document_title: The Dark Is Rising Sequence

question_text: who is the lady in the dark is rising

question_tokens: who is the lady in the dark is rising

text: The Dark Is Rising Sequence

text: Characters[edit]

text: Simon, Jane, and Barney Drew: The main characters of the first novel, the Drew siblings, are human children who have known Merriman Lyon as their "Great Uncle Merry" for years. While on holiday in Cornwall, they get caught up in the battle between the Light and the Dark and join the search for the Things of Power. In the first novel, Over Sea, Under Stone, they search for the legendary Grail of King Arthur. They also appear in the third book, Greenwitch, and the last book in the series, Silver on the Tree. In the poem featured prominently throughout The Dark Is Rising, they are the ones referred to as "three from the track". Their last name is linked with Will Stanton's in British paleohistory; see Stanton Drew stone circles.

text:
Simon Drew: Simon is the eldest of the Drews. In Over Sea, Under Stone, Simon and Barney are the two to go into the cave and retrieve the Grail. In Greenwitch, he is jealous of Will because Merriman brought him to Cornwall for "unnecessary" reasons, but eventually warms up to him. He loves sailing and anything to do with ships.
Jane Drew: Jane is the middle Drew. In Greenwitch, Jane is allowed to attend the Greenwitch ceremony, which is traditionally for female locals only, and through her compassion develops a special bond with the entity which constitutes the magical aspect of the Greenwitch. She subsequently receives from the entity the case containing the coded manuscript for deciphering the runes on the Grail. She also develops a special bond with the Lady of the Light in Silver on the Tree.
Barnabas (Barney) Drew: Barney is the youngest of the Drews. He loves King Arthur legends and, although he is quite wary of his talent at first, paints. In Greenwitch, Barney sketches a picture of the bay, which is later stolen by an agent of the Dark, but Merriman recovers it and presents it to Tethys as a gift.

text: Old Ones: Ancient and immortal, the Old Ones are mystical beings who possess great magical power. They are found in all parts of the world and are of many races and cultures. Capable of performing many seemingly impossible feats, including freezing time and controlling the elements, they serve the Light in the war against the Dark. The Great Lords of the Dark have many similar characteristics and abilities but are not Old Ones. The two factions struggle to determine the destiny of mankind; while the Light fights for freedom and free will, the Dark fights for chaos, confusion and the subversion of man's agency.

text: Will Stanton: The main character of the second novel, and a major character in the entire series, he is the seventh son of a seventh son, in a large, close human family. His eleventh birthday[b] marks the beginning of his magical awakening and rise to power as the last of the Old Ones. The Dark Is Rising tells how he came to power, met Merriman Lyon, and accumulated the six "signs" to help fight the Dark. Will is the last of the Old Ones; no others will be born after him. In Greenwitch, he is invited to come to Cornwall by Merriman in order to help recover the Grail and cypher that reveals how to read the runes on the Grail. He later gives Jane a bracelet of gold engraved with the words, "power from the Greenwitch", which she throws into the sea as an offering to the Greenwitch in appreciation for its help. In The Grey King, Will goes to Wales to recover from sickness, where he meets Bran and awakens the Sleepers. In Silver on the Tree, Will travels with Bran to the Lost Land to recover the crystal sword Eirias, and helps to vanquish the Dark. Will is the only Old One to remain on Earth afterward, and the only one of the Light's allies who remembers the struggle against the Dark; in this, he is referred to as "the watchman", staying behind to keep watch for any attempt by the Dark to return.

text: Cooper named Will for William Shakespeare.[5]

text: Merriman Lyon: Merriman is the first Old One. He and Will Stanton have a special bond as each of them is one end of the long line of Old Ones. It is said that with the birth and coming to power of Will Stanton, the circle of Old Ones is complete. A friend of the Drew family for over a generation, he assisted Barney, Jane, and Simon in their quest for the Grail, in addition to protecting them until their task was completed; they occasionally refer to him as "Great Uncle Merry" or "Gumerry". Throughout the series Merriman is portrayed in numerous historical periods, but particularly as King Arthur's chief adviser, the mythical Merlin, as Arthur calls him "Mer Lion", old English for "my lion", in Silver on the Tree.

text: The Lady: The Lady is the most powerful of the Old Ones. Gentle, wise and enigmatic, she is a pivotal figure throughout the series, appearing usually at important moments to turn the tide in the Light's favor. She is an especial friend and mentor to Will and Jane. At one point in The Dark Is Rising, Will Stanton makes a critical mistake during a battle with the Dark and is saved by the Lady. Merriman tells Will that the Lady on her own is the only Old One able to overcome the full power of the Dark, although at a great cost. The sacrifice by the Lady is a critical point in the Story because she is a key element of the battle. At a later high ceremony of Old Ones, the Lady is missing and Merriman tells Will that her depleted power prevents her arrival, and she is beyond their magic to rescue but will return. She represents the Lady of the Lake, or the Lady of Avalon, King Arthur's sister, as they both embark on Arthur's boat Pridwen in Silver on the Tree.[6] The Lady, like King Arthur, is affiliated with The Light and the High Magic. In Silver on the Tree, she initially can only communicate with Jane Drew, the one girl among the Six, telling Jane they share a special bond in being female, and calls her "Jane, Jana, Juno", referring to Jana (in Roman mythology, a variant form of Diana) or Juno, the queen of the gods.

text: The Black Rider: One of the great Lords of the Dark, comparable to Merriman in power and influence. The Rider is the major nemesis of Will during his many trials. He patronises John Wayland Smith's establishment, where he meets Will for the first time and attempts to bring Will over to the Dark. He is given one name by the humans in the story: Mitothin (a name connected with the jötunn Loki, who helps bring about Ragnarok).

text: The White Rider: Another servant and Lord of the Dark, introduced in Silver on the Tree. The White Rider is almost equal in power to the Black Rider, and despite being feminine in her true form, often affects a masculine guise while attacking agents of the Light. She is revealed as disguising herself as Blodwen Rowlands, an "aunt" figure to Bran Davies. She acts kind and caring, to keep an eye on Bran while developing emotional bonds, while controlling events around Cader Idris, which means "chair of Arthur", and the Sleepers. Will Stanton hypothesized that the monochromatic 'color' of the White Rider's robes, like those of the Black Rider, reflected the extremism of their evil—either darkened by their ignorance, or blinded by the brightness of their ideas.

text: The Walker: A human who betrayed the Light and was cursed to carry the Sign of Bronze, one of six Things of Power that repel the Dark, through the centuries until the last Old One claimed it from him. The Walker was once Hawkin, a liege man and foster son of Merriman during the 13th century. His betrayal of the Light stemmed largely from Merriman's acceptance of Hawkin's willingness to sacrifice his life to protect the Book of Gramarye, the secrets of which the human Hawkin can neither possess nor partake of. In The Dark Is Rising his appearance in Will Stanton's town precipitates Will's "awakening" and rise to power. He presents Will with his second sign.

text: The Sleepers: Ancient knights who served during the time of King Arthur. In The Grey King they are awakened from a mystic slumber by the Harp of the Light, to ride against the Dark during the final battle in Silver on the Tree.

text: Pendragon: This is a reference to two characters. First, it is the figurative title referring to status as a leader, of several traditional Kings of the Britons, notably King Arthur. It is also his son in this series, Bran Davies, who is predestined to wield the Crystal Sword of Light that is vital to the final conflict with the Dark. Bran Davies is brought forward in time by Merriman at the request of his mother, Guinevere, who feared that Arthur would reject Bran as a true son because of Guinevere's affair with Lancelot. Bran is an albino, meaning he has very pale skin and white hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes, but his eyes are an unusual tawny color. Will meets him in Wales during The Grey King, where they wake the Sleepers using the Harp. In Silver on the Tree, Bran and Will travel to the Lost Land and recover the sword Eirias.

text: The rooks: The majority of these birds are servants of the Dark and attract their forces wherever they are seen.

text: Farmer Dawson: An Old One who lives near Will Stanton and presents him with his first Sign.

text: John Wayland Smith: Another Old One who lives near Will Stanton; he is also a skilled smith. Though he is affiliated with the Light, he aids all who pass in his smithy. It is suggested that he might be the legendary Saxon smith, Weyland, the Saxon equivalent of the legendary elf smith Volund.

text: Artefacts[edit]

text: Things of Power: The Old Ones have four Things of Power that will be used in the final battle which will allow them to defeat the Dark: the circle of Signs, the Grail, the Harp, and the Sword. They are obtained in The Dark Is Rising, Over Sea, Under Stone, The Grey King, and Silver on the Tree, respectively. Greenwitch is the story of the recovery of the stolen Grail.

text:
The Signs: A set of six circles quartered (divided evenly in four sections) by crosses. The six signs are each made of a different material and represent a different element: wood, bronze, iron, water, fire, and stone. The six Signs represent the Six champions of the Light, referred to in the recurring Poem of the Dark Is Rising series, as "three from the Circle, three from the Track". When used, the signs have the power to repel the Dark.
The Grail: Presumably the source of the King Arthur Holy Grail legend, it is an artefact of power used by the Light. There are markings on it in a writing similar to Ogham, which is long lost. It is eventually translated by the Old Ones, thanks to a coded manuscript inside a metal case held by the Greenwitch.
The Harp (the harp of gold): A golden harp that is obtained by Will Stanton and Bran Davies from a triumvirate of the High Magic by answering three riddles. The Light uses it in The Grey King in order to wake the Sleepers in preparation for the final battle. Whoever plays the harp creates powerful music that negates any magic, through the protection of the High Magic.
The Crystal Sword: A magical sword, commissioned by the Light, crafted in the magical Lost Lands by the Lost King. It is named Eirias; therefore, "blazing", also called sword of the sunrise. In the presence of the Dark, it burns with blue fire. It can cut portals through magical barriers, as seen in Silver on the Tree, and is encased in a magical scabbard of invisibility. It is used by Bran Davies, the Pendragon, heir of King Arthur, to cut the one fully blossomed silver flower on the Midsummer's Tree, which is caught by Merriman.

