document_title: Cigar

question_text: cigars named for the island capital of cuba

question_tokens: cigars named for the island capital of cuba

text: Cigar

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word cigar originally derives from the Mayan sikar ("to smoke rolled tobacco leaves" – from si'c, "tobacco"). The Spanish word, "cigarro" spans the gap between the Mayan and modern use. The English word came into general use in 1730.[1]

text: History[edit]

text: Explorer Christopher Columbus is generally credited[by whom?] with the introduction of tobacco to Europe. Three of Columbus's crewmen during his 1492 journey, Rodrigo de Jerez, Hector Fuentes and Luis de Torres, are said to have encountered tobacco for the first time on the island of Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic, when natives presented them with dry leaves that spread a peculiar fragrance.[2] Tobacco was widely diffused among all of the islands of the Caribbean and was therefore also encountered in Cuba where Columbus and his men had settled. His sailors reported that the Taínos on the island of Cuba smoked a primitive form of cigar, with twisted, dried tobacco leaves rolled in other leaves such as palm or plantain.

text: In time, Spanish and other European sailors adopted the practice of smoking rolls of leaves, as did the Conquistadors, and smoking primitive cigars spread to Spain and Portugal and eventually France, most probably through Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal, who gave his name to nicotine. Later, tobacco use spread to Italy and, after Sir Walter Raleigh's voyages to the Americas, to Britain. Smoking became familiar throughout Europe—in pipes in Britain—by the mid-16th century.

text: Spanish cultivation of tobacco began in earnest in 1531 on the island of Santo Domingo.[3] In 1542, tobacco started to be grown commercially in North America, when the Spaniards established the first cigar factory on the island of Cuba.[4] Tobacco was originally thought to have medicinal qualities, but there were some who considered it evil. It was denounced by Philip II of Spain and James I of England.[5]

text:
Around 1592, the Spanish galleon San Clemente brought 50 kilograms (110 lb) of tobacco seed to the Philippines over the Acapulco-Manila trade route. It was distributed among Roman Catholic missionaries, who found excellent climates and soils for growing high-quality tobacco there.
The use of the cigar did not become popular until the mid-eighteenth century, and although there are not many drawings from this era, there are some reports.

text: In Seven Years' War it is believed Israel Putnam brought back a cache of Havana cigars[6], making cigar smoking popular in the US after the American Revolution. He also brought Cuban tobacco seeds which he planted in the Hartford area of New England. This reportedly resulted in the development of the renowned Connecticut Wrapper.[7]

text: Towards the end of the 18th century and in the 19th century, cigar smoking was common, while cigarettes were still comparatively rare. In the early 20th century, Rudyard Kipling wrote his famous smoking poem, "The Betrothed."

text: The cigar business was an important industry and factories employed many people before mechanized manufacturing of cigars became practical. Cigar workers in both Cuba and the US were active in labor strikes and disputes from early in the 19th century, and the rise of modern labor unions can be traced to the CMIU and other cigar worker unions.[8]

text: In 1869, Spanish cigar manufacturer Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his Principe de Gales (Prince of Wales) operations from the important cigar manufacturing center of Havana, Cuba to Key West, Florida to escape the turmoil of the Ten Years' War. Other manufacturers followed, and Key West became another important cigar manufacturing center. In 1885, Ybor moved again, buying land near the then-small city of Tampa, Florida and building the largest cigar factory in the world at the time[9] in the new company town of Ybor City. Friendly rival and Flor de Sánchez y Haya owner Ignacio Haya built his own factory nearby in the same year, and many other cigar manufacturers soon followed, especially after an 1886 fire that gutted much of Key West. Thousands of Cuban and Spanish tabaqueros came to the area from Key West, Cuba and New York to produce hundreds of millions of cigars annually. Local output peaked in 1929, when workers in Ybor City and West Tampa rolled over 500,000,000 "clear Havana" cigars, earning the town the nickname "Cigar Capital of the World".[10][11][12][13]

text: In New York, cigars were made by rollers working in their own homes. It was reported that as of 1883, cigars were being manufactured in 127 apartment houses in New York, employing 1,962 families and 7,924 individuals. A state statute banning the practice, passed late that year at the urging of trade unions on the basis that the practice suppressed wages, was ruled unconstitutional less than four months later. The industry, which had relocated to Brooklyn and other places on Long Island while the law was in effect, then returned to New York.[14]

text: As of 1905, there were 80,000 cigar-making operations in the United States, most of them small, family-operated shops where cigars were rolled and sold immediately.[10] While most cigars are now made by machine, some, as a matter of prestige and quality, are still rolled by hand---especially in Central America and Cuba, as well as in small chinchales in sizable cities in the United States.[10] Boxes of hand-rolled cigars bear the phrase totalmente a mano (totally by hand) or hecho a mano (made by hand). These premium hand-rolled cigars are significantly different from the machine-made cigars sold in packs at drugstores and gas stations. Since the 1990s there has been severe contention between producers and aficionados of premium handmade cigars and cigarette manufacturing companies that create machine-made cigars.[citation needed]

text: Manufacture[edit]

text: Tobacco leaves are harvested and aged using a curing process that combines heat and shade to reduce sugar and water content without causing the bigger leaves to rot.  This takes between 25 and 45 days, depending upon climatic conditions and the nature of sheds or barns used to store harvested tobacco. Curing varies by type of tobacco and desired leaf color. A slow fermentation follows, where temperature and humidity are controlled to enhance flavor, aroma, and burning characteristics while forestalling rot or disintegration.

text: The leaf will continue to be baled, inspected, un-baled, re-inspected, and baled again during the aging cycle. When it has matured to manufacturer's specifications it is sorted for appearance and overall quality and used as filler or wrapper accordingly. During this process, leaves are continually moistened to prevent damage.

text: Quality cigars are still handmade.[15] An experienced cigar-roller can produce hundreds of very good, nearly identical, cigars per day. The rollers keep the tobacco moist — especially the wrapper — and use specially designed crescent-shaped knives, called chavetas, to form the filler and wrapper leaves quickly and accurately.[15] Once rolled, the cigars are stored in wooden forms as they dry, in which their uncapped ends are cut to a uniform size.[15] From this stage, the cigar is a complete product that can be "laid down" and aged for decades if kept as close to 21 °C (70 °F), and 70% relative humidity. Once purchased, proper storage is typically in a specialized wooden humidor.

text: Some cigars, especially premium brands, use different varieties of tobacco for the filler and the wrapper. Long filler cigars are a far higher quality of cigar, using long leaves throughout. These cigars also use a third variety of tobacco leaf, called a "binder", between the filler and the outer wrapper. This permits the makers to use more delicate and attractive leaves as a wrapper. These high-quality cigars almost always blend varieties of tobacco. Even Cuban long-filler cigars will combine tobaccos from different parts of the island to incorporate several different flavors.

text: In low-grade and machine-made cigars, chopped tobacco leaves are used for the filler, and long leaves or a type of "paper" made from tobacco pulp is used for the wrapper.[15] They alter the burning characteristics of the cigar vis-a-vis handmade cigars.

text: Historically, a lector or reader was always employed to entertain cigar factory workers. This practice became obsolete once audiobooks for portable music players became available, but it is still practiced in some Cuban factories. The name for the Montecristo cigar brand may have arisen from this practice.

