document_title: Ajinomoto

question_text: aji-no-moto® umami seasoning is produced by using the natural raw materials such as

question_tokens: aji-no-moto ® umami seasoning is produced by using the natural raw materials such as

text: Ajinomoto

text: History[edit]

text: The Origin of Ajinomoto Co.,Inc. 1907 – 1909[edit]

text:
The origin of Ajinomoto Co., Inc. was a newly organized business unit in 1908 in Suzuki Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., founded in May 1907 by Saburosuke Suzuki II.  This unit was organized at a request of Dr. Kikunae Ikeda (1864-1936), a Professor at Tokyo Imperial University, who invented a method for producing monosodium glutamate seasoning. He wanted to commercialize his discovery and by working with Sabururosuke Suzuki II to make this a reality in 1909. Under the general control of Saburosuke,  Chuji Suzuki, a younger brother of Saburosuke, was in charge of the production and Saburo Suzuki, a son of Saburosuke, handled sales and marketing.[4]
	Dr. Ikeda was interested in the taste of kelp juice and when analyzing samples, he discovered the causative substance of its unique flavor, was monosodium glutamate (MSG). He named this specific taste "umami.". Umami is now accepted around the world as one of the essential basic tastes, but it was not yet known at the time of discovery.[5] Ikeda further invented a method of manufacturing MSG, and acquired patents in Japan in 1908, France in 1909, UK in 1910, and in the United States in 1912.[6] After obtaining a Japanese patent, Ikeda was inspired by an article written by a Japanese doctor, Hide Miyake, claiming that the flavor of umami facilitated digestion. Subsequently, in order to use umami to improve the health of the Japanese at that time., he asked Saburosuke Suzuki II to further commercialize it for general consumption.[7]
[8]
	The product name "AJI-NO-MOTO," which continues to be used today, represents a seasoning that is made from vegetable proteins such as wheat and soybean. In November 1908, the company registered their trademark for "“AJI-NO-MOTO"” with a woman wearing traditional Japanese-style clothes (Trademark Registration No. 34220). In parallel, in October 1908, prior to the start of manufacturing and in consideration of safety issues, the company conducted an evaluation test of monosodium glutamate at the Tokyo Sanitation Laboratory of the Ministry of the Interior. Test results and evaluations showed that the product was harmless and suitable for human consumption. As a result, full-scale production began in December 1908 and products were mass-produced by March the following year. After presenting the product at an exhibition at the first new product exhibition event held in Ueno, Tokyo, in April 1909,[8]  sales for general consumers began on May 20th 1909.[9]
	 This is the founding anniversary of the business.[10]

text:
The glutamic acid extracted from kombu by Dr. Kikunae Ikeda (1908)

The original AJI-NO-MOTO® (1909)

Registered trademark of Lady & AJI-NO-MOTO

text: 1910s "The Expansion of Production, Sales and Exports"[edit]

text:
Since its release, “AJI-NO-MOTO“”  focused on housewives as the
main target users, hence various promotional activities such as newspaper advertisements using the registered trademark of a housewife in an apron,  signboards and ground stamps (a kind of small Geoglyphs) were conducted.[7][9]
Sales gradually increased and the output also increased from 4.7 ton in 1910 to 23.3 ton in 1913. In 1914, in order to continue to expand production, a new plant was set-up in Kawasaki.[11]
Additionally, there was a special economic stimulus after the First World War which resulted in output hitting 84.,6 ton in 1918 and sales expanding from 400,000 yen in 1913 to 1,563,000 yen. However, in terms of profit, the company experienced a permanent deficit for the first ten years due to failings in the changing method of the production at the new Kawasaki plant, and price cuts aimed at penetrating ordinary households, among other reasons. Under these circumstances, from a management perspective, Saburosuke Suzuki II considered that a further expansion was necessary and on June 17, 1917 he founded S.Suzuki & Co., Ltd. with 3 million yen. This day is the company’s founding anniversary.[10]

text: The exceptional demands of the First World War also brought about an increase in exports so Saburosuke Suzuki II focused his efforts on expanding overseas markets. Sales dealers began in Taiwan in May 1910, in Korea in August 1910 and in China in September 1914.  In addition, a New York office was opened in 1917, followed by a Shanghai branch office in 1918. Exports hit 20.5 ton in 1918, accounting for a quarter of total output.[9][11]

text:
Kawasaki factory

Promotion by Chindon'ya

text: 1920’s - 1930's “Overcoming Difficulties and Expanding Exports“[edit]

text:
Sales of AJI-NO-MOTO increased 3.8 times over ten years from 2,799 thousand yen in 1920 to 10,543 thousand yen in 1929. The expansion of sales channels to overseas markets played a major part in this sales increase. In addition to setting up distributors in Taiwan, Korea, and China, in the 1910s, the company also opened offices in Singapore and Hong Kong in 1927, an office in Taiwan in 1929, and further expanded their sales bases throughout South East Asia. In the United States, they focused on the New York branch and continued to develop a market for AJI-NO-MOTO.[12]
In the 1930s, the production and sales of AJI-NO-MOTO increased from 1,077 tons in 1931 to 3,750 tons in 1937, equivalent respectively to 13 million yen and 27 million yen, an increase of about 3.5 times in production volume and 2.1 times in sales. Meanwhile, in order to realize the potential of mass production, they made further developments to the conversion process of the AJI-NO-MOTO raw material, from wheat to soybean, which became available at a lower price.[13]

text: In the United States, domestic sales to general households at the time were insignificant, however, in 1931, as a result of mass orders from Heinz (H.J. Heinz, Co.), and  Campbell Soup Co., the company was able to expand their U.S. sales channels to the processed food market. In relation to the Food Laws in the U.S., the raw material used in AJI-NO-MOTO was labelled a "Vegetable Protein Derivative."

text: Meanwhile, in 1933, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations; their isolation from the world advanced, and shifted to a full-scale wartime economic regime in 1938.[14]  As a result, the production of AJI-NO-MOTO also suffered, and the production volume declined to 2,339 tons in 1940, from a peak output of 3,750 tons in 1937.[15]

text: 1940’s　“Production Suspension During Wartime and Production Restoration Post-War”[edit]

text: After 1940, production of AJI-NO-MOTO continued to decline, reducing production to 1,000 tons in 1942 before ceasing production in 1944, during World War II.

text:
In the post-war period, the president, Saburosuke Ⅲ, showed a new company policy for resuming production. However, it took time to rebuild the factories as the company suffered from a lack of funds and raw materials. As a consequence, production restarted in 1947. In the meantime, the company worked on its general maintenance by producing other foods and food-related items and securing employment.
After restarting production, with overseas markets being favorably receptive to the quality of AJI-NO-MOTO, its export became the driving force to the development of the company as a means to acquire foreign currency, with the export ratio in 1950 reaching 95%.[15][16]

text: In April 1946 the company changed their name to the Ajinomoto Co., Ltd. and when the Japanese stock exchange restarted in May 1949, the company listed their stock.[17]

text: 1950s -1970s "Diversification and internationalization"[edit]

text:
During the 1950s, export of “AJI-NO-MOTO” grew steadily overall. Export to Southeast Asia and Europe increased remarkably, while export to the U.S., which accounted for more than 20% of total export in 1950, increased slightly. With regard to Europe, adoption of “AJI-NO-MOTO” as a seasoning by many processed food manufacturers, such as  Maggie GmbH and  C.H. Knorr AG, helped the region occupy half of the total export volume, about 3,000 tons in 1955. Meanwhile, in Asia, export expanded from East Asia to Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar, the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia.[18]
In 1950, sales in Japan also resumed more vigorously after postwar sales controls were lifted. Sales expanded in a short period of time and by 1953, they exceeded the pre-war sales volume.[19]
In addition to “AJI-NO-MOTO”, the company expanded its business to produce nucleic acid based seasonings etc., and introduced processed food products such as soups through tie-ups with external resources.
In the 1960s, there was a revolutionary process conversion in the technology used to manufacture “AJI-NO-MOTO.” The main ingredient of “AJI-NO-MOTO” is monosodium glutamate, which is a sodium salt of glutamic acid. Glutamic acid is one of twenty basic  amino acids found in natural protein of vegetable, meat and fish.  Until the 1960s, “AJI-NO-MOTO” was manufactured by extraction by hydrolyzing soybean protein, but the company succeeded in mass production of  amino acids by using microorganisms and sugar cane as raw material – this process is known as the fermentation method. As a result of this development in technology, local production in the countries, where “AJI-NO-MOTO” was imported, could be quickly implemented. Domestic production began in Thailand in 1962, followed by the Philippines (1962), Malaysia (1965), Peru (1969), Indonesia (1970) and Brazil (1977). Production volume in the six countries exceeded 51 thousand tons in 1979, approximately 90% of in Japan.[20]
Meanwhile, in the 1960s, diversification into the food business sector accelerated through the alliances with international food companies. In 1962, they cooperated with Kellogg Company in the U.S. to manufacture and sell cornflakes. In 1963, they began a partnership with  CPC International Inc., which owned a major soup manufacturer  C.H. Knorr AG in Germany, and a major mayonnaise and margarine manufacturer  Best Foods Company Ltd. in the U.S. Ajinomoto Co., Inc. expanded its food business by launching “Knorr” soup in 1964 and their own mayonnaise in 1968.[21]
In the 1970s, there were further advancements in diversification. They launched a flavor seasoning “Hon-dashi” in 1970, frozen foods in 1972, and by establishing Ajinomoto General Foods Inc. (AGF), in partnership with  General Foods Inc., started instant coffee business in 1973. In 1978, they launched menu-specific seasons for Chinese dishes under the brand name, “Cook Do.” The main products under this brand are still on sale in 2018.[19][22]
In the overseas food business, the company developed consumer foods business mainly in Asian and Latin American markets, where “AJI-NO-MOTO” was produced locally. In Europe and the U.S., expansion was concerned with dealing in bulk business with processed food manufacturers.
In fields other than the food business, various kinds of  amino acids products were produced using the new technology. In 1956, the company began supplying crystalline  amino acids for pharmaceutical use, contributing to the world's first release of  amino acids infusion. In the 1960s and 1970s they developed feed-use  amino acids, pharmaceuticals such as enteral nutrients, and specialty chemicals such as surfactants. In terms of overseas deployment, feed use  amino acids occupied a large part of the bulk business in Europe and the U.S.[20]

text: 1980s -1990s[edit]

text:
Lysine price-fixing
Ajinomoto was a member of the Lysine price fixing cartel in the mid-1990s. Along with  Kyowa Hakko Kogyo, and Sewon America Inc., Ajinomoto settled with the United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division in September 1996. Each firm and one executive from each pleaded guilty as part of a plea bargain to aid in further investigation. Their cooperation led to Archer Daniels Midland settling charges with the US Government in October 1996 for $100 million, a record antitrust fine at the time.[23] The cartel had been able to raise Lysine prices 70% within their first six months of cooperation.[24]

text: As of 1999, the logo of Ajinomoto has been rendered in the Optima font.

