document_title: Selective Service System

question_text: who is exempt from registering for selective service

text: Selective Service System

text: History[edit]

text: 1917 to 1920[edit]

text: Owing to very slow enlistment following the U.S. declaration of war against Germany on April 6, the Selective Service Act of 1917 (40 Stat. 76) was passed by the 65th United States Congress on May 18, 1917, creating the Selective Service System to raise an army to fight in Europe.[10] The Act gave the President the power to conscript men for military service. All men aged 21 to 30 were required to register for military service for a service period of 12 months. As of mid-November 1917, all registrants were placed in one of five new classifications. Men in Class I were the first to be drafted, and men in lower classifications were deferred. Dependency deferments for registrants who were fathers or husbands were especially widespread.[11] The age limit was later raised in August 1918 to a maximum age of 45. The military draft was discontinued in 1920.

text: 1940 to 1947[edit]

text:
Conflict
Dates active
Number of wartime draftees[12]

World War I
September 1917 – November 1918
2,810,296

World War II
November 1940 – October 1946
10,110,104

Korean War
June 1950 – June 1953
1,529,539

Vietnam War
August 1964 – February 1973
1,857,304

text: The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was passed by Congress on September 16, 1940, establishing the first peacetime conscription in United States history.[13] It required all men between the ages of 18 to 64 to register with Selective Service. It originally conscripted all men aged 21 to 35 for a service period of 12 months. In 1941 the military service period was extended to 18 months; later that year the age bracket was increased to include men aged 18 to 37. Following the sneak Japanese air raid attack on Pearl Harbor on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, and the subsequent declarations of war by the United States against the Empire of Japan and then a few days later against Nazi Germany, the service period was subsequently extended in early 1942 to last for the duration of the war plus a six-month service in the Organized Reserves.

text: The Selective Service System created by the 1940 Act was terminated by the Act of March 31, 1947.[14][15]

text: 1948 to 1969[edit]

text: The Selective Service Act of 1948, enacted in June of that year, created a new and separate system, the basis for the modern system.[15] All men 18 years and older had to register with Selective Service. All men between the ages of 19 to 26 were eligible to be drafted for a service requirement of 21 months. This was followed by a commitment for either 12 consecutive months of active service or 36 consecutive months of service in the reserves, with a statutory term of military service set at a minimum of five years total. Conscripts could volunteer for military service in the Regular United States Army for a term of four years or the Organized Reserves for a term of six years. Due to deep postwar budget cuts, only 100,000 conscripts were chosen in 1948. In 1950, the number of conscripts was greatly increased to meet the demands of the Korean War (1950–1953).

text: The outbreak of the Korean War fostered the creation of the Universal Military Training and Service Act of 1951 (Selective Service Act of 1948). This lowered the draft age from 19 to 18 1⁄2, increased active-duty service time from 21 to 24 months, and set the statutory term of military service at a minimum of eight years. Students attending a college or training program full-time could request an exemption, which was extended as long as they were students. A Universal Military Training clause was inserted that would have made all men obligated to perform 12 months of military service and training if the Act was amended by later legislation. Despite successive attempts over the next several years, however, such legislation was never passed.

text: 35th President John F. Kennedy set up Executive Order 11119 (signed on September 10, 1963), granting an exemption from conscription for married men between the ages of 19 and 26. His Vice President and successor as 36th President Lyndon B. Johnson later rescinded the exemption for married men without children by Executive Order 11241 (signed on August 26, 1965 and going into effect on midnight of that date). However, married men with children or other dependents and men married before the Executive Order went into effect were still exempt. 40th President Ronald Reagan revoked both of them with Executive Order 12553 (signed on February 25, 1986).

text: The Military Selective Service Act of 1967 (Selective Service Act of 1948) expanded the ages of conscription to the ages of 18 to 35. It still granted student deferments, but ended them upon either the student's completion of a four-year degree or his 24th birthday, whichever came first.

text: 1969 to 1975[edit]

text: On November 26, 1969, 37th President Richard Nixon signed an amendment to the Military Selective Service Act of 1967 (Selective Service Act of 1948) that established conscription based on random selection (lottery).[16] The first draft lottery was held on December 1, 1969; it determined the order of call for induction during calendar year 1970, for registrants born between January 1, 1944, and December 31, 1950.[17] The second lottery, on July 1, 1970, pertained to men born in 1951. The highest lottery number called for possible induction was 125.[18] The third was on August 5, 1971, pertaining to men born in 1952; the highest lottery number called was 95.[19]

text: In 1971, the Military Selective Service Act (Selective Service Act of 1948) was further amended to make registration compulsory; all men had to register within a period 30 days before and 29 days after their 18th birthday. Registrants were classified 1-A (eligible for military service), 1-AO (Conscientious Objector available for non-combatant military service), and 1-O (Conscientious Objector available for alternate community service). Student deferments were ended, except for divinity students, who received a 2-D Selective Service classification. Men which were not classifiable as eligible for service due to a disqualification were classified 1-N. Men who are incapable of serving for medical or psychological unfitness are classified 4-F. Draft classifications of 1-A were changed to 1-H (registrant not currently subject to processing for induction) for men not selected for service after the calendar year they were eligible for the draft. Also, draft board membership requirements were reformed: minimum age of board members was dropped from 30 to 18, members over 65 or who had served on the board for 20 or more years had to retire, and membership had to proportionally reflect the ethnic and cultural makeup of the local community.

text: The seventh and final lottery drawing was held on March 12, 1975, pertaining to men born in 1956, who would have been called to report for induction in 1976.[20] But no new draft orders were issued after 1972.[21] On January 27, 1973, Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird announced the creation of an all-volunteer armed forces, negating the need for the military draft.[22]

text: On March 29, 1975, 38th President Gerald R. Ford, whose own son, Steven Ford, had earlier failed to register for the draft as required,[23] signed Proclamation 4360 (Terminating Registration Procedures Under Military Selective Service Act), eliminating the registration requirement for all 18- to 25-year-old male citizens.[24]

text: 1980 to present[edit]

text: On July 2, 1980, 39th President Jimmy Carter signed Proclamation 4771 (Registration Under the Military Selective Service Act) in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the previous year of 1979,[25] retroactively re-establishing the Selective Service registration requirement for all 18- to 26-year-old male citizens born on or after January 1, 1960.[26] As a result, only men born between March 29, 1957, and December 31, 1959, were completely exempt from Selective Service registration.[27]

text: The first registrations after Proclamation 4771 took place at various post offices across the nation on July 21, 1980, for men born in calendar year 1960. Pursuant to the Presidential proclamation, all those men born in 1960 were required to register that week. Men born in 1961 were required to register the following week. Men born in 1962 were required to register during the week beginning January 5, 1981. Men born in 1963 and after were required to register within 30 days after their 18th birthday.[26]

text: In 2014, due to a clerical error at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, information about 14,250 men born in the years 1893–97 (in addition to 1993–97) was provided to the Selective Service System. Draft registration notices were then sent to the men.[28]

