document_title: Workweek and weekend

question_text: when did the 5 day working week start

question_tokens: when did the 5 day working week start

text: Workweek and weekend

text: History[edit]

text:
Part of a series on

Organised labour

Labour movement[show]

Timeline

New Unionism
Proletariat

Social Movement Unionism

Socialism
Syndicalism

Anarcho-syndicalism

Labour rights[hide]

Child labour
Eight-hour day

Five-day work week
Annual leave
Collective bargaining
Minimum wage
Occupational safety and health

Trade unions[show]

Trade unions by country
Trade union federations
International comparisons

ITUC
IWA
WFTU

Strike action[show]

Chronological list of strikes

General strike
Secondary action

Sitdown strike
Work-to-rule

Labour parties[show]

Australian
British
Dutch
Irish
Israeli
Maltese
New Zealand
Norwegian

List of Labour parties

Academic disciplines[show]

Industrial relations
Labour economics
Labour history
Labour law

v
t
e

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2013)

text: A continuous seven-day cycle that runs throughout history paying no attention whatsoever to the phases of the moon, having a fixed day of rest, was probably first practiced in Judaism, dated to the 6th century BC at the latest.[3][4]

text: In Ancient Rome, every eight days there was a nundinae. It was a market day, during which children were exempted from school[5] and plebs ceased from work in the field and came to the city to sell the produce of their labor[6][7] or practice religious rites.[citation needed].

text: The French Revolutionary Calendar had ten-day weeks (called décades) and allowed décadi, one out of the ten days, as a leisure day.

text: In cultures with a four-day week, the three Sabbaths derives from the culture's main religious tradition: Friday (Muslim), Saturday (Jewish), and Sunday (Christian).

text: The present-day concept of the relatively longer 'week-end' first arose in the industrial north of Britain in the early part of nineteenth century[1] and was originally a voluntary arrangement between factory owners and workers allowing Saturday afternoon off from 2pm in agreement that staff would be available for work sober and refreshed on Monday morning.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term weekend to the British magazine Notes and Queries in 1879.[8]

text: In 1908, the first five-day workweek in the United States was instituted by a New England cotton mill so that Jewish workers would not have to work on the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday.[9] In 1926, Henry Ford began shutting down his automotive factories for all of Saturday and Sunday. In 1929, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America Union was the first union to demand a five-day workweek and receive it. After that, the rest of the United States slowly followed, but it was not until 1940, when a provision of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act mandating a maximum 40-hour workweek went into effect, that the two-day weekend was adopted nationwide.[9]

text: Over the succeeding decades, particularly in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, an increasing number of countries adopted either a Friday–Saturday or Saturday–Sunday weekend to harmonize with international markets. A series of workweek reforms in the mid-to-late 2000s and early 2010s brought much of the Arab World in synchronization with the majority of countries around the world, in terms of working hours, the length of the workweek, and the days of the weekend. The International Labour Organization (ILO) currently defines a workweek exceeding 48 hours as excessive. A 2007 study by the ILO found that at least 614.2 million people around the world were working excessive hours.[10]

text: Length[edit]

text: Actual workweek lengths have been falling in the developed world. Every reduction of the length of the workweek has been accompanied by an increase in real per-capita income.[11][verification needed] In the United States, the workweek length reduced slowly from before the Civil War to the turn of the 20th century. A rapid reduction took place from 1900 to 1920, especially between 1913 and 1919, when weekly hours fell by about eight percent.[12] In 1926, Henry Ford standardized on a five-day workweek, instead of the prevalent six days, without reducing employees' pay.[13] Hours worked stabilized at about 49 per week during the 1920s, and during the Great Depression fell below 40.[12] During the Depression, President Herbert Hoover called for a reduction in work hours in lieu of layoffs. Later, President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which established a five-day, 40-hour workweek for many workers.[13] The proportion of people working very long weeks has since risen, and the full-time employment of women has increased dramatically.[14]

text: The New Economics Foundation has recommended moving to a 21-hour standard workweek to address problems with unemployment, high carbon emissions, low well-being, entrenched inequalities, overworking, family care, and the general lack of free time.[13][15][16][17][18][19] The Center for Economic and Policy Research states that reducing the length of the work week would slow climate change and have other environmental benefits.[20]

text: Around the world[edit]

text: (Countries listed alphabetically. Some countries have Saturday a normal school day. Some countries appear under the subsections for Muslim countries and the European Union.)

text:
Nation
Typical Hours
per Week
Working week
Typical hours worked
(Maximum per day)

Afghanistan
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Albania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Algeria
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Angola
40
Monday–Friday
8

Argentina
40
Monday–Friday
8

Armenia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Azerbaijan
40
Monday–Friday
8

Austria
38.5
Monday–Friday
7.7

Australia
38[21]
Monday–Friday
7.6

Bahrain
40
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan for Muslim employees)[22]

Bangladesh
40
Government offices and Banks: Sunday-Thursday
Else: Saturday-Thursday

8

Benin
40
Monday–Friday
8

Belarus
40
Monday–Friday
8

Belgium
38
Monday–Friday
7.6

Brazil
44
Monday–Friday
8.5

Brunei Darussalam
40
Monday–Thursday and Saturday
8

Burundi
50
Monday–Friday
10

Bulgaria
40
Monday–Friday
8

Canada
40
Monday–Friday
8

Cameroon
50
Monday–Friday
10

Chile
45
Monday–Friday
9

China
42
Monday–Friday
8

Croatia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Colombia
48
Monday–Friday /
Monday–Saturday

8

Costa Rica
48
Monday–Friday
8

Czech Republic
40
Monday–Friday
8

Denmark
37
Monday–Friday
7.4

Djibouti
40
Saturday–Thursday
6.7

Dominican Republic
40
Monday-Friday
8

Egypt
40 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan)

Ethiopia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Estonia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Equatorial Guinea
48
Monday–Saturday
8

Finland
38
Monday–Friday
8

France
35
Monday–Friday
7

Gabon
40
Monday–Friday
8

Gambia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Germany
40
Monday–Friday
8

Ghana
40
Monday–Friday
8

Greece
40
Monday–Friday
8

Hungary
40
Monday–Friday
8

Hong Kong
40-48
Monday–Saturday
8 (many people work on Saturday either a half-day or full-day)

India
45-60
Government offices and IT industry: Monday-Friday
Else: Monday–Saturday Sometimes: Monday

9 (including 1 hour lunch break) most of the Businesses are open on Saturdays. So often it is Monday-Saturday.

Indonesia
40
Monday–Friday
8, many people work a 6-day week with 7-hour days.

Iran
45
Saturday-Thursday/Saturday-Wednesday
8, (except 5-hours on thursday)

Iraq
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Ireland
40
Monday–Friday
8

Israel
42
Sunday–Thursday
8.4. Some people have a partial six-day workweek.

Italy
40
Monday–Friday
8

Côte d'Ivoire
40
Monday–Friday
8

Japan
40
Monday–Friday
8

Jordan
45
Sunday–Thursday
9

Kazakhstan
40
Monday–Friday
8

Kuwait
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Kenya
40
Monday–Friday
8

Lao People’s Democratic Republic
40
Monday–Friday
8

Latvia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Lebanon
40
Monday-Friday
8, Most of the people have a six-day workweek, with Saturday as a partial workday.

