document_title: Welcome Home (Peters and Lee song)

question_text: who sang welcome home come on in and close the door

text: Welcome Home (Peters and Lee song)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: "Welcome Home" was a song made popular by Peters and Lee.

text: Originally written by Jean Alphonse Dupre and Stanislas Beldone in French and translated into English by Bryan Blackburn, the record was produced by Johnny Franz. Coming after their success in the talent show Opportunity Knocks, Peters and Lee recorded Welcome Home becoming the duo's only number one single in the UK Singles Chart, spending a week at the top in July 1973.[1] It went on to sell over 800,000 copies in the UK.

text: The song received minor US crossover, appearing on Billboard's Bubbling Under The Hot 100, Country charts, and most notably on the Easy Listening chart, where it peaked at number twenty-six.[2]

text: The song was used in an advertising campaign by Walkers Crisps when Gary Lineker returned to the UK after playing abroad.

text:
Preceded by
"Skweeze Me Pleeze Me" by Slade
UK number one single
21 July 1973 for one week
Succeeded by
"I'm the Leader of the Gang (I Am)" by Gary Glitter


document_title: International Bank Account Number

question_text: which part of an iban is the account number

root

text: International Bank Account Number

text: Background[edit]

text: Before IBAN, differing national standards for bank account identification (i.e. bank, branch, routing codes, and account number) were confusing for some users. This often led to necessary routing information being missing from payments. Routing information as specified by ISO 9362 (also known as Business Identifier Codes (BIC code), SWIFT ID or SWIFT code, and SWIFT-BIC) does not require a specific format for the transaction so the identification of accounts and transaction types is left to agreements of the transaction partners. It also does not contain check digits, so errors of transcription were not detectable and it was not possible for a sending bank to validate the routing information prior to submitting the payment. Routing errors caused delayed payments and incurred extra costs to the sending and receiving banks and often to intermediate routing banks.[2]

tag: p

text: In 1997, to overcome these difficulties, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published ISO 13616:1997.[3] This proposal had a degree of flexibility, which the European Committee for Banking Standards (ECBS) believed would make it unworkable, and they produced a "slimmed down" version of the standard which, amongst other things, permitted only upper-case letters and required that the IBAN for each country have a fixed length.[4] ISO 13616:1997 was subsequently withdrawn and replaced by ISO 13616:2003.[3] The standard was revised again in 2007 when it was split into two parts. ISO 13616-1:2007 "specifies the elements of an international bank account number (IBAN) used to facilitate the processing of data internationally in data interchange, in financial environments as well as within and between other industries" but "does not specify internal procedures, file organization techniques, storage media, languages, etc. to be used in its implementation".[5] ISO 13616-2:2007 describes "the Registration Authority (RA) responsible for the registry of IBAN formats that are compliant with ISO 13616-1 [and] the procedures for registering ISO 13616-compliant IBAN formats".[6] The official IBAN registrar under ISO 13616-2:2007 is SWIFT.[7]

text: IBAN imposes a flexible but regular format sufficient for account identification and contains validation information to avoid errors of transcription. It carries all the routing information needed to get a payment from one bank to another wherever it may be; it contains key bank account details such as country code, branch codes (known as sort codes in the UK and Ireland) and account numbers, and it contains check digits which can be validated at source according to a single standard procedure.[8] Where used, IBANs have reduced trans-national money transfer errors to under 0.1% of total payments.

text: Structure[edit]

text: The IBAN consists of up to 34 alphanumeric characters, as follows:

text:
country code using ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 – two letters,
check digits – two digits, and
Basic Bank Account Number (BBAN) – up to 30 alphanumeric characters that are country-specific.[1]

tag: ul

text: The check digits enable a sanity check of the bank account number to confirm its integrity before submitting a transaction.

text: The IBAN should not contain spaces when transmitted electronically. When printed it is expressed in groups of four characters separated by a single space, the last group being of variable length as shown in the example below:[1]

text:
Country
IBAN formatting example

Belgium
BE05 1234 5678 0101

France
FR76 6574 6739 1253 5300 6311 563

Germany
DE44 5001 0517 5407 3249 31

Greece
GR16 0110 1250 0000 0001 2300 695

Romania
RO33 0006 1005 1978 6457 8413

Saudi Arabia
SA03 8000 0000 6080 1016 7519

Spain
ES91 2100 0418 4502 0005 1332

Switzerland
CH93 0076 2011 6238 5295 7

United Kingdom
GB29 NWBK 6016 1331 9268 19

tag: table

text: Permitted IBAN characters are the digits 0 to 9 and the 26 upper-case Latin alphabetic characters A to Z.[9] This applies even in countries (e.g., Thailand) where these characters are not used in the national language.

text: Basic Bank Account Number[edit]

text: The Basic Bank Account Number (BBAN) format is decided by the national central bank or designated payment authority of each country. There is no consistency between the formats adopted. The national authority may register its BBAN format with SWIFT, but is not obliged to do so. It may adopt IBAN without registration. SWIFT also acts as the registration authority for the SWIFT system, which is used by most countries that have not adopted IBAN. A major difference between the two systems is that under SWIFT there is no requirement that BBANs used within a country be of a pre-defined length.

text: The BBAN must be of a fixed length for the country and comprise case-insensitive alphanumeric characters. It includes the domestic bank account number, branch identifier, and potential routing information. Each country can have a different national routing/account numbering system, up to a maximum of 30 alphanumeric characters.

text: Check digits[edit]

text: The check digits enable the sending bank (or its customer) to perform a sanity check of the routing destination and account number from a single string of data at the time of data entry.[4] This check is guaranteed to detect any instances where a single character has been omitted, duplicated, mistyped or where two characters have been transposed. Thus routing and account number errors are virtually eliminated.[9]

text: Processing[edit]

text: This article or section appears to contradict itself on the range of check digits. This section implies 00 to 96, the section below says 02 to 98.. Please see the talk page for more information. (June 2016)

text: One of the design aims of the IBAN was to enable as much validation as possible to be done at the point of data entry.[10] In particular, the computer program that accepts an IBAN will be able to validate:

text:
Country code
Number of characters in the IBAN correspond to the number specified for the country code
BBAN format specified for the country code
Account number, bank code and country code combination is compatible with the check digits

text: The check digits are calculated using MOD-97-10 as per ISO/IEC 7064:2003[9] (abbreviated to mod-97 in this article), which specifies a set of check character systems capable of protecting strings against errors which occur when people copy or key data. In particular, the standard states that the following can be detected:

text:
All single substitution errors (the substitution of a single character for another, for example 4234 for 1234)
All or nearly all single (local) transposition errors (the transposition of two single characters, either adjacent or with one character between them, for example 12354 or 12543 for 12345)
All or nearly all shift errors (shifts of the whole string to the left or right)
High proportion of double substitution errors (two separate single substitution errors in the same string, for example 7234587 for 1234567)
High proportion of all other errors

text: The underlying rules for IBANs is that the account-servicing financial institution should issue an IBAN, as there are a number of areas where different IBANs could be generated from the same account and branch numbers that would satisfy the generic IBAN validation rules. In particular cases where 00 is a valid check digit, 97 will not be a valid check digit, likewise, if 01 is a valid check digit, 98 will not be a valid check digit, similarly with 02 and 99.

text: The UN CEFACT TBG5 has published a free IBAN validation service in 32 languages for all 57 countries[needs update] that have adopted the IBAN standard.[11] They have also published the Javascript source code of the verification algorithm.[12]

text: An English language IBAN checker for ECBS member country bank accounts is available on its website.[13]

text: Algorithms[edit]

text: Validating the IBAN[edit]

text: An IBAN is validated by converting it into an integer and performing a basic mod-97 operation (as described in ISO 7064) on it. If the IBAN is valid, the remainder equals 1.[Note 1] The algorithm of IBAN validation is as follows:[8]

text:
Check that the total IBAN length is correct as per the country. If not, the IBAN is invalid
Move the four initial characters to the end of the string
Replace each letter in the string with two digits, thereby expanding the string, where A = 10, B = 11, ..., Z = 35
Interpret the string as a decimal integer and compute the remainder of that number on division by 97

tag: ol

text: If the remainder is 1, the check digit test is passed and the IBAN might be valid.

text: Example (fictitious United Kingdom bank, sort code 12-34-56, account number 98765432):

text:
• IBAN:

GB82 WEST 1234 5698 7654 32

• Rearrange:

W E S T12345698765432 G B82

• Convert to integer:

3214282912345698765432161182

• Compute remainder:

3214282912345698765432161182
mod 97 = 1

text: Generating IBAN check digits[edit]

text: According to the ECBS "generation of the IBAN shall be the exclusive responsibility of the bank/branch servicing the account".[8] The ECBS document replicates part of the ISO/IEC 7064:2003 standard as a method for generating check digits in the range 02 to 98. Check digits in the ranges 00 to 96, 01 to 97, and 03 to 99 will also provide validation of an IBAN, but the standard is silent as to whether or not these ranges may be used.

text: The preferred algorithm is:[8]

text:
Check that the total IBAN length is correct as per the country. If not, the IBAN is invalid.
Replace the two check digits by 00 (e.g., GB00 for the UK).
Move the four initial characters to the end of the string.
Replace the letters in the string with digits, expanding the string as necessary, such that A or a = 10, B or b = 11, and Z or z = 35. Each alphabetic character is therefore replaced by 2 digits
Convert the string to an integer (i.e. ignore leading zeroes).
Calculate mod-97 of the new number, which results in the remainder.
Subtract the remainder from 98, and use the result for the two check digits. If the result is a single digit number, pad it with a leading 0 to make a two-digit number.

text: Modulo operation on IBAN[edit]

text: Any computer programming language or software package that is used to compute D mod 97 directly must have the ability to handle integers of more than 30 digits. In practice, this can only be done by software that either supports arbitrary-precision arithmetic or that can handle 220 bit (unsigned) integers,[Note 2] features that are often not standard. If the application software in use does not provide the ability to handle integers of this size, the modulo operation can be performed in a piece-wise manner (as is the case with the UN CEFACT TBG5 Javascript program).

text: Piece-wise calculation D mod 97 can be done in many ways. One such way is as follows:[14]

text:
Starting from the leftmost digit of D, construct a number using the first 9 digits and call it N.[Note 3]
Calculate N mod 97.
Construct a new 9-digit N by concatenating above result (step 2) with the next 7 digits of D. If there are fewer than 7 digits remaining in D but at least one, then construct a new N, which will have less than 9 digits, from the above result (step 2) followed by the remaining digits of D
Repeat steps 2–3 until all the digits of D have been processed

text: The result of the final calculation in step 2 will be D mod 97 = N mod 97.

text: Example[edit]

text: In this example, the above algorithm for D mod 97 will be applied to D = 3214282912345698765432161182. (The digits are colour-coded to aid the description below.) If the result is one, the IBAN corresponding to D passes the check digit test.

text:
Construct N from the first 9 digits of D

N = 321428291

Calculate N mod 97 = 70
Construct a new 9-digit N from the above result (step 2) followed by the next 7 digits of D.

