document_title: Cell theory

question_text: who stated that all plants are made of cells

text: Cell theory

text: Microscopes

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[3] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[4][5] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[6]

text: Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses.  This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[7]

text: Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[7]

text: Discovery of cells

text:
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[6] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[8]
What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[9] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[6]

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[9] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[7] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[6]

text: The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[10]  This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[11] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.

text: In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[12] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.

text: Cell theory

text: Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[13] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[14] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[15] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[10]

text: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

text: 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

text: Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[7] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[10]  This translated to:

text: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

text: However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[16] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.

text: Modern interpretation

text: The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

text:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[17]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[18]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[19]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[20]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.[19]

text: Modern version

text: The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:

text:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]

text: Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background

text:
The cell was  first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation.
The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories

text:
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[21] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties.
The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[22] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl−, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl− as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg2+.
Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties.
By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph, "The Permeability of Living Cells", which rejects the bulk phase theories.

text: Emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept

text:
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed.
The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.

text:
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane.
These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]

text: The reemergence of the bulk phase theories

text: In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.

text: In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.

text: Types of cells

text: Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:

text:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[23] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[23] Bacteria and Archaea are the  two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but  on the other hand, they  have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as  (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[24] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]

text:
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared
with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[25]


document_title: Love Will Find a Way (Disney song)

question_text: who sings love will find a way in lion king 2

root

text: Love Will Find a Way (Disney song)

text: "Love Will Find a Way" is a song from the 1998 Disney film The Lion King 2, and written by Jack Feldman and Tom Snow. In the film, the song is sung by Liz Callaway and Gene Miller. In the end credits, a pop version is performed by Heather Headley and Kenny Lattimore. Both versions were featured on the album Return to Pride Rock: Songs Inspired by Disney's The Lion King II: Simba's Pride,[1] while the pop version was also released as a single.[2]

tag: p

text: Context[edit]

text: The song is sung by Kovu and Kiara, who despite being from opposing tribes, fall in love. Kovu has just been driven out of the Pride Lands due to being falsely committed of a crime.[3] They sing about how their love will conquer all opposition and ultimately bring them together again.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The New York Times called it a "detachable...mawkish...generic-sounding ballad", and disliked the blight against Kiara's character of not being "brave and strong and smart" that is included in the song's lyrics. However the newspaper added that the line does call to attention her "colorless, indistinct character" where she lacks the cleverness of Belle and the will of Ariel.[4] The Disney Song Encyclopedia describes it as a "romantic ballad" about how love can overcome all obstacles.[5] Bustle compared the line "Somewhere in my secret heart, I know love will find a way" to the work of Pablo Neruda.[6] Geeks Of Doom negatively compared the song to The Lion King's "Can You Feel the Love Tonight", but said the "overlooked" and "forgotten" song was a "touching" musical moment from the film about the "challenges of making relationships work" in the face of hurdles.[7] AllMusic deemed the song a "favourite".[8] Metro controversially deemed the tune Disney's 5th best song, positively comparing it to the "boring" and artificial "Can You Feel The Love Tonight"[9] commenting that the "romantic" tune "tugs at the heartstrings in a much more meaningful way".[10]

text: As of April 2017, the song is the 15th most streamed Disney song on Deezer, the second song from The Lion King franchise on the list after "Circle of Life".[11]


document_title: Two Tickets to Paradise

question_text: who played guitar on two tickets to paradise

text: Two Tickets to Paradise

text: Background and content[edit]

text: Money wrote the song about his girlfriend at the time. His girlfriend's mother wanted her to marry a doctor or a lawyer, not a musician. Money wrote the song in the hope of being allowed to take his girlfriend on vacation.

text: Release[edit]

text: The 45 RPM record single mix of the song is considerably different from the now more familiar LP version that appears on the Eddie Money album, a vast number of Money compilation albums, and digital releases of the song. Money had re-recorded his entire lead vocal for the single mix. The LP version is broken up in three verses, two choruses, with a harmony section of "Whoa Whoa" right before the third verse, while the re-recorded 45 RPM version is now three verses, three choruses, (with the third verse sang over the "Whoa" harmony segment), also added were guitar riffs during the "waited so long" parts; also lyrics were changed to the chorus slightly, as instead of saying "I've got two tickets to paradise, I've got two tickets to paradise" right after saying "pack your bags, we leave tonight" is now "Baby, it'll be so nice, for I've got two tickets to paradise". The mix is also substantially different, and new and different lead guitar parts appear throughout. Lastly, the LP version ends with a conclusive bongo/drum ending; whereas the 45 version uses a "fade away rhythm," DJ style close. The single mix runs at 3:07 minutes.

text: Most U.S. radio stations air the more widely available LP version, while the 45 RPM single mix can sometimes be heard on stations that specifically play only hit-single versions of oldies due to these stations digitizing the original 45 RPM records for airplay.

text: The 45 RPM version has been reissued on the Playlist: The Very Best of Eddie Money compilation CD. The guitar solo was performed by Jimmy Lyon.

text: The musical[edit]

text: There was an autobiographical musical play titled "Two Tickets to Paradise" which is a story of Eddie Money's life and musical focus.[2][3]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text:
The song appears in the 1994 episode "Homer Loves Flanders" of The Simpsons, in which Homer sings and plays the air guitar to the rock song.
It was also featured in a 2002 episode of The King of Queens where Doug Heffernan and Deacon Palmer attempt to spend $5,000 in one day, and they hire Eddie to play in Doug's living room.
Michael Scott of The Office sings a short, parodied version of the song in the 2006 episode "A Benihana Christmas."
The song appears on a 2008 episode of the TV show Unhitched.
In House MD, 2009 episode 6 of season 6 ("Known Unknowns"), a character says, "In the words of the great philosopher, Eddie Money, 'I've got two tickets to paradise.'" (min 0:03:26)
"Two Tickets to Paradise" was the centerpiece of a commercial during GEICO's "get happy, get GEICO" ad campaign in 2012. Eddie Money appears in the commercial as the owner of his own travel agency and sings the chorus of the song to a family trying to book a vacation (much to their annoyance). The tag line is that GEICO customers are "happier than Eddie Money running a travel agency."
The song was covered in a 2015 episode of Hawaii Five-0 in the episode "Ua Helele'i Ka Hoku (Fallen Star)".

tag: ul

text: Video Games[edit]

text:
"Two Tickets to Paradise" is used in the 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, on the fictional Classic rock radio station K-DST.
The song was made available for download on May 1, 2012 to play in Rock Band 3 Basic and PRO mode utilizing real guitar / bass guitar, and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits.

text: Movies[edit]

text:
The song can be heard as a background number in the 2004 film Sideways.
In one of the beginning scenes of the 2007 film Balls of Fury, Randy's co-performing counterpart can be seen (and heard) singing a karaoke version of the song with a parrot.
There is a reference in the 2014 movie "Good Kill" where one of the characters starts singing "I've got two tickets to Paradise..." (min 0:26:48)

text: Chart positions[edit]

text:
Charts (1978)
Peak
position

Australia Kent Music Report
86

U.S. Billboard Hot 100
22

Canadian RPM Top Singles
14

tag: table


document_title: Diary of a Mad Black Woman (play)

question_text: the cast of diary of a mad black woman the play

text: Diary of a Mad Black Woman (play)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Helen McCarter (King) is a loving wife to her successful millionaire husband and attorney, Charles McCarter (Blake). For twenty years, they have lived in a mansion on the inner part of the city. It appears that Helen is living the perfect life, but things are not as they seem, seeing as how Helen and Charles' marriage seems to be slowly falling apart. Charles' father, an elderly mail clerk by the name of Daddy Charles (Perry), talks to Helen, realizing that she is not as happy as she seems. He knows that Helen loves Charles, exclaiming to his son later in the play, " I dunno why she loves you, but she loves you to death." Helen also confides in her friend, Brenda (Robinson), an attorney who also works at Charles' firm, and her mother, Myrtle (Mann), who also thinks that Helen's marriage is still going well. Helen also reveals that Charles has also been abusing her physically after trying to cover up a bruise she received with a story claiming to have " hit herself in the eye with a cabinet door."