Lesotho
40
Monday–Friday
8

Libya
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Lithuania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Madagascar
40
Monday–Friday
8

Maldives
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Malawi
40
Monday–Friday
8

Mali
40
Monday–Friday
8

Malta
40
Monday–Friday
8

Mauritania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Malaysia
40
Sunday–Thursday
(Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu)
Monday–Friday
(Except: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu)
8

Mexico
48
Monday–Saturday
8

Mongolia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Morocco
44
Monday–Friday
8

Mozambique
40
Monday–Friday
8

Nepal
48
Sunday–Friday
7 (5 on Friday and 6 in Winter)

The Netherlands
40
Monday–Friday
8

New Zealand
40
Monday–Friday
8[23]

Nigeria
40
Monday–Friday
8

Norway
37.5
Monday–Friday
7.5

Oman
40 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan)

Pakistan
45 & 54
Monday–Friday
9 (including 1 hour lunch break) most of the Businesses are open on Saturdays. So often it is Monday-Saturday.

Palestine
45[24]
Saturday–Thursday [25]
8

Philippines
40
Monday–Friday
9 (including 1 hour lunch break)

Poland
40
Monday–Friday
8

Portugal
40
Monday–Friday
8

Qatar
40 (25 During Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (5 during Ramadan) (Line staff work 48 hours of the week, Saturday-Thursday)

Romania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Russia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Rwanda
40
Monday–Friday
8

Saudi Arabia
40 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan for Muslim employees)[26]

Senegal
40
Monday–Friday
8

Singapore
44
Monday–Friday
9[27]

Slovakia (Slovak Republic)
40
Monday–Friday
8

Spain
40
Monday–Friday
8

Sri Lanka
40
Monday–Friday
8

South Africa
45
Monday–Friday
9[28]

South Korea
40
Monday–Friday
8

Sudan
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Suriname
39.5
Monday–Friday
8; Monday–Thursday 7:00 – 15:00 / Friday 7:00 – 14.30

Swaziland
40
Monday–Friday
8

Sweden
40
Monday–Friday
8

Switzerland
42
Monday–Friday
8.4

Syria
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Seychelles
40
Monday–Friday
8

Taiwan
40
Monday–Friday
8; The Labor Standards Act stipulates that a worker shall have one mandatory day off and one flexible rest day in every seven days. See One fixed day off and one flexible rest day policy.

Tanzania
40
Monday–Friday
9

Togo
40
Monday–Friday
8

Thailand
40
Monday–Friday
8

Trinidad and Tobago
40
Monday–Friday
8

Tunisia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Turkey
45
Monday–Friday
9

Ukraine
40
Monday–Friday
8

United Arab Emirates
40-45 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday (since September 2006[29])
8 to 9 (regular hours minus 2 hours during Ramadan for all employees)[30]

United Kingdom
40
Monday–Friday
8

United States
40[31]
Monday–Friday
8

Uganda
48
Monday–Saturday
8

Vietnam
40[32]
Monday–Friday
8

Yemen
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Congo, Democratic Republic of
40
Monday–Friday
8

Zambia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Zimbabwe
40
Monday–Friday
8; Most people work half a day on Saturday

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia the working week begins on Monday and terminates on Friday. An eight-hour working day is the norm. Working three weekdays a fortnight, for example, would therefore be approximately twenty-four hours (including or excluding traditional breaks tallying up to two hours). Some people work overtime with extra pay on offer for those that do, especially for weekend work. Shops open seven days a week in most states with opening hours from 9am to 5.30pm on weekdays, with some states having two "late night trading" nights on Thursday and Friday, when trading ceases at 9pm. Many supermarkets and low end department stores remain open until midnight and some trade 24/7. Restaurants and cinemas can open at all hours, save for some public holidays. Bars generally trade seven days a week but there are local municipal restrictions concerning trading hours. Banks trade on Monday to Friday, with some branches opening on Saturdays (and in some cases Sundays) in high demand areas. The Post Office (Australia Post) trades Monday to Friday as per retail shops but some retail post offices may trade on Saturdays and Sundays in some shopping centres. A notable exception to the above is South Australia whereby retail establishments are restricted to trading between the hours of 11am-5pm on Sundays.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: As a general rule, Brazil adopts a 44-hour working week, which typically begins on Monday and ends on Friday, with a Saturday-Sunday weekend. Brazilian Law,[33] however, also allows for shorter Monday-to-Friday working hours so employees can work on Saturdays or Sundays, as long as the weekly 44-hour limit is respected and the employee gets at least one weekend day. This is usually the case for malls, supermarkets and shops. The law also grants labor unions the right to negotiate different work weeks, within certain limits, which then become binding for that union's labor category. Overtime is allowed, limited to two extra hours a day, with an increase in pay.

text: Chile[edit]

text: The working week in Chile averages 45 hours, most often worked on a Monday-Friday schedule, but is not uncommon to work on Saturdays. Retail businesses mostly operate Monday through Saturday, with larger establishments being open seven days a week.

text: China (People's Republic)[edit]

text: In China, there is a five-day Monday-Friday working week, prior to which work on Saturday was standard. China began the two-day Saturday–Sunday weekend on May 1, 1995. Most government employees work 5 days a week (including officials and industrial management). Most manufacturing facilities operate on Saturdays as well. However, most shops, museums, cinemas and commercial establishments open on Saturdays, Sundays and holidays. Banks are also open throughout the weekend and on most public holidays.

text: During the period of public holidays, swapped holidays are common between the actual holiday and weekend, so a three-day or seven-day holiday periods are created. The nearby Saturday or Sunday may be changed to a normal working day. For example, on a three-day holiday period, if the actual holiday falls on a Tuesday, Monday will be swapped as a holiday, and citizens are required to work on the previous Saturday.

text: A number of provinces and municipalities across China, including Hebei, Jiangxi and Chongqing, have issued new policies, calling on companies to create 2.5-day weekends. Under the plan, government institutions, state-owned companies, joint-ventures and privately held companies are to be given incentives to allow their workers to take off at noon on Friday before coming back to the office on Monday.[34]

text: Hong Kong SAR[edit]

text: In Hong Kong, a typical working week for local enterprises begins on Monday and ends at 1pm on Saturday, although most employees have alternate Saturdays off. After the introduction of the five-day working week for the majority of government departments in 2006, most multinational enterprises and large local companies followed suit, extended the working day from 9am to 6pm so as to adopt a five-day work week. Despite the aforementioned official hours, many employees work overtime, and in the case of the financial industry in particular, working 12-hour days on a chronic basis is not uncommon.

text: Most commercial establishments in the retail sector such as restaurants, shops and cinemas, as well as public venues such as museums and libraries are open on Saturdays, Sundays and most public holidays. For schools, lessons are not normally held on Saturdays, but students may be required to go school on Saturdays for extra-curricular activities or make-up classes.

text: Colombia[edit]

text: In general, Colombia has a 48-hour working week. Depending on the business, people work five days for max 8 hours per day, typically Monday to Friday, or six days for eight hours a day, Monday to Saturday.[35]

text: European Union members[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2009)

text: In Europe, the standard full-time working week begins on Monday and ends on Saturday. Most retail shops are open for business on Saturday. In Ireland, Italy, Finland, Sweden, the Netherlands and the former socialist states of Europe, large shopping centres open on Sunday. In European countries such as Germany, there are laws regulating shop hours. With exceptions, shops must be closed on Sundays and from midnight until the early morning hours of every day.

text: Austria[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday 8 hours per day. Shops are open on Saturday. By law, almost no shop is open on Sunday. However, exceptions have been made, for example for bakeries, petrol stations and shops at railway stations, especially in the largest cities (Vienna, Graz, Salzburg, Linz).

text: Belgium[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday. Working time must not exceed 8 hours per day and 38 hours per week (on average, annualised). Very few shops are open on Sunday.

text: Bulgaria[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday, eight hours per day, forty hours per week. Most pharmacies, shops, bars, cafés, and restaurants will operate on Saturdays and Sundays.

text: Croatia[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday, seven and a half hours per day (+ 30 minutes lunch break), 37.5 hours per week (or 40 hours per week if lunch breaks are included as working hours). Most pharmacies, shops, bars, cafés, and restaurants are open on Saturday and Sunday.