text: The Book of Gramarye: The ancient Book of the Old Ones, it is an Old One's rite of passage, while also teaching everything about their powers, and through it, they experience the magical spells. Gramarye, or grimoire, from the Old French word grammaire and the Old English word grammar, initially referred to all books, most written in Latin, which almost no one could read, and perceived by the masses as "magical". The Book of Gramarye is protected by an enchanted device of a pendulum in a longcase clock, that if touched, will detonate and destroy any human that attempts to gain access to the book. This powerful book is further protected in that it is written in the Old Speech, which only an Old One can read and understand. It is blasted out of existence by Merriman after Will has read it.

text: The Doors: A set of carved oak doors that lead through Time. Old Ones can summon these doors to appear at will to transport themselves through time and space. The doors disappear when the Old Ones pass through them, accompanied by the haunting bell chime music of the Light. Their origin is not explained in the books.

text: Midsummer's Tree: In Chiltern, England, The Tree produces a silver flower, which blooms once every 700 years, and is the final challenge for the Six of the Light. The person who obtains the silver flower gains control of the High Magic, to put out of Time the Dark or the Light forever. Bran Davies, the Pendragon and heir of King Arthur, wields the Crystal Sword to cut the fully blossomed silver flower on the Midsummer's Tree, which is caught by Merriman, making the Light victorious.

text: The Magics[edit]

text: Old Magic: A powerful elemental magic, of which the Light and the Dark are the two opposite extremes.

text: Wild Magic: The magic of nature, first used in The Dark Is Rising to provide strength to the forces of the Light in the book's final battle. In Greenwitch, we learn that the Wild Magic is equal in strength to both the Dark and the Light, but that it stands apart and is unaffected by either.

text: High Magic: The most powerful magic, being of the Cosmos. A spell of this type is used by the Old Ones in Greenwitch to be able to communicate with Tethys, the Queen of the Sea, and plead for her help in obtaining the scroll that will help translate the writing on the Grail. In The Grey King, Will Stanton and Bran Davies obtain the Harp of Gold from a place guarded by the High Magic after being tested by a Lord of the Dark, a Lord of the Light, and a Lord of the High Magic.

text: Miscellaneous[edit]

text: Old Speech: This is the spoken form of the ancient language of the Old Ones. When an Old One comes to power, this language is used instinctively by the Old One when speaking to members of the Light or the Dark. Will Stanton begins to do this without even realizing it. When an Old One speaks the Old Speech in front of a normal human, it will sound like gibberish. Some agents of the Dark, such as the Rider, can also speak Old Speech, but with a distinctive accent which gives them away to the Old Ones.

text: Rhymes[edit]

text: Small rhyming prophecies serve to guide the protagonists throughout the series. Science Fiction author and filker Julia Ecklar has set these rhyming prophecies to music, and the resulting song, also called "The Dark Is Rising", won the 1997 Pegasus Award for Best Sorcery Song.[7]

text: Works in the series[edit]

text: Over Sea, Under Stone[edit]

text: The characters in this book, which was published several years before the others, are younger than those in the rest of the series, and the issues are presented as less cosmic. Overall the book is aimed at younger readers more than the other four books in the series.

text: In this tale, Susan Cooper introduces the audience to Merriman, a pivotal character for the forces of the Light and also ties him with Simon, Jane and Barney Drew, three young mortal children, in a quest by the sea which will lead them over sea and under stone to find a grail of legend to help the Light in its struggle against the Dark.

text: The Dark Is Rising[edit]

text: In this second book, Will Stanton begins to have strange experiences on his 11th[b] birthday, just before Christmas. He soon learns he is one of the Old Ones, a guardian and warrior for the Light. He learns that he must help find the four Things of Power for the Light in order to battle the forces of the Dark. The first of these Things of Power is the Circle of Six Signs. This book is the key book for the main character, Will Stanton. It is in this book that he collects the six signs which become the Circle of Signs, one of the Things of Power, by finding the additional five mandalas (he has been given one earlier) and uses the completed Circle to ward off the forces of the Dark. The book features elements of English folklore that are especially associated with the Thames Valley, with Herne the Hunter making an appearance.

text: The Dark is Rising was one American Library Association Newbery Honor Book in 1974. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association named it one of "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children".[8] In 2012 it was ranked number 22 among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily U.S. audience.[9]

text: Greenwitch[edit]

text: This story returns to the characters introduced in Over Sea, Under Stone, uniting them with Will Stanton, and involves a quest for magic from beneath the sea.

text: Jane Drew witnesses the creation of a ritualistic offering known as the 'Greenwitch', and senses both great power and great sadness in it. She wishes that the Greenwitch could be happy, and that wish has important consequences later when it turns out that the Greenwitch possesses something that will unlock the secrets of the Grail.

text: Karen Patricia Smith has written, "Greenwitch, the third book in the series, is quite different in mood from the earlier books. In this dreamlike novel set in Cornwall, magic often occurs during the hours of darkness and yet readers are not left with the feeling that experiences have been merely imagined. The Greenwitch, a figure created by village women, comes into possession of a great secret coveted by the powers of Light and Dark. Young Jane's innocence moves the creature to release the secret. Jane is an interesting figure because at first she appears to be a rather flat character who reacts according to convention. Yet as the story progresses, we learn that even those who are skilled and knowledgeable in fighting the powers of the Dark are powerless in this instance. Ironically it is Jane who is successful, not through dramatic means, but rather through communicating her compassion for the Greenwitch."[10]

text: The Grey King[edit]

text: In this book, Will is sent to Wales to recuperate after an illness. Here he meets Bran, the Pendragon, son of King Arthur, and befriends him. He must also awaken the Sleepers to fight the Dark.

text: The Grey King was awarded the 1976 Newbery Medal.

text: Welsh folklore figures strongly in the book.

text: Silver on the Tree[edit]

text: All of the main characters from the other books in the sequence come together in this book, some meeting for the first time, and the current struggle between the Light and the Dark is resolved. After the Light wins the battle, Bran is offered a chance to rejoin his father, but chooses to give up his immortality to stay with his friends and his mortal adoptive father. All immortal characters except Will Stanton leave the Earth forever. All the mortal characters lose all memory of any dealings with magic and the Old Ones, though the Drews and Bran have snatches of something come back to them in dreams.

text: One reviewer for The Junior Bookshelf offered a mixed review: "One of the difficulties lies in accepting that apparently very ordinary children have a special destiny. This is the major obstacle to the acceptance of Narnia. Four at least of the Six who have the duty of holding back the Dark do not seem up to the task. Time switches too, although handled skilfully enough, are not always easy to swallow. Where Miss Cooper excels is in the management of setting... The writer captures the smell of the countryside... Miss Cooper shows how fine her observation is and her ability to convey its tingling reality. Perhaps, now that the Dark has been put finally to flight, she will pursue this aspect of her art."[11]

text: Fantasy scholar Carole Scott remarks how, in one chapter of this novel, "the power of evil is presented in modern dress through a bigoted Englishman's outburst of racial prejudice directed against an immigrant of color."[12]

text: Locations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Nearly all the locations mentioned in the books are based on real places. Over Sea, Under Stone and Greenwitch are set in Trewissick, which is based on a village in southern Cornwall called Mevagissey which Susan Cooper used to visit as a child. The Dark Is Rising is set in the part of Buckinghamshire where Cooper grew up: Huntercombe is based on the small village of Dorney, and the Great Hall is Dorney Court. The Welsh setting in The Grey King and Silver on the Tree is the area around Aberdyfi, the village where Cooper's grandmother was born and where her parents lived.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: John Clute wrote in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "The overall tale evolves – not without occasional narrative confusion when time paradoxes and puzzles must be confronted – towards a guardedly affirmative climax in which it seems that the various young protagonists plus Bran Davies (King Arthur's son) may succeed in staving off entropy and totalitarianism."[13]

text: Karen Patricia Smith wrote, "Susan Cooper has come to be recognized as a major author of books for children and young adults. Her first work for children, Over Sea, Under Stone came as a response to a contest designed to honor the memory of E. Nesbit. Cooper's major contribution to date has been The Dark Is Rising series, which greatly expands the mythical theme suggested in Over Sea, Under Stone and reveals Cooper's extraordinary prowess as an author of fantasy... The shadowy aspect of the conflict and the inability to 'read' clearly the motivations of some of the characters are areas in which Cooper has been criticized. However, I feel that the ambiguity of protagonists and antagonists is a deliberate literary device. Rather than succumbing to artistic flaw, Cooper goes beyond the conventional expectations of her readers by inviting them to glimpse the complex, the unexplainable, and often the threatening aspects of mankind's nature. By offering the thesis that the human psyche may manifest itself in explicit actions or present itself in a mysterious and often frustrating manner, Cooper exceeds the traditional presentations of good versus evil often found in fantasy literature."[10]

text: Mary Corran has written, "Cooper's scholarly knowledge of legend, and skill in drawing together all the complexities of the five books into a triumphant finale, produce an epic of great power. There are differences in quality in the novels--Greenwitch...is perhaps the weakest, and The Dark Is Rising and The Grey King the strongest; Silver on the Tree, while suitably life-affirming in its conclusion, is slightly preachy, but that is a natural hazard of the subject matter. Cooper deals with the innate antagonism between mortals and immortals impressively, and in The Grey King reaches great heights as she mingles the worlds and peoples of legend and the present day. The sequence is a remarkable achievement, and Cooper's gifts for description and characterization provide additional pleasure to novels already replete with intellectual enjoyment."[14]

text: Joel Chaston writes, "Among Cooper's books for children, the Dark Is Rising series is her masterwork. The five novels in it are rich with symbolism and poetic passages. The Dark Is Rising, perhaps the best single book of the series, certainly rivals and sometimes surpasses the work of the major fantasy writers--with whose work it is frequently compared."[5]

text: Amelia A. Rutledge says that the series "integrates the traditional lore of the British Isles with modern concerns. Her work, although commercially designated for a younger audience, exemplifies sophisticated mythopoeic writing not limited to that age group and is one of the major contributions to Arthurian fantasy of the 1970s."[15]

