document_title: Overhead power line

question_text: what is the voltage in residential power lines

text: Overhead power line

text: Construction[edit]

text:
Towers for support of the lines are made of wood (as-grown or laminated), steel or aluminum (either lattice structures or tubular poles), concrete, and occasionally reinforced plastics.  The bare wire conductors on the line are generally made of aluminum (either plain or reinforced with steel, or composite materials such as carbon and glass fiber), though some copper wires are used in medium-voltage distribution and low-voltage connections to customer premises. A major goal of overhead power line design is to maintain adequate clearance between energized conductors and the ground so as to prevent dangerous contact with the line, and to provide reliable support for the conductors, resilience to storms, ice loads, earthquakes and other potential damage causes.[1]
Today overhead lines are routinely operated at voltages exceeding 765,000 volts between conductors, with even higher voltages possible in some cases.

text: Classification by operating voltage[edit]

text: Overhead power transmission lines are classified in the electrical power industry by the range of voltages:

text:
Low voltage (LV) – less than 1000 volts, used for connection between a residential or small commercial customer and the utility.
Medium voltage (MV; distribution) – between 1000 volts (1 kV) and 69 kV, used for distribution in urban and rural areas.
High voltage (HV; subtransmission less than 100 kV; subtransmission or transmission at voltages such as 115 kV and 138 kV), used for sub-transmission and transmission of bulk quantities of electric power and connection to very large consumers.
Extra high voltage (EHV; transmission) – from 345 kV, up to about 800 kV,[2][page needed] used for long distance, very high power transmission.
Ultra high voltage (UHV) – higher than 800 kV. The Financial Times reported UHV lines are a "game changer", making a global electricity grid potentially feasible.  StateGrid said that compared to conventional lines, UHV enables the transmission of five time more power, over six times the distance.[3]

tag: ul

text: Structures[edit]

text: Structures for overhead lines take a variety of shapes depending on the type of line. Structures may be as simple as wood poles directly set in the earth, carrying one or more cross-arm beams to support conductors, or "armless" construction with conductors supported on insulators attached to the side of the pole.  Tubular steel poles are typically used in urban areas.  High-voltage lines are often carried on lattice-type steel towers or pylons. For remote areas, aluminum towers may be placed by helicopters.[4][5] Concrete poles have also been used.[1] Poles made of reinforced plastics are also available, but their high cost restricts application.

text: Each structure must be designed for the loads imposed on it by the conductors.[1] The weight of the conductor must be supported, as well as dynamic loads due to wind and ice accumulation, and effects of vibration. Where conductors are in a straight line, towers need only resist the weight since the tension in the conductors approximately balances with no resultant force on the structure.  Flexible conductors supported at their ends approximate the form of a catenary, and much of the analysis for construction of transmission lines relies on the properties of this form.[1]

text: A large transmission line project may have several types of towers, with "tangent" ("suspension" or "line" towers, UK) towers intended for most positions and more heavily constructed towers used for turning the line through an angle, dead-ending (terminating) a line, or for important river or road crossings.  Depending on the design criteria for a particular line, semi-flexible type structures may rely on the weight of the conductors to be balanced on both sides of each tower.  More rigid structures may be intended to remain standing even if one or more conductors is broken.  Such structures may be installed at intervals in power lines to limit the scale of cascading tower failures.[1]

text: Foundations for tower structures may be large and costly, particularly if the ground conditions are poor, such as in wetlands.  Each structure may be stabilized considerably by the use of guy wires to counteract some of the forces applied by the conductors.

text: Power lines and supporting structures can be a form of visual pollution. In some cases the lines are buried to avoid this, but this "undergrounding" is more expensive and therefore not common.

text: For a single wood utility pole structure, a pole is placed in the ground, then three crossarms extend from this, either staggered or all to one side. The insulators are attached to the crossarms. For an "H"-type wood pole structure, two poles are placed in the ground, then a crossbar is placed on top of these, extending to both sides. The insulators are attached at the ends and in the middle. Lattice tower structures have two common forms. One has a pyramidal base, then a vertical section, where three crossarms extend out, typically staggered. The strain insulators are attached to the crossarms. Another has a pyramidal base, which extends to four support points. On top of this a horizontal truss-like structure is placed.

text:
A grounded wire is sometimes strung along the tops of the towers to provide lightning protection. An optical ground wire is a more advanced version with embedded optical fibers for communication. Overhead wire markers can be mounted on the ground wire to meet International Civil Aviation Organization recommendations.[6]
Some markers include flashing lamps for night-time warning.

text: Circuits[edit]

text: A single-circuit transmission line carries conductors for only one circuit. For a three-phase system, this implies that each tower supports three conductors.

text: A double-circuit transmission line  has two circuits. For three-phase systems, each tower supports and insulates six conductors. Single phase AC-power lines as used for traction current have four conductors for two circuits. Usually both circuits operate at the same voltage.

text: In HVDC systems typically two conductors are carried per line, but in rare cases only one pole of the system is carried on a set of towers.

text: In some countries like Germany most power lines with voltages above 100 kV are implemented as double, quadruple or in rare cases even hextuple power line as rights of way are rare. Sometimes all conductors are installed with the erection of the pylons; often some circuits are installed later. A disadvantage of double circuit transmission lines is that maintenance can be difficult, as either work in close proximity of high voltage or switch-off of two circuits is required.  In case of failure, both systems can be affected.

text: The largest double-circuit transmission line is the Kita-Iwaki Powerline.

text:
A single-circuit line

A double-circuit line

Parallel single-circuit lines

Four circuits on one tower line

six circuits of three different types

Various powerlines (110/220 kV) in Germany with double and quadruple circuits

text: Insulators[edit]

text: Insulators must support the conductors and withstand both the normal operating voltage and surges due to switching and lightning.  Insulators are broadly classified as either pin-type,  which support the conductor above the structure, or suspension type, where the conductor hangs below the structure. The invention of the strain insulator was a critical factor in allowing higher voltages to be used.

text: At the end of the 19th century, the limited electrical strength of telegraph-style pin insulators limited the voltage to no more than 69,000 volts. Up to about 33 kV (69 kV in North America) both types are commonly used.[1] At higher voltages only suspension-type insulators are common for overhead conductors.

text: Insulators are usually made of wet-process porcelain or toughened glass, with increasing use of glass-reinforced polymer insulators. However, with rising voltage levels, polymer insulators (silicone rubber based) are seeing increasing usage.[7] China has already developed polymer insulators having a highest system voltage of 1100 kV and India is currently developing a 1200 kV (highest system voltage) line which will initially be charged with 400 kV to be upgraded to a 1200 kV line.[8]

text: Suspension insulators are made of multiple units, with the number of unit insulator disks increasing at higher voltages.  The number of disks is chosen based on line voltage, lightning withstand  requirement, altitude, and environmental factors such as fog, pollution, or salt spray. In cases where these conditions are suboptimal, longer insulators must be used. Longer insulators with longer creepage distance for leakage current, are required in these cases. Strain insulators must be strong enough mechanically to support the full weight of the span of conductor, as well as loads due to ice accumulation, and wind.[9]

text: Porcelain insulators may have a semi-conductive glaze finish, so that a small current (a few milliamperes) passes through the insulator.  This warms the surface slightly and reduces the effect of fog and dirt accumulation.  The semiconducting glaze also ensures a more even distribution of voltage along the length of the chain of insulator units.

