document_title: List of Major League Baseball All-Star Games

question_text: who won the last 5 mlb all star games

question_tokens: who won the last 5 mlb all star games

text: Game results[edit]

text:
Date

Winning League (All-Time Record)

Score

Venue

Host Team

Attendance

MVP

Winning Pitcher

Losing Pitcher

July 6, 1933

American(1–0–0 AL)

4–2

Comiskey Park

Chicago White Sox

47,595

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

Bill Hallahan, St. Louis (NL)

July 10, 1934

American(2–0–0 AL)

9–7

Polo Grounds

New York Giants

48,368

Mel Harder, Cleveland (AL)

Van Mungo, Brooklyn (NL)

July 8, 1935

American(3–0–0 AL)

4–1

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

69,812

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

Bill Walker, St. Louis (NL)

July 7, 1936

National(3–1–0 AL)

4–3

National League Park

Boston Bees

25,556

Dizzy Dean, St. Louis (NL)

Lefty Grove, Boston, (AL)

July 7, 1937

American(4–1–0 AL)

8–3

Griffith Stadium

Washington Senators

31,391

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

Dizzy Dean, St. Louis (NL)

July 6, 1938

National(4–2–0 AL)

4–1

Crosley Field

Cincinnati Reds

27,067

Johnny Vander Meer, Cincinnati (NL)

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

July 11, 1939

American(5–2–0 AL)

3–1

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

62,892

Tommy Bridges, Detroit (AL)

Bill Lee, Chicago (NL)

July 9, 1940

National(5–3–0 AL)

4–0

Sportsman's Park

St. Louis Cardinals

32,373

Paul Derringer, Cincinnati (NL)

Red Ruffing, New York (AL)

July 8, 1941

American(6–3–0 AL)

7–5

Briggs Stadium

Detroit Tigers

54,674

Eddie Smith, Chicago (AL)

Claude Passeau, Chicago (NL)

July 6, 1942

American(7–3–0 AL)

3–1

Polo Grounds

New York Giants

34,178

Spud Chandler, New York (AL)

Mort Cooper, St. Louis (NL)

July 13, 1943

American(8–3–0 AL)

5–3

Shibe Park

Philadelphia Athletics

31,938

Dutch Leonard, Washington (AL)

Mort Cooper, St. Louis (NL)

July 11, 1944

National(8–4–0 AL)

7–1

Forbes Field

Pittsburgh Pirates

29,589

Ken Raffensberger, Philadelphia (NL)

Tex Hughson, Boston (AL)

1945

Not held because of World War II

July 9, 1946

American(9–4–0 AL)

12–0

Fenway Park

Boston Red Sox

34,906

Bob Feller, Cleveland (AL)

Claude Passeau, Chicago (NL)

July 8, 1947

American(10–4–0 AL)

2–1

Wrigley Field

Chicago Cubs

41,123

Spec Shea, New York (AL)

Johnny Sain, Boston (NL)

July 13, 1948

American(11–4–0 AL)

5–2

Sportsman's Park

St. Louis Browns

34,009

Vic Raschi, New York (AL)

Johnny Schmitz, Chicago (NL)

July 12, 1949

American(12–4–0 AL)

11–7

Ebbets Field

Brooklyn Dodgers

32,577

Virgil Trucks, Detroit (AL)

Don Newcombe, Brooklyn (NL)

July 11, 1950

National(12–5–0 AL)

4–3(14)

Comiskey Park

Chicago White Sox

46,127

Ewell Blackwell, Cincinnati (NL)

Ted Gray, Detroit (AL)

July 10, 1951

National(12–6–0 AL)

8–3

Briggs Stadium

Detroit Tigers

52,075

Sal Maglie, New York (NL)

Ed Lopat, New York (AL)

July 8, 1952

National(12–7–0 AL)

3–2(rain,5)

Shibe Park

Philadelphia Phillies

32,785

Bob Rush, Chicago (NL)

Bob Lemon, Cleveland (AL)

July 14, 1953

National(12–8–0 AL)

5–1

Crosley Field

Cincinnati Reds

30,846

Warren Spahn, Milwaukee (NL)

Allie Reynolds, New York (AL)

July 13, 1954

American(13–8–0 AL)

11–9

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

69,751

Dean Stone, Washington (AL)

Gene Conley, Milwaukee (NL)

July 12, 1955

National(13–9–0 AL)

6–5(12)

County Stadium

Milwaukee Braves

45,643

Gene Conley, Milwaukee (NL)

Frank Sullivan, Boston (AL)

July 10, 1956

National(13–10–0 AL)

7–3

Griffith Stadium

Washington Senators

28,843

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

Billy Pierce, Chicago (AL)

July 9, 1957

American(14–10–0 AL)

6–5

Busch Stadium

St. Louis Cardinals

30,693

Jim Bunning, Detroit (AL)

Curt Simmons, Philadelphia (NL)

July 8, 1958

American(15–10–0 AL)

4–3

Memorial Stadium

Baltimore Orioles

48,829

Early Wynn, Chicago (AL)

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

July 7, 1959

National(15–11–0 AL)

5–4

Forbes Field

Pittsburgh Pirates

35,277

Johnny Antonelli, San Francisco (NL)

Whitey Ford, New York (AL)

August 3, 1959

American(16–11–0 AL)

5–3

Memorial Coliseum

Los Angeles Dodgers

55,105

Jerry Walker, Baltimore (AL)

Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

July 11, 1960

National(16–12–0 AL)

5–3

Municipal Stadium

Kansas City Athletics

30,619

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

Bill Monbouquette, Boston (AL)

July 13, 1960

National(16–13–0 AL)

6–0

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

38,362

Vern Law, Pittsburgh (NL)

Whitey Ford, New York (AL)

July 11, 1961

National(16–14–0 AL)

5–4(10)

Candlestick Park

San Francisco Giants

44,115

Stu Miller, San Francisco (NL)

Hoyt Wilhelm, Baltimore (AL)

July 31, 1961

TIE(16–14–1 AL)

1–1

Fenway Park

Boston Red Sox

31,851

N/A

N/A

N/A

July 10, 1962

National(16–15–1 AL)

3–1

D.C. Stadium

Washington Senators

45,480

Maury Wills, Los Angeles (NL)

Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)

Camilo Pascual, Minnesota (AL)

July 30, 1962

American(17–15–1 AL)

9–4

Wrigley Field

Chicago Cubs

38,359

Leon Wagner, Los Angeles (AL)

Ray Herbert, Chicago (AL)

Art Mahaffey, Philadelphia (NL)

July 9, 1963

National(17–16–1 AL)

5–3

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

44,160

Willie Mays, San Francisco (NL)

Larry Jackson, Chicago (NL)

Jim Bunning, Detroit (AL)

July 7, 1964

National (17–17–1)

7–4

Shea Stadium

New York Mets

50,850

Johnny Callison, Philadelphia (NL)

Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)

Dick Radatz, Boston (AL)

July 13, 1965

National(18–17–1 NL)

6–5

Metropolitan Stadium

Minnesota Twins

46,706

Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)

Sandy Koufax, Los Angeles (NL)

Sam McDowell, Cleveland (AL)

July 12, 1966

National(19–17–1 NL)

2–1(10)

Busch Memorial Stadium

St. Louis Cardinals

49,936

Brooks Robinson, Baltimore (AL)

Gaylord Perry, San Francisco (NL)

Pete Richert, Washington (AL)

July 11, 1967

National(20–17–1 NL)

2–1(15)

Anaheim Stadium

California Angels

46,309

Tony Pérez, Cincinnati Reds (NL)

Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

Catfish Hunter, Kansas City (AL)

July 9, 1968

National(21–17–1 NL)

1–0

Astrodome

Houston Astros

48,321

Willie Mays, San Francisco (NL)

Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

Luis Tiant, Cleveland (AL)

July 23, 1969

National(22–17–1 NL)

9–3

RFK Stadium

Washington Senators

45,259

Willie McCovey, San Francisco (NL)

Steve Carlton, St. Louis (NL)

Mel Stottlemyre, New York (AL)

July 14, 1970

National(23–17–1 NL)

5–4(12)

Riverfront Stadium

Cincinnati Reds

51,838

Carl Yastrzemski, Boston (AL)

Claude Osteen, Los Angeles (NL)

Clyde Wright, California Angels (AL)

July 13, 1971

American(23–18–1 NL)

6–4

Tiger Stadium

Detroit Tigers

53,559

Frank Robinson, Baltimore (AL)

Vida Blue, Oakland (AL)

Dock Ellis, Pittsburgh (NL)

July 25, 1972

National(24–18–1 NL)

4–3(10)

Atlanta Stadium

Atlanta Braves

53,107

Joe Morgan, Cincinnati (NL)

Tug McGraw, New York (NL)

Dave McNally, Baltimore (AL)

July 24, 1973

National(25–18–1 NL)

7–1

Royals Stadium

Kansas City Royals

40,849

Bobby Bonds, San Francisco (NL)

Rick Wise, St. Louis (NL)

Bert Blyleven, Minnesota (AL)

July 23, 1974

National(26–18–1 NL)

7–2

Three Rivers Stadium

Pittsburgh Pirates

50,706

Steve Garvey, Los Angeles (NL)

Ken Brett, Pittsburgh (NL)

Luis Tiant, Boston (AL)

July 15, 1975

National(27–18–1 NL)

6–3

County Stadium

Milwaukee Brewers

51,480

Bill Madlock, Chicago (NL)Jon Matlack, New York (NL)

Jon Matlack, New York (NL)

Catfish Hunter, New York (AL)

July 13, 1976

National(28–18–1 NL)

7–1

Veterans Stadium

Philadelphia Phillies

63,974

George Foster, Cincinnati (NL)

Randy Jones, San Diego (NL)

Mark Fidrych, Detroit (AL)

July 19, 1977

National(29–18–1 NL)

7–5

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

56,683

Don Sutton, Los Angeles (NL)

Don Sutton, Los Angeles (NL)

Jim Palmer, Baltimore (AL)

July 11, 1978

National(30–18–1 NL)

7–3

San Diego Stadium

San Diego Padres

51,549

Steve Garvey, Los Angeles (NL)

Bruce Sutter, Chicago (NL)

Rich Gossage, New York (AL)

July 17, 1979

National(31–18–1 NL)

7–6

Kingdome

Seattle Mariners

58,905

Dave Parker, Pittsburgh (NL)

