document_title: Plenary power

question_text: who has the power to make immigration laws

text: Plenary power

text: United States[edit]

text: In United States constitutional law, plenary power is a power that has been granted to a body, or person, in absolute terms, with no review of, or limitations upon the exercise of that power. The assignment of a plenary power to one body divests all other bodies from the right to exercise that power, where not otherwise entitled. Plenary powers are not subject to judicial review in a particular instance or in general.

text: There are very few clear examples of such powers in the United States, due to the nature of the Constitution, which grants different, but at times overlapping, roles to the three branches of federal government and to the states. For example, although the United States Congress under Article I, Section 8, Clause 3, (the Commerce Clause) has been said to have "plenary" power over Interstate Commerce, this does not always preclude the states from passing laws that affect interstate commerce in some way. When an activity is legally classified as interstate commerce, historically the states can regulate this type of activity as long as they do so within the bounds of their Constitutional authority.[3] Congress does appear to have complete and absolute power regarding the declaration of war and peace in Article I Section 8 Clause 11. Yet, the President has control over the Armed Forces as Commander-in-Chief. These powers are in ongoing conflict, as seen by the War Powers Resolution of 1973.

text: Another example of the ongoing debate over plenary powers in the US Constitution is the controversy surrounding the Spending Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1). This clause states that the Congress is allowed to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence [sic] and general Welfare of the United States". How far this clause goes, and what it actually means in practice, has been hotly debated since the ratification of the Constitution.[4]

text: While other Constitutional doctrines, such as the unenumerated powers of states and the rights of individuals, are widely held (both historically and currently) as limiting the plenary power of Congress,[5] then-Associate Justice William Rehnquist reflected that "one of the greatest 'fictions' of our federal system is that the Congress exercises only those powers delegated to it, while the remainder are reserved to the States or to the people. The manner in which this Court has construed the Commerce Clause amply illustrates the extent of this fiction. Although it is clear that the people, through the States, delegated authority to Congress to "regulate Commerce. . . among the several States," (Commerce Clause), one could easily get the sense from this Court's opinions that the federal system exists only at the sufferance of Congress." (Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association, 1981).

text: These conflicts over the definition of who or what retains which plenary powers have wide-ranging consequences, as seen in the example of United States v. Kagama, where the Supreme Court found that Congress had complete authority over all Native American affairs.

text: Statutes[edit]

text: The Congress may create and charter, through the enactment of statutes, corporate bodies (Federal Corporations) which can be granted (through the Congresses’ plenary power to legislate) derivative (derived from the legislation, as opposed to the Constitution itself) plenary power(s) in areas that are defined by statute; and, which comport with the constitution.[citation needed] The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is such an entity. It was created by the Congress as a Federal Corporation. And by statute, the TVA is given plenary authority over the setting the rates (prices) it will charge customers for the electricity that it generates. The Congress effectively gave the TVA plenary power over its generated electricity rate (price) setting process; by statutorily making TVA's rate (price) settings exempt and immune from legal review, by any process whatsoever be it State, Federal or otherwise. Once the TVA Act itself was ruled constitutional, its rate setting process received its derivative plenary power.

text: There is a difference in reach of plenary powers. While in the TVA example the Congress may at any time amend or remove TVA's plenary power to set the rates for the electricity it sells; the President’s plenary power to pardon or commute those convicted under the laws of the United States, is beyond the reach of the processes of the Federal Government; and requires the amendment of the US Constitution, making it a truly plenary grant of power.

text: Presidential pardons[edit]

text: An example of a plenary power granted to an individual is the power to grant pardons for Federal crimes (not State crimes), which is bestowed upon the President of the United States under Article II, Section 2, of the US Constitution. The President is granted the power to: "...grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment."

text: That is, within the defined zone, (e.g., all offences against the United States, except Impeachment) the President may modify the punishment, up to the eradication of the fact of conviction and punishment, for offenses against the United States, entirely. And once done, the President’s exercise of this power may not be reviewed by any body or through any forum. Nor can this self-executing power (because it is self-executing), once exercised, by a President, be reversed, or "taken back", by either the granting President, or any of his/her successors.

text: Neither the power to grant pardon nor the power to construct the scope of a pardon (a commutation) is within the reach of any subsequent review or alteration. Furthermore, double jeopardy prohibits any subsequent prosecution for the offenses over which the pardon was granted. Even the President himself may not rescind a pardon that either he or a predecessor President has granted, once such pardon is executed (i.e., once the official instrument is signed by the President and sealed on behalf of the United States).

text: The President may also (as in the case of President Gerald Ford and the then former President Richard Nixon; as well as President George H.W. Bush and the former Secretary of Defense Caspar W. Weinberger); prospectively, proclaim a grant of pardon. That is the President may proclaim the pardon of an individual; a group; a corporation; or any entity, chargeable of offences, under Federal law; prospectively making the subject immune from Federal prosecution, for past, present, or future criminal acts.

text: Such a pardon does this by destroying the possibility of a prosecution having a purposeful meaning or result. The rules of judicial procedure make such a future prosecution, or the continuance of an ongoing prosecution, moot. And thereby, a motion for dismissal of an ongoing prosecution; or, of an initiated future prosecution, is granted by a Court, on the grounds that the prosecution would be of no purpose or effect; and that it would needlessly waste a Court’s time and the resources of an accused, who would only have the charges (for which a pardon had been proclaimed), dismissed anyway.

text: Immigration law[edit]

text: In regard to immigration law, Congress, under the Plenary Power Doctrine, has the power to make immigration policy subject to judicial oversight. The Executive Branch is charged with enforcing the immigration laws passed by Congress. The doctrine is based on the concept that immigration is a question of national sovereignty, relating to a nation’s right to define its own borders. Courts generally refrain from interfering in immigration matters.[6] Historically, the U.S. Supreme Court has taken a hands-off approach when asked to review the political branches' immigration decisions and policy-making. The Center for Immigration Studies, an organization with a slant toward isolationism, suggests there is a movement to "erode" political-branch control over immigration in favor of a judge-administered system and that the results have created national security concerns. [7] The U.S. Supreme Court case Zadvydas v. Davis is cited as an example of the U.S. Supreme Court not following plenary power precedent.[7][8]


document_title: Lying in state

question_text: who are the civilians that have laid in state at the capitol

root

text: Lying in state

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral, an honor generally reserved for former Governors General and former Prime Ministers. It is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour. During the period of lying in state, the coffins are flanked at each corner by a Guard of honour, made up of four members drawn from the Canadian Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as well as members of the Governor General's Foot Guards for former governors general, and guards from the parliamentary security forces for former prime ministers. Guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted (resting on Arms reversed) with their backs turned towards the casket.

tag: p

text: Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a distinguished former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known hockey player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000; his coffin lay in state at the Molson Centre.[2] This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens legend Jean Béliveau in December 2014.

text: Municipalities may offer civic funerals to prominent deceased current or former politicians.

text: North Korea[edit]

text: In North Korea, the body of the late leader Kim Jong-il was displayed in a glass coffin surrounded with red flowers at the Kumsusan Memorial Palace in Pyongyang prior to his funeral, which began and ended at the palace. An honor guard armed with AK-47s was present. Jong-il's father Kim Il-sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace.[3]

text: Russia[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In Russia, during the time of the Soviet Union (1917–1991), the state funerals of the most senior political and military leaders, such as Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko all followed the same basic outline. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a public lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions, and ending with an interment at Red Square.

text: For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, which would be decorated by flowers, numerous red flags and other communist symbols. The mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the left side of the Column Hall, a full orchestra in black tailcoats played classical music. The deceased's embalmed body, dressed in a black suit, white shirt and a tie, was displayed in an open coffin on a catafalque banked with carnations, red roses and tulips, facing the queue of mourners. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background. At the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leader's family.