text: Polymer insulators by nature have hydrophobic characteristics providing for improved wet performance. Also, studies have shown that the specific creepage distance required in polymer insulators is much lower than that required in porcelain or glass. Additionally, the mass of polymer insulators (especially in higher voltages) is approximately 50% to 30% less than that of a comparative porcelain or glass string. Better pollution and wet performance is leading to the increased use of such insulators.

text: Insulators for very high voltages, exceeding 200 kV, may have grading rings installed at their terminals.  This improves the electric field distribution around the insulator and makes it more resistant to flash-over during voltage surges.

text: Conductors[edit]

text:
The most common conductor in use for transmission today is aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR). Also seeing much use is all-aluminum-alloy conductor (AAAC). Aluminum is used because it has about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable (though larger diameter due to lower specific conductivity), as well as being cheaper.[1]
Copper was more popular in the past and is still in use, especially at lower voltages and for grounding.

text: While larger conductors may lose less energy due to lower electrical resistance, they are more costly than smaller conductors.  An optimization rule called Kelvin's Law states that the optimum size of conductor for a line is found when the cost of the energy wasted in the conductor is equal to the annual interest paid on that portion of the line construction cost due to the size of the conductors. The optimization problem is made more complex by additional factors such as varying annual load, varying cost of installation, and the discrete sizes of cable that are commonly made.[1]

text: Since a conductor is a flexible object with uniform weight per unit length, the geometric shape of a conductor strung on towers approximates that of a catenary. The sag of the conductor (vertical distance between the highest and lowest point of the curve) varies depending on the temperature and additional load such as ice cover. A minimum overhead clearance must be maintained for safety. Since the temperature of the conductor increases with increasing heat produced by the current through it, it is sometimes possible to increase the power handling capacity (uprate) by changing the conductors for a type with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion or a higher allowable operating temperature.

text: Two such conductors that offer reduced thermal sag are known as composite core conductors (ACCR and ACCC conductor).  In lieu of steel core strands that are often used to increase overall conductor strength, the ACCC conductor uses a carbon and glass fiber core that offers a coefficient of thermal expansion about 1/10 of that of steel.  While the composite core is nonconductive, it is substantially lighter and stronger than steel, which allows the incorporation of 28% more aluminum (using compact trapezoidal-shaped strands) without any diameter or weight penalty.  The added aluminum content helps reduce line losses by 25 to 40% compared to other conductors of the same diameter and weight, depending upon electric current.  The carbon core conductor's reduced thermal sag allows it to carry up to twice the current ("ampacity") compared to all-aluminum conductor (AAC) or ACSR.

text: The power lines and their surroundings must be maintained by linemen, sometimes assisted by helicopters with pressure washers or circular saws which may work three times faster. However this work often occurs in the dangerous areas of the Helicopter height–velocity diagram,[10][11][12] and the pilot must be qualified for this "human external cargo" method.[13]

text: Bundle conductors[edit]

text: For transmission of power across long distances, high voltage transmission is employed. Transmission higher than 132 kV poses the problem of corona discharge, which causes significant power loss and interference with communication circuits. To reduce this corona effect, it is preferable to use more than one conductor per phase, or bundled conductors.[14]

text: Bundle conductors consist of several parallel cables connected at intervals by spacers, often in a cylindrical configuration. The optimum number of conductors depends on the current rating, but typically higher-voltage lines also have higher current. American Electric Power[15] is building 765 kV lines using six conductors per phase in a bundle. Spacers must resist the forces due to wind, and magnetic forces during a short-circuit.

text: Bundled conductors reduce the voltage gradient in the vicinity of the line. This reduces the possibility of corona discharge. At extra high voltage, the electric field gradient at the surface of a single conductor is high enough to ionize air, which wastes power, generates unwanted audible noise and interferes with communication systems.  The field surrounding a bundle of conductors is similar to the field that would surround a single, very large conductor—this produces lower gradients which mitigates issues associated with high field strength. The transmission efficiency is improved as loss due to corona effect is countered.

text: Bundled conductors cool themselves more efficiently due to the increased surface area of the conductors, further reducing line losses. When transmitting alternating current, bundle conductors also avoid the reduction in ampacity of a single large conductor due to the skin effect. A bundle conductor also has lower reactance, compared to a single conductor.

text: While wind resistance is higher, wind-induced oscillation can be damped at bundle spacers. The ice and wind loading of bundled conductors will be greater than a single conductor of the same total cross section, and bundled conductors are more difficult to install than single conductors.

text: Ground wires[edit]

text: Overhead power lines are often equipped with a ground conductor (shield wire, static wire, or overhead earth wire). The ground conductor is usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the supporting structure, to minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to the phase conductors.[16] In circuits with earthed neutral, it also serves as a parallel path with the earth for fault currents. Very high-voltage transmission lines may have two ground conductors. These are either at the outermost ends of the highest cross beam, at two V-shaped mast points, or at a separate cross arm. Older lines may use surge arresters every few spans in place of a shield wire; this configuration is typically found in the more rural areas of the United States. By protecting the line from lightning, the design of apparatus in substations is simplified due to lower stress on insulation. Shield wires on transmission lines may include optical fibers (optical ground wires/OPGW), used for communication and control of the power system.

text: At some HVDC converter stations, the ground wire is used also as the electrode line to connect to a distant grounding electrode. This allows the HVDC system to use the earth as one conductor. The ground conductor is mounted on small insulators bridged by lightning arrestors above the phase conductors. The insulation prevents electrochemical corrosion of the pylon.

text: Medium-voltage distribution lines may also use one or two shield wires, or may have the grounded conductor strung below the phase conductors to provide some measure of protection against tall vehicles or equipment touching the energized line, as well as to provide a neutral line in Wye wired systems.

text: On some power lines for very high voltages in the former Soviet Union, the ground wire is used for PLC-radio systems and mounted on insulators at the pylons.

text: Insulated conductors and cable[edit]

text: Overhead insulated cables are rarely used, usually for short distances (less than a kilometer). Insulated cables can be directly fastened to structures without insulating supports.  An overhead line with bare conductors insulated by air is typically less costly than a cable with insulated conductors.

text: A more common approach is "covered" line wire. It is treated as bare cable, but often is safer for wildlife, as the insulation on the cables increases the likelihood of a large-wing-span raptor to survive a brush with the lines, and reduces the overall danger of the lines slightly. These types of lines are often seen in the eastern United States and in heavily wooded areas, where tree-line contact is likely. The only pitfall is cost, as insulated wire is often costlier than its bare counterpart. Many utility companies implement covered line wire as jumper material where the wires are often closer to each other on the pole, such as an underground riser/pothead, and on reclosers, cutouts and the like.

text: Compact transmission lines[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A compact overhead transmission line requires a smaller right of way than a standard overhead powerline. Conductors must not get too close to each other. This can be achieved either by short span lengths and insulating crossbars, or by separating the conductors in the span with insulators. The first type is easier to build as it does not require insulators in the span, which may be difficult to install and to maintain.