text: By mid-2000, Ajinomoto's acquisition of NutraSweet and 'Euro-Aspartame' from Monsanto had been completed.[25]

text: In early 2001, Ajinomoto was involved in a scandal in majority-Muslim Indonesia when it emerged that a pork-based enzyme had been used in its production of MSG.[26]

text: In January 2006, the company bought the cooking sauce and condiments manufacturer Amoy Food from the French dairy product company Groupe Danone, which had run the division as the "Amoy Asian food unit".[27]  At the time of the acquisition, Ajinomoto was the largest Japanese maker of seasonings.[27]

text:
Lawsuits against Asda (2008–2010)
In 2008, Ajinomoto sued British supermarket chain Asda, part of Wal-Mart, for a malicious falsehood action concerning its aspartame product when the chemical was listed as excluded from the chain's product line along with other "nasties".[28] In July 2009, a British court found in favour of Asda.[29] In June 2010, an appeal court reversed the decision, allowing Ajinomoto to pursue a case against Asda to protect aspartame's reputation.[30] At that time, Asda said that it would continue to use the term "no nasties" on its own-label products,[31]  however, the suit was settled out of court in 2011 after Asda removed references to aspartame from its packaging.[32]

text: In 2008 and 2009, Holyland Marketing (P) Ltd.[33] filed rectification petition against Ajinomoto Co. Inc (India) to genericide the trademark "AJINOMOTO" for MSG product. Matter is pending with IPAB.[34]

text: 2010 to present[edit]

text: In late 2012, the Company sold its Calpis beverage unit to Asahi Breweries for US$1,500,000,000.[35]

text: In 2013, the Company acquired the contract manufacturing organization Althea Technologies for US$175,000,000 in a bid to expand biopharmaceutical manufacturing in the United States.[36]

text: Food Products Business[edit]

text: In 1909, Ajinomoto Co. Inc. released their fundamental food product, the umami seasoning "AJI-NO-MOTO®". In Japan, they continued exploring various markets, including producing edible oil in 1935, consommé in 1962, soups in 1964, mayonnaise in 1968, frozen foods in 1972, and coffee in 1973. At the same time, the company continued their expansion overseas. In Southeast Asia, along with building a reputation for their original technology and scientific know-how, sales channels were established at first through their umami seasoning, "AJI-NO-MOTO®". Following this, they successively expanded into high value-added products such as flavor seasonings, menu-specific seasonings, and frozen foods.[37]

text: Seasonings[edit]

text: The main product "AJI-NO-MOTO®" was first marketed in Japan in 1909, the main ingredient of which was monosodium glutamate (MSG). AJI-NO-MOTO is used not only in homes and restaurants, but also in various processed foods. Currently, it is sold in more than 100 countries and regions. The main ingredients are molasses and tapioca starch which can be taken from sugarcane. It is produced by a method of fermentation that uses the local raw materials of each country. Although the packaging and size of the products are different in each country, the red bowl mark and "AJI-NO-MOTO®" product name is ubiquitous around the world.

text: In 1970, "HON-DASHI®" was launched in Japan as a flavor seasoning, featuring bonito taste which was popular in Japan.  Although the flavor seasoning was exported to several countries, with the launch of “Ross Dee” in Thailand, in 1979, Ajinomoto Co., Inc. began to take local consumer tastes, eating habits, and lifestyles into account. As they continued to evolve their brand, they developed products that utilized locally produced raw materials, resulting in products that were better oriented to the local consumer. While being predominantly developed for specific markets, some products are exported to neighboring countries, such as the Brazilian flavor seasoning, “Sazon,” which is exported to Argentina and Chile.[38]

text: In the menu-specific seasoning market, in Japan, in 1978, Ajinomoto Co., Inc. released "Cook Do®", a series of Chinese seasoning products that corresponded to various popular dishes in China, but which were developed to suit Japanese tastes and cooking styles. They were able to further develop their core business through such flavor seasonings.  Overseas, making use of the sales networks built through the umami seasoning " AJI-NO-MOTO®," the company continued to develop products suitable for consumers' preferences, dietary needs, and lifestyles, mainly in growth markets such as Asia and South America. Much the same as Japan, sales have been rapidly expanding in recent years, particularly through the development of fried chicken flavorings and other various local dishes.

text: Processed Foods[edit]

text:
With regard to processed foods, the main products developed by Ajinomoto co., Inc. are soup, mayonnaise, porridge, pasta sauce, and instant noodles. In Japan, soup was released under the "Knorr® brand" in 1964, in Taiwan and Brazil in 2005, and under the “VONO®” brand name in Korea in 2006. The first sales of their mayonnaise in Japan began in 1968, expanding to Vietnam in 2005, and Indonesia in 2012. Rice porridge was released in Japan as part of a series of retort foods in 1988. In addition, through their partnership with Kellogg in the USA, for nearly 50 years, the company has become the main sales vehicle for Kellogg's products in Japan.  As for instant noodles, beginning in 1973 with their first overseas expansion to Thailand, Ajinomoto co., Inc. now produce noodles in Brazil, Peru, India, and Poland. In Peru, they also entered the cup noodle market in 2016.[39]
Before the eventual publicity, the conglomerate was founded on Ikeda's work: it was the first to suggest that industrially purified glutamic acid salts, residues or analogues, originally found in seaweed or dried fish-based broth, might have a characteristic taste of its own. That idea was rapidly connected to the much older Japanese, culinary term of umami. This led to early adoption of MSG as a culinary agent in Japan.  Ajinomoto is the world's largest manufacturer of MSG.[40]

text: Frozen Foods[edit]

text: Ajinomoto group entered the frozen food business in 1972 and went on to expand into an integrated sales company in 2000 in Japan, founding Ajinomoto Frozen Foods Co., Ltd. They established companies for frozen foods business in Thailand in 2004 and in China in 2014. and in 2014 acquired Windsor Quality Holdings Co., Ltd., the No. 1 frozen food supplier of Asian food in the United States. They expanded their line-up of dumplings, noodles, cooked rice etc.[41] Following that, in April 2015 they integrated their North American businesses by establishing Ajinomoto Windsor, Inc., and in 2018 changed the name to Ajinomoto Foods North America, Inc. Today, Ajinomoto holds 31% of the North American Asian frozen food market, the largest in the U.S.[42] They have continued to strengthen their global production and sales structure, including the establishment of Ajinomoto Jawo Sp. z o.o, a joint venture in Poland in 2014, and the acquisition of French Labeyrie Traiteur Surgelés S.A.S. in France in 2017.

text: Coffee, Non-Alcoholic Beverages and Powdered Drinks Business[edit]

text: In 1973, Ajinomoto Co., Inc. entered the coffee business through a joint venture with General Foods Corporation in the United States and developed products in new categories such as instant coffee, regular coffee, bottled coffee, and stick coffee. It became a 100% subsidiary of Ajinomoto Co., Inc. in October 2015, changing the name from " Ajinomoto Co., Inc. General Foods" to "Ajinomoto AGF Corporation" in July 2017.[43]

text: In 1993, they released the first canned coffee in Thailand subsequently creating a new canned coffee market. They are now the top coffee brand in Thailand, taking a 70% share of the market.[44] In 2017, the Blendy brand entered the Indian powdered beverage market for the first time.[45]

text: Life Support Business[edit]

text: As part of their life support business, the Ajinomoto Group develops and produces not only amino acids for use in livestock feed, cosmetics and detergents, but also electronic materials for use in insulators and flame retardants.

text: Animal Nutrition[edit]

text: Domestic animals are raised mainly on corn, wheat, soybean meal and other feeds, but by on their own, these feeds tend to lack essential amino acids such as Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan. Encouraging domestic animals to ingest the necessary amount of these acids not only increases costs but also the amount of arable land necessary for production.  Moreover, unnecessarily increased nitrogen compounds due to the poor balance of amino acids can also cause environmental problems. From the 1960s, a new method to assist in the growth of livestock was established. It added the amino acids that tend to be insufficient in general feed. [46]

text:
Mechanism of greenhouse gas

Economizing on soybean meal and land

The Barrel Theory of amino acids

text:
Under these circumstances, the Ajinomoto Group, which has been engaged in business and research of glutamic acid since its foundation, started an animal nutrition business in 1965 and subsequently established an international production and supply system for amino acids to be used in feed. As of 2017, the Ajinomoto Group's animal nutrition business has production and sales bases in six countries around the world, including Ajinomoto Eurolysine SAS (France), Ajinomoto Animal Nutrition North America, Inc., and Ajinomoto Animal Nutrition / Singapore. They are developing together as AJINOMOTO ANIMAL NUTRITION GROUP, the world's largest global network that supplies amino acids and customer service to various regions. [47]
Even if the missing Lysine, Threonine, Tryptophan or similar is administered in its natural form, it would still be decomposed by the stomach. In order to solve this problem, Ajinomoto developed a Lysine preparation called "AjiPro ®-L" for lactating dairy cows, which allows the Lysine to reach the intestine without being broken down in the stomach. Marketing began in North America from 2011, with sales in Japan taking off in April 2015. The company is also considering expanding sales across Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania. [48]

text: Specialty Chemicals[edit]

