application for a rotary hammer drill is boring large holes for lag bolts in foundations, or installing large lead anchors in concrete for handrails or benches.

text: A standard hammer drill accepts 6 mm (1/4 inch) and 13 mm (1/2 inch) drill bits, while a rotary hammer uses SDS or Spline Shank bits.  These heavy bits are adept at pulverising the masonry and drill into this hard material with relative ease.

text: However, there is a big difference in cost. In the UK a cam hammer typically costs £12 or more, while a rotary/pneumatic costs £35 or more. In the US a typical hammer drill costs between $70 and $120, and a rotary hammer between $150 and $500 (depending on bit size). For DIY use or to drill holes less than 13 mm (1/2 inch) in size, the hammer drill is most commonly used.

text: Magnetic drilling machine[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A magnetic drilling machine is a portable drilling machine for drilling holes in large and heavy workpieces which are difficult to move or bring to the stationary conventional drilling machine. It has a magnetic base and drills holes with the help of cutting tools like annular cutters (broach cutters) or with twist drill bits. There are various types  depending on their operations and specializations like magnetic drilling cum tapping machines, cordless, pneumatic, compact horizontal, automatic feed, cross table base etc.

text: It is also commonly known as a magnetic core drilling machine, magnetic base drilling machine, mag base drilling machine, mag base, magnetic broach cutter machine, magnetic drill or mag drill.

text: Rotary hammer drill[edit]

text: The rotary hammer drill (also known as a rotary hammer, roto hammer drill or masonry drill) combines a primary dedicated hammer mechanism with a separate rotation mechanism, and is used for more substantial material such as masonry or concrete. Generally, standard chucks and drills are inadequate and chucks such as SDS and carbide drills that have been designed to withstand the percussive forces are used. Some styles of this tool are intended for masonry drilling only and the hammer action cannot be disengaged. Other styles allow the drill to be used without the hammer action for normal drilling, or hammering to be used without rotation for chiselling. In 1813 Richard Trevithick designed a steam-driven rotary drill, also the first drill to be powered by steam.[15]

text: Cordless drills[edit]

text: A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable batteries. These drills are available with similar features to an AC mains-powered drill. These are the most common type of drill. They are available in the hammer drill configuration and most have a clutch, which aids in driving screws into various substrates while not damaging them. Also available are right angle drills, which allow a worker to drive screws in a tight space. While 21st century battery innovations allow significantly more drilling, large diameter holes (typically 12–25 mm (0.5–1.0 in) or larger) may drain current cordless drills quickly.

text: For continuous use, a worker will have one or more spare battery packs charging while drilling, and quickly swap them instead of having to wait an hour or more for recharging, although there are now Rapid Charge Batteries that can charge in 10–15 minutes.

text: Early cordless drills used interchangeable 7.2 V battery packs. Over the years battery voltages have increased, with 18 V drills being most common, but higher voltages are available, such as 24 V, 28 V, and 36 V. This allows these tools to produce as much torque as some corded drills.

text: Common battery types of are nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries and lithium-ion batteries, with each holding about half the market share. NiCd batteries have been around longer, so they are less expensive (their main advantage), but have more disadvantages compared to lithium-ion batteries. NiCd disadvantages are limited life, self-discharging, environment problems upon disposal, and eventually internally short circuiting due to dendrite growth. Lithium-ion batteries are becoming more common because of their short charging time, longer life, absence of memory effect, and low weight. Instead of charging a tool for an hour to get 20 minutes of use, 20 minutes of charge can run the tool for an hour. Lithium-ion batteries also hold a charge for a significantly longer time than nickel-cadmium batteries, about two years if not used, vs. 1 to 4 months for a nickel-cadmium battery.

text: Drill press[edit]

text: A drill press (also known as a pedestal drill, pillar drill, or bench drill) is a fixed style of drill that may be mounted on a stand or bolted to the floor or workbench. Portable models with a magnetic base grip the steel workpieces they drill. A drill press consists of a base, column (or pillar), table, spindle (or quill), and drill head, usually driven by an induction motor. The head has a set of handles (usually 3) radiating from a central hub that, when turned, move the spindle and chuck vertically, parallel to the axis of the column. The drill press is typically measured in terms of swing.  Swing is defined as twice the throat distance, which is the distance from the center of the spindle to the closest edge of the pillar. For example, a 16-inch (410 mm) drill press has an 8-inch (200 mm) throat distance.