text: Dominant manufacturers[edit]

text: Two firms dominate the cigar industry. Altadis produces cigars in the United States, the Dominican Republic, and Honduras, and has a 50% stake in Corporación Habanos in Cuba. It also makes cigarettes. Scandinavian Tobacco Group produces cigars in the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and the United States; it also makes pipe tobacco and fine cut tobacco. The Group includes General Cigar Co.[16]

text: The town of Tamboril in Santiago, Dominican Republic is considered by many as today's "Cigar Capital of the World" housing more cigar factories and rollers than anywhere else in the world.[17]  According to magazine Cigar Aficionado, 44% of the world's most traded cigars come from the Dominican Republic, the world’s largest producer of cigars[18], especially from the fertile lands of the Cibao capital, where 90% of the factories are located[19] The area has also been the largest supplier of cigars to the United States in the last decades[20]

text: Families in the cigar industry[edit]

text: Nearly all modern premium cigar makers are members of long-established cigar families, or purport to be.  The art and skill of hand-making premium cigars has been passed from generation to generation; families are often shown in many cigar advertisements and packaging.[21]

text: In 1992, Cigar Aficionado magazine created the "Cigar Hall of Fame" and recognized the following six individuals:[22]

text:
Leon Family, La Aurora, Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic (Oldest Family and first cigar company in the world est. 1903)
Edgar M. Cullman, Chairman, General Cigar Company, New York, United States
Zino Davidoff, Founder, Davidoff et Cie., Geneva, Switzerland
Carlos Fuente, Sr., Chairman, Tabacalera A. Fuente y Cia., Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic
Frank Llaneza, Chairman, Villazon & Co., Tampa, Florida, United States
Stanford J. Newman, Chairman, J.C. Newman Cigar Company, Tampa, Florida, United States
Ángel Oliva, Sr. (founder); Oliva Tobacco Co., Tampa, Florida, United States

tag: ul

text: Other families in the cigar industry (2015)[edit]

text:
Manuel Quesada (MATASA Current CEO) Fonseca, Casa Magna, Quesada cigars, Dominican Republic
Don José "Pepín" Garcia, Chairman,  El Rey de Los Habanos, Miami, Florida, United States
Aray Family – Daniel Aray Jr, Grandson of Founder (1952) Jose Aray, ACC Cigars,  Guayaquil Ecuador, San Francisco, CA, Miami Florida, Macau SAR, Shanghai China.
EPC – Ernesto Perez-Carillo, Founder EPC Cigar Company (2009), Miami, Florida,  United States
Nestor Miranda – Founder, Miami Cigar Company (1989) Miami, FL, United States
Blanco family- Jose "Jochy" Blanco, son of Founder (1936) Jose Arnaldo Blanco Polanco, Tabacalera La Palma, Santiago, Dominican Republic
Hermann Dietrich Upmann creator of the H.Upmann brand 1844 in Cuba

text: Marketing and distribution[edit]

text: Pure tobacco, hand rolled cigars are marketed via advertisements, product placement in movies and other media, sporting events, cigar-friendly magazines such as Cigar Aficionado, and cigar dinners. Since handmade cigars are a premium product with a hefty price, advertisements often include depictions of affluence, sensual imagery, and explicit or implied celebrity endorsement.[23]

text: Cigar Aficionado, launched in 1992, presents cigars as symbols of a successful lifestyle, and is a major conduit of advertisements that do not conform to the tobacco industry's voluntary advertisement restrictions since 1965, such as a restriction not to associate smoking with glamour. The magazine also presents pro-smoking arguments at length, and argues that cigars are safer than cigarettes, since they do not have the thousands of chemical additives that cigarette manufactures add to the cutting floor scraps of tobacco used as cigarette filler.  The publication also presents arguments that risks are a part of daily life and that (contrary to the evidence discussed in Health effects) cigar smoking has health benefits, that moderation eliminates most or all health risk, and that cigar smokers live to old age, that health research is flawed, and that several health-research results support claims of safety.[24] Like its competitor Smoke, Cigar Aficionado differs from marketing vehicles used for other tobacco products in that it makes cigars the focus of the entire magazine, creating a symbiosis between product and lifestyle.[25]

text: In the U.S., cigars have historically been exempt from many of the marketing regulations that govern cigarettes. For example, the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1970 exempted cigars from its advertising ban,[26] and cigar ads, unlike cigarette ads, need not mention health risks.[23] As of 2007, cigars were taxed far less than cigarettes, so much so that in many U.S. states, a pack of little cigars cost less than half as much as a pack of cigarettes.[26] It is illegal for minors to purchase cigars and other tobacco products in the U.S., but laws are unevenly enforced: a 2000 study found that three-quarters of web cigar sites allowed minors to purchase them.[27]

text: In 2009, the US Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act provided by the Food and Drug Administration (regulatory authority over the manufacturing, distribution, and marketing of cigarettes, roll-your-own tobacco and smokeless tobacco. In 2016, the deeming rule extended the FDA's authority to additional tobacco products including cigars.[28] The objective of this act is to reduce the impact of tobacco on public health by preventing Americans from starting to use tobacco products, encourage current users to quit, and decrease the harms of tobacco product use.

text: Inexpensive, non-pure cigars are sold in convenience stores, gas stations, grocery stores, and pharmacies, mostly as self-serve items. Premium cigars are sold in tobacconists, cigar bars, and other specialized establishments.[29] Some cigar stores are part of chains, which have varied in size: in the U.S., United Cigar Stores was one of only three outstanding examples of national chains in the early 1920s, the others being A&P and Woolworth's.[30] Non-traditional outlets for cigars include hotel shops, restaurants, vending machines[29] and the Internet.[27]

text: Composition[edit]

text: Cigars are composed of three types of tobacco leaves, whose variations determine smoking and flavor characteristics:

text: Wrapper[edit]

text: A cigar's outermost layer, or wrapper (Spanish: capa), is the most expensive component of a cigar.[31] The wrapper determines much of the cigar's character and flavor, and as such its color is often used to describe the cigar as a whole. Wrappers are frequently grown underneath huge canopies made of gauze so as to diffuse direct sunlight and are fermented separately from other rougher cigar components, with a view to the production of a thinly-veined, smooth, supple leaf.[31]

text: Wrapper tobacco produced without the gauze canopies under which "shade grown" leaf is grown, generally more coarse in texture and stronger in flavor, is commonly known as "sun grown." A number of different countries are used for the production of wrapper tobacco, including Cuba, Ecuador, Indonesia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Brazil, Mexico, Cameroon, and the United States.[31]

text: While dozens of minor wrapper shades have been touted by manufacturers, the seven most common classifications are as follows,[32] ranging from lightest to darkest:

text:
Color

Description

Candela ("Double Claro")

very light, slightly greenish. Achieved by picking leaves before maturity and drying quickly, the color coming from retained green chlorophyll.