text: As their anniversary approaches, the McCarters continue to argue more and more. Finally, on the night of the anniversary, Charles admits to Helen that he has not been happy for quite sometime, and also tells her that he wants a divorce, revealing that he has been having an affair with another woman, who is Helen's friend Brenda. After humiliating Helen, Charles leaves her, telling her she can have the house and $2,000 a month.

text: Meanwhile, Helen receives a package from a delivery man named Orlando (Moore). Helen scolds him for what seems as though trying to flirt with her. Madea then recognizes Orlando in a magazine as a successful and wealthy business owner. Helen apologizes to Orlando, but Orlando blocks her advance, claiming that she is only doing so because she found out that he was rich. Helen finally tells him of her troubles and the two become friends from there on out. Brenda returns once more, this time bringing the paralyzed Charles to Helen, claiming that she can't take care of him anymore and that she's not a care giver. Brenda then leaves quickly as Helen was trying to pull her wig off, like she did when Myrtle told her about Charles, but not before being shot by Madea, who exclaims, "I got her, girl. Let me get the hell out!" Helen talks to Charles and laughs at the fact that he is now suffering. She leaves him sitting in the living room for days without feeding and bathing him. Charles begins to apologize and begs to just be left to die, but Helen refuses and tells him that she wants him to suffer for everything that he did to her. Later, Madea, who has been captured by the police later in the play for attempted murder, and Daddy Charles, who was sent to a home, work together and deliver letters from Charles job to Helen and make her see that she is now the acting owner of the company and quickly fires someone over the phone (likely Brenda).

text: Over time, Helen begins a relationship with Orlando. And soon, Charles reveals that he is no longer paralyzed. Helen signs the divorce papers and prepares to leave with Orlando. As she is about to leave, she realizes despite it all that she is still in love with Charles, returns and makes Charles promise to never hurt her again, and the two begin anew.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tyler Perry as Daddy Charles and Madea
Marva King as Helen Simmons-McCarter Fint Michigan July 12
Curtis Blake as Charles McCarter Charlotte North Carolina July 13
Cordell Moore as Orlando Moore
Tamela Mann as Myrtle Jean Simmons
Tunja Robinson as Brenda Marco Chicago Illinois
Regina McCrary as Angelou
Ty London as Willie

text: Live tour cast[edit]

text:
Tyler Perry as Daddy Charles and Madea
D'atra Hicks As Helen Simmons-McCarter
Curtis Blake as Charles McCarter
Dexter Hamlett as Orlando Moore
Regina Gibbs as Myrtle Jean Simmons
Tunja Robinson as Brenda Marco
Regina McCrary as Angelo
Ty London as Willie

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
"Only Believe", Performed by Tamela Mann
"A Man Got To Do What A Man Got To Do", Performed by Curtis Blake
"The Blues", Performed by Ty London and Regina McCrary
"Cold", Performed by Marva King
"Turn it Around", Performed by Tamela Mann
"Ain't it Funny", Performed by Marva King
"Father Can You Hear Me", Performed by Marva King, Curtis Blake, and Tamela Mann

text: Movie connections[edit]

text: The stage play was adapted into a motion picture by Lions Gate Entertainment and BET Pictures, and opened on February 25, 2005. The feature film version stars Kimberly Elise, Steve Harris, Shemar Moore, Cicely Tyson, and Tyler Perry. In the movie, it states that Helen and Charles have been married for eighteen years, rather than twenty years as said in the play.

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Tyler Perry

Stage

I Know I've Been Changed
I Can Do Bad All by Myself
Diary of a Mad Black Woman
Madea's Family Reunion
Madea's Class Reunion
Why Did I Get Married?
Meet the Browns
Madea Goes to Jail
What's Done in the Dark
The Marriage Counselor
Laugh to Keep from Crying
Madea's Big Happy Family
A Madea Christmas
Aunt Bam's Place
I Don't Want to Do Wrong!
The Haves and the Have Nots
Madea Gets a Job
Hell Hath No Fury Like a Woman Scorned
Madea's Neighbors from Hell
Madea on the Run

Films

Daddy's Little Girls
Why Did I Get Married?
Meet the Browns
The Family That Preys
Why Did I Get Married Too?
For Colored Girls
Good Deeds
Peeples
Temptation: Confessions of a Marriage Counselor
The Single Moms Club
Acrimony

Madea series

Diary of a Mad Black Woman
Madea's Family Reunion
Madea Goes to Jail
I Can Do Bad All by Myself
Madea's Big Happy Family
Madea's Witness Protection
A Madea Christmas
Madea's Tough Love
Boo! A Madea Halloween
Boo 2! A Madea Halloween
A Madea Family Funeral

Television

House of Payne
Meet the Browns
For Better or Worse
The Haves and the Have Nots
Love Thy Neighbor
If Loving You Is Wrong
Too Close to Home
The Paynes

Books

Don't Make a Black Woman Take Off Her Earrings

See also

Madea
Tyler Perry Studios

text: Plays by Tyler PerryAfrican-American playsAmerican plays adapted into films2001 plays

text: Articles lacking sources from January 2007All articles lacking sources


document_title: Jake Bugg

question_text: when does jake buggs new album come out

question_tokens: when does jake buggs new album come out

text: Jake Bugg

text: Early life[edit]

text: Jake Bugg was born in Nottingham to musical parents who separated when he was young. His father, whose last name was Bugg, was a nurse, and his mother worked in sales, both parents having previously made recordings.[5] He grew up in the Clifton council estate of Nottingham and started playing guitar at the age of 12 after being introduced to the instrument by his uncle Mark. He attended The Farnborough Academy (then known as the Farnborough School Technology College) in Clifton. He also states that his formative musical moment was hearing Don McLean's "Vincent (Starry, Starry Night)" on an episode of The Simpsons.[6] His main influences are Don McLean, Oasis, Donovan, The Beatles, Jimi Hendrix, Johnny Cash, and the Everly Brothers. In an interview with Absolute Radio in 2014 he also mentioned that the American heavy metal band Metallica was a huge influence to him when he first picked up the guitar as a 12-year-old. He was enrolled in a music technology course but, by the age of 16, he had dropped out and was writing and performing his own songs.[4]

text: Career[edit]

text: 2011: Beginnings[edit]

text: Bugg was selected to perform on the "BBC Introducing" stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival at age 17 after submitting material to their website, and subsequently signed to Mercury Records.[7] His songs were then placed on various BBC Radio playlists, with "Country Song" being used in a national TV beer commercial for Greene King IPA.[8][9]

text: 2012: Jake Bugg[edit]

text: Bugg's self-titled debut album was released on 15 October 2012.[10] Talking about Bugg and his debut, Clash hailed the "precocious talent fusing retro folk with blistering contemporary rock riffs".[11] On 21 October 2012 the song "Two Fingers" charted at 28 in the UK while the album reached number one in the UK charts.[12] The album has sold 604,100 copies in the United Kingdom and is the 57th best selling album of the 2010 decade.[13] Bugg's touring band drummer Jack Atherton and bassist Tom 'Robbo' Robertson performed on five songs on the album.

text: On 22 May 2012, Bugg appeared on the BBC music programme Later... with Jools Holland. In August 2012 Bugg was a supporting act for Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds at Belsonic Music Festival, Belfast. On 1 October 2012, he performed live on the BBC Radio 6 Music programme Live at Maida Vale.