text: Professor Michael D. C. Drout argues that Cooper makes greater "use of Anglo-Saxon source materials" than other critics have identified: "Cooper's uses of Anglo-Saxon sources are allusions that fit into a schema of history rather than (in the words of one reviewer) being merely tossed "pell-mell" into the mythical pot... It is Cooper's Anglo-Saxonism, I argue, which generates the notions of British national identity explicated in the novels, notions that contradict the author's overt political stance. In addition, Cooper's particular version of Anglo-Saxonism, with its strong focus on teaching and learning, is isomorphic to the ideology of adult/child power relations represented in the novels, an ideology that puts great weight on the value of obedience to authority. Adult/child power relations are both replicated and reinforced by two other sets of opposed terms: British/non-British and supernatural/mundane, and all of these terms are finally subsumed in Cooper's Manichaean binary, Light/Dark, leading to a closed symbolic economy which exalts personal obedience to authority and views Anglo-Saxons and their ideologies—as they were for the Venerable Bede in A.D. 771—as clearly on the side of the angels."[16]

text: The New York Times Book Review wrote of the novel The Dark Is Rising, "This is a muscular fantasy... The writing is robust, but noticeably better out of human time than at the Stanton hearth: as if the author's style, too, had experienced a salutary, magical translation... The fantastic style is virile and, for all its paraphernalia, spare. Susan Cooper's vocabulary is athletic; the complications are dense. Her book seems to have been prepared for a special small age group: those who can read with fluency and attention, but who haven't yet been afflicted by adolescent cynicism."[17]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: Following the successful film adaptations of other fantasy classics, it was announced in 2005 that the Dark Is Rising series was being developed as a major motion picture. The Seeker was a joint venture between 20th Century Fox and Walden Media. John Hodge wrote the screenplay and the film was directed by David L. Cunningham and produced by Marc E. Platt. Ian McShane played the role of Merriman Lyon while Alexander Ludwig played the young Will Stanton as an American. Frances Conroy and Christopher Eccleston (as The Rider)[1] also star. Filming began in February 2007 in Bucharest, Romania. The film was released on 5 October 2007, in the United States and the U.K. It was not successful.

text: Screenwriter Hodge made substantial changes to the novel's plot, tone, and characters. For example, to differentiate him from Harry Potter, the film version of Will Stanton is a 13- to 14-year-old[b] American living in Britain. Hodge also felt that the "lyrical, poetic, kaleidoscopic fashion" of the book could not be filmed and felt compelled to add action for Will where "he doesn't actually do very much."[18][19]

text: Cooper was disappointed by changes in the screenplay from the book and requested that some be undone. For example, she considers it crucial that Will is only 11 because that is before puberty.[18] The film portrays, and one of its trailers featured, Will as an adolescent teased for and preoccupied with his shyness and inexperience with girls.[19]


document_title: Chevrolet Cavalier

question_text: how much does a 2004 chevy cavalier weight

root

text: Chevrolet Cavalier

text: Predecessors[edit]

text: The Cavalier replaced the Monza in North America. The Monza was available as a 2-door coupe, a 3-door hatchback and a 3-door wagon (using the same body as the discontinued Vega wagon, the model it replaced). The inexpensive Chevette was retained even as sales declined, and was formally replaced by even smaller captive imports. Both previous platforms had rear-drive layouts while the new design followed the front wheel drive trend, as in the Dodge Omni and Honda Civic. Ford and Chrysler also introduced new front drive compacts. The largely successful mission of capturing the bulk of domestic compact sales would fall on the Cavalier's 2-door coupe, 4-door sedan and 4-door station wagon, the relatively short-lived 3-door hatchback (which replaced the Monza 2+2 Sport 2-door hatchback) and, in later years, a 2-door convertible. The small Cavalier even helped fill in lagging sales of the compact Citation.

tag: p

text: First generation (1982–1987)[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
First generation
OverviewProduction
1981–1987Model years
1982–1987Assembly
United States: Lordstown, Ohio (Lordstown Assembly)Lansing, Michigan (Lansing Car Assembly)Janesville, Wisconsin (Janesville GM Assembly Plant)South Gate, California (South Gate Assembly) Kansas City, Missouri (Leeds Assembly)Mexico: Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila (Ramos Arizpe Assembly)Designer
Irvin Rybicki (1977)[1]Body and chassisBody style
2-door convertible2-door coupe3-door hatchback4-door sedan4-door wagonRelated
Buick SkyhawkCadillac CimarronOldsmobile FirenzaPontiac SunbirdOpel AsconaVauxhall CavalierIsuzu AskaHolden CamiraPowertrainEngine
1.8 L L46 I4 (gasoline)2.0 L LQ5 I4 (gasoline)2.0 L LL8 I4 (gasoline)2.8 L LB6 V6 (gasoline)Transmission
4-speed manual5-speed manual3-speed automaticDimensionsWheelbase
101.2 in (2,570 mm)Length
Sedan: 174.5 in (4,432 mm)Coupe: 173.5 in (4,407 mm)Wagon: 177.9 in (4,519 mm)1990–91 Wagon: 54.1 in (1,374 mm)1992–94 Wagon: 53.8 in (1,367 mm)
1988–89: 178.6 in (4,536 mm)
1990–94: 182.3 in (4,630 mm)
1988–89 Wagon: 178.8 in (4,542 mm)

1990–94 Wagon: 181.1 in (4,600 mm)Width
Sedan & Coupe: 66.0 in (1,676 mm)Wagon: 66.3 in (1,684 mm)Height
Sedan & Coupe: 52.0 in (1,321 mm)Wagon: 54.2 in (1,377 mm)

text: The Cavalier first went on sale in May 1981 as a 1982 model with front-wheel-drive[2], a choice of two carbureted versions of the GM 122 series four-cylinder pushrod engines, and 2 and 4-door sedan, hatchback, and station wagon body styles. Convertibles were added in 1983, initial production totaling less than 1000.

text: 1983 Cavaliers offered throttle body fuel injection, and a V6 engine became available in 1984. The 1984 models received a mild facelift featuring quad headlights. Z24 was introduced in 1985 for 1986 model year coupe and hatchback configurations.

text: The Cavalier in Mexico was identical to the Pontiac Sunbird before the Pontiac brand was officially introduced there in 1992. After that time, the Cavaliers sold there featured Sunbird body panels, as opposed to US-spec Cavalier panels. From 1993 on, the sibling marques were both offered, much in the same way as in the United States.

text: Engines[edit]

text:
1982: 1.8 L L46 carbureted OHV I4
1983-1986: 2.0 L LQ5 TBI OHV I4
1987–1989: 2.0 L LL8 TBI OHV I4
1985–1989: 2.8 L LB6 MPFI OHV V6

tag: ul

text: Second generation (1988–1994)[edit]

text:
Second generation
OverviewProduction
1987–1994Model years
1988–1994Assembly
Lordstown, Ohio, United StatesLansing, Michigan, United StatesRamos Arizpe, Coahuila, MexicoDesigner
Irvin Rybicki (1984)[3]Body and chassisBody style
2-door coupe2-door convertible4-door sedan5-door station wagonRelated
Buick SkyhawkCadillac CimarronOldsmobile FirenzaPontiac SunbirdOpel AsconaVauxhall CavalierPowertrainEngine
2.0 L LL8 I4 (gasoline)2.2 L LM3 I4 (gasoline)2.2 L LN2 I4 (gasoline)2.8 L LB6 V6 (gasoline)3.1 L LH0 V6 (gasoline)Transmission
5-speed manual3-speed automaticDimensionsWheelbase
1988–89: 101.2 in (2,570 mm)1990–94: 101.3 in (2,573 mm)Length
1988–89: 178.6 in (4,536 mm)1988–89 Wagon: 178.8 in (4,542 mm)1990–94: 182.3 in (4,630 mm)1990–94 Wagon: 181.1 in (4,600 mm)Width
66.3 in (1,684 mm)1988–89 Sedan/Coupe/Wagon: 66.0 in (1,676 mm)Height
1988–1991 Coupe & 1990–91 Convertible: 52.0 in (1,321 mm)1988–1991 Sedan: 53.6 in (1,361 mm)1988–89 & 1992–95 Convertible: 52.2 in (1,326 mm)1988–89 Wagon: 54.3 in (1,379 mm)1990–91 Wagon: 54.1 in (1,374 mm)1992–95 Wagon: 53.8 in (1,367 mm)1992–95 Coupe: 51.9 in (1,318 mm)1992–95 Sedan: 53.5 in (1,359 mm)Curb weight
2,359 lb (1,070 kg) (coupe)  2,363 lb (1,072 kg) (sedan)  2,271 lb (1,030 kg) (RS coupe)  2,414 lb (1,095 kg) (RS sedan)  2,558 lb (1,160 kg) (Z24 coupe)  2,665 lb (1,209 kg) (Z24 convertible)

text: The Cavalier was restyled in 1987 for the 1988 model year.[4] The two door hatchback was dropped, while the coupe, sedan, wagon and convertible carried over. The sedan and wagon were unchanged from the doors back, while the coupe's exterior was completely redesigned. This resulted in different trunk designs for the coupe and sedan. Three trim levels were available for 1988: VL, RS, and Z24. The convertible was only available as a Z24. The VL and RS came standard with the 2.0 L OHV L4 engine, now upgraded to throttle-body injection, or TBI, producing 90 hp (67 kW), while the 2.8 L V6 producing 125 hp (93 kW) was optional on the RS and standard on the Z24.[5] With 2 door models, 5-speed manual transmission was standard, and a 3-speed automatic was optional, however the 3-speed automatic was made standard on sedans and wagons. An electronic dashboard was available with the RS and Z24 trims.

text: For 1989, the steering column was redesigned. The new self-aligning steering wheel was designed so as to reduce injuries in a collision by bending to conform to the driver's chest. Also, rear shoulder belts became standard on all models. RS and Z24 custom cloth seating received a new style of front bucket seats with integral headrests. The optional V6 was retooled to 130 hp.[6]

text: For 1990, the base engine was enlarged to a 2.2 L OHV L4, and power increased to 95 horsepower (71 kW). Door-mounted automatic front seatbelts were added due to US passive restraint legislation. The optional V6 engine was also upgraded to the 3.1 L V6 and 140 horsepower.[7] The convertible was dropped from availability to prevent internal competition with a planned Beretta convertible. However, the Beretta convertible was shelved at the eleventh hour, before a 1990 Cavalier convertible could be prepared.