text: Examples of compact lines are:

text:
Lutsk compact overhead powerline 50°46′29″N 25°23′07″E / 50.774673°N 25.385215°E / 50.774673; 25.385215 (Startpoint of Lutsk Compact Overhead Powerline)
Hilpertsau-Weisenbach compact overhead line 48°44′16″N 8°21′20″E / 48.737898°N 8.355660°E / 48.737898; 8.355660 (Startpoint of Hilpertsau-Weisenbach Powerline)

text: Compact transmission lines may be designed for voltage upgrade of existing lines to increase the power that can be transmitted on an existing right of way.[17]

text: Low voltage[edit]

text: Low voltage overhead lines may use either bare conductors carried on glass or ceramic insulators or an aerial bundled cable system. The number of conductors may be anywhere between two (most likely a phase and neutral) up to as many as six (three phase conductors, separate neutral and earth plus street lighting supplied by a common switch); a common case is four (three phase and neutral, where the neutral might also serve as a protective earthing conductor).

text: Train power[edit]

text: Overhead lines or overhead wires are used to transmit electrical energy to trams, trolleybuses or trains. Overhead line is designed on the principle of one or more overhead wires situated over rail tracks. Feeder stations at regular intervals along the overhead line supply power from the high-voltage grid. For some cases low-frequency AC is used, and distributed by a special traction current network.

text: Further applications[edit]

text: Overhead lines are also occasionally used to supply transmitting antennas, especially for efficient transmission of long, medium and short waves. For this purpose a staggered array line is often used. Along a staggered array line the conductor cables for the supply of the earth net of the transmitting antenna are attached on the exterior of a ring, while the conductor inside the ring, is fastened to insulators leading to the high-voltage standing feeder of the antenna.

text: Use of area under overhead power lines[edit]

text: Use of the area below an overhead line is limited because objects must not come too close to the energized conductors. Overhead lines and structures may shed ice, creating a hazard. Radio reception can be impaired under a power line, due both to shielding of a receiver antenna by the overhead conductors, and by partial discharge at insulators and sharp points of the conductors which creates radio noise.

text: In the area surrounding the overhead lines it is dangerous to risk interference; e.g. flying kites or  balloons, using ladders or operating machinery.

text: Overhead distribution and transmission lines near airfields are often marked on maps, and the lines themselves marked with conspicuous plastic reflectors, to warn pilots of the presence of conductors.

text: Construction of overhead power lines, especially in wilderness areas, may have significant environmental effects. Environmental studies for such projects may consider the effect of bush clearing, changed migration routes for migratory animals, possible access by predators and humans along transmission corridors, disturbances of fish habitat at stream crossings, and other effects.

text: Aviation accidents[edit]

text: General aviation, hang gliding, paragliding, skydiving, balloon, and kite flying must avoid accidental contact with power lines. Nearly every kite product warns users to stay away from power lines. Deaths occur when aircraft crash into power lines. Some power lines are marked with obstruction makers, especially near air strips or over waterways that may support floatplane operations. The placement of power lines sometimes use up sites that would otherwise be used by hang gliders.[18][19]

text: History[edit]

text: The first transmission of electrical impulses over an extended distance was demonstrated on July 14, 1729 by the physicist Stephen Gray.[citation needed] The demonstration used damp hemp cords suspended by silk threads (the low resistance of metallic conductors not being appreciated at the time).

text: However the first practical use of overhead lines was in the context of telegraphy. By 1837 experimental commercial telegraph systems ran as far as  20 km (13 miles).   Electric power transmission was accomplished in 1882 with the first high-voltage transmission between Munich and Miesbach (60 km). 1891 saw the construction of the first three-phase alternating current overhead line on the occasion of the International Electricity Exhibition in Frankfurt, between Lauffen and Frankfurt.

text: In 1912 the first 110 kV-overhead power line entered service followed by the first 220 kV-overhead power line in 1923. In the 1920s RWE AG built the first overhead line for this voltage and in 1926 built a Rhine crossing with the pylons of Voerde, two masts 138 meters high.

text:
In 1953, the first 345 kV line was put into service by American Electric Power in the United States. In Germany in 1957 the first 380 kV overhead power line was commissioned (between the transformer station and Rommerskirchen). In the same year the overhead line traversing of the Strait of Messina went into service in Italy, whose pylons served the Elbe crossing 1. This was used as the model for the building of the Elbe crossing 2 in the second half of the 1970s which saw the construction of the highest overhead line pylons of the world. Earlier, in 1952, the first 380 kV line was put into service in Sweden, in 1000 km (625 miles) between the more populated areas in the south and the largest hydroelectric power stations in the north.
Starting from 1967 in Russia, and also in the USA and Canada, overhead lines for voltage of 765 kV were built. In 1982 overhead power lines were built in Soviet Union between Elektrostal and the power station at Ekibastuz, this was a three-phase alternating current line at 1150 kV (Powerline Ekibastuz-Kokshetau). In 1999, in Japan the first powerline designed for 1000 kV with 2 circuits were built, the Kita-Iwaki Powerline. In 2003 the building of the highest overhead line commenced in China, the Yangtze River Crossing.

text: Mathematical analysis[edit]

text: An overhead power line is one example of a transmission line. At power system frequencies, many useful simplifications can be made for lines of typical lengths. For analysis of power systems, the distributed resistance, series inductance, shunt leakage resistance and shunt capacitance can be replaced with suitable lumped values or simplified networks.

text: Short and medium line model[edit]

text: A short length of a power line (less than 80 km) can be approximated with a resistance in series with an inductance and ignoring the shunt admittances. This value is not the total impedance of the line, but rather the series impedance per unit length of line. For a longer length of line (80–250 km), a shunt capacitance is added to the model. In this case it is common to distribute half of the total capacitance to each side of the line. As a result, the power line can be represented as a two-port network, such as ABCD parameters.[20]

text: The circuit can be characterized as

text: where

text:
Z is the total series line impedance
z is the series impedance per unit length
l is the line length

ω

{\displaystyle \omega \ }

 is the sinusoidal angular frequency

text: The medium line has an additional shunt admittance

text: where

text:
Y is the total shunt line admittance
y is the shunt admittance per unit length

text:
Short length of power line

Medium length of power line


document_title: Salary of Government Officials in India

question_text: salary of vice president of india in 2018

root

text: Salary of Government Officials in India

text:
Salaries of Government Ministers, Government Officers, Constitutional Functionaries, Armed Forces Officers, Judges, Members of Parliament in India[hide]

Position in Indian Order of Precedence
Post
Salary per month
Remarks

1
President
₹500,000 (US$7,700) (per month)[1][2]
+ Other allowances fixed to President of India.

2
Vice-President
₹400,000 (US$6,100) (per month)[3]
+ Other allowances fixed to Vice President of India

3
Prime Minister
₹165,000 (US$2,500) monthly (includes salary received as a Member of Parliament in Lok Sabha)
+ Other allowances for the Prime Minister of India.

4
Governors of States
₹350,000 (US$5,400)[4]
+ Other allowances fixed for Governors of States.

6
Chief Justice
₹280,000 (US$4,300)
+ Other allowances fixed for Chief Justice of India.

9
Judges of Supreme Court of India
₹250,000 (US$3,800)
+ Other allowances fixed for SC Judges.

9A
Chief Election Commissioner of India
₹250,000 (US$3,800) monthly[5][6]
+ Other allowances.

9A
Comptroller and Auditor General of India
₹250,000 (US$3,800) monthly[6][7]
+ Other allowances.

9A
Chairman of Union Public Service Commission
₹250,000 (US$3,800) monthly[8][9]
+ Other allowances.

11
Cabinet Secretary of India
₹250,000 (US$3,800) monthly[10][11]
+ Other allowances. Senior-most civil servant in Government of India.