text: A drill press has a number of advantages over a hand-held drill:

text:
Less effort is required to apply the drill to the workpiece. The movement of the chuck and spindle is by a lever working on a rack and pinion, which gives the operator considerable mechanical advantage
The table allows a vise or clamp to be used to position and restrain the work, making the operation much more secure
The angle of the spindle is fixed relative to the table, allowing holes to be drilled accurately and consistently
Drill presses are almost always equipped with more powerful motors compared to hand-held drills.  This enables larger drill bits to be used and also speeds up drilling with smaller bits.

text: For most drill presses—especially those meant for woodworking or home use—speed change is achieved by manually moving a belt across a stepped pulley arrangement. Some drill presses add a third stepped pulley to increase the number of available speeds. Modern drill presses can, however, use a variable-speed motor in conjunction with the stepped-pulley system.  Medium-duty drill presses such as those used in machine shop (tool room) applications are equipped with a continuously variable transmission.  This mechanism is based on variable-diameter pulleys driving a wide, heavy-duty belt.  This gives a wide speed range as well as the ability to change speed while the machine is running.  Heavy-duty drill presses used for metalworking are usually of the gear-head type described below.

text: Drill presses are often used for miscellaneous workshop tasks other than drilling holes.  This includes sanding, honing, and polishing.  These tasks can be performed by mounting sanding drums, honing wheels and various other rotating accessories in the chuck.  This can be unsafe in some cases, as the chuck arbor, which may be retained in the spindle solely by the friction of a taper fit, may dislodge during operation if the side loads are too high.

text: Geared head drill press[edit]

text: A geared head drill press is a drill press in which power transmission from the motor to the spindle is achieved solely through spur gearing inside the machine's head.  No friction elements (e.g., belts) of any kind are used, which assures a positive drive at all times and minimizes maintenance requirements.  Gear head drills are intended for metalworking applications where the drilling forces are higher and the desired speed (RPM) is lower than that used for woodworking.

text: Levers attached to one side of the head are used to select different gear ratios to change the spindle speed, usually in conjunction with a two- or three-speed motor (this varies with the material).  Most machines of this type are designed to be operated on three-phase electric power and are generally of more rugged construction than equivalently sized belt-driven units.  Virtually all examples have geared racks for adjusting the table and head position on the column.

text: Geared head drill presses are commonly found in tool rooms and other commercial environments where a heavy duty machine capable of production drilling and quick setup changes is required.  In most cases, the spindle is machined to accept Morse taper tooling for greater flexibility.  Larger geared head drill presses are frequently fitted with power feed on the quill mechanism, with an arrangement to disengage the feed when a certain drill depth has been achieved or in the event of excessive travel.  Some gear-head drill presses have the ability to perform tapping operations without the need for an external tapping attachment. This feature is commonplace on larger gear head drill presses.  A clutch mechanism drives the tap into the part under power and then backs it out of the threaded hole once the proper depth is reached.  Coolant systems are also common on these machines to prolong tool life under production conditions.

text: Radial arm drill press[edit]

text: A radial arm drill press is a large geared head drill press in which the head can be moved along an arm that radiates from the machine's column.  As it is possible to swing the arm relative to the machine's base, a radial arm drill press is able to operate over a large area without having to reposition the workpiece.  This saves considerable time because it is much faster to reposition the drill head than it is to unclamp, move, and then re-clamp the workpiece to the table.  The size of work that can be handled may be considerable, as the arm can swing out of the way of the table, allowing an overhead crane or derrick to place a bulky workpiece on the table or base. A vise may be used with a radial arm drill press, but more often the workpiece is secured directly to the table or base, or is held in a fixture.  Power spindle feed is nearly universal with these machines and coolant systems are common.  Larger size machines often have power feed motors for elevating or moving the arm.  The biggest radial arm drill presses are able to drill holes as large as four inches (101.6 millimeters) diameter in solid steel or cast iron.  Radial arm drills are specified by the diameter of the column and the length of the arm.  The length of the arm is usually the same as the maximum throat distance.  The Radial Arm Drill pictured in this article is a 9-inch column x 3-foot arm.  The maximum throat distance of this drill would be approximately 36", giving a swing of 72" (6 feet)..