text: Czech Republic[edit]

text: In the Czech Republic, full-time employment is usually Monday to Friday, eight hours per day and forty hours per week. Many shops and restaurants are open on Saturday and Sunday, but employees still usually work forty hours per week.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: Denmark has an official 37-hour working week, with primary work hours between 6:00 and 18:00, Monday to Friday. In public institutions, a 30-minute lunch break every day is included as per collective agreements, so that the actual required working time is 34.5 hours. In private companies, the 30-minute lunch break is normally not included. The workday is usually 7.5 hours Monday to Thursday and 7 hours on Friday. Some small shops are closed Monday.[36]

text: Estonia[edit]

text: In Estonia, the working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday. Usually a working week is forty hours.

text: Finland[edit]

text: In Finland, the working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday. A full-time job is defined by law as being at least 32 and at most forty hours per week. In retail and restaurant occupations, among others, the weekly hours may be calculated as an average over three to ten weeks, depending on the employment contract. Banks and bureaus are closed on weekends. Most shops are open on Saturdays, while some are closed on Sundays.

text: France[edit]

text: The standard working week is Monday to Friday. Shops are also open on Saturday. Small shops may close on a weekday (generally Monday) to compensate workers for having worked on Saturday. By law, préfets may authorise a small number of specific shops to open on Sunday such as bars, cafés, restaurants, and bakeries, which are traditionally open every day but only during the morning on Sunday. Workers are not obliged to work on Sunday. School children have traditionally taken Wednesday off, or had only a half day, making up the time either with longer days for the rest of the week or sometimes a half day on Saturday. This practice was made much less common under new legislation rolled out over 2013–14.[37]

text: Greece[edit]

text: The standard working week is Monday to Friday. State jobs are from 07:00 until 15:00. Shops are open generally Mondays-Wednesdays from 09:30–15:00 and then from 17:30–21:00 and Tuesday-Thursday-Fridays 09:30-21:00. Saturdays generally 09:00-15:00. It is very rare for a shop to open on Sunday.

text: Hungary[edit]

text: In Hungary the working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday. Full-time employment is usually considered forty hours per week. For office workers, the work day usually begins between 8 and 9 o'clock and ends between 16:00 and 18:00, depending on the contract and lunch time agreements.

text: The forty-hour workweek of public servants includes lunch time. Their work schedule typically consists of 8.5 hours between Monday and Thursday (from 8:00 to 16:30) and 6 hours on Fridays (8:00–14:00).

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Ireland has a working week from Monday to Friday, with core working hours from 09:00 to 17:30. Retail stores are usually open until 21:00 every Thursday. Many grocery stores, especially in urban areas, are open until 21:00 or later, and some supermarkets and convenience stores may open around the clock. Shops are generally open all day Saturday and a shorter day Sunday (usually 10:00–12:00 to 17:00–19:00).

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy the 40-hour rule applies: Monday to Friday, 09:00 to 18:00, with a one-hour break for lunch. Sunday is always a holiday; Saturday is seldom a work day at most companies and universities, but it is generally a regular day for elementary, middle, and high schools.

text: In the past, shops had a break from 13:00 to 16:00 and they were generally open until 19:00/20:00. Working times for shops have been changed recently and now are at the owner's discretion; malls are generally open Tuesday to Sunday 09:00 to 20:00, 15:00 to 20:00 on Monday, with no lunchtime closing.[38]

text: Latvia[edit]

text: Latvia has a Monday to Friday working week capped at forty hours.[39] Shops are mostly open on weekends, many large retail chains having full working hours even on Sunday. Private enterprises usually hold hours from 9:00 to 18:00, however government institutions and others may have a shorter working day, ending at 17:00.

text: Luxembourg[edit]

text: The standard working week in Luxembourg is 40 hours per week with 8 hours per day.[40] Monday through Friday is the standard working week, though many shops and businesses open on Saturdays (though for somewhat restricted hours). Trading on Sundays is extremely restricted and generally limited to grocery stores opening on Sunday mornings.[41] However, shops are allowed to open in Luxembourg City during the first Sunday of the month[42], as well as in Luxembourg City and other larger towns on weekends towards the end of the year (Christmas shopping season)[43]. A few shopping malls located in the north of the country and in border towns (e.g. KNAUF[44], MASSEN[45] and Pall Center Pommerloch[46]) are also allowed to open almost every day of the year.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, the standard working week is Monday to Friday (40 hours).[47] Shops are almost always open on Saturdays and often on Sundays.

text: Poland[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops are closed on Sunday. SINCE 11 March 2018 all Malls and shops are close on Sunday trading is banned.

text: Under the new rules, trading will be banned on two Sundays a month.

text: The ban will be stepped up to three Sundays a month in 2019, while in 2020 trading will be prohibited on all Sundays except seven, including those in the run-up to Christmas and Easter.

text: March 11 will be the first Sunday on which trading is banned.

text: Bakeries, confectioners, petrol stations, florists, post offices, train stations and airports will be exempt from the ban.

text: Owners will be able to open their shops as long as they serve customers themselves.

text: Anyone infringing the new rules faces a fine of up to PLN 100,000 (EUR 23,900; USD 29,250). Repeat offenders may face a prison sentence

text: Portugal[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Street shops are almost always open on Saturday mornings but shopping centres are typically open every day (including Saturdays and Sundays).

text: Romania[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Shops are open on Saturday and Sunday. The weekend begins on Friday, and ends on Monday.

text: Slovakia[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops are closed on Sunday. All shops are closed on public holidays.

text: Spain[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. The traditional opening hours are 9:00 to 13:00–14:00 and then 15:00–16:00 to 18:00 for most offices and workplaces. Most shops are open on Saturday mornings and many of the larger shopping malls are open all day Saturday and in some cities like Madrid, they are open most Sundays. Some restaurants, bars, and shops are closed Mondays, as Mondays are commonly a slow business day.[48]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, the standard working week is Monday to Friday, both for offices and industry workers. The standard workday is eight hours, although it may vary greatly between different fields and businesses. Most office workers have flexible working hours and can largely decide themselves on how to divide these over the week. The working week is regulated by Arbetstidslagen (Work time law) to a maximum of 40 hours per week.[49] The 40-hour-week is however easily bypassed by overtime. The law allows a maximum of 200 hours overtime per year.[50] There is however no overseeing government agency; the law is often cited as toothless.[citation needed]

text: Shops are almost always open on Saturdays and often on Sundays, supermarkets and shopping centres, so that employees there have to work. Traditionally, restaurants were closed on Mondays if they were opened during the weekend, but this has in recent years largely fallen out of practice. Many museums do however still remain closed on Mondays.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The traditional business working week is from Monday to Friday (35 to 40 hours depending on contract). In retail, and other fields such as healthcare, days off might be taken on any day of the week. Employers can make their employees work every day of a week, although the employer is required to allow each employee breaks of either a continuous period of 24 hours every week or a continuous period of 48 hours every two weeks.

text: Laws for shop opening hours differ between Scotland and the rest of the UK. In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, many shops and services are open on Saturdays and increasingly so on Sundays as well. In England and Wales, stores' maximum Sunday opening hours vary according to the total floor space of the store.[51] In Scotland, however, there is no restriction in law on shop opening hours on a Sunday.

text: Under the EU Working Time Directive, workers cannot be forced to work for more than 48 hours per week on average. However, the UK allows individuals to opt out if they so choose. Individuals can choose to opt in again after opting out, even if opting out was part of their employment contract. It is illegal to dismiss them or treat them unfairly for so doing – but they may be required to give up to 3 months notice to give the employer time to prepare, depending on what their employment contract says.[52]

text: The minimum holiday entitlement is now 28 days per year, but that can include public holidays, depending on the employee's contract.[53] England & Wales have eight, Scotland has nine, and Northern Ireland has ten permanent public holidays each year.[54][55] The 28 days holiday entitlement means that if the government creates a one-off public holiday in a given year, it is not necessarily a day off and it does not add 1 day to employees' holiday entitlement – unless the employer says otherwise, which some do.