text: The 1991 Cavalier got a more extensive restyling that involved a new hood, bumpers, headlights, taillights, wheel covers and a redesigned interior, however with the body style remaining unchanged. Most notably, the cooling system was redesigned to draw air from the bumper, giving it a Ford Taurus-style bumper and grille-less nose. The new bumpers were unpainted, with the option to have them colored grey, black or white; the latter only available on white-colored models. The RS and the Z24 eschewed this for a color keyed body package. Z24 models also gained the options for a height adjustable driver's seat and a CD player. The platform and trim lines were carried over, while the convertible was brought back mid-year in the RS trim only with the V6 standard.[8]

text: Minor changes for 1991 also included the Alpha Tech ignition lock cylinder, which incorporated a dual-bit key that was larger and thicker in size in comparison to the old single-bit lock cylinder system that had been used for years.  The lock system was intended to be a stronger deterrent to vehicle theft, but constant problems were reported with the lock jamming.  It was dropped after an improved dual-bit single key system was introduced for the 1995 model year and redesign.

text: For 1992, the 2.2 L OHV standard engine adopted multi-point fuel injection, or MPFI to improve output to 110 horsepower (82 kW), however unlike the SFI version of the 2.2L in the Chevrolet Corsica.[9] The convertible was now available in both RS and Z24 trims, with the V6 standard in the Z24 and optional with the RS. Antilock brakes were added as a standard feature, as Delco Moraine had managed to develop a low-cost system. Power locks were also standard, and were designed to automatically lock when the car is shifted out of park, or if the car is traveling at least 8 miles  per hour in manual transmission equipped Coupe models.

text: Model year 1993 brought minimal changes to the Cavalier line. The convertibles receive a glass rear window, allowing rear window defrost as an option.[10]  Also, General Motors received a new grille for the final time in this generation of the Chevrolet Cavalier.

text: 1994 models were also carryovers, as a redesign of the Cavalier was in development. The VL trim was dropped on the wagon, while the 2.2 L OHV L4 was now converted to the SFI version found in the Corsica, which delivered an output of 120 horsepower.[11] Additional changes included a slightly redesigned climate control interface and the power locking system being again redesigned: the doors would still lock automatically when put into gear, but they would also unlock automatically when the ignition was switched off.

text: Third generation (1995–2005)[edit]

text:
Third generation
2000-2002 Cavalier sedanOverviewAlso called
Toyota Cavalier (Japan)Production
August 8, 1994–October 6, 2005[12]Model years
1995–2005Assembly
Lordstown, Ohio, United StatesLansing, Michigan, United StatesRamos Arizpe, Coahuila, MexicoDesigner
Chuck Jordan (1991)[13]Body and chassisBody style
2-door convertible2-door coupe4-door sedanRelated
Pontiac SunfirePowertrainEngine
2.2 L LN2 OHV I42.2 L L61 DOHC I42.2 L L42 DOHC I42.3 L LD2 DOHC I42.4 L LD9 DOHC I4Transmission
3-speed 3T40 automatic4-speed 4T40-E automatic5-speed Getrag F23 manual5-speed Getrag 282 manual5-speed Isuzu manualDimensionsWheelbase
104.1 in (2,644 mm)Length
1995–97: 180.3 in (4,580 mm)1998–2002: 180.7 in (4,590 mm)2003–05: 180.9 in (4,595 mm)Width
2-Door: 68.7 in (1,745 mm)4-Door: 67.9 in (1,725 mm)Height
1995–97 Coupe: 53.2 in (1,351 mm)1995–97 Sedan: 54.8 in (1,392 mm)1995–97 Convertible: 53.9 in (1,369 mm)1998–2005 Coupe: 53.0 in (1,346 mm)1998–99 Convertible: 54.1 in (1,374 mm)1998–2005 Sedan: 54.7 in (1,389 mm)2000–02 Convertible: 53.7 in (1,364 mm)Curb weight
2,562–2,900 lb (1,162–1,315 kg)ChronologySuccessor
Chevrolet Cobalt (For United States and Canada)Chevrolet Optra (For Mexico)

text: The Cavalier received its first total redesign for 1995, with expanded dimensions and more aerodynamic styling, taking minor design cues from the 4th Generation Chevrolet Camaro, its bigger brother. Some of the basic styling cues remained however, such as the bumper-integrated grille, the coupes' dipped beltline, and the charcoal-colored bumpers on some Base model cars. Coupe, sedan, and convertible options were offered, however the wagon model was replaced by an LS Sedan for the third generation which was equipped with power windows and power door locks. The car now had the available option of 15 and 16 inch wheels. By 1997, the Cavalier became the best selling car within the entire GM lineup.

text: All  available engines were Inline-four engine. The option for a V6 engine, which had been available in the first and second generation, was dropped and replaced by a new four-cylinder of similar power output. Base and RS models still retained the 2.2L pushrod four-cylinder engine (2.2 L OHV) of the previous models, which was primarily mated to a 3-speed automatic, but was available with 5-speed Manual in the two-door models, in particular the RS models. As of 1996 a new 4-speed automatic became available in any trim. The Z24 and LS convertible used the 2.3 L LD2 Quad-4 engine in 1995, but they received a new engine in 1996, the 2.4 liter DOHC LD9. This engine produced 150 hp (112 kW) and 155 lb⋅ft (210 N⋅m) of torque and was used until 2002. In 2000, the car gained a minor facelift consisting of bigger headlights and an improved grille, lost the "CHEVROLET" text badge at the trunklid and gained a new "CAVALIER" badge along with new "five spoke" hubcaps. The 2.4-litre engine came mated standard with the Getrag F23 5-speed manual transmission on the Z24 models, or with the optional 4-speed automatic on both the Z24 and the LS Models. The Z24 only came in two-door coupe models until 2001 and featured a sport-tuned suspension, 16-inch tires, alloy wheels and improved interior electronics. Aesthetically little changed from the other models other than a ground effects kit and taller rear spoiler. In 2000 a 4-door Z24 Sedan debuted, featuring the same mechanics but having a less sporty body. The Z24 trim also received several other upgrades including a wider front sway bar and FE2 Sports Suspension for better handling characteristics, and less aggressive ABS anti-lock braking system. In 2001, the 3-speed automatic was dropped from the base models equipped with the 2.2-L, and the 4-speed automatic became the main offering across the entire lineup, with 5-speed still available in the 2-door cars. Also, the RS was replaced by the LS Sport line, which featured the new Ecotec L61 motors (140 hp (104 kW) and 150 lb⋅ft (200 N⋅m) torque). These engines improved fuel economy, featuring the same displacement as the GM 122 Pushrod Engine (2.2 L OHV) while maintaining most of the power of the older LD9 motors. The new Ecotec motors replaced the GM 122 Pushrod Engine (2.2 L OHV) in base models in 2003, and became the sole engine choice in the entire Cavalier line-up until 2005 when the Chevrolet Cavalier was replaced by the Chevrolet Cobalt.

text: A GM Eaton M45 Supercharger kit was also offered for the Z24 trim as well. The supercharger kit was developed and tested by General Motors and could only be installed at a GM dealer. This upgrade increased performance considerably due to a pressure of 4.7 PSI which in turn added approximately 40 hp (30 kW) and 40 lb⋅ft (54 N⋅m) of torque increase; raising the Z24's ratings to approximately 190 hp (142 kW) and 195 lb⋅ft (264 N⋅m) of torque.

text: Facelifts[edit]

text: The third generation Cavalier had two facelifts. There was a minor one in 1999 with new front and rear bumper fascias which included revised headlamps and taillamps for 2000 models.[14] There was a more extensive refresh in 2002 for MY 2003 which included a complete new front end design, revised taillamps with a full-width rear reflector, a new rear spoiler and rear bumper fascia.[15]

text: Safety[edit]

text: The third-generation Cavalier earned several low scores in crash tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Also, IIHS fatality risks statistics rated the Cavalier among the "highest rates of driver deaths", with 150 (four-door) to 171 (two-door) driver deaths per million registered vehicle years. Average for the Cavalier class (small) was 103 (four-door) to 134 (two-door) driver deaths per million registered vehicle years.[16]

text: The IIHS gave the 1995-2005 Cavalier a "poor" overall score in their frontal offset collision test.[17]

text: 2005 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Crash Test Ratings (coupe):[18]

text:
Frontal driver:
Frontal passenger:
Side driver:  *safety concern*
Side rear passenger:
Rollover:

text: 2002 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Crash Test Ratings (sedan):[19]

text: Toyota Cavalier[edit]

text: As part of a wider effort to avoid additional restrictions on exports to the US, the third generation model was briefly sold in Japan by Toyota under an agreement with GM, badged as the Toyota Cavalier.

text: Aside from the fact that it was right hand drive, the Toyota Cavalier also featured a leather-wrapped shift knob, steering wheel and park brake lever, wider front fenders, amber turn signals for Japanese regulations, power folding side mirrors, side turn signal repeater lights on the front fenders, and carpeting on the inside of the trunk lid. Interior seats were often flecked with color, and the rear seat had a fold-down armrest. Vehicles produced from February through December 1998 were available with a leather interior equipped with an automatic transmission only.

text: All models featured wheels borrowed from the Pontiac Sunfire. The Toyota Cavalier was available in 2.4G and 2.4Z trim levels. While all Chevrolet-badged Cavaliers received a facelift for 2000, the Toyota did as well with the updated center console, head-lights/hood/front bumper, tail-lights, and colors available. TRD made a body kit and rear wing for the Cavalier, available exclusively in Japan. The car was sold only at Toyota Store Japanese dealerships.

text: The Cavalier wasn nott the only GM product sold in Japan; the Saturn S-series was sold at Saturn dealerships (some former Isuzu dealerships) from 1996 until 2003, and some Toyota Vista Stores also retailed Saturns.