N = 702345698

Calculate N mod 97 = 29
Construct a new 9-digit N from the above result (step 4) followed by the next 7 digits of D.

N = 297654321

Calculate N mod 97 = 24
Construct a new N from the above result (step 6) followed by the remaining 5 digits of D.

N = 2461182

Calculate N mod 97 = 1

text: From step 8, the final result is D mod 97 = 1 and the IBAN has passed this check digit test.

text: Adoption[edit]

text: International bank transactions use either an IBAN or the ISO 9362 Business Identifier Code system (BIC or SWIFT code) in conjunction with the BBAN (Basic Bank Account Number).

text: EEA and territories[edit]

text: The banks of most countries in Europe publish account numbers using both the IBAN format and the nationally recognised identifiers, this being mandatory within the European Economic Area.[15]

text: Day-to-day administration of banking in British Overseas Territories varies from territory to territory — some, such as South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, have too small a population to warrant a banking system while others, such as Bermuda, have a thriving financial sector.[16] The use of the IBAN is up to the local government — Gibraltar, being part of the European Union is required to use the IBAN,[15] as are the Crown dependencies, which use the British clearing system[17] and the British Virgin Islands have chosen to do so. As of April 2013[update], no other British Overseas Territories have chosen to use the IBAN.[1] Banks in the Caribbean Netherlands also do not use the IBAN.

text: Single Euro Payments Area[edit]

text: The IBAN designation scheme was chosen as the foundation for electronic straight-through processing in the European Economic Area. The European Parliament mandated that a bank charge needs to be the same amount for domestic credit transfers as for cross-border credit transfers regulated in decision 2560/2001 (updated in 924/2009).[15] This regulation took effect in 2003. Only payments in euro up to €12,500 to a bank account designated by its IBAN were covered by the regulation.

text: The Euro Payments regulation has been the foundation for the decision to create a Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA). The European Central Bank has created the TARGET2 interbank network that unifies the technical infrastructure of the 26 central banks of the European Union (although Sweden and the UK have opted out). SEPA is a self-regulatory initiative by the banking sector of Europe as represented in the European Payments Council (EPC). The European Union made the scheme mandatory through the Payment Services Directive published in 2007. Since January 2008, all countries must support SEPA credit transfer, and SEPA direct debit must be supported since November 2009. The regulation on SEPA payments increases the charge cap (same price for domestic payments as for cross-border payments) to €50,000.

text: With a further decision of the European Parliament, the IBAN scheme for bank accounts fully replaced the domestic numbering schemes from 31 December 2012.[18] On 16 December 2010, the European Commission published proposed regulations that will make IBAN support mandatory for domestic credit transfer by 2013 and for domestic direct debit by 2014 (with a 12 and 24 months transition period respectively).[19] Some countries have already replaced their traditional bank account scheme by IBAN. This includes Switzerland where IBAN was introduced for national credit transfer on 1 January 2006 and the support for the old bank account numbers has not been required from 1 January 2010.[20]

text: Based on a 20 December 2011 memorandum,[21] the EU parliament resolved the mandatory dates for the adoption of the IBAN on 14 February 2012.[22] From 1 February 2014, all national systems for credit transfer and direct debit must be abolished and replaced by an IBAN-based system.[22] This will be extended to all cross-border SEPA transactions from 1 February 2016 (Article 5 Section 7).[22] After these dates the IBAN will be sufficient to identify an account for home and foreign financial transactions in SEPA countries and banks will no longer be permitted to require that the customer supply the BIC for the beneficiary's bank.

text: In the run-up to the 1 February 2014 deadline, it became apparent that many old bank account numbers had not been allocated IBANs—an issue that has to be addressed on a country-by-country basis. In Germany, for example, the German Federal Bank and the German Banking Industry Committee require that all holders of German bank codes ("Bankleitzahl") publish the specifics of their IBAN generation format taking into account not only the generation of check digits but also the handling of legacy bank codes, thereby enabling third parties to generate IBANs independently of the bank.[23] The first such catalogue was published in June 2013 as a variant of the old bank code catalog ("Bankleitzahlendatei").[24]

text: Non-EEA[edit]

text: Banks in numerous non-European countries including most states of the Middle East, North Africa and the Caribbean have implemented the IBAN format for account identification.[1] In some countries the IBAN is used on an ad hoc basis, an example being Ukraine where account numbers used for international transfers of four of the national banks have additional aliases that follow the IBAN format as a precursor to formal SWIFT registration.[25]

text: The degree to which bank verifies the validity of a recipient's bank account number depends of the configuration of the transmitting bank's software—many major software packages supply bank account validation as a standard function.[26] Some banks outside Europe may not recognize IBAN, though this is expected to diminish with time. Non-European banks usually accept IBANs for accounts in Europe, although they might not treat IBANs differently from other foreign bank account numbers. In particular, they might not check the IBAN's validity prior to sending the transfer.[27]

text: Banks in the United States do not use IBAN as account numbers for U.S. accounts.[28] Any adoption of the IBAN standard by U.S. banks would likely be initiated by ANSI ASC X9, the U.S. financial services standards development organization: a working group (WGAB20) was established as an X9 subcommittee to generate an IBAN construction for U.S. bank accounts.[29]

text: Canadian financial institutions have not adopted IBAN and use routing numbers issued by Payments Canada for domestic transfers, and SWIFT for international transfers. There is no formal governmental or private sector regulatory requirement in Canada for the major banks to use IBAN.

text: Australia and New Zealand do not use IBAN. They use Bank State Branch codes for domestic transfers and SWIFT for international transfers.[30]

text: IBAN formats by country[edit]

text: This table summarises the IBAN formats by country:[1]

text:
The kk after the two-character ISO country code represents the check digits calculated from the rest of the IBAN characters. If it is a constant for the country concerned, this will be stated in the Comments column. This happens where the BBAN has its own check digits that use the same algorithm as the IBAN check digits
The BBAN format column shows the format of the BBAN part of an IBAN in terms of upper case alpha characters (A–Z) denoted by "a", numeric characters (0–9) denoted by "n" and mixed case alphanumeric characters (a–z, A–Z, 0–9) denoted by "c". For example, the Bulgarian BBAN (4a,6n,8c) consists of 4 alpha characters, followed by 6 numeric characters, then by 8 mixed-case alpha-numeric characters
Descriptions in the Comments field have been standardised with country specific names in brackets. The format of the various fields can be deduced from the BBAN field
Countries that are planning to introduce the IBAN are shown in italics with the planned date of introduction in bold

text:
Country
Chars
BBAN Format
IBAN Fields
Comment

Albania
28
8n,16c
ALkk bbbs sssx cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
x = National check digit
c = Account number

Andorra
24
8n,12c
ADkk bbbb ssss cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number

Austria
20
16n
ATkk bbbb bccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Azerbaijan
28
4c,20n
AZkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Bahrain
22
4a,14c
BHkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Belarus
July 4, 2017[31]
28
4c, 20n
BYkk bbbb aaaa cccc cccc cccc cccc
b - National bank or branch code
a - Balance account number
c - Account number

Belgium
16
12n
BEkk bbbc cccc ccxx
b = National bank code
c = Account number
x = National check digits

Bosnia and Herzegovina
20
16n
BAkk bbbs sscc cccc ccxx
k = IBAN check digits (always 39)
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number
x = National check digits

Brazil
29
23n,1a,1c
BRkk bbbb bbbb ssss sccc cccc ccct n
k = IBAN check digits (Calculated by MOD 97-10)
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number
t = Account type (Cheque account, Savings account etc.)
n = Owner account number ("1", "2" etc.)[32]

Bulgaria
22
4a,6n,8c
BGkk bbbb ssss ttcc cccc cc
b = BIC bank code
s = Branch (BAE) number
t = Account type
c = Account number

Costa Rica
22
18n
CRkk 0bbb cccc cccc cccc cc
0= always zero
b = bank code
c = Account number

Croatia
21
17n
HRkk bbbb bbbc cccc cccc c
b = Bank code
c = Account number

Cyprus
28
8n,16c
CYkk bbbs ssss cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number

Czech Republic
24
20n
CZkk bbbb ssss sscc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Account number prefix
c = Account number

Denmark
18
14n
DKkk bbbb cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Dominican Republic
28
4a,20n
DOkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = Bank identifier
c = Account number

East Timor
23
19n
TLkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc cxx
k = IBAN check digits (always = "38")
b = Bank identifier
c = Account number
x = National check digit

Estonia
20
16n
EEkk bbss cccc cccc cccx
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number
x = National check digit

Faroe Islands[Note 4]
18
14n
FOkk bbbb cccc cccc cx
b = National bank code
c = Account number
x = National check digit

Finland
18
14n
FIkk bbbb bbcc cccc cx
b = Bank and branch code
c = Account number
x = National check digit

France[Note 5]
27
10n,11c,2n
FRkk bbbb bsss sscc cccc cccc cxx
b = National bank code
s = Branch code (fr:code guichet)
c = Account number
x = National check digits (fr:clé RIB)

Georgia
22
2c,16n
GEkk bbcc cccc cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Germany
22
18n
DEkk bbbb bbbb cccc cccc cc
b = Bank and branch identifier (de:Bankleitzahl or BLZ)
c = Account number

Gibraltar
23
4a,15c
GIkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc ccc
b = BIC bank code
c = Account number

Greece
27
7n,16c
GRkk bbbs sssc cccc cccc cccc ccc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number

Greenland[Note 4]
18
14n
GLkk bbbb cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Guatemala [33]
28
4c,20c
GTkk bbbb mmtt cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number
m = Currency
t = Account type

Hungary
28
24n
HUkk bbbs sssx cccc cccc cccc cccx
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number
x = National check digit

Iceland
26
22n
ISkk bbbb sscc cccc iiii iiii ii
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number
i = holder's kennitala (national identification number).