text:
In terms of the development of specialty chemicals Ajinomoto has developed mild cleansing agents such as "Amisoft®" which is made from glutamic acid and coconut fatty acid, "Amilite ®" born from alanine and natural fatty acids, humectant emollients such as "Eldew ®” , which is derived from glutamic acid.  And "Amihop®", which is made from Lysine and fatty acid can be widely applied to make-up, skin care, and hair care to be sold to cosmetic manufacturers and toiletry makers as raw materials. The market for such natural cosmetic products is expanding globally and a growth in sales is especially expected in local companies in Indonesia. Ajinomoto Co., Inc. also conducts manufacture on assignment (OEM) for companies such as Daiichi Sankyo Healthcare Co., Ltd. for the development of their moisturizing detergent "Minon ®".
In terms of electronic fabricated materials, Ajinomoto has been developing their resin functional materials business using the technology obtained through the production of sodium glutamate. However, they have also developed interlayer insulating materials for semiconductor packages, known as " Ajinomoto Build- up Film " (ABF). ABF is contributing to improving the performance of personal computers, acting as an insulating film necessary for the manufacture of a computer’s semiconductor package. The company is expanding its application of the technology to cover smartphones and tablet computers. Furthermore, based on the ABF technology, Ajinomoto recently developed an encapsulating material called " Ajinomoto Encapsulation Film" (AEF) which can be used in organic EL devices, a field that is expected to be the next generation of lighting and display technology. The products are expected to shorten the manufacturing process of organic EL devices thus contributing to the improvement of product durability.
In addition, functional chemicals, activated carbon, release paper and the like have also been commercialized based on knowledge obtained from the research on and production of amino acid processes.

text: Other Business[edit]

text: Sweeteners[edit]

text: In 1982, Ajinomoto Co., Inc. launched the amino-acid based sweetener aspartame, and entered the sweetener business. In 1984 they released a low-calorie consumer sweetener "PAL SWEET."  Ajinomoto Co., Inc. is the world's largest manufacturers of aspartame, sold under the trade name Aminosweet. It acquired its aspartame business in 2000 from Monsanto for US$67,000,000.[25]　As of 2018, the Ajinomoto Group's aspartame-based sweetener business is now deployed in approximately 80 countries around the world, corresponding to the low calorie, reduced sugar, and increasingly health conscious needs of consumers, while also reducing the negative impact on the environment.  In addition, in 2011, Ajinomoto Co., Inc. developed " Advantame" which is about 30,000 times sweeter than sugar.  It is now sold in markets globally, including the United States, Europe, Japan, and Taiwan.

text: Amino Acid Supplements[edit]

text: In addition to glutamates as a seasoning, the company also produces other amino acids such as L-Leucine, L-Tyrosine, Glycine, L-Phenylalanine,[49] and several others, which it markets as dietary supplements under the brand name AjiPure.[50][49]

text: Corporate governance[edit]

text: As of  June 2015[update], the president and CEO of Ajinomoto is Takaaki Nishii.

text: Ajinomoto’s chairman since June 2005, Kunio Egashira, died on April 7, 2008.[51]  Egashira had previously served as the company's president from June 1997.[51]

text: Organization[edit]

text: According to the Global Corporate website, there are three major types of subsidiaries based on the products they produce: Seasonings and Processed Foods, Frozen Foods and Amino Acids; the number of subsidiaries in each category number 27, 9 and 12, respectively, and most are geographically defined entities.[52]

text: Ajinomoto North America, Inc. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Ajinomoto.[53]  It is headquartered in Fort Lee, New Jersey and covers operations in the United States, Mexico and Canada.[54]  According to the company, it is the "only pharmaceutical L-amino acid manufacturer in the United States."[53]

text: Ajinomoto has three divisions devoted to chemical manufacture outside of the amino acid manufacturing area: NaturalSpecialities and Tensiofix are subunits of Omnichem, which is headquartered in Belgium.[55][56][57]


document_title: Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team

question_text: the crew of the apollo 13 was awarded the presidential medal of freedom by

root

text: Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team worked at the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas during the mission, and was responsible for all aspects of the Apollo 13 flight after it cleared the launch tower after liftoff from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida..

tag: p

text: On April 18, 1970, the team was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard M. Nixon. They were awarded these because of their courage during their space mission to the moon.

text: The award reads as follows:

text: "We often speak of scientific "miracles"—forgetting that these are not miraculous happenings at all, but rather the product of hard work, long hours and disciplined intelligence.

text:
The men and women of the Apollo 13 mission operations team performed such a miracle, transforming potential tragedy into one of the most dramatic rescues of all time. Years of intense preparation made this rescue possible. The skill, coordination and performance under pressure of the mission operations team made it happen. Three brave astronauts are alive and on Earth because of their dedication, and because at the critical moments the people of that team were wise enough and self-possessed enough to make the right decisions. Their extraordinary feat is a tribute to man's ingenuity, to his resourcefulness and to his courage."

The White House
April 18, 1970
Richard M. Nixon

text: Because the Medal of Freedom was presented as a group award, the members of the Apollo 13 team have the distinction of being the only individuals ever presented with the honor without being given the actual medal itself.

text: Spaceflight portal

tag: ul

text: Apollo 13Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients

text: Articles lacking sources from July 2009All articles lacking sources


document_title: List of NCAA Division I men's basketball champions

question_text: who won the national basketball championship last year

text: Championship games[edit]

text:
Legend for "Championship games" table below

Indicator
Meaning

*
Game was decided in an overtime period

Game was decided in a third overtime period

Score
Each score is linked to an article about that particular championship game, when available

Year
Each year is linked to an article about that particular NCAA Tournament

text:
Championship games, by year, showing winners and losers, final scores and venues

Year
Winning team
Winning head coach
Score
Losing team
Losing head coach
Venue
City
Ref.

1939
Oregon
Hobson, HowardHoward Hobson
046.3 !46–33
Ohio State
Olsen, HaroldHarold Olsen
Patten Gymnasium
Evanston, Illinois
[17]

1940
Indiana
McCracken, BranchBranch McCracken
060.3 !60–42
Kansas
Allen, PhogPhog Allen
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[18]

1941
Wisconsin
Foster, BudBud Foster
039 !39–34
Washington State
Friel, JackJack Friel
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[19]

1942
Stanford
Dean, EverettEverett Dean
053.2 !53–38
Dartmouth
Cowles, O. B.O. B. Cowles
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[20]

1943
Wyoming
Shelton, EverettEverett Shelton
046.2 !46–34
Georgetown
Ripley, ElmerElmer Ripley
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[21]

1944
Utah
Peterson, VadalVadal Peterson
042 !42–40*
Dartmouth
Brown, EarlEarl Brown
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[22][23]

1945
Oklahoma A&M
Iba, HenryHenry Iba
049 !49–45
NYU
Cann, HowardHoward Cann
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[24]

1946
Oklahoma A&M
Iba, HenryHenry Iba
043 !43–40
North Carolina
Carnevale, BenBen Carnevale
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[25]

1947
Holy Cross
Julian, DoggieDoggie Julian
058.1 !58–47
Oklahoma
Drake, BruceBruce Drake
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[26]

1948
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
058.2 !58–42
Baylor
Henderson, BillBill Henderson
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[27]

1949
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
046.1 !46–36
Oklahoma A&M
Iba, HenryHenry Iba
Hec Edmundson Pavilion
Seattle, Washington
[28]

1950
CCNY
Holman, NatNat Holman
071.2 !71–68
Bradley
Anderson, ForddyForddy Anderson
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[29]

1951
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
068.3 !68–58
Kansas State
Gardner, JackJack Gardner
Williams Arena
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[30]

1952
Kansas
Allen, PhogPhog Allen
080.3 !80–63
St. John's
McGuire, FrankFrank McGuire
Hec Edmundson Pavilion
Seattle, Washington
[31]

1953
Indiana
McCracken, BranchBranch McCracken
069 !69–68
Kansas
Allen, PhogPhog Allen
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[32]

1954
La Salle
Loeffler, KenKen Loeffler
092.2 !92–76
Bradley
Anderson, ForddyForddy Anderson
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[33]

1955
San Francisco
Woolpert, PhilPhil Woolpert
077.3 !77–63
La Salle
Loeffler, KenKen Loeffler
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[34]

1956
San Francisco
Woolpert, PhilPhil Woolpert
083.2 !83–71
Iowa
O'Connor, BuckyBucky O'Connor
McGaw Hall
Evanston, Illinois
[35]

1957
North Carolina
McGuire, FrankFrank McGuire
054.1 !54–53
Kansas
Harp, DickDick Harp
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[36]

1958
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
084.3 !84–72
Seattle
Castellani, JohnJohn Castellani
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[37]

1959
California
Newell, PetePete Newell
071.1 !71–70
West Virginia
Schaus, FredFred Schaus
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[38]

1960
Ohio State
Taylor, FredFred Taylor
075.4 !75–55
California
Newell, PetePete Newell
Cow Palace
Daly City, California
[39][40]

1961
Cincinnati
Jucker, EdEd Jucker
070 !70–65*
Ohio State
Taylor, FredFred Taylor
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[41]

1962
Cincinnati
Jucker, EdEd Jucker
071.4 !71–59
Ohio State
Taylor, FredFred Taylor
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[42]

1963
Loyola Chicago
Ireland, GeorgeGeorge Ireland
060.1 !60–58*
Cincinnati
Jucker, EdEd Jucker
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[43]

1964
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
098 !98–83
Duke
Bubas, VicVic Bubas
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[44]

1965
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
091 !91–80
Michigan
Strack, DaveDave Strack
Memorial Coliseum
Portland, Oregon
[45]

1966
Texas Western
Haskins, DonDon Haskins
072.2 !72–65
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
Cole Field House
College Park, Maryland
[46]

1967
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
079 !79–64
Dayton
Donoher, DonDon Donoher
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[47]

1968
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
078.2 !78–55
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
Sports Arena
Los Angeles, California
[48]

1969
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
092.3 !92–72
Purdue
King, GeorgeGeorge King
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[49]

1970
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
080.2 !80–69
Jacksonville
Williams, JoeJoe Williams
Cole Field House
College Park, Maryland
[50]