text: Belarus[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday. Working time must not exceed 8 hours per day and 40 hours per week (on average, annualised).

text: India[edit]

text: The standard working week in India for most office jobs begins on Monday and ends on Saturday. The work schedule is 60 hours per week, Sunday being a rest day. However, most government offices and the software industry follow a five-day workweek.[56] All major industries along with services like transport, hospitality, healthcare etc. work in shifts.

text: Central government offices follow a five-day week. State governments follow half-day working on the first, third, and fifth Saturdays of each month and rest on the second and fourth Saturdays, except West Bengal's government which follows a Monday–Friday workweek. There is usually no half working day in the private sector and people work in two or three shifts of 8hours each.

text: Generally establishments other than those having pure desk jobs are open until late evening in most cities, offering more flexibility of time to visitors. Most stores are open for six or seven days a week. Retail shops in malls are open on all days. Doctors are mostly available in morning and evening in their clinics and at hospitals during the day. Doctors usually work twelve hour days, six-days a week. Senior doctors and surgeons work more. Most visiting doctors attached to hospitals visit on all days.

text: Many services are open till 8:00 pm or 9:00 pm. Most restaurants are open on all days. Small eateries open early and bigger ones open around 11:00 am. Most eateries close between 9:00 pm and 11:00 pm. Many highway restaurants called dhabas are open for 24 hours a day. Dhabas are available in large numbers on all major state and national highways; outside city or village limits. Some highway fuel stations are open for 24 hours. Overall India works longer hours in most areas than most of the world and offers more flexibility of time for visitors.

text: Muslim countries[edit]

text: Thursday–Friday weekend[edit]

text: Friday is the Muslim holiday when Jumu'ah prayers take place. Most of the Middle Eastern countries and some other predominantly Muslim countries used to consider Thursday and Friday as their weekend. However, this weekend arrangement is no longer observed by a significant number of Muslim countries (see below).

text: Friday weekend (One day weekend)[edit]

text: Three countries in the Muslim world have Friday as the only weekend day and have a six-day working week.

text:
In Iran, Thursday is half a day of work for most public offices and all schools are closed, but for most jobs, Thursday is a working day. The foreign companies normally have the Friday and Saturdays as their weekends.
In Djibouti, many offices also tend to open early – around 7:00 or 8:00, then closing at 13:00 or 14:00, especially during the summer due to the afternoon heat.

text: Friday–Saturday weekend[edit]

text: Following reforms in a number of Arab states in the Persian Gulf in the 2000s and 2010s, the Thursday–Friday weekend was replaced by the Friday–Saturday weekend. This change provided for the Muslim offering of Friday prayers and afforded more work days to coincide with the working calendars of international financial markets.

text:
Algeria (2009)[57]
Afghanistan (2015)
Bahrain (2006)
Bangladesh
Egypt[58]
Iraq (2005–2006)[58]
Jordan (Week of January 8, 2000)[59][60]
Kuwait (2007)
Libya (2005–2006)
Malaysia (only in the states of Johor, Kelantan, Terengganu, and Kedah)
Maldives (2013)
Oman (2013)
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia (2013)[61][62][63]
Sudan (2008)
Syria (2005–2006)[64]
United Arab Emirates (2006)[29]
Yemen (2013)[65]

text: Saturday–Sunday weekend[edit]

text: Other countries with Muslim-majority populations or significant Muslim populations follow the Saturday–Sunday weekend, such as Indonesia, Lebanon, Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco. While Friday is a working day, a long midday break is given to allow time for worship.

text:
Indonesia On Friday, due to prayer time for Muslims, the lunch break is extended up to 2 hours or more. Shopping malls are always open and very crowded on Saturday and Sunday. Thus, some banks offer weekend banking services, especially for branches located in or near shopping malls.
Lebanon The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Some institutions, however, also work 4 hours on Saturdays . Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops close on Sunday.
Malaysia (Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, Selangor, Perak, Penang, Perlis, Sarawak, Sabah, Pahang, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan except the states of Johor, Kelantan, Terengganu and Kedah, which have a Friday–Saturday weekend)
Mauritania (2014)[66]
Morocco The working week is Monday to Friday, 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week.
Pakistan follows the standard international 40-hour working week, from Monday to Friday, with Saturday and Sunday being the weekend.[67] However, in many schools and enterprises, Friday is usually considered a half-day.
Senegal The working week is Monday to Friday, with a large break on Friday afternoon.
Tunisia The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week.
Turkey Working above 45 hours is considered overtime, and the employer is required to pay 1.5x the hourly wage per hour.

text: Non-contiguous working week[edit]

text: Brunei Darussalam has a non-contiguous working week, consisting of Monday to Thursday plus Saturday. The days of rest are Friday (for Jumu'ah prayers) and Sunday.

text: Some non-government companies in Brunei adopted the working week of Monday to Friday, while the weekend starts on Saturday until Sunday. Depending on the company rules, employees may be required to work half-day on Saturday.

text: Israel[edit]

text: In Israel, the standard workweek is 42 hours as prescribed by law. The typical workweek is five days, Sunday to Thursday, with 8.4 hours a day as the standard, with anything beyond that considered overtime. A minority of jobs operate on a partial six-day Sunday-Friday workweek. [68] Many Israelis work overtime hours, with a maximum of 12 overtime hours a week permitted by law. Most offices and businesses run on a five-day week, though many stores, post offices, banks, and schools are open and public transportation runs six days a week. Almost all businesses are closed during Saturday, and most public services except for emergency services, including almost all public transport, are unavailable on Saturdays. However, some shops, restaurants, cafes, places of entertainment, and factories are open on Saturdays, and a few bus and share taxi lines are active.[69][70][71] Employees who work Saturdays, particularly service industry workers, public sector workers, and pilots, are compensated with alternative days off.[72] In 2014, the average workweek was 45.8 hours for men and 37.1 hours for women.[73]

text: Japan[edit]

text: The standard business office working week in Japan begins on Monday and ends on Friday, 40 hours per week. This system became common between 1980 and 2000. Before then, most workers in Japan worked full-time from Monday to Friday and a half day on Saturday, 45–48 hours per week. Public schools and facilities (excluding city offices) are generally open on Saturdays for half a day.[74]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Mexico has a 48-hour work week (8 hours × 6 days),[75] it is a custom in most industries and trades to work half day on Saturday. Most public employees work Monday to Friday as well in some office companies. Shops and retailers open on Saturday and Sunday in most large cities.

text: Mongolia[edit]

text: Mongolia has a Monday to Friday working week, with a normal maximum time of 40 hours. Most shops are also open on weekends, many large retail chains having full opening hours even on Sunday. Private enterprises conduct business from 9:00 to 18:00, and government institutions may have full working hours.

text: Nepal[edit]

text: Nepal follows the ancient Vedic calendar, which has the resting day on Saturday and the first day of the working week on Sunday.[76] Schools in Nepal are off on Saturdays, so it is common for pupils to go to school from Sunday to Friday.

text: In November 2012, the home ministry proposed a two-day holiday per week plan for all government offices except at those providing essential services like electricity, water, and telecommunications.[77] This proposal followed a previous proposal by the Nepali government, i.e. Load-shedding Reduction Work Plan 2069 BS, for a five working day plan for government offices as part of efforts to address the problem of load-shedding. The proposal has been discussed in the Administration Committee; it is not yet clear whether the plan includes private offices and educational institutions.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: In New Zealand the working week is typically Monday to Friday 8:30 to 17:00, but it is not uncommon for many industries (especially construction) to work a half day on Saturday, normally from 8:00 or 9:00 to about 13:00. Supermarkets, malls, independent retailers, and increasingly, banks, remain open seven days a week.