text: In 2014, "Simple As This" was featured in the movie The Fault in Our Stars

text: 2013: Shangri La[edit]

text: Bugg had been in Malibu working with Rick Rubin and Iain Archer, and had had some interactions with Chad Smith from the Red Hot Chili Peppers, working on the drums to some of his songs, including the single "Broken". On 8 September 2013, Bugg tweeted, "2nd album done! Hope you're all well!" On 23 September 2013, Bugg announced his new album, Shangri La, along with a new single, "What Doesn't Kill You". Shangri La was released on 18 November 2013.[14] This album is named after the studio Bugg recorded it in.[15] Shangri La includes Elvis Costello's drummer Pete Thomas, and Chad Smith of the Red Hot Chili Peppers.[16] The album has generally received positive reviews from the music community.[17] Bugg was one of five nominees for the 2013 Brit Award for "British Breakthrough Act", which was voted on by BBC Radio 1 listeners.[18] The award was won by Ben Howard.

text: On 28 June, Bugg performed an afternoon set on the Pyramid Stage at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival, making him the first artist that has moved from the BBC Introducing Stage to the Main Pyramid stage in successive years.[19]

text: On 12 July, Bugg played the Radio 1 Stage at T in the Park. On 20 July, Bugg headlined at the Splendour festival in Nottingham.[20] On 2 August, Bugg performed at the Osheaga Festival in the Parc Jean-Drapeau, Montreal, Quebec. On 23–25 August, Bugg performed at the Reading and Leeds Festival on the Radio 1/NME stage. On 13 October, Bugg performed at the Fonda Theatre in Hollywood, California.

text: The song "Me and You" was featured in the credits of the movie Dumb and Dumber To.

text: 2014–16: On My One[edit]

text: In a 2014 interview with Mr. Wavvy, Bugg announced that he had begun work on a new studio album. On whether or not it would be released in 2014, Bugg stated "That's the beauty of making records, you just never know when it's gonna be ready. I didn't think this second album's gonna be as ready as soon as it was but it just so happened." He did not specify whether or not he would be working with Rubin again, only that he is currently in the songwriting process.[21] In July 2014, Jake Bugg revealed he had already started working on his third studio album. That same month, he was also at the River Stage at Ottawa Bluesfest and performed at Paléo Festival near the Lake Geneva in Switzerland. His music was also featured in the movie The Fault in Our Stars. On 5 October 2014, at Cardiff, he played for the first time two new songs: "Down the Avenue" and "Hold on You". A new song, "Feel What's Good", was in the soundtrack of The Giver. Speaking with NME in early 2015, Jake said that he was working on his third album, of which "the content of the songs was much darker" than earlier work. On the 16 February 2016 he released free of charge a new song: "On My One".[22] On 25 February his new single "Gimme the Love" debuted on BBC Radio 1. Bugg also talked about the forthcoming album On My One, announcing its release for June.[23] On 26 February he announced the album would be released on 17 June. He also shared the track list and revealed the artwork.[24] In May 2016 a number of tour dates, in London and Nottingham, for June, were announced.[25]

text: His 2012 single "Trouble Town" was used as the theme for the BBC TV series Happy Valley broadcast in 2014 and 2016.

text: In June 2017, Bugg was confirmed as the shirt sponsor of his favourite football team, Notts County, taking the November slot in a season-long rotation.[26]

text: 2017: Hearts That Strain[edit]

text: On 2 August 2017, Jake Bugg's new single "How Soon the Dawn" was played on BBC Radio 1, hosted by Annie Mac. On 4 August Bugg released the single on all platforms with a music video. He later announced his fourth studio album titled Hearts That Strain. It was released on 1 September 2017. He will embark on an acoustic tour through November to support the new album.[27]

text: Discography[edit]

text: Studio albums

text:
Jake Bugg (2012)
Shangri La (2013)
On My One (2016)
Hearts That Strain (2017)

text: Television appearances[edit]

text:
Year
Television show
Performing
Description

BBC 2 The Review Show
"Trouble Town"
January 2012

2012
Later... with Jools Holland
"Trouble Town", "Country Song" & "Lightning Bolt"
Series 40, Episode 6[28]

Hootenanny
"Lightning Bolt" & "Two Fingers"
Annual Hootenanny 2012/2013[29]

2013
Conan
"Two Fingers"
17 January 2013[30]

The Ellen DeGeneres Show
"Lightning Bolt"
Series 10, Episode 129[31]

The Graham Norton Show
"Broken"
Series 13, Episode 13[32]

Late Show with David Letterman
"Lightning Bolt"
Series 20, Episode 129[33]

The Tonight Show with Jay Leno
"Lightning Bolt"
Series 21, Episode 68[34]

Conan
"What Doesn't Kill You"
1 October 2013[30]

Later... with Jools Holland
"What Doesn't Kill You", "Slumville Sunrise" & "A Song About Love"
Series 43, Episode 4[35]

The Tonight Show with Jay Leno
"What Doesn't Kill You"
Series 21, Episode 206[36]

2014
The Graham Norton Show
"A Song About Love"
Series 14, Episode 11[37]

The Ellen DeGeneres Show
"A Song About Love"
Series 11, Episode 91[38]

American Idol
"Me and You"
Series 13, Episode 15[39]

The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon
"Me and You"
14 March 2014[40]

2016
Jimmy Kimmel Live!
"Gimme the Love", "Lightning Bolt"
March 15, 2016

Late Night with Seth Meyers
"Love, Hope and Misery"
June 7, 2016

The Andrew Marr Show
"Love, Hope and Misery"
19 June 2016[41]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Organisation
Award
Nominated
Result

2013
BRIT Awards[42]
British Breakthrough Act
Himself
Nominated

NME Awards[43]
Best Solo Artist
Himself
Nominated

Best Album
Jake Bugg
Nominated

Ivor Novello Awards[44]
Best Song Musically and Lyrically
"Two Fingers"
Nominated

Q Awards[45]
Best New Act
Himself
Won

Best Solo Artist
Himself
Nominated

Mercury Prize[46]
Album of the Year
Jake Bugg
Nominated

2014
BRIT Awards[47]
British Male Solo Artist
Himself
Nominated

NME Awards[48]
Best Solo Artist
Himself
Nominated

Q Awards[49]
Best Solo Artist
Himself
Nominated

Capricho Awards
International Singer
Himself
Nominated

2015
NME Awards[50]
Best Solo Artist
Himself
Won

Silver Clef Award[51]
Best Male
Himself
Won


document_title: List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders

question_text: how much points did michael jordan score in his career

text: Scoring leaders[edit]

text: The following is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season points scored.

text:
^

Active NBA player

*

Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

†

Not yet eligible for Hall of Fame consideration[2]

text:
Rank

Player

Position(s)

Team(s) played for (years)[3]

Total points

Games  played

Points  per gameaverage[4]

Field goalsmade

Three-pointfield goalsmade[5]

Free  throws made

1

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*[6]

C

Milwaukee Bucks (1969–1975)Los Angeles Lakers (1975–1989)

38,387

1,560

24.6

15,837

1

6,712

2

Karl Malone*

PF

Utah Jazz (1985–2003)Los Angeles Lakers (2003–2004)

36,928

1,476

25.0

13,528

85

9,787

3

Kobe Bryant†

SG

Los Angeles Lakers (1996–2016)

33,643

1,346

25.0

11,719

1,827

8,378

4

Michael Jordan*

SG

Chicago Bulls (1984–1993, 1995–1998)Washington Wizards (2001–2003)

32,292

1,072

30.1

12,192

581

7,327

5

Wilt Chamberlain*

C

Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors (1959–1965)Philadelphia 76ers (1965–1968)Los Angeles Lakers (1968–1973)

31,419

1,045

30.1

12,681

0

6,057

6

Dirk Nowitzki^

PF/C

Dallas Mavericks (1999–present)