text: The Cavalier was entirely produced by GM in the USA at the Lordstown Assembly location, and sold from 1995–2000. The 1996-2000 Toyota Cavaliers came equipped with the 2.4 L LD9 engine, while the 1995 used the 2.3 L Quad 4. Due to the engine displacement and width dimensions (1,740 mm (69 in) for the coupe, 1,735 mm (68 in) for the sedan ) exceeding Japanese government regulations concerning exterior dimensions and maximum engine displacement, it was not considered a "compact" so it was sold as a "normal-class car" like the Toyota Mark II and Nissan Skyline. Prices for the coupe started at  2 million yen for the coupe, and  1.81 million yen for the sedan. the final Toyota Cavalier was imported in 2000.

text: The introduction of the Toyota Cavalier was not the first time the Cavalier was sold in Japan. Yanase Co., Ltd., a Japanese retail dealership that started importing European and North American vehicles soon after the end of World War II, sold various GM products including the Cavalier. When the decision was made to sell the Cavalier as a Toyota, this disrupted operations at Yanase. When the Toyota Cavalier was cancelled, Yanase continued to sell Chevrolet and other GM products. Yanase also provides complete maintenance services for all vehicles sold.

text: Due to higher than typically average vehicle inspection costs, a fair number of these vehicles are re-exported as Japanese used cars, most notably to Australia and New Zealand. Production of the Toyota Cavalier ceased in June 2000. Despite Toyota making considerable efforts to sell the Cavalier on the domestic market, the Japanese public perceived the quality of workmanship to not be up to the standard typically expected of locally built cars.[20] The car was also introduced while economic conditions in Japan were beginning to decline as a result of the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble or "bubble economy" that ended in the early 1990s.

text: Production[edit]

text: Most Cavaliers were built at Lordstown Assembly, although they have also been produced at South Gate Assembly (1982 model year only), Lansing Car Assembly (1996-1998 coupes), Lansing Craft Centre (1996-2000 convertibles), Janesville Assembly, Ramos Arizpe, and Leeds Assembly.

text: This car was discontinued in 2005, the last Cavalier rolled off the assembly line on October 6, 2005.

text: Fourth generation (2016–present)[edit]

text:
Fourth generation
Chevrolet Cavalier sedan (China)OverviewProduction
2016–presentAssembly
Shanghai, China (Shanghai GM)Body and chassisBody style
4-door sedanLayout
FF layoutPlatform
Delta II platformPowertrainEngine
1.5 L S-TEC III I4Transmission
5-speed manual6-speed automaticDimensionsWheelbase
102.3 in (2600mm)Length
178.9 in (4544mm)Width
70 in (1779mm)Height
57.8 in (1467mm)ChronologyPredecessor
Chevrolet Sonic (Mexico)[21]

text: Chevrolet reintroduced the Cavalier name on a new China-only compact sedan below the Cruze. The Cavalier was introduced at the 2016 Chengdu Auto Show on September 2, 2016. It's developed on the same platform as the first generation Cruze, the Delta II platform, and uses the 1.5 liter four-cylinder engine that powers many compact GM models in China, including the Chevrolet Sail. Its pricing sets the Cavalier exactly between the smaller Sail and the more modern second generation Cruze. Deliveries started in September, with almost 10,000 units sold in its first month, but there are indications the Cavalier cannibalizes sales of the similarly priced first generation Cruze, which continues to be sold in China. For 2018, the fourth generation Cavalier will also be sold in Mexico with the same name, replacing the Chevrolet Sonic.[21]

text: United States sales figures[edit]

text:
58,904  - 1982
268,587 - 1983
462,611 - 1984
383,752 - 1985
432,101 - 1986
346,254 - 1987
322,939 - 1988
376,626 - 1989
310,501 - 1990
326,847 - 1991
225,633 - 1992
251,590 - 1993
254,426 - 1994
151,669 - 1995
261,686 - 1996
315,136 - 1997
238,861 - 1998

text: Sources: Edmunds.com (1992–98), Autoworld.com (1999 estimate)[22]

text: Engines used[edit]

text:
1982 — 1.8 L OHV 2-barrel inline-4, 88 horsepower
mid 1982–1984 — 2.0 L OHV 2-barrel inline-4, 90 horsepower
1983–1989 — 2.0 L OHV TBI inline-4, 86 horsepower (1983–1984), 88 horsepower (1985–1986), 90 horsepower (1987–89)
1985–1989 — 2.8 L OHV MPFI V6, 120-130 horsepower (125 in 1985, 120 in 1986, 130 in 1987, 125 in 1988, and 130 in 1989)
1990–1994 — 2.8 L OHV MPFI V6, 130 horsepower (Mexico and Venezuela only, *Colombia used a version of 116 hp.
1990–1991 — 2.2 L OHV TBI inline-4, 95 horsepower (71 kW)
1990–1994 — 3.1 L OHV MPFI V6, 140 horsepower (100 kW)
1992–2002 — 2.2 L OHV MPFI L4, 110 horsepower (1992–93), 120 horsepower (1994–97, 1994 upgrade to SFI), 115 horsepower (1998–2002)
1995 — 2.3 L DOHC MPFI Quad 4, 150 horsepower (110 kW)
1996–2002 — 2.4 L DOHC SFI L4, 150 horsepower (110 kW)
2002–2005 — 2.2 L DOHC Ecotec SFI L4, 140 horsepower (100 kW)

text: In society and culture[edit]

text: In 2001 Chante Jawan Mallard struck Gregory Glenn Biggs, a homeless man, with her Chevrolet Cavalier, lodging him into the windshield. Mallard then drove home and left the man to die while stuck in her windshield.[23] She was later convicted of his murder.[24]


document_title: Tidal Basin

question_text: who designed the tidal basin bridge in washington dc

text: Tidal Basin

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of the Tidal Basin originated in the 1880s to serve both as a visual centerpiece and as a means for flushing the Washington Channel, a harbor separated from the Potomac River by fill lands where East Potomac Park is situated. Peter Conover Hains, an engineering officer in the U.S. Army, oversaw the design and construction. The basin was initially named Twining Lake, in honor of Major William Johnson Twining (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers), Washington DC's first Engineer Commissioner. According to testimony given to a Congressional subcommittee in 1917, it was Major Twining's idea to create a tidal reservoir and use that water to help "flush" the Washington Channel, and the design was carried out by Colonel Hains. A 1917 Army Corps of Engineers map of Washington already shows the basin with the name "Twining Lake". The Tidal Basin which exists today was not laid out until after World War II. It was built in 1949 by the construction firm of Alexander and Repass, which was unusual at that time because Alexander was of African descent and Repass was of European descent.

text: Design[edit]

text: The basin is designed to release 250 million US gallons (950,000 m3) of water captured at high tide twice a day. The inlet gates, located on the Potomac side of the basin, allow water to enter the basin during high tide. During this time, the outlet gates, on the Washington Channel side, close to store incoming water and block the flow of water and sediment into the channel. As the tide begins to ebb, the general outflow of water from the basin forces the inlet gates to close. This same force is applied to the outlet gates, which open into the channel. Silt build up is swept away by the extra force of water running from the Tidal Basin through the channel. The gates are maintained as navigable by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which has recently completed a project to restore the functioning of the gates.

text: The northern lobe of the basin is crossed by the 433 foot (132.0 m) Kutz Memorial Bridge, named in honor of Brigadier General Charles W. Kutz the Commissioner of Engineering for the District of Columbia during the first half of the 20th century, carrying eastbound Independence Avenue traffic in three lanes. The bridge was designed by Paul Cret, begun in 1941, completed 1943 and altered with dedication in 1954. It is of concrete and steel on pilings, all granite faced.[1]

text: As part of the restoration and redesign of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, completed in 2012, water is pumped from the Tidal Basin to fill the pool.[2]

text: Incidents[edit]

text: The Tidal Basin was the scene of a scandalous drunken incident involving the Chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Ways and Means, Democratic Congressman Wilbur Mills. On October 7, 1974, Mills' car, with an Argentine stripper known as Fanne Foxe in the back with Mills and driven by a former Nixon staffer, was stopped by US Park police late at night because the driver had not turned on the headlights. Mills was intoxicated and his face was cut from a scuffle with Foxe. When police approached the car, Foxe leapt from the car and jumped into the nearby Tidal Basin. Despite the scandal, Mills was re-elected to Congress in November 1974 with 60% of the vote, but in December he drunkenly staggered onstage at a Boston strip club where Ms. Foxe was performing. Soon after this second embarrassment Mills was forced to step down from his chairmanship of the Ways and Means Committee. Mills eventually acknowledged his alcoholism, sought treatment at the West Palm Beach Institute, and joined Alcoholics Anonymous. He did not seek re-election in 1976.[3]

text: Recreation[edit]

text: From mid-March until October, paddle-boats are available for rent. The activity is very popular during the Cherry Blossom Festival, which takes place in April. Both two and four person paddle-boats are available.[4]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Jefferson Memorial as seen from across the Tidal Basin

Inlet gate

Inlet bridge (south eastern end)

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial

George Mason Memorial


document_title: School segregation in the United States

question_text: the achievement of the desegregation of schools was primarily attained through

text: School segregation in the United States

text: Historical segregation[edit]

text: The formal segregation of blacks and whites in the United States began with the passage of Jim Crow laws following the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877.[1] These laws, which were prevalent in the South but also were passed by state legislatures in the Southwest and Midwest, segregated blacks and whites in all aspects of public life, including attendance of public schools.[2] Jim Crow laws did not exclusively apply to the segregation of whites and blacks; in Texas, for instance, Mexican-Americans, along with blacks, were prohibited from sharing schools, restaurants, churches, and other public spaces with whites.[3] In some areas, Native Americans were classified with blacks and similarly excluded from white facilities.