text: On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, and Chernenko were interred in individual graves in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: At state funerals in Singapore, the national flag is put on the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the public lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the vigil guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased. Similar to British traditions, the vigil guard is composed of groups of five commissioned officers from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and Singapore Police Force (SPF) who stand guard around the clock in shifts of 30 minutes. One of the five officers stands facing outward at each of the four corners of the casket, while the fifth and most senior one stands in front and faces inward. Their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted.[4]

text: Vigil guards were stationed at the public lying in state of Goh Keng Swee in May 2010,[5] Lee Kuan Yew in March 2015 [6] as well as S R Nathan in August 2016. [7]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: Nelson Mandela was the first democratically elected president to lie in state in South Africa.[citation needed] The event took place at the Union Buildings, the same site where he was inaugurated as the President of South Africa on May 10, 1994. The body of Mandela was lying in State for three days, starting on Wednesday, December 11, 2013 and ending Friday, December 13. The body was viewed by thousands of South Africans before it was airlifted to Qunu in the Eastern Cape where Mandela was buried on December 15, 2013.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In state and ceremonial funerals in the United Kingdom, the lying-in-state takes place in Westminster Hall. The coffin is placed on a catafalque and is guarded, around the clock, by detachments, each of four men, from the following units:

text:
Sovereign's Bodyguard

Her Majesty's Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms
The Queen's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard
The Royal Company of Archers, The Queen's Bodyguard for Scotland

Household Cavalry

The Life Guards
The Blues and Royals (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons)

Foot Guards

Grenadier Guards
Coldstream Guards
Scots Guards
Irish Guards
Welsh Guards

tag: ul

text: Each unit mans the guard for a total of six hours, with each detachment standing post for twenty minutes. The four men stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted; their backs are turned towards the coffin.

text: On two occasions, the guard has been mounted by four male members of the Royal Family. At the lying in state of King George V in 1936, the guard was mounted by his four sons King Edward VIII, the Duke of York (George VI), the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of Kent. For Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother's lying-in-state in 2002, the guard was mounted by her four grandsons, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, the Earl of Wessex, and Viscount Linley.[8]

text: United States[edit]

text: Lying in state is the rare honor granted by the United States to a deceased official whereby his or her remains are placed in the rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., for public viewing. The casket is guarded by members of the armed forces. By regulation and custom, only Presidents, military commanders, and members of Congress are granted the honor of lying in state. Except for Presidents and former Presidents, the honor is not automatic. Not all those entitled to the honor have it accepted by their survivors. The first leader to receive this honor was Henry Clay, former Speaker of the House of Representatives, when he died in 1852. Since then, the honor has been extended to 29 people, including eleven Presidents.

text: The process of lying in state at the Capitol is as follows. The coffin or casket is usually placed on a catafalque, usually the Lincoln catafalque, so named as it was constructed for lying in state upon the death of Abraham Lincoln, after his assassination in 1865. The casket is guarded at each of its corners by a serviceperson from each of the branches of the armed forces. In contrast to the practice in the United Kingdom and other countries of the Commonwealth, guards at the Capitol face the casket, hold their rifles with their right hand, and keep the rifle butt resting on the floor. After the viewing and ceremony at the Capitol, the remains are taken to the burial location.

text: Lain in state[edit]

text:
1852 – Henry Clay, long-serving Senator and Representative, Secretary of State, Speaker of the House, and three-time presidential candidate
1865 – President Abraham Lincoln, assassinated in office
1868 – Thaddeus Stevens, Representative from Pennsylvania
1874 – Charles Sumner, Senator from Massachusetts
1875 – Vice President Henry Wilson, served under Grant, died in office
1881 – President James Garfield, assassinated in office
1886 – John A. Logan, Senator from Illinois
1901 – President William McKinley, assassinated while in office
1909 – Pierre L'Enfant – although he died in 1825, his remains were disinterred; he was honored by lying in state before reinterment at Arlington National Cemetery
1917 – Admiral George Dewey, Admiral of the Navy
1921 – The Unknown Soldier for World War I
1923 – President Warren Harding, died in office
1930 – President William Howard Taft, President 1909–13, also Chief Justice 1921–30
1948 – John J. Pershing, General of the Armies of the United States during World War I and after
1953 – Robert A. Taft, U.S. Senator and Majority Leader
1958 – The Unknown Soldiers for World War II and the Korean War
1963 – President John F. Kennedy, assassinated in office
1964 – General Douglas MacArthur, General of the Army
1964 – President Herbert Hoover, serving 1929–33
1969 – President Dwight Eisenhower, President 1953–1961, Supreme Allied Commander during World War II
1969 – Everett Dirksen, Illinois Senator, Senate Minority Leader 1959–1969
1972 – J. Edgar Hoover, FBI Director 1929–1972
1973 – President Lyndon B. Johnson, President 1963–1969
1978 – Hubert Humphrey, Vice President 1965–1969, Minnesota Senator
1984 – The Unknown Soldier for the Vietnam War (later identified as 1st. Lt. Michael J. Blassie)
1989 – Claude Pepper, long-serving Senator and Representative
2004 – President Ronald Reagan, President 1981–1989
2006–07 – President Gerald Ford, President 1974–1977
2012 – Daniel Inouye, President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate, Senator from Hawaii, and recipient of the Medal of Honor[9][10]

text: Lain in honor[edit]

text:
1998 – United States Capitol Police Officer Jacob Chestnut and Detective John Gibson, killed on duty
2005 – Rosa Parks, civil rights activist [11][12]
2018 – Billy Graham, Christian evangelist[13]

text: The United States Congress has created a similar—though not identical—privilege for distinguished Americans who do not qualify for a lying in state designation. In the process of "lying in honor," the honor guard in the Rotunda is provided by the Capitol Police or another suitable source. [14][15]

text: In 1998, Chestnut and Gibson were killed while defending the Capitol against Russell Eugene Weston Jr. Congress approved their remains to lie in honor in the Rotunda. Chestnut was the first African American to lie in honor. In 2005, upon the death of civil rights activist Rosa Parks, Congress authorized her remains to lie in honor at the Rotunda; Parks was the second African American and the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda.[11] Graham was the first religious leader to be honored in this way.[16]

text: Lain in repose[edit]

text: Supreme Court Justices "lie in repose" in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building.

text:
1974 – Chief Justice Earl Warren
1993 – Justice Thurgood Marshall
1995 – Chief Justice Warren E. Burger
1997 – Justice William J. Brennan, Jr.
1999 – Justice Harry A. Blackmun
2005 – Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist, the first so-honored to have died in office.
2016 – Justice Antonin Scalia

text: States and cities[edit]

text: Some U.S. states and cities extend similar honors. For example, in the state of Hawaii, three people have been laid in state at the Hawaii State Capitol, among which include famous Hawaiian singer Israel Kamakawiwoʻole upon his death in 1997, and the aforementioned Daniel Inouye, President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate and Senator from Hawaii.

text: In the City of San Francisco, California, Mayor Ed Lee laid in state at the Rotunda of San Francisco City Hall after his death in office in 2017.

text: Vatican City[edit]

text: A deceased pope customarily lies in state in the chapel of the Apostolic Palace and then in St. Peter's Basilica, between the holding of a Mass of Visitation and a Mass of Requiem.[citation needed] The funeral of Pope John Paul II was an example of this custom.

text: Coptic Patriarchate[edit]

text: The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria has a tradition of mummifying the deceased pope and placing his body on his throne to enable church followers to have a farewell look at him for a short period of time. This tradition is one of the ways that ancient Egyptian rituals have survived in the Egyptian church. [17]

text: Other notable funerals[edit]

text:
Death and funeral of Josip Broz Tito
Death and funeral of Corazon Aquino
Death and state funeral of Omar Bongo
Death and state funeral of Pierre Trudeau
Death and state funeral of Lech Kaczyński and Maria Kaczyńska


document_title: List of wars by death toll

question_text: what was the death toll in the civil war

text: List of wars by death toll

text: Pre-Modern

text: Ancient wars

text:
War

Deathrange

Geometricmean

Date

Combatants

Location

Notes

Conquests of Cyrus the Great

100,000+

100,000

549 BC– 530 BC

Persian empire vs. various states

Middle East

Number given is the sum of all deaths in battle recorded by writers during this time period, does not take into account civilian deaths, the actual number may be much greater.

Greco–Persian Wars

73,800+

73,800

499 BC–449 BC

Greece vs. Persian Empire

Greece

Samnite Wars

33,500+

33,500

343 BC–290 BC

Roman Republic vs. Samnites

Italy

Number given is the sum of all deaths in battle recorded by Roman writers during this time period, does not take into account civilian deaths, the actual number may be much greater.