31,187

1,471

21.2

11,034

1,918

7,201

7

LeBron James^

SF/PF

Cleveland Cavaliers (2003–2010, 2014–2018)Miami Heat (2010–2014)Los Angeles Lakers (2018–present)

31,038

1,143

27.2

11,280

1,616

6,862

8

Shaquille O'Neal*

C

Orlando Magic (1992–1996)Los Angeles Lakers (1996–2004)Miami Heat (2004–2008)Phoenix Suns (2008–2009)Cleveland Cavaliers (2009–2010)Boston Celtics (2010–2011)

28,596

1,207

23.7

11,330

1

5,935

9

Moses Malone*

C

Buffalo Braves (1976)Houston Rockets (1976–1982)Philadelphia 76ers (1982–1986, 1993–1994)Washington Bullets (1986–1988)Atlanta Hawks (1988–1991)Milwaukee Bucks (1991–1993)San Antonio Spurs (1994–1995)

27,409

1,329

20.6

9,435

8

8,531

10

Elvin Hayes*

PF/C

San Diego/Houston Rockets (1968–1972, 1981–1984)Baltimore/Capital/Washington Bullets (1972–1981)

27,313

1,303

21.0

10,976

5

5,356

11

Hakeem Olajuwon*[7]

C

Houston Rockets (1984–2001)Toronto Raptors (2001–2002)

26,946

1,238

21.8

10,749

25

5,423

12

Oscar Robertson*

PG

Cincinnati Royals (1960–1970)Milwaukee Bucks (1970–1974)

26,710

1,040

25.7

9,508

0

7,694

13

Dominique Wilkins*

SF

Atlanta Hawks (1982–1994)Los Angeles Clippers (1994)Boston Celtics (1994–1995)San Antonio Spurs (1996–1997)Orlando Magic (1999)

26,668

1,074

24.8

9,963

711

6,031

14

Tim Duncan†

PF/C

San Antonio Spurs (1997–2016)

26,496

1,392

19.0

10,285

30

5,896

15

Paul Pierce†

SF/SG

Boston Celtics (1999–2013)Brooklyn Nets (2013–2014)Washington Wizards (2014–2015)Los Angeles Clippers (2015–2017)

26,397

1,343

19.7

8,668

2,143

6,918

16

John Havlicek*

SF/SG

Boston Celtics (1962–1978)

26,395

1,270

20.8

10,513

0

5,369

17

Kevin Garnett†

PF/C

Minnesota Timberwolves (1995–2007, 2015–2016)Boston Celtics (2007–2013)Brooklyn Nets (2013–2015)

26,071

1,462

17.8

10,505

174

4,887

18

Alex English*

SF

Milwaukee Bucks (1976–1978)Indiana Pacers (1978–1980)Denver Nuggets (1980–1990)Dallas Mavericks (1990–1991)

25,613

1,193

21.5

10,659

18

4,277

19

Carmelo Anthony^

SF

Denver Nuggets (2003–2011)New York Knicks (2011–2017)Oklahoma City Thunder (2017–2018)Houston Rockets (2018–present)

25,417

1,054

24.1

9,088

1,341

5,900

20

Reggie Miller*

SG

Indiana Pacers (1987–2005)

25,279

1,389

18.2

8,241

2,560

6,237

21

Jerry West*

PG/SG

Los Angeles Lakers (1960–1974)

25,192

932

27.0

9,016

0

7,160

22

Vince Carter^

SG/SF

Toronto Raptors (1999–2004)New Jersey Nets (2004–2009)Orlando Magic (2009–2010)Phoenix Suns (2010–2011)Dallas Mavericks (2011–2014)Memphis Grizzlies (2014–2017)Sacramento Kings (2017–2018)Atlanta Hawks (2018–present)

24,868

1,405

17.7

8,990

2,106

4,782

23

Patrick Ewing*

C

New York Knicks (1985–2000)Seattle SuperSonics (2000–2001)Orlando Magic (2001–2002)

24,815

1,183

21.0

9,702

19

5,392

24

Ray Allen*

SG

Milwaukee Bucks (1996–2003)Seattle SuperSonics (2003–2007)Boston Celtics (2007–2012)Miami Heat (2012–2014)

24,505

1,300

18.9

8,567

2,973

4,398

25

Allen Iverson*

SG/PG

Philadelphia 76ers (1996–2006, 2009–2010)Denver Nuggets (2006–2008)Detroit Pistons (2008–2009)Memphis Grizzlies (2009)

24,368

914

26.7

8,467

1,059

6,375

26

Charles Barkley*

PF

Philadelphia 76ers (1984–1992)Phoenix Suns (1992–1996)Houston Rockets (1996–2000)

23,757

1,073

22.1

8,435

538

6,349

27

Robert Parish*

C

Golden State Warriors (1976–1980)Boston Celtics (1980–1994)Charlotte Hornets (1994–1996)Chicago Bulls (1996–1997)

23,334

1,611

14.5

9,614

0

4,106

28

Adrian Dantley*

SF

Buffalo Braves (1976–1977)Indiana Pacers (1977)Los Angeles Lakers (1977–1979)Utah Jazz (1979–1986)Detroit Pistons (1986–1989)Dallas Mavericks (1989–1990)Milwaukee Bucks (1991)

23,177

955

24.3

8,169

7

6,832

29

Elgin Baylor*

SF

Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers (1958–1971)

23,149

846

27.4

8,693

0

5,763

30

Clyde Drexler*

SG

Portland Trail Blazers (1983–1995)Houston Rockets (1995–1998)

22,195

1,086

20.4

8,335

827

4,698

31

Dwyane Wade^

SG

Miami Heat (2003–2016, 2018–present)Chicago Bulls (2016–2017) Cleveland Cavaliers (2017–2018)

22,082

982

22.5

8,038

463

5,543

32

Gary Payton*

PG

Seattle SuperSonics (1990–2003)Milwaukee Bucks (2003)Los Angeles Lakers (2003–2004)Boston Celtics (2004–2005)Miami Heat (2005–2007)

21,813

1,335

16.3

8,708

1,132

3,265

33

Larry Bird*

SF/PF

Boston Celtics (1979–1992)

21,791

897

24.3

8,591

649

3,960

34

Hal Greer*

SG/PG

Syracuse Nationals/Philadelphia 76ers (1958–1973)

21,586

1,122

19.2

8,504

0

4,578

35

Walt Bellamy*

C

Chicago Packers/Zephyrs/Baltimore Bullets (1961–1965)New York Knicks (1965–1968)Detroit Pistons (1968–1970)Atlanta Hawks (1970–1974)New Orleans Jazz (1974)

20,941

1,043

20.1

7,914

0

5,113

36

Kevin Durant^

SF

Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder (2007–2016)Golden State Warriors (2016–present)

20,913

771

27.1

7,093

1,433

5,294

37

Bob Pettit*

PF/C

Milwaukee/St. Louis Hawks (1954–1965)

20,880

792

26.4

7,349

0

6,182

38

David Robinson*

C

San Antonio Spurs (1989–2003)

20,790

987

21.1

7,365

25

6,035

39

Pau Gasol^

C/PF

Memphis Grizzlies (2001–2008)Los Angeles Lakers (2008–2014)Chicago Bulls (2014–2016)San Antonio Spurs (2016–present)

20,776

1,196

17.4

7,938

173

4,727

40

George Gervin*

SG/SF

San Antonio Spurs (1976–1985)Chicago Bulls (1985–1986)

20,708

791

26.2

8,045

77

4,541

41

Mitch Richmond*

SG

Golden State Warriors (1988–1991)Sacramento Kings (1991–1998)Washington Wizards (1999–2001)Los Angeles Lakers (2001–2002)