text: A bill to abolish the Selective Service System was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on February 10, 2016.[29] H.R. 4523 would (a) end draft registration and eliminate the authority of the President to order anyone to register for the draft, (b) abolish the Selective Service System, and (c) effectively repeal the "Solomon Amendments" making registration for the draft a condition of Federal student aid, jobs, and job training. The bill would leave in place, however, laws in some states making registration for the draft a condition of some state benefits.[30] On June 9, 2016, a similar bill was introduced in the United States Senate, called the "Muhammad Ali Voluntary Service Act".[31]

text: On April 27, 2016, the House Armed Services Committee voted to add an amendment[32] to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017[33] to extend the authority for draft registration to women. On May 12, 2016, the Senate Armed Services Committee voted to add a similar provision to its version of the bill.[34] If the bill including this provision would have been enacted into law, it would authorize (but not require) the President to order young women as well as young men to register with the Selective Service System.[35]

text: Who must register[edit]

text: Under current law, all male US citizens between 18–25 years of age are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday. In addition, non-US citizen men between the ages of 18 and 25 (inclusive) living in the United States must register. This includes permanent residents, refugees, asylum seekers, and illegal aliens.[2] Foreign men lawfully present in the United States who are non-immigrants, such as international students, visitors, and diplomats, are not required to register.[2] Aliens on lawful non-immigrant status are not required to register so long as they remain in that status. If an alien's non-immigrant status lapses while he is in the United States, he will be required to register.[36] Failure to register as required is grounds for denying a petition for US citizenship. Currently, citizens who are 17 and 3 months old can pre-register so when they turn 18 their information will automatically be added into the system.

text: In the current registration system, a man cannot indicate that he is a conscientious objector (CO) to war when registering, but he can make such a claim when being drafted. Some men choose to write on the registration card "I am a conscientious objector to war" to document their conviction, even though the government will not have such a classification until there is a draft.[37] A number of private organizations have programs for conscientious objectors to file a written record stating their beliefs.[38][39][40][41][42]

text: In 1987, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care occupation" in case such a special-skills draft should be ordered by Congress. In response, the Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System" (HCPDS) in 1989, and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999.[43] The HCPDS plans include women and men age 20–54 in 57 job categories.[44]

text: Women as well as female-to-male transgender individuals who identify as male or have had sexual reassignment surgery are not required to register.[45] Failure to register can cause problems such as denial of Pell Grants, even when registration would not have been allowed.[46]

text: Until their 26th birthday, registered men must notify Selective Service within 10 days of any changes to information regarding his status, such as name, current mailing address, permanent residence address, and "all information concerning his status ... which the classifying authority mails him a request therefor."[4][47]

text: Failure to register[edit]

text:
Year
Total draftees[12]

World War I

1917
516,212

1918
2,294,084

World War II

1940
18,633

1941
923,842

1942
3,033,361

1943
3,323,970

1944
1,591,942

1945
945,862

Post-World War II

1946
183,383

1947
0

1948
20,348

1949
9,781

Korean War

1950
219,771

1951
551,806

1952
438,479

1953
473,806

Post-Korean War

1954
253,230

1955
152,777

1956
137,940

1957
138,504

1958
142,246

1959
96,143

1960
86,602

1961
118,586

1962
82,060

1963
119,265

Vietnam War

1964
112,386

1965
230,991

1966
382,010

1967
228,263

1968
296,406

1969
283,586

1970
162,746

1971
94,092

1972
49,514

1973
646

text: In 1980, men who knew they were required to register and did not do so could face up to five years in prison and/or a fine up to $50,000 if convicted. The potential fine was later increased to $250,000. Despite these possible penalties, government records indicate that from 1980 through 1986 there were only 20 indictments, of which 19 were instigated in part by self-publicized and self-reported non-registration.[48]

text: A principal element for conviction under the Act is proving a violation of the Act was intentional, i.e. knowing and willful. In the opinion of legal experts, this is almost impossible to prove unless there is evidence of a prospective defendant knowing about his obligation to register and intentionally chosing not to do so. Or, for example, when there is evidence the government at any time provided notice to the prospective defendant to register or report for induction, he was given an opportunity to comply, and the prospective defendant chose not to do so.

text: The last prosecution for non-registration was in January 1986. In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of non-registrants.[49] No law since 1980 has required anyone to possess, carry, or show a draft card, and routine checks requiring identification virtually never include a request for a draft card.

text: As an alternative method of encouraging or coercing registration, laws were passed requiring that in order to receive financial aid, federal grants and loans, certain government benefits, eligibility for most federal employment, and (if the person is an immigrant) eligibility for citizenship, a young man had to be registered (or had to have been registered, if they are over 26 but were required to register between 18 and 26) with Selective Service. Those who were required to register, but failed to do so before they turn 26, are no longer allowed to register, and thus may be permanently barred from federal jobs and other benefits, unless they can show to the Selective Service that their failure was not knowing and willful.[7] There is a procedure to provide an "information letter" to the Selective Service for those in these situations, for example recent citizens who entered the US after their 26th birthday.[50]

text: Most states, as well as the District of Columbia, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Virgin Islands, have passed laws requiring registration for men 18–25 to be eligible for programs that vary on a per-jurisdiction basis but typically include driver's licenses, state-funded higher education benefits, and state government jobs.[51] Alaska also requires registration to receive an Alaska Permanent Fund dividend.[51] Eight states (Connecticut, Indiana, Nebraska, Oregon, Vermont, Washington, and Wyoming) as well as Puerto Rico have no such requirements, though Indiana does give men 18–25 the option of registering with Selective Service when obtaining a drivers license or an identification card.[51] The Department of Motor Vehicles of 27 states and 2 territories automatically register young men 18–25 with the Selective Service whenever they apply for driver licenses, learner permits, or non-driver identification cards.[52][53]

text: There are some third-party organized efforts to compensate financial aid for those students losing benefits, including the Fund for Education and Training (FEAT) and Student Aid Fund for Non-registrants.[54][55]

text: Alien or dual-national registrant status[edit]

text: Some registrants are not U.S. citizens, or have dual nationality of the U.S. and another country; they fall instead into one of the following categories:

text:
Alien or Dual National: An alien is a person who is not a citizen of the United States. A dual national is a person who is a citizen of the United States and another country. They are defined in four classes.

