document_title: List of World Series champions

question_text: who won 2 world series in the 80s

question_tokens: who won 2 world series in the 80s

text: List of World Series champions

text: Winners[edit]

text: Numbers in parentheses in the table are World Series appearances as of the date of that World Series, and are used as follows:

text: Winning team and losing team columns indicate the number of times that team has appeared in a World Series as well as each respective teams' World Series record to date.

text:
Year
Winning team
Manager
Games
Losing team
Manager
Ref.

1903
Boston Americans (1, 1–0)
Collins, JimmyJimmy Collins
5–3[V]
Pittsburgh Pirates (1, 0–1)
Clarke, FredFred Clarke
[9]

1904
No World Series
[1]

1905
New York Giants (1, 1–0)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
4–1
Philadelphia Athletics (1, 0–1)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
[10]

1906
Chicago White Sox (1, 1–0)
Jones, FielderFielder Jones
4–2
Chicago Cubs (1, 0–1)
Chance, FrankFrank Chance
[11]

1907
Chicago Cubs (1, 1–1)
Chance, FrankFrank Chance
4–0–(1)[T]
Detroit Tigers (1, 0–1)
Jennings, HughHugh Jennings
[12]

1908
Chicago Cubs (2, 2–1)
Chance, FrankFrank Chance
4–1
Detroit Tigers (2, 0–2)
Jennings, HughHugh Jennings
[13]

1909
Pittsburgh Pirates (2, 1–1)
Clarke, FredFred Clarke
4–3
Detroit Tigers (3, 0–3)
Jennings, HughHugh Jennings
[14]

1910
Philadelphia Athletics (2, 1–1)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
4–1
Chicago Cubs (4, 2–2)
Chance, FrankFrank Chance
[15]

1911
Philadelphia Athletics (3, 2–1)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
4–2
New York Giants (2, 1–1)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
[16]

1912
Boston Red Sox (2, 2–0)
Stahl, JakeJake Stahl
4–3–(1)[T]
New York Giants (3, 1–2)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
[17]

1913
Philadelphia Athletics (4, 3–1)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
4–1
New York Giants (4, 1–3)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
[18]

1914
Boston Braves (1, 1–0)
Stallings, GeorgeGeorge Stallings
4–0
Philadelphia Athletics (5, 3–2)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
[19]

1915
Boston Red Sox (3, 3–0)
Carrigan, BillBill Carrigan
4–1
Philadelphia Phillies (1, 0–1)
Moran, PatPat Moran
[20]

1916
Boston Red Sox (4, 4–0)
Carrigan, BillBill Carrigan
4–1
Brooklyn Robins (1, 0–1)
Robinson, WilbertWilbert Robinson
[21]

1917
Chicago White Sox (2, 2–0)
Rowland, PantsPants Rowland
4–2
New York Giants (5, 1–4)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
[22]

1918
Boston Red Sox (5, 5–0)
Barrow, EdEd Barrow
4–2
Chicago Cubs (5, 2–3)
Mitchell, FredFred Mitchell
[23]

1919
Cincinnati Reds (1, 1–0)
Moran, PatPat Moran
5–3[V]
Chicago White Sox (3, 2–1)
Gleason, KidKid Gleason
[24]

1920
Cleveland Indians (1, 1–0)
Speaker, TrisTris Speaker
5–2[V]
Brooklyn Robins (2, 0–2)
Robinson, WilbertWilbert Robinson
[25]

1921
New York Giants (6, 2–4)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
5–3[V]
New York Yankees (1, 0–1)
Huggins, MillerMiller Huggins
[26]

1922
New York Giants (7, 3–4)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
4–0–(1)[T]
New York Yankees (2, 0–2)
Huggins, MillerMiller Huggins
[27]

1923
New York Yankees (3, 1–2)
Huggins, MillerMiller Huggins
4–2
New York Giants (8, 3–5)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
[28]

1924
Washington Senators (1, 1–0)
Harris, BuckyBucky Harris
4–3
New York Giants (9, 3–6)
McGraw, JohnJohn McGraw
[29]

1925
Pittsburgh Pirates (3, 2–1)
McKechnie, BillBill McKechnie
4–3
Washington Senators (2, 1–1)
Harris, BuckyBucky Harris
[30]

1926
St. Louis Cardinals (1, 1–0)
Hornsby, RogersRogers Hornsby
4–3
New York Yankees (4, 1–3)
Huggins, MillerMiller Huggins
[31]

1927
New York Yankees (5, 2–3)
Huggins, MillerMiller Huggins
4–0
Pittsburgh Pirates (4, 2–2)
Donie Bush
[32]

1928
New York Yankees (6, 3–3)
Huggins, MillerMiller Huggins
4–0
St. Louis Cardinals (2, 1–1)
McKechnie, BillBill McKechnie
[33]

1929
Philadelphia Athletics (6, 4–2)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
4–1
Chicago Cubs (6, 2–4)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
[34]

1930
Philadelphia Athletics (7, 5–2)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
4–2
St. Louis Cardinals (3, 1–2)
Street, GabbyGabby Street
[35]

1931
St. Louis Cardinals (4, 2–2)
Street, GabbyGabby Street
4–3
Philadelphia Athletics (8, 5–3)
Mack, ConnieConnie Mack
[36]

1932
New York Yankees (7, 4–3)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–0
Chicago Cubs (7, 2–5)
Grimm, CharlieCharlie Grimm
[37]

1933
New York Giants (10, 4–6)
Terry, BillBill Terry
4–1
Washington Senators (3, 1–2)
Cronin, JoeJoe Cronin
[38]

1934
St. Louis Cardinals (5, 3–2)
Frisch, FrankFrank Frisch
4–3
Detroit Tigers (4, 0–4)
Cochrane, MickeyMickey Cochrane
[39]

1935
Detroit Tigers (5, 1–4)
Cochrane, MickeyMickey Cochrane
4–2
Chicago Cubs (8, 2–6)
Grimm, CharlieCharlie Grimm
[40]

1936
New York Yankees (8, 5–3)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–2
New York Giants (11, 4–7)
Terry, BillBill Terry
[41]

1937
New York Yankees (9, 6–3)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–1
New York Giants (12, 4–8)
Terry, BillBill Terry
[42]

1938
New York Yankees (10, 7–3)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–0
Chicago Cubs (9, 2–7)
Hartnett, GabbyGabby Hartnett
[43]

1939
New York Yankees (11, 8–3)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–0
Cincinnati Reds (2, 1–1)
McKechnie, BillBill McKechnie
[44]

1940
Cincinnati Reds (3, 2–1)
McKechnie, BillBill McKechnie
4–3
Detroit Tigers (6, 1–5)
Baker, DelDel Baker
[45]

1941
New York Yankees (12, 9–3)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–1
Brooklyn Dodgers (3, 0–3)
Durocher, LeoLeo Durocher
[46]

1942
St. Louis Cardinals (6, 4–2)
Southworth, BillyBilly Southworth
4–1
New York Yankees (13, 9–4)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
[47]

1943
New York Yankees (14, 10–4)
McCarthy, JoeJoe McCarthy
4–1
St. Louis Cardinals (7, 4–3)
Southworth, BillyBilly Southworth
[48]

1944
St. Louis Cardinals (8, 5–3)
Southworth, BillyBilly Southworth
4–2
St. Louis Browns (1, 0–1)
Sewell, LukeLuke Sewell
[49]

1945
Detroit Tigers (7, 2–5)
O'Neill, SteveSteve O'Neill
4–3
Chicago Cubs (10, 2–8)
Grimm, CharlieCharlie Grimm
[50]

1946
St. Louis Cardinals (9, 6–3)
Dyer, EddieEddie Dyer
4–3
Boston Red Sox (6, 5–1)
Cronin, JoeJoe Cronin
[51]

1947
New York Yankees (15, 11–4)
Harris, BuckyBucky Harris
4–3
Brooklyn Dodgers (4, 0–4)
Shotton, BurtBurt Shotton
[52]

1948
Cleveland Indians (2, 2–0)
Boudreau, LouLou Boudreau
4–2
Boston Braves (2, 1–1)
Southworth, BillyBilly Southworth
[53]

1949
New York Yankees (16, 12–4)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–1
Brooklyn Dodgers (5, 0–5)
Shotton, BurtBurt Shotton
[54]

1950
New York Yankees (17, 13–4)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–0
Philadelphia Phillies (2, 0–2)
Sawyer, EddieEddie Sawyer
[55]

1951
New York Yankees (18, 14–4)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–2
New York Giants (13, 4–9)
Durocher, LeoLeo Durocher
[56]

1952
New York Yankees (19, 15–4)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–3
Brooklyn Dodgers (6, 0–6)
Dressen, CharlieCharlie Dressen
[57]

1953
New York Yankees (20, 16–4)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–2
Brooklyn Dodgers (7, 0–7)
Dressen, CharlieCharlie Dressen
[58]

1954
New York Giants (14, 5–9)
Durocher, LeoLeo Durocher
4–0
Cleveland Indians (3, 2–1)
Lopez, AlAl Lopez
[59]

1955
Brooklyn Dodgers (8, 1–7)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
4–3
New York Yankees (21, 16–5)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
[60]

1956
New York Yankees (22, 17–5)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–3
Brooklyn Dodgers (9, 1–8)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
[61]

1957
Milwaukee Braves (3, 2–1)
Haney, FredFred Haney
4–3
New York Yankees (23, 17–6)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
[62]

1958
New York Yankees (24, 18–6)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
4–3
Milwaukee Braves (4, 2–2)
Haney, FredFred Haney
[63]

1959
Los Angeles Dodgers (10, 2–8)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
4–2
Chicago White Sox (4, 2–2)
Lopez, AlAl Lopez
[64]