11
Lieutenants Governor of Union Territories
₹110,000 (US$1,700)[4]
+ Other allowances fixed by the Union Government.

12
Chiefs of Staff (Army, Air, Naval) in the rank of General and equivalent ranks in Indian Armed Forces
₹250,000 (US$3,800) monthly[10][11]
+ Other allowances. Senior-most Armed Forces personnel in Government of India.

14
Chief Justice of High Courts
₹250,000 (US$3,800)
+ Other allowances fixed for Judges.

16
Judges of High Courts
₹225,000 (US$3,400)
+ Other allowances fixed for Judges.

21
Member of Parliament of India
₹50,000 (US$770)[12]
+ Constituency allowances ₹45,000 (US$690) + Parliament office allowance ₹45,000 (US$690) + Parliament session allowance (₹2,000 (US$31) per day).

23
Secretaries to Government of India, Special Secretaries to Government of India, Vice Chief of Army Staff/Commanders in the rank of Lieutenant General and equivalent ranks in Indian Armed Forces
₹225,000 (US$3,400)[10][11]
+ Other allowances.

23
Chief Secretaries of State Governments, Additional Chief/Special Chief Secretaries to State Governments
₹225,000 (US$3,400)[10][11]
+ Other allowances. Senior-most civil servant in State Governments.

25
Additional Secretaries to Government of India
₹182,200 (US$2,800) (Minimum Pay) to ₹224,100 (US$3,400) (Maximum Pay)[10][11]
+ Other allowances.

25
Principal Secretaries to State Governments
₹182,200 (US$2,800) (Minimum Pay) to ₹224,100 (US$3,400) (Maximum Pay)[10][11]
+ Other allowances.

26
Joint Secretaries to Government of India, Major General and equivalent ranks in Indian Armed Forces
₹144,200 (US$2,200) (Minimum Pay) to ₹218,200 (US$3,300) (Maximum Pay)[10][11]
+ Other allowances.

26
Secretaries to State Governments
₹144,200 (US$2,200) (Minimum Pay) to ₹218,200 (US$3,300) (Maximum Pay)[10][11]
+ Other allowances.

tag: table

text: The Basic salary of Chief Ministers of Indian states, varies as per state governments income's.

tag: p


document_title: BMW 1 Series

question_text: when did the bmw 1 series have a facelift

text: BMW 1 Series

text: First Generation (E81/E82/E87/E88; 2004–2013)[edit]

text: The BMW E81/E82/E87/E88 is the first generation of the 1 Series, which was produced from 2004 to 2013. It replaced the 3 Series Compact as the smallest and least expensive vehicle in the BMW range.

text: The body styles consist of a 3-door hatchback (E81), 5-door hatchback (E87), 2-door coupe (E82) and 2-door convertible (E88).

text: The engines available were four-cylinder diesel and four- and six-cylinder petrol, in both naturally aspirated and turbocharged forms. Unlike most hatchback competitors, the E81/E82/E87/E88 uses rear-wheel drive (instead of front-wheel drive).[1][2]

text: The 1 Series accounted for nearly one-fifth of the total BMW sales in 2008.[3]

text: Second Generation (F20/F21; 2011–present)[edit]

text: The F20/F21 is the second generation of the 1 Series, which was released in 2011.

text: The body styles of the F20/F21 range are a 3-door hatchback (model code F21) and a 5-door hatchback (model code F20).

text: For the second generation of 1 Series, the coupe and convertible models were spun off to create the BMW 2 Series range.

text: The F20/F21 was initially powered by four-cylinder petrol, four-cylinder diesel and six-cylinder petrol engines. In 2015, three-cylinder petrol and diesel engines were added to the model range. All engines are turbocharged.

text: Unlike most hatchback competitors, the F20/F21 uses a longitudinally-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive (instead of front-wheel drive) for most models. The F20/F21 is the first 1 Series to offer an optional all-wheel drive (called "xDrive" by BMW).[4]

text: Chinese market 1 Series sedan (F52; 2017–present)[edit]

text: The 1 Series (F52) is a four-door sedan that began production in 2017 in China for the Chinese market. It is made by BMW Brilliance, a joint venture between BMW and Brilliance Auto. The F52 uses the front-wheel drive UKL platform shared with the X1 and Mini Hatch.[5][6]


document_title: World Bank

question_text: when was the imf and world bank created

question_tokens: when was the imf and world bank created

text: World Bank

text: World Bank Group[edit]

text: The World Bank is different from the World Bank Group, an extended family of five international organizations:

text:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Development Association (IDA)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

text: History[edit]

text: The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American.[7] The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.

text: Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.[8]:52–54 The intention behind the founding of the World Bank was to provide temporary loans to low-income countries which were unable to obtain loans commercially.[5] The Bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients.[5]

text: Before 1974, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank's staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.[8]:56–60

text: The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Bank's president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied and removed the Communist coalition government - the so-called tripartite. Within hours, the loan to France was approved.[9]:288, 290–291

text: When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of infrastructure works, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan. In 1960, the International Development Association was formed (as opposed to a UN fund named SUNFED), providing soft loans to developing countries.

text: From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.[10]

text: These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson.[8]:60–63 McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank.[11] One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.[12][13]

text: In 1980 the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.[14]

text: In 1980 McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter's nominee, Alden W. Clausen.[15][16] Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and crafted a different mission emphasis. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an example of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing Third World governments as "rent-seeking states."

text: During the 1980s the bank emphasized lending to service Third-World debt, and structural adjustment policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. UNICEF reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa".[17]

text: Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism.[8]:93–97 It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the Earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes", the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991 the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment.

text: In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable disease such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world and joining combat forces. In 2000 the bank announced a "war on AIDS" and in 2011 the Bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.[18]

text: Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the president of the World Bank has always been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated.

text: On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the Bank.[19] Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012.

text: Criteria[edit]

text: Various developments had brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more as well as better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.[20]

text:
Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger: From 1990 through 2004 the proportion of people living in extreme poverty fell from almost a third to less than a fifth. Although results vary widely within regions and countries, the trend indicates that the world as a whole can meet the goal of halving the percentage of people living in poverty. Africa's poverty, however, is expected to rise, and most of the 36 countries where 90% of the world's undernourished children live are in Africa. Less than a quarter of countries are on track for achieving the goal of halving under-nutrition.
Achieve Universal Primary Education: The percentage of children in school in developing countries increased from 80% in 1991 to 88% in 2005. Still, about 72 million children of primary school age, 57% of them girls, were not being educated as of  2005[update].
Promote Gender Equality: The tide is turning slowly for women in the labor market, yet far more women than men- worldwide more than 60% – are contributing but unpaid family workers. The World Bank Group Gender Action Plan was created to advance women's economic empowerment and promote shared growth.
Reduce Child Mortality: There is some improvement in survival rates globally; accelerated improvements are needed most urgently in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 10 million-plus children under five died in 2005; most of their deaths were from preventable causes.
Improve Maternal Health: Almost all of the half million women who die during pregnancy or childbirth every year live in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There are numerous causes of maternal death that require a variety of health care interventions to be made widely accessible.
Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases: Annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS deaths have fallen, but the number of people living with HIV continues to grow. In the eight worst-hit southern African countries, prevalence is above 15 percent. Treatment has increased globally, but still meets only 30 percent of needs (with wide variations across countries). AIDS remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa (1.6 million deaths in 2007). There are 300 to 500 million cases of malaria each year, leading to more than 1 million deaths. Nearly all the cases and more than 95 percent of the deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Ensure Environmental Sustainability: Deforestation remains a critical problem, particularly in regions of biological diversity, which continues to decline. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing faster than energy technology advancement.
Develop a Global Partnership for Development: Donor countries have renewed their commitment. Donors have to fulfill their pledges to match the current rate of core program development. Emphasis is being placed on the Bank Group's collaboration with multilateral and local partners to quicken progress toward the MDGs' realization.