1971
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
068.2 !68–62
Villanova[a]
Kraft, JackJack Kraft
Astrodome
Houston, Texas
[51]

1972
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
081.2 !81–76
Florida State
Durham, HughHugh Durham
Memorial Sports Arena
Los Angeles, California
[52]

1973
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
087 !87–66
Memphis State
Bartow, GeneGene Bartow
St. Louis Arena
St. Louis, Missouri
[53]

1974
North Carolina State
Sloan, NormNorm Sloan
076.3 !76–64
Marquette
McGuire, AlAl McGuire
Greensboro Coliseum
Greensboro, North Carolina
[54]

1975
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
092.1 !92–85
Kentucky
Hall, Joe B.Joe B. Hall
San Diego Sports Arena
San Diego, California
[55]

1976
Indiana
Knight, BobBob Knight
086 !86–68
Michigan
Orr, JohnnyJohnny Orr
Spectrum
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
[56]

1977
Marquette
McGuire, AlAl McGuire
067 !67–59
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
Omni Coliseum
Atlanta, Georgia
[57]

1978
Kentucky
Hall, Joe B.Joe B. Hall
094 !94–88
Duke
Foster, BillBill Foster
The Checkerdome
St. Louis, Missouri
[58]

1979
Michigan State
Heathcote, JudJud Heathcote
075.3 !75–64
Indiana State
Hodges, BillBill Hodges
Special Events Center
Salt Lake City, Utah
[59]

1980
Louisville
Crum, DennyDenny Crum
059 !59–54
UCLA[a]
Brown, LarryLarry Brown
Market Square Arena
Indianapolis, Indiana
[60]

1981
Indiana
Knight, BobBob Knight
063.2 !63–50
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
Spectrum
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
[61]

1982
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
063.1 !63–62
Georgetown
Thompson, JohnJohn Thompson
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[62]

1983
North Carolina State
Valvano, JimJim Valvano
054.2 !54–52
Houston
Lewis, GuyGuy Lewis
University Arena
Albuquerque, New Mexico
[63]

1984
Georgetown
Thompson, JohnJohn Thompson
084.2 !84–75
Houston
Lewis, GuyGuy Lewis
Kingdome
Seattle, Washington
[64]

1985
Villanova
Massimino, RollieRollie Massimino
066 !66–64
Georgetown
Thompson, JohnJohn Thompson
Rupp Arena
Lexington, Kentucky
[65]

1986
Louisville
Crum, DennyDenny Crum
072.1 !72–69
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
Reunion Arena
Dallas, Texas
[66]

1987
Indiana
Knight, BobBob Knight
074 !74–73
Syracuse
Boeheim, JimJim Boeheim
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[67]

1988
Kansas
Brown, LarryLarry Brown
083.1 !83–79
Oklahoma
Tubbs, BillyBilly Tubbs
Kemper Arena
Kansas City, Missouri
[68]

1989
Michigan
Fisher, SteveSteve Fisher
080.1 !80–79*
Seton Hall
Carlesimo, P. J.P. J. Carlesimo
Kingdome
Seattle, Washington
[69]

1990
UNLV
Tarkanian, JerryJerry Tarkanian
103 !103–73
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
McNichols Sports Arena
Denver, Colorado
[70]

1991
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
072.2 !72–65
Kansas
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
Hoosier Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[71]

1992
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
071.5 !71–51
Michigan[a]
Fisher, SteveSteve Fisher
Metrodome
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[72]

1993
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
077.2 !77–71
Michigan[a]
Fisher, SteveSteve Fisher
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[73]

1994
Arkansas
Richardson, NolanNolan Richardson
076.1 !76–72
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
Charlotte Coliseum
Charlotte, North Carolina
[74]

1995
UCLA
Harrick, JimJim Harrick
089.1 !89–78
Arkansas
Richardson, NolanNolan Richardson
Kingdome
Seattle, Washington
[75]

1996
Kentucky
Pitino, RickRick Pitino
076.2 !76–67
Syracuse
Boeheim, JimJim Boeheim
Continental Airlines Arena
East Rutherford, New Jersey
[76]

1997
Arizona
Olson, LuteLute Olson
084.1 !84–79*
Kentucky
Pitino, RickRick Pitino
RCA Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[77]

1998
Kentucky
Smith, TubbyTubby Smith
078.1 !78–69
Utah
Majerus, RickRick Majerus
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[78]

1999
Connecticut
Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
077.1 !77–74
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
Tropicana Field
St. Petersburg, Florida
[79]

2000
Michigan State
Izzo, TomTom Izzo
089.2 !89–76
Florida
Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
RCA Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[80]

2001
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
082.3 !82–72
Arizona
Olson, LuteLute Olson
Metrodome
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[81]

2002
Maryland
Williams, GaryGary Williams
064 !64–52
Indiana
Davis, MikeMike Davis
Georgia Dome
Atlanta, Georgia
[82]

2003
Syracuse
Boeheim, JimJim Boeheim
081.1 !81–78
Kansas
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[83]

2004
Connecticut
Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
082.2 !82–73
Georgia Tech
Hewitt, PaulPaul Hewitt
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[84]

2005
North Carolina
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
075.1 !75–70
Illinois
Weber, BruceBruce Weber
Edward Jones Dome
St. Louis, Missouri
[85]

2006
Florida
Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
073 !73–57
UCLA
Howland, BenBen Howland
RCA Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[86]

2007
Florida
Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
084.2 !84–75
Ohio State
Matta, ThadThad Matta
Georgia Dome
Atlanta, Georgia
[87]

2008
Kansas
Self, BillBill Self
075.2 !75–68*
Memphis[a]
Calipari, JohnJohn Calipari
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[88]

2009
North Carolina
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
089.3 !89–72
Michigan State
Izzo, TomTom Izzo
Ford Field
Detroit, Michigan
[89]

2010
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
061 !61–59
Butler
Stevens, BradBrad Stevens
Lucas Oil Stadium
Indianapolis, Indiana
[90]

2011
Connecticut
Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
053.1 !53–41
Butler
Stevens, BradBrad Stevens
Reliant Stadium
Houston, Texas
[91]

2012
Kentucky
Calipari, JohnJohn Calipari
067.1 !67–59
Kansas
Self, BillBill Self
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[92]

2013
Louisville[a]
Pitino, RickRick Pitino
067.1 !82–76
Michigan
Beilein, JohnJohn Beilein
Georgia Dome
Atlanta, Georgia
[93]

2014
Connecticut
Ollie, KevinKevin Ollie
060.2 !60–54
Kentucky
Calipari, JohnJohn Calipari
AT&T Stadium
Arlington, Texas
[94]

2015
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
068.1 !68–63
Wisconsin
Ryan, BoBo Ryan
Lucas Oil Stadium
Indianapolis, Indiana
[95]

2016
Villanova
Jay Wright
077.1 !77–74
North Carolina
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
NRG Stadium
Houston, Texas
[96]

2017
North Carolina
Roy Williams
071.3 !71–65
Gonzaga
Mark Few
University of Phoenix Stadium
Glendale, Arizona
[97]

2018
Villanova
Jay Wright
077.1 !79–62
Michigan
Beilein, JohnJohn Beilein
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[98]

text: Multiple champions[edit]

text:
Teams with multiple championships

Team
Wins
Years won

UCLA
11
1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995

Kentucky
8
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1996, 1998, 2012

North Carolina
6
1957, 1982, 1993, 2005, 2009, 2017

Duke
5
1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, 2015

Indiana
5
1940, 1953, 1976, 1981, 1987

Connecticut
4
1999, 2004, 2011, 2014

Kansas
3
1952, 1988, 2008

Villanova
3
1985, 2016, 2018

Louisville
2
1980, 1986, 2013[c]

Michigan State
2
1979, 2000

Cincinnati
2
1961, 1962

Florida
2
2006, 2007

North Carolina State
2
1974, 1983

Oklahoma State[b]
2
1945, 1946

San Francisco
2
1955, 1956

text:
Coaches with multiple championships

Team
Wins
Years won

Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
10
1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975

Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
5
1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, 2015

Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
4
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958

Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
3
1999, 2004, 2011

Knight, BobBob Knight
3
1976, 1981, 1987

Williams, RoyRoy Williams
3
2005, 2009, 2017

Crum, DennyDenny Crum
2
1980, 1986

Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
2
2006, 2007

Iba, HenryHenry Iba
2
1945, 1946

Jucker, EdEd Jucker
2
1961, 1962

McCracken, BranchBranch McCracken
2
1940, 1953

Smith, DeanDean Smith
2
1982, 1993

Woolpert, PhilPhil Woolpert
2
1955, 1956

Wright, JayJay Wright
2
2016, 2018

text: Champions by conference status[edit]

text: Champions by conference at the time of tournaments[edit]

text:
Championships by conference membership at the time of tournaments

Conference
Wins
Years won
Ref(s)

Pac-12 Conference !Pac-12 Conference (1915–current)
15
1939, 1942, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995, 1997
[17][38][99][100][101]

Atlantic Coast Conference !Atlantic Coast Conference (1953–current)
14
1957, 1974, 1982, 1983, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2017
[102][103][104][105][106]

Southeastern Conference !Southeastern Conference (1932–current)
11
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2006, 2007, 2012
[107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117]

Big Ten Conference !Big Ten Conference (1896–current)
10
1940, 1941, 1953, 1960, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1987, 1989, 2000
[118]

Big East Conference !Big East Conference (1979–current)
8
1984, 1985, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2011, 2013,[c] 2016, 2018
[93][119][120][121][122]

Independents
6
1944, 1947, 1954, 1963, 1966, 1977
[46][123][124][125][126][127]

Missouri Valley Conference !Missouri Valley Conference (1907–current)
4
1945, 1946, 1961, 1962
[128][129][130][131]

Big Eight Conference !Big 8 Conference (1907–1996)
2
1952, 1988
[31][68]

Metro Conference !Metro Conference (1975–1995)
2
1980, 1986
[132]

West Coast Conference !West Coast Conference (1952–current)
2
1955, 1956
[133]

American Athletic Conference !American Athletic Conference (2014–current)
1
2014
[94]

Big Twelve Conference !Big 12 Conference (1994–current)
1
2008
[134]