Wars of Alexander the Great

142,000+

142,000

336 BC–323 BC

Macedonian Empire vs. Persian Empire

Middle East / North Africa / Central Asia / India

Number given is the sum of all deaths in battle during these wars recorded by Greek writers, does not take into account civilian deaths, the actual number may be much greater.

Punic Wars

1,250,000–1,850,000

1,520,691

264 BC–146 BC

Roman Republic vs. Carthaginian Empire

Western Europe / North Africa

First Punic War

185,000+

185,000

264 BC–241 BC

Roman Republic vs. Carthaginian Empire

Southern Europe / North Africa

– Part of the Punic Wars

Second Punic War

770,000+

770,000

218 BC–201 BC

Roman Republic vs. Carthaginian Empire

Western Europe / North Africa

[1] – Part of the Punic Wars

Third Punic War

150,000–250,000

193,649

149 BC–146 BC

Roman Republic vs. Carthaginian Empire

Tunisia

– Part of the Punic Wars

Kalinga War

150,000–200,000

173,205

262 BC–261 BC

Maurya Empire vs. State of Kalinga

India

Qin's Wars of Unification

700,000+

700,000

230 BC–221 BC

Qin state vs. Han, Zhou, Yan, Wei, Chu, Qi States

China

– Part of Warring States Period

Cimbrian War

410,000–650,000

516,236

113 BC–101 BC

Roman Empire vs. Cimbri and Teutones

Western Europe

– Part of the Germanic Wars

Gallic Wars

400,000–1,000,000

632,456

58 BC–50 BC

Roman Republic vs. Gallic tribes

France

Jewish–Roman Wars

350,000–2,000,000

836,660

66–136

Roman Empire vs. Jews

Middle East/North Africa

First Jewish–Roman War

270,000–1,358,400

605,614

66–73

Roman Empire vs. Jews

Middle East

– Part of Jewish–Roman Wars

Kitos War

440,000+

440,000

115–117

Roman Empire vs. Jews

Southern Europe / North Africa

– Also known as the Second Jewish–Roman War  – Part of Jewish–Roman Wars

Bar Kokhba Revolt

400,000–580,000

481,664

132–136

Roman Empire vs. Jews

Middle East

– Also known as the Third Jewish–Roman War  – Part of Jewish–Roman Wars

Gothic War (269)

320,000+

320,000

269

Roman Empire vs. Goths

Europe

Claudius II defeated the Goths, of whom 320,000 were slain. This number is from the Historia Augusta. – Part of the Germanic Wars

Probus's German War

400,000+

400,000

277

Roman Empire vs. Germans

Europe

Emperor Probus informed the Senate that he had killed 400,000 Germans. From the Historia Augusta. – Part of the Germanic Wars

Gothic War (376–382)

40,000+

40,000

376–382

Roman Empire vs. Goths

Eastern Europe

– Part of the Germanic Wars

Three Kingdoms War

36,000,000–40,000,000

37,947,332

184–280

Wei vs. Shu Vs. Wu

China

[2][3] – Academically, the period of the Three Kingdoms refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the conquest of the state of Wu by the Jin dynasty in 280. The earlier, "unofficial" part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various parts of China.
See: End of the Han Dynasty

Yellow Turban Rebellion

3,000,000–7,000,000

4,582,576

184–205

Peasants vs. Eastern Han China

China

– Part of Three Kingdoms War

Wars of the Sixteen Kingdoms

150,000+

150,000

304–439

Northern Chinese States

Northern China

Number given is the sum of all deaths in battle recorded in this time period in battles between armies of the Sixteen Kingdoms, does not take into account civilian deaths, the actual number may be much greater.

Hunnic Invasions

165,000+

165,000

395–453

Roman Empire vs. Hunnic tribes

Europe

Number given is the sum of all deaths in battle recorded by Roman writers during this time period, does not take into account civilian deaths, the actual number may be much greater.

text: Medieval wars

text: This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: limit to wars under a single leader or ruler, it is impossible to objectively compare 500 years of intermittent warfare with a given military campaign. Please help improve this section if you can. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Note: the identity of a single "war" cannot be reliably given in some cases, and some "wars" can be taken to last over more than a human lifetime,  e.g.
"Reconquista" (711–1492, 781 years)
"Muslim conquests in India" (12th to 16th c., 500 years)
"Crusades" (ten or more campaigns during the period 1095–1291, 196 years),
"Mongol conquests" (1206–1368, 162 years),
"early Muslim conquests" (622–750, 128 years),
"Hundred Year's War" (1337–1453, 115 years).

text:
War

Deathrange

Geometricmean[clarification needed]

Date

Location

Notes

Moorish Wars

5,000,000+

5,000,000

534–548

North Africa

Arab–Byzantine Wars

130,000+

130,000

629–1050

Middle East / North Africa / Southern Europe

Number given is the sum of all deaths in battle recorded by writers during this time period, does not take into account civilian deaths, the actual number may be much greater.

Reconquista

7,000,000+

7,000,000

711–1492

Iberian Peninsula

[4]

An Lushan Rebellion

13,000,000–36,000,000

21,633,308

755–763

China /  Vietnam

[5] – Also known as the An–Shi Rebellion

Goryeo–Khitan Wars

90,000+

90,000

993–1019

Korea

[6]

Crusades

1,000,000–3,000,000

1,732,051

1095–1291

Europe / Middle East ("Holy Land")

[7]

Albigensian Crusade

200,000–1,000,000

447,214

1208–1229

France

[8][9] – Also known as the Cathar Crusade
– Part of the Crusades

Mongol conquests

30,000,000–40,000,000

34,641,016

1206–1368

Eurasia

[10][11][12] – Excludes the (up to) 200,000,000 deaths from the Black Death migration that arguably may have been associated with the Mongol expansion

Wars of Scottish Independence

60,000-150,000

94,868

1296–1357

Scotland / England

Hundred Years' War

2,300,000–3,300,000

2,754,995

1337–1453

Western Europe

[13]

Conquests of Timur

8,000,000–20,000,000

12,649,111

1370–1405

Eurasia

[14][15]

Conquests of Mehmed II 'the Conqueror'

873,000+

873,000

1451–1481

Eastern Europe

[16] May be over or underestimated

Wars of the Roses

35,000–50,000

41,833

1455–1487

England / Wales

[17][better source needed][18]

text: Modern

text: Modern wars with greater than 25,000 deaths by death toll

text:
War

Deathrange

Geometricmean

Date

Location

Notes

Italian Wars

300,000–400,000

346,410

1494–1559

Southern Europe

[19] – Also known as the Great Wars of Italy

Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

24,300,000+

24,300,000

1519–1632

Mexico

[19] – Part of the European colonization of the Americas, includes the cocoliztli plagues

Spanish conquest of Yucatán

1,460,000+

1,460,000

1519–1595

North America

[19] – Part of the European colonisation of the Americas, includes deaths due to European disease

Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire

8,400,000+

8,400,000

1533–1572

Peru

[19] – Part of the European colonization of the Americas, includes deaths due to European diseases

Campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent

200,000+

200,000

1521–1566

Eastern Europe / Middle East / North Africa

[20]

German Peasants' War

100,000+

100,000

1524–1525

Germany

[21] – Also known as the Great Peasants War

French Wars of Religion

2,000,000–4,000,000

2,828,427

1562–1598

France

[22] – Also known as the Huguenot Wars

Eighty Years' War

600,000–700,000

648,074

1568–1648

Worldwide

[19] – Also known as the Dutch War of Independence

Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)

138,285+

138,285

1585–1604

Europe / Americas

English88,285[23]Scots/Irish50,000

Japanese invasions of Korea

1,000,000+

1,000,000

1592–1598

Korea

[24]

Qing conquest of the Ming

25,000,000+

25,000,000

1616–1662

China

[25] – Also known as the Ming–Qing transition

Thirty Years' War

3,000,000–11,500,000

5,873,670

1618–1648

Europe

[26]

Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)

200,000+

200,000

1635–1659

Western Europe

[20][27]

Wars of the Three Kingdoms

876,000+

876,000

1639–1651

British Isles

[28][29][30] – Also known as the British Civil Wars

English Civil War

356,000–735,000

511,527

1642–1651

England

[31] – Part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms

Mughal–Maratha Wars

5,000,000+

5,600,000

1658-1707

India-Bangladesh

[32][33]