Bruce Sutter, Chicago (NL)

Jim Kern, Texas (AL)

July 8, 1980

National(32–18–1 NL)

4–2

Dodger Stadium

Los Angeles Dodgers

56,088

Ken Griffey, Sr., Cincinnati (NL)

Jerry Reuss, Los Angeles (NL)

Tommy John, New York (AL)

August 9, 1981

National(33–18–1 NL)

5–4

Cleveland Stadium

Cleveland Indians

72,086

Gary Carter, Montreal (NL)

Vida Blue, San Francisco (NL)

Rollie Fingers, Milwaukee (AL)

July 13, 1982

National(34–18–1 NL)

4–1

Olympic Stadium

Montreal Expos

59,057

Dave Concepción, Cincinnati (NL)

Steve Rogers, Montreal (NL)

Dennis Eckersley, Boston (AL)

July 6, 1983

American(34–19–1 NL)

13–3

Comiskey Park

Chicago White Sox

43,801

Fred Lynn, California (AL)

Dave Stieb, Toronto (AL)

Mario Soto, Cincinnati (NL)

July 10, 1984

National(35–19–1 NL)

3–1

Candlestick Park

San Francisco Giants

57,756

Gary Carter, Montreal (NL)

Charlie Lea, Montreal (NL)

Dave Stieb, Toronto (AL)

July 16, 1985

National(36–19–1 NL)

6–1

Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

Minnesota Twins

54,960

LaMarr Hoyt, San Diego (NL)

LaMarr Hoyt, San Diego (NL)

Jack Morris, Detroit (AL)

July 15, 1986

American(36-20-1 NL)

3–2

Astrodome

Houston Astros

45,774

Roger Clemens, Boston (AL)

Roger Clemens, Boston (AL)

Dwight Gooden, New York (NL)

July 14, 1987

National(37–20–1 NL)

2–0(13)

Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum

Oakland Athletics

49,671

Tim Raines, Montreal (NL)

Lee Smith, Chicago (NL)

Jay Howell, Oakland (AL)

July 12, 1988

American(37–21–1 NL)

2–1

Riverfront Stadium

Cincinnati Reds

55,837

Terry Steinbach, Oakland (AL)

Frank Viola, Minnesota (AL)

Dwight Gooden, New York (NL)

July 11, 1989

American(37–22–1 NL)

5–3

Anaheim Stadium

California Angels

64,036

Bo Jackson, Kansas City (AL)

Nolan Ryan, Texas (AL)

John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

July 10, 1990

American(37–23–1 NL)

2–0

Wrigley Field

Chicago Cubs

39,071

Julio Franco, Texas (AL)

Bret Saberhagen, Kansas City (AL)

Jeff Brantley, San Francisco (NL)

July 9, 1991

American(37–24–1 NL)

4–2

SkyDome

Toronto Blue Jays

52,383

Cal Ripken, Jr., Baltimore (AL)

Jimmy Key, Toronto (AL)

Dennis Martínez, Montreal (NL)

July 14, 1992

American(37–25–1 NL)

13–6

Jack Murphy Stadium

San Diego Padres

59,372

Ken Griffey, Jr., Seattle (AL)

Kevin Brown, Texas (AL)

Tom Glavine, Atlanta (NL)

July 13, 1993

American(37–26–1 NL)

9–3

Oriole Park at Camden Yards

Baltimore Orioles

48,147

Kirby Puckett, Minnesota (AL)

Jack McDowell, Chicago (AL)

John Burkett, San Francisco (NL)

July 12, 1994

National(38–26–1 NL)

8–7(10)

Three Rivers Stadium

Pittsburgh Pirates

59,568

Fred McGriff, Atlanta (NL)

Doug Jones, Philadelphia (NL)

Jason Bere, Chicago (AL)

July 11, 1995

National(39–26–1 NL)

3–2

The Ballpark in Arlington

Texas Rangers

50,920

Jeff Conine, Florida (NL)

Heathcliff Slocumb, Philadelphia (NL)

Steve Ontiveros, Oakland (AL)

July 9, 1996

National(40–26–1 NL)

6–0

Veterans Stadium

Philadelphia Phillies

62,670

Mike Piazza, Los Angeles (NL)

John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

Charles Nagy, Cleveland (AL)

July 8, 1997

American(40–27–1 NL)

3–1

Jacobs Field

Cleveland Indians

44,916

Sandy Alomar, Cleveland (AL)

José Rosado, Kansas City (AL)

Shawn Estes, San Francisco (NL)

July 7, 1998

American(40–28–1 NL)

13–8

Coors Field

Colorado Rockies

51,267

Roberto Alomar, Baltimore (AL)

Bartolo Colón, Cleveland (AL)

Ugueth Urbina, Montreal (NL)

July 13, 1999

American(40–29–1 NL)

4–1

Fenway Park

Boston Red Sox

34,187

Pedro Martínez, Boston (AL)

Pedro Martínez, Boston (AL)

Curt Schilling, Philadelphia (NL)

July 11, 2000

American(40–30–1 NL)

6–3

Turner Field

Atlanta Braves

51,323

Derek Jeter, New York (AL)

James Baldwin, Chicago (AL)

Al Leiter, New York (NL)

July 10, 2001

American(40–31–1 NL)

4–1

Safeco Field

Seattle Mariners

47,364

Cal Ripken, Jr., Baltimore (AL)

Freddy García, Seattle (AL)

Chan Ho Park, Los Angeles (NL)

July 9, 2002

TIE(40–31–2 NL)

7–7(11)

Miller Park

Milwaukee Brewers

41,871

N/A

N/A

N/A

July 15, 2003

American(40–32–2 NL)

7–6

U.S. Cellular Field

Chicago White Sox

47,609

Garret Anderson, Anaheim (AL)

Brendan Donnelly, Anaheim (AL)

Éric Gagné, Los Angeles (NL)

July 13, 2004

American(40–33–2 NL)

9–4

Minute Maid Park

Houston Astros

41,886

Alfonso Soriano, Texas (AL)

Mark Mulder, Oakland (AL)

Roger Clemens, Houston (NL)

July 12, 2005

American(40–34–2 NL)

7–5

Comerica Park

Detroit Tigers

41,617

Miguel Tejada, Baltimore (AL)

Mark Buehrle, Chicago (AL)

John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

July 11, 2006

American(40–35–2 NL)

3–2

PNC Park

Pittsburgh Pirates

38,904

Michael Young, Texas (AL)

B. J. Ryan, Toronto (AL)

Trevor Hoffman, San Diego (NL)

July 10, 2007

American(40–36–2 NL)

5–4

AT&T Park

San Francisco Giants

43,965

Ichiro Suzuki, Seattle (AL)

Josh Beckett, Boston (AL)

Chris Young, San Diego (NL)

July 15, 2008

American(40–37–2 NL)

4–3(15)

Yankee Stadium

New York Yankees

55,632

J. D. Drew, Boston (AL)

Scott Kazmir, Tampa Bay (AL)

Brad Lidge, Philadelphia (NL)

July 14, 2009

American (40–38–2 NL)

4–3

Busch Stadium

St. Louis Cardinals

46,760

Carl Crawford, Tampa Bay (AL)

Jonathan Papelbon, Boston (AL)

Heath Bell, San Diego (NL)

July 13, 2010

National (41–38–2 NL)

3–1

Angel Stadium of Anaheim

Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim

45,408

Brian McCann, Atlanta (NL)

Matt Capps, Washington (NL)

Phil Hughes, New York (AL)

July 12, 2011

National (42–38–2 NL)

5–1

Chase Field

Arizona Diamondbacks

49,033

Prince Fielder, Milwaukee (NL)

Tyler Clippard, Washington (NL)

C. J. Wilson, Texas (AL)

July 10, 2012

National (43–38–2 NL)

8–0

Kauffman Stadium

Kansas City Royals

40,933

Melky Cabrera, San Francisco (NL)

Matt Cain, San Francisco (NL)

Justin Verlander, Detroit (AL)

July 16, 2013

American (43–39–2 NL)

3–0

Citi Field

New York Mets

45,186

Mariano Rivera, New York (AL)

Chris Sale, Chicago (AL)

Patrick Corbin, Arizona (NL)

July 15, 2014

American (43–40–2 NL)

5–3

Target Field

Minnesota Twins

41,048

Mike Trout, Los Angeles (AL)

Max Scherzer, Detroit (AL)

Pat Neshek, St. Louis (NL)

July 14, 2015

American (43–41–2 NL)

6–3

Great American Ball Park

Cincinnati Reds

43,656

Mike Trout, Los Angeles (AL)

David Price, Detroit (AL)

Clayton Kershaw, Los Angeles (NL)

July 12, 2016

American (43–42–2 NL)

4–2

Petco Park

San Diego Padres

42,386

Eric Hosmer, Kansas City (AL)

Corey Kluber, Cleveland (AL)

Johnny Cueto, San Francisco (NL)

July 11, 2017

American (43–43–2)

2–1(10)

Marlins Park

Miami Marlins

37,188

Robinson Canó, Seattle (AL)

Craig Kimbrel, Boston (AL)

Wade Davis, Chicago (NL)

July 17, 2018

American (44–43–2 AL)

8–6(10)

Nationals Park

Washington Nationals

43,843

Alex Bregman, Houston (AL)

Edwin Diaz, Seattle (AL)

Ross Stripling, Los Angeles (NL)

text:
American League (44 Wins)

National League (43 Wins)

text: Future MLB All-Star Games[edit]

text:
Date

Host team

Stadium

City

Television

Radio

July 9, 2019

Cleveland Indians

Progressive Field

Cleveland, Ohio

Fox Sports

ESPN

July 14, 2020

Los Angeles Dodgers

Dodger Stadium

Los Angeles, California

Fox Sports

ESPN

text: Notes[edit]

text: St. Petersburg (Tampa Bay Rays) is the only current MLB city that has not yet hosted (or been scheduled to host) an MLB All-Star Game.


document_title: Viscosity

question_text: what is the viscosity of water in cp

question_tokens: what is the viscosity of water in cp

root

text: Viscosity

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word "viscosity" is derived from the Latin "viscum", meaning mistletoe and also a viscous glue made from mistletoe berries.[3]

tag: p

text: Definition[edit]

text: Dynamic (shear) viscosity [edit]

text:
The dynamic viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the idealized situation known as a Couette flow, where a layer of fluid is trapped between two horizontal plates, one fixed and one moving horizontally at constant speed

u

{\displaystyle u}

. This fluid has to be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses. (The plates are assumed to be very large so that one need not consider what happens near their edges.)