A registrant who has resided in the United States for less than one year. When two or more periods of U.S. residency are involved which total one year or more, the registrant will be deemed to have resided in the United States for one year and will be ineligible for Class 4-C. In computing the length of such periods, any portion of one day shall be counted as a day. He will be eligible for this class only until he has resided in the United States for one year. To support this claim he must submit his Immigration and Naturalization Service Form 1-151 (Alien Registration Receipt Card), showing his date of entry into the United States. If he has resided in the United States for two or more periods, he must furnish documentation for each period of residence. A registrant who receives this classification will be exempt from military training and service during his first year's residence in the US, but will become liable for service following his cumulative one year residence.
A registrant who left the United States before his Order to Report for Induction was issued and whose order has not been canceled. He may be classified in Class 4-C only for the period he resides outside of the United States. Upon his return to the United States, he must report the date of return and his current address to the Selective Service Area Office.
A registrant who registered at a time required by Selective Service law and thereafter acquired status within one of its groups of persons exempt from registration. He will be eligible for this class only during the period of his exempt status. To support this claim, the registrant must submit documentation from the diplomatic agency of the country of which he is a subject verifying his exempt status.
A registrant, lawfully admitted for permanent residence, as defined in Paragraph (2) of Section 101(a) of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, as amended (66 Stat. 163, 8 U.S.C. 1101) who, by reason of their occupational status, is subject to adjustment to non-immigrant status under paragraph (15)(A), (15)(E), or (15)(G) or section 101(a). In this case, the person must also have executed a waiver of all rights, privileges, exemptions, and immunities which would otherwise accrue to him as a result of his occupational status. To support this claim, the registrant must submit documentation from the diplomatic agency of the country of which he is a subject verifying his occupational status.

Dual national: The person is a citizen of both the United States and another country at the same time. The country must be one that allows its citizens dual citizenship and the registrant must be able to obtain and produce the proper papers to affirm this status.[56]
Treaty alien: Due to a treaty or international arrangement with the alien's country of origin, the registrant can choose to be ineligible for military training and service in the armed forces of the United States. However, once this exemption is taken, he can never apply for U.S. citizenship and may become inadmissible to reenter the U.S. after leaving[57] unless he already served in the Armed Forces of a foreign country of which the alien was a national.[58] Nevertheless, an alien who establishes clear and convincing evidence of certain factors may still override this kind of bar to naturalization.[59]

text: Legal issues[edit]

text: The Selective Service System is authorized by the Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution which says Congress "shall have Power To ... raise and support Armies [and] To provide and maintain a Navy;" The Selective Service Act is the law which established the Selective Service System under these provisions.

text: The act has been challenged in light of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which prohibits "involuntary servitude".[60] These challenges, however, have not been supported by the courts; as the Supreme Court stated in Butler v. Perry (1916):

text: The amendment was adopted with reference to conditions existing since the foundation of our government, and the term 'involuntary servitude' was intended to cover those forms of compulsory labor akin to African slavery which, in practical operation, would tend to produce like undesirable results. It introduced no novel doctrine with respect of services always treated as exceptional, and certainly was not intended to interdict enforcement of those duties which individuals owe to the state, such as services in the army, militia, on the jury, etc.[61]

text: During the First World War, the Supreme Court ruled in Arver v. United States (1918), also known as the Selective Draft Law Cases, that the draft did not violate the Constitution.[62]

text: Later, during the Vietnam War, a federal appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional in Holmes v. United States (1968).[63]

text: Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the constitutionality of the "Solomon Amendment", which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal" non-registrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of non-registrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for non-registrants.[64]

text: Exemption of women[edit]

text: Selective Service law as it is written now refers specifically to "male persons" in stating who must register and who would be drafted. For women to be required to register with the Selective Service, Congress would have to amend the law, which currently exempts women from registration.[65]

text: The constitutionality of excluding women was decided in 1981 by the United States Supreme Court in Rostker v. Goldberg, with the Court holding that requiring only men to register did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.

text: The existence of the combat restrictions clearly indicates the basis for Congress' decision to exempt women from registration. The purpose of registration was to prepare for a draft of combat troops. Since women are excluded from combat, Congress concluded that they would not be needed in the event of a draft, and therefore decided not to register them.[66]

text: At the request of President Bill Clinton, the Department of Defense reviewed the issue in 1994, noting that because women are excluded by policy from front-line combat positions, excluding them from the draft process remains justifiable in DoD's view. Although no conclusions were reached, DoD recognized that policies regarding women need to be reviewed periodically because the role of women in the military continues to expand. The Selective Service System takes the position that it would be able to register and draft women with its existing infrastructure, if given the mission and additional funding.[65]

text: On January 23, 2013, the Pentagon decided to end its policy of excluding women from combat positions. Military and legal analysts speculate that this will open the door for Congress to begin the process to amend the law and remove the exemption from registration requirements.[67][68] In July 2015, a 17-year-old girl in New Jersey sued the Selective Service System for the right to register for the draft.[69]

text: The National Coalition for Men has filed a lawsuit that challenges the legality of requiring only men to register for the military draft.[70][71] The lawsuit was filed against the U.S. Selective Service System in the United States District Court for the Central District of California on April 4, 2013, Case Number 2:13-cv-02391-DSF-MAN.[72] The case was dismissed on July 29, 2013,[73] and the NCFM filed for appeal on June 25, 2014 in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.[74] Oral argument before a 3-judge panel of the Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit was held on December 8, 2015.[75] On February 19, 2016, the 9th Circuit reversed the decision of the District Court on the issue of ripeness, and remanded the case for further proceedings on standing and the other issues.[76] Another case challenging the Constitutionality of male-only draft registration, Kyle v. Selective Service System, is pending in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey.[77]

text: Bills have been introduced in Congress or announced as planned to be introduced to require women to register whenever the President orders women to register, to prohibit the President from ordering women to register, and to repeal the Military Selective Service Act and thereby eliminate the authority of the President to order anyone to register.[78][79][80]

text: On June 15, 2016, the United States Senate passed a bill to include women in Selective Service registration.[81] 2016 Democratic candidate for President Hillary Clinton announced her support for the measure.[82]

text: Structure and operation[edit]

text: The Selective Service System is an independent federal agency within the Executive Branch of the federal government of the United States. The Director of the Selective Service System reports directly to the President of the United States.[83]

text: During peacetime, the agency comprises a National Headquarters, three Regional Headquarters and a Data Management Center. Even during peacetime, the agency is also aided by 11,000 volunteers serving on local boards and district appeal boards.[84] During a mobilization (draft), the agency would greatly expand by activating an additional 56 State Headquarters, 400+ Area Offices as well as 40+ Alternative Service Offices.[85]

text: The agency's budget for the 2015–2016 fiscal year was about $23 million. In early 2016, the agency said that if women were required to register, its budget would need to be increased by about $9 million in the first year, and slightly less in subsequent years.[86] This does not include any budget or expenses for enforcing or attempting to enforce the Military Selective Service Act. Costs of investigating, prosecuting, and imprisoning violators would be included in the budget of the Department of Justice[citation needed].

text: Mobilization (draft) procedures[edit]

text: The description below is for a general draft under the current Selective Service regulations. Any or all of these procedures could be changed by Congress as part of the same legislation that would authorize inductions, or through separate legislation, so there is no guarantee that this is how any draft would actually work. Different procedures would be followed for a special-skills draft, such as activation of the Health Care Personnel Delivery System (HCPDS).