Franco-Dutch War

220,000+

220,000

1672–1678

Western Europe

[20] – Also known as the Dutch War

Great Turkish War

120,000+

120,000

1683–1699

Eastern Europe

[20] – Also known as the War of the Holy League

Great Northern War

350,000+

350,000

1700–1721

Eastern Europe

Sweden, the Swedish Baltic provinces, and Finland, together, with a population of only 2.5 million, lost some 350,000 dead during the war from all causes.[34]

War of the Spanish Succession

400,000–1,251,000

707,390

1701–1714

Europe / Americas

[20]

Maratha expeditions in Bengal

400,000+

400,000

1741–1751

India

[35][36]

Seven Years' War

868,000–1,400,000

1,102,361

1756–1763

Worldwide

[37][38]

Sino-Burmese War (1765–69)

70,000+

70,000

1765–1769

Southeast Asia

– Also known as the Qing invasions of Burma

American Revolutionary War

37,324+

37,324

1775–1783

Worldwide

37,324 battle dead, all sides, all theaters.[20][39][40][41][42] – Also known as the American War of Independence

French campaign in Egypt and Syria

65,000+

65,000

1798–1801

Middle East / North Africa

[20]

Saint-Domingue expedition

135,000+

135,000

1802–1803

Haiti

[27]

Napoleonic Wars

3,500,000–7,000,000

4,949,747

1803–1815

Worldwide

See: Napoleonic Wars casualties

French invasion of Russia

540,000+

540,000

1812

Russia

[20] – Part of the Napoleonic Wars

Spanish American Wars of Independence

600,000+

600,000

1808–1833

Americas

[43]

Venezuelan War of Independence

228,000+

228,000

1810–1823

Venezuela

– Part of Spanish American Wars of Independence

Mfecane

1,500,000–2,000,000

1,732,051

1815–1840

Southern Africa

[44]

Carlist Wars

200,000+

200,000

1820–1876

Spain

[43]

French conquest of Algeria

300,000+

300,000

1829–1847

Algeria

Including 15,000 French[45]

Taiping Rebellion

20,000,000-
30,000,000

24,494,897

1850–1864

China

[46][47][48] – Also known as the Taiping Civil War

Crimean War

356,000–410,000

382,047

1853–1856

Crimean Peninsula

Panthay Rebellion

890,000–1,000,000

943,398

1856–1873

China

– Also known as the Du Wenxiu Rebellion

Indian Rebellion of 1857

800,000–10,000,000

2,828,427

1857–1858

India

[49] – Also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the Indian First War of Independence

American Civil War

650,000–1,000,000

806,226

1861–1865

USA

[50][51][52]

Dungan Revolt

8,000,000–12,000,000

9,797,959

1862–1877

China

– Also known as the Tongzhi Hui Revolt

French intervention in Mexico

49,287+

49,287

1862–1867

Mexico

[27]

Paraguayan War

300,000–1,200,000

600,000

1864–1870

South America

[53] – Also known as the War of the Triple Alliance

Ten Years' War

241,000+

241,000

1868–1878

Cuba

[27] – Also known as the Great War

Conquest of the Desert

30,000–35,000

32,404

1870s–1884

Patagonia

Aceh War

97,000–107,000

101,877

1873–1914

Indonesia

[54] – Also known as the Infidel War

First Sino–Japanese War

48,311+

48,311

1894–1895

East Asia

Cuban War of Independence

362,000+

362,000

1895–1898

Cuba

[27]

Thousand Days' War

120,000+

120,000

1899–1902

Colombia

[55]

South African War (Second Boer War)

73,000–90,000

81,056

1899-1902

South Africa

[56]

Philippine–American War

234,000+

234,000

1899–1912

Philippines

[57] – Also known as the Philippine War

Mexican Revolution

500,000–2,000,000

1,000,000

1910–1920

Mexico

[58]

Balkan Wars

140,000+

140,000

1912–1913

Balkan Peninsula

[20]

World War I

8,545,800–21,000,000

13,396,335

1914–1918

Worldwide

[20] – Also known as the Great War

Russian Civil War

5,000,000–9,000,000

6,708,204

1917–1922

Russia

[59]

Iraqi–Kurdish conflict

138,800–320,100

210,784

1918–2003

Iraq

[60][61]

Kurdish rebellions in Turkey

100,000+

100,000

1921–present

Middle East

Second Italo-Senussi War

40,000+

40,000

1923–1932

Libya

Chinese Civil War

8,000,000–7007116920000000000♠11,692,000

9,671,401

1927–1949

China

[62]

Second Italo-Ethiopian War

278,350+

278,350

1935–1936

Ethiopia

According to Italian government statistics, the Italians suffered 1,148 KIA, 125 DOW, and 31 MIA.[63] According to the Ethiopian government, at least 275,000 Ethiopians died in the brief war.[63][64] – Also known as the Second Italo–Abyssinian War

Spanish Civil War

500,000–1,000,000

707,107

1936–1939

Spain

[27]

Second Sino-Japanese War

20,000,000–25,000,000

22,360,680

1937–1945

China

[65] – Part of World War II

World War II

56,125,162–85,000,000

69,069,811

1939–1945

Worldwide

[20] - Largest and deadliest war in human history

Winter War

153,736–194,837

173,071

1939–1940

Finland

– Part of World War II

Greco-Italian War

27,080+

27,080

1940–1941

Southeast Europe

– Part of World War II

Continuation War

387,333+

387,333

1941–1944

Northern Europe

– Part of World War II

Soviet–Japanese War

33,420–95,768

56,574

1945

Manchuria

– Part of World War II

First Indochina War

400,000+

400,000

1946–1954

Southeast Asia

– Also known as the Indochina War

Greek Civil War

158,000+

158,000

1946– 1949

Greece

[66][67][68][69]

Kashmir Conflict

80,000–110,000

93,808

1947– present

North India / Pakistan

La Violencia

192,700–194,700

193,697

1948–1958

Colombia

Internal conflict in Myanmar

130,000–250,000

180,278

1948–present

Myanmar

[70]

Arab–Israeli conflict

116,074+

116,074

1948–present

Middle East

[71]

Indian annexation of Hyderabad

29,212–242,212

84,116

1948

India

– Also known as Operation Polo

Korean War

1,200,000+

1,200,000

1950–1953

Korea

[72]

Algerian War

350,000-1,500,000

724,569

1954–1962

Algeria

[73] – Also known as the Algerian War of Independence

Ethnic conflict in Nagaland

34,000+

34,000

1954–present

Northeast India

[74]

Vietnam War

800,000–3,800,000

1,743,560

1955–1975

Vietnam

[75][76][77] – Also known as the Second Indochina War

First Sudanese Civil War

500,000+

500,000

1955–1972

Sudan

Congo Crisis

100,000+

100,000

1960–1965

Congo

[78]

Angolan War of Independence

82,991–102,991

92,452

1961–1974

Angola

North Yemen Civil War

100,000–200,000

141,421

1962–1970

Yemen

[79]

West Papua conflict

150,000-400,000

244,949

1963–present

New Guinea

mal

Mozambican War of Independence

63,500–88,500

74,965

1964–1974

Mozambique

[80]

Insurgency in Northeast India

25,000+

25,000

1964–present

Northeast India

[70]

Colombian conflict

220,000+

220,000

1964–present

Colombia

[81]

Nigerian Civil War

1,000,000-3,000,000

1,732,051

1967–1970

Nigeria

– Also known as the Biafran War

Moro Conflict

120,000+

120,000

1969–present

Philippines

[82]

CPP-NPA-NDF rebellion

30,000–43,000

35,917

1969–present

Philippines

[83]

Bangladesh Liberation War

3,000,000+

3,000,000

1971

Bangladesh

[84] – Also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence

Ethiopian Civil War

500,000–1,500,000

866,025

1974–1991

Ethiopia

Angolan Civil War

504,158+

504,158

1975–2002

Angola

Lebanese Civil War

120,000–150,000

134,164

1975–1990

Lebanon

Insurgency in Laos

100,000+

100,000

1975–2007

Laos

[85]

War in Afghanistan

1,240,000–2,000,000

1,574,802

1978–present

Afghanistan

[86]