Claro

very light tan or yellowish

Colorado Claro

medium brown

Colorado ("Rosado")

reddish-brown

Colorado Maduro

darker brown

Maduro

very dark brown

Oscuro ("Double Maduro")

black

text: Some manufacturers use an alternate designation:

text:
Designation

Acronym

Description

American Market Selection

AMS

synonymous with Candela ("Double Claro")

English Market Selection

EMS

any natural colored wrapper which is darker than Candela but lighter than Maduro[33]

Spanish Market Selection

SMS

one of the two darkest colors, Maduro or Oscuro

text: In general, dark wrappers add a touch of sweetness, while light ones add a hint of dryness to the taste.

text: Binder[edit]

text: Beneath the wrapper is a small bunch of "filler" leaves bound together inside of a leaf called a "binder" (Spanish: capote). Binder leaf is typically the sun-saturated leaf from the top part of a tobacco plant and is selected for its elasticity and durability in the rolling process.[31] Unlike wrapper leaf, which must be uniform in appearance and smooth in texture, binder leaf may show evidence of physical blemishes or lack uniform coloration. Binder leaf is generally considerably thicker and more hardy than the wrapper leaf surrounding it.

text: Filler[edit]

text: The bulk of a cigar is "filler" — a bound bunch of tobacco leaves. These leaves are folded by hand to allow air passageways down the length of the cigar, through which smoke is drawn after the cigar is lit.[31] A cigar rolled with insufficient air passage is referred to by a smoker as "too tight"; one with excessive airflow creating an excessively fast, hot burn is regarded as "too loose." Considerable skill and dexterity on the part of the cigar roller is needed to avoid these opposing pitfalls — a primary factor in the superiority of hand-rolled cigars over their machine-made counterparts.[31]

text: By blending various varieties of filler tobacco, cigar makers create distinctive strength, odor, and flavor profiles for their various branded products. In general, fatter cigars hold more filler leaves, allowing a greater potential for the creation of complex flavors. In addition to the variety of tobacco employed, the country of origin can be one important determinant of taste, with different growing environments producing distinctive flavors.

text: The fermentation and aging process adds to this variety, as does the particular part of the tobacco plant harvested, with bottom leaves (Spanish: volado) having a mild flavor and burning easily, middle leaves (Spanish: seco) having a somewhat stronger flavor, with potent and spicy ligero leaves taken from the sun-drenched top of the plant. When used, ligero is always folded into the middle of the filler bunch due to its slow-burning characteristics.

text: If full leaves are used as filler, a cigar is said to be composed of "long filler." Cigars made from smaller bits of leaf, including many machine-made cigars, are said to be made of "short filler."

text: If a cigar is completely constructed (filler, binder, and wrapper) of tobacco produced in only one country, it is referred to in the cigar industry as a "puro," from the Spanish word for "pure."

text: Size and shape[edit]

text: Cigars are commonly categorized by their size and shape, which together are known as the vitola.

text: The size of a cigar is measured by two dimensions: its ring gauge (its diameter in sixty-fourths of an inch) and its length (in inches). In Cuba, next to Havana, there is a display of the world's longest rolled cigars.

text: Parejo[edit]

text: The most common shape is the parejo, sometimes referred to as simply "coronas", which have traditionally been the benchmark against which all other cigar formats are measured. They have a cylindrical body, straight sides, one end open, and a round tobacco-leaf "cap" on the other end that must be sliced off, have a V-shaped notch made with a special cutter or punched through before smoking.

text: Parejos are designated by the following terms:

text:
Term

Length in inches

Width in 64ths of an inch

Metric length

Metric width

Etymology

Cigarillo

~ 3½

~ 21

~ 8 cm

~ 8 mm

Sizes may vary significantly. According to CigarCyclopedia, cigarillo is shorter than 6 inches (15 cm) and thinner than 29 ring gauge (11.5 mm).[34]

Rothschild

4½

48

11 cm

19 mm

after the Rothschild family

Robolo

4½

60

11 cm

24 mm

Robusto

4⅞

50

12 cm

20 mm

Small Panatella

5

33

13 cm

13 mm

Ascot

4½

24

11 cm

13 mm

Petit Corona

5⅛

42

13 cm

17 mm

Carlota

5⅝

35

14 cm

14 mm

Corona

5½

42

14 cm

17 mm

Corona Gorda

5⅝

46

14 cm

18 mm

Panatella

6

38

15 cm

15 mm

Toro

6

50

15 cm

20 mm

Corona Grande

6⅛

42

16 cm

17 mm

Lonsdale

6½

42

17 cm

17 mm

named for Hugh Cecil Lowther, 5th Earl of Lonsdale

Churchill

7

47–50

18 cm

19–20 mm

named for Sir Winston Churchill

Double Corona

7⅝

49

19 cm

19 mm

Presidente

8

50

20 cm

20 mm

Gran Corona

9¼

47

23 cm

19 mm

Double Toro/Gordo

6

60

15 cm

24 mm

text: These dimensions are, at best, idealized. Actual dimensions can vary considerably.

text: Figurado[edit]

text: Irregularly shaped cigars are known as figurados and are often priced higher than generally similar sized parejos of a like combination of tobaccos because they are more difficult to make.

text:
Historically, especially during the 19th century, figurados were the most popular shapes, but by the 1930s they had fallen out of fashion and all but disappeared.
They have, however, recently received a small resurgence in popularity, and currently many manufacturers produce figurados alongside the simpler parejos. The Cuban cigar brand Cuaba only has figurados in their range.

text: Figurados include the following:

text:
Figurado

Description

Torpedo

Like a parejo except that the cap is pointed

Cheroot

Like a parejo except that there is no cap, i.e. both ends are open

Pyramid

Has a broad foot and evenly narrows to a pointed cap

Perfecto

Narrow at both ends and bulged in the middle

Presidente/Diadema

shaped like a parejo but considered a figurado because of its enormous size and occasional closed foot akin to a perfecto

Culebras

Three long, pointed cigars braided together

Chisel

Is much like the Torpedo, but instead of coming to a rounded point, comes to a flatter, broader edge, much like an actual chisel. This shape was patented and can only be found in the La Flor Dominicana (LFD) brand

text: In practice, the terms Torpedo and Pyramid are often used interchangeably, even among very knowledgeable cigar smokers. Min Ron Nee, the Hong Kong-based cigar expert whose work An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Post-Revolution Havana Cigars is generally considered to be the definitive work on cigars and cigar terms,[citation needed] defines Torpedo as "cigar slang". Nee regards the majority usage of torpedoes as pyramids by another name as acceptable.[citation needed]

text: Arturo Fuente, a large cigar manufacturer based in the Dominican Republic, has also manufactured figurados in exotic shapes ranging from chili peppers to baseball bats and American footballs. They are highly collectible and extremely expensive, when available to the public.[35]

text: Cigarillo[edit]

text: A cigarillo is a machine-made cigar that is shorter and narrower than a traditional cigar but larger than little cigars,[36] filtered cigars, and cigarettes, thus similar in size and composition to small panatela sized cigars, cheroots, and traditional blunts. Cigarillos are usually not filtered, although some have plastic or wood tips, and unlike other cigars, some are inhaled when used.[37] Cigarillos are sold in varying quantities: singles, two-packs, three-packs, and five-packs. Cigarillos are very inexpensive: in the United States, usually sold for less than a dollar. Sometimes they are informally called small cigars, mini cigars, or club cigars. Some famous cigar brands, such as Cohiba or Davidoff, also make cigarillos---Cohiba Mini and Davidoff Club Cigarillos, for example. And there are purely cigarillo brands, such as Café Crème, Dannemann Moods, Mehari's, Al Capone, and Swisher Sweets. Cigarillos are often used in making marijuana cigars,.[38][39]

text: Little cigars[edit]

text: Little cigars (sometimes called small cigars or miniatures in the UK) differ greatly from regular cigars.[36] They weigh less than cigars and cigarillos,[40] but, more importantly, they resemble cigarettes in size, shape, packaging, and filters.[41] Sales of little cigars quadrupled in the U.S. from 1971 to 1973 in response to the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which banned the broadcast of cigarette advertisements and required stronger health warnings on cigarette packs. Cigars were exempt from the ban, and perhaps more importantly, were taxed at a far lower rate. Little cigars are sometimes called "cigarettes in disguise", and unsuccessful attempts have been made to reclassify them as cigarettes. In the United States, sales of little cigars reached an all-time high in 2006, fueled in great part by favorable taxation.[26] In some states, however, little cigars have successfully been taxed at the rate of cigarettes, such as Illinois,[42] as well as multiple other states.  This has caused yet another loophole, in which manufacturers classify their products as "filtered cigars" instead to avoid the higher tax rate.  Yet, many continue to argue that there is in fact a distinction between little cigars and filtered cigars.  Little cigars offer a similar draw and overall feel to cigarettes, but with aged and fermented tobaccos, while filtered cigars are said to be more closely related to traditional cigars, and are not meant to be inhaled.[43] Research shows that people do inhale smoke from little cigars.[44]

text: Smoking[edit]

text: Most machine-made cigars have pre-formed holes in one end or a wood or plastic tip for drawing in the smoke.  Hand-rolled cigars require the blunt end to be pierced before lighting. The usual way to smoke a cigar is to not inhale but to draw the smoke into the mouth. Some smokers inhale the smoke into the lungs, particularly with little cigars. A smoker may swirl the smoke around in the mouth before exhaling it, and may exhale part of the smoke through the nose in order to smell the cigar better as well as to taste it.