1960
Pittsburgh Pirates (5, 3–2)
Murtaugh, DannyDanny Murtaugh
4–3
New York Yankees (25, 18–7)
Stengel, CaseyCasey Stengel
[65]

1961
New York Yankees (26, 19–7)
Houk, RalphRalph Houk
4–1
Cincinnati Reds (4, 2–2)
Hutchinson, FredFred Hutchinson
[66]

1962
New York Yankees (27, 20–7)
Houk, RalphRalph Houk
4–3
San Francisco Giants (15, 5–10)
Dark, AlvinAlvin Dark
[67]

1963
Los Angeles Dodgers (11, 3–8)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
4–0
New York Yankees (28, 20–8)
Houk, RalphRalph Houk
[68]

1964
St. Louis Cardinals (10, 7–3)
Keane, JohnnyJohnny Keane
4–3
New York Yankees (29, 20–9)
Berra, YogiYogi Berra
[69]

1965
Los Angeles Dodgers (12, 4–8)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
4–3
Minnesota Twins (4, 1–3)
Mele, SamSam Mele
[70]

1966
Baltimore Orioles (2, 1–1)
Bauer, HankHank Bauer
4–0
Los Angeles Dodgers (13, 4–9)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
[71]

1967
St. Louis Cardinals (11, 8–3)
Schoendienst, RedRed Schoendienst
4–3
Boston Red Sox (7, 5–2)
Williams, DickDick Williams
[72]

1968
Detroit Tigers (8, 3–5)
Smith, MayoMayo Smith
4–3
St. Louis Cardinals (12, 8–4)
Schoendienst, RedRed Schoendienst
[73]

1969
New York Mets (1, 1–0)
Hodges, GilGil Hodges
4–1
Baltimore Orioles (3, 1–2)
Weaver, EarlEarl Weaver
[74]

1970
Baltimore Orioles (4, 2–2)
Weaver, EarlEarl Weaver
4–1
Cincinnati Reds (5, 2–3)
Anderson, SparkySparky Anderson
[75]

1971
Pittsburgh Pirates (6, 4–2)
Murtaugh, DannyDanny Murtaugh
4–3
Baltimore Orioles (5, 2–3)
Weaver, EarlEarl Weaver
[76]

1972
Oakland Athletics (9, 6–3)
Williams, DickDick Williams
4–3
Cincinnati Reds (6, 2–4)
Anderson, SparkySparky Anderson
[77]

1973
Oakland Athletics (10, 7–3)
Williams, DickDick Williams
4–3
New York Mets (2, 1–1)
Berra, YogiYogi Berra
[78]

1974
Oakland Athletics (11, 8–3)
Dark, AlvinAlvin Dark
4–1
Los Angeles Dodgers (14, 4–10)
Alston, WalterWalter Alston
[79]

1975
Cincinnati Reds (7, 3–4)
Anderson, SparkySparky Anderson
4–3
Boston Red Sox (8, 5–3)
Johnson, DarrellDarrell Johnson
[80]

1976
Cincinnati Reds (8, 4–4)
Anderson, SparkySparky Anderson
4–0
New York Yankees (30, 20–10)
Martin, BillyBilly Martin
[81]

1977
New York Yankees (31, 21–10)
Martin, BillyBilly Martin
4–2
Los Angeles Dodgers (15, 4–11)
Lasorda, TommyTommy Lasorda
[82]

1978
New York Yankees (32, 22–10)
Lemon, BobBob Lemon
4–2
Los Angeles Dodgers (16, 4–12)
Lasorda, TommyTommy Lasorda
[83]

1979
Pittsburgh Pirates (7, 5–2)
Tanner, ChuckChuck Tanner
4–3
Baltimore Orioles (6, 2–4)
Weaver, EarlEarl Weaver
[84]

1980
Philadelphia Phillies (3, 1–2)
Green, DallasDallas Green
4–2
Kansas City Royals (1, 0–1)
Frey, JimJim Frey
[85]

1981
Los Angeles Dodgers (17, 5–12)
Lasorda, TommyTommy Lasorda
4–2
New York Yankees (33, 22–11)
Lemon, BobBob Lemon
[86]

1982
St. Louis Cardinals (13, 9–4)
Herzog, WhiteyWhitey Herzog
4–3
Milwaukee Brewers[L1] (1, 0–1)
Kuenn, HarveyHarvey Kuenn
[87]

1983
Baltimore Orioles (7, 3–4)
Altobelli, JoeJoe Altobelli
4–1
Philadelphia Phillies (4, 1–3)
Owens, PaulPaul Owens
[88]

1984
Detroit Tigers (9, 4–5)
Anderson, SparkySparky Anderson
4–1
San Diego Padres (1, 0–1)
Williams, DickDick Williams
[89]

1985
Kansas City Royals (2, 1–1)
Howser, DickDick Howser
4–3
St. Louis Cardinals (14, 9–5)
Herzog, WhiteyWhitey Herzog
[90]

1986
New York Mets (3, 2–1)
Johnson, DaveyDavey Johnson
4–3
Boston Red Sox (9, 5–4)
McNamara, JohnJohn McNamara
[91]

1987
Minnesota Twins (5, 2–3)
Kelly, TomTom Kelly
4–3
St. Louis Cardinals (15, 9–6)
Herzog, WhiteyWhitey Herzog
[92]

1988
Los Angeles Dodgers (18, 6–12)
Lasorda, TommyTommy Lasorda
4–1
Oakland Athletics (12, 8–4)
La Russa, TonyTony La Russa
[93]

1989
Oakland Athletics (13, 9–4)
La Russa, TonyTony La Russa
4–0
San Francisco Giants (16, 5–11)
Craig, RogerRoger Craig
[94]

1990
Cincinnati Reds (9, 5–4)
Piniella, LouLou Piniella
4–0
Oakland Athletics (14, 9–5)
La Russa, TonyTony La Russa
[95]

1991
Minnesota Twins (6, 3–3)
Kelly, TomTom Kelly
4–3
Atlanta Braves (5, 2–3)
Cox, BobbyBobby Cox
[96]

1992
Toronto Blue Jays (1, 1–0)
Gaston, CitoCito Gaston
4–2
Atlanta Braves (6, 2–4)
Cox, BobbyBobby Cox
[97]

1993
Toronto Blue Jays (2, 2–0)
Gaston, CitoCito Gaston
4–2
Philadelphia Phillies (5, 1–4)
Fregosi, JimJim Fregosi
[98]

1994
No World Series due to a players' strike

1995
Atlanta Braves (7, 3–4)
Cox, BobbyBobby Cox
4–2
Cleveland Indians (4, 2–2)
Hargrove, MikeMike Hargrove
[99]

1996
New York Yankees (34, 23–11)
Torre, JoeJoe Torre
4–2
Atlanta Braves (8, 3–5)
Cox, BobbyBobby Cox
[100]

1997
Florida Marlins[W] (1, 1–0)
Leyland, JimJim Leyland
4–3
Cleveland Indians (5, 2–3)
Hargrove, MikeMike Hargrove
[101]

1998
New York Yankees (35, 24–11)
Torre, JoeJoe Torre
4–0
San Diego Padres (2, 0–2)
Bruce Bochy
[102]

1999
New York Yankees (36, 25–11)
Torre, JoeJoe Torre
4–0
Atlanta Braves (9, 3–6)
Cox, BobbyBobby Cox
[103]

2000
New York Yankees (37, 26–11)
Torre, JoeJoe Torre
4–1
New York Mets[W] (4, 2–2)
Valentine, BobbyBobby Valentine
[104]

2001
Arizona Diamondbacks (1, 1–0)
Brenly, BobBob Brenly
4–3
New York Yankees (38, 26–12)
Torre, JoeJoe Torre
[105]

2002
Anaheim Angels[W] (1, 1–0)
Scioscia, MikeMike Scioscia
4–3
San Francisco Giants[W] (17, 5–12)
Baker, DustyDusty Baker
[106]

2003
Florida Marlins[W] (2, 2–0)
McKeon, JackJack McKeon
4–2
New York Yankees (39, 26–13)
Torre, JoeJoe Torre
[107]

2004
Boston Red Sox[W] (10, 6–4)
Francona, TerryTerry Francona
4–0
St. Louis Cardinals (16, 9–7)
La Russa, TonyTony La Russa
[108]

2005
Chicago White Sox (5, 3–2)
Guillén, OzzieOzzie Guillén
4–0
Houston Astros[W][L2] (1, 0–1)
Garner, PhilPhil Garner
[109]

2006
St. Louis Cardinals (17, 10–7)
La Russa, TonyTony La Russa
4–1
Detroit Tigers[W] (10, 4–6)
Leyland, JimJim Leyland
[110]

2007
Boston Red Sox (11, 7–4)
Francona, TerryTerry Francona
4–0
Colorado Rockies[W] (1, 0–1)
Hurdle, ClintClint Hurdle
[111]

2008
Philadelphia Phillies (6, 2–4)
Manuel, CharlieCharlie Manuel
4–1
Tampa Bay Rays (1, 0–1)
Maddon, JoeJoe Maddon
[112]

2009
New York Yankees (40, 27–13)
Girardi, JoeJoe Girardi
4–2
Philadelphia Phillies (7, 2–5)
Manuel, CharlieCharlie Manuel
[113]

2010
San Francisco Giants (18, 6–12)
Bochy, BruceBruce Bochy
4–1
Texas Rangers (1, 0–1)
Washington, RonRon Washington
[114]

2011
St. Louis Cardinals[W] (18, 11–7)
La Russa, TonyTony La Russa
4–3
Texas Rangers (2, 0–2)
Washington, RonRon Washington
[115]