Kurdish–Turkish conflict

45,000+

45,000

1978–present

Middle East

[87] – Part of the Kurdish rebellions in Turkey

Soviet–Afghan War

600,000–2,000,000

1,095,445

1979–1989

Afghanistan

[88][89][90]  – Part of War in Afghanistan

Iran–Iraq War

289,220–1,100,000

564,041

1980–1988

Middle East

Internal conflict in Peru

70,000+

70,000

1980–present

Peru

[91]

Ugandan Bush War

100,000–500,000

223,607

1981–1986

Uganda

[92][93] – Also known as the Luwero War

Second Sudanese Civil War

1,000,000–2,000,000

1,414,214

1983–2005

Sudan

Sri Lankan Civil War

80,000–100,000

89,443

1983–2009

Sri Lanka

[94]

Somali Civil War

300,000–500,000

387,298

1986–present

Somalia

[95][96]

Lord's Resistance Army insurgency

100,000–500,000

223,607

1987–present

Central Africa

[97]

Nagorno-Karabakh War

38,000+

38,000

1988–1994

Caucasus region

– Also known as the Artsakh Liberation War

Gulf War

25,456–40,456

32,091

1990–1991

Iraq

– Also known as the First Iraq War

Algerian Civil War

44,000–200,000

93,808

1991–2002

Algeria

[98]

Bosnian War

97,214–104,732

100,903

1991–1995

Bosnia

1991 Iraqi coup d'état attempt

85,000–235,000

141,333

1991

Iraq

[99][100][101] – Also known as the Sha'aban Intifada

Sierra Leone Civil War

50,000-300,000

122,474

1991-2002

Sierra Leone

Burundian Civil War

300,000+

300,000

1993–2005

Burundi

[102]

First Congo War

250,000–800,000

447,214

1996–1997

Congo

Second Congo War

2,500,000–5,400,000

3,674,235

1998–2003

Central Africa

[103][104][105][72] – Also known as the Great War of Africa

Ituri conflict

60,000+

60,000

1999–2003

Congo

[106] – Part of the Second Congo War

War on Terror

272,000–1,260,000

585,423

2001–present

Worldwide

[107][108][109][110] – Also known as the Global War on Terrorism

War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

47,246–61,603

53,949

2001–present

Afghanistan

[108] – Part of the War on Terror and War in Afghanistan

Iraq War

176,913–1,120,000

445,132

2003–2011

Iraq

[109][110][108] – Also known as the Second Gulf War
– Part of the War on Terror
See: Casualties of the Iraq War

War in Darfur

178,258–461,520

286,827

2003–present

Sudan

[111]

Kivu Conflict

100,000+

100,000

2004–present

Congo

– Part of the Second Congo War

War in North-West Pakistan

45,852–78,946

60,165

2004–present

Pakistan

[108] – Also known as the War in Waziristan
– Part of the War on Terror and War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

Houthi insurgency in Yemen

25,000+

25,000

2004–present

Yemen

[112] – Also known as the Sa'dah War

Mexican Drug War

106,800+

106,800

2006–present

Mexico

[113][114] – Also known as the Mexican War on Drugs

Boko Haram insurgency

51,567+

51,567

2009–present

Nigeria

2,400,000 internally displaced

Syrian Civil War

470,000+

470,000

2011–present

Syria

See: Casualties of the Syrian civil war

Iraqi Civil War (2014–present)

75,000+

75,000

2014–present

Iraq

Malagasy Uprising

11,342 - 89,000

35,000

1947-1948

Madagascar

[115][116]

text: Modern wars with fewer than 25,000 deaths by death toll

text:
22,000+ – Dominican Restoration War – One estimate placed total Spanish deaths from all causes at 18,000. The fatal losses among the Dominican insurgents were estimated at 4,000.[27]
21,000+ – Six-Day War[117]
20,000+ – Yaqui Wars[20]
20,000+ – War of the Quadruple Alliance[27]
20,000+ – Ragamuffin War[118]
20,000+ – Italo-Turkish War[20]
19,619+ – Rhodesian Bush War
19,000+ – Mexican–American War[20]
18,069–20,069 – First Opium War[119]
17,294+ – 1940–44 insurgency in Chechnya
17,200+ – First Anglo-Afghan War[120]
16,765–17,065 – Balochistan conflict[121][122][123]
16,000+ – War of the Pacific
16,000+ – Nepalese Civil War
16,000+ – Spanish–American War[20]
15,200–15,300 – Peasants' War (1798) – Part of the French Revolutionary Wars
15,000+ – Nigerian Sharia conflict[124][125][126]
14,460–14,922 – South African Border War
14,077–22,077 – Mau Mau Uprising
13,929+ – Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997-99)[96]
13,812+ – Naxalite-Maoist insurgency[127][128]
13,583–15,970 - Croatian War of Independence
13,100–34,000 – Kurdish separatism in Iran[117]
13,073-26,373 - 1948 Arab–Israeli War (1948-1949)[129]
11,500–12,843 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 – Part of the Bangladesh Liberation War
10,000+ - Assam separatist movements (1979–present)
10,000+ – Malayan Emergency[130]
10,000+ – War in Donbass[131] – Part of the Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)
10,000+ – Rwandan Civil War
10,000+ – First Italo-Ethiopian War[20]
10,000+ – Second Melillan campaign[20]
10,000+ – Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–60)[20]
10,000+ – Spanish conquest of Tripoli[132]
9,400+ – Libyan Civil War (2011) (2011)[133]
8,136+ – Iraqi insurgency (post-U.S. withdrawal) (2011–2014)[134]
7,500–21,741 – War of 1812 (1812–1815)[20][135]
7,400–16,200 – Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) (2015–present)
7,050+ - Portuguese conquest of Goa (1510)[136]
7,104+ – Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 (1947–1949)[137]
7,000+ – Chadian Civil War (2005–10) (2005–2010)[138]
6,800–13,459 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 (1965)
6,543+ – South Thailand insurgency (2004–present)[139]
6,295+ – Central African Republic conflict (2012–present)
5,641+ – Sudanese nomadic conflicts (2009–present)[140][141]
5,100+ – Gaza–Israel conflict (2006–present) – Part of the Arab–Israeli conflict
5,000+ – Casamance conflict (1982–2014)[142]
5,000+ – Chilean Civil War of 1891 (1891)[143]
5,000+ - Cuban Revolution (1959)[144]
4,715+ – Libyan Civil War (2014–present) (2014–present)
4,000–10,000 – Conflict in the Niger Delta (2004–present)[145]
3,699+ – Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen (1992–present)[96]
3,529+ – The Northern Ireland Troubles (1966–1998)[146]
3,366+ – Insurgency in the North Caucasus (2009–2017)[147]
3,222–3,722 – Hungarian Revolution of 1956 (1956)
3,144+ – Allied Democratic Forces insurgency (1996–present)
3,114+ – 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine (1947–1948) –  Part of the 1948 Palestine war
3,007+ – War of the Golden Stool (1900)[citation needed]
3,000–6,000 – Negro Rebellion (1912)[148][149]
3,000-5,000 - Croatian-Slovene Peasant Revolt (1573) [150]
3,000+ – Second Ivorian Civil War (2010–2011)[151]
3,000+ – Banana Wars (1914–1933)[46]
2,944+ – Insurgency in the Maghreb (2004–present)
2,800+ – Northern Mali conflict (2012–present)
2,781+ – Iranian Revolution (1978–1979)[152]
2,751+ – Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)[153]
2,557+ – Sudan internal conflict (2011–present) (2011–present)[154][155][156]
2,394+ – Sinai insurgency (2011–present)[157]
2,300+ – Conflict in the Niger Delta (2003–present) [158][159]
2,221–2,406 – 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict (2014) – Part of the Gaza–Israel conflict
2,150+ – Persian Expedition of 1796 (1796)
2,096+ – Aden Emergency (1963-1967)
2,054+ – South Yemen insurgency (2009–2015)
2,000+ – Costa Rican Civil War (1948)[citation needed]
2,000+ – Six-Day War (2000) (2000)[160]
2,000+ – 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes (2010)[161][162][163]
2,000 - Iran crisis of 1946 (1946)[164]
1,810+ – Anglo-Iraqi War (1941)  – Part of World War II
1,774+ – Lapland War (1944-1945)  – Part of World War II
1,643–2,237 – War of Transnistria (1992)[165][166][167][168]
1,449+ – M23 rebellion (2012-2013) – Part of the Kivu Conflict
1,300+ – Allied Democratic Forces insurgency (1996–present)[169]
1,295+ – Siachen conflict (1984–present)
1,229+ – Basque conflict (1959–2011)[170]
1,227–5,600 – Kargil War (1999)[171][172][173][174]
1,119+ – Post-coup unrest in Egypt (2013–2014) (2013–2014)[175]
1,043+ –  Burundian unrest (2015–present)
1,000–1,500 – Cabinda conflict (1994–present)[176]
1,000+ – Djiboutian Civil War (1991–1994)
1,000+ – 1991–92 South Ossetia War (1991–1992)[177]
1,000+ – Xinjiang conflict (1960–present)
1,000+ – Chincha Islands War (1864–1866)[20]
907 – Falklands War (1982)[178]
898 – Barbary Wars (1801–1815)
846 – 2011 Egyptian revolution (2011)[179]
820 – Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon (2011–2017)[citation needed] – Part of the Syrian Civil War
808 – Sino-Russian border conflicts (1652-1689)
803-1303 - Conflict in Najran, Jizan and Asir (2015-present) – Part of the Yemeni Civil War (2015-present)
789–1,874 – 2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff (2001–2002)
771 – Insurgency in Egypt (2013–present) (2013–present)
740 – Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (1963–1966)[180][181]
722 – Kamwina Nsapu rebellion (2016–present)
700–800 – Anglo-Aro War (1901-1902)[citation needed]
659–2,496 – Russia–Georgia war (2008)[182][183][184][185][186]
643–1,500 – Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile (2011–present)[156][155]
547 – Cyprus crisis (1955–64) (1955–1964)
542 – East Prigorodny Conflict (1992)[citation needed]
422 – Franco-Thai War (1940–1941)[citation needed]
339 – Turkey–ISIL conflict (2015–present)[citation needed]
327 – RENAMO insurgency (2013–present)
275–569 – Second Afar insurgency (1995–present) Part of the Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict
236 – Batwa-Luba clashes (2013–present)
233 – Anglophone Crisis (2017–present)[a]
213-523+ Jebel Akhdar War (1954-1959)[192]
206–345 – Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–present)[citation needed]
200 – 1935 Yazidi revolt (1935)[citation needed]
174–194 – United States occupation of Veracruz (1914)[193]
159 – ISIL insurgency in Tunisia (2015–present)[citation needed]
158 – Dissident Irish Republican campaign (1998–present)[citation needed]
126 – 2016 Kasese clashes (2016)[194][195]
115 – The Pool War (2016–present)
108 – Islamist insurgency in Mozambique (2017–present)[b]
102–227 – India–Pakistan military confrontation (2016–present) (2016–present)
95 – 2013 Guinea clashes (2013)[207]
84–134 – Lahad Datu standoff (2013)[208][209]
82 – Quasi-War (1798-1800)
82 – North-West Rebellion (1885) [210]
71 – Paraguayan People's Army insurgency (2005–present)[citation needed]
63 – Ten-Day War (1991)
46 – Annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli (1954)
39-111 – India–Pakistan border skirmishes (2014–2015) (2014-2015)
37 – 2013 India–Pakistan border skirmishes (2013)
36 –  DHKP/C insurgency in Turkey (1990–present)[citation needed]
36 – 2016 Niger Delta conflict (2016–Present) [211] – Part of the Conflict in the Niger Delta
12–61 – 2017 Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmish (2017) – Part of the Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes
11–30 – 2008 Kufra conflict (2008)
8 – 2011 India–Pakistan border skirmish (2011)