text: Cutting[edit]

text: Although a handful of cigars are cut or twirled on both ends, the vast majority come with one straight cut end and the other capped with one or more small pieces of wrapper adhered with either a natural tobacco paste or with a mixture of flour and water. The cap end of a cigar must be cut or pierced for the cigar smoke to be drawn properly. Some cigar manufacturers purposely place different types of tobacco from one end to the other to give the cigar smokers a variety of tastes, body, and strength from start to finish.

text: The basic types of cigar cutter include:

text:
Guillotine (straight cut)
Punch cut
V-cut (a.k.a. notch cut, cat's eye, wedge cut, English cut)

text: Lighting[edit]

text: The "head" of the cigar is usually the end closest to the cigar band, the other the "foot". The band identifies the type of the cigar and may be removed or left on. The smoker cuts or pierces the cap before lighting.

text: The cigar should be rotated during lighting to achieve an even burn while slowly drawn with gentle puffs. If a match is used it should be allowed to burn past its head before being put to the cigar, to avoid imparting unwelcome flavors or chemicals to the smoke.  Many specialized gas and fluid lighters are made for lighting cigars. The tip of the cigar should minimally touch any flame, with special care used with torch lighters to avoid charring the tobacco leaves.

text: A third and most traditional way to light a cigar is to use a splinter of cedar known as a spill, which is lit separately before using.[45]  The thin cedar wrapping from cigars with one may be used.

text: Flavor[edit]

text: Each brand and type of cigar has its own unique taste. Whether a cigar is mild, medium, or full bodied does not correlate with quality.

text: Among the factors which contribute to the scent and flavor of cigar smoke are tobacco types and qualities used for filler, binder, and wrapper, age and aging method, humidity, production techniques (handmade vs. machine-made), and added flavors.  Among wrappers, darker tend to produce a sweetness, while lighter usually have a "drier", more neutral taste.[15]

text: Evaluating the flavor of cigars is in some respects similar to wine-tasting. Journals are available for recording personal ratings, description of flavors observed, sizes, brands, etc. Some words used to describe cigar flavor and texture include; spicy, peppery (red or black), sweet, harsh, burnt, green, earthy, woody, cocoa, chestnut, roasted, aged, nutty, creamy, cedar, oak, chewy, fruity, and leathery.

text: Smoke[edit]

text: Smoke is produced by incomplete combustion of tobacco during which at least three kinds of chemical reactions occur: pyrolysis breaks down organic molecules into simpler ones, pyrosynthesis recombines these newly formed fragments into chemicals not originally present, and distillation moves compounds such as nicotine from the tobacco into the smoke. For every gram of tobacco smoked, a cigar emits about 120–140 mg of carbon dioxide, 40–60 mg of carbon monoxide, 3–4 mg of isoprene, 1 mg each of hydrogen cyanide and acetaldehyde, and smaller quantities of a large spectrum of volatile N-nitrosamines and volatile organic compounds, with the detailed composition unknown.[46]

text: The most odorous chemicals in cigar smoke are pyridines. Along with pyrazines, they are also the most odorous chemicals in cigar smokers' breath. These substances are noticeable even at extremely low concentrations of a few parts per billion. During smoking, it is not known whether these chemicals are generated by splitting the chemical bonds of nicotine or by Maillard reaction between amino acids and sugars in the tobacco.[47]

text: Cigar smoke is more alkaline than cigarette smoke, and is absorbed more readily by the mucous membrane of the mouth, making it easier for the smoker to absorb nicotine without having to inhale.[48]

text: Humidors[edit]

text:
The level of humidity in which cigars are kept has a significant effect on their taste and evenness of burn. It is believed that a cigar's flavor best evolves when stored at a relative humidity similar to where the tobacco is grown, and in most cases, the cigars rolled, of approximately 65–70% and a temperature of 18 °C (64 °F).[49] Dry cigars become fragile and burn faster while damp cigars burn unevenly and take on a heavy acidic flavor.
Humidors are used to maintain an even humidity level. Without one, cigars will lose moisture and acquire the ambient humidity within 2 to 3 days.[50] A humidor's interior lining is typically constructed with three types of wood: Spanish cedar, American (or Canadian) red cedar, and Honduran mahogany. Other materials used for making or lining a humidor are Acrylic, Tin ( mainly seen in older early humidors) and Copper, used widely in the 1920s-1950s.

text: Most humidors come with a plastic or metal case with a sponge that works as the humidifier, although most recent versions are of polymer acryl. The latter are filled only with distilled water; the former may use a solution of propylene glycol and distilled water. Humidifiers, and the cigars within them, may become contaminated with bacteria if they are kept too moist. New technologies employing plastic beads or gels which stabilize humidity are becoming widely available.[51]

text: A new humidor requires seasoning, after which a constant humidity must be maintained. The thicker the cedar lining the better. Many humidors contain an analog or digital hygrometer to aid in maintaining a desired humidity level. There are three types of analog: metal spring, natural hair, and synthetic hair .[52]

text: Accessories[edit]

text: A wide variety of cigar accessories are available, in varying qualities.

text: Travel case[edit]

text: Travel cases protect cigars from direct exposure to the elements and minimize potential damage. Most come in expandable or sturdy leather, although metal leather and plastic lined cases are found. Some feature cardboard or metal tubes for additional protection.

text: Tube[edit]

text: Cigar tubes are used to carry small numbers of cigars, typically one or five, referred to by their number of "fingers". They are usually made from stainless steel, and used for short durations. For longer, a built in humidifier and hygrometer is used.