2012
San Francisco Giants (19, 7–12)
Bochy, BruceBruce Bochy
4–0
Detroit Tigers (11, 4–7)
Leyland, JimJim Leyland
[116]

2013
Boston Red Sox (12, 8–4)
Farrell, JohnJohn Farrell
4–2
St. Louis Cardinals (19, 11–8)
Matheny, MikeMike Matheny
[117]

2014
San Francisco Giants[W] (20, 8–12)
Bochy, BruceBruce Bochy
4–3
Kansas City Royals[W] (3, 1–2)
Yost, NedNed Yost
[118]

2015
Kansas City Royals (4, 2–2)
Yost, NedNed Yost
4–1
New York Mets (5, 2–3)
Collins, TerryTerry Collins
[119]

2016
Chicago Cubs (11, 3–8)
Maddon, JoeJoe Maddon
4–3
Cleveland Indians (6, 2–4)
Francona, TerryTerry Francona
[120]

2017
Houston Astros[L2] (2, 1–1)
Hinch, A. J.A. J. Hinch
4–3
Los Angeles Dodgers (19, 6–13)
Roberts, DaveDave Roberts
[121]

text: Series appearances by club[edit]

text: Appearances by club[edit]

text:
Series
appearances
Team
League
Winners
Runners-up
Win %
Most recent
Games
won
Games
lost
Games
tied
Game
win %
Most Recent
game win
Founded

win
appearance

40
New York Yankees
AL
27
13
.675
2009
2009
134
90
1
.598
2009
1903

20
San Francisco Giants (New York)
NL
8
12
.400
2014
2014
57
57
2
.500
2014
1883

19
St. Louis Cardinals
NL
11
8
.579
2011
2013
58
60
0
.492
2011
1882

19
Los Angeles Dodgers (Brooklyn)
NL
6
13
.316
1988
2017
48
64
0
.429
2017
1884

14
Oakland Athletics (Kansas City/Philadelphia)
AL
9
5
.643
1989
1990
41
34
0
.547
1989
1901

12
Boston Red Sox (Boston)
AL
8
4
.667
2013
2013
45
28
1
.615
2013
1901

11
Detroit Tigers
AL
4
7
.364
1984
2012
27
37
1
.423
2006
1901

11
Chicago Cubs
NL
3
8
.273
2016
2016
23
36
1
.392
2016
1870

9
Cincinnati Reds
NL
5
4
.556
1990
1990
26
25
0
.510
1990
1881

9
Atlanta Braves (Milwaukee/Boston)
NL
3
6
.333
1995
1999
24
29
0
.453
1996
1871

7
Pittsburgh Pirates
NL
5
2
.714
1979
1979
23
24
0
.489
1979
1887

7
Baltimore Orioles (St. Louis Browns)
AL
3
4
.429
1983
1983
21
18
0
.538
1983
1900

7
Philadelphia Phillies
NL
2
5
.286
2008
2009
14
23
0
.378
2009
1883

6
Minnesota Twins (Washington Senators)
AL
3
3
.500
1991
1991
19
21
0
.475
1991
1901

6
Cleveland Indians
AL
2
4
.333
1948
2016
17
20
0
.459
2016
1901

5
Chicago White Sox
AL
3
2
.600
2005
2005
17
13
0
.567
2005
1900

5
New York Mets
NL
2
3
.400
1986
2015
13
16
0
.448
2015
1962

4
Kansas City Royals
AL
2
2
.500
2015
2015
13
12
0
.520
2015
1969

2
Miami Marlins (Florida)
NL
2
0
1.000
2003
2003
8
5
0
.615
2003
1993

2
Toronto Blue Jays
AL
2
0
1.000
1993
1993
8
4
0
.667
1993
1977

2
Houston Astros
NL/AL[L2]
1
1
.500
2017
2017
4
7
0
.364
2017
1962

2
Texas Rangers (Washington Senators)
AL
0
2
.000
0 !—
2011
4
8
0
.333
2011
1961

2
San Diego Padres
NL
0
2
.000
0 !—
1998
1
8
0
.111
1984
1969

1
Los Angeles Angels
(Anaheim/California/Los Angeles)
AL
1
0
1.000
2002
2002
4
3
0
.571
2002
1961

1
Arizona Diamondbacks
NL
1
0
1.000
2001
2001
4
3
0
.571
2001
1998

1
Tampa Bay Rays
AL
0
1
.000
0 !—
2008
1
4
0
.200
2008
1998

1
Colorado Rockies
NL
0
1
.000
0 !—
2007
0
4
0
.000
0 !—
1993

1
Milwaukee Brewers (Seattle Pilots)
AL/NL[L1]
0
1
.000
0 !—
1982
3
4
0
.429
1982
1969

0
Washington Nationals (Montreal Expos)
NL
0
0
0 !—
0 !—
0 !—
0
0
0
–
0 !—
1969

0
Seattle Mariners
AL
0
0
0 !—
0 !—
0 !—
0
0
0
–
0 !—
1977

text: Years of appearance[edit]

text: In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by year of first appearance. In the "Season(s)" column, bold years indicate winning World Series appearances.

text:
Series
appearances
Team
Wins
Losses
Win %
Season(s)

40
New York Yankees
27
13
.675
1921, 1922, 1923, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2009

20
San Francisco Giants (New York)
8
12
.400
1905, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1917, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1933, 1936, 1937, 1951, 1954, 1962, 1989, 2002, 2010, 2012, 2014

19
St. Louis Cardinals
11
8
.579
1926, 1928, 1930, 1931, 1934, 1942, 1943, 1944, 1946, 1964, 1967, 1968, 1982, 1985, 1987, 2004, 2006, 2011, 2013

19
Los Angeles Dodgers (Brooklyn)
6
13
.316
1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1988, 2017

14
Oakland Athletics (Kansas City/Philadelphia)
9
5
.643
1905, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1914, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1988, 1989, 1990

12
Boston Red Sox (Americans)
8
4
.667
1903, 1912, 1915, 1916, 1918, 1946, 1967, 1975, 1986, 2004, 2007, 2013

11
Detroit Tigers
4
7
.364
1907, 1908, 1909, 1934, 1935, 1940, 1945, 1968, 1984, 2006, 2012

11
Chicago Cubs
3
8
.273
1906, 1907, 1908, 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, 1945, 2016

9
Cincinnati Reds
5
4
.556
1919, 1939, 1940, 1961, 1970, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1990

9
Atlanta Braves (Milwaukee/Boston)
3
6
.333
1914, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1991, 1992, 1995, 1996, 1999

7
Pittsburgh Pirates
5
2
.714
1903, 1909, 1925, 1927, 1960, 1971, 1979

7
Baltimore Orioles (St. Louis Browns)
3
4
.429
1944, 1966, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1979, 1983

7
Philadelphia Phillies
2
5
.286
1915, 1950, 1980, 1983, 1993, 2008, 2009

6
Minnesota Twins (Washington Senators)
3
3
.500
1924, 1925, 1933, 1965, 1987, 1991

6
Cleveland Indians
2
4
.333
1920, 1948, 1954, 1995, 1997, 2016

5
Chicago White Sox
3
2
.600
1906, 1917, 1919, 1959, 2005

5
New York Mets
2
3
.400
1969, 1973, 1986, 2000, 2015

4
Kansas City Royals
2
2
.500
1980, 1985, 2014, 2015

2
Toronto Blue Jays
2
0
1.000
1992, 1993

2
Miami Marlins (Florida)
2
0
1.000
1997, 2003

2
Houston Astros
1
1
.500
2005, 2017

2
San Diego Padres
0
2
.000
1984, 1998

2
Texas Rangers (Washington Senators)
0
2
.000
2010, 2011

1
Arizona Diamondbacks
1
0
1.000
2001

1
Los Angeles Angels
(Anaheim/California/Los Angeles)
1
0
1.000
2002

1
Milwaukee Brewers (Seattle Pilots)
0
1
.000
1982

1
Colorado Rockies
0
1
.000
2007

1
Tampa Bay Rays
0
1
.000
2008

0
Washington Nationals (Montreal Expos)
0
0
0 !—

0
Seattle Mariners
0
0
0 !—

text: Frequent matchups[edit]

text: The following are the 19 matchups of teams that have occurred two or more times in the World Series. All teams which have participated in these were "Classic Eight" members of either the American or National League; no expansion team (created in 1961 or later) has faced an opponent more than once in a World Series.

text:
Count
Matchup
Record
Years

11
Brooklyn & Los Angeles Dodgers vs. New York Yankees
Yankees, 8–3
1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1963, 1977, 1978, 1981

7
New York Yankees vs. New York & San Francisco Giants
Yankees, 5–2
1921, 1922, 1923, 1936, 1937, 1951, 1962

5
New York Yankees vs. St. Louis Cardinals
Cardinals, 3–2
1926, 1928, 1942, 1943, 1964

4
Milwaukee & Atlanta Braves vs. New York Yankees
Yankees, 3–1
1957, 1958, 1996, 1999

4
Boston Red Sox vs. St. Louis Cardinals
Tied, 2–2
1946, 1967, 2004, 2013

4
Chicago Cubs vs. Detroit Tigers
Tied, 2–2
1907, 1908, 1935, 1945

4
Philadelphia & Oakland Athletics vs. New York & San Francisco Giants
Athletics, 3–1
1905, 1911, 1913, 1989

3
Cincinnati Reds vs. New York Yankees
Yankees, 2–1
1939, 1961, 1976

3
Detroit Tigers vs. St. Louis Cardinals
Cardinals, 2–1
1934, 1968, 2006

2
Boston & Atlanta Braves vs. Cleveland Indians
Tied, 1–1
1948, 1995

2
Baltimore Orioles vs. Pittsburgh Pirates
Pirates, 2–0
1971, 1979

2
Chicago Cubs vs. New York Yankees
Yankees, 2–0
1932, 1938

2
Chicago Cubs vs. Philadelphia Athletics (now Oakland)
Athletics, 2–0
1910, 1929

2
Cincinnati Reds vs. Oakland Athletics
Tied, 1–1
1972, 1990

2
Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Oakland Athletics
Tied, 1–1
1974, 1988