text: Charts and graphs


document_title: Christmas with the Kranks

question_text: who played spike in christmas with the kranks

text: Christmas with the Kranks

text: Plot[edit]

text: After Riverside, Illinois couple Luther (Tim Allen) and Nora Krank (Jamie Lee Curtis) see their daughter, Blair (Julie Gonzalo), depart for a Peace Corps assignment in Peru on the Sunday following Thanksgiving, empty nest syndrome sets in. Luther calculates the couple spent $6,132 during the previous year's holiday season and, not looking forward to celebrating Christmas without their daughter, he suggests they invest the money usually spent on decorations, gifts, and entertainment and treat themselves to a ten-day Caribbean cruise instead. Skeptical at first, Nora finally agrees under the condition that they still give a donation to the church and Children's Hospital. Luther tries to refuse but finally agrees and they begin planning the trip.

text: The Kranks are amazed to discover they are considered pariahs as a result of their decision. Luther's co-workers think he has become Ebenezer Scrooge when he gives all his employees letters that state about his Christmas boycott, local stationer Aubie is distressed to lose the couple's order for their engraved greeting cards and Christmas Eve party invitations, the Boy Scout troop is upset and angered when the Kranks refuse to purchase one of their Christmas trees to help the scouts make enough money for a camporee, and the police are stunned to discover they won't be buying this year's calendar from them. Most vocal in their objections are neighbors Vic Frohmeyer (Dan Aykroyd) and Walt Scheel (M. Emmet Walsh). Vic, who's the unelected leader of the street, organizes a campaign to force the Kranks to decorate their home so Hemlock Street won't lose the coveted award for best decorations. Vic has political and bureaucratic connections in Chicago. Walt doesn't seem to like Luther, so his efforts are primarily personal. However, it is revealed that Walt's wife Bev is suffering from cancer, perhaps dampening his holiday spirits. Children picket, led by Vic's son Spike (Erik Per Sullivan), neighbors constantly call, and Christmas carolers try to revive the Kranks' holiday spirit by singing on their lawn, which Luther stops by freezing his front lawn. Even the newspaper gets into the act by publishing a front page story complete with a photograph of the unlit Krank house and states that the Kranks' street has lost the prize and won sixth place because of how Luther and Nora refused to decorate their house. Still, Luther and Nora continue to stand their ground.

text: The two are in the process of packing on Christmas Eve morning when they receive a call from Blair, who announces she's at Miami International Airport, en route home with her Peruvian fiancé as a surprise for her parents. She's anxious to introduce Enrique to her family's holiday traditions, and when she asks if they're having their usual party that night, a panicked Nora says yes. Comic chaos ensues as the couple finds themselves trying to decorate the house and coordinate a party with only twelve hours to spare before their daughter and future son-in-law arrive.

text: While Nora scrambles to find food, especially Blair's favorite honey glazed ham, Luther goes to buy a tree from the Boy Scouts but they only have one worthless non-green tree left since their sales went big and rapid. Luther decides to give a donation by giving them money but taking the tree in the process; he then rejects it by throwing it in his backyard. While Spike leads a picket at the Kranks', Luther arranges to borrow the tree of neighbor Wes Trogdon (who is going away for a week with his kids and wife to close relatives) being given the warning that he is not to break one ornament or damage it. Luther and Spike try to transport it across the street on Spike's Radio Flyer wagon, only for the neighbors to confuse this with Luther stealing the family's Christmas tree and end up calling for the police to arrest him for theft. Spike comes to Luther's rescue by showing the neighbors and officers that Luther has Trogdon's keys and thus was given permission to borrow the tree. Nora comes home enraged at Luther for making the borrowed Christmas tree a "Disaster" and how she had to buy "Smoked Trout" to replace the honey ham (which was crushed by a truck). Once it is established why Luther is trying frantically to decorate his home, the neighbors, led by Vic, come out full force to help him and Nora ready it for Blair. Blair calls to say she landed from Miami; despite this, she is sent by a police transport to their house thus leaving her still unaware of the chaos.