text:
Congress and the President authorize a draft: The president claims a crisis has occurred which requires more troops than the volunteer military can supply. Congress passes and the President signs legislation which revises the Military Selective Service Act to initiate a draft for military manpower.
The Lottery: A lottery based on birthdays determines the order in which registered men are called up by Selective Service. The first to be called, in a sequence determined by the lottery, will be men whose 20th birthday falls during the calendar year the induction takes place, followed, if needed, by those aged 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 19 and 18 year olds (in that order).
All parts of the Selective Service System are activated: The Agency activates and orders its State Directors and Reserve Force Officers to report for duty.
Physical, mental and moral evaluation of registrants: Registrants with low lottery numbers receive examination orders and are ordered to report for a physical, mental, and moral evaluation at a Military Entrance Processing Station (MEPS) to determine whether they are fit for military service. Once he is notified of the results of the evaluation, a registrant will be given 10 days to file a claim for exemption, postponement, or deferment.
Local and appeal boards activated and induction notices sent: Local and Appeal Boards will begin processing registrant claims/appeals. Those who passed the military evaluation will receive induction orders. An inductee will have 10 days to report to a local Military Entrance Processing Station for induction.
First draftees are inducted: According to current plans, Selective Service must deliver the first inductees to the military within 193 days from the onset of a crisis.[87]

tag: ol

text: Lottery procedures[edit]

text: If the agency were to mobilize and conduct a draft, a lottery would be held in full view of the public. First, all days of the year are placed into a capsule at random. Second, the numbers 1–365 (1–366 for lotteries held with respect to a leap year) are placed into a second capsule. These two capsules are certified for procedure, sealed in a drum, and stored.

text: In the event of a draft, the drums are taken out of storage and inspected to make sure they have not been tampered with. The lottery then takes place, and each date is paired with a number at random. For example, if January 19 is picked from the "date" capsule and the number 59 picked from the "number" capsule, all men of age 20 born on January 19 will be the 59th group to receive induction notices. This process continues until all dates are matched with a number.

text: Should all dates be used, the Selective Service will first conscript men at the age of 20, then 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 19, and 18. Once all dates are paired, the dates will be sent to Selective Service System's Data Management Center.[88]

text: Classifications[edit]

text:
Class
Categories (1948–1975)[89]

1-A
Available for unrestricted military service.

1-A-O
Conscientious objector available for noncombatant military service only.

1-C
Member of the Armed Forces of the United States, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or the Public Health Service. Enlisted (Enl.): member who volunteered for service. Inducted (Ind.): member who was conscripted into service. Discharged (Dis.): member released after completing service; later changed to Class 4-A. Separated (Sep.): member released before completing service; may be recalled to service if their status has changed.

1-D
Members of a reserve component (Reserves or National Guard), students taking military training (Service Academy, Senior Military College, or ROTC), or accepted Aviation Cadet applicants (1942–1975).

1-D-D
Deferment for certain members of a reserve component or student taking military training.

1-D-E
Exemption of certain members of a reserve component or student taking military training.

1-H
Registrant not currently subject to processing for induction or alternative service.
Note: Within the cessation of registrant processing in 1976, all registrants (except for a few alleged violators of the Military Selective Service Act) were classified 1-H regardless of any previous classification.

1-O
Conscientious objector to all military service. A registrant must establish to the satisfaction of the board that his request for exemption from combatant and noncombatant military training and service in the Armed Forces is based upon moral, ethical or religious beliefs which play a significant role in his life and that his objection to participation in war is not confined to a particular war. The registrant is still required to serve in civilian alternative service.

1-O-S
Conscientious objector to all military service (Separated). A registrant separated from the Armed Forces due to objection to participation in both combatant and noncombatant training and service in the Armed Forces. The registrant is still required to serve in civilian alternative service.

1-S (H)
Student deferred by statute (High School). Induction can be deferred either until graduation or until reaching the age of 20.

1-S (C)
Student deferred by statute (College). Induction can be deferred either to the end of the student's current semester if an undergraduate or until the end of the academic year if a Senior.

1-W
Conscientious objector currently performing assigned alternative service. They must serve for a set period of time equal to their owed national service (currently 24 consecutive months).

1-W-R
(Released) Conscientious objector who satisfactorily completed their service. This was later changed to Class 4-W.

1-Y
Registrant qualified for service only in time of war or national emergency.
Note: The 1-Y classification was abolished December 10, 1971. Local boards were subsequently instructed to reclassify all 1-Y registrants by administrative action.

2-A
Registrant deferred because of essential civilian non-agricultural occupation. Also includes deferments due to full-time study or training in an essential trade or profession at a trade school, community or junior college, or an approved apprenticeship program.

2-B
Registrant deferred because of occupation in a war industry or a trade or profession considered essential to national defense: (Defense contractor or reserved occupation). This exemption was discontinued in 1951.

2-C
Registrant deferred because of agricultural occupation.

2-D
Registrant is a divinity student attending an accredited theological or divinity school to be prepared for the ministry. Deferment lasted either until graduation or until the registrant reached the age of 24. Exemption was created in December 1971. Previously considered part of Class 4-D.

2-S
Registrant deferred because of collegiate study. Deferment lasted either until graduation or until the registrant reached the age of 24. Exemption was discontinued in December 1971.
It previously also deferred graduate students studying medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, osteopathy and optometry, and graduate students in their fifth year of continuous study toward a doctoral degree. The exemption for graduate and doctoral students was discontinued in 1967.

3-A
Registrant deferred because of hardship to dependents.

3-A-S
Registrant deferred because of hardship to dependents (Separated). Current serving member or registrant undergoing induction separated from military service due to a change in family status. The registrant's deferment can last no longer than six months, after which they may re-file if the hardship continues to exist.

4-A
Registrant who has completed military service.

4-A-A
Registrant who has performed military service for a foreign nation.

4-B
Official deferred by law.

4-C
Alien or dual national.

4-D
Minister of religion, formally ordained by a recognized religion, and serving as a full-time minister with a church and congregation.

4-E
Conscientious objector opposed to both combatant and noncombatant training and service. Alternative service in lieu of induction may still be required. Created in 1948; changed to Class 1-O in 1951.

4-F
Registrant not acceptable for military service. To be eligible for Class 4-F, a registrant must have been found not qualified for service in the Armed Forces by a Military Entrance Processing Station (MEPS) under the established physical, mental, or moral standards. The standards of physical fitness that would be used in a future draft would come from AR 40-501.[90]

4-G
Registrant exempted from service because of the death of a parent or sibling while serving in the Armed Forces or whose parent or sibling has Prisoner of War or Missing In Action status.

4-T
Treaty Alien.

4-W
Conscientious objector who has fully and satisfactorily completed alternative service in lieu of induction.