2
Washington Senators (now Minnesota Twins) vs. New York Giants (now San Francisco)
Tied, 1–1
1924, 1933

2
New York Yankees vs. Philadelphia Phillies
Yankees, 2–0
1950, 2009

2
New York Yankees vs. Pittsburgh Pirates
Tied, 1–1
1927, 1960

2
Philadelphia Athletics (now Oakland) vs. St. Louis Cardinals
Tied, 1–1
1930, 1931

text: Notes[edit]

text:
T The 1907, 1912, and 1922 World Series each included one tied game.
V The 1903, 1919, 1920, and 1921 World Series were in a best-of-nine format (carried by the first team to win five games).
W Indicates a team which made the playoffs as a wild card team (rather than by winning a division).[1]
L1 The Brewers were in the American League from 1969–1997, after which they switched to the National League.[122]
L2 The Astros were in the National League from 1962–2012, after which they switched to the American League.


document_title: 40th parallel north

question_text: what is the nearest parallel to beijing china

root

text: 40th parallel north

text: Around the world[edit]

text: Starting in Spain at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the parallel 40° north passes through:

tag: p

text:
Co-ordinates

Country, territory or sea

Notes

40°0′N 0°0′E / 40.000°N 0.000°E / 40.000; 0.000 (Prime Meridian)

 Spain

Valencian Community

40°0′N 0°2′E / 40.000°N 0.033°E / 40.000; 0.033 (Mediterranean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Passing just north of the island of Majorca,  Spain

40°0′N 3°48′E / 40.000°N 3.800°E / 40.000; 3.800 (Spain)

 Spain

Island of Menorca

40°0′N 4°13′E / 40.000°N 4.217°E / 40.000; 4.217 (Mediterranean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

40°0′N 8°24′E / 40.000°N 8.400°E / 40.000; 8.400 (Italy)

 Italy

Island of Sardinia

40°0′N 9°42′E / 40.000°N 9.700°E / 40.000; 9.700 (Mediterranean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Tyrrhenian Sea

40°0′N 15°20′E / 40.000°N 15.333°E / 40.000; 15.333 (Italy)

 Italy

Campania

40°0′N 15°26′E / 40.000°N 15.433°E / 40.000; 15.433 (Mediterranean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Gulf of Policastro

40°0′N 15°41′E / 40.000°N 15.683°E / 40.000; 15.683 (Italy)

 Italy

Basilicata, Calabria

40°0′N 16°37′E / 40.000°N 16.617°E / 40.000; 16.617 (Mediterranean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Gulf of Taranto

40°0′N 18°0′E / 40.000°N 18.000°E / 40.000; 18.000 (Italy)

 Italy

Apulia

40°0′N 18°25′E / 40.000°N 18.417°E / 40.000; 18.417 (Mediterranean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Strait of Otranto

40°0′N 19°53′E / 40.000°N 19.883°E / 40.000; 19.883 (Albania)

 Albania

Passing just north of Sarandë and just south of Gjirokastër

40°0′N 20°23′E / 40.000°N 20.383°E / 40.000; 20.383 (Greece)

 Greece

40°0′N 22°37′E / 40.000°N 22.617°E / 40.000; 22.617 (Aegean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Aegean Sea

40°0′N 23°23′E / 40.000°N 23.383°E / 40.000; 23.383 (Greece)

 Greece

Kassandra and Sithonia

40°0′N 24°0′E / 40.000°N 24.000°E / 40.000; 24.000 (Aegean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Aegean Sea

40°0′N 25°6′E / 40.000°N 25.100°E / 40.000; 25.100 (Greece)

 Greece

Island of Lemnos

40°0′N 25°26′E / 40.000°N 25.433°E / 40.000; 25.433 (Aegean Sea)

Mediterranean Sea

Aegean Sea

40°0′N 26°11′E / 40.000°N 26.183°E / 40.000; 26.183 (Turkey)

 Turkey

Passing just north of Ankara

40°0′N 44°24′E / 40.000°N 44.400°E / 40.000; 44.400 (Armenia)

 Armenia

40°0′N 45°36′E / 40.000°N 45.600°E / 40.000; 45.600 (Azerbaijan)

 Azerbaijan

Passing through Nagorno-Karabakh

40°0′N 49°27′E / 40.000°N 49.450°E / 40.000; 49.450 (Caspian Sea)

Caspian Sea

40°0′N 52°46′E / 40.000°N 52.767°E / 40.000; 52.767 (Turkmenistan)

 Turkmenistan

40°0′N 62°26′E / 40.000°N 62.433°E / 40.000; 62.433 (Uzbekistan)

 Uzbekistan

40°0′N 68°48′E / 40.000°N 68.800°E / 40.000; 68.800 (Tajikistan)

 Tajikistan

40°0′N 69°31′E / 40.000°N 69.517°E / 40.000; 69.517 (Kyrgyzstan)

 Kyrgyzstan

40°0′N 70°32′E / 40.000°N 70.533°E / 40.000; 70.533 (Tajikistan)

 Tajikistan

For about 9 km

40°0′N 70°39′E / 40.000°N 70.650°E / 40.000; 70.650 (Kyrgyzstan)

 Kyrgyzstan

40°0′N 71°5′E / 40.000°N 71.083°E / 40.000; 71.083 (Uzbekistan)

 Uzbekistan

Sokh exclave - for about 7 km

40°0′N 71°10′E / 40.000°N 71.167°E / 40.000; 71.167 (Kyrgyzstan)

 Kyrgyzstan

40°0′N 71°48′E / 40.000°N 71.800°E / 40.000; 71.800 (Uzbekistan)

 Uzbekistan

Shohimardon exclave - for about 4 km

40°0′N 71°50′E / 40.000°N 71.833°E / 40.000; 71.833 (Kyrgyzstan)

 Kyrgyzstan

40°0′N 73°58′E / 40.000°N 73.967°E / 40.000; 73.967 (China)

 People's Republic of China

Xinjiang  Gansu  Inner Mongolia  Shanxi  Hebei  Beijing (passing just north of the city centre)  Hebei  Tianjin  Hebei  Liaoning (for about 8 km)

40°0′N 119°54′E / 40.000°N 119.900°E / 40.000; 119.900 (Yellow Sea)

Pacific Ocean

Liaodong Bay, Yellow Sea

40°0′N 121°53′E / 40.000°N 121.883°E / 40.000; 121.883 (China)

 People's Republic of China

Liaoning (Liaodong Peninsula)

40°0′N 124°21′E / 40.000°N 124.350°E / 40.000; 124.350 (North Korea)

 North Korea

North Pyeongan Province - Passing through Sinuiju Jagang ProvinceSouth Hamgyeong Province - Passing just north of Hamheung

40°0′N 127°57′E / 40.000°N 127.950°E / 40.000; 127.950 (Sea of Japan)

Pacific Ocean

Sea of Japan

40°0′N 128°10′E / 40.000°N 128.167°E / 40.000; 128.167 (North Korea)

 North Korea

Mayang Island

40°0′N 128°13′E / 40.000°N 128.217°E / 40.000; 128.217 (Sea of Japan)

Pacific Ocean

Sea of Japan

40°0′N 139°54′E / 40.000°N 139.900°E / 40.000; 139.900 (Japan)

 Japan

Island of Honshū— Akita Prefecture— Iwate Prefecture

40°0′N 141°57′E / 40.000°N 141.950°E / 40.000; 141.950 (Pacific Ocean)

Pacific Ocean

40°0′N 124°1′W / 40.000°N 124.017°W / 40.000; -124.017 (United States)

 United States

California Nevada Utah Colorado Nebraska / Kansas border Missouri Illinois Indiana Ohio - passing just north of Columbus West Virginia Pennsylvania - passing just north of Philadelphia New Jersey

40°0′N 31°7′W / 40.000°N 31.117°W / 40.000; -31.117 (Atlantic Ocean)

Atlantic Ocean

Passing just north of Corvo Island, Azores,  Portugal

40°0′N 8°55′W / 40.000°N 8.917°W / 40.000; -8.917 (Portugal)

 Portugal

Passing near Pombal and Covilhã

40°0′N 6°51′W / 40.000°N 6.850°W / 40.000; -6.850 (Spain)

 Spain

Extremadura Castile-La Mancha Community of Madrid - for about 10 km Castile-La Mancha Valencian Community - Rincón de Ademuz exclave, for about 4 km Castile-La Mancha - for about 5 km Aragon Valencian Community

tag: table

text: United States[edit]

text: The parallel 40° north forms the boundary between the states of Kansas and Nebraska.  On 30 May 1854, the Kansas–Nebraska Act created the Territory of Kansas and the Territory of Nebraska divided by the parallel 40° north.  Both territories were required to determine for themselves whether to permit slavery. Open conflict between free-state and pro-slavery forces in the Kansas Territory was one of the root causes of the American Civil War.

text: The parallel 40° north formed the original northern boundary of the British Colony of Maryland.  A subsequent royal grant gave the Colony of Pennsylvania land north of the 40th parallel but mistakenly assumed it would intersect the Twelve Mile Circle, which it does not. Pennsylvania's border was thus unclear and the colony pushed for a border far south of the 40th parallel. The Mason–Dixon Line was drawn between 1763 and 1767 as the compromise boundary between the overlapping claims of these two colonies.