text: Russia[edit]

text: In Russia the common working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday with 8 hours per day.

text: Federal law defines a working week duration of 5 or 6 days with no more than 40 hours worked. In all cases Sunday is a holiday. With a 5-day working week the employer chooses which day of the week will be the second day off. Usually this is a Saturday, but in some organizations (mostly government), it is Monday. Government offices can thereby offer Saturday service to people with a normal working schedule.

text: There are non-working public holidays in Russia; all of them fall on a fixed date. By law, if such a holiday coincides with an ordinary day off, the next work day becomes a day off. An official public holiday cannot replace a regular day off. Each year the government can modify working weeks near public holidays in order to optimize the labor schedule. For example, if a five-day week has a public holiday on Tuesday or Thursday, the calendar is rearranged to provide a reasonable working week.

text: Exceptions include occupations such as transit workers, shop assistants, and security guards. In many cases independent schemes are used. For example, the service industry often uses the X-through-Y scheme (Russian: X через Y) when every worker uses X days for work and the next Y days for rest.

text: Soviet Union[edit]

text: In the Soviet Union the standard working week was 41 hours: 8 hours, 12 min. Monday to Friday. Before the mid-1960s there was a 42-hour 6-day standard working week: 7 hours Monday to Friday and 6 hours on Saturday.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: In Singapore the common working week is 5-day work week, which runs from Monday to Friday beginning 8:30 a.m. and end at 5 p.m. – 6 p.m. Some companies work a half day on Saturdays. Shops, supermarkets and malls are open seven days a week and on most public holidays.

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa the working week traditionally was Monday to Friday with a half-day on Saturday and Sunday a public holiday. However, since 2013 there have been changes to the working week concept based on more than one variation. The week can be 5 days of work, or more. The maximum number of hours someone can work in a week remains 45.[78]

text: Thailand[edit]

text: In Thailand the working week is Monday to Saturday for a maximum of 44 to 48 hours per week (Saturday can be a half or full day).[citation needed]

text: However, government offices and some private companies have modernised through enacting the American and European standard of working Monday through Friday.[citation needed]

text: Currently, 50% of the luxury beach resorts in Phuket have a five-day working week. Of the remaining 50%, 23% have taken steps to reform their 6-day workweek through such measures as reducing the working week from 6 days to 5.5 days.[citation needed]

text: United States[edit]

text: The standard working week in the United States begins on Monday and ends on Friday, 40 hours per week, with Saturday and Sunday being weekend days. However, in practice, only 42% of employees work 40-hour weeks. The average workweek for full-time employees is 47 hours.[79] Most stores are open for business on Saturday and often on Sunday as well, except in a few places where prohibited by law (see Blue law). Increasingly, employers are offering compressed work schedules to employees. Some government and corporate employees now work a 9/80 work schedule (80 hours over 9 days during a two-week period)—commonly 9 hour days Monday to Thursday, 8 hours on one Friday, and off the following Friday. Jobs in healthcare, law enforcement, transportation, retail, and other service positions commonly require employees to work on the weekend or to do shift work.[80]

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: Vietnam has a standard 48-hour six-day workweek. Monday to Friday are full workdays and Saturday is a partial day. Work typically begins at 8:00 AM and lasts until 5:00 PM from Monday to Friday and until 12:00 PM on Saturdays. This includes a one-hour lunch break. Government offices and banks follow a five-day workweek from Monday to Friday..[81][82]


document_title: United States foreign policy in the Middle East

question_text: when did the us become involved in the middle east

root

text: History[edit]

text: The United States' relationship with the Middle East prior to World War I was limited, although commercial ties existed even in the early 19th century. President Andrew Jackson established formal ties with the Sultan of Muscat and Oman in 1833. (The Sultan saw the U.S. as a potential balance to Britain's overwhelming regional influence.) Commercial relations opened between the U.S. and Persia in 1857, after Britain persuaded the Persian government not to ratify a similar agreement in 1851.[3]

tag: p

text: In comparison to European powers such as Britain and France which had managed to colonize almost all of the Middle East region after defeating the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the United States was "popular and respected throughout the Middle East".[4] Indeed, "Americans were seen as good people, untainted by the selfishness and duplicity associated with the Europeans."[5] American missionaries had brought modern medicine and set up educational institutions all over the Middle East. Moreover, the United States had provided the Middle East with highly skilled petroleum engineers.[6] Thus, there were some connections made between the United States and the Middle East before the Second World War. Other examples of cooperations between the U.S. and the Middle East are the Red Line Agreement signed in 1928 and the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement signed in 1944. Both of these agreements were legally binding and reflected an American interest in control of Middle Eastern energy resources, namely oil, and moreover reflected an American "security imperative to prevent the (re)emergence of a powerful regional rival".[7] The Red Line Agreement had been "part of a network of agreements made in the 1920s to restrict supply of petroleum and ensure that the major [mostly American] companies … could control oil prices on world markets".[8] The Red Line agreement governed the development of Middle East oil for the next two decades. The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 was based on negotiations between the United States and Britain over the control of Middle Eastern oil. Below is shown what the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt had in mind for to a British Ambassador in 1944:

text: Persian oil … is yours. We share the oil of Iraq and Kuwait. As for Saudi Arabian oil, it's ours.[9]

text: On August 8, 1944, the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement was signed, dividing Middle Eastern oil between the United States and Britain. Consequently, political scholar Fred H. Lawson remarks, that by the mid-1944, U.S. officials had buttressed their country's position on the peninsula by concluding an Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement that protected "all valid concession contracts and lawfully acquired rights" belonging to the signatories and established a principle of "equal opportunity" in those areas where no concession had yet been assigned.[10] Furthermore, political scholar Irvine Anderson summarises American interests in the Middle East in the late 19th century and the early 20th century noting that, "the most significant event of the period was the transition of the United States from the position of net exporter to one of net importer of petroleum."[11]

text: By the end of the Second World War, the United States had come to consider the Middle East region as "the most strategically important area of the world."[12] and "one of the greatest material prizes in world history," argues Noam Chomsky.[12] For that reason, it was not until around the period of World War II that America became directly involved in the Middle East region. At this time the region was going through great social, economic and political changes and as a result, internally the Middle East was in turmoil. Politically, the Middle East was experiencing an upsurge in the popularity of nationalistic politics and an increase in the number of nationalistic political groups across the region, which was causing great trouble for the English and French colonial powers.