Ireland
22
4c,14n
IEkk aaaa bbbb bbcc cccc cc
a = BIC bank code
b = Bank/branch code (sort code)
c = Account number

Israel
23
19n
ILkk bbbn nncc cccc cccc ccc
b = National bank code
n = Branch number
c = Account number 13 digits (padded with zeros)

Italy
27
1a,10n,12c
ITkk xbbb bbss sssc cccc cccc ccc
x = Check char (CIN)
b = National bank code (Associazione Bancaria Italiana or Codice ABI)
s = Branch code (it:Coordinate bancarie or CAB – Codice d'Avviamento Bancario)
c = Account number

Jordan[34]
30
4a,22n
JOkk bbbb ssss cccc cccc cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number

Kazakhstan
20
3n,13c
KZkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Kosovo
20
4n,10n,2n
XKkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Kuwait
30
4a,22c
KWkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
c = Account number.

Latvia
21
4a,13c
LVkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc c
b = BIC Bank code
c = Account number

Lebanon
28
4n,20c
LBkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Liechtenstein
21
5n,12c
LIkk bbbb bccc cccc cccc c
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Lithuania
20
16n
LTkk bbbb bccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Luxembourg
20
3n,13c
LUkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Macedonia
19
3n,10c,2n
MKkk bbbc cccc cccc cxx
k = IBAN check digits (always = "07")
b = National bank code
c = Account number
x = National check digits

Malta
31
4a,5n,18c
MTkk bbbb ssss sccc cccc cccc cccc ccc
b = BIC bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number

Mauritania
27
23n
MRkk bbbb bsss sscc cccc cccc cxx
k = IBAN check digits (always 13)
b = National bank code
s = Branch code (fr:code guichet)
c = Account number
x = National check digits (fr:clé RIB)

Mauritius
30
4a,19n,3a
MUkk bbbb bbss cccc cccc cccc 000m mm
b = National bank code
s = Branch identifier
c = Account number
0 = Zeroes
m = Currency Symbol

Monaco
27
10n,11c,2n
MCkk bbbb bsss sscc cccc cccc cxx
b = National bank code
s = Branch code (fr:code guichet)
c = Account number
x = National check digits (fr:clé RIB).

Moldova
24
2c,18c
MDkk bbcc cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Montenegro
22
18n
MEkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc xx
k = IBAN check digits (always = "25")
b = Bank code
c = Account number
x = National check digits

Netherlands[Note 6]
18
4a,10n
NLkk bbbb cccc cccc cc
b = BIC Bank code
c = Account number

Norway
15
11n
NOkk bbbb cccc ccx
b = National bank code
c = Account number
x = Modulo-11 national check digit

Pakistan
24
4c,16n
PKkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Palestinian territories
29
4c,21n
PSkk bbbb xxxx xxxx xccc cccc cccc c
b = National bank code
c = Account number
x = Not specified

Poland
28
24n
PLkk bbbs sssx cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
x = National check digit
c = Account number,

Portugal
25
21n
PTkk bbbb ssss cccc cccc cccx x
k = IBAN check digits (always = "50")
b = National bank code (numeric only)
s = Branch code (numeric only)
c = Account number (numeric only)
x = National check digits (numeric only)

Qatar
29
4a,21c
QAkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc cccc c
b = National bank code
c = Account number[35]

Romania
24
4a,16c
ROkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = BIC Bank code (first four alpha characters)
c = Branch code and account number (bank-specific format)

San Marino
27
1a,10n,12c
SMkk xbbb bbss sssc cccc cccc ccc
x = Check char (it:CIN)
b = National bank code (it:Associazione bancaria italiana or Codice ABI)
s = Branch code (it:Coordinate bancarie or CAB – Codice d'Avviamento Bancario)
c = Account number

Saudi Arabia
24
2n,18c
SAkk bbcc cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number preceded by zeros, if required

Serbia
22
18n
RSkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc xx
b = National bank code (always = "35")
c = Account number
x = Account check digits

Slovakia
24
20n
SKkk bbbb ssss sscc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Account number prefix
c = Account number

Slovenia
19
15n
SIkk bbss sccc cccc cxx
k = IBAN check digits (always = "56")
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number
x = National check digits

Spain
24
20n
ESkk bbbb ssss xxcc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
x = Check digits
c = Account number

Sweden
24
20n
SEkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Switzerland
21
5n,12c
CHkk bbbb bccc cccc cccc c
b = National bank code
c = Account number

Tunisia
24
20n
TNkk bbss sccc cccc cccc cccc
k = IBAN check digits (always 59)
b = National bank code
s = Branch code
c = Account number

Turkey
26
5n,17c
TRkk bbbb bxcc cccc cccc cccc cc
b = National bank code
x = Reserved for future use (currently "0")
c = Account number

United Arab Emirates
23
3n,16n
AEkk bbbc cccc cccc cccc ccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

United Kingdom[Note 7]
22
4a,14n
GBkk bbbb ssss sscc cccc cc
b = BIC bank code
s = Bank and branch code (sort code)
c = Account number

Virgin Islands, British
24
4c,16n
VGkk bbbb cccc cccc cccc cccc
b = National bank code
c = Account number

text: In addition to the above list, Nordea has catalogued IBANs for countries listed below.[36]

text: In this list

text:
"kk" represent the IBAN checksum
"a" represents an alphabetic character
"n" represents a numeric character
"b" represents a bank code character
"c" represents an account digit.
"0" represents a "0" character.

text:
Country
Chars
Example
Comments

Algeria
24
DZkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Angola
25
AOkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn n

Benin
28
BJkk annn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Burkina Faso
28
BFkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Burundi
16
BIkk nnnn nnnn nnnn

Cameroon
27
CMkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn

Cape Verde
25
CVkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn n

Iran
26
IRkk 0bb0 nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nn

Ivory Coast
28
CIkk annn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Madagascar
27
MGkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn
this format is identical to the French format

Mali
28
MLkk annn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Mozambique
25
MZkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn n

Senegal
28
SNkk annn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Ukraine
29
UAkk bbbb bbcc cccc cccc cccc cccc c

text: Addition list of countries, in the process of introducing the IBAN retrieved from SWIFT partner website are listed below.[37]

text: In this list

text:
Country
Chars
Example

Comoros
27
KMkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn

Chad
27
TDkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn

Congo
27
CGkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn

Egypt
27
EGkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn

Gabon
27
GAkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnn

Honduras
28
HNkk aaaa nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Morocco
28
MAkk nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Nicaragua
32
NIkk aaaa nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Niger
28
NEkk aann nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

Togo
28
TGkk aann nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn nnnn

text: Criticism[edit]

text: There is criticism about the length and readability of IBAN. Printed on paper the IBAN is often difficult to read. Therefore, it is popular to group the IBAN with four symbols. However, for electronic documents (e.g. PDF invoice) the copy and paste of grouped IBAN can result in errors with online banking forms. Only a few[citation needed] user friendly bank institutes allow and detect the copy and paste of both grouped and ungrouped IBAN.


document_title: Marissa Cooper

question_text: who did marissa cooper lose her virginity to

text: Marissa Cooper

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Personality[edit]

text: Marissa Cooper is characterized as the privileged yet troubled girl next door. Her designer-label-packed wardrobe masks her turbulent mood swings and hard-partying ways.  Although Marissa is tall, thin and pretty, she is not much else.  She is afforded all the privileges of a Newport Beach lifestyle, yet she fails to show any interest or engagement with the world around her. Like many of her peers, she is emotionally distant from her mother and becomes disillusioned with her mother's materialistic ways. As a result, she, like her sister Kaitlin, often rebelled against her mother. She is closer to her father, whom she stated was the "last thing keeping [her] sane"[1] through the tumult of the first two seasons. Throughout the series, Marissa is rarely shown participating in clubs and organizations.  The only interests she demonstrates with any regularity are romance and risky behavior, which in her case often go together.[2]

text: Marissa's risky behavior was a factor in her on-off relationship with Ryan Atwood. For example, during Ryan's first Christmas in Newport Beach, he was furious to find her drunk due to his painful experiences as the child of alcoholic parents but she did not understand his aversion to alcohol and thought that he was overreacting.[3]

text: Storyline[edit]

text: Marissa is introduced as a rich, beautiful socialite in Newport Beach, California, whose family (mother Julie, father Jimmy, and younger sister Kaitlin) go through dramatic changes over the seasons. She is a troubled person before the series begins, with a history of substance abuse and rebellious behavior. This is evident from a scene in the pilot where she is left on her front door by her friends, passed out from drinking. The backstory on her friendship with Summer Roberts showcases it as a powerful bond, forged during second grade. One of her deepest connections, the friendship is a central element on the show for three seasons. The show significantly focuses on Marissa's on-and-off again relationship with Ryan Atwood

text: Sexuality[edit]

text: Marissa's sexuality has been debated by viewers of the series. When she hooked up with bad girl Alex Kelly, the two entering into a romantic relationship, her heterosexual identity became the source of speculation. Fans questioned whether Marissa was actually bisexual or just bi-curious. The question became one of the top queries that viewers wanted The O.C. creator Josh Schwartz to answer.[4]

text: Others cited Marissa's relationship with Alex as a cynical sweeps attempt, noting the timing at which Marissa "just happened" to be romantically attracted to a woman. Critic L. Brent Bozell III especially elaborated on this.[5] The New York Post attributed the relationship to a ratings ploy as well, stating that the ratings for the show that year were "solid" but had not "exactly been through the roof and a lesbian storyline — or at least a main character experimenting sexually with someone of the same sex — could help matters".[6]

text: Schwartz insisted that the relationship between Marissa and Alex was not a ratings stunt, and that Marissa developed real feelings for Alex.[7] Sarah Warn of AfterEllen.com said that despite Schwartz's statements, "Marissa's predominantly heterosexual past, the huge fan support for the Marissa and Ryan (Benjamin McKenzie) pairing, and the controversy The O.C. would court by making one of its principal characters bisexual, it's likely that her 'real feelings' for Alex will only last a few episodes."[7] Within the series, Marissa refers casually to Alex as her ex-girlfriend.

text: Marissa's sexual orientation, other than her known heterosexual identity, was never confirmed by the series, and was reported to be "Marissa just experimenting with the fairer sex and not committing to a full-on romantic, sapphic relationship."[6] The executives did, however, cite her relationship with Alex as an important one, and one that was successful with viewers.