5-A
Registrant who is over either the age of liability if a deferment had not been taken (currently 26+ years) or (where applicable) the age of liability if a deferment with extended liability had been taken (currently 35+ years).

text: Present[edit]

text: If a draft were authorized by Congress, without any other changes being made in the law, local boards would classify registrants to determine whether they were exempt from military service. According to the Code of Federal Regulations Title 32, Chapter XVI, Sec. 1630.2,[91] men would be sorted into the following categories:

text:
Class
Present categories[89]

1-A
Available for unrestricted military service.

1-A-0
Conscientious objector available for noncombatant military service only.

1-C
Member of the Armed Forces of the United States, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or the Public Health Service.

1-D-D
Deferment for certain members of a reserve component or student taking military training.

1-D-E
Exemption for certain members of a reserve component or student taking military training.

1-H
Registrant Not Subject to Processing for Induction. Registrant is not subject to processing for induction until a draft is enacted. All current registrants are classified 1-H until they reach the age of exemption, when they then receive the classification of 5-A.

1-O
Conscientious objectors opposed to both combatant & noncombatant military training & service. Fulfills service obligation as a civilian alternative service worker.

1-O-S
Any registrant who has been separated from the Armed Forces (including their reserve components) by reason of conscientious objection to participation in both combatant and noncombatant training and service in the Armed Forces. Fulfills service obligation as a civilian alternative service worker.

1-W
Conscientious objector currently performing assigned alternative service. They must serve for a set period of time equal to their owed national service (currently 24 consecutive months).

2-D
Divinity student; deferred from military service.

3-A
Hardship deferment; deferred from military service because service would cause hardship upon their families

3-A-S
Hardship deferment; separated from military service because service would cause hardship upon their families

4-A
Registrant who has completed military service; may be recalled to service in time of war or national emergency.

4-B
Official deferred by law.

4-C
Alien or dual national; sometimes exempt from military service.

4-D
Ministers of religion; exempted from military service.

4-F
Registrant not acceptable for military service. This maybe because of learning disabilities, drug abuse or alcoholism, criminal record or mental health problems, being an amputee/tetraplegia, etc.

4-G
Registrant exempted from service because of the death of his parent or sibling while serving in the Armed Forces or whose parent or sibling is in a captured or missing in action status.

4-T
Treaty Alien. Registrant is alien exempt from military service under a treaty between the United States and his country, and has applied to be exempted from liability for training and service in the Armed Forces of the United States.

4-W
Conscientious objector who has satisfactorily completed their alternative service (currently a period of 24 consecutive months).

4-A-A
Registrant who has performed military service for a foreign nation.

text: Directors[edit]

text:
Director[92]
Tenure
Appointed by

1.
Clarence Addison Dykstra
1940-10-15 – 1941-04-01
Franklin D. Roosevelt

2.
Lewis Blaine Hershey
1941-07-31 – 1970-02-15
Franklin D. Roosevelt

Dee Ingold
1970-02-15 – 1970-04-06
(Acting)

3.
Curtis W. Tarr
1970-04-06 – 1972-05-01
Richard Nixon

Byron V. Pepitone
1972-05-01 – 1973-04-01
(Acting)

4.
Byron V. Pepitone
1973-04-02 – 1977-07-31
Richard Nixon

Robert E. Shuck
1977-08-01 – 1979-11-25
(Acting)

5.
Bernard D. Rostker
1979-11-26 – 1981-07-31
Jimmy Carter

James G. Bond
1981-08-01 – 1981-10-30
(Acting)

6.
Thomas K. Turnage
1981-10-30 – 1986-03-23
Ronald Reagan

Wilfred L. Ebel
1986-03-24 – 1987-07-08
(Acting)

Jerry D. Jennings
1987-07-09 – 1987-12-17
(Acting)

7.
Samuel K. Lessey Jr.
1987-12-18 – 1991-03-07
Ronald Reagan

8.
Robert W. Gambino
1991-03-08 – 1994-01-31
George H. W. Bush

G. Huntington Banister
1994-02-01 – 1994-10-06
(Acting)

9.
Gil Coronado
1994-10-07 – 2001-05-23
Bill Clinton

10.
Alfred V. Rascon
2001-05-24 – 2003-01-02
George W. Bush

Lewis C. Brodsky
2003-01-03 – 2004-04-28
(Acting)

Jack Martin
2004-04-29 – 2004-11-28
(Acting)

11.
William A. Chatfield
2004-11-29 – 2009-05-29
George W. Bush

Ernest E. Garcia
2009-05-29 – 2009-12-04
(Acting)

12.
Lawrence Romo
2009-12-04 – 2017-01-20
Barack Obama

Adam J. Copp
2017-01-20 – 2017-04-13
(Acting)

13.
Donald M. Benton
2017-04-13 – present
Donald Trump


document_title: Departments of the Continental Army

question_text: where was the headquarters for the continental army

root

text: Departments of the Continental Army

text: Departmental organization[edit]

text: The Continental troops in a department constituted its garrison.[1] If the garrison was sufficiently large, the units might be assembled into a field army. In this case the commander of the territorial department and the commander of the field army would be one and the same officer. Thus, the commanding general of the Northern Department was also commanding general of the Northern Army, and the commanding general of the Southern Department was also commanding general of the Southern Army. Armies did not, however, invariably receive a geographical designation. Because the field army under Washington's personal command contained the majority of Continental Army units it was, for obvious reasons, designated the Main Army. Each department had a semi-autonomous commanding officer, usually a commanding general, under the overall command of Washington as General and Commander-in-Chief. The Continental Congress dealt with and through the department commanders.

tag: p

text: Appointment of department commanders[edit]

text: Throughout the war, the Continental Congress retained exclusive authority to appoint or remove department commanders. In practice, when an urgent need arose, a temporary commander was just as frequently appointed by George Washington or the executive power of one of the states, pending the approval of the Continental Congress. Many of these temporary department commanders were then confirmed and formally appointed by the Congress. This practice, along with control of the Continental Army and Navy through the war and marine committees of the Continental Congress, established the precedent for civil control of military affairs later embodied in the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.

text: Relations between the departments and the states[edit]

text: The department commanders and their staffs also worked directly with the governments of the states within their department. At first these were the ad hoc provisional governments developed in 1774 and 1775, but the practice continued after 1776 when the states replaced their Provincial Congresses and Conventions with permanent governments operating under written constitutions. Ordinarily departments were commanded by major generals. Washington as a full general was the ranking general officer in the Continental Army throughout the war.

text: Departments[edit]

text: In general there were seven territorial departments,[2] although their boundaries were subject to change and they were not all in existence throughout the war.