text: If the speed of the top plate is low enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, and friction between them will give rise to a force resisting their relative motion. In particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed.

text: The magnitude F of this force is found to be proportional to the speed u and the area A of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation y:

text:
The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity (specifically, the dynamic viscosity) of the fluid, with units of

Pa

⋅

s

{\displaystyle {\text{Pa}}\cdot {\text{s}}}

 (pascal-second).

text: The ratio u/y is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates (see illustrations to the right). Isaac Newton expressed the viscous forces by the differential equation

text: where τ = F/A, and ∂u/∂y is the local shear velocity. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines to x-axis. Furthermore, it assumes that the y-axis, perpendicular to the flow, points in the direction of maximum shear velocity. This equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with y, such as in fluid flowing through a pipe. This equation is called the defining equation for shear viscosity. The viscosity is not a material constant, but a material property that depends on physical properties like temperature. The functional relationship between viscosity and other physical properties is described by a mathematical viscosity model called a constitutive equation which is usually more complex than the defining equation for viscosity. There exist  many viscosity models, and based on type of development-reasoning, some viscosity models are selected and presented in the article Viscosity models for mixtures.

text: Use of the Greek letter mu (μ) for the dynamic stress viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers, as well as physicists.[4][5][6] However, the Greek letter eta (η) is also used by chemists, physicists, and the IUPAC.[7]

text: Kinematic viscosity[edit]

text:
The kinematic viscosity (also called "momentum diffusivity") is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity μ to the density of the fluid ρ. It is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν) and has units

m

2

/

s

{\displaystyle \mathrm {m^{2}/s} }

.

text: A convenient concept when analyzing the Reynolds number, which expresses the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces, is:

text: where L is a typical length scale in the system, and u is the velocity of the fluid with respect to the object (m/s).

text: Bulk viscosity[edit]

text: When a compressible fluid is compressed or expanded evenly, without shear, it may still exhibit a form of internal friction that resists its flow. These forces are related to the rate of compression or expansion by a factor called the volume viscosity, bulk viscosity or second viscosity.

text: The bulk viscosity is important only when the fluid is being rapidly compressed or expanded, such as in sound and shock waves. Bulk viscosity explains the loss of energy in those waves, as described by Stokes' law of sound attenuation.

text: Viscosity tensor[edit]

text: In general, the stresses within a flow can be attributed partly to the deformation of the material from some rest state (elastic stress), and partly to the rate of change of the deformation over time (viscous stress). In a fluid, by definition, the elastic stress includes only the hydrostatic pressure.

text: In very general terms, the fluid's viscosity is the relation between the strain rate and the viscous stress. In the Newtonian fluid model, the relationship is by definition a linear map, described by a viscosity tensor that, multiplied by the strain rate tensor (which is the gradient of the flow's velocity), gives the viscous stress tensor.

text: The viscosity tensor has nine independent degrees of freedom in general. For isotropic Newtonian fluids, these can be reduced to two independent parameters. The most usual decomposition yields the dynamic viscosity μ and the bulk viscosity σ.

text: Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids[edit]

text: Newton's law of viscosity is a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law, Fick's law, and Ohm's law): it is not a fundamental law of nature but an approximation that holds in some materials and fails in others.

text: A fluid that behaves according to Newton's law, with a viscosity μ that is independent of the stress, is said to be Newtonian. Gases, water, and many common liquids can be considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. There are many non-Newtonian fluids that significantly deviate from that law in some way or other. For example:

text:
Shear-thickening liquids, whose viscosity increases with the rate of shear strain.
Shear-thinning liquids, whose viscosity decreases with the rate of shear strain.
Thixotropic liquids, that become less viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
Rheopectic (dilatant) liquids, that become more viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
Bingham plastics that behave as a solid at low stresses but flow as a viscous fluid at high stresses.

tag: ul

text: Shear-thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as thixotropic.

text: Even for a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity usually depends on its composition and temperature. For gases and other compressible fluids, it depends on temperature and varies very slowly with pressure.

text: The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors. A magnetorheological fluid, for example, becomes thicker when subjected to a magnetic field, possibly to the point of behaving like a solid.

text: In solids[edit]

text: The viscous forces that arise during fluid flow must not be confused with the elastic forces that arise in a solid in response to shear, compression or extension stresses. While in the latter the stress is proportional to the amount of shear deformation, in a fluid it is proportional to the rate of deformation over time. (For this reason, Maxwell used the term fugitive elasticity for fluid viscosity.)

text: However, many liquids (including water) will briefly react like elastic solids when subjected to sudden stress. Conversely, many "solids" (even granite) will flow like liquids, albeit very slowly, even under arbitrarily small stress.[8] Such materials are therefore best described as possessing both elasticity (reaction to deformation) and viscosity (reaction to rate of deformation); that is, being viscoelastic.

text:
Indeed, some authors have claimed that amorphous solids, such as glass and many polymers, are actually liquids with a very high viscosity (greater than 1012 Pa·s).
[9] However, other authors dispute this hypothesis, claiming instead that there is some threshold for the stress, below which most solids will not flow at all,[10] and that alleged instances of glass flow in window panes of old buildings are due to the crude manufacturing process of older eras rather than to the viscosity of glass.[11]

text: Viscoelastic solids may exhibit both shear viscosity and bulk viscosity. The extensional viscosity is a linear combination of the shear and bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers.

text: In geology, earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three orders of magnitude greater than their elastic deformation are sometimes called rheids.[12]

text: Measurement[edit]

text: Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers. A rheometer is used for those fluids that cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. Close temperature control of the fluid is essential to acquire accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 °C.

text: For some fluids, the viscosity is constant over a wide range of shear rates (Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a constant viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate.

text: One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.

text: In coating industries, viscosity may be measured with a cup in which the efflux time is measured. There are several sorts of cup – such as the Zahn cup and the Ford viscosity cup – with the usage of each type varying mainly according to the industry. The efflux time can also be converted to kinematic viscosities (centistokes, cSt) through the conversion equations.[13]

text: Also used in coatings, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers.

text: Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. Resonant, or vibrational viscometers work by creating shear waves within the liquid. In this method, the sensor is submerged in the fluid and is made to resonate at a specific frequency. As the surface of the sensor shears through the liquid, energy is lost due to its viscosity. This dissipated energy is then measured and converted into a viscosity reading. A higher viscosity causes a greater loss of energy.[citation needed]

text: Extensional viscosity can be measured with various rheometers that apply extensional stress.

text: Volume viscosity can be measured with an acoustic rheometer.

text: Apparent viscosity is a calculation derived from tests performed on drilling fluid used in oil or gas well development. These calculations and tests help engineers develop and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required.

text: Units[edit]

text: Dynamic viscosity, μ[edit]

text: Both the physical unit of dynamic viscosity in SI units, the poiseuille (Pl), and cgs units, the poise (P), are named after Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille. The poiseuille, which is rarely used, is equivalent to the pascal second (Pa·s), or (N·s)/m2, or kg/(m·s). If a fluid is placed between two plates with distance one meter, and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one pascal, and it moves at x meters per second, then it has viscosity of 1/x pascal seconds. For example, water at 20 °C has a viscosity of 1.002 mPa·s, while a typical motor oil could have a viscosity of about 250 mPa·s.[14] The units used in practice are either Pa·s and its submultiples or the cgs poise referred to below, and its submultiples.

text: The cgs physical unit for dynamic viscosity, the poise[15] (P), is also named after Jean Poiseuille. It is more commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP) since the latter is equal to the SI multiple millipascal seconds (mPa·s). For example, water at 20 °C has a viscosity of 1.002 mPa·s = 1.002 cP.

text: Kinematic viscosity, ν[edit]

text: The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

text: The cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St), named after Sir George Gabriel Stokes. [16] It is sometimes expressed in terms of centistokes (cSt). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the singular form.

text: Water at 20 °C has a kinematic viscosity of about 10−6 m2·s−1 or 1 cSt.

text: The kinematic viscosity is sometimes referred to as diffusivity of momentum, because it is analogous to diffusivity of heat and diffusivity of mass. It is therefore used in dimensionless numbers which compare the ratio of the diffusivities.

text: Fluidity[edit]

text: The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity, usually symbolized by φ = 1/μ or F = 1/μ, depending on the convention used, measured in reciprocal poise (P−1, or cm·s·g−1), sometimes called the rhe. Fluidity is seldom used in engineering practice.

text: The concept of fluidity can be used to determine the viscosity of an ideal solution. For two components A and B, the fluidity when A and B are mixed is

text: which is only slightly simpler than the equivalent equation in terms of viscosity:

text: where χA and χB are the mole fractions of components A and B respectively, and μA and μB are the components' pure viscosities.

text: Non-standard units[edit]

text: The reyn is a British unit of dynamic viscosity.

text: Viscosity index is a measure for the change of viscosity with temperature. It is used in the automotive industry to characterise lubricating oil.

text: At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring kinematic viscosity by means of the Saybolt viscometer, and expressing kinematic viscosity in units of Saybolt universal seconds (SUS).[17] Other abbreviations such as SSU (Saybolt seconds universal) or SUV (Saybolt universal viscosity) are sometimes used. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be converted from SUS according to the arithmetic and the reference table provided in ASTM D 2161.[18]

text: Molecular origins[edit]

text: The viscosity of a system is determined by how molecules constituting the system interact. There are no simple but correct expressions for the viscosity of a fluid. The simplest exact expressions are the Green–Kubo relations for the linear shear viscosity or the Transient Time Correlation Function expressions derived by Evans and Morriss in 1985.[20] Although these expressions are each exact, in order to calculate the viscosity of a dense fluid using these relations currently requires the use of molecular dynamics computer simulations.

text: Gases[edit]

text: Viscosity in gases arises principally from the molecular diffusion that transports momentum between layers of flow. The kinetic theory of gases allows accurate prediction of the behavior of gaseous viscosity.