text: History scholar Jack Watson explains that "Europeans could not hold these lands indefinitely in the face of Arab nationalism".[13] Watson then continues, stating that "by the end of 1946 Palestine was the last remaining mandate, but it posed a major problem".[14] In truth, this nationalistic political trend clashed with American interests in the Middle East, which were, as Middle East scholar Louise Fawcett argues, "about the Soviet Union, access to oil and the project for a Jewish state in Palestine".[15] Hence, Arabist Ambassador Raymond Hare described the Second World War, as "the great divide" in United States' relation with the Middle East, because these three interests would later serve as a backdrop and reasoning for a great deal of American interventions in the Middle East and thus also come to be the cause of several future conflicts between the United States and the Middle East.[5]

text: Formation of Israel[edit]

text: In 1947, the U.S. and the Truman administration, under domestic political pressure, pushed for a solution and resolution on the Arab–Israeli conflict, and in May 1948 the new state of Israel came into existence. This process was not without its fights and loss of lives. Nevertheless, "the first state to extend diplomatic recognition to Israel was the United States; the Soviet Union and several Western nations quickly followed suit. No Arab state, however, recognized Israel."[16]

text: Syria: 1949[edit]

text: Syria became an independent republic in 1946, but the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état, led by Army Chief of Staff Husni al-Za'im, ended the initial period of civilian rule. Za'im met at least six times with CIA operatives in the months prior to the coup to discuss his plan to seize power. Za'im requested American funding or personnel, but it is not known whether this assistance was provided. Once in power, Za'im made several key decisions that benefitted the United States. He approved the Trans-Arabian Pipeline (TAPLINE), an American project designed to transport Saudi Arabian oil to Mediterranean ports. Construction of TAPLINE had been delayed due to Syrian intransigence. Za'im also improved relations with two American allies in the region: Israel and Turkey. He signed an armistice with Israel, formally ending the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and he renounced Syrian claims to Hatay Province, a major source of dispute between Syria and Turkey. Za'im also cracked down on local communists. However, Za'im's regime was short-lived. He was overthrown in August, just four and a half months after seizing power.[17][18][19][20]

text: Mosaddeq and the Shah[edit]

text: Opposed to foreign intervention in Iran and a keen nationalist, Mohammed Mosaddeq became the prime minister of Iran in 1951. Thus, when Mosaddeq was elected he chose to nationalize the Iranian oil industry, where previously British holdings had generated great profits for Britain through the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Furthermore, prior to the nationalisation of Iranian oil Mosaddeq had also cut all diplomatic ties with Britain.[21] The Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was opposed to the nationalisation of Iranian oil as he feared this would result in an oil embargo, which would destroy Iran's economy and thus, the Shah was very concerned with the effect of Mosaddeq's policies on Iran. Equally worried were workers in the Iranian oil industry, when they experienced the economic effect of the sanctions on Iranian oil exports which Mosaddeq's policies had resulted in, and riots were happening across Iran.[22]

text: Thus, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi asked Mosaddeq to resign, as was the Shah's constitutional right, but Mosaddeq refused, which resulted in national uprisings. The Shah, fearing for his personal security, fled the country but nominated General Fazlollah Zahedi as new Prime Minister. Although General Fazlollah Zahedi was a nationalist, he did not agree with the Mosaddeq's lenient attitude towards the communist Tudeh party, which the United States had also become increasingly concerned with, fearing Soviet influence spreading in the Middle East. Therefore, in late 1952, the British government asked the U.S. administration for help with the removal of Mohammed Mosaddeq. President Harry S. Truman thought Mossadeq was a valuable bulwark against Soviet influence.[23] However, Truman left office in January 1953, and the new administration of Dwight Eisenhower shared British concern over Mossadeq. Allen Dulles, the director of the CIA, approved one million dollars on April 4, 1953 to be used "in any way that would bring about the fall of Mossadegh"[24] Consequently, after a failed attempt on August 15, "on August 19, 1953, General Fazlollah Zahedi succeeded [with the help of the United States and Britain] and Mossadegh was overthrown. The CIA covertly funneled five million dollars to General Zahedi's regime on August 21, 1953."[24]

text: This CIA operation, often referred to as Operation Ajax and led by CIA officer Kermit Roosevelt, Jr., ensured the return of the Shah on August 22, 1953.[22]

text: The Suez Crisis[edit]

text: Today more than a quarter of the world's oil is shipped through the Suez Canal.[25]

text: Although accepting large sums of military aid from the United States in 1954, by 1956 Egyptian leader Nasser had grown tired of the American influence in the country. The involvement that the U.S. would take in Egyptian business and politics in return for aid, Nasser thought "smacked of colonialism."[26] Indeed, as political scholar B.M. Bleckman argued in 1978, "Nasser had ambivalent feelings toward the United States. From 1952 to 1954 he was on close terms with U.S. officials and was viewed in Washington as a promising moderate Arab leader. The conclusion of an arms deal with the USSR in 1955, however, had cooled the relationship between Cairo and Washington considerably, and the Dulles-Eisenhower decision to withdraw the offer to finance the Aswan High Dam in mid-1956 was a further blow to the chances of maintaining friendly ties. Eisenhower's stand against the British, French, and Israeli attack on Egypt in October 1956 created a momentary sense of gratitude on the part of Nasser, but the subsequent development of the Eisenhower Doctrine, so clearly aimed at 'containing' Nasserism, undermined what little goodwill existed toward the United States in Cairo."[27] "The Suez Crisis of 1956 marked the demise of British power and its gradual replacement by USA as the dominant power in the Middle East."[28] The Eisenhower Doctrine became a manifestation of this process. "The general objective of the Eisenhower Doctrine, like that of the Truman Doctrine formulated ten years earlier, was the containment of Soviet expansion."[29] Furthermore, when the Doctrine was finalised on March 9, 1957, it "essentially gave the president the latitude to intervene militarily in the Middle East … without having to resort to Congress."[30] indeed as, Middle East scholar Irene L. Gerdzier explains "that with the Eisenhower Doctrine the United States emerged "as the uncontested Western power … in the Middle East."[31]

text: Meanwhile, in Jordan nationalistic anti-government rioting broke out and the United States decided to send a battalion of marines to Lebanon in case of possibly having to intervene in Jordan later that year. Moreover, attempting to keep the pro-American King Hussein of Jordan in power, the CIA started to make secret payments of millions of dollars a year to King Hussein. In the same year, the U.S. supported allies in Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey and Saudi Arabia and sent fleets to be near Syria as Syria's government had executed nationalistic and pro-Soviet policies the same year.[32] However, 1958 was to become a difficult year in U.S. foreign policy; in 1958 Syria and Egypt were merged into the "United Arab Republic", anti-American and anti-government revolts started occurring in Lebanon, causing the Lebanese president Chamoun to ask America for help, and the very pro-American King Feisal the 2nd of Iraq was overthrown by a group of nationalistic military officers.[33] It was quite "commonly believed that [Nasser] … stirred up the unrest in Lebanon and, perhaps, had helped to plan the Iraqi revolution."[34]

text: The Six Day War and Black September[edit]

text: In June 1967 Israel fought with Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in the Six-Day War. As a result of the war, Israel captured the West Bank, Golan Heights, and the Sinai Peninsula. The U.S. supported Israel with weapons and continued to support Israel financially throughout the 1970s. On September 17, 1970, with U.S. and Israeli help, Jordanian troops attacked PLO guerrilla camps, while Jordan's U.S.-supplied air force dropped napalm from above. The U.S. deployed the aircraft carrier Independence and six destroyers off the coast of Lebanon and readied troops in Turkey to support the assault.

text: The American interventions in the years before the Iranian revolution have all proven to be based in part on economic considerations, but more so have been influenced and led by the international Cold War context.[35]

text: Iran–Iraq War[edit]

text: Support for Iraq[edit]

text: Support for Iran[edit]

text: Saudi Arabia[edit]

text: Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies,[36][37][38] but relations with the U.S. became strained following September 11 attacks.[39]

text: In March 2015, President Barack Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a "Joint Planning Cell" with Saudi Arabia.[40] The report by Human Rights Watch stated that US-made bombs were being used in attacks indiscriminately targeting civilians and violating the laws of war.[41]

text: Afghanistan and Pakistan[edit]

text: Afghanistan and Pakistan, though situated in South Asia, are considered part of the Greater Middle East. U.S. intervention in both Afghanistan and Pakistan started with the Carter Administration after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The relations of the U.S. with Afghanistan and Pakistan have been closely tied to the War on terrorism that has happened there. American policy has been instrumental in coordinating the ongoing conflicts in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. In recent times, political situations of both countries have been bracketed under a single theater of operations, denoted by the newly coined American term "AfPak."[42]

text: Iraq (2003–present)[edit]

text: Libya (2011–present)[edit]

text: Syria (2011–present)[edit]

text: Turkey[edit]

text: Coup attempt (2016)[edit]

text: On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted in Turkey by a faction within the Turkish Armed Forces against state institutions, including, but not limited to the government and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.