text: Holder[edit]

text: A cigar holder, also known as a cigar stand, is used to keep a cigar out of an ashtray. The term may refer to a protective small tube in which the cigar is held while smoked, typically used by  women.[citation needed]

text: Health effects[edit]

text: Like other forms of tobacco use, cigar smoking poses a significant health risk depending on dosage: risks are greater for those who smoke more cigars, smoke them longer, or inhale more.[53]  A review of 22 studies found that cigar smoking is associated with lung cancer, oral cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic cancer, laryngeal cancer, coronary heart disease (CHD), and aortic aneurysm. Among cigar smokers who reported that they did not inhale, relative mortality (likelihood of death) risk was still highly elevated for oral, esophageal, and laryngeal cancers.[54]

text: Danger of mortality increases proportionally to use, with smokers of one to two cigars per day showing a 2% increase in death rate, compared to non-smokers.[55] The precise statistical health risks to those who smoke less than daily is not established.[56]

text: The depth of inhalation of cigar smoke into the lungs appears to be an important determinant of lung cancer risk:

text: When cigar smokers don't inhale or smoke few cigars per day, the risks are only slightly above those of never smokers. Risks of lung cancer increase with increasing inhalation and with increasing number of cigars smoked per day, but the effect of inhalation is more powerful than that for number of cigars per day. When 5 or more cigars are smoked per day and there is moderate inhalation, the lung cancer risks of cigar smoking approximate those of a one pack per day cigarette smoker. As the tobacco smoke exposure of the lung in cigar smokers increases to approximate the frequency of smoking and depth of inhalation found in cigarette smokers, the difference in lung cancer risks produced by these two behaviors disappears.[57]

text: Cigar smoking can lead to nicotine addiction and cigarette usage.[58][59] For those who inhale and smoke several cigars a day, the health risk is similar to cigarette smokers.[59] Cigar smoking can also increase the risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[53][59]

text: So-called "little cigars" are commonly inhaled and likely pose the same health risks as cigarettes, while premium cigars are not commonly inhaled or habitually used.[60]

text: Popularity[edit]

text: The prevalence of cigar smoking varies depending on location, historical period, and population surveyed.  Estimates vary somewhat depending on the survey method.  The U.S. is the top consuming country by sales by a considerable margin, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom. The U.S. and western Europe account for about 75% of cigar sales worldwide.[16]

text: United States[edit]

text: From 2000 to 2012, consumption of cigars more than doubled in the United States, from slightly over 6.1 billion in 2000 to more than 13.7 billion in 2012.[61] Cigar use is most common among young people. In the 2012 National Youth Tobacco Survey data,[62] the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that 12.6% of high school students had smoked at least one cigar in the past 30 days. After cigarettes, cigars were the second most commonly used tobacco product in youths and the most commonly used tobacco product among African American high school students. From the CDC’s national Adult Tobacco Survey for 2009-2015, data suggest that prevalence among adults was highest among 18–24 years (15.9%) followed by 25–44 years old (7.2%).[63] From the same survey, prevalence among men (10.4%) was significantly higher than women (3.1%) and likewise among LGBT (12.2%) and heterosexual (6.5%) respondents. The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2015) indicated that 12.5 million American (over age 12) smoked a cigar product in the past month and over 24 million smoked a cigar product in the past year.  As reported in other surveys,  use was more common among most often among men than women and more prevalent among African- Americans and Native Americans than among white Americans.

text: Cuban cigars[edit]

text: Cuban cigars are rolled from domestic tobacco leaves. The filler, binder, and wrapper may come from different areas of the island. All cigar production in Cuba is controlled by the Cuban government, and different Cuban factories may produce the same brand.

text: Torcedores — men (rarely, a woman) who by occupation hand-roll cigars, from Spanish torcer, to twist or plait — are highly respected in Cuban society and culture, and travel worldwide displaying the art of hand-rolling cigars.[64]

text: Cuba produces both handmade and machine-made cigars. Habanos SA and Cubatabaco between them do all the work relating to Cuban cigars, including manufacture, quality control, promotion and distribution, and export. All boxes and labels are marked Hecho en Cuba (Spanish for Made in Cuba). Machine-bunched cigars finished by hand add Hecho a mano (handmade), while fully handmade cigars say Totalmente a mano (entirely handmade). Because of the perceived status and higher price of Cuban cigars, and the difficulty of identifying the provenance of an unlabeled cigar, counterfeits are not unusual.[65]

text: Cigars remain one of Cuba's leading exports. A total of 77 million cigars were exported in 1991, 67 million in 1992, and 57 million in 1993, the decline attributed to a loss of much of the wrapper crop in a hurricane.[66] In 2016 Cuba exported $445 million worth of cigars worldwide.[67]

text: United States embargo against Cuba[edit]

text: On 7 February 1962, United States President John F. Kennedy imposed a trade embargo on Cuba to sanction Fidel Castro's communist government. According to Pierre Salinger, then Kennedy's press secretary, the president ordered him on the evening of 6 February to obtain 1,200 H. Upmann brand Petit Upmann Cuban cigars. Upon Salinger's arrival with the cigars the following morning, Kennedy signed the executive order which put the embargo into effect.[69] Richard Goodwin, a White House assistant to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, revealed in a 2000 New York Times article that in early 1962, JFK told him, "We tried to exempt cigars, but the cigar manufacturers in Tampa objected."[70]

text: The embargo prohibited US residents from purchasing Cuban cigars, and American cigar manufacturers from importing Cuban tobacco. As a result, Cuba was deprived of its major customer for tobacco, and American cigar manufacturers had to find an alternate sources of tobacco or go out of business.[71]

text: Upon the expropriation of private property in Cuba, many former Cuban cigar manufacturers moved to other countries (primarily the Dominican Republic) to continue production.[72] The Dominican Republic's production of tobacco grew significantly as a result.[73] After reallocation, most Cuban manufacturers continued to use their known company name, seed, and harvesting technique while Cubatabaco, Cuba's state tobacco monopoly after the Revolution, independently continued production of cigars using the former private company names.[72] As a result, cigar name brands like Romeo y Julieta, La Gloria Cubana, Montecristo, and H. Upmann among others, exist in both Cuba and the Dominican Republic.[74] Honduras and Nicaragua are also mass manufacturers of cigars. Some Cuban refugees make cigars in the US and advertise them as "Cuban" cigars, using the argument that the cigars are made by Cubans.[75]

text: While Cuban cigars are smuggled into the US and sold at high prices, counterfeiting is rife. It has been said that 95% of Cuban cigars sold in the US are counterfeit.[76] Although Cuban cigars cannot legally be commercially imported into the US, the advent of the Internet has made it much easier for people in the US to purchase cigars online from other countries, especially when shipped without bands. Cuban cigars are openly advertised in some European tourist regions, catering to the American market, even though it is illegal to advertise tobacco in most European regions.[77]

text: The loosening of the embargo in January 2015 included a provision that allowed the importation into the US of up to $100 worth of alcohol or tobacco per traveler, allowing legal importation for the first time since the ban.[78] In October 2016, the Federal government liberalized restrictions on the number of cigars that an American can bring back to the U.S. for personal use without having to pay customs taxes.[79] This allowed the import of up to 100 cigars (four standard boxes) or $800 worth without paying duty once every 31 days. Quantities above that are subject to taxation.[80]  Cigars may be consumed personally or gifted, but not sold by an individual, either a private sale to another individual or to a cigar store or distributor. Commercial sale and possession of Cuban cigars remains prohibited.[80]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
In a reversal of recent decades' portrayal, beginning in the 1980s and 1990s; major U.S. print media began to feature cigars favorably. Cigar use was generally framed as a lucrative business or trendy habit, rather than as a health risk.[81] It is an item whose highest quality is still something most can afford, at least for special occasions. Historic portrayals of the wealthy often caricatured cigar smokers as wearing top hats and tailcoats. Cigars are often given out and smoked to celebrate special occasions, such as the birth of a child,[82][83][84] but also graduations, promotions, and other totems of success. The expression "close but no cigar" comes from the practice of giving away cigars as prizes in fairground games which require the player to hit a target (e.g, a bullseye).[citation needed]
In 2012, all cigars in Australia come with a plain packaged band to further discourage smokers. The band is a drab brown (Pantone 448C) and is applied over the top of the original cigar band.[citation needed]

text: Celebrity Cigar Smoker of the Year Award[edit]

text: In 2013, the UK magazine The Spectator inaugurated an International Celebrity Cigar Smoker of the Year Award. Since 2015, the event has been sponsored by Snow Queen Vodka.[citation needed]

text: The first winner, in 2013, was Simon le Bon. In 2014, Arnold Schwarzenegger became the second.[85] Jonathan Ross won in 2015 and Kelsey Grammer in 2016.[86]


document_title: Research

question_text: list the eight basic steps of the scientific method (8 points)

question_tokens: list the eight basic steps of the scientific method ( 8 points )

root

text: Research

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.[3] The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.[3]

tag: p

text: Definitions[edit]

text: Research has been defined in a number of different ways.