text: Within the regime where the theory is applicable:

text:
Viscosity is independent of pressure and
Viscosity increases as temperature increases.[21]

text: James Clerk Maxwell published a famous paper in 1866 using the kinetic theory of gases to study gaseous viscosity.[22] To understand why the viscosity is independent of pressure, consider two adjacent boundary layers (A and B) moving with respect to each other. The internal friction (the viscosity) of the gas is determined by the probability a particle of layer A enters layer B with a corresponding transfer of momentum. Maxwell's calculations show that the viscosity coefficient is proportional to the density, the mean free path, and the mean velocity of the atoms. On the other hand, the mean free path is inversely proportional to the density. So an increase in density due to an increase in pressure doesn't result in any change in viscosity.

text: Relation to mean free path of diffusing particles[edit]

text: In relation to diffusion, the kinematic viscosity provides a better understanding of the behavior of mass transport of a dilute species. Viscosity is related to shear stress and the rate of shear in a fluid, which illustrates its dependence on the mean free path, λ, of the diffusing particles.

text: From fluid mechanics, for a Newtonian fluid, the shear stress, τ, on a unit area moving parallel to itself, is found to be proportional to the rate of change of velocity with distance perpendicular to the unit area:

text: for a unit area parallel to the xz-plane, moving along the x axis. We will derive this formula and show how μ is related to λ.

text: Interpreting shear stress as the time rate of change of momentum, p, per unit area A (rate of momentum flux) of an arbitrary control surface gives

text: where ⟨ux⟩ is the average velocity, along the x-axis, of fluid molecules hitting the unit area, with respect to the unit area and ṁ is the rate of fluid mass hitting the surface.

text: By making simplified assumption that the velocity of the molecules depends linearly on the distance they are coming from, the mean velocity depends linearly on the mean distance:

text:
⟨

u

x

⟩

=
λ

d

u

x

d

y

{\displaystyle \left\langle u_{x}\right\rangle =\lambda {\frac {\mathrm {d} u_{x}}{\mathrm {d} y}}}

.

text: Further manipulation will show,[23]

text: where

text: Note, that the mean free path itself typically depends (inversely) on the density.

text: Effect of temperature on the viscosity of a gas[edit]

text: Sutherland's formula can be used to derive the dynamic viscosity of an ideal gas as a function of the temperature:[24]

text: This, in turn, is equal to

text: where

text: is a constant for the gas.

text: in Sutherland's formula:

text:
μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s or μPa·s) at input temperature T,
μ0 = reference viscosity (in the same units as μ) at reference temperature T0,
T = input temperature (K),
T0 = reference temperature (K),
C = Sutherland's constant for the gaseous material in question.

text: Valid for temperatures between 0 < T < 555 K with an error due to pressure less than 10% below 3.45 MPa.

text: According to Sutherland's formula, if the absolute temperature is less than C, the relative change in viscosity for a small change in temperature is greater than the relative change in the absolute temperature, but it is smaller when T is above C. The kinematic viscosity though always increases faster than the temperature (that is, d log(ν)/d log(T) is greater than 1).

text: Sutherland's constant, reference values and λ values for some gases:

text:
Gas

C (K)

T0 (K)

μ0 (μPa·s)

λ (μPa·s·K−1⁄2)

air

120

291.15

18.27

7000151204128800000♠1.512041288

nitrogen

111

300.55

17.81

7000140673219500000♠1.406732195

oxygen

127

292.25

20.18

7000169341130000000♠1.693411300

carbon dioxide

240

293.15

14.8

7000157208593100000♠1.572085931

carbon monoxide

118

288.15

17.2

7000142819322500000♠1.428193225

hydrogen

72

293.85

8.76

6999636236562000000♠0.636236562

ammonia

370

293.15

9.82

7000129744337900000♠1.297443379

sulfur dioxide

416

293.65

12.54

7000176846608600000♠1.768466086

helium

79.4[25]

273

19[26]

7000148438149000000♠1.484381490

tag: table

text: Viscosity of a dilute gas[edit]

text: The Chapman–Enskog equation[27] may be used to estimate viscosity for a dilute gas. This equation is based on a semi-theoretical assumption by Chapman and Enskog. The equation requires three empirically determined parameters: the collision diameter (σ), the maximum energy of attraction divided by the Boltzmann constant (ε/к) and the collision integral (ω(T*)).

text: with

text:
T* = κT/ε is reduced temperature (dimensionless),
μ0 is viscosity for dilute gas (μPa·s),
M is molecular mass (g/mol),
T is temperature (K),
σ is the collision diameter (Å),
ε/к is the maximum energy of attraction divided by the Boltzmann constant (K),
ωμ is the collision integral.

text: Liquids[edit]

text: In liquids, the additional forces between molecules become important. This leads to an additional contribution to the shear stress though the exact mechanics of this are still controversial.[citation needed] Thus, in liquids:

text:
Viscosity is independent of pressure (except at very high pressure); and
Viscosity tends to fall as temperature increases (for example, water viscosity goes from 1.79 cP to 0.28 cP in the temperature range from 0 °C to 100 °C); see temperature dependence of liquid viscosity for more details.

text: The dynamic viscosities of liquids are typically several orders of magnitude higher than dynamic viscosities of gases.

text: Viscosity of blends of liquids[edit]

text: The viscosity of the blend of two or more liquids can be estimated using the Refutas equation.[28][29] The calculation is carried out in three steps.

text: The first step is to calculate the viscosity blending number (VBN) (also called the viscosity blending index) of each component of the blend:

text: where ν is the kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt). It is important that the kinematic viscosity of each component of the blend be obtained at the same temperature.

text: The next step is to calculate the VBN of the blend, using this equation:

text: where xX is the mass fraction of each component of the blend.

text: Once the viscosity blending number of a blend has been calculated using equation (2), the final step is to determine the kinematic viscosity of the blend by solving equation (1) for ν:

text: where VBNBlend is the viscosity blending number of the blend.

text: alternatively use the more accurate Lederer-Roegiers equation [1]

text:
ln

η

1
,
2

=

x

1

ln

η

1

x

1

+

x

2

α

+

α

x

2

ln

η

2

x

1

+

x

2

α

{\displaystyle \ln \eta _{1,2}={\frac {x_{1}\ln \eta _{1}}{x_{1}+x_{2}\alpha }}+{\frac {\alpha x_{2}\ln \eta _{2}}{x_{1}+x_{2}\alpha }}}

text:
α

{\displaystyle \alpha }

 is based on the difference in intermolecular cohesion energies between the liquids

η

{\displaystyle \eta }

=dynamic viscosity
x[i]=mole_fraction[i]

text: Selected substances[edit]

text: Air[edit]

text: The viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature. At 15 °C, the viscosity of air is 6995181000000000000♠1.81×10−5 kg/(m·s), 18.1 μPa·s or 6995181000000000000♠1.81×10−5 Pa·s. The kinematic viscosity at 15 °C is 6995148000000000000♠1.48×10−5 m2/s or 14.8 cSt. At 25 °C, the viscosity is 18.6 μPa·s and the kinematic viscosity 15.7 cSt.

text: Water[edit]

text: The dynamic viscosity of water is 6996890000000000000♠8.90×10−4 Pa·s or 6997890000000000000♠8.90×10−3 dyn·s/cm2 or 0.890 cP at about 25 °C.

text: As a function of temperature T (in kelvins): μ = A × 10B/(T − C), where A = 6995241400000000000♠2.414×10−5 Pa·s, B = 247.8 K, and C = 140 K.[citation needed]

text: The dynamic viscosity of liquid water at different temperatures up to the normal boiling point is listed below.

text:
Dynamic viscosity of water at various temperatures

Temperature (°C)

Viscosity (mPa·s)

10

1.308

20

1.002

30

0.7978

40

0.6531

50

0.5471

60

0.4658

70

0.4044

80

0.3550

90

0.3150

100

0.2822

text: Other substances[edit]

text: Some dynamic viscosities of Newtonian fluids are listed below:

text:
Viscosity of selected gases at 100 kPa (μPa·s)

Gas

at 0 °C (273 K)

at 27 °C (300 K)[30]

air

17.4

18.6

hydrogen

8.4

9.0

helium

20.0

argon

22.9

xenon

21.2

23.2

carbon dioxide

15.0

methane

11.2

ethane

9.5

text:
Viscosity of fluids with variable compositions

Fluid

Viscosity (Pa·s)

Viscosity (cP)

blood (37 °C)[9]

6997300000000000000♠3×10−3 – 6997400000000000000♠4×10−3

3–4

honey

2–10[31]

2000–7004100000000000000♠10000

molasses

5–10

5000–7004100000000000000♠10000

molten glass

10–1000

7004100000000000000♠10000–7006100000000000000♠1000000

chocolate syrup

10–25

7004100000000000000♠10000–7004250000000000000♠25000

molten chocolate[a]

45–130[32]

7004450000000000000♠45000–7005130000000000000♠130000

ketchup[a]

50–100

7004500000000000000♠50000–7005100000000000000♠100000

lard

≈ 100

≈ 7005100000000000000♠100000

peanut butter[a]

≈ 250

≈ 7005250000000000000♠250000

shortening[a]

≈ 250

≈ 7005250000000000000♠250000

text:
Viscosity of liquids (at 25 °C unless otherwise specified)

Liquid

Viscosity (Pa·s)

Viscosity (cP)

acetone[30]

6996306000000000000♠3.06×10−4

0.306

benzene[30]

6996604000000000000♠6.04×10−4

0.604

castor oil[30]

0.985

985

corn syrup[30]

1.3806

1380.6

ethanol[30]

6997107400000000000♠1.074×10−3

7000107400000000000♠1.074

ethylene glycol

6998161000000000000♠1.61×10−2

7001161000000000000♠16.1

glycerol (at 20 °C)[26]

7000120000000000000♠1.2

7003120000000000000♠1200

HFO-380

7000202199999999999♠2.022

7003202200000000000♠2022

mercury[30]

6997152600000000000♠1.526×10−3

7000152600000000000♠1.526

methanol[30]

6996544000000000000♠5.44×10−4

6999544000000000000♠0.544

motor oil SAE 10 (20 °C)[21]

6998650000000000000♠0.065

7001650000000000000♠65

motor oil SAE 40 (20 °C)[21]

6999319000000000000♠0.319

7002319000000000000♠319

nitrobenzene[30]

6997186300000000000♠1.863×10−3

7000186300000000000♠1.863

liquid nitrogen (−196 °C)