tag: ol

text: To make sure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal safeguards were defined. However, these safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these safeguards has been initiated, which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.[21]

text: Leadership[edit]

text: The President of the Bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president, currently Jim Yong Kim, is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the President of the Bank has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the managing director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.[22][23]

text: The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two Executive Vice presidents, three Senior Vice presidents, and 24 Vice presidents.[24]

text: The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals cannot exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.[25]

text: Presidents[edit]

text:
Name

Dates

Nationality

Previous work

Eugene Meyer

1946–1946

United States

Newspaper publisher and Chairman of the Federal Reserve

John J. McCloy

1947–1949

United States

Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War

Eugene R. Black, Sr.

1949–1963

United States

Bank executive with Chase and executive director with the World Bank

George Woods

1963–1968

United States

Bank executive with First Boston Corporation

Robert McNamara

1968–1981

United States

President of the Ford Motor Company, US Defense Secretary under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson who escalated Vietnam War[26]

Alden W. Clausen

1981–1986

United States

Lawyer, bank executive with Bank of America

Barber Conable

1986–1991

United States

New York State Senator and US Congressman

Lewis T. Preston

1991–1995

United States

Bank executive with J.P. Morgan

 James Wolfensohn

1995–2005

United StatesAustralia (prev.)

Wolfensohn was a naturalised American citizen before taking office. Corporate lawyer and banker

Paul Wolfowitz

2005–2007

United States

US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dean of the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University, prominent architect of 2003 invasion of Iraq, resigned World Bank post due to ethics scandal[27]

Robert Zoellick

2007–2012

United States

Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative

Jim Yong Kim

2012–present

United StatesSouth Korea (prev.)

Former Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard, president of Dartmouth College, naturalized American citizen[28]

text: Chief Economists[edit]

text:
Name

Dates

Nationality

Hollis B. Chenery

1972–1982

United States

Anne Osborn Krueger

1982–1986

United States

Stanley Fischer

1988–1990

United States

Lawrence Summers

1991–1993

United States

Michael Bruno

1993–1996

Israel

Joseph E. Stiglitz

1997–2000

United States

Nicholas Stern

2000–2003

United Kingdom

François Bourguignon

2003–2007

France

Justin Yifu Lin

2008–2012

China

Kaushik Basu

2012–2016

India

Paul Romer

2016–2018

United States

text: Members[edit]

text: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 189 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 173 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).[1]

text: Voting power[edit]

text: In 2010 voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%),[30] Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few developing countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.[31][32]

text: The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model", backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.[33]

text: List of 20 largest countries by voting power in each World Bank institution[edit]

text: The following table shows the subscriptions of the top 20 member countries of the World Bank by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of December 2014 or March 2015: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Member countries are allocated votes at the time of membership and subsequently for additional subscriptions to capital (one vote for each share of capital stock held by the member).[34][35][36][37]

text:
The 20 Largest Countries by voting power (Number of Votes)

Rank
Country
IBRD
Country
IFC
Country
IDA
Country
MIGA

World
2,201,754
World
2,653,476
World
24,682,951
World
218,237

1
United States
358,498
United States
570,179
United States
2,546,503
United States
32,790

2
Japan
166,094
Japan
163,334
Japan
2,112,243
Japan
9,205

3
China
107,244
Germany
129,708
United Kingdom
1,510,934
Germany
9,162

4
Germany
97,224
France
121,815
Germany
1,368,001
France
8,791

5
France
87,241
United Kingdom
121,815
France
908,843
United Kingdom
8,791

6
United Kingdom
87,241
India
103,747
Saudi Arabia
810,293
China
5,756

7
India
67,690
Russia
103,653
India
661,909
Russia
5,754

8
Saudi Arabia
67,155
Canada
82,142
Canada
629,658
Saudi Arabia
5,754

9
Canada
59,004
Italy
82,142
Italy
573,858
India
5,597

10
Italy
54,877
China
62,392
China
521,830
Canada
5,451

11
Russia
54,651
Netherlands
56,931
Poland
498,102
Italy
5,196

12
Spain
42,948
Belgium
51,410
Sweden
494,360
Netherlands
4,048

13
Brazil
42,613
Australia
48,129
Netherlands
488,209
Belgium
3,803

14
Netherlands
42,348
Switzerland
44,863
Brazil
412,322
Australia
3,245

15
Korea
36,591
Brazil
40,279
Australia
312,566
Switzerland
2,869

16
Belgium
36,463
Mexico
38,929
Switzerland
275,755
Brazil
2,832

17
Iran
34,718
Spain
37,826
Belgium
275,474
Spain
2,491

18
Switzerland
33,296
Indonesia
32,402
Norway
258,209
Argentina
2,436

19
Australia
30,910
Saudi Arabia
30,862
Denmark
231,685
Indonesia
2,075

20
Turkey
26,293
Korea
28,895
Pakistan
218,506
Sweden
2,075

text: Poverty reduction strategies[edit]

text: For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.

text: Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA), which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".[38]

text: World Bank organizes Development Marketplace Awards, a competitive grant program that surfaces and funds innovative, development projects with high potential for development impact that are scalable and/or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver a range of social and public services to the most underserved low-income groups.

text: Global partnerships and initiatives[edit]

text: The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants.[39]

text: Together with the World Health Organization, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way.

text: Climate change[edit]

text: World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012 that:

text: The World Bank doubled its aid for climate change adaptation from $2.3bn (£1.47bn) in 2011 to $4.6bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 °C warmer than in pre-industrial times. It says that 2 °C warming will be reached in 20 to 30 years.[42][43]

text: Food security[edit]

text:
Global Food Security Program: Launched in April 2010, six countries alongside the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged $925 million for food security. To date, the program has helped 8 countries, promoting agriculture, research, trade in agriculture, etc.
Launched Global Food Crisis Response Program: Given grants to approximately 40 nations for seeds, etc. for improving productivity.
In process of increasing its yearly spending for agriculture to $6 billion–$8 billion from earlier $4 billion.
Runs several nutrition program across the world, e.g., vitamin A doses for children, school meals, etc.[citation needed]

text: Training wings[edit]

text: World Bank Institute[edit]

text: The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.

text:
The World Bank Institute (WBI) can be defined as a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aims to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results.
WBI has four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute(WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on 11 March 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to serve as provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the Institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute. Currently Sanjay Pradhan is the Vice President of the World Bank Institute.[44]

text: Global Development Learning Network[edit]

text: The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.

text: GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.

text: GDLN Asia Pacific[edit]

text: The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

text: GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.

text: The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.

text: The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation". The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.

text: GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.

text: The JUSTPAL Network[edit]

text: A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank's Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice and service delivery to citizens and businesses.

text: The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies and other justice-related entities from across the globe. The Network currently has active members from more than 50 countries.

text: To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, the JUSTPAL Network has organized its activities under (currently) five Communities of Practice (COPs): (i) Budgeting for the Justice Sector; (ii) Information Systems for Justice Services; (iii) Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; (iv) Court Management and Administration; and (v) Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies.