text: The parallel 40° north passes through the cities of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Columbus, Ohio; as well as northern suburbs of Indianapolis, Indiana and Denver, Colorado. The parallel goes directly through the John Glenn Columbus International Airport, with runway 10L-28R lying immediately north of the line, runway 10R-28L lying slightly south of it, and the line going through the northernmost edges of the terminal. It also passes through the main campus of The Ohio State University; specifically, it cuts directly across the Oval greenspace, between University Hall and the William Oxley Thompson Memorial Library

text: Ohio Stadium, one of the largest stadiums in the world, barely misses the parallel 40° north (6 seconds above 40° north)

text: Baseline Road in Boulder, Colorado, traces the parallel 40° north.

text: Thistle, Utah, a ghost town since 1983, is slightly (30 seconds) below 40° north.


document_title: Sexual differentiation in humans

question_text: when do you become genetically male or female

text: Sexual differentiation in humans

text: Sex determination[edit]

text: Most mammals, including humans, have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. The "default sex," in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female-like. This is because of the presence of the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome, also known as the SRY gene.[5] Thus, male mammals typically have an X and a Y chromosome (XY), while female mammals typically have two X chromosomes (XX). In humans, biological sex is determined by five factors present at birth: the presence or absence of a Y chromosome, the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal genitalia (such as the uterus in females), and the external genitalia.[6]

text: Chromosomal sex is determined at the time of fertilization; a chromosome from the sperm cell, either X or Y, fuses with the X chromosome in the egg cell. Gonadal sex refers to the gonads, that is the testis or ovaries, depending on which genes are expressed. Phenotypic sex refers to the structures of the external and internal genitalia.[7]

text: A human fetus does not develop its external sexual organs until seven weeks after fertilization. The fetus appears to be sexually indifferent, looking neither like a male or a female. Over the next five weeks, the fetus begins producing hormones that cause its sex organs to grow into either male or female organs. This process is called sexual differentiation. The precursor of the internal female sex organs is called the Müllerian system.

text: Reproductive system[edit]

text: By 7 weeks, a fetus has a genital tubercle, urogenital groove and sinus, and labioscrotal folds. In females, without excess androgens, these become the clitoris, urethra and vagina, and labia

text: Differentiation between the sexes of the sex organs occurs throughout embryological, fetal and later life. This includes both internal and external genital differentiation. In both males and females, the sex organs consist of three structures: the gonads, the internal genitalia, and the external genitalia.  In males, the gonads are the testes and in females they are the ovaries.  These are the organs that produce gametes (egg and sperm), the reproductive cells that will eventually meet to form the fertilized egg (zygote).

text: As the zygote divides, it first becomes the embryo (which means 'growing within'), typically between zero and eight weeks, then from the eighth week until birth, it is considered the fetus (which means 'unborn offspring').   The internal genitalia are all the accessory glands and ducts that connect the gonads to the outside environment.  The external genitalia consist of all the external reproductive structures. The sex of an early embryo cannot be determined because the reproductive structures do not differentiate until the seventh week.  Prior to this, the child is considered bipotential because it cannot be identified as male or female.

text: Internal genital differentiation[edit]

text: The internal genitalia consist of two accessory ducts: mesonephric ducts (male) and paramesonephric ducts (female). The mesonephric system is the precursor to the male genitalia and the paramesonephric  to the female reproductive system.[9] As development proceeds, one of the pairs of ducts develops while the other regresses.  This depends on the presence or absence of the sex determining region of the Y chromosome, also known as the SRY gene.[5]  In the presence of a functional SRY gene, the bipotential gonads develop into testes. Gonads are histologically distinguishable by 6–8 weeks of gestation.

text: Subsequent development of one set and degeneration of the other depends on the presence or absence of two testicular hormones: testosterone and anti-müllerian hormone (AMH).  Disruption of typical development may result in the development of both, or neither, duct system, which may produce morphologically intersex individuals.

text: Males: The SRY gene when transcribed and processed produces SRY protein that binds to DNA and directs the development of the gonad into testes.   Male development can only occur when the fetal testis secretes key hormones at a critical period in early gestation. The testes begin to secrete three hormones that influence the male internal and external genitalia: they secrete anti-müllerian hormone (AMH),  testosterone, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Anti-müllerian hormone causes the paramesonephric ducts to regress.  Testosterone converts the mesonephric ducts into male accessory structures, including the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle.   Testosterone will also control the descending of the testes from the abdomen into the scrotum.[1] Many other genes found on other autosomes, includingWT-1, SOX9, SF-1 also play a role in gonadal development.[10]

text: Females: Without testosterone and AMH, the mesonephric ducts degenerate and disappear. The paramesonephric ducts develop into a uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina.[10] There still remains a broad lack of information about the genetic controls of female development, and much remains unknown about the female embryonic process.[11]

text: External genital differentiation[edit]

text:
Males become externally distinct between 8 and 12 weeks, as androgens enlarge the phallus and cause the urogenital groove and sinus to fuse in the midline, producing an unambiguous penis with a phallic urethra, and a thinned, rugated scrotum.
Dihydrotestosterone will differentiate the remaining male characteristics of  the external genitalia.[1]

text: A sufficient amount of any androgen can cause external masculinization. The most potent is dihydrotestosterone (DHT), generated from testosterone in skin and genital tissue by the action of 5α-reductase. A male fetus may be incompletely masculinized if this enzyme is deficient. In some diseases and circumstances, other androgens may be present in high enough concentrations to cause partial or (rarely) complete masculinization of the external genitalia of a genetically female fetus. The testes begin to secrete three hormones that influence the male internal and external genitalia.  They secrete anti-müllerian hormone, testosterone, and Dihydrotestosterone.  anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) causes the paramesonephric ducts to regress.  Testosterone, which is secreted and converts the mesonephric ducts into male accessory structures, such as epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle.   Testosterone will also control the descending of the testes from the abdomen into the scrotom.  Dihydrotestosterone, also known as (DHT) will differentiate the remaining male characteristics of  the external genitalia.[12]

text: Further sex differentiation of the external genitalia occurs at puberty, when androgen levels again become disparate. Male levels of testosterone directly induce growth of the penis, and indirectly (via DHT) the prostate.

text: Alfred Jost observed that while testosterone was required for mesonephric duct development, the regression of the paramesonephric duct was due to another substance. This was later determined to be paramesonephric inhibiting substance (MIS), a 140 kD dimeric glycoprotein that is produced by sertoli cells. MIS blocks the development of paramesonephric ducts, promoting their regression.[13]

text: Secondary sexual characteristics[edit]

text: Breast[edit]

text: Visible differentiation occurs at puberty, when estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to develop in typical females.

text: Psychological and behavioral differentiation[edit]

text: Human adults and children show many psychological and behavioral sex differences. Some (e.g., dress) are learned and obviously cultural. Others are demonstrable across cultures and have both biological and learned determinants. For example, some studies claim girls are, on average, more verbally fluent than boys, but boys are, on average, better at spatial calculation.[14][15] Some have observed that this may be due to two different patterns in parental communication with infants, noting that parents are more likely to talk to girls and more likely to engage in physical play with boys.[11] Because people cannot explore hormonal influences on human behavior experimentally, the relative contributions of biological factors and learning to human psychological and behavioral sex differences (especially gender identity, role, and sexual orientation) are controversial (and hotly contested).[11][16][17]

text: Current theories on mechanisms of sexual differentiation of brains and behavior in humans are based primarily on three sources of evidence: animal research involving manipulation of hormones in early life, observation of outcomes of small numbers of individuals with intersex conditions or cases of early sex reassignment, and statistical distribution of traits in populations (e.g., rates of homosexuality in twins). Many of these cases suggest some genetic or hormonal effect on sex differentiation of behavior and mental traits[18] this has been disputed as poor interpretation of scientific methodology.[11][16][17]

text: Intersex conditions[edit]

text: The following are some of the variations associated with atypical determination and differentiation process:[19]

text:
A zygote with only X chromosome (XO) results in Turner syndrome and will develop with female characteristics.[5]
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia - Inability of adrenal to produce sufficient cortisol, leading to increased production of testosterone resulting in severe masculinization of 46 XX females.
Persistent müllerian duct syndrome - A rare type of pseudohermaphroditism that occurs in 46 XY males, caused by either a mutation in the Müllerian inhibiting substance (MIS) gene, on 19p13, or its type II receptor, 12q13. Results in a retention of Müllerian ducts (persistence of rudimentary uterus and fallopian tubes in otherwise normally virilized males), unilateral or bilateral undescended testes and sometimes causes infertility.
XY differences of sex development - Atypical androgen production or inadequate androgen response, which can cause incomplete masculinization in XY males. Varies from mild failure of masculinization with undescended testes to complete sex reversal and female phenotype (Androgen insensitivity syndrome)
Swyer syndrome. A form of complete gonadal dysgenesis, mostly due to mutations in the first step of sex determination; the SRY genes.
A 5-alpha-reductase deficiency results in atypical development characterized by female phenotype or undervirilized male phenotype with development of the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, and ejaculatory duct, but also a pseudovagina. This is because testosterone is converted to the more potent DHT by 5-alpha reductase. DHT is necessary to exert androgenic effects farther from the site of testosterone production, where the concentrations of testosterone are too low to have any potency.

tag: ul

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
Human prenatal sexual differentiation[20]

Fetal age(weeks)

Crown-rump length(mm)

Sex differentiating events

1

blastocyst

Inactivation of one X chromosome

4

2-3

Development of wolffian ducts

5

7

Migration of primordial germ cells in the undifferentiated gonad

6

10-15

Development of müllerian ducts

7

13-20

Differentiation of seminiferous tubules

8

30

Regression of müllerian ducts in male fetus

8

32-35

Appearance of Leydig cells. First synthesis of testosterone

9

43

Total regression of müllerian ducts. Loss of sensitivity of müllerian ducts in the female fetus