text: The Turkish government accused the coup leaders of being linked to the Gülen movement, which is designated as a terrorist organization by the Republic of Turkey and led by Fethullah Gülen, a Turkish businessman and cleric who lives in Pennsylvania, United States. Erdoğan accuses Gülen of being behind the coup—a claim that Gülen denies—and accused the United States of harboring him. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan accused the head of United States Central Command, chief General Joseph Votel[43] of "siding with coup plotters," (after Votel accused the Turkish government of arresting the Pentagon's contacts in Turkey).[44]

text: American allies[edit]

text:
Israel (see Israel–United States relations)
Saudia Arabia (see Saudi Arabia–United States relations)

tag: ul

text: Iraqi Kurdistan (see Iraqi Kurdistan–United States relations)

text:
Syrian Democratic Forces
Free Syrian Army

text: Criticism[edit]


document_title: 5 Seconds of Summer

question_text: when was the last time 5sos released music

text: 5 Seconds of Summer

text: History

text: 2011–2012: Origin and debut

text: 5 Seconds of Summer began in 2011 when Luke Hemmings, Michael Clifford, and Calum Hood, who all attended Norwest Christian College, started posting videos of themselves performing covers of popular songs together on Hemmings' YouTube channel. Hemmings' first video, a cover of Mike Posner's "Please Don't Go", was posted on the 3rd February in 2011. Their cover of Chris Brown's "Next to You" received over 600,000 hits.[1] In December 2011, they were joined by drummer Ashton Irwin,[2] and the four-man lineup was completed.[3]

text: The band attracted interest from major music labels and publishers and signed a publishing deal with Sony ATV Music Publishing.[4] Despite having had no promotion apart from on Facebook and Twitter,[4] their first music release, an EP entitled Unplugged, reached number 3 on the iTunes chart in Australia[4] and the Top 20 in both New Zealand and Sweden. Their international following increased significantly once again when One Direction member Louis Tomlinson posted the link to their YouTube video of their song "Gotta Get Out", stating that he'd been a fan of 5 Seconds of Summer "for a while". 5 Seconds of Summer were once again the subject of interest for One Direction following the release of their first single, "Out of My Limit", on 19 November 2012, this time with Niall Horan tweeting the link to the video clip.

text: 5 Seconds of Summer spent the second half of 2012 writing and developing their sound with Christian Lo Russo and Joel Chapman of Australian band Amy Meredith, with whom they wrote two of the songs that feature on their second EP Somewhere New: "Beside You" and "Unpredictable".[5] The EP was also co-produced by Joel Chapman. 5 Seconds of Summer released their first single "Out of My Limit" on 19 November 2012, with the video clip for the song receiving over 100,000 views within the first 24 hours.[6] In December 2012, the boys embarked on a songwriting trip to London, where they wrote with various artists including McFly,[7] Roy Stride of Scouting for Girls, Nick Hodgson of Kaiser Chiefs,[8] Jamie Scott,[9] Jake Gosling, Steve Robson and James Bourne of Busted.[10]

text: 2013–2014: 5 Seconds of Summer and LiveSOS

text: On 14 February 2013, it was announced that 5 Seconds of Summer would support One Direction on their worldwide Take Me Home Tour.[11] The tour kicked off at the O2 Arena in London on 23 February 2013, and 5 Seconds of Summer joined One Direction for shows in the UK, US, Australia and New Zealand, including seven shows at Allphones Arena in 5 Seconds of Summer's home town of Sydney.[12] Whilst on a break from the Take Me Home Tour, 5 Seconds of Summer returned home to Australia where they played a National headlining tour, with all dates selling out within minutes. It was around this time when the band began to gain popularity and become more well-known.[13] On 21 November 2013, the band announced that they had signed to Capitol Records.[14]

text: On 5 February 2014, 5 Seconds of Summer listed their debut major label single "She Looks So Perfect" for pre-order on the iTunes Store.

text: The connection between 5SOS and One Direction extends to both artists being managed by London-based Modest Management. This has led to 5SOS being called a boy band in the media.[15] Members of the band have said the group is not a boy band.[16] Unlike many boy bands, they write their own songs, play their own instruments, and they are not primarily a dance group.[17] Nevertheless, the band has attracted a fanatic following of girls much like other boy bands.[18] Ashton Irwin has compared the band's female following to Fall Out Boy which also has a sizable female fanbase. John Feldmann, frontman of Goldfinger and producer on 5 Seconds of Summer, attributes 5 Seconds of Summer's fanbase to "a fundamental change in the pop punk demo[graphic]", mentioning its gradual shift away from the majority-male audiences of early 1990s pop punk acts such as Blink-182 and Green Day.[19]

text: On 5 March, it was announced that 5 Seconds of Summer would join One Direction again, supporting them on their 2014 Where We Are Tour in the US, Canada, UK and Europe.[20] On 9 April 2014, their third EP She Looks So Perfect debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200.[21]

text: In late March 2014, "She Looks So Perfect" was released in UK. Despite only one day on top in the British iTunes store and ending its week in the lower end of the top 10, 5 Seconds of Summer became only the fourth Australian band to have a UK number-one single, and the first to do so in 14 years.[22]

text: On 9 May, they released their second single, "Don't Stop". It debuted at No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart, 3,000 behind Ella Henderson's "Ghost".[23] Billboard said 'In the vein of Green Day's "She" and Blink-182's "All The Small Things," "Don't Stop" is 5SOS' bid for a deceptively charming pop-punk anthem, with lyrics that are stickily sweet in their awkward flirtatiousness. The bridge could be more polished, but that hook is a highlight of the whole album'.[24] It peaked at 1 in 4 countries and was in the top 10 for 8 countries overall.

text: On 13 May, the band announced that their debut self-titled album would be released on 27 June 2014 in Europe and Australia, with other releases coming later. The album won a Kerrang! award; Luke Hemmings said it was a real honour to win one, as all the band's idols are in Kerrang!.[25] The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Chart and peaked at No. 1 in 13 countries as well as the Top 10 in 26 countries. On 15 June 2015, the band released their fourth EP Don't Stop, which was not available to purchase in the USA, Canada and Mexico.[26]

text: On 15 July, the band released their third single, "Amnesia", which was the only song not written by the band members themselves, but by Benji and Joel Madden of Good Charlotte, an American pop punk band. Billboard said of the track, "With a surprisingly affecting vocal performance and the most searing lyrics on the album, new single "Amnesia" establishes itself as 5 Seconds of Summer's successful Serious Pose. Taking older listeners back to the relative heartache of dissolving high school romance, "Amnesia" demonstrates the versatility of 5SOS, and one wonders why it's buried at the end of the group's debut album."[24] On 5 September 2014, they released their fifth EP Amnesia, but not available in America and Mexico.[27]

text: On 12 October, the band released their fourth single, "Good Girls", and the music video logged over two million views within 48 hours, making it their highest debut to date.[28] On 16 November 2014, they released their sixth EP Good Girls and become number one on UK iTunes Chart.[29] The band released a cover song "What I Like About You" by American rock band The Romantics as the first single from their live album LIVESOS.[30]

text: The band released their first live album, LiveSOS, on 15 December 2014.[31]

text: 2015–present: Sounds Good Feels Good and Youngblood

text: In May 2015, the band embarked on their first headlining tour, Rock Out With Your Socks Out Tour, of Europe, Australia, New Zealand and North America.[32][33][34] On 17 July 2015, 5 Seconds of Summer released the first single, "She's Kinda Hot", from their second studio album.