text: Country assistance strategies[edit]

text: As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.

text: Clean Air Initiative[edit]

text: Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles.[45] Initiatives like this help address and tackle pollution-related diseases.

text: United Nations Development Business[edit]

text: Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.[46]

text: In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.[46]

text: The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group.[47]

text: Open data initiative[edit]

text: The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse,[48] whereas the recent publications describing them are available as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution License, for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.[49]

text: The World Bank also endorses the Principles for Digital Development.[50]

text: Grants table[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 15 DAC 5 Digit Sectors[51] to which the World Bank has committed funding, as recorded by it in its International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) publications. The World Bank states on the IATI Registry website that the amounts "will cover 100% of IBRD and IDA development flows" but will not cover other development flows.[52]

text:
Committed funding (US$ millions)

Sector
Before 2007
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Sum

Road transport

4,654.2

1,993.5

1,501.8

5,550.3

4,032.3

2,603.7

3,852.5

2,883.6

3,081.7

3,922.6

723.7

34,799.8

Social/ welfare services

613.1

208.1

185.5

2,878.4

1,477.4

1,493.2

1,498.5

2,592.6

2,745.4

1,537.7

73.6

15,303.5

Electrical transmission/ distribution

1,292.5

862.1

1,740.2

2,435.4

1,465.1

907.7

1,614.9

395.7

2,457.1

1,632.2

374.8

15,177.8

Public finance management

334.2

223.1

499.7

129.0

455.3

346.6

3,156.8

2,724.0

3,160.5

2,438.9

690.5

14,158.6

Rail transport

279.3

284.4

1,289.0

912.2

892.5

1,487.4

841.8

740.6

1,964.9

1,172.2

−1.6

9,862.5

Rural development

335.4

237.5

382.8

616.7

2,317.4

972.0

944.0

177.8

380.9

1,090.3

−2.5

7,452.4

Urban development and management

261.2

375.9

733.3

739.6

542.1

1,308.1

914.3

258.9

747.3

1,122.1

212.2

7,214.9

Business support services and institutions

113.3

20.8

721.7

181.4

363.3

514.0

310.0

760.1

1,281.9

1,996.0

491.3

6,753.7

Energy policy and administrative management

102.5

243.0

324.9

234.2

762.0

654.9

902.1

480.5

1,594.2

1,001.8

347.9

6,648.0

Agricultural water resources

733.2

749.5

84.6

251.8

780.6

819.5

618.3

1,040.3

1,214.8

824.0

−105.8

7,011.0

Decentralisation and support to subnational government

904.5

107.9

176.1

206.7

331.2

852.8

880.6

466.8

1,417.0

432.5

821.3

6,597.3

Disaster prevention and preparedness

66.9

2.7

260.0

9.0

417.2

609.5

852.9

373.5

1,267.8

1,759.7

114.2

5,733.5

Sanitation - large systems

441.9

679.7

521.6

422.0

613.1

1,209.4

268.0

55.4

890.6

900.8

93.9

6,096.3

Water supply - large systems

646.5

438.1

298.3

486.5

845.1

640.2

469.0

250.5

1,332.4

609.9

224.7

6,241.3

Health policy and administrative management

661.3

54.8

285.8

673.8

1,581.4

799.3

251.5

426.3

154.8

368.1

496.0

5,753.1

Other

13,162.7

6,588.3

8,707.1

11,425.7

17,099.5

11,096.6

16,873.4

13,967.1

20,057.6

21,096.5

3,070.3

140,074.5

Total

24,602.6

13,069.4

17,712.6

27,152.6

33,975.6

26,314.8

34,248.6

27,593.9

43,748.8

41,905.2

7,624.5

297,948.5

text: Open Knowledge Repository[edit]

text:
The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR)[53] as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products.
The World Bank's repository is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org.[54]

text: Criticisms & Controversy[edit]

text: The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, Henry Hazlitt and Ludwig Von Mises.[55][56][57] Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated.[58] Stiglitz argued that the so-called free market reform policies that the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.[56][59] Similarly, Carmine Guerriero notices that these reforms have introduced in developing countries regulatory institutions typical of the common law legal tradition because allegedly more efficient according to the legal origins theory. The latter however has been fiercely criticized since it does not take into account that the legal institutions transplanted during the European colonization have been then reformed.[60] This issue makes the legal origins theory's inference unreliable and the World Bank reforms detrimental.[61]

text: One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and their interests dominate the bank.[62]:190 Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.[63]:133–141

text: In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies that included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.[57]:17

text: The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".[64]

text: James Ferguson has argued that the main effect of many development projects carried out by the World Bank and similar organizations is not the alleviation of poverty. Instead the projects often serve to expand the exercise of bureaucratic state power. Through his case-studies of development projects in Thaba-Tseka he shows that the World Bank's characterization of the economic conditions in Lesotho was flawed, and the Bank ignored the political and cultural character of the state in crafting their projects. As a result, the projects failed to help the poor, but succeeded in expanding the government bureaucracy.[65]

text: Criticism of the World Bank and other organizations often takes the form of protesting as seen in recent events such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests,[66] the October Rebellion,[67] and the Battle of Seattle.[68] Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even among the Brazilian Kayapo people.[69]

text: Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice", observed The Economist in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."[70] Jim Yong Kim, a Korean-American, is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.[71]

text: Structural adjustment[edit]

text: The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank.[72] The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis.[73]:68 The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans, which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.[73]:69

text: By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.[73]:70 In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.[74]:147 The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities. Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.[74]:152

text: Fairness of assistance conditions[edit]

text: Some critics,[75] most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are most influential within it. Among other allegations, Klein says the Group's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour 'flexibility' in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq".[76]

text: Sovereign immunity[edit]

text: The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with.[77][78][79] Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which The World Bank wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people."[77] As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.[77]

text: PricewaterhouseCoopers (1998)[edit]

text: World Bank favored PricewaterhouseCoopers as a consultant in a bid for privatizing the water distribution in Delhi, India[80]


document_title: Alkaline earth metal

question_text: why group 2 elements called alkaline earth metals

text: Alkaline earth metal

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: Chemical[edit]

text: As with other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electronic configuration, especially the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

text:
Z
Element
No. of electrons/shell
Electron configuration[n 1]

4
beryllium
2, 2
[He] 2s2

12
magnesium
2, 8, 2
[Ne] 3s2

20
calcium
2, 8, 8, 2
[Ar] 4s2

38
strontium
2, 8, 18, 8, 2
[Kr] 5s2

56
barium
2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2
[Xe] 6s2

88
radium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2
[Rn] 7s2

text: Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of radium is not well-established due to its radioactivity;[2] thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited.

text: The alkaline earth metals are all silver-colored and soft, and have relatively low densities, melting points, and boiling points. In chemical terms, all of the alkaline metals react with the halogens to form the alkaline earth metal halides, all of which are ionic crystalline compounds (except for beryllium chloride, which is covalent). All the alkaline earth metals except beryllium also react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and, thus, should be handled with great care. The heavier alkaline earth metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones.[2] The alkaline metals have the second-lowest first ionization energies in their respective periods of the periodic table[4] because of their somewhat low effective nuclear charges and the ability to attain a full outer shell configuration by losing just two electrons. The second ionization energy of all of the alkaline metals is also somewhat low.[2][4]

text: Beryllium is an exception: It does not react with water or steam, and its halides are covalent. If beryllium did form compounds with an ionization state of +2, it would polarize electron clouds that are near it very strongly and would cause extensive orbital overlap, since beryllium has a high charge density. All compounds that include beryllium have a covalent bond.[7] Even the compound beryllium fluoride, which is the most ionic beryllium compound, has a low melting point and a low electrical conductivity when melted.[8][9][10]

text: All the alkaline earth metals have two electrons in their valence shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled electron shell is to lose two electrons to form doubly charged positive ions.