text: A broad definition of research is given by Godwin Colibao: "In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information, and facts for the advancement of knowledge."[4]

text: Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "[r]esearch is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.[5]

text: The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".[3]

text: Forms of research[edit]

text: Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).[6][7]

text: Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher.[8]

text: The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.[9] Graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.[10]

text: Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate).[11]

text: Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist theory.[12]

text: Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.

text: Scientific research[edit]

text: Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:

text:
Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.
Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.
Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.
Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data to draw conclusions about it.
Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures, and then described in words.
Test, revising of hypothesis
Conclusion, reiteration if necessary

tag: ol

text: A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, null hypothesis). Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.

text: A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent variables.

text: Historical research[edit]

text: The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:[13]

text:
Identification of origin date
Evidence of localization
Recognition of authorship
Analysis of data
Identification of integrity
Attribution of credibility

text: Artistic research[edit]

text: The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.[14] One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.[15]

text: Artistic research has been defined by the University of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner - "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context."[16] Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.[17] For a survey of the central problematics of today's Artistic Research, see Giaco Schiesser.[18]

text: According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities".[19] Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.[20]

text: The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the triannual Journal for Artistic Research (JAR),[21][22] an international, online, open access, and peer-reviewed journal for the identification, publication, and dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the Research Catalogue (RC),[23][24][25] a searchable, documentary database of artistic research, to which anyone can contribute.

text: Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.[26]

text: In 2016 ELIA (European League of the Institutes of the Arts) launched The Florence Principles' on the Doctorate in the Arts.[27] The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations of EUA (European University Association) name seven points of attention to specify the Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD The Florence Principles have been endorsed and are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS and SAR.

text: Steps in conducting research[edit]

text: Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.[28] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:[29]

text:
Identification of research problem
Literature review
Specifying the purpose of research
Determining specific research questions
Specification of a conceptual framework, usually a set of hypotheses[30]
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection
Verifying data
Analyzing and interpreting the data
Reporting and evaluating research
Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

text: The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.[31] Most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[32] The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research. However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted.

text: Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results."[33]

text: Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!"[34]

text: Research methods[edit]

text: The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):

text:
Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.
Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

text: There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:

text: The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.[citation needed] These methods produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.[citation needed] Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.

text: If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment).[citation needed] If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.[37]

text: In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[38]

text: Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.[39]

text: Big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been developed.[40]

text: Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific method.

text: A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of cosmological research is theoretical in nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical objects.

text: Research ethics[edit]

text: Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving research, including scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), whistleblowing; regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research. The key agreement here is the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. The Nuremberg Code is a former agreement, but with many still important notes. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research[41] and can involve issues of researcher and participant safety, empowerment and access to justice.[42]

text: Problems in research[edit]

text: Methods of research[edit]

text: In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.[43] Researchers are overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the lacuna in culturally-sensitive methods of data collection. Non-Western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, "Hua Oranga" was created as a criterion for psychological evaluation in Māori populations, and is based on dimensions of mental health important to the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family dimension)".[44]

text: Linguicism[edit]

text: Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-dominated journals.[45] Multilingual scholars' influences from their native communicative styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference.[46]

text: Publication Peer Review[edit]

text: This article needs to be updated. In particular: This subsection's claims are potentially outdated in the "digital age" given that near-total penetration of Web access among scholars worldwide enables any scholar[s] to submit papers to any journal anywhere. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2017)

tag: table

text: Peer Review is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer reviews being done for free has however brought many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many invitations to review.[47] It was observed that publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the same elite status as those of North America and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to satisfy standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry.[46] These limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide.

text: Influence of the open-access movement[edit]

text: The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and belongs to a "public domain", that of "humanity".[48] This idea gained prevalence as a result of Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.[48]

text: There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital right management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms is celebrated as a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are utilised by cultural groups (i.e. indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as censorship.[48]

text: Future perspectives[edit]

text: Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as Simon Marginson, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".[49] Marginson argues that the East Asian Confucian model could take over the Western model.

text: This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focussed on emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion.[49] In contrast, in the Western academic world, notably in the United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States, funding cuts for university research have occurred, which some[who?] say may lead to the future decline of Western dominance in research.

text: Professionalisation [edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In several national and private academic systems, the professionalisation of research has resulted in formal job titles.

text: In Russia[edit]

text: In present-day Russia, the former Soviet Union and in some post-Soviet states the term researcher (Russian: Научный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) is both a generic term for a person who carried out scientific research, as well as a job position within the frameworks of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Soviet universities, and in other research-oriented establishments. The term is also sometimes translated as research fellow, research associate, etc.

text: The following ranks are known:

text:
Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)
Researcher (Research Associate)
Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)
Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)[50]
Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

text: Publishing[edit]

text: Academic publishing is a system that is necessary for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine.

text: Most established academic fields have their own scientific journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently.[51] It has also been suggested that all published studies should be subjected to some measure for assessing the validity or reliability of its procedures to prevent the publication of unproven findings.[52] Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.[53] There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

text: Research funding[edit]

text: Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: corporate research and development departments; private foundations, for example, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; and government research councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the USA[54] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but also as a source of merit.

text: The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehensive list of U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources.


document_title: The Roof Is on Fire

question_text: what song goes the roof the roof the roof is on fire

text: The Roof Is on Fire

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
"The Roof Is on Fire"Single by Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic ThreeB-side
"Request Line"Released
1984Genre
Hip hopLength
5:30Label
RealityFantasy

text: "The Roof Is on Fire" is a single from Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic Three, released in 1984. It reached number five on the Billboard Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales chart. It is known for its chorus:

text: The roof, the roof, the roof is on fire!We don't need no water—Let the motherfucker burn!Burn, motherfucker, burn!

text: The song's intro is sampled by The Chemical Brothers in their song "Hey Boy Hey Girl," and the chorus is covered by the Bloodhound Gang's "Fire Water Burn," Coal Chamber's "Sway," Rancid's "Burn," Quad City DJ's "Party Over Here," and YACHT's "Dystopia (The Earth Is on Fire)."


document_title: The Littlest Hobo

question_text: who sang the theme tune to the littlest hobo

text: The Littlest Hobo

text: 1963–1965 series[edit]

text: Following the 1958 film, the 1960s original TV series was aired in syndication around the world, including the UK on the ITV between 1964–1967. Although the series was originally broadcast in black and white, it was in fact produced in colour. The VCI Entertainment DVD release of the series featured the colour versions of the episodes, except for the opening and closing credits which have only survived in black and white.

text: The German shepherd dogs featured in both 1960s and 1980s series were owned and trained by Charles (Chuck) P. Eisenmann. The primary star was named London, but several of London's relatives, including Toro, Litlon, and Thorn, also played scenes as the Hobo. Eisenmann used his own training methods to work with his dogs which involved educating them to think and understand very specific directions, to recognize colors and to understand English, German and French.[3] He promoted his education method by touring with his dogs to offer live demonstrations,[4] appearing on TV and radio shows and by writing books.[5] Eisenmann recounts many stories from the filming of the series in his 1968 dog training book Stop! Sit! and Think. Other books he wrote include The Better Dog: The Educated Dog which contains updated training material and A Dog’s Day in Court which offers a dog's point of view towards training methods.