9

43

First meiotic prophase in oogonia

10

43-45

Beginning of masculinization of external genitalia

10

50

Beginning of regression of wolffian ducts in the female fetus

12

70

Fetal testis is in the internal inguinal ring

12-14

70-90

Male penile urethra is completed

14

90

Appearance of first spermatogonia

16

100

Appearance of first ovarian follicles

17

120

Numerous Leydig cells. Peak of testosterone secretion

20

150

Regression of Leydig cells. Diminished testosterone secretion

24

200

First multilayered ovarian follicles. Canalisation of the vagina

28

230

Cessation of oogonia multiplication

28

230

Descent of testis


document_title: Great Pyramid of Giza

question_text: who are the pyramids of giza made for

question_tokens: who are the pyramids of giza made for

text: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: History and description

text: Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as "Cheops") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon) is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.[2] It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).[3]

text: Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.[4] Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing-stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north-eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1/50 of an inch).[5]

text: The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years,[6] unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length.[7] The base is horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm (0.6 in).[8] The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc)[9] based on true north, not magnetic north,[10] and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.[11]

text: The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 Egyptian Royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 Egyptian Royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05 percent (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it".[12] Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design".[13] Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building.[14] In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered limestone and other construction materials from Tora to Giza.[15]

text: Materials

text: The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally,[clarification needed] ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid.[16] It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.[17]

text: Casing stones

text: At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones"—slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 5½ palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo, not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.

text: Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation.[4] Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres" and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible".[19] It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie's "cement") that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.[20][21]

text: Construction theories

text: Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction techniques.[22] Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.[23]

text: One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means".[24] He also argues for a 14-year time-span for its construction.[25] A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.[26]

text: Interior

text: The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.[27]

text: 28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber". The passage is 1.1m (3'8") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.

text: Queen's Chamber

text: The "Queen's Chamber"[1] is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.[28]

text: In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there are shafts, which, unlike those in the King's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.[29]

text: The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft),[30] he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper "handles". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it.[31] The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.[32]

text: Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fibre-optic "micro snake camera" that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles" embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door" to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.[33]

text: Grand Gallery

text: The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery, rather than resting on the block beneath it, in order to prevent cumulative pressure.[34]

text: At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837–1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J. S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.

text: The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage.[35] This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.[citation needed]

text: At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now-vanished doors.

text: In 2017, scientists from the Scan Pyramids Project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery, using muon radiography that can detect cosmic rays. Its length is at least 30 metres (98 ft) and its cross-section is similar to that of the Grand Gallery. It was detected using three different technologies: nuclear emulsion films, scintillator hodoscopes, and gas detectors.[36][37] The purpose of the cavity is not known and it is not accessible but according to Zahi Hawass it may have been a gap used in the construction of the Grand Gallery.[38] The Japanese research team disputes this, however, saying that the huge void is completely different from the construction spaces previously identified.[39]

text: King's Chamber

text: The "King's Chamber"[1] is 20 Egyptian Royal cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog-leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts" for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king’s spirit to the heavens.[40]

text: The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison's Chamber", "Wellington's Chamber", "Nelson's Chamber", "Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber", and "Campbell's Chamber". It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.[41][42]

text: The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw-marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.

text: Modern entrance

text: Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen using a battering ram.[43][44] The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.[45]

text: Pyramid complex

text: The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[46][47] The basalt blocks show "clear evidence" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.[48]

text: On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as the Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.

text: The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[49][50] Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries" may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived, Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.[51]

text: In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans' settlement.[52] Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death.[53] A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.[54]

text: Boats

text: There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.

text: The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.[55]

text: Looting

text: Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid-building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began.[56][57] Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the Arab caliph Abdullah al-Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.[43]

text: I. E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations". Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones", in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the entrance.[58]

text: He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus" and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.[59]


document_title: Wright Flyer

question_text: when was the first gas powered airplane invented

text: Wright Flyer

text: Design and construction[edit]

text: The Flyer was based on the Wrights' experience testing gliders at Kitty Hawk between 1900 and 1902. Their last glider, the 1902 Glider, led directly to the design of the Flyer.

text: The Wrights built the aircraft in 1903 using giant spruce wood as their construction material.[2] The wings were designed with a 1-in-20 camber. Since they could not find a suitable automobile engine for the task, they commissioned their employee Charlie Taylor to build a new design from scratch, effectively a crude gasoline engine.[3] A sprocket chain drive, borrowing from bicycle technology, powered the twin propellers, which were also made by hand.

text: The Flyer was a bicanard biplane configuration. As with the gliders, the pilot flew lying on his stomach on the lower wing with his head toward the front of the craft in an effort to reduce drag. He steered by moving a cradle attached to his hips. The cradle pulled wires which warped the wings and turned the rudder simultaneously.

text: The Flyer's "runway" was a track of 2x4s stood on their narrow edge, which the brothers nicknamed the "Junction Railroad."

text: Flight trials at Kitty Hawk[edit]

text: Upon returning to Kitty Hawk in 1903, the Wrights completed assembly of the Flyer while practicing on the 1902 Glider from the previous season. On December 14, 1903, they felt ready for their first attempt at powered flight. With the help of men from the nearby government life-saving station, the Wrights moved the Flyer and its launching rail to the incline of a nearby sand dune, Big Kill Devil Hill, intending to make a gravity-assisted takeoff. The brothers tossed a coin to decide who would get the first chance at piloting, and Wilbur won. The airplane left the rail, but Wilbur pulled up too sharply, stalled, and came down in about three seconds with minor damage.

text: Repairs after the abortive first flight took three days. When they were ready again on December 17, the wind was averaging more than 20 mph, so the brothers laid the launching rail on level ground, pointed into the wind, near their camp. This time the wind, instead of an inclined launch, provided the necessary airspeed for takeoff. Because Wilbur had already had the first chance, Orville took his turn at the controls. His first flight lasted 12 seconds for a total distance of 120 ft (36.5 m) – shorter than the wingspan of a Boeing 747, as noted by observers in the 2003 commemoration of the first flight.[1][4]

text: Taking turns, the Wrights made four brief, low-altitude flights that day. The flight paths were all essentially straight; turns were not attempted. Each flight ended in a bumpy and unintended "landing." The last flight, by Wilbur, was 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds, much longer than each of the three previous flights of 120, 175 and 200 feet. The landing broke the front elevator supports, which the Wrights hoped to repair for a possible four-mile (6 km) flight to Kitty Hawk village. Soon after, a heavy gust picked up the Flyer and tumbled it end over end, damaging it beyond any hope of quick repair. It was never flown again.

text: In 1904, the Wrights continued refining their designs and piloting techniques in order to obtain fully controlled flight. Major progress toward this goal was achieved with a new Flyer in 1904 and even more decisively in 1905 with a third Flyer, in which Wilbur made a 39-minute, 24-mile (39 km) nonstop circling flight on October 5.[7] While the 1903 Flyer was clearly a historically important test vehicle, its hallowed status in the American imagination has obscured the role of its two successors in the continuing development that led to the Wrights' mastery of controlled powered flight in 1905.

text: The influence of the Flyer[edit]

text: The Flyer series of aircraft were the first to achieve controlled heavier-than-air flight, but some of the mechanical techniques the Wrights used to accomplish this were not influential for the development of aviation as a whole, although their theoretical achievements were. The Flyer design depended on wing-warping and a foreplane or "canard" for pitch control, features which would not scale and produced a hard-to-control aircraft. However, the Wrights' pioneering use of "roll control" by twisting the wings to change wingtip angle in relation to the airstream led directly to the more practical use of ailerons by their imitators, such as Curtiss and Farman. The Wrights' original concept of simultaneous coordinated roll and yaw control (rear rudder deflection), which they discovered in 1902, perfected in 1903–1905, and patented in 1906, represents the solution to controlled flight and is used today on virtually every fixed-wing aircraft. The Wright patent included the use of hinged rather than warped surfaces for the forward elevator and rear rudder. Other features that made the Flyer a success were highly efficient wings and propellers, which resulted from the Wrights' exacting wind tunnel tests and made the most of the marginal power delivered by their early "homebuilt" engines; slow flying speeds (and hence survivable accidents); and an incremental test/development approach. The future of aircraft design, however, lay with rigid wings, ailerons and rear control surfaces. A British patent of 1868 for aileron technology[8] had apparently been completely forgotten by the time the 20th century dawned.

text: After a single statement to the press in January 1904 and a failed public demonstration in May, the Wright Brothers did not publicize their efforts, and other aviators who were working on the problem of flight (notably Alberto Santos-Dumont) were thought by the press to have preceded them by many years. Indeed, several short heavier-than-air powered flights had been made by other aviators before 1903, leading to controversy about precedence (see Early flying machines). The Wrights, however, claimed to be the first of these which was "properly controlled."

text: The issue of control was correctly seen as critical by the Wrights, and they acquired a wide American patent intended to give them ownership of basic aerodynamic control. This was fought in both American and European courts. European designers, however, were little affected by the litigation and continued their own development. The legal fight in the U.S., however, had a crushing effect on the nascent American aircraft industry, and by the time of World War I, the U.S. had no suitable military aircraft and had to purchase French and British models.