text: Schwartz said that the network was "nervous" about the storyline and wanted it "wrapped up as fast as humanly possible and Alex moving on out of the OC."[8]

text: Character's exit[edit]

text: The decision to kill Barton's character came from the producers.[9] Josh Schwartz relays that it was entirely a creative decision: "It had as much to do with creatively feeling like this was always in the cards for this character and she was an inherently tragic heroine, and part of the Ryan/Marissa story was him trying to save her from a fate that she couldn't be rescued from."[10] Commenting on her character's death, Barton said: "My character has been through so, so much and there's really nothing more left for her to do."[11] She added, "I was really excited that I get to die, to be honest. [...] It was better than one of those lame farewells."[9]

text: Character arc[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Marissa's father is caught committing fraud and eventually files for bankruptcy. The first episode sees sparks form between Marissa and Ryan Atwood. "Who are you?" asks Marissa. "Whoever you want me to be," replies Ryan. Luke Ward, Marissa's long-term boyfriend, shows animosity towards Ryan from the moment he steps foot into Orange County. Soon after, on a vacation to Tijuana with Ryan, Seth Cohen and best friend Summer Roberts, Marissa discovers that her parents are separating.  In the aftermath, she catches Luke cheating on her with one of her best friends, Holly Fischer.  Marissa then separates from her friends and overdoses on pain killers. Ryan finds her unconscious in an alleyway in Tijuana and summons help just in time. After this, Marissa battles with her mother, who wants to send her to rehab. She eventually gets through to Julie but has to agree to see a therapist in Newport Beach after she is caught shoplifting. She meets Oliver Trask during her first session, and they soon become good friends, much to Ryan's displeasure.

text: Throughout the first season, Marissa is involved in an on-again, off-again relationship with Ryan, with the relationship jeopardized by Luke and Oliver. Oliver is initially discovered by Ryan to be mentally unstable and harboring an unhealthy obsession for Marissa. Ryan and Marissa break up because of his interference. Oliver is arrested after he keeps Marissa as a hostage and threatens to kill himself if she does not leave Ryan for good. After Oliver's arrest, Marissa attempts reuniting with Ryan, he refuses and they remain friends.

text: During this time, her mother is romantically involved with Kirsten Cohen's father, Caleb Nichol. During a brief breakup with Caleb, Marissa's mother has a fling with Luke, which causes Marissa to run away to Chino, California, to Ryan's ex-girlfriend Theresa Diaz's house. This leads to Ryan and Marissa again becoming romantically involved. Marissa uses the affair between Julie and Luke as blackmail to get out of counseling or living with her mother because Julie does not want anyone to find out.

text: Marissa and Ryan's relationship is strained once more when Theresa comes to Newport Beach towards the end of the season after suffering domestic abuse from her boyfriend Eddie. Theresa reveals to Marissa that she is pregnant and does not know whether the baby's father is Ryan or Eddie. In the season finale, Ryan leaves Marissa to move back to Chino and help Theresa raise the baby. Marissa moves into Caleb Nichol's home after he and her mother marry in the season finale. Marissa's grief over Ryan's departure makes her turn back to alcohol.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: During the second season, Marissa struggles with alcohol and depression, caused largely by Ryan's departure from her life. When Ryan returns, it looks as though they may have rekindled their relationship, but after finding out about her relationship with D.J., the "yard guy", Ryan decides that they should just be friends, which they remain throughout most of the season. Marissa's relationships in the interim period seem somewhat specifically chosen to take stabs at her mother—first with D.J. and then a same-sex relationship with Alex Kelly. Her relationship with her parents sinks to an all-time low when she discovers that they were back together again. At Jimmy's farewell party, she confronts her parents in public and loudly calls Julie a whore and herself "the daughter of a thief and a slut".[1]

text: Towards the end of the season, Marissa gets back together with Ryan and becomes friends with his brother, Trey, who was recently let out of jail. After Trey takes cocaine, he tries to rape Marissa. Marissa does not want to tell Ryan because she did not want him to worry, and Trey does not want her to tell him because he and Ryan were getting along again. Marissa breaks down and tells Summer, who tells Seth. Seth was initially reluctant to tell his foster brother, knowing Ryan's volatile temperament and tendency to physically lash out when it came to people he cared about. When Ryan finds out, he and Trey get into an extremely violent fist fight at Trey's apartment. The scene ends with Marissa shooting Trey in order to save Ryan, who was pinned on the floor.

text: Season 3[edit]

text: As the series' third season opens, Marissa is under investigation regarding the shooting of Trey Atwood, who is in a coma as a result of the wound. When he awakens, Julie threatens to smother Trey if he does not tell the authority that Ryan shot him, in order to keep Marissa out of trouble. Marissa finds out and convinces Trey to tell the truth. Ryan is let free, and Marissa faces no legal liability as she was defending another person's life using proportional force in the circumstances.

text: Despite a lack of legal repercussions, the event results in Marissa's expulsion from the prestigious Harbor School, as it is cited along with her past of flagrant shoplifting and substance abuse. Following her expulsion, she attends the local public school Newport Union and has difficulty fitting in. She befriends one of her schoolmates, a local surfer named Johnny Harper. Johnny causes rifts in her relationship with Ryan, who ironically befriends Johnny due to their similar backgrounds, initially because Marissa feels she cannot talk to Ryan about what happened with Trey and later because Johnny falls in love with her. She is readmitted to Harbor after a campaign led by Ryan, Seth, Summer, and Marissa's former rival for power at Harbor, Taylor Townsend. Marissa confirms her commitment to Ryan and writes Johnny a letter saying that while he is her friend and she cares for him, she will never love him. This results in Johnny falling to his death from a cliff after a drinking binge, and the tragedy causes Ryan and Marissa's final breakup.

text: In the wake of Johnny's death, Marissa struggles to find closure, as well as her own place and purpose in Newport Beach. She develops a relationship with Kevin Volchok after she and Ryan break up, which causes her to go back to her rebellious ways. She begins to abuse alcohol again and tries cocaine. Marissa distances herself from Ryan, Summer, and Seth and becomes argumentative again with her mother. After some time, she comes to her senses and decides to leave Kevin. But when she finds him watching The Sound of Music, she realizes he has a sensitive side and decides she may be able to have a relationship with him. During their senior prom, though, she catches him cheating on her and breaks things off.

text: In the season finale, Marissa receives a letter from her father inviting her to live for a year on a boat with him in Greece, and she accepts. The day she graduates from Harbor along with her friends Summer, Ryan, Seth, and Taylor, Kevin begins calling her and asks to see her, but she declines. Marissa pays Kevin to get out of town and to leave her and Ryan alone. She says her goodbyes to her family and friends and prepares to leave for Greece. After their time together, Ryan drives her to the airport. On the way to the airport, a drunken Kevin begins hitting their car, causing them to go off the road.

text: The car flips over several times and lands upside down on another street. Marissa is unconscious, but Ryan pulls her out of the car, which begins to drip gasoline. Ryan takes Marissa into his arms and away from the car as it explodes. He tells her that he will need to go get help, but knowing that nothing can be done, she asks him to stay. After a few moments of looking into each other's eyes, she dies while in Ryan's arms.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: In "The Avengers," Summer believes she sees Marissa - as a ghost - when she returns to the adjoining bedrooms they shared together for the first time since Marissa's death. This causes Summer to fast track her trip back to Brown and leave Newport Beach. Moreover, many characters throughout Season 4 catch glimpses of Marissa, whether they be similar-looking girls in passing or a ghostly imagination of Marissa while reminiscing about her in a familiar place.

text: Marissa's death has a significant impact on the fourth season, as various characters, particularly her mother Julie and Ryan, struggle to deal with their grief over her death. In the episode "The Cold Turkey", Julie decides that it was time to move on after learning that Volchok turned himself over to the police and had been arrested. Later in the episode, during Thanksgiving dinner, Ryan reminisces to Julie about the first time he saw Marissa out on the driveway and thought that "she was really hot". Marissa's death is most explicitly examined in the episode "The Chrismukk-huh?" where Ryan and Taylor Townsend, both in comas, enter into an alternate universe where he has never moved to Newport Beach, and the lives of most major characters are completely changed.

text: While trying to find out what is happening in this reality, Taylor stumbles into Marissa's bedroom. She surprises Julie's maid, who tells Taylor that "Miss Cooper's" plane arrives at 3 o'clock from Berkeley. Taylor then sees a photograph of Marissa and Julie on her desk, which leads her to believe that Marissa is still alive in this alternate universe.

text: After Taylor tells Ryan the news, he immediately wants to go to the airport to see Marissa. Taylor does not want him to in fear that Ryan, who is still recovering from Marissa's death, would be willing to spend the rest of his life in a coma if he could be with Marissa. At the airport, Ryan catches a glimpse of a girl with a pink Berkeley sweatshirt tied around her waist. The sweatshirt resembles the one worn by Marissa in "The Day After Tomorrow." Ryan grabs her shoulder and realizes that it is not Marissa, but her sister, Kaitlin. Kaitlin then explains to Ryan that her sister died three years ago in an overdose in Tijuana (a parallel of her non-fatal overdose in the episode "The Escape").

text: Ryan then returns to Newport Beach, realizing that he can never be with Marissa again, alternate universe or not. At first, Ryan and Taylor believe they need to restore the relationships that existed before Marissa's death in order to wake up. However, it becomes apparent that both Ryan and Taylor need to battle their internal demons instead. For Taylor, her demon is her mother (whom she confronts along with her alternate male self at the Christmas party), and for Ryan, it is getting over Marissa.

text: Back in the real world, Kirsten finds a letter from Marissa addressed to Ryan but does not read it. She hands it over to Julie, who reads the letter. Marissa wrote that she still loved Ryan, but would be leaving Newport Beach because she knew that it was the best thing to do, so that they could both move on. She stated that when she got back, they might try again, as they would both be older and wiser. The letter is eventually placed right beside Ryan, which allows the letter to be "delivered" to Ryan in the alternate universe.

text: Ryan then goes to the beach, and upon discovering the letter, reads it. He finally says goodbye to Marissa and exits the alternate universe.

text: In the final episode, Marissa appears as Ryan's final flashback as he reflects on his life in Newport Beach. As he backs out of the driveway, Ryan remembers seeing Marissa standing on the corner watching as he and Sandy drive away when Ryan thought he was not coming back to Newport Beach (as seen in "The Premiere").