20,497

976

21.0

7,305

1,326

4,561

42

Joe Johnson^

SG/SF

Boston Celtics (2001–2002)Phoenix Suns (2002–2005)Atlanta Hawks (2005–2012)Brooklyn Nets (2012–2016)Miami Heat (2016)Utah Jazz (2016–2018)Houston Rockets (2018–present)

20,405

1,276

16.0

7,822

1,978

2,783

43

Tom Chambers

PF

San Diego Clippers (1981–1983)Seattle SuperSonics (1983–1988)Phoenix Suns (1988–1993)Utah Jazz (1993–1995)Charlotte Hornets (1997)Philadelphia 76ers (1997)

20,049

1,107

18.1

7,378

227

5,066

44

Antawn Jamison

PF/SF

Golden State Warriors (1999–2003)Dallas Mavericks (2003–2004)Washington Wizards (2004–2010)Cleveland Cavaliers (2010–2012)Los Angeles Lakers (2012–2013)Los Angeles Clippers (2013–2014)

20,042

1,083

18.5

7,679

1,163

3,521

45

John Stockton*

PG

Utah Jazz (1984–2003)

19,711

1,504

13.1

7,039

845

4,788

46

Bernard King*

SF

New Jersey Nets (1977–1979, 1993)Utah Jazz (1979)Golden State Warriors (1980–1982)New York Knicks (1982–1985, 1987)Washington Bullets (1987–1991)

19,655

874

22.5

7,830

23

3,972

47

Clifford Robinson

PF/SF

Portland Trail Blazers (1989–1997)Phoenix Suns (1997–2001)Detroit Pistons (2001–2003)Golden State Warriors (2003–2005)New Jersey Nets (2005–2007)

19,591

1,380

14.2

7,389

1,253

3,560

48

Walter Davis

SG/SF

Phoenix Suns (1977–1988)Denver Nuggets (1988–1991, 1991–1992)Portland Trail Blazers (1991)

19,521

1,033

18.9

8,118

157

3,128

49

Terry Cummings

PF

San Diego Clippers (1982–1984)Milwaukee Bucks (1984–1989, 1995–1996)San Antonio Spurs (1989–1995)Seattle SuperSonics (1996–1997)Philadelphia 76ers (1997–1998)New York Knicks (1998)Golden State Warriors (1999–2000)

19,460

1,183

16.4

8,045

44

3,326

50

Bob Lanier*

C

Detroit Pistons (1970–1980)Milwaukee Bucks (1980–1984)

19,248

959

20.1

7,761

2

3,724

text: Progressive list of scoring leaders[edit]

text: This is a progressive list of scoring leaders showing how the record increased through the years.[1]

text:
Team abbreviations

Team(s) listed is the one player was on when he established the record.

ATL
Atlanta Hawks
DET
Detroit Pistons
MIL
Milwaukee Bucks
PHX
Phoenix Suns

BOS
Boston Celtics
FTW
Fort Wayne Pistons
MIN
Minnesota Timberwolves
PHW
Philadelphia Warriors

BUF
Buffalo Braves
GSW
Golden State Warriors
MNL
Minneapolis Lakers
SAS
San Antonio Spurs

CHI
Chicago Bulls
HOU
Houston Rockets
NOJ
New Orleans Jazz
SDR
San Diego Rockets

CHS
Chicago Stags
IND
Indiana Pacers
NOP
New Orleans Pelicans
SFW
San Francisco Warriors

CLE
Cleveland Cavaliers
KCO
Kansas City-Omaha Kings
OKC
Oklahoma City Thunder
STL
St. Louis Hawks

DAL
Dallas Mavericks
LAL
Los Angeles Lakers
ORL
Orlando Magic
SYR
Syracuse Nationals

DEN
Denver Nuggets
MIA
Miami Heat
PHI
Philadelphia 76ers
UTA
Utah Jazz

text:
Scoring leader at the end of every season

Season
Year-by-year leader
Points
Active player leader
Total points
Career record
Total points
Single-season record
Points
Season

1946–47
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
1946–47

1947–48
Max Zaslofsky000CHS
1,007
2,338
2,338
1947–48

1948–49
George Mikan*000MNL
1,698
3,898
3,898
George Mikan*000MNL
1,698
1948–49

1949–50
1,865
4,863
4,863
1,865
1949–50

1950–51
1,932
6,099
6,099
1,932
1950–51

1951–52
Paul Arizin*000PHW
1,674
7,021
7,021
1951–52

1952–53
Neil Johnston*000PHW
1,564
George Mikan*000MNL
8,460
George Mikan*000MNL
8,460
1952–53

1953–54
1,759
9,766
9,766
1953–54

1954–55
1,631
Max Zaslofsky000FTW
7,902
1954–55

1955–56
Bob Pettit*000STL
1,849
George Mikan*000MNL
10,156
10,156
1955–56

1956–57
Paul Arizin*000PHW
1,817
Ed Macauley*000STL
10,150
1956–57

1957–58
George Yardley*000DET
2,001
Dolph Schayes*000SYR
11,764
Dolph Schayes*000SYR
11,764
George Yardley*000DET
2,001
1957–58

1958–59
Bob Pettit*000STL
2,105
13,298
13,298
Bob Pettit*000STL
2,105
1958–59

1959–60
Wilt Chamberlain*000PHW 1959–62000SFW 1962–65000PHI 1965–66
2,707
14,987
14,987
Wilt Chamberlain*000PHW
2,707
1959–60

1960–61
3,033
16,855
16,855
3,033
1960–61

1961–62
4,029
17,677
17,677
4,029
1961–62

1962–63
3,586
18,304
18,304
1962–63

1963–64
2,948
Bob Pettit*000STL
19,756
Bob Pettit*000STL
19,756
1963–64

1964–65
2,534
20,880
20,880
1964–65

1965–66
2,649
Wilt Chamberlain*000PHI 1965–68000LAL 1968–73
21,486
Wilt Chamberlain*000PHI 1965–68000LAL 1968–73
21,486
1965–66

1966–67
Rick Barry*000SFW
2,775
23,442
23,442
1966–67

1967–68
Dave Bing*000DET
2,142
25,434
25,434
1967–68

1968–69
Elvin Hayes*000SDR
2,327
27,098
27,098
1968–69

1969–70
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*000MIL
2,361
27,426
27,426
1969–70

1970–71
2,596
29,122
29,122
1970–71

1971–72
2,822
30,335
30,335
1971–72

1972–73
Tiny Archibald*000KCO
2,719
31,419
31,419
1972–73

1973–74
Bob McAdoo*000BUF
2,261
Oscar Robertson*000MIL
26,710
1973–74

1974–75
2,831
John Havlicek*000BOS
22,389
1974–75

1975–76
2,427
23,678
1975–76

1976–77
Pete Maravich*000NOJ
2,273
25,073
1976–77

1977–78
George Gervin*000SAS
2,232
26,395
1977–78

1978–79
2,365
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*000LAL
22,141
1978–79

1979–80
2,585
24,175
1979–80

1980–81
Adrian Dantley*000UTA
2,452
26,270
1980–81

1981–82
George Gervin*000SAS
2,551
28,088
1981–82

1982–83
Alex English*000DEN
2,326
29,810
1982–83

1983–84
Adrian Dantley*000UTA
2,418
31,527
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*000LAL
31,527
1983–84

1984–85
Michael Jordan*000CHI
2,313
33,262
33,262
1984–85

1985–86
Alex English*000DEN
2,414
35,108
35,108
1985–86

1986–87
Michael Jordan*000CHI
3,041
36,474
36,474
1986–87

1987–88
2,868
37,639
37,639
1987–88

1988–89
2,633
38,387
38,387
1988–89

1989–90
2,753
Moses Malone*000ATL 1989–91000MIL 1991–93000PHI 1993–94000SAS 1994–95
24,868
1989–90