text: Canadian Department[edit]

text: The establishment of the Canadian Department reflected the aspirations of the Continental Congress and some Americans to annex the British province of Quebec, then often referred to as "Canada", but the effort was ultimately unsuccessful. Although the Americans captured Montreal in November 1775, and established their headquarters at Château Ramezay, the region was never entirely under the control of the Continental Army. The Canadian Department was formally established from the New York Department on January 17, 1776.[3] After the Invasion of Canada failed, all troops were withdrawn to Fort Ticonderoga, New York. The Canadian Department was officially discontinued on July 8, 1776.[4]

text: Eastern Department[edit]

text: The Eastern Department was formed around those states that had originally sent troops to support the Siege of Boston, and in that sense it even existed before the Continental Army. This was essentially the New England department, and included the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts (including the present state of Maine), Rhode Island, and Connecticut. For the first year of the war, the field army associated with this department, under the command of General Washington, was variously designated as the Continental Army, Grand Army,[5] or Main Army. The Eastern Department was formally established on April 4, 1776[6] when the Main Army under Washington moved from Boston to New York City. Important operations in this department included the Siege of Boston in 1775–1776 and the Battle of Rhode Island in 1779. The department was discontinued in November 1779.[7]

text: Northern Department[edit]

text: The predecessor of the Northern Department was the New York Department, which was established on June 25, 1775.[8] This department was sometimes described as the Separate Department[5] and the troops stationed in it were known as the Separate Army.[9] The original New York Department was coextensive with the Province of New York. The department's boundaries were extended to include Canada in the initial phase of the Invasion of Canada, but Canada was established as a separate department on January 17, 1776.[3] When the Middle Department was created on February 27, 1776 the New York Department was merged into it. The Middle Department, as originally organized, included all of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland.[10] The inclusion of New York in the Middle Department continued for less than two months, however. In April 1776 the Main Army moved from Boston to New York City and Washington assumed command of the Middle Department. The Northern Department was formally established from the Middle Department on April 14, 1776.[11] The reorganized Northern Department included only that portion of the colony of New York north of the Hudson Highlands, and the present state of Vermont.[11] The field army associated with the Northern Department was known as the Northern Army.[12] Operations in this department did not end with Saratoga. Fighting continued in the Northern Department until the end of the war. The department was discontinued upon the death of its last commander, General Alexander, at Albany on January 15, 1783.[7]

text: Highlands Department[edit]

text: The Highlands Department was the smallest in area. Strictly speaking, it was part of the Middle Department,[2] but because of its importance it was virtually a separate department. The Highlands Department was formed around the defenses on the Hudson River about 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City, where the Appalachians and the Hudson intersect. After the British occupied New York City in 1776 the defenses just north of there became critically important. The presence of British naval forces at New York emphasized the importance of the Hudson River, and both sides in the war recognized the importance of controlling that waterway. The Americans created fortifications, including West Point with its chain across the river. Washington assigned Continental troops under General Heath to the Highlands on November 12, 1776 and there was a Continental Army garrison in the Highlands from then until the end of the war. Heath's assignment thus created a de facto military department.[13] The British sought to gain control with the Saratoga campaign in 1777, and frequently raided into the southern reaches of the department to interfere with the movement of military goods and personnel. One of the most notable incidents in the history of this department was the defection of Benedict Arnold in September 1780.

text: Middle Department[edit]

text: The Middle Department was established on February 27, 1776.[10] Originally it included all of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. In April 1776, the Main Army moved from Boston to New York, and became the field army associated with the Middle Department for the remainder of the war. On April 14, 1776 that portion of New York north of the Hudson Highlands, and the present state of Vermont were separated from the Middle Department and organized as the Northern Department. The Middle Department then comprised the Hudson Highlands in the state of New York, the rest of New York south of the Highlands, and the states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland.[11]

text: The term Main Army had come into use during the Siege of Boston, because the majority of Continental Army regiments were assigned to it. The term was retained throughout the war. Most units in the Middle Department were assigned to the Main Army, under George Washington, or to the Highlands Department, which was under Washington's close supervision. A few regiments and independent companies were assigned to the Middle Department from time to time, but were not assigned to Washington's army or to the Highlands. These units were simply said to have been assigned to the Middle Department.

text: Some of the Continental Army's most important campaigns were fought in this department. These included the New York campaign and the New Jersey campaign which ended with the battles of Trenton and Princeton. The Philadelphia campaign was fought in this department, after which the Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. In 1778 this department was the scene of the Monmouth campaign. After Monmouth, on June 28, 1778, major military operations in the United States shifted to the Southern Department. The department existed until the close of the war. It was the scene of one of the war's last episodes when the British Army evacuated New York City on November 25, 1783.

text: Western Department[edit]

text: The Western Department covered the frontier territories west and northwest of Virginia and Pennsylvania, including the present states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. It extended from Pittsburgh all the way to the Illinois country and as far north as the southern peninsula of Michigan. The department was established in 1777. Its first commander was Edward Hand. George Rogers Clark's Illinois campaign of 1779 was one of the most notable operations in this department. This department was the only one to remain after the war. The last elements of the Continental Army, stationed at Fort Pitt, were kept to guard the western frontier outposts.

text: Southern Department[edit]

text: The Southern Department was formally established on February 27, 1776.[10] The department included Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia and the western frontiers of those colonies, from which were created the present states of West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi. The field army associated with this department was known as the Southern Army. The Southern Department was the most independent of the commands due to geography and the need for year-round operations. Most of the territorial departments to the north of this department suspended offensive operations for the winter and early spring. The Southern Department was also the only one in which the troops assigned were destroyed twice. The first time was at the surrender of Charleston on May 12, 1780. The second was at the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780. Despite these two catastrophic defeats, however, this department was the location of the Siege of Yorktown, in 1781, which effectively decided the outcome of the war. Important events in the Southern Department after Yorktown were the evacuation of Savannah and Charleston in July and December 1782.[14] The Southern Department existed until the close of the war.[7]

text: List of department commanders[edit]

text:
Department
Commander
Date of appointment

Canadian
Richard Montgomery
December 9, 1775

David Wooster
December 31, 1775 (acting)

Charles Lee
February 17, 1776 (declined)

John Thomas
March 6, 1776

John Sullivan
June 1, 1776

Horatio Gates
June 17, 1776

Eastern
George Washington
June 16, 1775

Artemas Ward
April 4, 1776

William Heath
March 20, 1777

Horatio Gates
November 7, 1778

Northern
Philip Schuyler
June 25, 1775

Horatio Gates
August 19, 1777

John Stark
April 17, 1778

Edward Hand
October 19, 1778

James Clinton
November 20, 1778

John Stark
June 25, 1781

William Alexander
October 15, 1781

John Stark
November 21, 1781

William Alexander
August 29, 1782

Highlands
William Heath
November 12, 1776

Alexander McDougall
December 21, 1776

Israel Putnam
May 12, 1777

Alexander McDougall
March 16, 1778

Horatio Gates
May 20, 1778

Alexander McDougall
November 24, 1778

William Heath
November 27, 1779

Robert Howe
February 21, 1780 (acting)

Alexander McDougall
June 21, 1780

Benedict Arnold
August 3, 1780

George Washington
September 25, 1780 (acting)