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Ryan Atwood[edit]

text: Ryan Atwood is Marissa's second boyfriend on The O.C. Although extremely on-and-off-again throughout the show’s course - their relationship originated as a platonic friendship in the pilot episode, which later escalated into romantic feelings. By the 10th episode of the first season, the couple officially began their romantic relationship. The beginning of this relationship sees its first end when Marissa feels that Ryan has overreacted to Marissa and Oliver Trask’s friendship. The second course of Marissa and Ryan’s relationship fails because of Theresa Diaz and Ryan’s illegitimate child together, whom Ryan agrees to help raise – returning to Theresa’s arms and leaving Marissa to return to her alcoholic behavior. The third attempt of Marissa and Ryan’s relationship terminates after the suicide of Johnny Harper where they struggle to mourn him and need a break from each other.  The couple’s last attempt at a relationship ends when Marissa is killed by a drunken Kevin Volchok who sends Ryan and Marissa's car off the road, sending her to her death.[12]

text: Julie Cooper[edit]

text: The overall relationship between Marissa and her mother, Julie Cooper, is full of angst, rebellion, misunderstanding and miscommunication. Beginning with the fling between Julie and Marissa's ex-boyfriend Luke Ward, the strain in the two's relationship increases throughout the course of the show. After Marissa’s father Jimmy Cooper and Julie divorce, Julie treats Marissa as second tier to her many wealthy, successful boyfriends and fiancés in an attempt to save her own social and monetary status. The troubled Marissa is then left to deal with her friendship, alcoholic, and depression issue alone, without the help of Julie. The mother-daughter duo move from their home neighboring the Cohens, to Caleb Nichol's home, to a mobile home during their time of financial hardship.

text: Summer Roberts[edit]

text: Summer Roberts, Marissa’s best friend,  is a girl that Marissa often leans on in both happy and sad times.  Marissa’s nickname for Summer, “Sum,” emphasizes the two’s bond. Together, Marissa and Summer are the popular girls at school: Summer the socialite, and Marissa the over-achieving, beautiful girl many long to be.  The friendship between Summer and Marissa is further strengthened by the boyfriends they often have: best friends, and “brothers,” Seth Cohen and Ryan Atwood, as many group hang-outs and double dates occur.[12] After every fight between Marissa’s on-and-off-again boyfriend, Ryan, Summer is the first by Marissa’s side – a supportive and comforting friend asking what went wrong.  Summer becomes a positive force in Marissa's life.  For instance, Summer helps Marissa out of the hospital in episode 8, is open to Marissa's fluid sexuality in episode 24, and has enough faith in Marissa despite her problematic behavior that she buys her a Berkeley sweatshirt in episode 71.  Their friendship offers strong signs of female solidarity and is unique in that it is shown as a source of support and a catalyst for empowerment.

text: Luke Ward[edit]

text:
Marissa’s first romantic relationship on the show is with water polo player Luke Ward. Their relationship begins prior to the Premiere. Marissa and Luke’s relationship stems back to the fifth grade on a class trip to the Museum of Tolerance.   After much hesitation, Marissa decides to lose her virginity to Luke. Issues in Marissa and Luke’s relationship constantly arise, making the viewer question if they really are in love. On a trip to Tijuana, Marissa discovers Luke cheating on her with one of her friends, Holly Fischer, on the dance floor in a club.[12] Marissa breaks up with Luke, who later begins an affair with her mother, Julie Cooper.[13]
Luke and Marissa’s tumultuous relationship evolves into a mature friendship by the second season. The two realize that they may not be the most compatible couple but can benefit from each other's friendship and support.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: There is controversy surrounding Marissa Cooper’s character and how she is perceived. Some viewers perceived Marissa’s behavior negatively, viewing her as a poor role model at times. Specifically, her behavior had a negative influence on unhealthy consumption of alcohol. Marissa’s use of drugs and alcohol to cope with her mental issues and emotional stress provides a poor influence for the show’s viewers. Marissa is depicted several times drinking alcohol alone behind locked doors. Some viewers did not want to follow in Marissa’s footsteps due to her constant destructive behavior. She became entertaining to watch on television but not someone that viewers wanted to mirror.[14]


document_title: Garage door opener

question_text: when was the first garage door opener invented

text: Garage door opener

text: The electric opener[edit]

text: The electric overhead garage door opener was invented by C.G. Johnson in 1926 in Hartford City, Indiana.[1] Electric Garage Door openers did not become popular until Era Meter Company of Chicago offered one after World War II where the overhead garage door could be opened via a key pad located on a post at the end of the driveway or a switch inside the garage.[2]

text: As in an elevator, the electric motor does not provide most of the power to move a heavy garage door. Instead, most of door's weight is offset by the counterbalance springs attached to the door. (Even manually operated garage doors have counterbalances; otherwise they would be too heavy for a person to open or close them.) In a typical design, torsion springs apply torque to a shaft, and that shaft applies a force to the garage door via steel counterbalance cables. The electric opener provides only a small amount of force to control how far the door opens and closes. In most cases, the garage door opener also holds the door closed in place of a lock.

text: The typical electric garage door opener consists of a power unit that contains the electric motor. The power unit attaches to a track. A trolley connected to an arm that attaches to the top of the garage door slides back and forth on the track, thus opening and closing the garage door. The trolley is pulled along the track by a chain, belt, or screw that turns when the motor is operated. A quick-release mechanism is attached to the trolley to allow the garage door to be disconnected from the opener for manual operation during a power failure or in case of emergency. Limit switches on the power unit control the distance the garage door opens and closes once the motor receives a signal from the remote control or wall push button to operate the door.[3]

text: The entire assembly hangs above the garage door. The power unit hangs from the ceiling and is located towards the rear of the garage. The end of the track on the opposite end of the power unit attaches to a header bracket that is attached to the header wall above the garage door. The power head is usually supported by punched angle iron.

text: Recently another type of opener, known as the jackshaft opener, has become more popular. This style of opener was used frequently on commercial doors but in recent years has been adapted for residential use. This style of opener consists of a motor that attaches to the side of the torsion rod and moves the door up and down by simply spinning the rod. These openers need a few extra components to function safely for residential use. These include a cable tension monitor, to detect when a cable is broken, and a separate locking mechanism to lock the door when it is fully closed. These have the advantage that they free up ceiling space that an ordinary opener and rail would occupy. These also have the disadvantage that the door must have a torsion rod to attach the motor to.

text: Types[edit]

text: There are five types of garage door openers. Chain drive, belt drive, screw drive, direct drive, and jackshaft.

text: Chain drive openers have a chain (similar to a bicycle's) that connects the trolley to the motor.

text: Belt drive openers use a rubber belt in place of a chain.

text: Screw drive openers have a long screw inside the track. The trolley connects to this screw.

text: Direct Drive openers have the motor installed inside the trolley and use a gear wheel to guide the trolley along a fixed chain.

text: Jackshaft openers mount on the wall at either end of the torsion bar.

text: Remote control[edit]

text: The first wireless garage door openers were invented and developed by two US inventors at the same time, one in Illinois and the other in Washington state. They were unknown to each other.[4]

text: The first garage door opener remote controls were simple and consisted of a simple transmitter (the remote) and receiver which controlled the opener mechanism. The transmitter would transmit on a designated frequency; the receiver would listen for the radio signal, then open or close the garage, depending on the door position. The basic concept of this can be traced back to World War II. This type of system was used to detonate remote bombs. While novel at the time, the technology ran its course when garage door openers became widely available and used. Then, not only did a person open their garage door, they opened their neighbor’s garage door as well. While the garage door remote is low in power and in range, it was powerful enough to interfere with other receivers in the area.

text: The second stage of the wireless garage door opener system dealt with the shared frequency problem. To rectify this, multicode systems were developed. These systems required a garage door owner to preset a digital code by switching eight to twelve DIP switches on the receiver and transmitter. While these switches provided garage door systems with 28 = 256 to 212 = 4,096 different codes, they were not designed with high security in mind; the main intent was to avoid interference with similar systems nearby. Criminals were able to defeat the basic security of this system by trying different codes on a regular transmitter. They could also make code grabbers to record and re-transmit a signal, or code scanners, that would attempt every possible combination in a short time. Multicode openers became unpopular in areas where security was an issue, but due to their ease of programming, such openers are often used to operate such things as the gates in gated apartment complexes.

text: An intermediate stage of the garage door opener market between the second and third stages eliminated the DIP switches and used remotes preprogrammed to one out of roughly 3.5 billion unique codes. This system was backward compatible with the DIP switch remote codes, and each remote code (either with DIP switches or with a unique preprogrammed code) can be added into the receiver's memory by pressing the learn button on the opener, and can be deleted from the receiver's memory by holding it. While the code transmitted by the remote was still fixed, it was not changeable by the user (except if using legacy DIP switch remotes) and thus was much more difficult to duplicate unless two remotes shared the same code (which was very unlikely since the odds of two remotes sharing the same code was 1 out of roughly 3.5 billion except if legacy DIP switch remotes were used). This approach was an improvement over the fixed DIP switch codes, but was soon rendered obsolete when rolling code (which generates a new code on each press) devices became available.

text: The third stage of garage door opener market uses a frequency spectrum range between 300-400 MHz and most of the transmitter/receivers rely on hopping or rolling code technology. This approach prevents criminals from recording a code and replaying it to open a garage door. Since the signal is supposed to be significantly different from that of any other garage door remote control, manufacturers claim it is impossible for someone other than the owner of the remote to open the garage. When the transmitter sends a code, it generates a new code using an encoder. The receiver, after receiving a correct code, uses the same encoder with the same original seed to generate a new code that it will accept in the future. Because there is a high probability that someone might accidentally push the open button while not in range and desynchronize the code, the receiver generates look-a-head codes ahead of time. Rolling code is the same method of security used on the clickers of cars, and with some internet protocols for secure sites.

text: The fourth stage of garage door opener systems is similar to third stage, but it is limited to the 315 MHz frequency. The 315 MHz frequency range avoids interference from the Land Mobile Radio System (LMRS) used by the U.S. military.

text: The following standards are used by units manufactured by Chamberlain (including LiftMaster and Craftsman):

text:
Dates
System
Color of programming button and LED on unit
Color of LED on remote*

1984–1993
8-12 Dip Switch on 300-400 MHz
white, gray, or yellow button with red LED
red