text: While African Americans faced de jure segregation in civil society, Mexican Americans who lived in southwestern states often dealt with de facto segregation; no laws explicitly barred their access to schools or other public facilities.[4] Additionally, the proponents of Mexican-American segregation were often those officials who worked at the state and local school level; they often defended the creation and sustaining of segregated "Mexican schools".[5] The obstacles for Mexican Americans was not greater than for blacks. At times the NAACP had to challenge segregation policies in institutions where exclusion was targeted only at African-American students, when there was an already established Mexican-American presence.[6]

text: The constitutionality of Jim Crow laws was upheld in the Supreme Court’s decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which ruled that separate facilities for blacks and whites were permissible provided that the facilities were of equal quality.[1] The fact that separate facilities for blacks and other minorities were chronically underfunded and of lesser quality was not successfully challenged in court for decades. This decision was subsequently overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education ended de jure segregation in the United States.[7] In the decade following Brown, the South resisted enforcement of the Court’s decision.[7] States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation.[8] Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a period in which the South transitioned from complete segregation to being the nation's most integrated region.[7]

text: Parents of both African-American and Mexican-American students challenged school segregation in coordination with civil rights organizations such as the NAACP, ACLU, and LULAC. Both groups challenged discriminatory policies through litigation in courts, with varying success, at times challenging policies. They often had small successes.[9] For instance, the NAACP initially challenged graduate and professional school segregation because they believed that desegregation at this level would result in the least backlash and opposition by whites.[10]

text: Contemporary segregation[edit]

text: Measurements and definitions[edit]

text: Segregation can be defined in terms of two different measures: racial isolation (or exposure), and racial unevenness (or imbalance). Measures of exposure define segregation according to the proportion of various races and ethnicities present in a school. According to this measure, a black student attending a school with a very high proportion of other blacks students would be considered “racially isolated.”[8]

text: Critics of measures of exposure point out that these are highly sensitive to changes in the demographic composition of schools. As the share of "minority" students in an area increases, these students will necessarily attend schools with smaller proportions of white students. Because of this, some researchers prefer to define segregation according to measures of racial imbalance, or the extent to which racial and ethnic groups are distributed unevenly across schools. Measures of imbalance are independent of the changes in the racial composition of a larger population.[11]

text: Trends[edit]

text: From 1968-1980, segregation between blacks and whites in schools declined according to measures of both isolation and imbalance.[8] Measures of isolation within school districts show that school integration peaked in the 1980s and then gradually declined over the course of the 1990s, as income differences increased.[12] In the 1990s and early 2000s, minority students attended schools with a declining proportion of white students, so that the rate of segregation as measured as isolation resembled that of the 1960s.[11] There is some disagreement about what to make of trends since the 1980s; while some researchers have presented trends as evidence of “resegregation,” others argue that changing demographics in school districts, including class and income, are responsible for most of the changes in the racial composition of schools.[8]

text: A 2013 study by Jeremy Fiel found that, “for the most part, compositional changes are to blame for the declining presence of whites in minorities’ schools,” and that racial balance increased from 1993 to 2010.[11] The study found that minority students became more isolated and less exposed to whites, but that all students became more evenly distributed across schools.

text: Another 2013 study found that segregation measured as exposure increased over the previous 25 years due to changing demographics.[8] The study did not, however, find an increase in racial balance; rather, racial unevenness remained stable over that time period.

text: Researcher Kori Stroub found that the “racial/ethnic resegregation of public schools observed over the 1990s has given way to a period of modest reintegration,” but that segregation between school districts has increased even though within-district segregation is low.[12] Fiel believes that increasing interdistrict segregation will exacerbate racial isolation.[11]

text: Sources of contemporary segregation[edit]

text: Residential segregation[edit]

text: A principal source of school segregation is the persistence of residential segregation in American society; residence and school assignment are closely linked due to the widespread tradition of locally controlled schools.[13] Residential segregation is related to growing income inequality in the United States.

text: A study conducted by Sean Reardon and John Yun found that from 1990-2000, residential black/white and Hispanic/white segregation declined by a modest amount in the United States, while public school segregation increased slightly during the same time period. Because the two variables moved in opposite directions, changes in residential patterns are not responsible for changes in school segregation trends. Rather, the study determined that in 1990, schools showed less segregation than neighborhoods, indicating that local policies were helping to ameliorate the effects of residential segregation on school composition. By 2000, however, racial composition of schools had become more closely correlated to neighborhood composition, indicating that public policies no longer redistributed students as evenly as before.[14]

text: A 2013 study corroborated these findings, showing that the relationship between residential and school segregation became stronger over the decade 2000-2010. In 2000, segregation of blacks in schools was lower than in their neighborhoods; by 2010, the two patterns of segregation were “nearly identical."[13]

text: Supreme Court rulings[edit]

text: Although the US Supreme Court’s in Brown v. Board of Education set desegregation efforts in motion, subsequent rulings have created serious obstacles to continued integration. The court’s 1970 ruling in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education furthered desegregation efforts by upholding busing as a constitutional means to achieve integration within a school district, but the ruling had no effect on the increasing level of segregation between school districts.[15] The court’s ruling in Milliken v. Bradley in 1974 prohibited interdistrict desegregation by busing.[16]

text: The 1990 decision in Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell declared that once schools districts had made a practicable, “good faith” effort to desegregate, they could be declared to have achieved “unitary” status, releasing them from court oversight.[17] The decision allowed schools to end previous desegregation efforts even in cases where a return to segregation was likely.[15] The court’s ruling in Freeman v. Pitts went further, ruling that districts could be released from oversight in “incremental stages," meaning that courts would continue to supervise only those aspects of integration that had not yet been achieved.[16]

text: A 2012 study determined that “half of all districts ever under court-ordered desegregation [had] been released from court oversight, with most of the releases occurring in the last 20 years.” The study found that segregation levels in school districts did not rise sharply following court dismissal, but rather increased gradually for the next 10 to 12 years. As compared to districts that had never been placed under court supervision, districts that had achieved unitary status and were released from court-ordered desegregation had a subsequent change in segregation patterns that was 10 times as great. The study concludes that “court-ordered desegregation plans are effective in reducing racial school segregation, but…their effects fade over time in the absence of continued court oversight."[17]

text: In a pair of rulings in 2007 (Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education), the court’s decision limited schools’ ability to use race as a consideration in school assignment plans. In both cases, the Court struck down school assignment plans designed to ensure that the racial composition of schools roughly reflected the composition of the district as a whole, saying that the plans were not “narrowly tailored” to achieve the stated goal and that race-neutral alternatives had not been given adequate consideration.[18]

text: School choice[edit]

text: While greater school choice could potentially increase integration by drawing students from larger and more geographically diverse areas (as opposed to segregated neighborhoods), expanded choice often has the opposite effect.[19] Studies conducted on the relationship between expanded school choice and school segregation show that when studies compare the racial/ethnic composition of charter schools to local public schools, researchers generally find that charter schools preserve or intensify existing racial and economic segregation, and/or facilitate white flight from public schools [20] Furthermore, studies that compare individual students’ demographic characteristics to the schools they are leaving (public schools) and the schools they are switching to (charter schools) generally demonstrate that students “leave more diverse public schools and enroll in less diverse charter schools.”[20]

text: Private schools constitute a second important type of school choice. A 2002 study found that private schools continued to contribute to the persistence of school segregation in the South over the course of the 1990s. Enrollment of whites in private schools increased sharply in the 1970s, remained unchanged in the 1980s, and increased again over the course of the 1990s. Because the changes over the latter two decades was not substantial, however, researcher Sean Reardon concludes that changes in private school enrollment is not a likely contributor to any changes in schools segregation patterns during that time.[14]

text: In contrast to charter and private schools, magnet schools generally foster racial integration rather than hinder it.[19] Such schools were initially presented as an alternative to unpopular busing policies, and included explicit desegregation goals along with provisions for recruiting and providing transportation for diverse populations.[18] Although today's magnet schools are no longer as explicitly oriented towards integration efforts, they continue to be less racially isolated than other forms of school choice.[18]

text: Implications of segregation[edit]

text: Educational outcomes[edit]

text: The level of racial segregation in schools has important implications for the educational outcomes of minority students. Desegregation efforts of the 1970s and 1980s led to substantial academic gains for black students; as integration increased, blacks' educational attainment increased while that of whites remained largely unchanged.[17] Historically, greater access to schools with higher enrollments of white students helped "reduce blacks’ high school dropout rate, reduce the black-white test score gap, and improve outcomes for black in areas such as earnings, health, and incarceration.”[11]

text: Nationwide, minority students continue to be concentrated in high-poverty, low-achieving schools, while white students are more likely to attend high-achieving, more affluent schools.[11] Resources such as funds and high-quality teachers attach unequally to schools according to racial and socioeconomic composition.[11] Schools with high proportions of minority enrollment are often characterized by "less experienced and less qualified teachers, high levels of teacher turnover, less successful peer groups and inadequate facilities and learning materials."[21] These schools also tend to have less challenging curricula and fewer offerings of Advanced Placement courses.[21]

text: Access to resources is not the only factor determining education outcomes; the very racial composition of schools can have an effect independent of the level of other resources. A 2009 study determined that attending school with a high proportion of black students negatively affected black academic achievement, even after controlling for school quality, differences in ability, and family background. The effect of racial composition on white achievement was insignificant.[22]

text: Short-term versus long-term outcomes[edit]

text: The research that has been conducted on the effects of school segregation can be divided into studies that observe short-term and long-term outcomes of segregated schooling; these outcomes can be either academic or non-academic in nature. Studies of short-term outcomes observe the relationship between school segregation and outcomes such as academic achievement (test scores), racial prejudice/fear, and cross-cultural friendships. Long-term outcomes may refer to educational attainment, occupational attainment, adults’ intergroup relations, crime and violence, and civic engagement.[23]

text: The mixed findings of research on the effects of integration on black students has resulted in ambiguous conclusions as to the influence of desegregation plans.[22] Generally, integration has a small but beneficial impact on short-term outcomes for blacks (i.e. education achievement), and a clearly beneficial impact on longer-term outcomes, such as school attainment (i.e. level of education attained) and earnings.[24] Integrated education is positively related to short-term outcomes such as K–12 school performance, cross-racial friendships, acceptance of cultural differences, and declines in racial fears and prejudice. In the long run, integration is associated with higher educational and occupational attainment across all ethnic groups, better intergroup relations, greater likelihood of living and working in an integrated environment, lower likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system, espousal of democratic values, and greater civic engagement.[23]

text: A 1994 study found support for the theory that interracial contact in elementary or secondary school positively affects long-term outcomes in a way that can help blacks overcome perpetual segregation.[25] The study reviewed previous research and determined that, as compared to segregated blacks, desegregated blacks are more likely to set higher occupational aspirations, attend desegregated colleges, have desegregated social and professional networks as adults, gain desegregated employment, and work in white-collar and professional jobs in the private sector.