1990–91
2,580
25,737
1990–91

1991–92
2,404
27,016
1991–92

1992–93
2,541
27,066
1992–93

1993–94
David Robinson*000SAS
2,383
27,360
1993–94

1994–95
Shaquille O'Neal*000ORL
2,315
27,409
1994–95

1995–96
Michael Jordan*000CHI
2,491
Michael Jordan*000CHI
24,489
1995–96

1996–97
2,431
26,920
1996–97

1997–98
2,357
29,277
1997–98

1998–99
Shaquille O'Neal*000LAL
1,289
Karl Malone*000UTA 1998–2003000LAL 2003–04
28,946
1998–99

1999–00
2,344
31,041
1999–00

2000–01
Jerry Stackhouse00DET
2,380
32,919
2000–01

2001–02
Paul Pierce†000BOS
2,144
34,707
2001–02

2002–03
Kobe Bryant†000LAL
2,461
36,374
2002–03

2003–04
Kevin Garnett†000MIN
1,987
36,928
2003–04

2004–05
Allen Iverson*000PHI
2,302
Reggie Miller*000IND
25,279
2004–05

2005–06
Kobe Bryant†000LAL
2,832
Shaquille O'Neal*000MIA 2005–08000PHO 2008–09000CLE 2009–10000BOS 2010–11
24,764
2005–06

2006–07
2,430
25,454
2006–07

2007–08
2,323
26,286
2007–08

2008–09
Dwyane Wade^000MIA
2,386
27,619
2008–09

2009–10
Kevin Durant^000OKC
2,472
28,255
2009–10

2010–11
2,161
28,596
2010–11

2011–12
1,850
Kobe Bryant†000LAL
29,484
2011–12

2012–13
2,280
31,617
2012–13

2013–14
2,593
31,700
2013–14

2014–15
James Harden^000HOU
2,217
32,482
2014–15

2015–16
2,376
33,643
2015–16

2016–17
Russell Westbrook^000OKC
2,558
Dirk Nowitzki^000DAL
30,260
2016–17

2017–18
LeBron James^000CLE
2,251
31,187
Abdul-Jabbar*0 35 yrs
38,387
Chamberlain*059 yrs
4,029
2017–18

Season
Year-by-year leader
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document_title: Corned beef

question_text: where does corn beef come from what animal

text: Corned beef

text: History[edit]

text: This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Some of this section may refer to Bully beef and should be moved to that page. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Although the exact beginnings of corned beef are unknown, it most likely came about when people began preserving meat through salt-curing. Evidence of its legacy is apparent in numerous cultures, including ancient Europe and the Middle East.[2] The word corn derives from Old English and is used to describe any small, hard particles or grains.[3] In the case of "corned beef", the word may refer to the coarse, granular salts used to cure the beef.[2] The word "corned" may also refer to the corns of potassium nitrate, also known as saltpeter, which were formerly used to preserve the meat.[4][5][6]

text: 19th-century Atlantic trade[edit]

text: Although the practice of curing beef was found locally in many cultures, the industrial production of corned beef started in the British Industrial Revolution. Irish corned beef was used and traded extensively from the 17th century to the mid-19th century for British civilian consumption and as provisions for the British naval fleets and North American armies due to its nonperishable nature.[7] The product was also traded to the French for use in Caribbean sugar plantations as sustenance for the colonists and the slave laborers.[8] The 17th-century British industrial processes for corned beef did not distinguish between different cuts of beef beyond the tough and undesirable parts such as the beef necks and shanks.[8][9] Rather, the grading was done by the weight of the cattle into "small beef", "cargo beef", and "best mess beef", the former being the worst and the latter the best.[8] Much of the undesirable portions and lower grades were traded to the French, while better parts were saved for British consumption or shipped to British colonies.[8]

text: Ireland produced a significant amount of the corned beef in the Atlantic trade from local cattle and salt imported from the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France.[8] Coastal cities, such as Dublin, Belfast, and Cork, created vast beef curing and packing industries, with Cork producing half of Ireland's annual beef exports in 1668.[9] Although the production and trade of corned beef as a commodity was a source of great wealth for the colonial nations of Britain and France (which were participating in the Atlantic slave trade), in the colonies themselves, the product was looked upon with disdain due to its association with poverty and slavery.[8]

text: Increasing corned beef production to satisfy the rising populations of the industrialised areas of Great Britain and Atlantic trade worsened the effects of the Irish Famine and the Great Potato Famine:

text: The Celtic grazing lands of ... Ireland had been used to pasture cows for centuries. The British colonized ... the Irish, transforming much of their countryside into an extended grazing land to raise cattle for a hungry consumer market at home ... The British taste for beef had a devastating impact on the impoverished and disenfranchised people of ... Ireland. Pushed off the best pasture land and forced to farm smaller plots of marginal land, the Irish turned to the potato, a crop that could be grown abundantly in less favorable soil. Eventually, cows took over much of Ireland, leaving the native population virtually dependent on the potato for survival.

text: Despite being a major producer of beef, most of the people of Ireland during this period consumed little of the meat produced, in either fresh or salted form, due to its prohibitive cost. This was because most of the farms and its produce were owned by wealthy Anglo-Irish who were absentee landlords and that most of the population were from families of poor tenant farmers, and that most of the corned beef was exported.

text: The lack of beef or corned beef in the Irish diet is especially true in Northern Ireland and areas away from the major centres for corned beef production. However, individuals living in these production centres such as Cork did consume the product to a certain extent. The majority of Irish who resided in Ireland at the time mainly consumed dairy products and meats such as pork or salt pork,[9] bacon and cabbage being a notable example of a traditional Irish meal.

text: 20th century to present[edit]

text: Although it ceased to be an important commodity in the 20th-century Atlantic trade due in part to the abolition of slavery, corned beef production and its canned form remained important as a food source during the Second World War. Much of the canned corned beef came from Fray Bentos in Uruguay, with over 16 million cans exported in 1943.[9] Even now, significant amounts of the global canned corned beef supply comes from South America. Today, around 80% of the global tinned corned beef supply originates from Brazil.[11]

text: Cultural associations[edit]

text: In North America, corned beef dishes are associated with traditional Irish cuisine. However, considerable debate remains about the association of corned beef with Ireland. Mark Kurlansky, in his book Salt, states that the Irish produced a salted beef around the Middle Ages that was the "forerunner of what today is known as Irish corned beef" and in the 17th century, the English named the Irish salted beef "corned beef".[12]

text: Some say until the wave of 18th-century Irish immigration to the United States, many of the ethnic Irish had not begun to consume corned beef dishes as seen today. The popularity of corned beef compared to bacon among the immigrant Irish may have been due to corned beef being considered a luxury product in their native land, while it was cheaply and readily available in America.[9]

text: The Jewish population produced similar salt-cured meat product made from beef brisket which the Irish immigrants purchased as corned beef from Jewish butchers. This may have been facilitated by the close cultural interactions and collaboration of these two diverse cultures in the United States' main 19th- and 20th-century immigrant port of entry, New York City.[9][13]

text: Canned corned beef has long become one of the standard meals included in military field ration packs around the world, due to its simplicity and instant preparation in such rations. One example is the American Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) pack. Astronaut John Young snuck a contraband corned beef sandwich on board Gemini 3, hiding it in a pocket of his spacesuit.[14]

text: Colloquialisms[edit]

text: The dish, corned beef and cabbage, is known by a variety of names around the globe. In the United States around WWI, it was often called Red Mike and Violets, "Red Mike" referring to corned beef, and "Violets" referring to cabbage and any other accompanying vegetable.[citation needed]

text: Regions[edit]

text: North America[edit]

text: In North America, corned beef typically is sold in two forms, a cut of beef (usually brisket, but sometimes round or silverside) cured or pickled in a seasoned brine, cooked, and canned, or tinned.