text: The dogs are German Shepherds with "reverse mask" markings. After purchasing London, Eisenmann began to breed his own dogs, mostly studding out his males, even though he owned some females that he bred to as well. He bred particularly for the reverse mask, that is commonly seen on all of his dogs, and is unpopular with breeders of the German Shepherd dog as it is not in the breed standard.

text: Shiloh Shepherd dogs are stated to trace their heritage back to London's relatives and are inspired by the intelligence Eisenmann's dogs were reputed to have.[6]

text: 1979–1985 series[edit]

text: In 1979 CTV revived the series. The New Littlest Hobo (as it was sometimes called), which ran for six seasons, was shot on videotape rather than film. It has since been syndicated in many countries including the U.S. and UK. In the course of its run, a mixture of well-known Canadian and Hollywood guest stars appeared such as Al Waxman, Carol Lynley, John Ireland, Megan Follows, Rex Hagon, Alan Hale, Jr., August Schellenberg, DeForest Kelley, Ray Walston, Morey Amsterdam, Jeff Wincott, Michael Ironside, Patrick Macnee, Abe Vigoda, Saul Rubinek, John Vernon, Keenan Wynn, Chris Makepeace, Karen Kain, Vic Morrow, Henry Gibson, John Carradine and Leslie Nielsen. In 1979, 16-year-old Mike Myers made an early acting appearance playing the friend of a paraplegic boy in the episode "Boy on Wheels".

text: Charles (Chuck) P. Eisenmann appeared as a dog trainer named Chuck in the first-season episode "Stand In" and as dog kennel operator named Mr. Charles in part one of the episode "Voyageurs" from the sixth season.

text: The series aired on CTV on Thursday nights at 7:30 p.m. Reruns continued on CTV, CTV Two and other national networks up until the early 2010s, when CTV replaced it with a block of music videos from Juicebox. In the UK the series premièred on the BBC on April 8, 1982, but only the first three series was shown and repeated until 1989. From April 1991 ITV picked up the series and each of the local companies played out the full series until late 1994.

text: Plot[edit]

text: Plots ranged from the simple "dog-helps-person" stories to secret agent-type adventures. The series theme song, "Maybe Tomorrow", was sung by Terry Bush. In 2005, Bush commercially released the song on his debut album, entitled Maybe Tomorrow.[7] The song was later used in a 2011 Dulux paint advertisement.[8] Additionally, in 2017, the song was in a Canada 150 Co-Op stores advertisement.[9]

text: In season 5's two-part episode "The Genesis Tapes" a scientist and a reporter theorized that Hobo was a type of superior canine. The reporter theorized that there was one dog and the scientist theorized that there were up to one hundred such dogs. The two part episode had the scientist and reporter trying to capture Hobo to study him, with the reporter wanting a story and the scientist wanting to claim to be the first to discover the meta-canine as he put it. Hobo succeeds in destroying VHS tapes of himself that the scientist and reporter had intended to use to prove that he was an evolved canine. Both episodes feature flashback footage from the first five seasons of the series, with the first episode being the only episode of the revival series to include footage from the original 1960s series. The episode does not confirm that Hobo was indeed a superior canine either by evolution or design; it was simply the theory of the scientist and reporter.

text: Trainer Chuck Eisenmann used several dogs to play the role of "London" as he had selected dogs entirely based on their appearance. He determined which dogs to use for the scenes by making use of their abilities such as if one dog did not mind carrying objects or if one were small enough to safely jump through a car window and maneuver through the seats. In Eisenmann's book, A Dog's Day in Court, one of the dogs used in the 1970s series was London's grandson, who was also known as London.

text: A 2005 episode of the CTV sitcom Corner Gas entitled "The Littlest Yarbo" pays tribute to the series by having a character (Hank Yarbo) convinced that a stray dog visiting the town is Hobo, even though the dog is of a completely different breed. The episode ends with a reprise of Terry Bush's "Maybe Tomorrow" theme song.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: DVD release[edit]

text: 1963–1965 series[edit]

text: VCI Entertainment has released 12 episodes from the original series to DVD. The release features the colour versions of the first 3 episodes, except for the opening and closing sequences which have only survived in monochrome. The last 9 episodes were released in black and white.[10]

text: 1979–1985 series[edit]

text: Mediumrare Entertainment have only released the first two series of The Littlest Hobo on DVD. The Season One DVD, featured the theme tune "Maybe Tomorrow" on DVD in Region 2 & 4 on April 26, 2010.

text:
DVD Name
Episodes
Release dates

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

Season One
24
N/A
April 26, 2010
Sept, 2010

Season Two
18
N/A
September 6, 2010
N/A


document_title: HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08)

question_text: when does the hms queen elizabeth leave portsmouth

text: HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08)

text: Design and construction[edit]

text: On 25 July 2007, the then Defence Secretary Des Browne, announced the order for two new carriers.[21] At the time of approval the first carrier was expected to enter service in July 2015 and the budget was £4,085m for two ships.[22] The financial crisis led to a political decision in December 2008 to slow production, delaying Queen Elizabeth until May 2016. This decision alone added £1,560m to the cost.[22] By March 2010 the budget was estimated at £5,900m[22] and in November 2013 the contract was renegotiated with a budget of £6,200m.[23] The in-service date was further extended to 2020 in the Strategic Defence and Security Review in October 2010.[24] So real construction cost were around 4.5 billion pounds gross for two ships. £3.2 Billion pounds and 3.6 billion pounds were a real cost for two ships.[clarification needed]

text: Construction of Queen Elizabeth began in 2009. The assembly took place in the Firth of Forth at Rosyth Dockyard from nine blocks built in six UK shipyards: BAE Systems Surface Ships in Glasgow, Babcock at Appledore, Babcock at Rosyth, A&P Tyne in Hebburn, BAE at Portsmouth and Cammell Laird (flight decks) at Birkenhead.[25][26] Two of the lower main blocks, together weighing more than 6,000 tonnes and forming part of the base of the ship, were assembled and joined into one piece on 30 June 2011.[27] On 16 August 2011, the 8,000-tonne Lower Block 03 of Queen Elizabeth left BAE Systems Surface Ships' Govan shipyard in Glasgow on a large ocean-going barge. Travelling 600 miles (970 km) around the northern coast of Scotland, the block arrived at Rosyth on the evening of 20 August 2011.[28] On 28 October 2012, an 11,000-tonne section of the carrier began a lengthy journey around the south coast of England, avoiding bad weather from the shipbuilding hall at Govan to the Rosyth dockyard; it arrived on 21 November.[29] The forward island was constructed at BAE Portsmouth and attached on 14 March 2013; the aft island was attached in June 2013. The ski jump was added in November 2013,[12] leaving just the elevators and radar to be lifted into place.[12] By September 2013 Queen Elizabeth was 80% complete internally.[13] A journalist reported that computers on the vessel appeared to be using Windows XP, which has raised concerns about its vulnerability to a cyberattack.[30][31]

text:
Bulbous bow at Appledore

Forward island leaves Portsmouth in February 2013

HMS Queen Elizabeth during fitting-out on 1 December 2014

HMS Queen Elizabeth entering Portsmouth Naval Base on her delivery voyage 16 August 2017.

text: Naming ceremony[edit]

text: Queen Elizabeth was named at Rosyth on 4 July 2014, by Elizabeth II, who said that the warship "marks a new phase in our naval history". Instead of smashing the traditional bottle of champagne on the hull, she used a bottle of whisky from the Bowmore distillery on Islay.