1993–1997
Billion Code on 390 MHz
green button with green or red LED
green

1997–2005
Security+ (rolling code) on 390 MHz
orange or red button with amber LED
amber or none

2005–present
Security+ (rolling code) on 315 MHz
purple button with amber LED
none

2011–present
Security+ 2.0 (rolling code) on 310, 315, and 390 MHz
yellow button with amber LED and yellow antenna wires
red or blue

text: * Does not apply to keyless entry keypads or universal remotes.

text: Recent Chamberlain garage door openers that have Security+ 2.0 features also use a special serial protocol on wired connections rather than a simple switch closure.[5]

text: The following standards are used by units manufactured by Overhead Door Corporation and its subsidiary The Genie Company:

text:
Dates
System

1985–1995
9–12 DIP Switch on 360, 380, or 390 MHz[6][7]

1995–2005
Intellicode/CodeDodger (rolling code) on 390 MHz

2005–present
Intellicode/CodeDodger (rolling code) on 315 MHz

2011–present
Intellicode 2/CodeDodger 2 (rolling code) on 315 and 390 MHz

text: Note: There are no standard color codes for the learn button or LED on units manufactured by Overhead Door or Genie. All accessories made for later versions of Genie Intellicode and Overhead Door CodeDodger are backward compatible with previous generations of Intellicode and CodeDodger.

text: Cloning garage door opener remotes[edit]

text: Many garage door opener remote controls use fixed-code encoding which use DIP switches or soldering to do the address pins coding process, and they usually use pt2262/pt2272 or compatible ICs. For these fixed-code garage door opener remotes, one can easily clone the existing remote using a self-learning remote control duplicator (copy remote) which can make a copy of the remote using face-to-face copying.

text: Additional features[edit]

text: Additional features that have been added over the years have included:

text:
Automatic courtesy lights that turn on when the door opens (or via motion sensors) and automatically turn off after a preset delay
A remote lockout feature, which turns off the radio receiver while one is on vacation or away for an extended time.
The availability of accessories has increased, including such features as wireless keypads, key chain remotes, and solenoid-operated deadbolts to lock the door itself.

text: More sophisticated features are also available, such as an integrated carbon monoxide sensor to open the door in case of the garage being flooded with exhaust fumes. Other systems allow door activation over the Internet to allow home owners to open their garage door from their office for deliveries.

text: Another recent innovation in the garage door opener is a fingerprint-based wireless keypad. This unit attaches to the outside of the garage door on the jamb and allows users to open and close their doors with the press of a finger, rather than creating a personal identification number (PIN). This is especially helpful for families with children who may forget a code and are latchkey kids.

text: Safety[edit]

text: The garage door is generally the largest moving object in a home. An improperly adjusted garage door opener can exert strong and deadly forces and might not reverse the garage door in an emergency. The manufacturer's instructions provide guidance to the user on the proper adjustment and maintenance of the opener.

text: Garage door openers manufactured and installed in the United States since 1982 are required to provide a quick-release mechanism on the trolley that allows for the garage door to be disconnected from the garage door opener in the event of entrapment. [8] Garage door openers manufactured since 1982 are also required to reverse the garage door if it strikes a solid object.[9][10]

text: Under U.S. federal law (UL 325), garage door openers manufactured for the U.S. since 1993 must include a secondary safety reversing system, such as photoelectric eyes or sensors, mounted near the floor.[11] Other examples of safety reversing systems, allowed within the guideline of UL 325, include electric safety edges, which reverse with approximately 15 pounds of downward pressure, and a garage door and opener system without photo eyes, tested together, which reverses upon approximately 15 pounds of pressure.


document_title: Tharangambadi

question_text: where was first tamil printing press established in tamilnadu

text: Tharangambadi

text: History[edit]

text: The place dates back to 14th century. Masilamani nathar (Shiva) temple was built in 1306, in a land given by Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I. As of now, this temple is the oldest monument.[3] Until 1620, when the Danes came,[2] the place was under Thanjavur Nayak kingdom. Danish admiral Ove Gjedde felt the place would be a potential trading centre, made a deal with Raghunatha Nayak and built a fort, which is known as Fort Dansborg.[4]

text: A Jesuit Catholic congregation in Tranquebar predated the arrival of the Danes by several decades. This congregation descended from Keralan fisherman converted by Portuguese missionaries from Goa. There was also a sizable population[5] of Indo-Portuguese due to their presence nearby in Nagapattinam. The Catholic church was probably demolished to build the fort.[citation needed] This fort was the residence and headquarters of the governor and other officials for about 150 years. It is now a museum hosting a collection of artefacts from the colonial era.

text: Among the first Protestant missionaries to set foot in India were two Lutherans from Germany, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Pluetschau, who began work in 1705 in the Danish settlement of Tranquebar.[6] Ziegenbalg translated the Old and New Testaments into Tamil, imported a printing press, and printed the New Testament in Tamil in 1714.[7]

text: The local people were forced to learn the broken Portuguese that was the lingua franca between Indians and Europeans at the time,[citation needed] and later on translated the Bible into the local Tamil language. They also established a printing press, which within a hundred years of its establishment in 1712 had printed 300 books in Tamil.[8] At first they only made little progress in their religious efforts, but gradually the mission spread to Madras, Cuddalore and Tanjore.[6] Today Bishop of Tranquebar is the official title of a bishop in the Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church (TELC) in South India which was founded in 1919 as a result of the German Lutheran Leipzig Mission and Church of Sweden Mission.  The seat of the Bishop, the Cathedral and its Church House ("Tranquebar House") is in Tiruchirappalli.

text: The Zion church was consecrated in 1701, which is the oldest Protestant church in India. In 1718, The New Jerusalem Church was constructed.[4] Moravian Brethren missionaries from Herrnhut, Saxony established the Brethren's Garden at Porayar near Tranquebar and operated it as a missionary centre for a number of years. An Italian Catholic Father Constanzo Beschi, who worked in the colony from 1711 to 1740, found himself in conflict with the Lutheran pioneers at Tranquebar, against whom he wrote several polemical works.[9]

text: Tranquebar was occupied by the British in February 1808 during the Napoleonic Wars but was restored to Denmark following the Treaty of Kiel in 1814[2] and The Norwegian Declaration of Independence. Along with the Danish settlement of Serampore in Bengal, it was sold to the British in 1845.[10] Tranquebar was then still a busy port, but it later lost its importance after a railway was opened to Nagapattinam.[2]

text: The Subrahmanya Temple, Perambur, located in the outskirts of the town is one of the most prominent Murugan temples in the region.[11]

text: Tranquebar Museum[edit]

text: The 17th and 18th century antiquities and relics from the Vijayanagara empire and Thanjavur Nayak kingdom, which authorized, allowed, and sanctioned the aforementioned Danish port township connected with the colonial period and Danish settlement at Tharangampadi are exhibited.[10] The museum contains porcelain ware, Danish manuscripts, glass objects, Chinese tea jars, steatitle lamps, decorated terracotta objects, figurines, lamps, stones, sculptures, swords, daggers, spears, sudai (stucco) figurines and wooden objects. There is also part of a whale skeleton,a giant sawfish rostrum and small cannonballs.[7]

text: New Jerusalem Church[edit]

text: The New Jerusalem Church was built in 1718 by the Royal Danish missionary Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in the coastal town of Tranquebar, India which was at that time a Danish India Colony.[12] The church is located on King Street,[13] and church services are conducted every Sunday.[14] The church, along with other buildings of the Tranquebar Mission was damaged during the tsunami of 2004, and were renovated at a cost of INR 7 million, and re-consecrated in 2006.[12][15]

text: Danish Fort[edit]

text: Construction of Fort Dansborg started in 1620. Many parts of the fort have been reconstructed several times. Dansborg is the second largest Danish fort ever constructed, with Kronborg being the largest. The rampart wall is a fairly large four sided structure, with bastions at each cardinal point. A single storied building was constructed along three inner sides of the rampart, with barracks, warehouse, kitchen and jail. The rooms on the southern side remain in good condition, but the rooms on the western and northern sides have been substantially damaged. On the eastern side of the fort, there was a two storied building facing the sea. It was the main building of the fort. The vaulted lower storey served as a magazine and a warehouse, while the vaulted upper storey contained the church and the lodging of the governor, the senior merchants and the chaplain. The sea on the eastern and western side protected the fort. The fort was surrounded by a moat, access to the fort being over a drawbridge. The moat has completely disappeared.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: As of  2001[update] India census,[16] Tharangambadi had a population of 20,841. Males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. Tharangambadi has an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 79%, and female literacy is 69%. In Tharangambadi, 10% of the population is under 6 years of age.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Danish and other colonial settlements in India.

Tranquebar, about 1600.

Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg monument in Tranquebar.

Fort Dansborg.  Established in 1620 and partially renovated during 2002 by the Tranquebar Association. View from the governor's bungalow.