Alexander McDougall
September 28, 1780

Nathanael Greene
October 5, 1780

William Heath
October 17, 1780

John Paterson
May 11, 1781 (acting)

Alexander McDougall
June 24, 1781

William Heath
January 18, 1782

Henry Knox
August 24, 1782

Middle
George Washington
February 27, 1776

Western
Edward Hand
April 10, 1777

Lachlan McIntosh
May 26, 1778

Daniel Brodhead
March 5, 1779

William Irvine
September 24, 1781

Southern
Charles Lee
March 1, 1776

James Moore[15]
September 9, 1776

Robert Howe[16]
April 15, 1777

Benjamin Lincoln
September 25, 1778

Horatio Gates
June 13, 1780

Nathanael Greene
October 31, 1780

Source: Wright, Robert K. Continental Army, Appendix B, p. 431 (unless otherwise noted)

tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Wright, Continental Army, 57.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, Continental Army, map, 83.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, Continental Army, 60.
Jump up ^ Wright, Continental Army, 62.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, Continental Army, 26.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Writings, IV:467.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wright, Continental Army, Appendix B, 431.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Writings, III:302–304.
Jump up ^ Berg, Encyclopedia, 107.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wright, Continental Army, 82.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wright, Continental Army, 84.
Jump up ^ Berg, Encyclopedia, 91.
Jump up ^ Wright, Continental Army, 95.
Jump up ^ Wright, Continental Army, 176.
Jump up ^ Rankin 1971, p. 79.
Jump up ^ Rankin 1988, p. 218.


document_title: Mahātmā

question_text: who conferred mahatma gandhi with the title mahatma

text: Mahātmā

text: Mahatma Gandhi's title "Mahatma"[edit]

text: According to some authors Rabindranath Tagore is said to have used on march 6, 1915, this title for Gandhi.[2] Some claim that he was called Mahatma by the residents of Gurukul Kangadi in April 1915,[3] and he in turn called the founder Munshiram a Mahatma (who later became Swami Shraddhananda). However, a document honoring him with the title "Mahatma" on Jan 21, 1915, in Jetpur, Gujarat, by Nautamlal Bhagvanji Mehta is preserved at the National Gandhi Museum in New Delhi, India.[4] This document remains the earliest record of the title "Mahatma" being bestowed upon Gandhi. The use of the term Mahatma in Jainism to denote a class of lay priests, has been noted since the 17th century. A Mahatma is someone who practices Trikaranasuddhi.[5]

text: Theosophy[edit]

text: The word, used in a technical sense, was popularized in theosophical literature in the late 19th century, when Madame Helena Blavatsky, one of the founders of the Theosophical Society, claimed that her teachers were adepts (or Mahatmas) who reside in Asia.

text: According to the Theosophical teachings, the Mahatmas are not disembodied beings, but highly evolved people involved in overseeing the spiritual growth of individuals and the development of civilizations. Blavatsky was the first person in modern times to claim contact with these Adepts, especially the "Masters" Koot Hoomi and Morya. Alvin Boyd Kuhn wrote about mahātmās:[6]

text: The Masters whom Theosophy presents to us are simply high-ranking students in life's school of experience. They are members of our own evolutionary group, not visitants from the celestial spheres. They are supermen only in that they have attained knowledge of the laws of life and mastery over its forces with which we are still struggling.

text: In September and October 1880, Blavatsky visited A. P. Sinnett at Simla in northern India. Sinnett wrote The Occult World (1881) and Esoteric Buddhism (1883).

text: There has been a great deal of controversy concerning the existence of adepts. Blavatsky's critics have doubted the existence of her Masters. See, for example, W. E. Coleman's "exposes".

text: After Blavatsky's death in 1891, numerous individuals have claimed to be in contact with her Adept Teachers. These individuals have stated that they are new "messengers" of the Masters and they have conveyed various esoteric teachings.[7] Currently, various New Age, metaphysical, and religious organizations refer to them as Ascended Masters, although their character and teachings are in several respects different from those described by Theosophical writers.[8][9]

text: Some individuals[who?] believe that Mahatma Maitreya (also called World Teacher) will make contact with all Humanity in January 2017.

text: Divine Light Mission[edit]

text: The Divine Light Mission (DLM) was a Sant Mat-based movement begun in India in the 1930s by Hans Ji Maharaj and formally incorporated in 1960. The DLM had as many as 2,000 Mahatmas, all from India or Tibet, who taught the DLM's secret meditation techniques called "Knowledge". The Mahatmas, called "realised souls",[10] or "apostles", also served as local leaders.[11] After Hans Ji's death in 1966 his youngest son, Prem Rawat (known then as Guru Maharaj Ji or Bagyogeshwar), succeeded him. The young guru appointed some new Mahatmas, including one from the United States. In one incident, a prominent Indian Mahatma nearly beat a man to death in Detroit for throwing a pie at the guru.[12] In the early 1980s, Prem Rawat replaced the Divine Light Mission organization with the Elan Vital and replaced the Mahatmas with initiators. The initiators did not have the revered status of the Mahatmas, and they were drawn mostly from Western followers.[10] In the 2000s, the initiators were replaced by a video in which Rawat teaches the techniques himself.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: W.C. Fields used the pseudonym Mahatma Kane Jeeves when writing the script for The Bank Dick (1940), in a play on both the word "Mahatma" and a phrase an aristocrat might use when addressing a servant, before leaving the house: "My hat, my cane, Jeeves".

text: Jain Mahatmas[edit]

text: Among the Jains the term Mahatma is used for class for scholars who are householders.

text: Mahatma Hirananda of Mewad[edit]

text: The Mewad Ramayana[13] described as "one of the most beautiful manuscripts in the world"[14] has been digitally reunited after being split between organisations in the UK and India for over 150 years, by the British Library and CSMVS Museum in Mumbai. The colophon states that the text, commissioned by Acarya Jasvant for the library of Maharana Jagat Singh I of Mewar, was written by the Mahatma Hirananda, was finished on Friday 25 November 1650.[15] Mahatma Hirananda being a Jain scribe, incorporated traditional Jain scribal elements into the manuscript.[16]

text: Jain Mahatmas in the Dabestan-e Mazaheb[edit]

text: The famous Dabestan-e Mazaheb often attributed to one Mohsin Fani, written around 1655 CE. is a text written in the Mughal period that describes various religions and philosophies the author encountered.[17] Its Section 11 is dedicated to Jainism. It states: "Similar to the durvishes of both classes (Srivaras and Jatis) is a third sect, called Mahá-átma; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they do not pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulate money, cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and take to them a wife." The term Mahatma was thus used for priest/scholars who were not celibate. The present Persian edition of the text by Rezazadeh Malik attributes it to the son and successor of Azar Kayvan, 'Kay Khosrow Esfandiyar'.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: K. Paul Johnson in his books[18] speculates that the "Masters" that Blavatsky wrote about and produced letters from were actually idealizations of people who were her mentors. Aryel Sanat,[19] author of The inner life of Krishnamurti: private passion and perennial wisdom, wrote that Johnson "claims in all of his books that there were no Masters at all in early [Theosophical Society] history, & that [Helena Blavatsky] invented them (as others had claimed she had invented her travels)." Sanat wrote that Johnson "deliberately ignores the main sources of evidence for their real physical existence."[20] What Sanat thought these were is not made quite clear.