text: Short-term and long-term benefits of integration are found for minority and majority students alike. Students who attend integrated schools are more likely to live in diverse neighborhoods as adults than those students who attended more segregated schools. Integrated schools also reduce the maintenance of stereotypes and prevent the formation of prejudices in both majority and minority students.[13]

text: Proposed policies[edit]

text: Although the Supreme Court's ruling in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 limited school districts' ability to take race into account during the school assignment process, the ruling did not prohibit racial considerations altogether. According to the UCLA Civil Rights Project, a school district may consider race when using any of the following strategies: "site selection of new schools; drawing attendance zones with general recognition of the racial demographics of neighborhoods; allocating resources for special programs; recruiting students and faculty in a targeted manner; [and] tracking enrollments, performance, and other statistics by race."[18] Districts may use income-based school assignment policies to try to indirectly achieve racial integration, but in practice such policies are not guaranteed to produce even a modest degree of racial integration.[26]

text: Other researchers argue that, given restrictive court rulings and the increasingly strong relationship between neighborhood and school segregation, integration efforts should instead focus on reducing racial segregation in neighborhoods.[13] This could be achieved, in part, by greater enforcement of the Fair Housing Act and/or removal of low-density zoning laws. Policy could also set aside low-income housing in new community developments that have a strong school district based on income.[21]

text: In the school choice realm, policy can ensure that greater choice facilitates integration by, for instance, adopting "civil rights policies" for charter schools.[21] Such policies could require charter schools to recruit diverse faculty and students, provide transportation to ensure access for poor students, and/or have a racial composition that does not differ greatly from that of the public school population.[19] Expanding the availability of magnet schools—which were initially created with school desegregation efforts and civil rights policies in mind—could also lead to increased integration, especially in those instances when magnet schools can draw students from separate (and segregated) attendance zones and school districts.[18] Alternatively, states could move towards county- or region-level school districting, allowing students to be drawn from larger and more diverse geographic areas.[13]

text: According to some scholars, school assignment policies should primarily focus on socioeconomic integration rather than racial integration. As Richard D. Kahlenberg writes, "Racial integration is a very important aim, but if one's goal is boosting academic achievement, what really matters is economic integration." [27] Kahlenberg refers to a body of research showing that the low overall socioeconomic status of a school is clearly linked to less learning for students, even after controlling for age, race, and family socioeconomic status. In particular, the socioeconomic composition of a school may lead to lower student achievement through its effect on "school processes," such as academic climate and teachers' expectations of students' ability to learn.[28] If reforms could equalize these school processes across schools, socioeconomic and racial integration policies might not be necessary to close achievement gaps.[28] Sociologist Amy Stuart Wells, however, argues that the original intent of school desegregation was to improve blacks’ access to important social institutions and opportunities, thereby improving their long-run life outcomes.[29] Discussions about ending racial integration policies, though, largely focus on the relationship between integration and short-run outcomes such as test scores.[29] In Stuart's view, long-term outcomes should be emphasized in order to appreciate the true social importance of integration.


document_title: Bonnie and Clyde (film)

question_text: who played in the movie bonnie and clyde

text: Bonnie and Clyde (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the middle of the Great Depression, Clyde Barrow (Warren Beatty) and Bonnie Parker (Faye Dunaway) meet when Clyde tries to steal Bonnie's mother's car. Bonnie, who is bored by her job as a waitress, is intrigued by Clyde, and decides to take up with him and become his partner in crime. They pull off some holdups, but their amateur efforts, while exciting, are not very lucrative.

text: The duo's crime spree shifts into high gear once they hook up with a dim-witted gas station attendant, C.W. Moss (Michael J. Pollard), then with Clyde's older brother Buck (Gene Hackman) and his wife, Blanche (Estelle Parsons), a preacher's daughter. The women dislike each other on first sight, and their feud only escalates from there: shrill Blanche has nothing but disdain for Bonnie, Clyde and C.W., while gun-moll Bonnie sees Blanche's flighty presence as a constant danger to the gang's well-being.

text: Bonnie and Clyde turn from pulling small-time heists to robbing banks. Their exploits also become more violent. When C.W. botches a bank robbery by parallel parking the getaway car, Clyde shoots the bank manager in the face after he jumps onto the slow-moving car's running board. The gang is pursued by law enforcement, including Texas Ranger Frank Hamer (Denver Pyle), whom they capture and humiliate before setting him free. A raid later catches the outlaws off guard, mortally wounding Buck with a gruesome shot to his head and injuring Blanche. Bonnie, Clyde and C.W. barely escape with their lives. With Blanche sightless and in police custody, Hamer tricks her into revealing C.W.'s name, who was up until now still only an "unidentified suspect."

text: Hamer locates Bonnie, Clyde and C.W. hiding at the house of C.W.'s father Ivan Moss (Dub Taylor), who thinks the couple—and an ornate tattoo—have corrupted his son. The elder Moss strikes a bargain with Hamer: in exchange for leniency for the boy, he helps set a trap for the outlaws. When Bonnie and Clyde stop on the side of the road to help Mr. Moss fix a flat tire, the police in the bushes open fire and riddle them with bullets. Hamer and his posse then come out of hiding, looking pensively at the couple's bodies.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Warren Beatty as Clyde Barrow
Faye Dunaway as Bonnie Parker
Michael J. Pollard as C.W. Moss
Gene Hackman as Buck Barrow
Estelle Parsons as Blanche Barrow
Denver Pyle as Frank Hamer
Dub Taylor as Ivan Moss
Gene Wilder as Eugene Grizzard
Evans Evans as Velma Davis
Mabel Cavitt as Bonnie's mother (uncredited)

text: Cast notes[edit]

text: Actor Gene Wilder portrayed Eugene Grizzard, one of Bonnie and Clyde's hostages. His girlfriend Velma Davis was played by Evans Evans, who was the wife of film director John Frankenheimer.

text: The family gathering scene was filmed in Red Oak, Texas. Several local residents gathered to watch the film being shot. When the filmmakers noticed Mabel Cavitt, a local school teacher, among the people gathered, she was cast as Bonnie Parker's mother.[7][8]

text: Production and style[edit]

text:
The film was intended as a romantic and comic version of the violent gangster films of the 1930s, updated with modern filmmaking techniques.[9] Arthur Penn portrayed some of the violent scenes with a comic tone, sometimes reminiscent of Keystone Kops-style slapstick films, then shifted disconcertingly into horrific and graphic violence.[10] The film was strongly influenced by the French New Wave directors, both in its rapid shifts of tone, and in its choppy editing, which is particularly noticeable in the film's closing sequence.[10][11]

The first handling of the script was in the early 1960s. Very influenced by the French New Wave writers and in a state not yet completed, it was first sent by its writers David Newman and Robert Benton to Arthur Penn. He was already engaged in the first decisions of production for the 1966 film The Chase and could not further involve himself at that point. The writers then sent to François Truffaut, renowned director of the New Wave movement, who made contributions to the script. He passed on the project and went on to make Fahrenheit 451.[12] At Truffaut's suggestion, the writers, much excited (the film's then-producers less so), approached Jean-Luc Godard. Some sources claim Godard didn't trust Hollywood and refused; Robert Benton claimed that Godard wanted to shoot the film in New Jersey in January during the winter and took offense when would-be producer Norah Wright objected that that was unreasonable considering the story took place in Texas with its year-round warm environment.[13] Her partner Elinor Jones[14] claimed they did not believe Godard was right for the project in the first place. Godard's retort: « Je vous parle de cinéma, vous me parlez de météo. Au revoir. » ("I'm talking cinema and you're talking weather. Goodbye.")[15] After the 1968 Academy Awards, Godard sent Benton and Newman a cable that read, "Now, let's make it all over again!"[16]

text: Soon after the failed negotiations for production, Warren Beatty was visiting Paris and learned through Truffaut of the project and its perambulations. On returning to Hollywood, Beatty requested the script and bought the rights. A meeting with Godard was not productive. Beatty then changed compass and convinced the writers that while the script at first reading was very much of the French  New Wave style, an American director was necessary for the subject.[17]

text: Beatty offered the position to George Stevens, William Wyler, Karel Reisz, John Schlesinger, Brian G. Hutton, and Sydney Pollack, all of whom turned down the opportunity. Arthur Penn actually turned down the director's position again further times before Beatty finally convinced him to helm the film.[18]

text: When Warren Beatty was on board as producer only, his sister Shirley MacLaine was a strong possibility to play Bonnie, but when Beatty decided to play Clyde, obviously a different actress was needed. Those considered for the role were Jane Fonda, Tuesday Weld, Ann-Margret, Leslie Caron, Carol Lynley and Sue Lyon. Cher auditioned for the part, while Warren Beatty begged Natalie Wood to play the role. Wood declined the role to concentrate more on her therapy at the time, and acknowledged that working with Beatty before was "difficult." Faye Dunaway stated that she won the part "by the skin of her teeth!"[citation needed]

text: The film is forthright in its handling of sexuality, but that theme was toned down from its conception. Originally, Benton and Newman wrote Clyde as bisexual and he and Bonnie were to have a three-way sexual relationship with their male getaway driver. However, Arthur Penn persuaded the writers that since the relationship's emotional complexity was underwritten, it dissipated the passion of the title characters and it would harm the audience's sympathy for the characters who would write them off as sexual deviants because they were criminals. Others claimed that Beatty was not willing to have his character display that kind of sexuality and that the Production Code would never have allowed such content in the first place.[19] Instead, Clyde is portrayed as unambiguously heterosexual, if impotent. When Clyde brandishes his gun to display his manhood, Bonnie suggestively strokes the phallic symbol. Like the 1950 film Gun Crazy, Bonnie and Clyde portrays crime as alluring and intertwined with sex. Because Clyde is impotent, his attempts to physically woo Bonnie are frustrating and anti-climactic.