Big West Conference !Big West Conference (1969–current)
1
1990
[135]

Metropolitan New York Conference !Metropolitan New York Conference (1933–1963)
1
1950
[136]

Mountain States Conference !Mountain States Conference (1938–1962)
1
1943
[137]

text: Championships by current conference membership[edit]

text:
Championships by current conference membership

Conference
Wins
Years won
Ref(s)

Atlantic Coast Conference !Atlantic Coast Conference
16
1957, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2013,[c] 2015, 2017
[138][139]

Pac-12 Conference !Pac-12 Conference
16
1939, 1942, 1944, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995, 1997
[140][141]

Southeastern Conference !Southeastern Conference
11
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2006, 2007, 2012
[142]

Big Ten Conference !Big Ten Conference
11
1940, 1941, 1953, 1960, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1987, 1989, 2000, 2002
[143]

American Athletic Conference
6
1961, 1962, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2014
[144][145][146]

Big Twelve Conference !Big 12 Conference
5
1945, 1946, 1952, 1988, 2008
[147][148][149]

Big East Conference
5
1977, 1984, 1985, 2016, 2018
[122][150][151]

Mountain West Conference !Mountain West Conference
2
1943, 1990
[152][153]

West Coast Conference !West Coast Conference
2
1955, 1956
[154]

Atlantic 10 Conference !Atlantic 10 Conference
1
1954
[155]

City University of New York Athletic Conference !City University of New York Athletic Conference
1
1950
[156]

Conference USA !Conference USA
1
1966
[157]

Missouri Valley Conference !Missouri Valley Conference
1
1963
[158]

Patriot League !Patriot League
1
1947
[159]

text: Championships by state[edit]

text:
Championships by state

State
Wins
Years won

California
15
1942, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995

North Carolina
13
1957, 1974, 1982, 1983, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2017

Kentucky
10
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1980, 1986, 1996, 1998, 2012, 2013[c]

Indiana
5
1940, 1953, 1976, 1981, 1987

Connecticut
4
1999, 2004, 2011, 2014

Pennsylvania
4
1954, 1985, 2016, 2018

Ohio
3
1960, 1961, 1962

Kansas
3
1952, 1988, 2008

Michigan
3
1979, 1989, 2000

Oklahoma
2
1945, 1946

Wisconsin
2
1941, 1977

New York
2
1950, 2003

Florida
2
2006, 2007

Oregon
1
1939

Wyoming
1
1943

Utah
1
1944

Massachusetts
1
1947

Illinois
1
1963

Texas
1
1966

Washington, D.C.
1
1984

Nevada
1
1990

Arkansas
1
1994

Arizona
1
1997

Maryland
1
2002

text: Indicates vacated by NCAA


document_title: Kievan Rus'

question_text: which group ended the period of kievan rus dominance

question_tokens: which group ended the period of kievan rus dominance

text: Kievan Rus'

text: Name[edit]

text: During its existence, Kievan Rus' was known as the "land of the Rus'" (Old East Slavic: Рѹ́сьскаѧ землѧ, from the ethnonym Рѹ́сь; Greek: Ῥῶς; Arabic: الروس al-Rūs), in Greek as Ῥωσία, in Old French as Russie, Rossie, in Latin as Russia (with local German spelling variants Ruscia and Ruzzia), and from the 12th century also Ruthenia.[2] Various etymologies have been proposed, including Ruotsi, the Finnish designation for Sweden, and Ros, a tribe from the middle Dnieper valley region.[12]

text: The term Kievan Rus' (Ки́евская Русь Kievskaya Rus’) was coined in the 19th century in Russian historiography to refer to the period when the centre was in Kiev.[13] In English, the term was introduced in the early 20th century, when it was found in the 1913 English translation of Vasily Klyuchevsky's A History of Russia,[14] to distinguish the early polity from successor states, which were also named Rus. Later, the Russian term was rendered into Belarusian and Ukrainian as Кіеўская Русь (Kijeŭskaja Rus’) and Ки́ївська Русь (Kyivs'ka Rus’), respectively.

text: History[edit]

text: Origin[edit]

text: Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century AD, the lands between the Baltic Sea and Black Sea were primarily populated by eastern Slavic tribes.[15] In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs[16] and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the West Dvina, Dnieper, and Volga Rivers. To their north, in the Ladoga and Karelia regions, were the Finnic Chud tribe. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, a group of Slavicized tribes with Iranian origins,[17] the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. To their north and east were the Vyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way to steppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen.

text: Controversy persists over whether the Rus' were Varangians (Vikings) or Slavs. This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources. Attempts to address this question instead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observers, and legends and literature from centuries later.[18] To some extent the controversy is related to the foundation myths of modern states in the region.[19] According to the "Normanist" view, the Rus' were Scandinavians, while Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians generally argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs.[20][21][22] Normanist theories focus on the earliest written source for the East Slavs, the Primary Chronicle,[23] although even this account was not produced until the 12th century.[24] Nationalist accounts have suggested that the Rus' were present before the arrival of the Varangians,[25] noting that only a handful of Scandinavian words can be found in modern Russian and that Scandinavian names in the early chronicles were soon replaced by Slavic names.[26] Nevertheless, archaeological evidence from the area suggests that a Scandinavian population was present during the 10th century at the latest.[27] On balance, it seems likely that the Rus' proper were a small minority of Scandinavians who formed an elite ruling class, while the great majority of their subjects were Slavs.[26] Considering the linguistic arguments mounted by nationalist scholars, if the proto-Rus' were Scandinavians, they must have quickly become nativized, adopting Slavic languages and other cultural practices.

text: Ahmad ibn Fadlan, an Arab traveler during the 10th century, provided one of the earliest written descriptions of the Rus': "They are as tall as a date palm, blond and ruddy, so that they do not need to wear a tunic nor a cloak; rather the men among them wear garments that only cover half of his body and leaves one of his hands free."[28] Liutprand of Cremona, who was twice an envoy to the Byzantine court (949 and 968), identifies the "Russi" with the Norse ("the Russi, whom we call Norsemen by another name")[29] but explains the name as a Greek term referring to their physical traits ("A certain people made up of a part of the Norse, whom the Greeks call [...] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Norsemen because of the location of their origin.").[30] Leo the Deacon, a 10th-century Byzantine historian and chronicler, refers to the Rus' as "Scythians" and notes that they tended to adopt Greek rituals and customs.[31]

text: Invitation of the Varangians[edit]

text: According to the Primary Chronicle, the territories of the East Slavs in the 9th century were divided between the Varangians and the Khazars.[32] The Varangians are first mentioned imposing tribute from Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859.[33] In 862, the Finnic and Slavic tribes in the area of Novgorod rebelled against the Varangians, driving them "back beyond the sea and, refusing them further tribute, set out to govern themselves." The tribes had no laws, however, and soon began to make war with one another, prompting them to invite the Varangians back to rule them and bring peace to the region:

text: They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to the Law." They accordingly went overseas to the Varangian Rus'. … The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then said to the Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us". They thus selected three brothers with their kinfolk, who took with them all the Rus' and migrated.

text: The three brothers—Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor—established themselves in Novgorod, Beloozero, and Izborsk, respectively.[35] Two of the brothers died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the territory and progenitor of the Rurik Dynasty.[36] A short time later, two of Rurik’s men, Askold and Dir, asked him for permission to go to Tsargrad (Constantinople). On their way south, they discovered "a small city on a hill," Kiev, captured it and the surrounding country from the Khazars, populated the region with more Varangians, and "established their dominion over the country of the Polyanians."[37][38]

text: The Chronicle reports that Askold and Dir continued to Constantinople with a navy to attack the city in 863–66, catching the Byzantines by surprise and ravaging the surrounding area,[38] though other accounts date the attack in 860.[39] Patriarch Photius vividly describes the "universal" devastation of the suburbs and nearby islands,[40] and another account further details the destruction and slaughter of the invasion.[41] The Rus' turned back before attacking the city itself, due either to a storm dispersing their boats, the return of the Emperor, or in a later account, due to a miracle after a ceremonial appeal by the Patriarch and the Emperor to the Virgin.[42] The attack was the first encounter between the Rus' and Byzantines and led the Patriarch to send missionaries north to engage and attempt to convert the Rus' and the Slavs.[43][44]

text: Foundation of the Kievan state[edit]

text: Rurik led the Rus' until his death in about 879, bequeathing his kingdom to his kinsman, Prince Oleg, as regent for his young son, Igor.[38][45] In 880-82, Oleg led a military force south along the Dnieper river, capturing Smolensk and Lyubech before reaching Kiev, where he deposed and killed Askold and Dir, proclaimed himself prince, and declared Kiev the "mother of Rus' cities."[46][47] Oleg set about consolidating his power over the surrounding region and the riverways north to Novgorod, imposing tribute on the East Slav tribes.[37][48] In 883, he conquered the Drevlians, imposing a fur tribute on them. By 885 he had subjugated the Poliane, Severiane, Vyatichi, and Radimichs, forbidding them to pay further tribute to the Khazars. Oleg continued to develop and expand a network of Rus' forts in Slav lands, begun by Rurik in the north.[49]

text: The new Kievan state prospered due to its abundant supply of furs, beeswax, honey, and slaves for export,[50] and because it controlled three main trade routes of Eastern Europe. In the north, Novgorod served as a commercial link between the Baltic Sea and the Volga trade route to the lands of the Volga Bulgars, the Khazars, and across the Caspian Sea as far as Baghdad, providing access to markets and products from Central Asia and the Middle East.[51][52] Trade from the Baltic also moved south on a network of rivers and short portages along the Dnieper known as the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks," continuing to the Black Sea and on to Constantinople. Kiev was a central outpost along the Dnieper route and a hub with the east-west overland trade route between the Khazars and the Germanic lands of Central Europe.[53] These commercial connections enriched Rus' merchants and princes, funding military forces and the construction of churches, palaces, fortifications, and further towns.[52] Demand for luxury goods fostered production of expensive jewelry and religious wares, allowing their export, and an advanced credit and money-lending system may have also been in place.[50]

text: Early foreign relations[edit]