Goldsmith Street now restored by INTACH in Tranquebar

Zion Church at Tranquebar


document_title: Mexico at the FIFA World Cup

question_text: when was the last time mexico made it to the quarterfinals in the world cup

text: Mexico at the FIFA World Cup

text: Records[edit]

text:
FIFA World Cup record

Year

Round

Position

Pld

W

D

L

GF

GA

 1930

Group stage

13th

3

0

0

3

4

13

 1934

Did not qualify

 1938

Withdrew

 1950

Group stage

12th

3

0

0

3

2

10

 1954

Group stage

14th

2

0

0

2

2

8

 1958

Group stage

16th

3

0

1

2

1

8

 1962

Group stage

11th

3

1

0

2

3

4

 1966

Group stage

12th

3

0

2

1

1

3

 1970

Quarterfinal

6th

4

2

1

1

6

4

 1974

Did not qualify

 1978

Group stage

16th

3

0

0

3

2

12

 1982

Did not qualify

 1986

Quarterfinal

6th

5

3

2

0

6

2

 1990

Banned

 1994

Round of 16

13th

4

1

2

1

4

4

 1998

Round of 16

13th

4

1

2

1

8

7

  2002

Round of 16

11th

4

2

1

1

4

4

 2006

Round of 16

15th

4

1

1

2

5

5

 2010

Round of 16

14th

4

1

1

2

4

5

 2014

Round of 16

10th

4

2

1

1

5

3

 2018

Round of 16

12th

4

2

0

2

3

6

 2022

To be determined

 2026

To be determined

Total

Quarterfinal

16/21

57

16

14

27

60

98

text:
showMexico's World Cup record

First Match

 Mexico 1–2 France  (13 July 1930; Montevideo, Uruguay)

Biggest Win

 Mexico 4–0 El Salvador  (7 June 1970; Mexico City, Mexico)

Biggest Defeat

 West Germany 6-0 Mexico  (6 June 1978; Cordoba, Argentina)

Best Result

Quarterfinals in 1970 and 1986

Worst Result

Group stage in 1930, 1950, 1954, 1958, 1962, 1966 and 1978

text: By match[edit]

text:
World Cup

Round

Against

Score

Scorers

1930
Group stage
 France
1–4
Carreño

 Chile
0–3

 Argentina
3–6
Manuel Rosas (2), Gayón

1950
Group stage
 Brazil
0–4

 Yugoslavia
1–4
Héctor Ortiz

  Switzerland
1–2
Casarín

1954
Group stage
 Brazil
0–5

 France
2–3
Lamadrid, Balcázar

1958
Group stage
 Sweden
0–3

 Wales
1–1
Belmonte

 Hungary
0–4

1962
Group stage
 Brazil
0–2

 Spain
0–1

 Czechoslovakia
3–1
Díaz, del Águila, Hernández

1966
Group stage
 France
1–1
Borja

 England
0–2

 Uruguay
0–0

1970
Group stage
 Soviet Union
0–0

 El Salvador
4–0
Valdivia (2), Fragoso, Basaguren

 Belgium
1–0
Peña

Quarterfinal
 Italy
1–4
González

1978
Group stage
 Tunisia
1–3
Vázquez Ayala

 West Germany
0–6

 Poland
1–3
Rangel

1986
Group stage
 Belgium
2–1
Quirarte, Hugo Sánchez

 Paraguay
1–1
Luis Flores

 Iraq
1–0
Quirarte

Round of 16
 Bulgaria
2–0
Negrete, Servín

Quarterfinal
 West Germany
0–0 (AET), 1–4 (p)

1994
Group stage
 Norway
0–1

 Republic of Ireland
2–1
García (2)

 Italy
1–1
Bernal

Round of 16
 Bulgaria
1–1 (AET), 1–3 (p)
García Aspe

1998
Group stage
 South Korea
3–1
Peláez, Hernández (2)

 Belgium
2–2
García Aspe, Blanco

 Netherlands
2–2
Peláez, Hernández

Round of 16
 Germany
1–2
Hernández

2002
Group stage
 Croatia
1–0
Blanco

 Ecuador
2–1
Borgetti, Torrado

 Italy
1–1
Borgetti

Round of 16
 United States
0–2

2006
Group stage
 Iran
3–1
Bravo (2), Zinha

 Angola
0–0

 Portugal
1–2
Fonseca

Round of 16
 Argentina
1–2 (AET)
Márquez

2010
Group stage
 South Africa
1–1
Márquez

 France
2–0
Javier Hernández, Blanco

 Uruguay
0–1

Round of 16
 Argentina
1–3
Javier Hernández

2014
Group stage
 Cameroon
1–0
Peralta

 Brazil
0–0

 Croatia
3–1
Márquez, Guardado, Javier Hernández

Round of 16
 Netherlands
1–2
G. Dos Santos

2018
Group stage
 Germany
1–0
Lozano

 South Korea
2–1
Vela, Javier Hernández

 Sweden
0–3

Round of 16
 Brazil
0–2

text: Record players[edit]

text: Mexico's record World Cup player, Rafael Márquez, and goalkeeper Antonio Carbajal have appeared in five FIFA World Cups each, a record they only share with German midfielder Lothar Matthäus.

text:
No.

Name

Matches

World Cups

1
Rafael Márquez
19
2002, 2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018

2

Andrés Guardado
12
2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018

Javier Hernández
12
2010, 2014 and 2018

4

Antonio Carbajal
11
1950, 1954, 1958, 1962 and 1966

Cuauhtémoc Blanco
11
1998, 2002 and 2010

Gerardo Torrado
11
2002, 2006 and 2010

7

Carlos Salcido
10
2006, 2010 and 2014

8

Chava Reyes
9
1958, 1962 and 1966

Giovani Dos Santos
9
2010, 2014 and 2018

Héctor Moreno
9
2010, 2014 and 2018

text: Top goalscorers[edit]

text:
No.

Name

Goals

World Cups

1
Luis Hernández
4
1998

Javier Hernández
4
2010 (2), 2014 (1), and 2018 (1)

3

Cuauhtémoc Blanco
3
1998, 2002 and 2010

Rafael Márquez
3
2006, 2010 and 2014

5

Manuel Rosas
2
1930

Javier Valdivia
2
1970

Fernando Quirarte
2
1986

Luis García
2
1994

Alberto García Aspe
2
1994 and 1998

Ricardo Peláez
2
1998

Jared Borgetti
2
2002

Omar Bravo
2
2006


document_title: Sympathetic nervous system

question_text: also known as adrenaline stimulates the sympathetic nervous system

text: Sympathetic nervous system

text: Structure[edit]

text: There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic system: pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic. The shorter preganglionic neurons originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord specifically at T1 to L2~L3, and travel to a ganglion, often one of the paravertebral ganglia, where they synapse with a postganglionic neuron. From there, the long postganglionic neurons extend across most of the body.[4]

text: At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus, the postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine, which activates adrenergic receptors that are present on the peripheral target tissues. The activation of target tissue receptors causes the effects associated with the sympathetic system. However, there are three important exceptions:[5]

text:
Postganglionic neurons of sweat glands and chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. Postganglionic neurons of sweat glands release acetylcholine for the activation of muscarinic receptors, except for areas of thick skin, the palms and the plantar surfaces of the feet, where norepinephrine is released and acts on adrenergic receptors.
Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are analogous to post-ganglionic neurons; the adrenal medulla develops in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system and acts as a modified sympathetic ganglion. Within this endocrine gland, pre-ganglionic neurons synapse with chromaffin cells, triggering the release of two transmitters: a small proportion of norepinephrine, and more substantially, epinephrine. The synthesis and release of epinephrine as opposed to norepinephrine is another distinguishing feature of chromaffin cells compared to postganglionic sympathetic neurons.[6]
Postganglionic sympathetic nerves terminating in the kidney release dopamine, which acts on dopamine D1 receptors of blood vessels to control how much blood the kidney filters. Dopamine is the immediate metabolic precursor to norepinephrine, but is nonetheless a distinct signaling molecule.[7]

text: Organization[edit]

text: Sympathetic nerves arise from near the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral nucleus of the lateral grey column, beginning at the first thoracic vertebra of the vertebral column and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar vertebra. Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the sympathetic nervous system is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow. Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord through the anterior root. They pass near the spinal (sensory) ganglion, where they enter the anterior rami of the spinal nerves. However, unlike somatic innervation, they quickly separate out through white rami connectors (so called from the shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon) that connect to either the paravertebral (which lie near the vertebral column) or prevertebral (which lie near the aortic bifurcation) ganglia extending alongside the spinal column.

text: To reach target organs and glands, the axons must travel long distances in the body, and, to accomplish this, many axons relay their message to a second cell through synaptic transmission. The ends of the axons link across a space, the synapse, to the dendrites of the second cell. The first cell (the presynaptic cell) sends a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft where it activates the second cell (the postsynaptic cell). The message is then carried to the final destination.

text: Presynaptic nerves' axons terminate in either the paravertebral ganglia or prevertebral ganglia. There are four different paths an axon can take before reaching its terminal. In all cases, the axon enters the paravertebral ganglion at the level of its originating spinal nerve. After this, it can then either synapse in this ganglion, ascend to a more superior or descend to a more inferior paravertebral ganglion and synapse there, or it can descend to a prevertebral ganglion and synapse there with the postsynaptic cell.

text: The postsynaptic cell then goes on to innervate the targeted end effector (i.e. gland, smooth muscle, etc.). Because paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia are relatively close to the spinal cord, presynaptic neurons are generally much shorter than their postsynaptic counterparts, which must extend throughout the body to reach their destinations.

text: A notable exception to the routes mentioned above is the sympathetic innervation of the suprarenal (adrenal) medulla. In this case, presynaptic neurons pass through paravertebral ganglia, on through prevertebral ganglia and then synapse directly with suprarenal tissue. This tissue consists of cells that have pseudo-neuron like qualities in that when activated by the presynaptic neuron, they will release their neurotransmitter (epinephrine) directly into the bloodstream.

text: In the sympathetic nervous system and other components of the peripheral nervous system, these synapses are made at sites called ganglia. The cell that sends its fiber is called a preganglionic cell, while the cell whose fiber leaves the ganglion is called a postganglionic cell. As mentioned previously, the preganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system are located between the first thoracic segment and third lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Postganglionic cells have their cell bodies in the ganglia and send their axons to target organs or glands.

text: The ganglia include not just the sympathetic trunks but also the cervical ganglia (superior, middle and inferior), which sends sympathetic nerve fibers to the head and thorax organs, and the celiac and mesenteric ganglia (which send sympathetic fibers to the gut).

text:
Autonomic nervous supply to organs in the human body edit

Organ
Nerves[8]
Spinal column origin[8]

stomach

PS: anterior and posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5,T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10

duodenum

PS: vagus nerves
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10

jejunum and ileum

PS: posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5, T6, T7, T8, T9

spleen

S: greater splanchnic nerves

T6, T7, T8

gallbladder and liver

PS: vagus nerve
S: celiac plexus
right phrenic nerve

T6, T7, T8, T9

colon

PS: vagus nerves and pelvic splanchnic nerves
S: lesser and least splanchnic nerves

T10, T11, T12 (proximal colon)
L1, L2, L3, (distal colon)

pancreatic head

PS: vagus nerves
S: thoracic splanchnic nerves

T8, T9

vermiform appendix

nerves to superior mesenteric plexus

T10

kidneys and ureters

PS: vagus nerve
S: thoracic and lumbar splanchnic nerves

T11, T12

text: Information transmission[edit]

text: Messages travel through the sympathetic nervous system in a bi-directional flow. Efferent messages can trigger changes in different parts of the body simultaneously. For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate; widen bronchial passages; decrease motility (movement) of the large intestine; constrict blood vessels; increase peristalsis in the oesophagus; cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose bumps) and perspiration (sweating); and raise blood pressure. One exception is with certain blood vessels such as those in the cerebral and coronary arteries, which dilate (rather than constrict) with an increase in sympathetic tone. This is because of a proportional increase in the presence of β2 adrenergic receptors rather than α1 receptors. β2 receptors promote vessel dilation instead of constriction like α1 receptors. An alternative explanation is that the primary (and direct) effect of sympathetic stimulation on coronary arteries is vasoconstriction followed by a secondary vasodilation caused by the release of vasodilatory metabolites due to the sympathetically increased cardiac inotropy and heart rate. This secondary vasodilation caused by the primary vasoconstriction is termed functional sympatholysis, the overall effect of which on coronary arteries is dilation.[9]

text: The target synapse of the postganglionic neuron is mediated by adrenergic receptors and is activated by either norepinephrine (noradrenaline) or epinephrine (adrenaline).

text: Function[edit]

text:
Examples of sympathetic system action on various organs[6] except where otherwise indicated.