text: Compounds and reactions[edit]

text:
The alkaline earth metals all react with the halogens to form ionic halides, such as calcium chloride (CaCl
2), as well as reacting with oxygen to form oxides such as strontium oxide (SrO). Calcium, strontium, and barium react with water to produce hydrogen gas and their respective hydroxides, and also undergo transmetalation reactions to exchange ligands.

text:
Alkaline earth metals fluorides solubility-related constants[n 2]

Metal
M2+
HE
[11][clarification needed]
F−
HE
[12][clarification needed]
"MF2"
unit
HE
MF2
lattice
energies
[13]
Solubility
[14][clarification needed]

Be
2,455
458
3,371
3,526
soluble

Mg
1,922
458
2,838
2,978
0.0012

Ca
1,577
458
2,493
2,651
0.0002

Sr
1,415
458
2,331
2,513
0.0008

Ba
1,361
458
2,277
2,373
0.006

text: Physical and atomic[edit]

text: The table below is a summary of the key physical and atomic properties of the alkaline earth metals.

text:
Alkaline earth metal
Standard atomic weight
(u)[n 3][16][17]
Melting point
(K)
Melting point
(°C)
Boiling point
(K)[4]
Boiling point
(°C)[4]
Density
(g/cm3)
Electronegativity
(Pauling)
First ionization energy
(kJ·mol−1)
Covalent radius
(pm)[18]
Flame test color

Beryllium
9.012182(3)
1560
1287
2742
2469
1.85
1.57
899.5
105
White[19]

Magnesium
24.3050(6)
923
650
1363
1090
1.738
1.31
737.7
150
Brilliant-white[2]

Calcium
40.078(4)
1115
842
1757
1484
1.54
1.00
589.8
180
Brick-red[2]

Strontium
87.62(1)
1050
777
1655
1382
2.64
0.95
549.5
200
Crimson[2]

Barium
137.327(7)
1000
727
2170
1897
3.594
0.89
502.9
215
Apple-green[2]

Radium
[226][n 4]
973
700
2010
1737
5.5
0.9
509.3
221
Crimson red[n 5]

text: Nuclear stability[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2012)

text: Of the six alkaline earth metals, beryllium, calcium, barium, and radium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope; magnesium and strontium do not. Beryllium-7, beryllium-10, and calcium-41 are trace radioisotopes; calcium-48 and barium-130 have very long half-lives and thus occur naturally on earth; and all isotopes of radium are radioactive. Calcium-48 is the lightest nuclide to undergo double beta decay.[21] Calcium and barium are weakly radioactive: calcium contains about 0.1874% cacium-41,[22] and barium contains about 0.1062% barium-130.[23]

text: History[edit]

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The alkaline earth metals are named after their oxides, the alkaline earths, whose old-fashioned names were beryllia, magnesia, lime, strontia, and baryta. These oxides are basic (alkaline) when combined with water. "Earth" is an old term applied by early chemists to nonmetallic substances that are insoluble in water and resistant to heating—properties shared by these oxides. The realization that these earths were not elements but compounds is attributed to the chemist Antoine Lavoisier. In his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry) of 1789 he called them salt-forming earth elements. Later, he suggested that the alkaline earths might be metal oxides, but admitted that this was mere conjecture. In 1808, acting on Lavoisier's idea, Humphry Davy became the first to obtain samples of the metals by electrolysis of their molten earths,[24] thus supporting Lavoisier's hypothesis and causing the group to be named the alkaline earth metals.

text: Discovery[edit]

text: The calcium compounds calcite and lime have been known and used since prehistoric times.[25] The same is true for the beryllium compounds beryl and emerald.[26] The other compounds of the alkaline earth metals were discovered starting in the early 15th century. The magnesium compound magnesium sulfate was first discovered in 1618 by a farmer at Epsom in England. Strontium carbonate was discovered in minerals in the Scottish village of Strontian in 1790. The last element is the least abundant: radioactive radium, which was extracted from uraninite in 1898.[27][28][29]

text: All elements except beryllium were isolated by electrolysis of molten compounds. Magnesium, calcium, and strontium were first produced by Humphry Davy in 1808, whereas beryllium was independently isolated by Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy in 1828 by reacting beryllium compounds with potassium. In 1910, radium was isolated as a pure metal by Curie and André-Louis Debierne also by electrolysis.[27][28][29]

text: Beryllium[edit]

text: Beryl, a mineral that contains beryllium, has been known since the time of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt.[26] Although it was originally thought that beryl was an aluminium silicate,[30] beryl was later found to contain a then-unknown element when, in 1797, Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin dissolved aluminium hydroxide from beryl in an alkali.[31] In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler[32] and Antoine Bussy[33] independently isolated this new element, beryllium, by the same method, which involved a reaction of beryllium chloride with metallic potassium; this reaction was not able to produce large ingots of beryllium.[34] It was not until 1898, when Paul Lebeau performed an electrolysis of a mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride, that large pure samples of beryllium were produced.[34]

text: Magnesium[edit]

text: Magnesium was first produced by Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1808 using electrolysis of a mixture of magnesia and mercuric oxide.[35] Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy’s first suggestion for a name was magnium,[35] but the name magnesium is now used.

text: Calcium[edit]

text: Lime has been used as a material for building since 7000 to 14,000 BCE,[25] and kilns used for lime have been dated to 2,500 BCE in Khafaja, Mesopotamia.[36][37] Calcium as a material has been known since at least the first century, as the ancient Romans were known to have used calcium oxide by preparing it from lime. Calcium sulfate has been known to be able to set broken bones since the tenth century. Calcium itself, however, was not isolated until 1808, when Humphry Davy, in England, used electrolysis on a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide,[38] after hearing that Jöns Jakob Berzelius had prepared a calcium amalgam from the electrolysis of lime in mercury.