6996158000000000000♠1.58×10−4

6999158000000000000♠0.158

propanol[30]

6997194500000000000♠1.945×10−3

7000194500000000000♠1.945

olive oil

6998810000000000000♠0.081

7001810000000000000♠81

pitch

7008229999999999999♠2.3×108

7011229999999999999♠2.30×1011

sulfuric acid[30]

6998242000000000000♠2.42×10−2

7001242000000000000♠24.2

water

6996894000000000000♠8.94×10−4

6999894000000000000♠0.894

text:
Viscosity of solids

Solid

Viscosity (Pa·s)

Temperature (°C)

granite[8]

7019300000000000000♠3×1019 - 7019600000000000000♠6×1019

25

asthenosphere[33]

7019700000000000000♠7.0×1019

900

upper mantle[33]

7020700000000000000♠7×1020 – 7021100000000000000♠1×1021

1300–3000

lower mantle

7021100000000000000♠1×1021 – 7021200000000000000♠2×1021

3000–4000

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c d These materials are highly non-Newtonian.

text: Slurry[edit]

text: The term slurry describes mixtures of a liquid and solid particles that retain some fluidity. The viscosity of slurry can be described as relative to the viscosity of the liquid phase:

text: where μs and μl are respectively the dynamic viscosity of the slurry and liquid (Pa·s), and μr is the relative viscosity (dimensionless).

text: Depending on the size and concentration of the solid particles, several models exist that describe the relative viscosity as a function of volume fraction φ of solid particles.

text: In the case of extremely low concentrations of fine particles, Einstein's equation[34] may be used:

text: In the case of higher concentrations, a modified equation was proposed by Guth and Simha,[35] which takes into account interaction between the solid particles:

text: Further modification of this equation was proposed by Thomas[36] from the fitting of empirical data:

text: where A = 6997272999999999999♠0.00273 and B = 16.6.

text: In the case of high shear stress (above 1 kPa), another empirical equation was proposed by Kitano et al. for polymer melts:[37]

text: where A = 0.68 for smooth spherical particles.

text: Nanofluids[edit]

text: Nanofluid is a novel class of fluid, which is developed by dispersing nano-sized particles in base fluid.[38]

text: Einstein model

text:
Einstein derived the applicable first theoretical formula for the estimation of viscosity values of composites or mixtures in 1906. This model developed while assuming linear viscous fluid including suspensions of rigid and spherical particles. Einstein’s model is valid for very low volume fraction

∅

{\displaystyle \varnothing }

.[34]

text:
μ

n
f

=

μ

b
f

(
1
+
2.5
∅
)

{\displaystyle \mu _{nf}=\mu _{bf}(1+2.5\varnothing )}

text: Brinkman model

text: Brinkman modified Einstein’s model for used with average particle volume fraction up to 4%[39]

text:
μ

n
f

=

μ

b
f

(

1

(
1
−
∅

)

2.5

)

=

μ

b
f

(

1
+
2.5
∅
+
4.375

∅

2

+
O
(

∅

3

)

)

{\displaystyle \mu _{nf}=\mu _{bf}{\Biggl (}{\frac {1}{\ (1-\varnothing )^{2.5}}}{\Biggr )}=\mu _{bf}{\Big (}1+2.5\varnothing +4.375\varnothing ^{2}+O(\varnothing ^{3}){\Big )}}

text: Batchelor model

text: Batchelor reformed Einstein's theoretical model by presenting Brownian motion effect.[40]

text:
μ

n
f

=

μ

b
f

(
1
+
2.5
∅
+
6.5

∅

2

)

{\displaystyle \mu _{nf}=\mu _{bf}(1+2.5\varnothing +6.5{\varnothing }^{2})}

text: Wang et al. model

text: Wang et al. found a model to predict viscosity of nanofluid as follows.[41]

text:
μ

n
f

=

μ

b
f

(
1
+
7.3
∅
+
123

∅

2

)

{\displaystyle \mu _{nf}=\mu _{bf}(1+7.3\varnothing +123{\varnothing }^{2})}

text: Masoumi et al. model

text: Masoumi et al. suggested a new viscosity correlation by considering Brownian motion of nanoparticle in nanofluid.[42]

text:
μ

n
f

=

μ

b
f

(

1
+

ρ

p

V

B

d

p

2

72
δ
C

)

{\displaystyle \mu _{nf}=\mu _{bf}{\Biggl (}1+{\frac {\rho _{p}V_{B}{d_{p}}^{2}}{72\delta C}}{\Biggr )}}

text:
V

B

=

18

K

B

T

π

ρ

p

d

p

3

{\displaystyle V_{B}={\sqrt {\frac {18K_{B}T}{\pi \rho _{p}{d_{p}}^{3}}}}}

text:
δ
=

π

d

p

3

6
∅

3

{\displaystyle \delta ={\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {\pi {d_{p}}^{3}}{6\varnothing }}}}

text:
C
=
{

(
−
1.133

d

p

−
2.771
)
∅
+
(
0.09

d

p

−
0.393
)

}
×

10

−
6

{\displaystyle C=\{{(-1.133d_{p}-2.771)\varnothing +(0.09d_{p}-0.393)}\}\times 10^{-6}}

text: Udawattha et al. model

text: Udawattha et al. modified the Masoumi et al. model. The developed model valid for suspension containing micro-size particles.[43]

text:
μ

n
f

=

μ

b
f

(

1
+
2.5

∅

e

+

ρ

p

V

B

d

p

2

72
δ
[
T
×

10

−
10

×

∅

−
0.002
T
−
0.284

]

)

{\displaystyle \mu _{nf}=\mu _{bf}{\Biggl (}1+2.5\varnothing _{e}+{\frac {\rho _{p}V_{B}{d_{p}}^{2}}{72\delta [T\times 10^{-10}\times \varnothing ^{-0.002T-0.284}]}}{\Biggr )}}

text:
∅

e

=
∅

(

1
+

h
r

)

3

{\displaystyle \varnothing _{e}=\varnothing {{\Biggl (}1+{\frac {h}{r}}{\Biggr )}}^{3}}

text: where

text: Amorphous materials[edit]

text: Viscous flow in amorphous materials (e.g. in glasses and melts)[45][46][47] is a thermally activated process:

text: where Q is activation energy, T is temperature, R is the molar gas constant and A is approximately a constant.

text: The viscous flow in amorphous materials is characterized by a deviation from the Arrhenius-type behavior: Q changes from a high value QH at low temperatures (in the glassy state) to a low value QL at high temperatures (in the liquid state). Depending on this change, amorphous materials are classified as either

text:
strong when: QH − QL < QL or
fragile when: QH − QL ≥ QL.

text: The fragility of amorphous materials is numerically characterized by Doremus' fragility ratio:

text: and strong materials have RD < 2 whereas fragile materials have RD ≥ 2.

text: The viscosity of amorphous materials is quite exactly described by a two-exponential equation:

text: with constants A1, A2, B, C and D related to thermodynamic parameters of joining bonds of an amorphous material.

text: Not very far from the glass transition temperature, Tg, this equation can be approximated by a Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann (VFT) equation.

text: If the temperature is significantly lower than the glass transition temperature, T ≪ Tg, then the two-exponential equation simplifies to an Arrhenius-type equation:

text: with

text: where Hd is the enthalpy of formation of broken bonds (termed configurons[48]) and Hm is the enthalpy of their motion.

text: When the temperature is less than the glass transition temperature, T < Tg, the activation energy of viscosity is high because the amorphous materials are in the glassy state and most of their joining bonds are intact.

text: If the temperature is much higher than the glass transition temperature, T ≫ Tg, the two-exponential equation also simplifies to an Arrhenius-type equation:

text: with

text: When the temperature is higher than the glass transition temperature, T > Tg, the activation energy of viscosity is low because amorphous materials are melted and have most of their joining bonds broken, which facilitates flow.

text: Eddy viscosity[edit]

text: In the study of turbulence in fluids, a common practical strategy for calculation is to ignore the small-scale vortices (or eddies) in the motion and to calculate a large-scale motion with an eddy viscosity that characterizes the transport and dissipation of energy in the smaller-scale flow (see large eddy simulation). Values of eddy viscosity used in modeling ocean circulation may be from 7004500000000000000♠5×104 to 7006100000000000000♠1×106 Pa·s depending upon the resolution of the numerical grid.


document_title: Hajra

question_text: what is the meaning of hajra in islam

question_tokens: what is the meaning of hajra in islam

text: Hajra

text: This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (February 2013)

text: Hajra (Arabic: هاجره) is a female given name. The origin of the name is Arabic 'هاجر' (Hagar). It is one of the spellings of Hagar, the second wife of Prophet Ibrahim (Abrahim) who born Ibraham's first son Ishmael. Although the origins of this name mean sunshine or sunlight, this name is the basis for Hajj, the (annual) pilgrimage to Mecca performed by Muslims.[1]

text: This is a common female first name used in the context of the Muslim South Asian diaspora.


document_title: IP address spoofing

question_text: what is the difference between an ip packet and an ip address

text: IP address spoofing

text: Background[edit]

text: The basic protocol for sending data over the Internet network and many other computer networks is the Internet Protocol (IP). The protocol specifies that each IP packet must have a header which contains, among other things, the IP address of the sender of the packet. The source IP address is normally the address that the packet was sent from, but the sender's address in the header can be altered, so that to the recipient it appears that the packet came from another source. The protocol requires the receiving computer to send back a response to the source address, so that spoofing is mainly used when the sender can anticipate the network response or does not care about the response.

text: Applications[edit]

text: IP spoofing involving the use of a trusted IP address can be used by network intruders to overcome network security measures, such as authentication based on IP addresses. This type of attack is most effective where trust relationships exist between machines. For example, it is common on some corporate networks to have internal systems trust each other, so that users can log in without a username or password provided they are connecting from another machine on the internal network (and so must already be logged in). By spoofing a connection from a trusted machine, an attacker on the same network may be able to access the target machine without authentication.

text: IP spoofing is most frequently used in denial-of-service attacks, where the objective is to flood the target with an overwhelming volume of traffic, and the attacker does not care about receiving responses to the attack packets. Packets with spoofed IP addresses are more difficult to filter since each spoofed packet appears to come from a different address, and they hide the true source of the attack. Denial of service attacks that use spoofing typically randomly choose addresses from the entire IP address space, though more sophisticated spoofing mechanisms might avoid unroutable addresses or unused portions of the IP address space. The proliferation of large botnets makes spoofing less important in denial of service attacks, but attackers typically have spoofing available as a tool, if they want to use it, so defenses against denial-of-service attacks that rely on the validity of the source IP address in attack packets might have trouble with spoofed packets. Backscatter, a technique used to observe denial-of-service attack activity in the Internet, relies on attackers' use of IP spoofing for its effectiveness.