text: Mill drill[edit]

text: Mill drills are a lighter alternative to a milling machine. They combine a drill press (belt driven) with the X/Y coordinate abilities of the milling machine's table and a locking collet that ensures that the cutting tool will not fall from the spindle when lateral forces are experienced against the bit. Although they are light in construction, they have the advantages of being space-saving and versatile as well as inexpensive, being suitable for light machining that may otherwise not be affordable.

text: Braces drills[edit]

text:
A woodworker’s brace has a ‘U’ formed wrench/outline that is utilized to transform the hurl and drill into wood. The breadth handle of a brace gives more use which enables the brace to create more torque than a hand drill. The scope handle of a brace causes it to produce more torque than a hand drill, because of it having a more prominent separation from the focal point of revolution so giving more use than the turning handle of a hand drill . Wood screw bits can be utilized with a brace to drill vast distance across gaps.
The more noteworthy torque connected to the bit in the hurl improves braces suited than hand drills for use with a twist drill bit for drilling huge distance across gaps in the wood. Selection of screwdriver bits that can be utilized with a brace to drive screws into or expel them from a workpiece.

text: SDS Drills[edit]

text: Also called the rotational hammer drill, an SDS (Self Direct System) drill is perfect for drilling through stonework and cement. They have a hammer work that beats the drill bit as it pivots, helping them travel through the denser materials. Also, you can isolate out the pivot from this hammer work, enabling you to just drill through lighter materials. Or, on the other hand, you can kill the pivot and utilize an etch bit to help wear down your block or solid dividers – this is useful if you have to make a station in a divider to shroud wires or links.[16]

text: Accessories[edit]

text: Drills are often used simply as motors to drive a variety of applications, in much the same way that tractors with generic PTOs are used to power ploughs, mowers, trailers, etc.

text: Accessories available for drills include:

text:
Screw-driving tips of various kinds - flathead, Philips, etc. for driving screws in or out
Water pumps
Nibblers for cutting metal sheet
Rotary sanding discs
Rotary polishing discs
Rotary cleaning brushes

text: Drilling capacity[edit]

text: Drilling capacity indicates the maximum diameter a given power drill or drill press can produce in a certain material.  It is essentially a proxy for the continuous torque the machine is capable of producing.  Typically a given drill will have its capacity specified for different materials,  i.e., 10mm for steel, 25mm for wood, etc.

text: For example, the maximum recommended capacities for the DeWalt DCD790 cordless drill for specific drill bit types and materials are as follows:[17]

text:
Material
Drill bit type
Capacity

Wood

Auger
7⁄8 in (22 mm)

Paddle
1 1⁄4 in (32 mm)

Twist
1⁄2 in (13 mm)

Self-feed
1 3⁄8 in (35 mm)

Hole saw
2 in (51 mm)

Metal

Twist
1⁄2 in (13 mm)

Hole saw
1 3⁄8 in (35 mm)

text: Unusual uses[edit]

text:
A household drill was used to save a boy's life in Australia. The boy suffered from potentially fatal bleeding within the brain after a fall from his bicycle. Lacking any surgical equipment suitable for the task, the attending doctor decided to use a household drill stored in the hospital maintenance room in order to relieve the blood pressure in the boy's brain. If this had not been done, the boy would have died in minutes. The doctor performed the procedure and was guided by a neurosurgeon over the phone. The boy was later airlifted to a larger hospital and recovered within days.[18]
The 1970s horror movies The Toolbox Murders and The Wiener depict deranged killers using battery powered drills to kill their victims.[19]
In the video game BioShock, certain variants of Big Daddies use giant arm-mounted drills to perform maintenance tasks and to kill Splicers that attack Little Sisters.[citation needed]
Van Halen guitarist Eddie Van Halen has used an electric drill to create an odd effect on the strings. It has been played on songs such as Poundcake and Intruder/(Oh) Pretty Woman.[citation needed]