text: Flyer stability[edit]

text: The Flyer was conceived as a control-canard, as the Wrights were more concerned with control than stability.[9] However, it was found to be so highly unstable that it was barely controllable.[10] During flight tests near Dayton the Wrights added ballast to the nose of the aircraft to move the center of gravity forward and reduce pitch instability. However the basics of pitch stability of the canard configuration were not understood by the Wright Brothers. F.E.C. Culick stated, "The backward state of the general theory and understanding of flight mechanics hindered them... Indeed, the most serious gap in their knowledge was probably the basic reason for their unwitting mistake in selecting their canard configuration."[11]

text: The Flyer after Kitty Hawk[edit]

text: The Wright Brothers returned home to Dayton for Christmas after the flights of the Kitty Hawk Flyer. While they had abandoned their other gliders, they realized the historical significance of the Flyer. They shipped the heavily damaged craft back to Dayton, where it remained stored in crates behind a Wright Company shed for 9 years. The Great Dayton Flood of March 1913 covered the flyer in mud and water for 11 days.[12]

text: Charlie Taylor relates in a 1948 article that the Flyer nearly got disposed of by the Wrights themselves. In early 1912 Roy Knabenshue, The Wrights Exhibition team manager, had a conversation with Wilbur and asked Wilbur what they planned to do with the Flyer. Wilbur said they most likely will burn it, as they had the 1904 machine. According to Taylor, Knabenshue talked Wilbur out of disposing of the machine for historical purposes.[13]

text: In 1910 the Wrights first made attempts to exhibit the Flyer in the Smithsonian Institution but talks fell through with the ensuing lawsuits against Glenn Curtiss and the Flyer may have been needed as repeated evidence in court cases. Wilbur died in 1912, and in 1916, as the patent fights were ending, Orville brought the Flyer out of storage and prepared it for display at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He replaced parts of the wing covering, the props, and the engine's crankcase, crankshaft, and flywheel. The crankcase, crankshaft and flywheel of the original engine had been sent to the Aero Club of America in New York for an exhibit in 1906 and were never returned to the Wrights. The replacement crankcase, crankshaft and flywheel came from the experimental engine Charlie Taylor had built in 1904 and used for testing in the bicycle shop. A replica crankcase of the flyer is on display at the visitor center at the Wright Brothers National Memorial.

text: Debate with the Smithsonian[edit]

text: The Smithsonian Institution, and primarily its then-secretary Charles Walcott, refused to give credit to the Wright Brothers for the first powered, controlled flight of an aircraft. Instead, they honored the former Smithsonian Secretary Samuel Pierpont Langley, whose 1903 tests of his own Aerodrome on the Potomac were not successful. Walcott was a friend of Langley and wanted to see Langley's place in aviation history restored. In 1914, Glenn Curtiss had recently exhausted the appeal process in a patent infringement legal battle with the Wrights. Curtiss sought to prove Langley's machine, which failed piloted tests nine days before the Wrights successful flight in 1903, capable of controlled, piloted flight in an attempt to invalidate the Wright's wide sweeping patents.

text: The Aerodrome was removed from exhibit at the Smithsonian and prepared for flight at Keuka Lake, New York. Curtis called the preparations "restoration" claiming that the only addition to the design was pontoons to support testing on the lake but critics including patent attorney Griffith Brewer called them alterations of the original design. Curtiss flew the modified Aerodrome, hopping a few feet off the surface of the lake for no more than 5 seconds at a time.[14]

text: Between 1916 and 1928 the Flyer was prepared and assembled for exhibition under the supervision of Orville by Wright Company mechanic Jim Jacobs several times. It was briefly exhibited at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1916, the New York Aero Shows in 1917 and 1919, a Society of Automotive Engineers meeting in Dayton, Ohio in 1918, and the National Air Races in Dayton in 1924.[15]

text: In 1925, Orville attempted to persuade the Smithsonian to recognize his and Wilbur's accomplishment by offering to send the Flyer to the Science Museum in London. This action did not have its intended effect, and the Flyer went on display in the London museum in 1928. It remained there in "the place of honour,"[16] except during World War II when it was moved to an underground storage facility 100 miles (160 km) from London, near the village of Corsham.[15]

text: In 1942 the Smithsonian Institution, under a new secretary, Charles Abbot, published a list of 35 Curtiss modifications to the Aerodrome and a retraction of its long-held claims for the craft. Abbot went on to list 4 regrets including the role the Institution played in supporting unsuccessful defendants in patent litigation by the Wrights, misinformation about modifications made to the Aerodrome after Wright Flyer's first flight and public statements attributing the "first aeroplane capable of sustained free flight with a man" to Secretary Langley. The entry in the 1942 Annual Report of Smithsonian Institution begins with the statement "It is everywhere acknowledged that the Wright brothers were the first to make sustained flights in a heavier-than-air machine at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903" and closes with a promise that "Should Dr. Wright decide to deposit the plane ... it would be given the highest place of honor which it is due"[17]

text: The following year, Orville, after exchanging several letters with Abbott, agreed to return the Flyer to the United States. The Flyer stayed at the Science Museum until a replica could be built, based on the original. This change of heart by the Smithsonian is also mired in controversy – the Flyer was sold to the Smithsonian under several contractual conditions, one of which reads:

text: Neither the Smithsonian Institution or its successors, nor any museum or other agency, bureau or facilities administered for the United States of America by the Smithsonian Institution or its successors shall publish or permit to be displayed a statement or label in connection with or in respect of any aircraft model or design of earlier date than the Wright Aeroplane of 1903, claiming in effect that such aircraft was capable of carrying a man under its own power in controlled flight.[18][19]

text: Researchers who promote the accomplishments of pioneer aviator Gustave Whitehead have commented that this agreement renders the Smithsonian unable to make properly unbiased academic decisions concerning any prior claims of 'first flight'.[20]

text: In 1948 the official handover of the Flyer was made to the American Civil Air Attaché at a ceremony attended by representatives of the various flying organizations in the UK and by some British aviation pioneers such as Sir Alliott Verdon-Roe.[21] Later in 1948, the Flyer was returned to the United States on board the Mauretania. When the liner docked at Halifax, Nova Scotia, Paul E. Garber of the Smithsonian's National Air Museum met the aircraft and took command of the proceedings. The rest of the journey to Washington continued on flatbed truck. While in Halifax Garber met John A. D. McCurdy, at the time the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. McCurdy as a young man had been a member of Alexander Graham Bell's team Aerial Experiment Association, which included Glenn Curtiss, and later a famous pioneer pilot. During the stay at Halifax, Garber and McCurdy reminisced about the pioneer aviation days and the Wright Brothers. McCurdy also offered Garber any assistance he needed to get the Flyer home.[22]

text: In the Smithsonian[edit]

text: The Flyer was put on display in the Arts and Industries Building of the Smithsonian on December 17, 1948, 45 years to the day after the aircraft's only flights. (Orville did not live to see this, as he died in January of that year.) In 1976, it was moved to the Milestones of Flight Gallery of the new National Air and Space Museum. Since 2003 it has resided in a special exhibit in the museum titled "The Wright Brothers and the Invention of the Aerial Age," honoring the Wright Brothers in recognition of the 100th anniversary of their first flight.

text: A piece of fabric and wood from the Wright Flyer was taken to the surface of the Moon by the crew of Apollo 11, the first lunar landing mission, in July 1969.[23]

text: 1985 restoration[edit]

text: In 1981, discussion began on the need to restore the Flyer from the aging it sustained after many decades on display. During the ceremonies celebrating the 78th anniversary of the first flights, Mrs. Harold S. Miller (Ivonette Wright, Lorin's daughter), one of the Wright brothers' nieces, presented the Museum with the original covering of one wing of the Flyer, which she had received in her inheritance from Orville. She expressed her wish to see the aircraft restored.

text: The fabric covering on the aircraft at the time, which came from the 1927 restoration, was discolored and marked with water spots. Metal fasteners holding the wing uprights together had begun to corrode, marking the nearby fabric.

text: Work began in 1985. The restoration was supervised by Senior Curator Robert Mikesh and assisted by Wright Brothers expert Tom Crouch. Museum director Walter J. Boyne decided to perform the restoration in full view of the public.

text: The wooden framework was cleaned, and corrosion on metal parts removed. The covering was the only part of the aircraft replaced. The new covering was more accurate to the original than that of the 1927 restoration. To preserve the original paint on the engine, the restorers coated it in inert wax before putting on a new coat of paint.

text: The effects of the 1985 restoration were intended to last 75 years (to 2060) before another restoration would be required.[24]

text: Flyer reproductions[edit]

text: A number of individuals and groups have attempted to build reproductions of the Wright Flyer for demonstration or scientific purposes.

text: In 1978, 23-year-old Ken Kellett built a replica Flyer in Colorado and flew it at Kitty Hawk on the 75th and 80th anniversaries of the first flight there. Construction took a year and cost $3,000.[citation needed]

text: As the 100th anniversary on December 17, 2003 approached, the U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission along with other organizations opened bids for companies to recreate the original flight. The Wright Experience, led by Ken Hyde, won the bid and painstakingly recreated reproductions of the original Flyer, plus many of the prototype gliders and kites as well as several subsequent Wright aircraft. The completed Flyer reproduction was brought to Kitty Hawk and pilot Kevin Kochersberger attempted to recreate the original flight at 10:35 AM December 17, 2003 on level ground near the bottom of Kill Devil Hill.[25] Although the aircraft had previously made several successful test flights, sour weather, rain, and weak winds prevented a successful flight on the actual anniversary date. Hyde's reproduction is displayed at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.

text: Numerous static display-only, nonflying reproductions are on display around the United States and across the world, making this perhaps the most reproduced single aircraft of the "pioneer" era in history, rivaling the number of copies — some of which are airworthy — of Louis Blériot's cross-Channel Bleriot XI from 1909.

text:
The AIAA's Flyer reproduction undergoing testing in a NASA wind tunnel.