text: Legitimate uses[edit]

text: Spoofed IP packets are not always evidence of malicious intent: in performance testing of websites, hundreds or even thousands of "vusers" (virtual users) may be created, each executing a test script against the website under test, in order to simulate what will happen when the system goes "live" and a large number of users log on at once.

text: Since each user will normally have its own IP address, commercial testing products (such as HP LoadRunner, WebLOAD, and others) can use IP spoofing, allowing each user its own "return address" as well.

text: Spoof and sniff for unhackable servers is used to record incoming information without exposing the server to an IP address binding or IP stack. One computer binds to the IP address and is exposed to hacking risks while the spoof and sniff servers actually send and receive data. The server with the IP address is usually rebooted from Read Only Media on a regular basis hence the term unhackable.

text: Services vulnerable to IP spoofing[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Configuration and services that are vulnerable to IP spoofing:

text:
RPC (Remote procedure call services)
Any service that uses IP address authentication
The X Window System
The R services suite (rlogin, rsh, etc.)

text: Defense against spoofing attacks[edit]

text: Packet filtering is one defense against IP spoofing attacks. The gateway to a network usually performs ingress filtering, which is blocking of packets from outside the network with a source address inside the network. This prevents an outside attacker spoofing the address of an internal machine. Ideally the gateway would also perform egress filtering on outgoing packets, which is blocking of packets from inside the network with a source address that is not inside. This prevents an attacker within the network performing filtering from launching IP spoofing attacks against external machines.

text: It is also recommended to design network protocols and services so that they do not rely on the IP source address for authentication.

text: Upper layers[edit]

text: Some upper layer protocols provide their own defense against IP spoofing attacks. For example, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) uses sequence numbers negotiated with the remote machine to ensure that arriving packets are part of an established connection. Since the attacker normally can't see any reply packets, the sequence number must be guessed in order to hijack the connection. The poor implementation in many older operating systems and network devices, however, means that TCP sequence numbers can be predicted.

text: Other definitions[edit]

text: The term spoofing is also sometimes used to refer to header forgery, the insertion of false or misleading information in e-mail or netnews headers. Falsified headers are used to mislead the recipient, or network applications, as to the origin of a message. This is a common technique of spammers and sporgers, who wish to conceal the origin of their messages to avoid being tracked down.


document_title: Counties of Trinidad and Tobago

question_text: how many counties are there in trinidad and tobago

text: Counties of Trinidad and Tobago

text: Historically, Trinidad was divided into eight counties, and these counties were subdivided into Wards. Tobago was administered as a Ward of County Saint David.

text:
Caroni
Mayaro
Nariva
Saint Andrew
Saint David
Saint George
Saint Patrick
Victoria

text: Prior to reform of the system in the early 1990s these counties functioned as the administrative bodies for Local Government with the following modifications:

text:
Saint George was divided into Saint George East, Saint George West, the City of Port of Spain and the Royal Borough of Arima.
The Borough (City after 1988) of San Fernando was separate from County Victoria.
After 1980 the Borough of Point Fortin was separated from the County Saint Patrick.
Saint Andrew and Saint David were combined under a single County Council.
Nariva and Mayaro were combined under a single County Council.
Since its establishment in 1980 the Tobago House of Assembly has gradually assumed many of the roles of the central government, in addition to those of local government.
Caroni was divided into Couva-Tabaquite-Talparo, The Borough of Chaguanas and Tunapuna-Piarco.

text: Counties and Wards still play a role in revenue collection by the government.


document_title: List of Star Trek: The Original Series episodes

question_text: when did star trek first air in the uk

question_tokens: when did star trek first air in the uk

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
29
September 8, 1966 (1966-09-08)
April 13, 1967 (1967-04-13)

2
26
September 15, 1967 (1967-09-15)
March 29, 1968 (1968-03-29)

3
24
September 20, 1968 (1968-09-20)
June 3, 1969 (1969-06-03)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Pilots (1964–65)[edit]

text: Star Trek's pilot episode, "The Cage", was completed between November 1964 and January 1965,[19] and starred Jeffrey Hunter as Captain Christopher Pike, Majel Barrett as Number One, and Leonard Nimoy as Spock. After the pilot was rejected by NBC as being "too cerebral" (among other complaints),[20] Jeffrey Hunter chose to withdraw from the role of Pike[21] when creator Gene Roddenberry was asked to produce a second pilot episode ("Where No Man Has Gone Before") of which an edited version of the same name aired in 1966.[22][23]

text: "The Cage" never aired during Star Trek's original run on NBC. It was presented by Roddenberry as a black-and-white workprint at various science fiction conventions over the years after Star Trek's cancellation but was not released on home video until 1986 when Paramount Home Video produced a "restored" release of "The Cage" (a combination of the original black-and-white footage and color portions of the Season 1 episode "The Menagerie") complete with an introduction by Gene Roddenberry.[24]

text: On October 4, 1988, Paramount Pictures aired a two-hour television special, hosted by Patrick Stewart, called The Star Trek Saga: From One Generation to the Next, which featured, for the first time, a full-color television presentation of "The Cage". In some markets, the special did not air until October 15, 1988.[24] In the United States, "The Cage" was first released to DVD in December 2001.[25] It was later included on the final disc in both the original and "remastered" Season 3 DVD box sets (listed with the original air date of October 15, 1988).[5][8][26]

text: The also planned-as-pilot "Where No Man Has Gone Before" in its original form (production number 02a) had been forwarded to NBC, but only a re-worked, re-edited, re-formatted, cut version was later aired under the same name, not as a pilot but as the third episode of the series (production number 02b). Afterwards, over the years the original "alternate" version was thought to be lost but later appeared as bootleg VHS tapes at conventions, until a print of it was discovered in 2009 and subsequently released on home video under the title "Where No Fan Has Gone Before" - The Restored, Unaired Alternate Pilot Episode as part of the TOS season 3 box set on Blu-ray;[27] it has not been released on DVD yet. This version remains unaired.

text:
Title
Stardate [11]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [24][26]
Prod.
code

"The Cage"
Unknown
Robert Butler
Gene Roddenberry
October 4, 1988 (1988-10-04)
01

The crew of the Enterprise follow a distress signal to the planet Talos IV, where Captain Pike is taken captive by a group of telepathic aliens. The events of this pilot are revisited in the two-part Season 1 episode "The Menagerie".[28]

"Where No Man Has Gone Before"
1312.4
James Goldstone
Samuel A. Peeples
Unaired (Unaired)
02a

After the Enterprise attempts to cross the Great Barrier at the edge of the galaxy, crew members Gary Mitchell and Elizabeth Dehner develop "godlike" psychic powers which threaten the safety of the crew.[28]

text: Season 1 (1966–67)[edit]

text: After Roddenberry's second pilot episode, "Where No Man Has Gone Before", received a more favorable response from NBC,[22][23] Star Trek finally aired its first episode—"The Man Trap"—at 8:30PM on September 8, 1966.[29] "Where No Man...", which eventually aired in a re-edited format as the series' third episode, retained only Spock as a character from "The Cage" but introduced William Shatner as Captain Kirk, James Doohan as chief engineer Scotty, and George Takei as physicist (later helmsman) Sulu. Also joining the cast were DeForest Kelley as ship's surgeon and Nichelle Nichols as the communications officer Uhura in "The Man Trap"; the first aired episode of the series.

text: Although her character of Number One was not retained from "The Cage", Majel Barrett returned to the show as a new character, nurse Christine Chapel, and made her first of many recurring appearances in "The Naked Time". Grace Lee Whitney appeared in eight episodes as yeoman Janice Rand, beginning with "The Man Trap". Whitney left the series after "The Conscience of the King",[22][30][31] but would later make minor appearances in the first, third, fourth, and sixth Trek films as well as one episode of the companion series Star Trek: Voyager.

text: Star Trek's first season comprised 29 episodes, including the two-part episode "The Menagerie", which includes much of the footage from the original pilot, "The Cage". Other notable episodes include "Balance of Terror", which introduces the Romulans; "Space Seed", which introduces Khan Noonien Singh and serves as the basis for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan; "Errand of Mercy", in which the Klingons make their first appearance; and the critically acclaimed,[32] Hugo-Award-winning episode[33] "The City on the Edge of Forever", which features Kirk, Spock, and McCoy traveling into the past through the Guardian of Forever.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Stardate [11]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [2]
Prod.
code

1
1
"The Man Trap"
1513.1
Marc Daniels
George Clayton Johnson
September 8, 1966 (1966-09-08)
06

2
2
"Charlie X"
1533.6
Lawrence Dobkin
Story by : Gene Roddenberry
Teleplay by : D. C. Fontana
September 15, 1966 (1966-09-15)
08

3
3
"Where No Man Has Gone Before"
1312.4
James Goldstone
Samuel A. Peeples
September 22, 1966 (1966-09-22)
02b

4
4
"The Naked Time"
1704.2
Marc Daniels
John D. F. Black
September 29, 1966 (1966-09-29)
07

5
5
"The Enemy Within"
1672.1
Leo Penn
Richard Matheson
October 6, 1966 (1966-10-06)
05

6
6
"Mudd's Women"
1329.8
Harvey Hart
Story by : Gene Roddenberry
Teleplay by : Stephen Kandel
October 13, 1966 (1966-10-13)
04

7
7
"What Are Little Girls Made Of?"
2712.4
James Goldstone
Robert Bloch
October 20, 1966 (1966-10-20)
10

8
8
"Miri"
2713.5
Vincent McEveety
Adrian Spies
October 27, 1966 (1966-10-27)
12

9
9
"Dagger of the Mind"
2715.1
Vincent McEveety
S. Bar-David
November 3, 1966 (1966-11-03)
11

10
10
"The Corbomite Maneuver"
1512.2
Joseph Sargent
Jerry Sohl
November 10, 1966 (1966-11-10)
03

11

12
11

12
"The Menagerie"
3012.4

3013.1
Marc Daniels

Robert Butler
Gene Roddenberry
November 17, 1966 (1966-11-17)