text: Bonnie and Clyde was one of the first films to feature extensive use of squibs – small explosive charges, often mounted with bags of stage blood, that are detonated inside an actor's clothes to simulate bullet hits. Released in an era where shootings were generally depicted as bloodless and painless, the Bonnie and Clyde death scene was one of the first in mainstream American cinema to be depicted with graphic realism.[20]

text: Beatty had originally wanted the film to be shot in black and white, but Warner Bros. rejected this idea. As it stood, much of the senior management of the studio was hostile to this film project, especially Jack L. Warner who considered the subject-matter an unwanted throwback to Warner Bros.' early period when gangster films were common product.[21] In addition, Warner was already annoyed at Beatty who refused to star in the film, PT 109 at his behest and was insolent enough to defy his favorite gesture of authority of showing the studio water tower with the WB logo on it by responding "Well, it's got your name, but it's got my initials."[22] In addition, Warner complained about the film's extensive location shooting in Texas which exceeded its production schedule and budget, until he ordered the crew back to the studio backlot, where it was planned to be anyway for final process shots.[23]

text: At first, Warner Bros. did not promote Bonnie and Clyde[11] for general release, but instead mounted only limited regional releases that seemed to confirm its misgivings about the film's lack of commercial appeal, despite the fact the film was doing excellent sustained business in select urban theatres.[24] In fact, while Jack Warner was selling the studio to Seven Arts Productions, he would have had the film dumped but for the fact that Israel, of which Warner was a major supporter, had scored a triumphant victory in the Six-Day War, and he was in too defiant a mood to sell any of his studio's films.[25] Meanwhile, Warren Beatty, Bonnie and Clyde's producer and star, complained to Warner Bros. that if the company was willing to go to so much trouble for Reflections in a Golden Eye (they had changed the coloration scheme at considerable expense), their neglect of his film, which was getting excellent press, suggested a conflict of interest; he threatened to sue the company. Warner Bros. gave Beatty's film a general release. Much to Warner Bros.' management surprise, the film eventually became a major box office success.[26]

text: Music[edit]

text: The instrumental banjo piece "Foggy Mountain Breakdown" by Flatt and Scruggs was introduced to a worldwide audience as a result of its frequent use in the movie. Its use is strictly anachronistic as the bluegrass-style of music dates from the mid-1940s rather than the 1930s, but the functionally similar Old-time music genre was long established and widely recorded at the period in which the film is set.[citation needed] Long out of print in vinyl and cassette formats, the film soundtrack album was finally released on CD in 2009.[27]

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: The film considerably simplifies the lives of Bonnie and Clyde, which included other gang members, repeated jailings, other murders and a horrific auto accident that left Parker burned and a near-invalid.

text: The Gene Wilder–Evans Evans sequence is based on the kidnappings of the undertaker H. D. Darby and his acquaintance Sophia Stone, near Ruston, Louisiana on the late afternoon of April 27, 1933 by the Barrow gang, who had stolen their car.[28]

text: The film strays furthest from fact in its portrayal of the Texas Ranger Frank Hamer as a vengeful bungler who had been captured, humiliated, and released by Bonnie and Clyde. In real life, Hamer was already a legendary and decorated Texas Ranger when he was coaxed out of semi-retirement to hunt down the duo; indeed he had never seen them until the moment he and his posse ambushed them near Gibsland, Louisiana on May 23, 1934.[29] In 1968, Hamer's widow and son sued the movie producers for defamation of character over his portrayal and were awarded an out-of-court settlement in 1971.[30]

text: The couple's notoriety in 1933 came from photos found by police as undeveloped film in a hastily abandoned hideout in Joplin, Missouri. In one, Bonnie holds a gun in her hand and a cigar between her teeth. Its publication nationwide typed her as a dramatic gun moll. The film portrays the taking of this playful photo. It implies the gang sent photos—and poetry—to the press, but this is untrue. The police found most of the gang's items in the Joplin cache. Bonnie's final poem, read aloud by her in the movie, was publicized only posthumously by her mother.[31]

text: The only two members of the Barrow Gang who were alive at the time of the film's release were Blanche Barrow and W. D. Jones. While Blanche Barrow approved the depiction of her in the original version of the script, she objected to the later re-writes. At the film's release, she complained loudly about Estelle Parsons's portrayal of her, saying, "That film made me look like a screaming horse's ass!"[32]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film was controversial on its original release for its supposed glorification of murderers, and for its level of graphic violence, which was unprecedented at the time. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times was so appalled that he began to campaign against the increasing brutality of American films.[33] Dave Kaufman of Variety criticized the film for uneven direction and for portraying Bonnie and Clyde as bumbling fools.[34] Joe Morgenstern for Newsweek initially panned the film as a "squalid shoot-'em-up for the moron trade." After seeing the film a second time and noticing the enthusiastic audience, he wrote a second article saying he had misjudged it and praised the film. Warner Bros. took advantage of this, marketing the film as having made a major critic change his mind about its virtues.[35]

text: Roger Ebert gave Bonnie and Clyde a largely positive review, giving it four stars out of four. He called the film "a milestone in the history of American movies, a work of truth and brilliance." More than 30 years later, he added the film to his The Great Movies list. Film critics Dave Kehr and James Berardinelli have also praised the film in the years since.

text: The fierce debate about the film is discussed at length in For the Love of Movies: The Story of American Film Criticism. This 2009 documentary film chronicles what occurred as a result: The New York Times fired Bosley Crowther because his negative review seemed so out of touch with the public, and Pauline Kael, who wrote a lengthy freelance essay in The New Yorker in praise of the film, became the magazine's new staff-critic.[11]

text: It performed well at the box office, and by year's end had grossed $23,000,000 in US theatrical rentals, becoming the studio's second highest-grossing film of all time, right behind My Fair Lady.[36] Listal lists it as one of the top five grossing films of 1967 with $50,700,000 in US sales, and $70,000,000 worldwide.[37]

text: Although many believe the film's groundbreaking portrayal of violence adds to the film's artistic merit, Bonnie and Clyde is still sometimes criticized for opening the floodgates for violence in cinema.[38] It currently holds a 89% "Certified Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[39]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
In the 40th Academy Awards, Estelle Parsons won Best Supporting Actress award for her portrayal of Blanche Barrow, and Burnett Guffey won for Best Cinematography.
The film was also nominated for:

text:
Best Picture – Warren Beatty
Best Director – Arthur Penn
Best Writing (Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen) – David Newman and Robert Benton
Best Actor in a Leading Role – Warren Beatty
Best Actress in a Leading Role – Faye Dunaway
Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Gene Hackman
Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Michael J. Pollard
Best Costume Design – Theadora Van Runkle

text: In 1992, Bonnie and Clyde was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."

text: The film is also honored by the American Film Institute:

text:
1998 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #27
2001 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #13
2002 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #65
2003 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains
Clyde Barrow & Bonnie Parker – #32 Villains
2005 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes – #41
"We rob banks." – #41
2007 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #42
2008 – AFI's 10 Top 10 – #5 Gangster Film[40]

text: In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the fifth best edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.[41]

text: Influence[edit]

text: Fifty years after its premiere, Bonnie and Clyde has been cited as a major influence for such disparate films as The Wild Bunch, The Godfather, The Departed,[42] and Natural Born Killers.[43]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The "Storage Jars" skit of episode 33 of Monty Python's Flying Circus features a brief still shot of Warren Beatty as Clyde Barrow firing a Thompson submachine gun as he escapes from the Red Crown Tourist Court. [44]


document_title: List of drive-in theaters

question_text: how many drive ins are in the us

question_tokens: how many drive ins are in the us

text: List of drive-in theaters

text: Drive-in theatres[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: About 330 drive-in theatres were established in Australia, following the Skyline, established in 1954 in Melbourne.

text: Canada[edit]

text: Polson Pier, in Toronto, Ontario

text: United States[edit]

text: The first drive-in was opened in 1933 in New Jersey.[1] In 2017 there exist about 330 operating drive-in theaters in the United States, down from a peak of about 4,000 in the late 1950’s.[2] At least six are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Notable U.S. examples include:

text:
King Drive-In (1949), in Russellville, Alabama
Fort Lauderdale Swap Shop, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with 14 screens, is the largest drive-in theatre in the world. It doubles as the world's largest daily flea market.
Silvermoon Drive-in (1948), in Lakeland, Florida
Wilderness Outdoor Movie Theater, in Trenton, Georgia[3]
Spud Drive-In Theater (1953), between Victor and Driggs, Idaho. Features a giant potato; was still operating in 2011.[4] NRHP-listed.
Midway Drive-In (1950), in Sterling, Illinois
Mendon Twin Drive-In (1954), Mendon, Massachusetts. Two screens since 1998.
Wellfleet Drive-In Theater (1957), in Wellfleet, Massachusetts on Cape Cod. Has an indoor cinema as well.
Cherry Bowl Drive-In Theatre & Diner (1953), in Honor, Michigan[5]
Beverly Drive-In Theatre (1948), in Forrest County, Mississippi, operated regularly until 1987 and then for special events. Damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, it was then the oldest drive-in operating in Mississippi. Destroyed by fire in 2010.[6] NRHP-listed.
66 Drive-In (1949), on U.S. Route 66 in Carthage, Missouri, operated until 1985, reopened in 1998.[7][8] NRHP-listed.
Route 35 Drive-In (1956), in Hazlet, New Jersey. Closed 1991.
Midway Drive-In (1955), in Ravenna, Ohio. Second screen added in 1990s.
Boulevard Drive-In Theater (1949), Allentown, Pennsylvania, closed 1985[9]
Cumberland Drive-In (1952), Newville, Pennsylvania
Midway Drive-In (Texas) (1955), between Turkey and Quitaque, Texas. Closed in 1980s, reopened intermittently up to 2011.
Moonlite Theatre (1949), in Abingdon, Virginia. Closed 2013, reopened 2016. NRHP-listed.
Hull's Drive In (1950), Lexington, Virginia. Asserted to be the only not-for-profit drive-in theater in the U.S.
Family Drive-In Theatre (1956), Stephens City, Virginia

text:
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