text: On 12 August 2015, the band announced that their second studio album was titled Sounds Good Feels Good. It was released worldwide on 23 October 2015. On 28 August 2015, the band released their seventh EP, She's Kinda Hot, in the UK and Ireland only.[35] On 9 October 2015 the band released "Hey Everybody!" as the second single from their second album.

text: On 9 October 2015, the band announced their Sounds Live Feels Live World Tour.

text: The band released a music video for "Jet Black Heart" on 17 December 2015, featuring members of their fan group.

text: On 3 June 2016, the band announced their single "Girls Talk Boys". The song was included on the Ghostbusters (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack). It was released on 15 July 2016.[36]

text: In 2016, the band embarked on their Sounds Live Feels Live World Tour, which included sold out stadiums and arenas. On January 13, 2017, the band featured on the song "Take What You Want" by Japanese rock band One Ok Rock, from their eighth studio album, Ambitions.[37]

text: On 22 February 2018, the band released the single "Want You Back" and announced a 2018 tour.[38][39]

text: On 9 April 2018, the band announced that their third studio album, Youngblood, will be released on 22 June 2018.[40] The second single from the album, the title track, became the group's second Australian number-one single in May 2018.[41]

text: Hi or Hey Records

text: On 27 January 2014, 5SOS announced that they would be setting up their own label, Hi or Hey Records.[42]

text: On the Hi or Hey Records website, the band explained that not only would they be releasing all of their music through Hi or Hey Records in conjunction with Capitol Records, but they would also be signing a roster of their own bands and releasing them via the label.[43]

text: On 24 March 2015, the label signed pop rock band Hey Violet.[44]

text: Musical style and influences

text: 5 Seconds of Summer's musical style has been described as pop rock,[45][46][47][48] pop punk,[49][45][50][51] power pop,[52][53] and pop.[54][55] Rolling Stone magazine called them "emo-gone-pop".[56] Matt Collar of AllMusic found reminiscent of "'90s punk-pop" and "2000s boy band pop" into their sound.[57] John Feldmann of Goldfinger stated "this is the best pop-punk band I've ever heard".[58] They cite McFly, Blink-182, All Time Low, Mayday Parade, Green Day, My Chemical Romance,[59][60] Boys Like Girls and Busted as their influences.[61][62]

text: Band members

text:
Luke Hemmings – vocals, rhythm and lead guitar, piano
Calum Hood – vocals, bass guitar, keyboards
Michael Clifford – lead and rhythm guitar, vocals, keyboards
Ashton Irwin – drums, keyboards, vocals

text: Discography

text:
5 Seconds of Summer (2014)
Sounds Good Feels Good (2015)
Youngblood (2018)

text: Tours

text: Headlining

text:
Mini Australian Tour (2012)
Twenty Twelve Tour[63] (June 2012)
First New Zealand Show[64] (3 November 2012)
Pants Down Tour (2013) (Australia)
UK Tour[65] (February & March 2014)
5 Countries 5 Days European Tour[66] (March & April 2014) (Sweden, Germany, France, Italy & Spain)
Stars, Stripes and Maple Syrup Tour (April 2014) (North America)
There's No Place Like Home Tour (May 2014) (Australia)[67]
Rock Out with Your Socks Out Tour (May – September 2015) (UK, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada)[32][33][34]
Sounds Live Feels Live World Tour (2016) (Asia, UK, Ireland, Europe, USA, Canada, Mexico, Australia)[68]
5SOS III Tour (2018)
Meet You There Tour (2018)

text: Opening act

text:
Hot Chelle Rae – Whatever World Tour[69] (October 2012)
One Direction – Take Me Home Tour[70] (2013)
One Direction – Where We Are Tour (2014)
One Direction – On the Road Again Tour[71] (2015) 4 shows in Japan only


document_title: Ciliary body

question_text: accommodation and aqueous production are a function of the

text: Ciliary body

text: Structure[edit]

text: The ciliary body is a ring-shaped thickening of tissue inside the eye that divides the posterior chamber from the vitreous body. It contains the ciliary muscle, vessels, and fibrous connective tissue. Folds on the inner ciliary epithelium are called ciliary processes, and these secrete aqueous humor into the posterior chamber. The aqueous humor then flows through the pupil into the anterior chamber.[3]

text: The ciliary body is attached to the lens by connective tissue called the zonular fibers (fibers of Zinn). Relaxation of the ciliary muscle puts tension on these fibers and changes the shape of the lens in order to focus light on the retina.

text: The inner layer is transparent and covers the vitreous body, and is continuous from the neural tissue of the retina. The outer layer is highly pigmented, continuous with the retinal pigment epithelium, and constitutes the cells of the dilator muscle. This double membrane is often considered continuous with the retina and a rudiment of the embryological correspondent to the retina. The inner layer is unpigmented until it reaches the iris, where it takes on pigment. The retina ends at the ora serrata.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: The parasympathetic innervation of the ciliary body is the most clearly understood. Presynaptic parasympathetic signals that originate in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus are carried by cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) and travel through the ciliary ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers from the ciliary ganglion form the short ciliary nerves. Parasympathetic activation of the M3 muscarinic receptors causes ciliary muscle contraction, the effect of contraction is to decrease the diameter of the ring of ciliary muscle.[4] The parasympathetic tone is dominant when a higher degree of accommodation of the lens is required, such as reading a book.[5]

text: The ciliary body is also known to receive sympathetic innervation via long ciliary nerves.[6] When test subjects are startled, their eyes automatically adjust for distance vision.[7]

text: Function[edit]

text: The ciliary body has three functions: accommodation, aqueous humor production and resorption, and maintenance of the lens zonules for the purpose of anchoring the lens in place.

text: Accommodation[edit]

text: Accommodation essentially means that when the ciliary muscle contracts, the lens becomes more convex, generally improving the focus for closer objects. When it relaxes, it flattens the lens, generally improving the focus for farther objects.

text: Aqueous humor[edit]

text: The ciliary epithelium of the ciliary processes produces aqueous humor, which is responsible for providing oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic waste removal to the lens and the cornea, which do not have their own blood supply. Eighty percent of aqueous humor production is carried out through active secretion mechanisms (the Na+K+ATPase enzyme creating an osmotic gradient for the passage of water into the posterior chamber) and twenty percent is produced through the ultrafiltration of plasma. Intraocular pressure affects the rate of ultrafiltration, but not secretion.[8]

text: Lens zonules[edit]

text: The zonular fibers collectively make up the suspensory ligament of the lens. These provide strong attachments between the ciliary muscle and the capsule of the lens.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Glaucoma is a group of ocular disorders characterized by high intraocular pressure-associated neuropathies.[9] Intraocular pressure depends on the levels of production and resorption of aqueous humor. Because the ciliary body produces aqueous humor, it is the main target of many medications against glaucoma. Its inhibition leads to the lowering of aqueous humor production and causes a subsequent drop in the intraocular pressure. There 3 main types of medication affecting the ciliary body:[10][11]

text:
Beta blockers, the second most common treatment method for glaucoma, reduce the production of aqueous humor. They are relatively inexpensive and are available in generic form. Timolol, Levobunolol, and Betaxolol are common beta blockers prescribed to treat glaucoma.
Alpha-adrenergic agonists work by decreasing production of fluid and increasing drainage. Brimonidine and Apraclonidine are two commonly prescribes alpha agonists for glaucoma treatment. Alphagan P uses a purite preservative, which is better tolerated those who have allergic reactions than the older BAK preservative in other eye drops.[12] Furthermore, less selective alpha agonists such as [epinephrine] may decrease the production of aqueous humor through vasoconstriction of the ciliary body (only for open-angle glaucoma).[citation needed]
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors also decrease fluid production. They are available as eye drops (Trusopt and Azopt) and pills (Diamox and Neptazane). This may be helpful if using more than one type of eye medication.[citation needed]