text: Volatile steppe politics[edit]

text: The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with the Khazars and other neighbors on the Pontic steppe.[54][55][56] The Khazars dominated the Black Sea steppe during the 8th century,[57] trading and frequently allying with the Byzantine Empire against Persians and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of the Göktürk Khaganate led the Magyars and the Pechenegs, Ugric and Turkic peoples from Central Asia, to migrate west into the steppe region,[58] leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and instability within the Khazar Khaganate.[59] The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of the trade routes.[60]

text: The Byzantine Empire was able to take advantage of the turmoil to expand its political influence and commercial relationships, first with the Khazars and later with the Rus' and other steppe groups.[54] The Byzantines established the Theme of Cherson, formally known as Klimata, in the Crimea in the 830s to defend against raids by the Rus' and to protect vital grain shipments supplying Constantinople.[61] Cherson also served as a key diplomatic link with the Khazars and others on the steppe, and it became the centre of Black Sea commerce.[62] The Byzantines also helped the Khazars build a fortress at Sarkel on the Don river to protect their northwest frontier against incursions by the Turkic migrants and the Rus', and to control caravan trade routes and the portage between the Don and Volga rivers.[63]

text: The expansion of the Rus' put further military and economic pressure on the Khazars, depriving them of territory, tributaries, and trade.[64] In around 890, Oleg waged an indecisive war in the lands of the lower Dniester and Dnieper rivers with the Tivertsi and the Ulichs, who were likely acting as vassals of the Magyars, blocking Rus' access to the Black Sea.[65][66] In 894, the Magyars and Pechenegs were drawn into the wars between the Byzantines and the Bulgarian Empire. The Byzantines arranged for the Magyars to attack Bulgarian territory from the north, and Bulgaria in turn persuaded the Pechenegs to attack the Magyars from their rear. Boxed in, the Magyars were forced to migrate further west across the Carpathian Mountains into the Hungarian plain, depriving the Khazars of an important ally and a buffer from the Rus'.[67][68] The migration of the Magyars allowed Rus' access to the Black Sea,[69] and they soon launched excursions into Khazar territory along the sea coast, up the Don river, and into the lower Volga region. The Rus' were raiding and plundering into the Caspian Sea region from 864,[70] with the first large-scale expedition in 913, when they extensively raided Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and penetrated into the Caucasus.[71][72][73]

text: As the 10th century progressed, the Khazars were no longer able to command tribute from the Volga Bulgars, and their relationship with the Byzantines deteriorated, as Byzantium increasingly allied with the Pechenegs against them.[74] The Pechenegs were thus secure to raid the lands of the Khazars from their base between the Volga and Don rivers, allowing them to expand to the west.[55] Rus' relations with the Pechenegs were complex, as the groups alternately formed alliances with and against one another. The Pechenegs were nomads roaming the steppe raising livestock which they traded with the Rus' for agricultural goods and other products.[75] The lucrative Rus' trade with the Byzantine Empire had to pass through Pecheneg-controlled territory, so the need for generally peaceful relations was essential. Nevertheless, while the Primary Chronicle reports the Pechenegs entering Rus' territory in 915 and then making peace, they were waging war with one another again in 920.[76][77] Pechenegs are reported assisting the Rus' in later campaigns against the Byzantines, yet allied with the Byzantines against the Rus' at other times.[78]

text: Rus'–Byzantine relations[edit]

text: After the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 860, the Byzantine Patriarch Photius sent missionaries north to convert the Rus' and the Slavs. Prince Rastislav of Moravia had requested the Emperor to provide teachers to interpret the holy scriptures, so in 863 the brothers Cyril and Methodius were sent as missionaries, due to their knowledge of the Slavonic language.[44][79][80] The Slavs had no written language, so the brothers devised the Glagolitic alphabet, later developed into Cyrillic, and standardized the language of the Slavs, later known as Old Church Slavonic. They translated portions of the Bible and drafted the first Slavic civil code and other documents, and the language and texts spread throughout Slavic territories, including Kievan Rus'. The mission of Cyril and Methodius served both evangelical and diplomatic purposes, spreading Byzantine cultural influence in support of imperial foreign policy.[81] In 867 the Patriarch announced that the Rus' had accepted a bishop, and in 874 he speaks of an "Archbishop of the Rus'."[43]

text: Relations between the Rus' and Byzantines became more complex after Oleg took control over Kiev, reflecting commercial, cultural, and military concerns.[82] The wealth and income of the Rus' depended heavily upon trade with Byzantium. Constantine Porphyrogenitus described the annual course of the princes of Kiev, collecting tribute from client tribes, assembling the product into a flotilla of hundreds of boats, conducting them down the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and sailing to the estuary of the Dniester, the Danube delta, and on to Constantinople.[75][83] On their return trip they would carry silk fabrics, spices, wine, and fruit. The importance of this trade relationship led to military action when disputes arose. The Primary Chronicle reports that the Rus' attacked Constantinople again in 907, probably to secure trade access. The Chronicle glorifies the military prowess and shrewdness of Oleg, an account imbued with legendary detail.[43][84] Byzantine sources do not mention the attack, but a pair of treaties in 907 and 911 set forth a trade agreement with the Rus',[76][85] the terms suggesting pressure on the Byzantines, who granted the Rus' quarters and supplies for their merchants and tax-free trading privileges in Constantinople.[43][86]

text: The Chronicle provides a mythic tale of Oleg's death. A sorcerer prophesies that the death of the Grand Prince would be associated with a certain horse. Oleg has the horse sequestered, and it later dies. Oleg goes to visit the horse and stands over the carcass, gloating that he had outlived the threat, when a snake strikes him from among the bones, and he soon becomes ill and dies.[87][88] The Chronicle reports that Prince Igor succeeded Oleg in 913, and after some brief conflicts with the Drevlians and the Pechenegs, a period of peace ensued for over twenty years.

text: In 941, Igor led another major Rus' attack on Constantinople, probably over trading rights again.[43][89] A navy of 10,000 vessels, including Pecheneg allies, landed on the Bithynian coast and devastated the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus.[90] The attack was well-timed, perhaps due to intelligence, as the Byzantine fleet was occupied with the Arabs in the Mediterranean, and the bulk of its army was stationed in the east. The Rus' burned towns, churches, and monasteries, butchering the people and amassing booty. The emperor arranged for a small group of retired ships to be outfitted with Greek fire throwers and sent them out to meet the Rus', luring them into surrounding the contingent before unleashing the Greek fire.[91] Liutprand of Cremona wrote that "the Rus', seeing the flames, jumped overboard, preferring water to fire. Some sank, weighed down by the weight of their breastplates and helmets; others caught fire." Those captured were beheaded. The ploy dispelled the Rus' fleet, but their attacks continued into the hinterland as far as Nicomedia, with many atrocities reported as victims were crucified and set up for use as targets. At last a Byzantine army arrived from the Balkans to drive the Rus' back, and a naval contingent reportedly destroyed much of the Rus' fleet on its return voyage (possibly an exaggeration since the Rus' soon mounted another attack). The outcome indicates increased military might by Byzantium since 911, suggesting a shift in the balance of power.[90]

text: Igor returned to Kiev keen for revenge. He assembled a large force of warriors from among neighboring Slavs and Pecheneg allies, and sent for reinforcements of Varangians from “beyond the sea.”[91][92] In 944 the Rus' force advanced again on the Greeks, by land and sea, and a Byzantine force from Cherson responded. The Emperor sent gifts and offered tribute in lieu of war, and the Rus' accepted. Envoys were sent between the Rus', the Byzantines, and the Bulgarians in 945, and a peace treaty was completed. The agreement again focused on trade, but this time with terms less favorable to the Rus', including stringent regulations on the conduct of Rus' merchants in Cherson and Constantinople and specific punishments for violations of the law.[93] The Byzantines may have been motivated to enter the treaty out of concern of a prolonged alliance of the Rus', Pechenegs, and Bulgarians against them,[94] though the more favorable terms further suggest a shift in power.[90]

text: Sviatoslav[edit]

text: Following the death of Grand Prince Igor in 945, his wife Olga ruled as regent in Kiev until their son Sviatoslav reached maturity (ca. 963).[95] His decade-long reign over Rus' was marked by rapid expansion through the conquest of the Khazars of the Pontic steppe and the invasion of the Balkans. By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital from Kiev to Pereyaslavets on the Danube in 969. In contrast with his mother's conversion to Christianity, Sviatoslav, like his druzhina, remained a staunch pagan. Due to his abrupt death in an ambush in 972, Sviatoslav's conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his sons, which resulted in two of his three sons being killed.

text: Reign of Vladimir and Christianisation[edit]

text: It is not clearly documented when the title of the Grand Duke was first introduced, but the importance of the Kiev principality was recognized after the death of Sviatoslav I in 972 and the ensuing struggle between Vladimir the Great and Yaropolk I. The region of Kiev dominated the state of Kievan Rus' for the next two centuries. The Grand Prince ("velikiy kniaz'") of Kiev controlled the lands around the city, and his formally subordinate relatives ruled the other cities and paid him tribute. The zenith of the state's power came during the reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and Prince Yaroslav I the Wise (1019–1054). Both rulers continued the steady expansion of Kievan Rus' that had begun under Oleg.