text: Corned beef is often purchased ready to eat in delicatessens. It is the key ingredient in the grilled Reuben sandwich, consisting of corned beef, Swiss cheese, sauerkraut, and Thousand Island or Russian dressing on rye bread.

text: Corned beef hash is commonly served with eggs for breakfast.

text: Smoking corned beef, typically with a generally similar spice mix, produces smoked meat (or "smoked beef") such as pastrami.

text: In both the United States and Canada, corned beef is sold in cans in minced form. It is also sold this way in Puerto Rico and Uruguay.

text: Saint Patrick's Day[edit]

text: In the United States, consumption of corned beef is often associated with Saint Patrick's Day.[15] Corned beef is not considered an Irish national dish, and the connection with Saint Patrick's Day specifically originates as part of Irish-American culture, and is often part of their celebrations in North America.[16]

text: Corned beef was used as a substitute for bacon by Irish-American immigrants in the late 19th century.[17] Corned beef and cabbage is the Irish-American variant of the Irish dish of bacon and cabbage. A similar dish is the New England boiled dinner, consisting of corned beef, cabbage, and root vegetables such as carrots, turnips, and potatoes, which is popular in New England and another similar dish, Jiggs dinner, is popular in parts of Atlantic Canada.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The U.S. version of corned beef is known in the UK as salt beef.[18][19]

text: Ireland[edit]

text: The appearance of corned beef in Irish cuisine dates to the 12th century in the poem Aislinge Meic Con Glinne or The Vision of MacConglinne.[20] Within the text, it is described as a delicacy a king uses to purge himself of the "demon of gluttony". Cattle, valued as a bartering tool, were only eaten when no longer able to provide milk or to work. The corned beef as described in this text was a rare and valued dish, given the value and position of cattle within the culture, as well as the expense of salt, and was unrelated to the corned beef eaten today.[21]

text: Israel[edit]

text: In Israel, corned beef, or loof, has been the traditional field ration of the Israeli army (Israel Defense Forces). As a result of universal conscription, it was said that Israel has been force-feeding "Loof – a colloquially corrupt short form of 'meatloaf' – to its citizens since the nation's founding."[22] While some sources state that loof was developed by the IDF in the 1940s, as a form of British "bully beef", it actually antedated the State of Israel as a component of Jewish organizations' relief packages sent to Palestine by groups such as Hadassah.[22]


document_title: Nuclear chain reaction

question_text: the minimum mass of a sample of fissionable material necessary to sustain a nuclear chain reaction

text: Nuclear chain reaction

text: History[edit]

text: Chemical chain reactions were first proposed by German chemist Max Bodenstein in 1913, and were reasonably well understood before nuclear chain reactions were proposed.[1] It was understood that chemical chain reactions were responsible for exponentially increasing rates in reactions, such as produced in chemical explosions.

text: The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was reportedly first hypothesized by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd on September 12, 1933.[2] The neutron had been discovered in 1932, shortly before. Szilárd realized that if a nuclear reaction produced neutrons, which then caused further nuclear reactions, the process might be self-perpetuating. Szilárd, however, did not propose fission as the mechanism for his chain reaction, since the fission reaction was not yet discovered or even suspected. Instead, Szilárd proposed using mixtures of lighter known isotopes which produced neutrons in copious amounts. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year.[3]

text: In 1936, Szilárd attempted to create a chain reaction using beryllium and indium, but was unsuccessful. Nuclear fission was discovered and proved by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in December 1938.[4]  A few months later, Frédéric Joliot, H. Von Halban and L. Kowarski in Paris[5] searched for, and discovered, neutron multiplication in uranium, proving that a nuclear chain reaction by this mechanism was indeed possible.

text: On May 4, 1939 Joliot, Halban et Kowarski filed three patents. The first two described power production from a nuclear chain reaction, the last one called "Perfectionnement aux charges explosives" was the first patent for the atomic bomb and is filed as patent n°445686 by the Caisse nationale de Recherche Scientifique.[6]

text: In parallel, Szilárd and Enrico Fermi in New York made the same analysis.[7] This discovery prompted the letter from Szilárd[not in citation given] and signed by Albert Einstein to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning of the possibility that Nazi Germany might be attempting to build an atomic bomb.[8][9]

text: On December 2, 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi  produced the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction with the Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) experimental reactor in a racquets court below the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. Fermi's experiments at the University of Chicago were part of Arthur H. Compton's  Metallurgical Laboratory of the Manhattan Project; the lab was later renamed Argonne National Laboratory, and tasked with conducting research in harnessing fission for nuclear energy.[10]

text: In 1956, Paul Kuroda of the University of Arkansas postulated that a natural fission reactor may have once existed.  Since nuclear chain reactions only require natural materials (such as water and uranium), it is possible to have these chain reactions occur where there is the right combination of materials within the Earth's crust.  Kuroda's prediction was verified with the discovery of evidence of natural self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions in the past at Oklo in Gabon, Africa, in  September 1972.[11]

text: Fission chain reaction[edit]

text: Fission chain reactions occur because of interactions between neutrons and fissile isotopes (such as 235U).  The chain reaction requires both the release of neutrons from fissile isotopes undergoing nuclear fission and the subsequent absorption of some of these neutrons in fissile isotopes. When an atom undergoes nuclear fission, a few neutrons (the exact number depends on several factors) are ejected from the reaction.  These free neutrons will then interact with the surrounding medium, and if more fissile fuel is present, some may be absorbed and cause more fissions.  Thus, the cycle repeats to give a reaction that is self-sustaining.

text: Nuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions occur, and that control is maintained through the use of several redundant layers of safety measures.  Moreover, the materials in a nuclear reactor core and the uranium enrichment level make a nuclear explosion impossible, even if all safety measures failed.  On the other hand, nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and intense it cannot be controlled after it has started.  When properly designed, this uncontrolled reaction can lead to an explosive energy release.

text: Nuclear fission fuel[edit]

text: Nuclear weapons employ  high quality, highly enriched fuel exceeding the critical size and geometry (critical mass) necessary in order to obtain an explosive chain reaction. The fuel for energy purposes, such as in a nuclear fission reactor, is very different, usually consisting of a low-enriched oxide material (e.g. UO2).

text: Fission reaction products[edit]

text: When a heavy atom undergoes nuclear fission, it breaks into two or more fission fragments.  Also, several free neutrons, gamma rays, and neutrinos are emitted, and a large amount of energy is released.  The sum of the rest masses of the fission fragments and ejected neutrons is less than the sum of the rest masses of the original atom and incident neutron (of course the fission fragments are not at rest). The mass difference is accounted for in the release of energy according to the equation E=Δmc2:

text: Due to the extremely large value of the speed of light, c, a small decrease in mass is associated with a tremendous release of active energy (for example, the kinetic energy of the fission fragments). This energy (in the form of radiation and heat) carries the missing mass, when it leaves the reaction system (total mass, like total energy, is always conserved). While typical chemical reactions release energies on the order of a few eVs (e.g. the binding energy of the electron to hydrogen is 13.6 eV), nuclear fission reactions typically release energies on the order of hundreds of millions of eVs.

text: Two typical fission reactions are shown below with average values of energy released and number of neutrons ejected:

text: Note that these equations are for fissions caused by slow-moving (thermal) neutrons.  The average energy released and number of neutrons ejected is a function of the incident neutron speed.[12] Also, note that these equations exclude energy from neutrinos since these subatomic particles are extremely non-reactive and, therefore, rarely deposit their energy in the system.