text: Sources[edit]

text:
French, Brendan James (2000) The theosophical masters: an investigation into the conceptual domains of H.P. Blavatsky and C.W. Leadbeater. PhD thesis, University of Sydney, Department of Religious Studies. Sydney.
Johnson, K. Paul (1994) The Masters Revealed: Madam Blavatsky and Myth of the Great White Brotherhood. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
Johnson, K. Paul (1995) Initiates of Theosophical Masters. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
Kalnitsky, Arnold (2003) The Theosophical Movement of the Nineteenth Century: The Legitimation of the Disputable and the Entrenchment of the Disreputable. University of South Africa. Dissertation: 443 pp.
Kuhn, Alvin Boyd (1930) Theosophy: A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom. PhD Thesis. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-56459-175-3.

tag: ul

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^  Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Mahātma". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
Jump up ^ Dutta, Krishna and Andrew Robinson, Rabindranath Tagore: An Anthology, p. 2
Jump up ^ और इस तरह गांधी महात्मा बन गए, 01-Oct-2012
Jump up ^ National Gandhi Museum, New Delhi; KamdarTree.com
Jump up ^ Sankar R N, Ajith (Jul–Dec 2012). "Ascertaining Linkages between Trikaranasuddhi and 'Tapping Spirituality as the Context of Leadership'". IPE Journal of Management. 1 (2): 81–105. SSRN 2212138 .
Jump up ^ Kuhn (1930), – p. 147.
Jump up ^ Madame Blavatsky & the Latter-Day Messengers of the Masters.
Jump up ^ Leadbeater, C. W. The Masters and the Path. Adyar, India: Theosophical Publishing House, 1929 (Reprint: Kessinger Publishing, 1997).
Jump up ^ Partridge, Christopher ed. New Religions: A Guide: New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities Oxford University Press, USA 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Price, Maeve (1979): The Divine Light Mission as a social organization. (1) Sociological Review, 27, Page 279-296
Jump up ^ Levine, Saul V. in Galanter, Marc (1989). Cults and New Religious Movements: A Report of the American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Pub., Inc. ISBN 0-89042-212-5.
Jump up ^ Bartel, Dennis (November 1983). "Who's Who in Gurus". Harper's. p. 55.
Jump up ^ In pictures: Stunning Ramayana manuscript goes digital, BBC, 21 March 2014
Jump up ^ The Mewar Ramayana at the British Library: How the complete digital version came to be
Jump up ^ Ramayana - Pages 21 and 22 (British Library Add. MSS 15296-15297 and IO San 3621)
Jump up ^ Ramayana - Pages 3 and 4
Jump up ^ The Dabistán: Or, School of Manners: The Religious Beliefs, Observances, Philosophic Opinions and Social Customs of the Nations of the East, Fani Muhsin, Translated by David Shea, Anthony Troyer, Publisher, M. Walter Dunne, 1901 p. 275-276
Jump up ^ Johnson (1994), Johnson (1995) – p. 49.
Jump up ^ "Aryel Sanat (Miguel Angel Sanabria) is currently Adjunct Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at the American University in Washington, D.C." // About author of The inner life of Krishnamurti in 1999.
Jump up ^ See Theosophy World.


document_title: Chernozem

question_text: where is black soil found in the world

question_tokens: where is black soil found in the world

text: Chernozem

text: Distribution[edit]

text: The name comes from the Russian terms for black and soil, earth or land (chyorn + zemlya). The soil, rich in organic matter presenting a black color, was first identified by Russian geologist Vasily Dokuchaev in 1883 in the tallgrass steppe or prairie of European Russia.[1]

text: Chernozems cover about 230 million hectares of land.[1] There are two "chernozem belts" in the world: the Eurasian steppe which extends from eastern Croatia (Slavonia), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria (Danubian Plain), southern Romania (Wallachian Plain) and Moldova) to northeast Ukraine across the Central Black Earth Region of southern Russia into Siberia, and the other from the Canadian Prairies in Manitoba through the Great Plains of the United States as far south as Kansas.[4] Similar soil types occur in Texas and Hungary. Chernozem layer thickness may vary widely, from several centimetres up to 1.5 metres (60 inches) in Ukraine [5], as well as the Red River Valley region in the Northern United States and Canada (an area formerly known as lake Agassiz).

text: The terrain can also be found in small quantities elsewhere (for example, on 1% of Poland). It also exists in Northeast China, near Harbin. The only true Chernozem in Australia is located around Nimmitabel producing some of the richest soils in the nation.[6]

text: There is a large black market for the soil in Ukraine, where it is known as chornozem (Ukrainian: чорно́зем, translit. chornózem). The sale of agricultural land has been illegal in Ukraine since 1992, but the soil, transported by the truckload, has approximately US$900 million annually in black market sales.[7]

text: Canadian and United Nations soil classification[edit]

text: Chernozemic soils are a soil type in the Canadian system of soil classification and the United Nations' FAO soil classification.

text:
Chernozemic soil type equivalents, in Canadian, FAO, and USA soil taxonomy

Canadian

FAO

United States

Chernozemic

Kastanozem, Chernozem, Greyzem, Phaeozem

Borolls

Brown Chernozem

Kastanozem (aridic)

Aridic Boroll subgroups

Dark Brown Chernozem

Kastanozem (Haplic)

Typic Boroll subgroups

Black Chernozem

Chornozem

Udic Boroll subgroups

Dark Grey Chernozem

Greyzem

Boralfic Boroll subgroups, Albolls

Source: Pedosphere.com.

text: History[edit]

text: Theories of Chernozem origin:

text:
1761 — Johan Gottschalk Wallerius (plant decomposition)[8]
1763 — Mikhail Lomonosov (plant and animal decomposition)[9]
1799 — Peter Simon Pallas (reeds marsh)
1835 — Charles Lyell (loess)[10]
1840 — Sir Roderick Murchison (weathered from Jurassic marine shales)[10]
1850 — Karl Eichwald (peat)
1851 — А. Petzgold (swamps)
1852 — Nikifor Borisyak (peat)
1853 — Vangengeim von Qualen (silt from northern swamps)
1862 — Rudolf Ludwig (bog on place of forests)
1866 — Franz Josef Ruprecht (decomposed steppe grasses) [11]
1879 — First chernozem papers translated from Russian[12]
1883 — Vasily Dokuchaev published his book Russian Chernozem with a complete study of this soil in European Russia.[13]
1929 — Otto Schlüter (man-made)[14]
1999 — Michael W.I Schmidt (ancient biomass burning)[14][15][16]