Wright Flyer Replica at the Henry Ford Museum

Flyer replica at the Frontiers of Flight Museum

Wright 1903 Flyer replica at the Lysdale Historic Hangar [1]

text: Artifacts[edit]

text: Portions of the original fabric and wood from the Flyer traveled to the surface of the moon aboard the Apollo 11 lunar module. This artifact is on display at the visitors center at the Wright Brothers National Memorial in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.[26] Separate portions of original wood and fabric were taken by North Carolina native astronaut Michael Smith aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on mission STS-51-L which was destroyed on liftoff. The portions of wood and fabric were recovered from the wreck of the shuttle and are on display at the North Carolina Museum of History[27]

text:
Flyer wood and fabric taken aboard Apollo 11

Flyer wood and fabric taken aboard STS-51-L

text: Media[edit]

text:
Play media

A 1945 newsreel covering various firsts in human flight, including Wright Flyer footage

text: Specifications (Wright Flyer)[edit]

text: General characteristics

text:
Crew: One
Length: 21 ft (6 m) 1 in (6.43 m)
Wingspan: 40 ft (12 m) 4 in (12.31 m)
Height: 9 ft (3 m) 0 in (2.74 m)
Wing area: 510 ft² (47 m²)
Empty weight: 605 lb (274 kg)
Max. takeoff weight: 745 lb (338 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × straight-4 water-cooled piston engine, 12 hp (9 kW), 170 lbs (77.3 kg), (2 Wright "Elliptical" props, 8 ft (2 m). 6in., port prop carved to counter-rotate left, starboard prop carved to rotate to the right)

text: Performance

text:
Maximum speed: 30 mph (48 km/h)
Service ceiling: 30 ft (9 m)
Wing loading: 1.4 lb/ft² (7 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.02 hp/lb (30 W/kg)


document_title: Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)

question_text: who was the king of judah when jerusalem fell

text: Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Siege of JerusalemPart of the Jewish–Babylonian war (601–586 BC)Date589 to 587 BCLocationJerusalemResult
Babylonian victory, destruction of Jerusalem, fall of Kingdom of JudahBelligerents
Kingdom of Judah
Neo-Babylonian EmpireCommanders and leaders
Zedekiah
Nebuchadnezzar IIStrength
Much fewer
UnknownCasualties and losses
Many slain, 4,200 others taken to captivity
Unknown

text:
showvteCampaigns of the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah
Battle of Aphek
Battle of Michmash
Siege of Jebus
Battle of the Wood of Ephraim
Jeroboam's Revolt
Battle of Bitter Lakes
Sack of Jerusalem (10th century BC)
Battle of Mount Zemaraim
Battle of Zephath
Battle of Qarqar
Israelite–Aramean War
Syro-Ephraimite War
Sennacherib's campaign in Judah
Siege of Azekah
Siege of Lachish
Assyrian siege of Jerusalem
Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)
Jewish–Babylonian war
Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)
Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)

text:
showvteCampaigns of  Nebuchadnezzar II
Carchemish
Hamath
Gaza
1st Siege of Jerusalem
2nd Siege of Jerusalem

text: In 589 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II laid siege to Jerusalem, culminating in the destruction of the city and its temple in the summer of 587 or 586 BC.

text: Siege[edit]

text: Following the siege of 597 BC, the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar installed Zedekiah as tributary king of Judah, at the age of 21. However, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon, and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra, the king of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar responded by invading Judah[1] and began a siege of Jerusalem in December 589 BC. During this siege, the duration of which was either 18 or 30 months,[2] the Bible describes the city as enduring horrible deprivation.[3] In 586 BC, after completion of the eleventh year of Zedekiah's reign,[4] Nebuchadnezzar broke through Jerusalem's walls, conquering the city. Zedekiah and his followers attempted to escape but were captured on the plains of Jericho and taken to Riblah. There, after seeing his sons killed, Zedekiah was blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon,[5] where he remained a prisoner until his death.

text: After the fall of Jerusalem, the Babylonian general, Nebuzaraddan, was sent to complete its destruction. Jerusalem was plundered, and Solomon's Temple was destroyed. Most of the elite were taken into captivity in Babylon. The city was razed to the ground. Only a few people were permitted to remain to tend to the land.[6]

text: The Jew Gedaliah was made governor of the remnant of Judah, the Yehud Province, with a Chaldean guard stationed at Mizpah.[7] The Bible reports that, on hearing this news, Jews who had fled to Moab, Ammon, Edom, and in other countries returned to Judah.[8] Gedaliah was assassinated by Ishmael son of Nethaniah two months later, and the population that had remained and those who had returned then fled to Egypt for safety.[9] In Egypt, they settled in Migdol (it is uncertain where the Bible is referring to here, probably somewhere in the Nile Delta), Tahpanhes, Memphis (called Noph), and Pathros (the vicinity of Thebes).[10]

text: Chronological notes[edit]

text: There has been some debate as to when the second siege of Jerusalem took place. There is no dispute that Jerusalem fell the second time in the summer month of Tammuz (Jeremiah 52:6), but William F. Albright dates the end of Zedekiah's reign and the fall of Jerusalem to 587 BC, but Edwin R. Thiele offers 586 BC.[11]

text: Thiele's reckoning is based on the presentation of Zedekiah's reign on an accession basis, which he asserts was occasionally used for the kings of Judah. In that case, the year that Zedekiah came to the throne would be his zeroth year; his first full year would be 597/596 BC, and his eleventh year, the year that Jerusalem fell, would be 587/586 BC. Since Judah's regnal years were counted from Tishri in autumn, that would place the end of his reign and the capture of Jerusalem in the summer of 586 BC.[11][12]

text: The Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle (BM 21946), published in 1956, indicates that Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem the first time putting an end to the reign of Jehoaichin, on 2 Adar (16 March) 597 BC, in Nebuchadnezzar's seventh year.[13] Jeremiah 52:28–29 gives the relative periods for the end of the two sieges as Nebuchadnezzar's seventh and eighteenth years, respectively. (The same periods are elsewhere described at 2 Kings 24:12 and 2 Kings 25:8 as Nebuchadnezzar's eighth and nineteenth years, including his accession year.) Identification of Nebuchadnezzar's eighteenth year for the end of the siege places the event in the summer of 587 BC.


document_title: Golden Hinde (mountain)

question_text: what is the highest point on vancouver island

text: Golden Hinde (mountain)

text:
Golden Hinde

Golden Hinde, south aspect, August 2006.

Highest point

Elevation
2,195 m (7,201 ft) [1]

Prominence
2,195 m (7,201 ft) [1]

Listing

Highest ocean islands 60th
North America prominent peaks 66th
Ultras of Canada 26th
Ultras of North America 26th
Canada most isolated peaks 38th

Coordinates
49°39′46″N 125°44′49″W / 49.66278°N 125.74694°W / 49.66278; -125.74694Coordinates: 49°39′46″N 125°44′49″W / 49.66278°N 125.74694°W / 49.66278; -125.74694 [2]

Geography

Golden Hinde

British Columbia, Canada

Location
Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada

Parent range
Vancouver Island Ranges

Topo map
NTS 92/F12

Climbing

First ascent
Einar Anderson, W.R. Kent 1913 or 1914

Easiest route
rock climb

text: The Golden Hinde is a mountain located in the Vancouver Island Ranges on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. At 2,195 metres (7,201 ft),[3] it is the highest peak on the island. The mountain is located near the geographic centre of Vancouver Island, as well as near the centre of 2,450 km2 (605,408 acres) Strathcona Provincial Park, at the head of the Wolf River and to the west of Buttle Lake, about 25 kilometres (16 mi) east of the community of Gold River. The peak is popular with experienced backcountry-climbers, having been first ascended in 1913. The mountain is made of basalt which is part of the Karmutsen Formation.[4]

text: The mountain took its name from Sir Francis Drake's ship, the Golden Hind, by an early fur-trading captain, who was reminded of Drake's ship as sunset hit the mountain (which is visible from the west coast of the Island) and in honour of Drake's reputed presence off the coast of the future British Columbia during the explorer's circumnavigation of the globe from 1577–80 (see New Albion). The present name was not officially conferred until 1938, but this was done after a reference to the peak in a fur-trader's log. The alternative name "The Rooster's Comb" was used by early alpinists because of the mountain's appearance.[5]


document_title: Executive (government)

question_text: what is the work of executive arm of government

text: Executive (government)

text:
Part of the Politics series on

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Politics portal

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text:
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Politics

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text: The executive is the organ exercising authority in and holding responsibility for the governance of a state. The executive executes and enforces law.

text: In political systems based on the principle of separation of powers, authority is distributed among several branches (executive, legislative, judicial) — an attempt to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a small group of people. In such a system, the executive does not pass laws (the role of the legislature) or interpret them (the role of the judiciary). Instead, the executive enforces the law as written by the legislature and interpreted by the judiciary. The executive can be the source of certain types of law, such as a decree or executive order. Executive bureaucracies are commonly the source of regulations.

text: In the Westminster political system, the principle of separation of powers is not as entrenched. Members of the executive, called ministers, are also members of the legislature, and hence play an important part in both the writing and enforcing of law.

text: In this context, the executive consists of a leader(s) of an office or multiple offices. Specifically, the top leadership roles of the executive branch may include:

text:
head of state—often the supreme leader, the president or monarch, the chief public representative and living symbol of national unity.

head of government—often the de facto leader, prime minister, overseeing the administration of all affairs of state.

defence minister—overseeing the armed forces, determining military policy and managing external safety.
interior minister—overseeing the police forces, enforcing the law and managing internal safety.
foreign minister—overseeing the diplomatic service, determining foreign policy and managing foreign relations.
finance minister—overseeing the treasury, determining fiscal policy and managing national budget.
justice minister—overseeing criminal prosecutions, corrections, enforcement of court orders.

text: In a presidential system, the leader of the executive is both the head of state and head of government.[1] In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister responsible to the legislature is the head of government, while the head of state is usually a largely ceremonial monarch or president.[2]