text: Vladimir had been prince of Novgorod when his father Sviatoslav I died in 972. He was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his half-brother Yaropolk had murdered his other brother Oleg and taken control of Rus. In Scandinavia, with the help of his relative Earl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, Vladimir assembled a Viking army and reconquered Novgorod and Kiev from Yaropolk.[96] As Prince of Kiev, Vladimir's most notable achievement was the Christianization of Kievan Rus', a process that began in 988. The Primary Chronicle states that when Vladimir had decided to accept a new faith instead of the traditional idol-worship (paganism) of the Slavs, he sent out some of his most valued advisors and warriors as emissaries to different parts of Europe. They visited the Christians of the Latin Rite, the Jews, and the Muslims before finally arriving in Constantinople. They rejected Islam because, among other things, it prohibited the consumption of alcohol, and Judaism because the god of the Jews had permitted his chosen people to be deprived of their country. They found the ceremonies in the Roman church to be dull. But at Constantinople, they were so astounded by the beauty of the cathedral of Hagia Sophia and the liturgical service held there that they made up their minds there and then about the faith they would like to follow. Upon their arrival home, they convinced Vladimir that the faith of the Byzantine Rite was the best choice of all, upon which Vladimir made a journey to Constantinople and arranged to marry Princess Anna, the sister of Byzantine emperor Basil II.[97]

text: Vladimir's choice of Eastern Christianity may also have reflected his close personal ties with Constantinople, which dominated the Black Sea and hence trade on Kiev's most vital commercial route, the Dnieper River. Adherence to the Eastern Church had long-range political, cultural, and religious consequences. The church had a liturgy written in Cyrillic and a corpus of translations from Greek that had been produced for the Slavic peoples. This literature facilitated the conversion to Christianity of the Eastern Slavs and introduced them to rudimentary Greek philosophy, science, and historiography without the necessity of learning Greek (there were some merchants who did business with Greeks and likely had an understanding of contemporary business Greek).[98] In contrast, educated people in medieval Western and Central Europe learned Latin. Enjoying independence from the Roman authority and free from tenets of Latin learning, the East Slavs developed their own literature and fine arts, quite distinct from those of other Eastern Orthodox countries.[citation needed] (See Old East Slavic language and Architecture of Kievan Rus for details). Following the Great Schism of 1054, the Rus' church maintained communion with both Rome and Constantinople for some time, but along with most of the Eastern churches it eventually split to follow the Eastern Orthodox. That being said, unlike other parts of the Greek world, Kievan Rus' did not have a strong hostility to the Western world.[99]

text: Golden age[edit]

text: Yaroslav, known as "the Wise", struggled for power with his brothers. A son of Vladimir the Great, he was vice-regent of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015. Subsequently, his eldest surviving brother, Svyatopolk the Accursed, killed three of his other brothers and seized power in Kiev. Yaroslav, with the active support of the Novgorodians and the help of Viking mercenaries, defeated Svyatopolk and became the grand prince of Kiev in 1019.[100] Although he first established his rule over Kiev in 1019, he did not have uncontested rule of all of Kievan Rus' until 1036. Like Vladimir, Yaroslav was eager to improve relations with the rest of Europe, especially the Byzantine Empire. Yaroslav's granddaughter, Eupraxia the daughter of his son Vsevolod I, Prince of Kiev, was married to Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Yaroslav also arranged marriages for his sister and three daughters to the kings of Poland, France, Hungary and Norway. Yaroslav promulgated the first East Slavic law code, Russkaya Pravda; built Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod; patronized local clergy and monasticism; and is said to have founded a school system. Yaroslav's sons developed the great Kiev Pechersk Lavra (monastery), which functioned in Kievan Rus' as an ecclesiastical academy.

text: In the centuries that followed the state's foundation, Rurik's descendants shared power over Kievan Rus'. Princely succession moved from elder to younger brother and from uncle to nephew, as well as from father to son. Junior members of the dynasty usually began their official careers as rulers of a minor district, progressed to more lucrative principalities, and then competed for the coveted throne of Kiev.

text: Fragmentation and decline[edit]

text: The gradual disintegration of the Kievan Rus' began in the 11th century, after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. The position of the Grand Prince of Kiev was weakened by the growing influence of regional clans.

text: An unconventional power succession system was established (rota system) whereby power was transferred to the eldest member of the ruling dynasty rather than from father to son, i.e. in most cases to the eldest brother of the ruler, fomenting constant hatred and rivalry within the royal family.[citation needed] Familicide was frequently deployed to obtain power and can be traced particularly during the time of the Yaroslavichi (sons of Yaroslav), when the established system was skipped in the establishment of Vladimir II Monomakh as the Grand Prince of Kiev,[clarification needed] in turn creating major squabbles between Olegovichi from Chernihiv, Monomakhs from Pereyaslav, Izyaslavichi from Turov/Volhynia, and Polotsk Princes.[citation needed]

text: The most prominent struggle for power was the conflict that erupted after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. The rivaling Principality of Polotsk was contesting the power of the Grand Prince by occupying Novgorod, while Rostislav Vladimirovich was fighting for the Black Sea port of Tmutarakan belonging to Chernihiv.[citation needed] Three of Yaroslav's sons that first allied together found themselves fighting each other especially after their defeat to the Cuman forces in 1068 at the Battle of the Alta River. At the same time, an uprising took place in Kiev, bringing to power Vseslav of Polotsk who supported the traditional Slavic paganism.[citation needed] The ruling Grand Prince Iziaslav fled to Poland asking for support and in couple of years returned to establish the order.[citation needed] The affairs became even more complicated by the end of the 11th century driving the state into chaos and constant warfare. On the initiative of Vladimir II Monomakh in 1097 the first federal council of Kievan Rus took place near Chernihiv in the city of Liubech with the main intention to find an understanding among the fighting sides. However, even though that did not really stop the fighting, it certainly cooled things off.[citation needed]

text: By 1130, all descendants of Vseslav the Seer had been exiled to the Byzantine Empire by Mstislav the Great. The most fierce resistance to Monomakhs posed Olegovichi when the izgoi Vsevolod II managed to become the Grand Prince of Kiev. Rostislavichi who have initially established in Halych lands by 1189 were defeated by the Monomakh-Piast descendant Roman the Great.[citation needed]

text: The decline of Constantinople – a main trading partner of Kievan Rus' – played a significant role in the decline of the Kievan Rus'. The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, along which the goods were moving from the Black Sea (mainly Byzantine) through eastern Europe to the Baltic, was a cornerstone of Kiev wealth and prosperity. Kiev was the main power and initiator in this relationship, once the Byzantine Empire fell into turmoil and the supplies became erratic, profits dried out, and Kiev lost its appeal.[citation needed]

text: The last ruler to maintain a united state was Mstislav the Great. After his death in 1132, the Kievan Rus' fell into recession and a rapid decline, and Mstislav's successor Yaropolk II of Kiev instead of focusing on the external threat of the Cumans was embroiled in conflicts with the growing power of the Novgorod Republic. In 1169, as the Kievan Rus' state was full of internal conflict, Andrei Bogolyubsky of Vladimir sacked the city of Kiev. The sack of the city fundamentally changed the perception of Kiev and was evidence of the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus'.[101] By the end of the 12th century, the Kievan state became even further fragmented and had been divided into roughly twelve different principalities.[102]

text: The Crusades brought a shift in European trade routes that accelerated the decline of Kievan Rus'. In 1204, the forces of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople, making the Dnieper trade route marginal.[11] At the same time, the Teutonic Knights (of the Northern Crusades) were conquering the Baltic region and threatening the Lands of Novgorod. Concurrently with it, the Ruthenian Federation of Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate into smaller principalities as the Rurik dynasty grew. The local Orthodox Christianity of Kievan Rus', while struggling to establish itself in the predominantly pagan state and losing its main base in Constantinople, was on the brink of extinction. Some of the main regional centres that developed later were Novgorod, Chernigov, Halych, Kiev, Ryazan, Vladimir-upon-Klyazma, Volodimer-Volyn and Polotsk.

text: Novgorod Republic[edit]

text: In the north, the Republic of Novgorod prospered because it controlled trade routes from the River Volga to the Baltic Sea. As Kievan Rus' declined, Novgorod became more independent. A local oligarchy ruled Novgorod; major government decisions were made by a town assembly, which also elected a prince as the city's military leader. In 1136, Novgorod revolted against Kiev, and became independent.[103] Now an independent city republic, and referred to as "Lord Novgorod the Great" it would spread its "mercantile interest" to the west and the north; to the Baltic Sea and the low-populated forest regions respectively.[103] In 1169, Novgorod acquired its own archbishop, named Ilya, a sign of further increased importance and political independence. Novgorod enjoyed a wide degree of autonomy although being closely associated with the Kievan Rus.

text: Northeast[edit]

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text: In the northeast, Slavs from the Kievan region colonized the territory that later would become the Grand Duchy of Moscow by subjugating and merging with the Finnic tribes already occupying the area. The city of Rostov, the oldest centre of the northeast, was supplanted first by Suzdal and then by the city of Vladimir, which become the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal'. The combined principality of Vladimir-Suzdal asserted itself as a major power in Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century. In 1169, Prince Andrey Bogolyubskiy of Vladimir-Suzdal sacked the city of Kiev and took over the title of the (Великий Князь/Velikiy Knyaz/Grand Prince or Grand Duke) to claim primacy in Rus'. Prince Andrey then installed his younger brother, who ruled briefly in Kiev while Andrey continued to rule his realm from Suzdal. In 1299, in the wake of the Mongol invasion, the metropolitan moved from Kiev to the city of Vladimir and Vladimir-Suzdal.

text: Southwest[edit]

text: To the southwest, the principality of Halych had developed trade relations with its Polish, Hungarian and Lithuanian neighbours and emerged as the local successor to Kievan Rus'. In 1199, Prince Roman Mstislavych united the two previously separate principalities. In 1202 he conquered Kiev, and assumed the title of Knyaz of Kievan Rus', which was held by the rulers of Vladimir-Suzdal since 1169. His son, Prince Daniel (r. 1238–1264) looked for support from the West. He accepted a crown as a "Rex Rusiae" ("King of Rus") from the Roman papacy, apparently doing so without breaking with Constantinople. In 1370, the patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople granted the King of Poland a metropolitan for his Ruthenian subjects. Lithuanian rulers also requested and received a metropolitan for Novagrudok shortly afterwards. Cyprian, a candidate pushed by the Lithuanian rulers, became Metropolitan of Kiev in 1375 and metropolitan of Moscow in 1382; this way the church in the Russian countries was reunited for some time. In 1439, Kiev became the seat of a separate "Metropolitan of Kiev, Halych and all Rus'" for all Greek Orthodox Christians under Polish-Lithuanian rule.

text: However, a long and unsuccessful struggle against the Mongols combined with internal opposition to the prince and foreign intervention weakened Galicia-Volhynia. With the end of the Mstislavich branch of the Rurikids in the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia ceased to exist; Poland conquered Halych; Lithuania took Volhynia, including Kiev, conquered by Gediminas in 1321 ending the rule of Rurikids in the city. Lithuanian rulers then assumed the title over Ruthenia.