text: Strontium[edit]

text: In 1790, physician Adair Crawford, who had been working with barium, realized that Strontian ores showed different properties than other supposed ores of barium.[39] Therefore, he concluded that these ores contained new minerals, which were named strontites in 1793 by Thomas Charles Hope, a chemistry professor at the University of Glasgow,[40] who confirmed Crawford's discovery. Strontium was eventually isolated in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy by electrolysis of a mixture of strontium chloride and mercuric oxide. The discovery was announced by Davy on 30 June 1808 at a lecture to the Royal Society.[41]

text: Barium[edit]

text: Barite, a mineral containing barium, was first recognized as containing a new element in 1774 by Carl Scheele, although he was able to isolate only barium oxide. Barium oxide was isolated again two years later by Johan Gottlieb Gahn. Later in the 18th century, William Withering noticed a heavy mineral in the Cumberland lead mines, which are now known to contain barium. Barium itself was finally isolated in 1808 when Sir Humphry Davy used electrolysis with molten salts, and Davy named the element barium, after baryta. Later, Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen isolated pure barium by electrolysis of a mixture of barium chloride and ammonium chloride.[42][43]

text: Radium[edit]

text: While studying uraninite, on 21 December 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie discovered that, even after uranium had decayed, the material created was still radioactive. The material behaved somewhat similarly to barium compounds, although some properties, such as the color of the flame test and spectral lines, were much different. They announced the discovery of a new element on 26 December 1898 to the French Academy of Sciences.[44] Radium was named in 1899 from the word radius, meaning ray, as radium emitted power in the form of rays.[45]

text: Occurrence[edit]

text: Beryllium occurs in the earth's crust at a concentration of two to six parts per million (ppm),[46] much of which is in soils, where it has a concentration of six ppm. Beryllium is one of the rarest elements in seawater, even rarer than elements such as scandium, with a concentration of 0.2 parts per trillion.[47][48] However, in freshwater, beryllium is somewhat more common, with a concentration of 0.1 parts per billion.[49]

text: Magnesium and calcium are very common in the earth's crust, with calcium the fifth-most-abundant element, and magnesium the eighth. None of the alkaline earth metals are found in their elemental state, but magnesium and calcium are found in many rocks and minerals: magnesium in carnallite, magnesite, and dolomite; and calcium in chalk, limestone, gypsum, and anhydrite.[2]

text: Strontium is the fifteenth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust. Most strontium is found in the minerals celestite and strontianite.[50] Barium is slightly less common, much of it in the mineral barite.[51]

text: Radium, being a decay product of uranium, is found in all uranium-bearing ores.[52] Due to its relatively short half-life,[53] radium from the Earth's early history has decayed, and present-day samples have all come from the much slower decay of uranium.[52]

text: Production[edit]

text: Most beryllium is extracted from beryllium hydroxide. One production method is sintering, done by mixing beryl, sodium fluorosilicate, and soda at high temperatures to form sodium fluoroberyllate, aluminium oxide, and silicon dioxide. A solution of sodium fluoroberyllate and sodium hydroxide in water is then used to form beryllium hydroxide by precipitation. Alternatively, in the melt method, powdered beryl is heated to high temperature, cooled with water, then heated again slightly in sulfuric acid, eventually yielding beryllium hydroxide. The beryllium hydroxide from either method then produces beryllium fluoride and beryllium chloride through a somewhat long process. Electrolysis or heating of these compounds can then produce beryllium.[7]

text: In general, strontium carbonate is extracted from the mineral celestite through two methods: by leaching the celestite with sodium carbonate, or in a more complicated way involving coal.[54]

text: To produce barium, barite ore is separated from quartz, sometimes by froth flotation methods, resulting in relatively pure barite. Carbon is then used to reduce the baryte into barium sulfide, which is dissolved with other elements to form other compounds, such as barium nitrate. These in turn are thermally decompressed into barium oxide, which eventually yields pure barium after a reaction with aluminium.[51] The most important supplier of barium is China, which produces more than 50% of world supply.[55]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Beryllium is used mostly for military applications,[56] but there are other uses of beryllium, as well. In electronics, beryllium is used as a p-type dopant in some semiconductors,[57] and beryllium oxide is used as a high-strength electrical insulator and heat conductor.[58] Due to its light weight and other properties, beryllium is also used in mechanics when stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability are required at wide temperature ranges.[59][60]

text: Magnesium has many different uses. One of its most common uses was in industry, where it has many structural advantages over other materials such as aluminium, although this usage has fallen out of favor recently due to magnesium's flammability.[61] Magnesium is also often alloyed with aluminium or zinc to form materials with more desirable properties than any pure metal.[62] Magnesium has many other uses in industrial applications, such as having a role in the production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium.[63]

text: Calcium also has many uses. One of its uses is as a reducing agent in the separation of other metals from ore, such as uranium. It is also used in the production of the alloys of many metals, such as aluminium and copper alloys, and is also used to deoxidize alloys as well. Calcium also has a role in the making of cheese, mortars, and cement.[64]

text: Strontium and barium do not have as many applications as the lighter alkaline earth metals, but still have uses. Strontium carbonate is often used in the manufacturing of red fireworks,[65] and pure strontium is used in the study of neurotransmitter release in neurons.[66][67] Barium has some use in vacuum tubes to remove gases,[51] and barium sulfate has many uses in the petroleum industry,[4] as well as other industries.[4][51][68]

text: Due to its radioactivity, radium no longer has many applications, but it used to have many. Radium used to be used often in luminous paints,[69] although this use was stopped after workers got sick.[70] As people used to think that radioactivity was a good thing, radium used to be added to drinking water, toothpaste, and many other products, although they are also not used anymore due to their health effects.[61] Radium is no longer even used for its radioactive properties, as there are more powerful and safer emitters than radium.[71][72]

text: Biological role and precautions[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2013)

text: Magnesium and calcium are ubiquitous and essential to all known living organisms. They are involved in more than one role, with, for example, magnesium or calcium ion pumps playing a role in some cellular processes, magnesium functioning as the active center in some enzymes, and calcium salts taking a structural role, most notably in bones.

text: Strontium plays an important role in marine aquatic life, especially hard corals, which use strontium to build their exoskeletons. It and barium have some uses in medicine, for example "barium meals" in radiographic imaging, whilst strontium compounds are employed in some toothpastes. Excessive amounts of strontium-90 are toxic due to its radioactivity and strontium-90 mimics calcium and then can kill.

text: Beryllium and radium, however, are toxic. Beryllium's low aqueous solubility means it is rarely available to biological systems; it has no known role in living organisms and, when encountered by them, is usually highly toxic.[7] Radium has a low availability and is highly radioactive, making it toxic to life.

text: Extensions[edit]

text: The next alkaline earth metal after radium is thought to be element 120, although this may not be true due to relativistic effects.[73] The synthesis of element 120 was first attempted in March 2007, when a team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna bombarded plutonium-244 with iron-58 ions; however, no atoms were produced, leading to a limit of 400 fb for the cross-section at the energy studied.[74] In April 2007, a team at the GSI attempted to create element 120 by bombarding uranium-238 with nickel-64, although no atoms were detected, leading to a limit of 1.6 pb for the reaction. Synthesis was again attempted at higher sensitivities, although no atoms were detected. Other reactions have been tried, although all have been met with failure.[75]

text: The chemistry of element 120 is predicted to be closer to that of calcium or strontium[76] instead of barium or radium. This is unusual as periodic trends would predict element 120 to be more reactive than barium and radium. This lowered reactivity is due to the expected energies of element 120's valence electrons, increasing element 120's ionization energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii.[76]

text: Although simple extrapolation would put element 170 as the next member of this series, calculations suggest that the next element of this series might actually be element 166.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Noble gas notation is used for conciseness; the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first, and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward.
Jump up ^ Energies are given in −kJ/mol, solubilities in mol/L; HE means "hydration energy".
Jump up ^ The number given in parentheses refers to the measurement uncertainty. This uncertainty applies to the least significant figure(s) of the number prior to the parenthesized value (i.e., counting from rightmost digit to left). For instance, 7000100794000000000♠1.00794(7) stands for 7000100794000000000♠1.00794±0.00007, whereas 7000100794000000000♠1.00794(72) stands for 7000100794000000000♠1.00794±0.00072.[15]
Jump up ^ The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element.[16][17]
Jump up ^ The color of the flame test of pure radium has never been observed; the crimson-red color is an extrapolation from the flame test color of its compounds.[20]