text: After subtly giving everybody, including Blair and Enrique, a half-hearted toast, Luther tries to convince Nora to accept the cruise when she confronts him for the toast, but she refuses, disgusted that he isn't happy Blair is home. Having a change of heart, Luther sadly slips out of the house and goes across the street to the Scheel home. Bev's cancer, once in remission, has returned and, knowing this may be their last holiday together, Luther insists they take the cruise in place of him and Nora, going so far as to offer to take care of their hated cat, Muffles, so they can go. At first Walt and Bev decline, but ultimately decide to accept his generosity; as a result, Luther, whose holiday spirit has been renewed, realizes skipping Christmas wasn't as good an idea as he had originally thought.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tim Allen as Luther Krank
Jamie Lee Curtis as Nora Krank, Luther's wife
Dan Aykroyd as Vic Frohmeyer, the Kranks' domineering neighbor
Dava Hulsey as Amanda Frohmeyer, the doting wife of Vic and loving mother of Spike.
Julie Gonzalo as Blair Krank, the Kranks' daughter
M. Emmet Walsh as Walt Scheel, the Kranks' obnoxious neighbor
Elizabeth Franz as Bev Scheel, Walt's ailing wife
Erik Per Sullivan as Spike Frohmeyer, Vic's kid
Cheech Marin as Officer Salino
Jake Busey as Officer Treen, Salino's partner
Austin Pendleton as Marty, an umbrella salesman who is actually Santa Claus
Tom Poston as Father Zabriskie, a priest
Kim Rhodes as Julie, Luther's employee
Arden Myrin as Daisy
René Lavan as Enrique Decardenal, Blair's fiance
Patrick Breen as Aubie, a stationier
Caroline Rhea as Candi, a friend of Nora's
Felicity Huffman as Merry, a friend of Nora's
Kevin Chamberlin as Duke Scanlon, a Boy Scout leader

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Joe Roth knew about John Grisham's Skipping Christmas before it was even published in 2001. He was asked by Grisham to read the book in galley form, assuming he could direct a movie based on it. Roth recalls: "It turns out he was right. Even while I was reading it, all I could think was that this would make a great Christmas movie. It had humor, it had wonderful characters and it had heart." It was a huge change for him as he, who previously directed thrillers, would now do work for a film lighter in tone and style. With the rights of the book received and the May 2000 founding of Revolution Studios, he stated that "as a start-up company, there was a great deal of work to do in order to get up and running."

text: Later, filmmaker Chris Columbus, who also bought the rights to Skipping Christmas and had written a screenplay, called Roth about directing the adaption. As Roth explains: "Naturally, I thought he was going to direct it. But he said, 'No, you should direct it.' It turns out I was getting ready to direct another project. But when I read Chris's script, I knew I had to at least try to direct it. I promised myself that if I could get the right cast in place, I would do it." Producer Michael Barnathan said, "Joe read the script on a Sunday, bought it on Monday, decided he wanted to direct it on Tuesday and by Friday had cast Tim [Allen] and Jamie Lee [Curtis]. The following Monday morning we started pre-production."

text: Setting[edit]

text: Christmas with the Kranks takes place mostly in the Kranks's neighborhood of Hemlock Street in Riverside, a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, over the course of four weeks from Thanksgiving to Christmas Eve. Production designer Garreth Stover originally looked for locations with the right weather conditions and suburban ambience for Hemlock Street, as described specifically in Columbus's script of the film. He was scouting from the metropolitan area of Chicago to Minnesota, but due to the extreme conditions of this part of the United States at the time, the filmmakers felt it was better to set up the neighborhood in an empty location instead of finding one.

text: When looking for a place to build the set 15 weeks before filming began, Stover chose a parking lot of a former Boeing aircraft factory in Downey, California, about 15 miles away from downtownLos Angeles and in the midst of Downey Studios. The rest of the first three weeks were spent on designing the houses with assistance from construction coordinator David Elliott. In the next 12 weeks, hundreds of carpenters, plasterers and painters working built had built what would become the largest exterior set ever for a movie, being more than 700 feet long and including 16 houses. What Stover called "the core five" were the houses of the Kranks, the Frohmeyers, the Scheels, the Beckers and Trogdons, which he claimed had "full ground floors that are dressed and you can see into." He also said that the second floor of the Kranks' was built on a soundstage. Producer Michael Barnathan claimed that the set would later be available for other movies, TV series and commercials to use.However, due to health complaints from the locals over toxic residues from factory period and lack of profit, the studio closed in 2012 and was razed to build a mall.

text: Costumes[edit]

text: Susie DeSanto handled the costume design of Christmas with the Kranks. According to DeSanto, "I was looking for a project that was really textural, and maybe a bit nostalgic. I saw Christmas With the Kranks like a Christmas card, a beautiful Christmas memory of how we wish the holiday to be. So a lot of the fabrics I chose were not so much high-tech bright colors, but wools, plaids and mixing patterns. Joe [Roth] was specific about what he wanted, but within that, he allowed me a great deal of freedom to express myself.”

text: DeSanto viewed that all the characters in Christmas with the Kranks would wear dresses that are supposed to serve as their "accents" rather than overtly defining them. Luther Krank is seen wearing the same-colored shirt and suit at work all the time, and according to DeSanto, this "tells that Luther’s a punch-the-clock kind of guy, so the whole idea of skipping Christmas and going off on a tropical vacation is completely averse to anything he’s ever done." She described Nora as "tasteful and kind of folksy, a middle-American woman approaching middle age. In our first meeting, Jamie Lee Curtis was totally prepared. She wanted to look like a real Midwestern woman who lives in the suburbs of Chicago and is as obsessed with Christmas as everyone around her. Nora dresses for the seasons and I found out by speaking to people at Marshall Field’s in Chicago that the Christmas sweater is a big deal. And Jamie wears it so well.” As for Vic Frohmeyer, she saw him as "a sort of commander-in-chief of the neighborhood, so I wanted something with a bit of a military flair. Since he’s also a college professor, we cut the pattern from a general’s jacket and made it professorial by using a vintage tweed mixed with corduroy.”

text: Music[edit]

text: The soundtrack features many holiday standards, including "Jingle Bell Rock" by Brenda Lee; "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" by Billy May & His Orchestra with vocal by Alvin Stoller; "I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus" by Eddie Dunstedter; "White Christmas" by Dean Martin; "Frosty the Snowman" by Steve Van Zandt; "Blue Christmas" by Elvis Presley; and "The Christmas Song" by Ella Fitzgerald.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 5% based on 131 reviews with an average rating of 2.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A mirthless movie as fresh as last year's fruit cake, Christmas with the Kranks is a coarse, garish comedy that promotes conformity." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 22 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Christmas with the Kranks was released on DVD and VHS on November 8, 2005.

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was a box office success. On its opening weekend, it earned $21,570,867 on 3,393 screens, ranking #3 behind National Treasure and The Incredibles. It eventually grossed $96,572,480 worldwide.


document_title: Operant conditioning

question_text: who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus

text: Operant conditioning

text: Historical note[edit]

text: Thorndike's law of effect[edit]

text: Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes.[2] A cat could escape from the box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, but when first constrained the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure.[3]

text: Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years.[4]

text: Skinner[edit]

text: B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) is often referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His book "The Behavior of Organisms",[5] published in 1938, initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.[6]

text: To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner Box", in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner's primary behavioral measure.[7] Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules.[8] A reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well-defined rule".[9] The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior.[10]

text: Many of Skinner's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior.[11] In 1948 he published Walden Two, a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive community organized around his conditioning principles.[12] In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior,[13] which extended the principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands" and "tacts" to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker's audience.

text: Concepts and procedures[edit]

text: Origins of operant behavior: operant variability[edit]

text: Operant behavior is said to be "emitted"; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a "new" bodily structure, namely, variation and selection. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables.[14]

text: Modifying operant behavior: reinforcement and shaping[edit]

text: Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative, as described below.

text: Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while positive punishment and negative punishment reduce the probability of behaviour that they follow.

text: There is an additional procedure called "extinction"

text: Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement. During extinction the behavior becomes less probable.

text: Thus there are a total of five basic consequences –

text:
Positive reinforcement (reinforcement): This occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior.[15] For example, if a rat in a Skinner box gets food when it presses a lever, its rate of pressing will go up. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement (escape): This occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, the aversive stimulus might be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the box; negative reinforcement would happen when the rat presses a lever, turning off the noise.
Positive punishment (also referred to as "punishment by contingent stimulation"): This occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as pain from a spanking, which results in a decrease in that behavior. Positive punishment is a rather confusing term, and usually the procedure is simply called "punishment."
Negative punishment (penalty) (also called "punishment by contingent withdrawal"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Extinction : This occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. For example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses. Then, in "extinction", no food is given. Typically the rat continues to press more and more slowly and eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be "extinguished."