text: The ceremony was attended by the Duke of Edinburgh (the Lord High Admiral), Admiral George Zambellas (First Sea Lord), senior naval officers from the United States and France, and by politicians including David Cameron and Gordon Brown (the Prime Minister and his immediate predecessor) and Alex Salmond (the then First Minister of Scotland). The official piece of music HMS Queen Elizabeth March, composed by WO2 Bandmaster John Morrish, was performed at the naming ceremony by HM Royal Marines Band, Scotland. This piece of music is a competition winning march chosen by the Carrier Alliance Group, performed and recorded by the Royal Marines Massed Bands.

text: The ceremony also featured a fly-past by the Red Arrows and a second comprising navy, air force and army helicopters. HMS Illustrious was berthed adjacent to Queen Elizabeth during the ceremony.[32]

text: The ship was floated out of dry dock on the morning of 17 July 2014.[33] Fitting out was completed at the end of 2015 and the crew moved aboard in May 2016. On 24 May 2016, Commodore Jeremy Kyd assumed command of the ship from Captain Simon Petitt who had been the Senior Naval Officer since October 2012 (joining with the first 8 crew).[34]

text: Sea trials[edit]

text: Sea trials were planned beginning in March 2017 with delivery expected in May 2017,[12][33] but technical issues delayed her trials.[35] Prior to the ship's departure from Rosyth, an extensive survey was carried out of the Firth of Forth by HMS Gleaner and 42 Regiment, Royal Engineers to gather information on the tides, the depth of the river bed, and the height of the three river crossings (Forth Bridge, Forth Road Bridge, and Queensferry Crossing). This was necessary as the most recent data available were 60 years old.[36]

text: Queen Elizabeth sailed on 26 June 2017 to undergo sea trials.[37][38] The first stage of the operation was to move the ship from inside the fitting out basin, via one of the access gates, into the Firth of Forth itself, before taking the ship under the three Forth bridge crossings.[39] Once this was accomplished, the ship took to the open sea off the east coast of Scotland to undertake the first set of trials, including handling and speed tests. During this period, Queen Elizabeth was accompanied by a pair of Type 23 frigates, HMS Sutherland and HMS Iron Duke, acting as escorts.[40] The first aircraft to land on the ship was a Merlin HM.2 of 820 Naval Air Squadron on 3 July.[41] Following initial runs in and around the Firth of Forth, Queen Elizabeth was taken further north to the Moray Firth, during which period the ship encountered the Cunard cruise liner MS Queen Elizabeth.[42][43] Queen Elizabeth arrived at her first stopover at Invergordon, where the ship was fuelled and provisioned. At this point inspections of the hull were carried out.[44] This opportunity allowed for defect rectification to be carried out prior to the ship returning to sea.

text: On 8 August 2017, Queen Elizabeth diverted from her sea trials to rendezvous with the ships engaged in Exercise 'Saxon Warrior'; this allowed for a photo exercise in company with the American Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George H.W. Bush and her battle group, comprising USS Donald Cook, USS Philippine Sea, HMS Iron Duke, HMS Westminster and KNM Helge Ingstad.[45]

text: Queen Elizabeth was scheduled to return to Rosyth at the end of July for rectification work based on the results of the ship's first sea trials, before putting to sea for a second time to undergo a series of mission system tests, prior to being handed over to the Royal Navy.[46] This plan was abandoned and she instead steered for her home port, Portsmouth.[47]

text: Queen Elizabeth arrived at Portsmouth for the first time on 16 August 2017 and berthed at the newly renamed Princess Royal Jetty (formerly Middle Slip Jetty) within HMNB Portsmouth.[48] On 30 October 2017, the ship departed Portsmouth for the first time for the second phase of her sea trials off the south and south-west coasts of England.[49] Queen Elizabeth returned to Portsmouth on 21 November 2017 to prepare for her official commissioning ceremony, which was held on 7 December 2017.[50]

text: Future work[edit]

text: Once the initial stage 1 and 2 sea trials were complete, the ship was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 7 December 2017.[51] Following the ship's commissioning, it underwent a period of defect correction in Portsmouth; one widely reported instance was a minor leak through a seal in one of the propeller shafts, which the Royal Navy stated was not serious enough to keep the ship from her planned programme.[52][53] In January 2018, Queen Elizabeth will sail to undergo her initial Operational Sea Training, before being taken into the North Atlantic for the first time for heavy weather trials and helicopter certification operations. On return, further work will prepare the ship for operation of fixed-wing aircraft. In the latter half of 2018, Queen Elizabeth will sail for the United States where flying trials of the F-35B will begin.[54][33] A "full operational capability" will be declared in 2020.[55]

text: Aircraft[edit]

text: The two ships of the Queen Elizabeth class are each expected to be capable of carrying forty aircraft, a maximum of thirty-six F-35s and four helicopters.[56] The 2010 SDSR anticipated the routine peacetime deployment of twelve F-35Bs, but a typical warload will be 24 F-35Bs and some helicopters.[13] These could be a Maritime Force Protection package of nine anti-submarine Merlin HM2 and five Merlin Crowsnest for airborne early warning; alternatively a Littoral Manoeuvre package could include a mix of Royal Navy Commando Helicopter Force Merlin HC4, Wildcat AH1, RAF Chinooks, and Army Air Corps Apaches.[13] As of September 2013[update] six landing spots are planned, but the deck could be marked out for the operation of ten medium helicopters at once, allowing the lift of a company of 250 troops.[13] The hangars are designed for CH-47 Chinook operations without blade folding and for the V-22 Osprey tiltrotor, whilst the aircraft lifts can accommodate two Chinooks with unfolded blades.[57]

text:
The F-35B Lightning II will be the primary fixed wing aircraft operated from Queen Elizabeth

The AW101 Merlin will operate in two main roles, ASW and ASaC

text: Passenger/crew transfer boats[edit]

text: The two ships of the Queen Elizabeth class will each carry four passenger transfer boats (PTBs) made by Blyth-based company Alnmaritec.[58] Each PTB carries 36 passengers and two crew to operate the vessel. The first boat named is named Swordfish, after the World War II-era aircraft of that name.[59] The boat is 13.1 m long and davit-launched. To enable the craft to fit into the docking area the navigation and radar masts are fitted with Linak actuators so that they can be lowered automatically from the command console. The enclosed cabin is heated and there is a set of heads forward.[60] The second of the four PTB is named Buccaneer after the Blackburn Buccaneer,[61] and the third is Sea Vixen.[62]

text: Weapons systems[edit]

text: Defensive weapons include the Phalanx Close-In Weapons System for anti-aircraft and anti-missile defence, and 30mm Automated Small Calibre Guns and Miniguns for use against fast attack craft.[5]

text: Highly Mechanised Weapon Handling System (HMWHS)[edit]

text: Incorporated into the first two blocks is a sophisticated handling and deployment system for air weapons, with the aim of achieving a sortie generation rate which is about six times faster than any previous Royal Navy aircraft carrier. The system requires only 50 people and could be operated with as few as 12 in an emergency; it is estimated that 160 would be needed to produce the same efficiency with conventional equipment. The system moves munitions on pallets by means of remotely controlled electric vehicles and lifts.[63]

text: Affiliations[edit]

text: Official affiliations[edit]

text:
City of London[64]
Royal Navy and Royal Marines Charity[65]
Heart of Midlothian F.C.[66]
Rolls-Royce Enthusiasts' Club[citation needed]