November 24, 1966 (1966-11-24)
16

13
13
"The Conscience of the King"
2817.6
Gerd Oswald
Barry Trivers
December 8, 1966 (1966-12-08)
13

14
14
"Balance of Terror"
1709.2
Vincent McEveety
Paul Schneider
December 15, 1966 (1966-12-15)
09

15
15
"Shore Leave"
3025.3
Robert Sparr
Theodore Sturgeon
December 29, 1966 (1966-12-29)
17

16
16
"The Galileo Seven"
2821.5
Robert Gist
Story by : Oliver Crawford
Teleplay by : Oliver Crawford and S. Bar-David
January 5, 1967 (1967-01-05)
14

17
17
"The Squire of Gothos"
2124.5
Don McDougall
Paul Schneider
January 12, 1967 (1967-01-12)
18

18
18
"Arena"
3045.6
Joseph Pevney
Story by : Fredric Brown
Teleplay by : Gene L. Coon
January 19, 1967 (1967-01-19)
19

19
19
"Tomorrow Is Yesterday"
3113.2
Michael O'Herlihy
D. C. Fontana
January 26, 1967 (1967-01-26)
21

20
20
"Court Martial"
2947.3
Marc Daniels
Story by : Don M. Mankiewicz
Teleplay by : Don M. Mankiewicz and Steven W. Carabatsos
February 2, 1967 (1967-02-02)
15

21
21
"The Return of the Archons"
3156.2
Joseph Pevney
Story by : Gene Roddenberry
Teleplay by : Boris Sobelman
February 9, 1967 (1967-02-09)
22

22
22
"Space Seed"
3141.9
Marc Daniels
Story by : Carey Wilber
Teleplay by : Gene L. Coon and Carey Wilber
February 16, 1967 (1967-02-16)
24

23
23
"A Taste of Armageddon"
3192.1
Joseph Pevney
Story by : Robert Hamner
Teleplay by : Robert Hamner and Gene L. Coon
February 23, 1967 (1967-02-23)
23

24
24
"This Side of Paradise"
3417.3–3417.7
Ralph Senensky
Story by : Nathan Butler[a] and D. C. Fontana
Teleplay by : D. C. Fontana
March 2, 1967 (1967-03-02)
25

25
25
"The Devil in the Dark"
3196.1
Joseph Pevney
Gene L. Coon
March 9, 1967 (1967-03-09)
26

26
26
"Errand of Mercy"
3198.4
John Newland
Gene L. Coon
March 23, 1967 (1967-03-23)
27

27
27
"The Alternative Factor"
3087.6
Gerd Oswald
Don Ingalls
March 30, 1967 (1967-03-30)
20

28
28
"The City on the Edge of Forever"
3134.0
Joseph Pevney
Harlan Ellison
April 6, 1967 (1967-04-06)
28

29
29
"Operation: Annihilate!"
3287.2
Herschel Daugherty
Steven W. Carabatsos
April 13, 1967 (1967-04-13)
29

text: Jump up ^ Nathan Butler is a pseudonym for Jerry Sohl.

tag: ol

text: Season 2 (1967–68)[edit]

text: The show's 26-episode second season began in September 1967[2] with "Amok Time", which introduced actor Walter Koenig as Russian navigator Pavel Chekov, and granted viewers the first glimpse of Spock's homeworld, Vulcan. The season also includes such notable episodes as "Mirror, Mirror", which introduces the evil "mirror universe"; "Journey to Babel", featuring the introduction of Spock's parents Sarek and Amanda; and the light-hearted "The Trouble with Tribbles", which would later be revisited in a 1973 episode of Star Trek: The Animated Series and a 1996 episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. The season ended with Assignment: Earth, an attempt to launch a spin-off television series set in the (then) present day.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Stardate [11]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [2]
Prod.
code

30
1
"Amok Time"
3372.7
Joseph Pevney
Theodore Sturgeon
September 15, 1967 (1967-09-15)
34

31
2
"Who Mourns for Adonais?"
3468.1
Marc Daniels
Gilbert Ralston
September 22, 1967 (1967-09-22)
33

32
3
"The Changeling"
3541.9
Marc Daniels
John Meredyth Lucas
September 29, 1967 (1967-09-29)
37

33
4
"Mirror, Mirror"
Unknown
Marc Daniels
Jerome Bixby
October 6, 1967 (1967-10-06)
39

34
5
"The Apple"
3715.3
Joseph Pevney
Story by : Max Ehrlich
Teleplay by : Max Ehrlich and Gene L. Coon
October 13, 1967 (1967-10-13)
38

35
6
"The Doomsday Machine"
4202.9
Marc Daniels
Norman Spinrad
October 20, 1967 (1967-10-20)
35

36
7
"Catspaw"
3018.2
Joseph Pevney
Robert Bloch
October 27, 1967 (1967-10-27)
30

37
8
"I, Mudd"
4513.3
Marc Daniels
Stephen Kandel
November 3, 1967 (1967-11-03)
41

38
9
"Metamorphosis"
3219.4
Ralph Senensky
Gene L. Coon
November 10, 1967 (1967-11-10)
31

39
10
"Journey to Babel"
3842.3
Joseph Pevney
D. C. Fontana
November 17, 1967 (1967-11-17)
44

40
11
"Friday's Child"
3497.2
Joseph Pevney
D. C. Fontana
December 1, 1967 (1967-12-01)
32

41
12
"The Deadly Years"
3478.2
Joseph Pevney
David P. Harmon
December 8, 1967 (1967-12-08)
40

42
13
"Obsession"
3619.2
Ralph Senensky
Art Wallace
December 15, 1967 (1967-12-15)
47

43
14
"Wolf in the Fold"
3614.9
Joseph Pevney
Robert Bloch
December 22, 1967 (1967-12-22)
36

44
15
"The Trouble with Tribbles"
4523.3
Joseph Pevney
David Gerrold
December 29, 1967 (1967-12-29)
42

45
16
"The Gamesters of Triskelion"
3211.8
Gene Nelson
Margaret Armen
January 5, 1968 (1968-01-05)
46

46
17
"A Piece of the Action"
4598.0
James Komack
Story by : David P. Harmon
Teleplay by : David P. Harmon and Gene L. Coon
January 12, 1968 (1968-01-12)
49

47
18
"The Immunity Syndrome"
4307.1
Joseph Pevney
Robert Sabaroff
January 19, 1968 (1968-01-19)
48

48
19
"A Private Little War"
4211.4
Marc Daniels
Story by : Jud Crucis[a]
Teleplay by : Gene Roddenberry
February 2, 1968 (1968-02-02)
45

49
20
"Return to Tomorrow"
4768.3
Ralph Senensky
John Kingsbridge[b]
February 9, 1968 (1968-02-09)
51

50
21
"Patterns of Force"
2534.0
Vincent McEveety
John Meredyth Lucas
February 16, 1968 (1968-02-16)
52

51
22
"By Any Other Name"
4657.5
Marc Daniels
Story by : Jerome Bixby
Teleplay by : D. C. Fontana and Jerome Bixby
February 23, 1968 (1968-02-23)
50

52
23
"The Omega Glory"
Unknown
Vincent McEveety
Gene Roddenberry
March 1, 1968 (1968-03-01)
54

53
24
"The Ultimate Computer"
4729.4
John Meredyth Lucas
Story by : Laurence N. Wolfe
Teleplay by : D. C. Fontana
March 8, 1968 (1968-03-08)
53

54
25
"Bread and Circuses"
4040.7
Ralph Senensky
Gene Roddenberry and Gene L. Coon
March 15, 1968 (1968-03-15)
43

55
26
"Assignment: Earth"
Unknown
Marc Daniels
Story by : Gene Roddenberry and Art Wallace
Teleplay by : Art Wallace
March 29, 1968 (1968-03-29)
55

text:
Jump up ^ Jud Crucis is a pseudonym for Don Ingalls.
Jump up ^ John Kingsbridge is the pen name for John T. Dugan.

text: Season 3 (1968–69)[edit]

text: After Star Trek's second season, NBC was prepared to cancel the show due to low ratings.[34][35] Led by fans Bjo and John Trimble, Trek viewers inundated NBC with letters protesting the show's demise and pleading the network to renew the series for another year.[35][36] After NBC agreed to produce a third season, the network promised Gene Roddenberry that the show would air in a favorable timeslot (Mondays at 7:30 PM),[34][35] but later changed the schedule so that Trek would air in the so-called "death slot" — Friday nights at 10:00PM.[34][37] In addition to the "mismanaged"[35] schedule, the show's budget was "seriously slashed"[34] and Nichelle Nichols described the series' eventual cancellation as "a self-fulfilling prophecy".[38]

text: Star Trek's final, 24-episode season began in September 1968 with "Spock's Brain".[2] The third season also includes "The Tholian Web", where Kirk becomes trapped between universes; this episode would later be revisited by two 2005 episodes of the prequel series Star Trek: Enterprise. The last episode of the series, "Turnabout Intruder", aired on June 3, 1969,[2] but Star Trek would eventually return to television in animated form when the animated Star Trek debuted in September 1973.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Stardate [11]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [2]
Prod.
code

56
1
"Spock's Brain"
5431.4
Marc Daniels
Lee Cronin[a]
September 20, 1968 (1968-09-20)
61

57
2
"The Enterprise Incident"
5027.3
John Meredyth Lucas
D. C. Fontana
September 27, 1968 (1968-09-27)
59

58
3
"The Paradise Syndrome"
4842.6
Jud Taylor
Margaret Armen
October 4, 1968 (1968-10-04)
58

59
4
"And the Children Shall Lead"
5029.5
Marvin Chomsky
Edward J. Lakso
October 11, 1968 (1968-10-11)
60

60
5
"Is There in Truth No Beauty?"
5630.7
Ralph Senensky
Jean Lisette Aroeste
October 18, 1968 (1968-10-18)
62

61
6
"Spectre of the Gun"
4385.3
Vincent McEveety
Lee Cronin[a]
October 25, 1968 (1968-10-25)
56

62
7
"Day of the Dove"
5630.3
Marvin Chomsky
Jerome Bixby
November 1, 1968 (1968-11-01)
66

63
8
"For the World Is Hollow and I Have Touched the Sky"
5476.3
Tony Leader
Rik Vollaerts
November 8, 1968 (1968-11-08)
65