tag: ol

text: It is important to note that actors (e.g. rat) are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions (e.g. lever press) that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Also, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered by people.

text: Schedules of reinforcement[edit]

text: Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used[16][17]

text:
Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a fixed time has elapsed after the previous reinforcement. This schedule yields a "break-run" pattern of response; that is, after training on this schedule, the organism typically pauses after reinforcement, and then begins to respond rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches.
Variable interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a variable time has elapsed from the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a relatively steady rate of response that varies with the average time between reinforcements.
Fixed ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. An organism trained on this schedule typically pauses for a while after a reinforcement and then responds at a high rate. If the response requirement is low there may be no pause; if the response requirement is high the organism may quit responding altogether.
Variable ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a very high, persistent rate of response.
Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after each response. Organisms typically respond as rapidly as they can, given the time taken to obtain and consume reinforcement, until they are satiated.

text: Factors that alter the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment[edit]

text: The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed in various ways.

text:
Satiation/Deprivation: The effectiveness of a positive or "appetitive" stimulus will be reduced if the individual has received enough of that stimulus to satisfy its appetite. The opposite effect will occur if the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus: the effectiveness of a consequence will then increase. If someone is not hungry, food will not be an effective reinforcer for behavior.[18]
Immediacy: An immediate consequence is more effective than a delayed consequence. If one gives a dog a treat for "sitting" right away, the dog will learn faster than if the treat is given later.[19]
Contingency: To be most effective, reinforcement should occur consistently after responses and not at other times. Learning may be slower if reinforcement is intermittent, that is, following only some instances of the same response, but responses reinforced intermittently are usually much slower to extinguish than are responses that have always been reinforced.[18]
Size: The size, or amount, of a stimulus often affects its potency as a reinforcer. Humans and animals engage in a sort of "cost-benefit" analysis. A tiny amount of food may not "be worth" an effortful lever press for a rat. A pile of quarters from a slot machine may keep a gambler pulling the lever longer than a single quarter.

text: Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is a highly effective reinforcer. However, when the organism's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective, perhaps even aversive.

text: Shaping[edit]

text: Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in teaching non-verbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or "target") behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement.

text: Noncontingent reinforcement[edit]

text: Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response.[20] As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".[21]

text: Stimulus control of operant behavior[edit]

text: Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli." A so-called "three-term contingency" is the result. That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Thus, a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of its food bag; a child reaches for candy when she sees it on a table.

text: Discrimination, generalization & context[edit]

text: Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished:

text:
"Discrimination" typically occurs when a response is reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus. For example, a pigeon might be fed for pecking at a red light and not at a green light; in consequence, it pecks at red and stops pecking at green. Many complex combinations of stimuli and other conditions have been studied; for example an organism might be reinforced on an interval schedule in the presence of one stimulus and on a ratio schedule in the presence of another.
"Generalization" is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a previously trained discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at "red" a pigeon might also peck at "pink", though usually less strongly.
"Context" refers to stimuli that are continuously present in a situation, like the walls, tables, chairs, etc. in a room, or the interior of an operant conditioning chamber. Context stimuli may come to control behavior as do discriminative stimuli, though usually more weakly. Behaviors learned in one context may be absent, or altered, in another. This may cause difficulties for behavioral therapy, because behaviors learned in the therapeutic setting may fail to occur elsewhere.

text: Behavioral sequences: conditioned reinforcement and chaining[edit]

text: Most behavior cannot easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three-term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer". For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around" in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food". Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses.

text: Escape and avoidance[edit]

text: In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance," as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so-called "avoidance paradox", for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below).

text: Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free-operant avoidance learning.

text: Discriminated avoidance learning[edit]

text: A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape" trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials." This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning, because a neutral CS is paired with an aversive US; this idea underlies the two-factor theory of avoidance learning described below.

text: Free-operant avoidance learning[edit]

text: In free-operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock-shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-S (response-shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Note that each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew.

text: Two-process theory of avoidance[edit]

text: This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS (conditioned stimulus) with an aversive US (unconditioned stimulus). The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) – "fear." b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Note that the theory does not say that the organism "avoids" the US in the sense of anticipating it, but rather that the organism "escapes" an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two-factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS-US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior.[22]

text: Operant or "one-factor" theory[edit]

text: Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences" is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock" is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cognitive theories of avoidance take this idea a step farther. For example, a rat comes to "expect" shock if it fails to press a lever and to "expect no shock" if it presses it, and avoidance behavior is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed. [23]

text: Operant hoarding[edit]

text: Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may allow food pellets to accumulate in a food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one-minute period of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food object after some delay. See schedules of reinforcement.[24]

text: To change human behavior[edit]

text: Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by B. F. Skinner that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (SC), discriminative stimulus (Sd), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (Srein or Sr for reinforcers, sometimes Save for aversive stimuli).[25] A conditioned stimulus controls behaviors developed through respondent (classical) conditioning, such as emotional reactions. The other three terms combine to form Skinner's "three-term contingency": a discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responses that lead to reinforcement. Researchers have found the following protocol to be effective when they use the tools of operant conditioning to modify human behavior:[citation needed]

text:
State goal Clarify exactly what changes are to be brought about. For example, "reduce weight by 30 pounds."
Monitor behavior Keep track of behavior so that one can see whether the desired effects are occurring. For example, keep a chart of daily weights.
Reinforce desired behavior For example, congratulate the individual on weight losses. With humans, a record of behavior may serve as a reinforcement. For example, when a participant sees a pattern of weight loss, this may reinforce continuance in a behavioral weight-loss program. A more general plan is the token economy, an exchange system in which tokens are given as rewards for desired behaviors. Tokens may later be exchanged for a desired prize or rewards such as power, prestige, goods or services.
Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior For example, remove candy and fatty snacks from kitchen shelves.

text: Neurobiological correlates[edit]

text: The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong[26][27] and by R.T. Richardson.[27] They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been shown to be related to neuroplasticity in many cortical regions.[28] Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.[29] Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement.[30] It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high.

text: A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a rather global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons."[31] This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced.

text: Questions about the law of effect[edit]

text: A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called "sign tracking"), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby.[32][33] Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training).[34][35]

text: These observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.[36][37][38]) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-response) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the experimenter’s task is to work out how these interact.[39]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.

text: Applied behavior analysis[edit]

text: Practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) bring the principles of operant conditioning, along with other tools, to bear on a variety of socially significant behaviors and issues. In many cases, practitioners use operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively applied in to such things as early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD)[40] research on the principles influencing criminal behavior, HIV prevention,[41] conservation of natural resources,[42] education,[43] gerontology,[44] health and exercise,[45] industrial safety,[46] language acquisition,[47] littering,[48] medical procedures,[49] parenting,[50] psychotherapy, seatbelt use,[51] severe mental disorders,[52] sports,[53] substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals.[54] Some of these applications are among those described below.

text: Addiction and dependence[edit]

text: Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"),[55][56][57] so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug.[55][56][57] These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use.[55][56][57] Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.

text: In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.[55]

text: Animal training[edit]

text: Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.g. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the use of secondary reinforcement, (e.g. sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response, then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (e.g. the clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually constructed from smaller units.[58]

text: Child behaviour – parent management training[edit]

text: Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child).[59] In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations").[59][60]

text: Economics[edit]

text: Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.[61]

text: Gambling – variable ratio scheduling[edit]

text: As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has often been cited as a factor underlying gambling addiction.[62]

text: Nudge theory[edit]

text: Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.

text: Praise[edit]

text: The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior.[63] Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance,[64][65] but also in the study of work performance.[66] Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement.[67] Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.[68]

text: Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols.[69][70] The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management[69] and parenting training interventions,[65] though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.

text: Psychological manipulation[edit]

text: Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:[71]

text:
Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition.
Negative reinforcement: may involve removing one from a negative situation
Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for example in most forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again but still lose money overall.
Punishment: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim.
Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive anger, or other intimidating behavior to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident of such behavior can condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or contradicting the manipulator.

text: Traumatic bonding[edit]

text: Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.[72][73]

text: Workplace culture of fear[edit]

text: Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace.[74] Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.[71] When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.[75]

text: Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.