Organ
Effect

Eye
Dilates

Heart
Increases rate and force of contraction

Lungs
Dilates bronchioles via circulating adrenaline[10]

Blood vessels
Dilate in skeletal muscle (in animals).[11]

Constricts in gastrointestinal organs

Sweat glands
Activates sweat secretion

Digestive tract
Inhibits peristalsis

Kidney
Increases renin secretion

Penis
Inhibits Tumescence

Ductus deferens
Promotes emission prior to ejaculation

text: The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for up- and down-regulating many homeostatic mechanisms in living organisms. Fibers from the SNS innervate tissues in almost every organ system, providing at least some regulation of functions as diverse as pupil diameter, gut motility, and urinary system output and function.[12] It is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal stress response commonly known as the fight-or-flight response. This response is also known as sympatho-adrenal response of the body, as the preganglionic sympathetic fibers that end in the adrenal medulla (but also all other sympathetic fibers) secrete acetylcholine, which activates the great secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine) and to a lesser extent noradrenaline (norepinephrine) from it. Therefore, this response that acts primarily on the cardiovascular system is mediated directly via impulses transmitted through the sympathetic nervous system and indirectly via catecholamines secreted from the adrenal medulla.

text: The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for priming the body for action, particularly in situations threatening survival.[13] One example of this priming is in the moments before waking, in which sympathetic outflow spontaneously increases in preparation for action.

text: Sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes vasoconstriction of most blood vessels, including many of those in the skin, the digestive tract, and the kidneys. This occurs as a result of activation of alpha-1 adrenergic receptors by norepinephrine released by post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons. These receptors exist throughout the vasculature of the body but are inhibited and counterbalanced by beta-2 adrenergic receptors (stimulated by epinephrine release from the adrenal glands) in the skeletal muscles, the heart, the lungs, and the brain during a sympathoadrenal response. The net effect of this is a shunting of blood away from the organs not necessary to the immediate survival of the organism and an increase in blood flow to those organs involved in intense physical activity.

text: Sensation[edit]

text: The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system (or CNS), are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.[14] Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.

text: General visceral afferent sensations are mostly unconscious visceral motor reflex sensations from hollow organs and glands that are transmitted to the CNS. While the unconscious reflex arcs normally are undetectable, in certain instances they may send pain sensations to the CNS masked as referred pain. If the peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the bowel is suddenly distended, the body will interpret the afferent pain stimulus as somatic in origin. This pain is usually non-localized. The pain is also usually referred to dermatomes that are at the same spinal nerve level as the visceral afferent synapse.[citation needed]

text: Relationship with the parasympathetic nervous system[edit]

text: Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to stress—as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.[3][15]

text: Disorders[edit]

text: In heart failure, the sympathetic nervous system increases its activity, leading to increased force of muscular contractions that in turn increases the stroke volume, as well as peripheral vasoconstriction to maintain blood pressure. However, these effects accelerate disease progression, eventually increasing mortality in heart failure.[16]

text: Sympathicotonia is a stimulated[17] condition of the sympathetic nervous system, marked by vascular spasm,[18] elevated blood pressure,[18] and goose bumps.[18] A recent study has shown the expansion of Foxp3+ natural Treg in the bone marrow of mice after brain ischemia and this myeloid Treg expansion is related to sympathetic stress signaling after brain ischemia.[19]

text: History and etymology[edit]

text: The name of this system can be traced to the concept of sympathy, in the sense of "connection between parts", first used medically by Galen.[20] In the 18th century, Jacob B. Winslow applied the term specifically to nerves.[21]


document_title: Masala bonds

question_text: bonds that are issued outside india but denominated in inr are called

text: Masala bonds

text: Masala bonds are bonds issued outside India but denominated in Indian Rupees, rather than the local currency. Masala is an Indian word and it means spices. The term was used by the International Finance Corporation (IFC) to evoke the culture and cuisine of India. Unlike dollar bonds, where the borrower takes the currency risk, masala bond makes the investors bear the risk. The first Masala bond was issued by the World Bank- backed IFC in November 2014 when it raised 1,000 crore bond to fund infrastructure projects in India.[1] Later in August 2015 International Financial Cooperation for the first time issued green masala bonds and raised Rupees 3.15 Billion to be used for private sector investments that address climate change in India.[2]

text: In July 2016 HDFC raised 3,000 crore rupees from Masala bonds and thereby became the first Indian company to issue masala bonds.[3] In the month of August 2016 public sector unit NTPC issued first corporate green masala bonds worth 2,000 crore rupees.[4] As of now it is being traded only at London Stock Exchange(LSE)


document_title: List of Better Call Saul episodes

question_text: how many episodes in season 3 better call saul

text: List of Better Call Saul episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
10
February 8, 2015 (2015-02-08)
April 6, 2015 (2015-04-06)

2
10
February 15, 2016 (2016-02-15)
April 18, 2016 (2016-04-18)

3
10
April 10, 2017 (2017-04-10)
June 19, 2017 (2017-06-19)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Uno"
Vince Gilligan
Vince Gilligan & Peter Gould
February 8, 2015 (2015-02-08)
6.88[3]

2
2
"Mijo"
Michelle MacLaren
Peter Gould
February 9, 2015 (2015-02-09)
3.42[4]

3
3
"Nacho"
Terry McDonough
Thomas Schnauz
February 16, 2015 (2015-02-16)
3.23[5]

4
4
"Hero"
Colin Bucksey
Gennifer Hutchison
February 23, 2015 (2015-02-23)
2.87[6]

5
5
"Alpine Shepherd Boy"
Nicole Kassell
Bradley Paul
March 2, 2015 (2015-03-02)
2.71[7]

6
6
"Five-O"
Adam Bernstein
Gordon Smith
March 9, 2015 (2015-03-09)
2.57[8]

7
7
"Bingo"
Larysa Kondracki
Gennifer Hutchison
March 16, 2015 (2015-03-16)
2.67[9]

8
8
"RICO"
Colin Bucksey
Gordon Smith
March 23, 2015 (2015-03-23)
2.87[10]

9
9
"Pimento"
Thomas Schnauz
Thomas Schnauz
March 30, 2015 (2015-03-30)
2.38[11]

10
10
"Marco"
Peter Gould
Peter Gould
April 6, 2015 (2015-04-06)
2.53[12]

text: Season 2 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

11
1
"Switch"
Thomas Schnauz
Thomas Schnauz
February 15, 2016 (2016-02-15)
2.57[13]

12
2
"Cobbler"
Terry McDonough
Gennifer Hutchison
February 22, 2016 (2016-02-22)
2.23[14]

13
3
"Amarillo"
Scott Winant
Jonathan Glatzer
February 29, 2016 (2016-02-29)
2.20[15]

14
4
"Gloves Off"
Adam Bernstein
Gordon Smith
March 7, 2016 (2016-03-07)
2.20[16]

15
5
"Rebecca"
John Shiban
Ann Cherkis
March 14, 2016 (2016-03-14)
1.99[17]

16
6
"Bali Ha'i"
Michael Slovis
Gennifer Hutchison
March 21, 2016 (2016-03-21)
2.11[18]

17
7
"Inflatable"
Colin Bucksey
Gordon Smith
March 28, 2016 (2016-03-28)
2.03[19]

18
8
"Fifi"
Larysa Kondracki
Thomas Schnauz
April 4, 2016 (2016-04-04)
1.93[20]

19
9
"Nailed"
Peter Gould
Peter Gould
April 11, 2016 (2016-04-11)
2.06[21]

20
10
"Klick"
Vince Gilligan
Heather Marion & Vince Gilligan
April 18, 2016 (2016-04-18)
2.26[22]

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

21
1
"Mabel"
Vince Gilligan
Vince Gilligan & Peter Gould
April 10, 2017 (2017-04-10)
1.81[23]

22
2
"Witness"
Vince Gilligan
Thomas Schnauz
April 17, 2017 (2017-04-17)
1.46[24]

23
3
"Sunk Costs"
John Shiban
Gennifer Hutchison
April 24, 2017 (2017-04-24)
1.52[25]

24
4
"Sabrosito"
Thomas Schnauz
Jonathan Glatzer
May 1, 2017 (2017-05-01)
1.56[26]

25
5
"Chicanery"
Daniel Sackheim
Gordon Smith
May 8, 2017 (2017-05-08)
1.76[27]

26
6
"Off Brand"
Keith Gordon
Ann Cherkis
May 15, 2017 (2017-05-15)
1.72[28]

27
7
"Expenses"
Thomas Schnauz
Thomas Schnauz
May 22, 2017 (2017-05-22)
1.65[29]

28
8
"Slip"
Adam Bernstein
Heather Marion
June 5, 2017 (2017-06-05)
1.63[30]

29
9
"Fall"
Minkie Spiro
Gordon Smith
June 12, 2017 (2017-06-12)
1.47[31]

30
10
"Lantern"
Peter Gould
Gennifer Hutchison
June 19, 2017 (2017-06-19)
1.85[32]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Ep. 1
Ep. 2
Ep. 3
Ep. 4
Ep. 5
Ep. 6
Ep. 7
Ep. 8
Ep. 9
Ep. 10

1
6.88
3.42
3.23
2.87
2.71
2.57
2.67
2.87
2.38
2.53

2
2.57
2.23
2.20
2.20
1.99
2.11
2.03
1.93
2.06
2.26

3
1.81
1.46
1.52
1.56
1.76
1.72
1.65
1.63
1.47
1.85