text: Timescales of nuclear chain reactions[edit]

text: Prompt neutron lifetime[edit]

text: The prompt neutron lifetime, l,  is the average time between the emission of neutrons and either their absorption in the system or their escape from the system.[13]  The neutrons that occur directly from fission are called "prompt neutrons," and the ones that are a result of radioactive decay of fission fragments are called "delayed neutrons." The term lifetime is used because the emission of a neutron is often considered its "birth," and the subsequent absorption is considered its "death."  For thermal (slow-neutron) fission reactors, the typical prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10−4 seconds, and for fast fission reactors, the prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10−7 seconds.[12]  These extremely short lifetimes mean that in 1 second, 10,000 to 10,000,000 neutron lifetimes can pass. The average (also referred to as the adjoint unweighted) prompt neutron lifetime takes into account all prompt neutrons regardless of their importance in the reactor core; the effective prompt neutron lifetime (referred to as the adjoint weighted over space, energy, and angle)  refers to a neutron with average importance.[14]

text: Mean generation time[edit]

text: The mean generation time, Λ, is the average time from a neutron emission to a capture that results in fission.[12] The mean generation time is different from the prompt neutron lifetime because the mean generation time only includes neutron absorptions that lead to fission reactions (not other absorption reactions). The two times are related by the following formula:

text: In this formula, k is the effective neutron multiplication factor, described below.

text: Effective neutron multiplication factor[edit]

text: The six factor formula effective neutron multiplication factor, k, is the average number of neutrons from one fission that cause another fission. The remaining neutrons either are absorbed in non-fission reactions or leave the system without being absorbed.  The value of k determines how a nuclear chain reaction proceeds:

text:
k < 1 (subcriticality): The system cannot sustain a chain reaction, and any beginning of a chain reaction dies out over time. For every fission that is induced in the system, an average total of 1/(1 − k) fissions occur.
k = 1 (criticality): Every fission causes an average of one more fission, leading to a fission (and power) level that is constant.  Nuclear power plants operate with k = 1 unless the power level is being increased or decreased.
k > 1 (supercriticality): For every fission in the material, it is likely that there will be "k" fissions after the next mean generation time (Λ). The result is that the number of fission reactions increases exponentially, according to the equation

e

(
k
−
1
)
t

/

Λ

{\displaystyle e^{(k-1)t/\Lambda }}

, where t is the elapsed time. Nuclear weapons are designed to operate under this state.  There are two subdivisions of supercriticality: prompt and delayed.

text: When describing kinetics and dynamics of nuclear reactors, and also in the practice of reactor operation, the concept of reactivity is used, which characterizes the deflection of reactor from the critical state. ρ=(k-1)/k. InHour is a unit of reactivity of a nuclear reactor.

text: In a nuclear reactor, k will actually oscillate from slightly less than 1 to slightly more than 1, due primarily to thermal effects (as more power is produced, the fuel rods warm and thus expand, lowering their capture ratio, and thus driving k lower). This leaves the average value of k at exactly 1. Delayed neutrons play an important role in the timing of these oscillations.

text: In an infinite medium, the multiplication factor may be described  by the four factor formula; in a non-infinite medium, the multiplication factor may be described  by the six factor formula.

text: Prompt and delayed supercriticality[edit]

text: Not all neutrons are emitted as a direct product of fission;  some are instead due to the radioactive decay of some of the fission fragments.  The neutrons that occur directly from fission are called "prompt neutrons," and the ones that are a result of radioactive decay of fission fragments are called "delayed neutrons." The fraction of neutrons that are delayed is called β, and this fraction is typically less than 1% of all the neutrons in the chain reaction.[12]

text: The delayed neutrons allow a nuclear reactor to respond several orders of magnitude more slowly than just prompt neutrons would alone.[13]  Without delayed neutrons, changes in reaction rates in nuclear reactors would occur at speeds that are too fast for humans to control.

text: The region of supercriticality between k = 1 and k = 1/(1-β) is known as delayed supercriticality (or delayed criticality).  It is in this region that all nuclear power reactors operate.  The region of supercriticality for k > 1/(1-β) is known as prompt supercriticality (or prompt criticality), which is the region in which nuclear weapons operate.

text: The change in k needed to go from critical to prompt critical is defined as a dollar.

text: Nuclear weapons application of neutron multiplication[edit]

text: Nuclear fission weapons require a mass of fissile fuel that is prompt supercritical.

text: For a given mass of fissile material the value of k can be increased by increasing the density. Since the probability per distance traveled for a neutron to collide with a nucleus is proportional to the material density, increasing the density of a fissile material can increase k.  This concept is utilized in the implosion method for nuclear weapons.  In these devices, the nuclear chain reaction begins after increasing the density of the fissile material with a conventional explosive.

text: In the gun-type fission weapon two subcritical pieces of fuel are rapidly brought together.  The value of k for a combination of two masses is always greater than that of its components. The magnitude of the difference depends on  distance, as well as the physical orientation.

text: The value of k can also be increased by using a neutron reflector surrounding the fissile material

text: Once the mass of fuel is prompt supercritical, the power increases exponentially.  However, the exponential power increase cannot continue for long since k decreases when the amount of fission material that is left decreases (i.e. it is consumed by fissions). Also, the geometry and density are expected to change during detonation since the remaining fission material is torn apart from the explosion.

text: Predetonation[edit]

text: Detonation of a nuclear weapon involves bringing fissile material into its optimal supercritical state very rapidly. During part of this process, the assembly is supercritical, but not yet in an optimal state for a chain reaction. Free  neutrons, in particular from spontaneous fissions, can cause the device to undergo a preliminary chain reaction that destroys the fissile material before it is ready to produce a large explosion, which is known as predetonation.[15]

text: To keep the probability of predetonation low, the duration of the non-optimal assembly period is minimized and fissile and other materials are used which have low spontaneous fission rates. In fact, the combination of materials has to be such that it is unlikely that there is even a single spontaneous fission during the period of supercritical assembly. In particular, the gun method cannot be used with plutonium (see nuclear weapon design).

text: Nuclear power plants and control of chain reactions[edit]

text: Chain reactions naturally give rise to reaction rates that grow (or shrink) exponentially, whereas a nuclear power reactor needs to be able to hold the reaction rate reasonably constant. To maintain this control, the chain reaction criticality must have a slow enough time-scale to permit intervention by additional effects (e.g., mechanical control rods or thermal expansion). Consequently, all nuclear power reactors (even fast-neutron reactors) rely on delayed neutrons for their criticality. An operating nuclear power reactor fluctuates between being slightly subcritical and slightly delayed-supercritical, but must always remain below prompt-critical.

text: It is impossible for a nuclear power plant to undergo a nuclear chain reaction that results in an explosion of power comparable with a nuclear weapon, but even low-powered explosions due to uncontrolled chain reactions, that would be considered "fizzles" in a bomb, may still cause considerable damage and meltdown in a reactor. For example, the Chernobyl disaster involved a runaway chain reaction but the result was a low-powered steam explosion from the relatively small release of heat, as compared with a bomb. However, the reactor complex was destroyed by the heat, as well as by ordinary burning of the graphite exposed to air.[13] Such steam explosions would be typical of the very diffuse assembly of materials in a nuclear reactor, even under the worst conditions.

text: In addition, other steps can be taken for safety. For example, power plants licensed in the United States require a negative void coefficient of reactivity (this means that if water is removed from the reactor core, the nuclear reaction will tend to shut down, not increase). This eliminates the possibility of the type of accident that occurred at Chernobyl (which was due to a positive void coefficient). However, nuclear reactors are still capable of causing smaller explosions even after complete shutdown, such as was the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. In such cases, residual decay heat from the core may cause high temperatures if there is loss of coolant flow, even a day after the chain reaction has been shut down (see SCRAM). This may cause a chemical reaction between water and fuel that produces hydrogen gas which can explode after mixing with air, with severe contamination consequences, since fuel rod material may still be exposed to the atmosphere from this process. However, such explosions do not happen during a chain reaction, but rather as a result of energy from radioactive beta decay, after the fission chain reaction has been stopped.