64
9
"The Tholian Web"
5693.2
Herb Wallerstein
Judy Burns and Chet Richards
November 15, 1968 (1968-11-15)
64

65
10
"Plato's Stepchildren"
5784.2
David Alexander
Meyer Dolinsky
November 22, 1968 (1968-11-22)
67

66
11
"Wink of an Eye"
5710.5
Jud Taylor
Story by : Lee Cronin[a]
Teleplay by : Arthur Heinemann
November 29, 1968 (1968-11-29)
68

67
12
"The Empath"
5121.5
John Erman
Joyce Muskat
December 6, 1968 (1968-12-06)
63

68
13
"Elaan of Troyius"
4372.5
John Meredyth Lucas
John Meredyth Lucas
December 20, 1968 (1968-12-20)
57

69
14
"Whom Gods Destroy"
5718.3
Herb Wallerstein
Story by : Lee Erwin and Jerry Sohl
Teleplay by : Lee Erwin
January 3, 1969 (1969-01-03)
71

70
15
"Let That Be Your Last Battlefield"
5730.2
Jud Taylor
Story by : Lee Cronin[a]
Teleplay by : Oliver Crawford
January 10, 1969 (1969-01-10)
70

71
16
"The Mark of Gideon"
5423.4
Jud Taylor
George F. Slavin and Stanley Adams
January 17, 1969 (1969-01-17)
72

72
17
"That Which Survives"
Unknown
Herb Wallerstein
Story by : Michael Richards[b]
Teleplay by : John Meredyth Lucas
January 24, 1969 (1969-01-24)
69

73
18
"The Lights of Zetar"
5725.3
Herb Kenwith
Jeremy Tarcher and Shari Lewis
January 31, 1969 (1969-01-31)
73

74
19
"Requiem for Methuselah"
5843.7
Murray Golden
Jerome Bixby
February 14, 1969 (1969-02-14)
76

75
20
"The Way to Eden"
5832.3
David Alexander
Story by : Michael Richards[b] and Arthur Heinemann
Teleplay by : Arthur Heinemann
February 21, 1969 (1969-02-21)
75

76
21
"The Cloud Minders"
5818.4
Jud Taylor
Story by : David Gerrold and Oliver Crawford
Teleplay by : Margaret Armen
February 28, 1969 (1969-02-28)
74

77
22
"The Savage Curtain"
5906.4
Herschel Daugherty
Story by : Gene Roddenberry
Teleplay by : Arthur Heinemann and Gene Roddenberry
March 7, 1969 (1969-03-07)
77

78
23
"All Our Yesterdays"
5943.7
Marvin Chomsky
Jean Lisette Aroeste
March 14, 1969 (1969-03-14)
78

79
24
"Turnabout Intruder"
5928.5
Herb Wallerstein
Story by : Gene Roddenberry
Teleplay by : Arthur Singer
June 3, 1969 (1969-06-03)
79

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lee Cronin is a pseudonym for Gene L. Coon.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Richards is a pseudonym for D. C. Fontana.

text: Production order[edit]

text: The list below details the series' episodes in production order, including the original series pilot, "The Cage". While the "complete season" DVD releases (listed above) follow the original broadcast order, the original episodic DVD releases[10] are numbered by production order.[39]

text:
Pilots

01
"The Cage"

02a
"Where No Man Has Gone Before"

text:
Season 1

02b
"Where No Man Has Gone Before"

03
"The Corbomite Maneuver"

04
"Mudd's Women"

05
"The Enemy Within"

06
"The Man Trap"

07
"The Naked Time"

08
"Charlie X"

09
"Balance of Terror"

10
"What Are Little Girls Made Of?"

11
"Dagger of the Mind"

12
"Miri"

13
"The Conscience of the King"

14
"The Galileo Seven"

15
"Court Martial"

16
"The Menagerie, Parts I and II"

17
"Shore Leave"

18
"The Squire of Gothos"

19
"Arena"

20
"The Alternative Factor"

21
"Tomorrow Is Yesterday"

22
"The Return of the Archons"

23
"A Taste of Armageddon"

24
"Space Seed"

25
"This Side of Paradise"

26
"The Devil in the Dark"

27
"Errand of Mercy"

28
"The City on the Edge of Forever"

29
"Operation: Annihilate!"

text:
Season 2

30
"Catspaw"

31
"Metamorphosis"

32
"Friday's Child"

33
"Who Mourns for Adonais?"

34
"Amok Time"

35
"The Doomsday Machine"

36
"Wolf in the Fold"

37
"The Changeling"

38
"The Apple"

39
"Mirror, Mirror"

40
"The Deadly Years"

41
"I, Mudd"

42
"The Trouble With Tribbles"

43
"Bread and Circuses"

44
"Journey to Babel"

45
"A Private Little War"

46
"The Gamesters of Triskelion"

47
"Obsession"

48
"The Immunity Syndrome"

49
"A Piece of the Action"

50
"By Any Other Name"

51
"Return to Tomorrow"

52
"Patterns of Force"

53
"The Ultimate Computer"

54
"The Omega Glory"

55
"Assignment: Earth"

text:
Season 3

56
"Spectre of the Gun"

57
"Elaan of Troyius"

58
"The Paradise Syndrome"

59
"The Enterprise Incident"

60
"And the Children Shall Lead"

61
"Spock's Brain"

62
"Is There in Truth No Beauty?"

63
"The Empath"

64
"The Tholian Web"

65
"For the World Is Hollow and I Have Touched the Sky"

66
"Day of the Dove"

67
"Plato's Stepchildren"

68
"Wink of an Eye"

69
"That Which Survives"

70
"Let That Be Your Last Battlefield"

71
"Whom Gods Destroy"

72
"The Mark of Gideon"

73
"The Lights of Zetar"

74
"The Cloud Minders"

75
"The Way to Eden"

76
"Requiem for Methuselah"

77
"The Savage Curtain"

78
"All Our Yesterdays"

79
"Turnabout Intruder"

text: British transmission[edit]

text: Star Trek was first broadcast in the UK on BBC One starting on July 12, 1969 with the episode "Where No Man Has Gone Before". The first episode broadcast in color was "Arena" on November 15, 1969. The running order was very different from the US original with the episodes being shown in four seasons between 1969 and 1971. The Cage was first transmitted on Sky One in July 1990 and three episodes, "Plato's Stepchildren", "The Empath" and "Whom Gods Destroy" were not broadcast on the BBC until early 1994. Sky One were the first to show them in their run that started in 1990 (though Sky were supplied with the BBC edited versions of the series) and tellingly the three "banned" episodes were the only ones that had the opening titles in the right place, having never been shown by the BBC although "The Empath" is listed for transmission on Wednesday December 16, 1970 at 7.20pm in the Radio Times.[40]

text: The BBC broadcast versions of the episodes differed from the way they had been shown in America. The opening elements of each episode were transposed so that the title sequence was the first thing seen, followed by the teaser, and then into the rest of the episode without a pause. These prints were used up until the 1990s but for their new run the BBC were supplied with NTSC tape transfers instead of new film prints. This resulted in the odd blurry appearance that viewers were getting used to on new US shows at the time. Season one was shown and at least some episodes had edits that matched the syndication cuts of the US episodes "The Menagerie" Part 1 for instance. Viewers complained and the BBC obtained film prints from season two, although for some reason the old edited version of "The Deadly Years" was shown in the first '90s repeat.


document_title: List of African-American United States Senators

question_text: who was the first black republican elected to us senate

text: List of African-American Senators of the United States[edit]

text: Democratic   Republican

text:
Senator
State
Took office
Left office
Party
Congress
Ref.
Note

Hiram Rhodes Revels
(1827–1901)
Mississippi
000000001870-02-25-0000February 25, 1870
000000001871-03-03-0000March 3, 1871
Republican
41st
(1869–1871)
[13][14]
[note 1]

Blanche Bruce
(1841–1898)
Mississippi
000000001875-03-04-0000March 4, 1875
000000001881-03-03-0000March 3, 1881
Republican
44th
(1875–1877)
[15][16]
[note 2]

45th
(1877–1879)

46th
(1879–1881)

Edward Brooke
(1919–2015)
Massachusetts
000000001967-01-03-0000January 3, 1967
000000001979-01-03-0000January 3, 1979
Republican
90th
(1967–1969)
[17]
[note 3]

91st
(1969–1971)

92nd
(1971–1973)

93rd
(1973–1975)

94th
(1975–1977)

95th
(1977–1979)

Carol Moseley Braun
(born 1947)
Illinois
000000001993-01-03-0000January 3, 1993
000000001999-01-03-0000January 3, 1999
Democratic
103rd
(1993–1995)
[18][19]
[note 4]

104th
(1995–1997)

105th
(1997–1999)

Barack Obama
(born 1961)
Illinois
000000002005-01-03-0000January 3, 2005
000000002008-11-16-0000November 16, 2008
Democratic
109th
(2005–2007)
[5][20]
[note 5]

110th
(2007–2009)

Roland Burris
(born 1937)
Illinois
000000002009-01-15-0000January 15, 2009
000000002010-11-29-0000November 29, 2010
Democratic
111th
(2009–2011)
[6]
[note 6]

Tim Scott
(born 1965)
South Carolina
000000002013-01-02-0000January 2, 2013
Incumbent
Republican
112th
(2011–2013)
[21][22]
[note 7]

113th
(2013–2015)

114th
(2015–2017)

115th
(2017–2019)

Mo Cowan
(born 1969)
Massachusetts
000000002013-02-01-0000February 1, 2013
000000002013-07-16-0000July 16, 2013
Democratic
113th
(2013–2015)
[23][24]
[note 8]

Cory Booker
(born 1969)
New Jersey
000000002013-10-31-0000October 31, 2013
Incumbent
Democratic
113th
(2013–2015)
[7][25][26]
[note 9]

114th
(2015–2017)

115th
(2017–2019)

Kamala Harris
(born 1964)
California
000000002017-01-03-0000January 3, 2017
Incumbent
Democratic
115th
(2017–2019)
[8]
[note 10]

text: African Americans elected to the United States Senate, but not seated[edit]

text: Republican

text:
Senator
State
Party
Congress
Ref.
Note

P. B. S. Pinchback
(1837–1921)
Louisiana
Republican
44th
(1875–1877)
[27]
[note 11]