text: Final disintegration[edit]

text: The state finally disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of Rus', fragmenting it into successor principalities who paid tribute to the Golden Horde (the so-called Tatar Yoke). In the late 15th century, the Muscovite Grand Dukes began taking over former Kievan territories and proclaimed themselves the sole legal successors of the Kievan principality according to the protocols of the medieval theory of translatio imperii.

text: On the western periphery, Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. Later, as these territories, now part of modern central Ukraine and Belarus, fell to the Gediminids, the powerful, largely Ruthenized Grand Duchy of Lithuania drew heavily on Rus' cultural and legal traditions. Due to the fact of the economic and cultural core of Rus' being located on the territory of modern Ukraine, Ukrainian historians and scholars consider Kievan Rus' to be a founding Ukrainian state.[6]

text: On the north-eastern periphery of Kievan Rus', traditions were adapted in the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality that gradually gravitated towards Moscow. To the very north, the Novgorod and Pskov Feudal Republics were less autocratic than Vladimir- Suzdal- Moscow until they were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Russian historians consider Kievan Rus "the first period of Russian history".

text: Economy[edit]

text: During the Kievan era, trade and transport depended largely on networks of rivers and portages.[104] The peoples of Rus' experienced a period of great economic expansion, opening trade routes with the Vikings to the north and west and with the Byzantine Greeks to the south and west; traders also began to travel south and east, eventually making contact with Persia and the peoples of Central Asia.

text: Society[edit]

text: Due to the expansion of trade and its geographical proximity, Kiev became the most important trade centre and chief among the communes; therefore the leader of Kiev gained political "control" over the surrounding areas. This princedom emerged from a coalition of traditional patriarchic family communes banded together in an effort to increase the applicable workforce and expand the productivity of the land. This union developed the first major cities in the Rus' and was the first notable form of self-government. As these communes became larger, the emphasis was taken off the family holdings and placed on the territory that surrounded. This shift in ideology became known as the verv'.

text: In the 11th and the 12th centuries, the princes and their retinues, which were a mixture of Slavic and Scandinavian elites, dominated the society of Kievan Rus'. Leading soldiers and officials received income and land from the princes in return for their political and military services. Kievan society lacked the class institutions and autonomous towns that were typical of Western European feudalism. Nevertheless, urban merchants, artisans and labourers sometimes exercised political influence through a city assembly, the veche (council), which included all the adult males in the population. In some cases, the veche either made agreements with their rulers or expelled them and invited others to take their place. At the bottom of society was a stratum of slaves. More important was a class of tribute-paying peasants, who owed labour duty to the princes. The widespread personal serfdom characteristic of Western Europe did not exist in Kievan Rus'.

text: The change in political structure led to the inevitable development of the peasant class or smerdy. The smerdy were free un-landed people that found work by labouring for wages on the manors that began to develop around 1031 as the verv' began to dominate socio-political structure. The smerdy were initially given equality in the Kievian law code, they were theoretically equal to the prince, so they enjoyed as much freedom as can be expected of manual labourers. However, in the 13th century, they slowly began to lose their rights and became less equal in the eyes of the law.

text: See also: Old Russian Law, main source: Russkaya Pravda.

text: Historical assessment[edit]

text: Kievan Rus', although sparsely populated compared to Western Europe,[105] was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced.[106] Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high.[107][108] As birch bark documents attest, they exchanged love letters and prepared cheat sheets for schools. Novgorod had a sewage system[109] and wood paving not often found in other cities at the time. The Russkaya Pravda confined punishments to fines and generally did not use capital punishment.[110] Certain rights were accorded to women, such as property and inheritance rights.[111][112][113]

text: The economic development of Kievan Rus may be translated into demographic statistics. Around 1200, Kiev had a population of 50,000, Novgorod and Chernigov both had around 30,000.[114] Constantinople had population of about 400,000 around 1180.[115] The Soviet scholar Mikhail Tikhomirov calculated that Kievan Rus' on the eve of the Mongol invasion had around 300 urban centres.[116]

text: Kievan Rus' also played an important genealogical role in European politics. Yaroslav the Wise, whose stepmother belonged to the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled the Byzantine empire from 867 to 1056, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. His daughters became queens of Hungary, France and Norway, his sons married the daughters of a Polish king and a Byzantine emperor (not to mention a niece of the Pope), while his granddaughters were a German Empress and (according to one theory) the queen of Scotland. A grandson married the only daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Thus the Rurikids were a well-connected royal family of the time.[117][118]

text: Foreign relations[edit]

text: Turco-Mongols[edit]

text: From the 9th century, the Pecheneg nomads began an uneasy relationship with Kievan Rus′. For over two centuries they launched sporadic raids into the lands of Rus′, which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars (such as the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev reported in the Primary Chronicle), but there were also temporary military alliances (e.g. the 943 Byzantine campaign by Igor).[119] In 968, the Pechenegs attacked and besieged the city of Kiev.[120] Some speculation exists that the Pechenegs drove off the Tivertsi and the Ulichs to the regions of the upper Dniester river in Bukovina. The Byzantine Empire was known to support the Pechenegs in their military campaigns against the Eastern Slavic states.[citation needed]

text: Boniak was a Cuman khan who led a series of invasions on Kievan Rus′. In 1096, Boniak attacked Kiev, plundered the Kiev Monastery of the Caves, and burned down the prince's palace in Berestovo. He was defeated in 1107 by Vladimir Monomakh, Oleg, Sviatopolk and other Rus′ princes.[121]

text: The Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, destroying numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir and Kiev. Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:

text: "They [the Mongols] attacked Rus, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Rus; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery"[122]

text: Byzantine Empire[edit]

text: Byzantium quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev, but relations were not always friendly. The most serious conflict between the two powers was the war of 968–971 in Bulgaria, but several Rus' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded. Although most were repulsed, they were concluded by trade treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus'.

text: Rus'-Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of the porphyrogenita Anna to Vladimir the Great, and the subsequent Christianization of the Rus': Byzantine priests, architects and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus', expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further. Numerous Rus' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries, most notably as the famous Varangian Guard.

text: Military campaigns[edit]

text:
Caspian expeditions of the Rus' (864 - 1041)
Rus'–Byzantine Wars (830 - 1043)
1018 Polish intervention

text: Administrative divisions[edit]

text:
Novgorod Land 862–1478 the allied territory of Kievan Rus'; from 1136 the Novgorod Republic
Principality of Rostov-Suzdal Rostov Principality until 1125; became Vladimir-Suzdal Principality in 1155
Principality of Polotsk 9th century-14th century (separatist territory, partial suzerainty under Kievan Rus')
Principality of Minsk
Principality of Smolensk from 1054
Principality of Pereyaslavl
Principality of Volhynia
Principality of Kiev from 1132–1399
Principality of Galicia
Principality of Turov and Pinsk
Principality of Chernigov
Murom-Ryazan Principality until 1078
Principality of Novgorod-Seversk
City of Tmutarakan from 988 until some time in the 12th century
Belaya Vezha from 965 until some time in the 12th century
Southern dependencies Oleshky, New Galich, Peresechen'
Drevlian territories annexed to Rus' by Oleg ?-884; 912–946 (vassal of Rus' from 914, Drevlians Uprising in 945)

text: Principal cities[edit]

text:
Belgorod Kievsky, capital of Rus' under Rurik Rostislavich
Chernihiv, capital along with Kiev from 1024–1036 (joint rule between Yaroslav and Mstislav)
Halych
Kiev
Minsk, centre of Principality of Minsk
Murom
Pereyaslavets, capital of Rus' from 969–971 (in current day Romania)
Polotsk
Rostov Veliky
Ryazan
Smolensk
Staraya Ladoga
Suzdal
Tmutarakan
Veliky Novgorod
Vladimir
Vyshgorod, princes' residence and royal library (at Mezhyhirya)

text: Religion[edit]

text: In 988, the Christian Church in Rus' territorially fell under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople after it was officially adopted as the state religion. According to several chronicles after that date the predominant cult of Slavic paganism was persecuted.

text: The exact date of creation of the Kiev Metropolis is uncertain, as well as who was the first leader of the church. Predominantly it is considered that the first head was Michael I of Kiev, however some sources also claim Leontiy who is often placed after Michael or Anastas Chersonesos, became the first bishop of the Church of the Tithes. The first metropolitan to be confirmed by historical sources is Theopemp, who was appointed by Patriarch Alexius of Constantinople in 1038. Before 1015 there were five dioceses: Kiev, Chernihiv, Bilhorod, Volodymyr, Novgorod, and soon thereafter Yuriy-upon-Ros. The Kiev Metropolitan sent his own delegation to the Council of Bari in 1098.

text: After the sacking of Kiev in 1169, part of the Kiev metropolis started to move[citation needed] to Vladimir-upon-Klyazma, concluding the move sometime after 1240 when Kiev was taken by Batu Khan. Metropolitan Maxim was the first metropolitan who chose Vladimir-upon-Klyazma as his official residence in 1299. As a result, in 1303, Lev I of Galicia petitioned Patriarch Athanasius I of Constantinople for the creation of a new Halych metropolis; however, it only existed until 1347.[citation needed]

text: The Church of the Tithes was chosen as the first Cathedral Temple. In 1037, the cathedral was transferred to the newly built Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Upon the transferring of the metropolitan seat in 1299, the Dormition Cathedral, Vladimir was chosen as the new cathedral.

text: By the mid 13th century, the dioceses of Kiev Metropolis (988) were as follows: Kiev (988), Pereyaslav, Chernihiv (991), Volodymyr-Volynsky (992), Turov (1005), Polotsk (1104), Novgorod (~990s), Smolensk (1137), Murom (1198), Peremyshl (1120), Halych (1134), Vladimir-upon-Klyazma (1215), Rostov (991), Bilhorod, Yuriy (1032), Chełm (1235), Tver (1271). There also were dioceses in Zakarpattia and Tmutarakan. In 1261 the Sarai-Batu diocese was established.[citation needed]