document_title: History of male circumcision

question_text: when did circumcision become common in the united states

question_tokens: when did circumcision become common in the united states

text: History of male circumcision

text: Origins[edit]

text: The origin of male circumcision is not known with certainty. It has been variously proposed that it began as a religious sacrifice, as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood, as a form of sympathetic magic to ensure virility or fertility, as a means of reducing sexual pleasure, as an aid to hygiene where regular bathing was impractical, as a means of marking those of higher social status, as a means of humiliating enemies and slaves by symbolic castration, as a means of differentiating a circumcising group from their non-circumcising neighbors, as a means of discouraging masturbation or other socially proscribed sexual behaviors, as a means of removing "excess" pleasure, as a means of increasing a man's attractiveness to women, as a demonstration of one's ability to endure pain, or as a male counterpart to menstruation or the breaking of the hymen, or to copy the rare natural occurrence of a missing foreskin of an important leader,[8][9] a way to repel demonesses,[10] and as a display of disgust of the smegma produced by the foreskin. Removing the foreskin can prevent or treat a medical condition known as phimosis. It has been suggested that the custom of circumcision gave advantages to tribes that practiced it and thus led to its spread.[11][12][13]

text: Darby describes these theories as "conflicting", and states that "the only point of agreement among proponents of the various theories is that promoting good health had nothing to do with it."[12][14] Immerman et al. suggest that circumcision causes lowered sexual arousal of pubescent males, and hypothesize that this was a competitive advantage to tribes practising circumcision, leading to its spread.[15] Wilson suggests that circumcision reduces insemination efficiency, reducing a man's capacity for extra-pair fertilizations by impairing sperm competition. Thus, men who display this signal of sexual obedience may gain social benefits if married men are selected to offer social trust and investment preferentially to peers who are less threatening to their paternity.[16] It is possible that circumcision arose independently in different cultures for different reasons.

text: Africa[edit]

text: "The distribution of circumcision and initiation rites throughout Africa, and the frequent resemblance between details of ceremonial procedure in areas thousands of miles apart, indicate that the circumcision ritual has an old tradition behind it and in its present form is the result of a long process of development."[17]

text: African cultural history is conveniently spoken of in terms of language group. The Niger–Congo speakers of today extend from Senegal to Kenya to South Africa and all points between. In the historic period, the Niger–Congo speaking peoples predominantly have and have had male circumcision that occurred in young warrior initiation schools, the schools of Senegal and Gambia being not so very different from those of the Kenyan Gikuyu and South African Zulu. Their common ancestor was a horticultural group five, perhaps seven, thousand years ago from an area of the Cross River in modern Nigeria. From that area a horticultural frontier moved outward into West Africa and the Congo Basin. Certainly the warrior schools with male circumcision were a part of the ancestral society's cultural repertoire.[18]

text: Male circumcision in East Africa is a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood, but is only practiced in some nations (tribes). Some peoples in East Africa do not practice male circumcision (for example the Luo of western Kenya).[18]

text: Amongst the Gikuyu (Kikuyu) people of Kenya and the Maasai people of Kenya and Tanzania, male circumcision has historically been the graduation element of an educational program that taught tribal beliefs, practices, culture, religion and history to youth who were on the verge of becoming full-fledged members of society. The circumcision ceremony was very public, and required a display of courage under the knife in order to maintain the honor and prestige of the young man and his family. The only form of anesthesia was a bath in the cold morning waters of a river, which tended to numb the senses to a minor degree. The youths being circumcised were required to maintain a stoic expression and not to flinch from the pain.[18]

text: After circumcision, young men became members of the warrior class, and were free to date and marry. The graduants became a fraternity that served together, and continued to have mutual obligation to each other for life.

text: In the modern context in East Africa, the physical element of male circumcision remains (in the societies that have historically practiced it) but without most of the other accompanying rites, context and programs. For many, the operation is now performed in private on one individual, in a hospital or doctor's office. Anesthesia is often used in such settings. There are tribes however, that do not accept this modernized practice. They insist on circumcision in a group ceremony, and a test of courage at the banks of a river. This more traditional approach is common amongst the Meru and the Kisii tribes of Kenya.[18]

text: Despite the loss of the rites and ceremonies that accompanied male circumcision in the past, the physical operation remains crucial to personal identity and pride, and acceptance in society. Uncircumcised men in these communities risk being "outed", and subjected to ridicule as "boys". There have been many cases of forced circumcision of men from such communities who are discovered to have escaped the ritual.

text: In some South African ethnic groups, circumcision has roots in several belief systems, and is performed most of the time on teenage boys:

text: The young men in the eastern Cape belong to the Xhosa ethnic group for whom circumcision is considered part of the passage into manhood. ... A law was recently introduced requiring initiation schools to be licensed and only allowing circumcisions to be performed on youths aged 18 and older. But Eastern Cape provincial Health Department spokesman Sizwe Kupelo told Reuters news agency that boys as young as 11 had died. Each year thousands of young men go into the bush alone, without water, to attend initiation schools. Many do not survive the ordeal.[19]

text: Ancient world[edit]

text: Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BCE) tomb artwork in Egypt has been thought to be the oldest documentary evidence of circumcision, the most ancient depiction being a bas-relief from the necropolis at Saqqara (c. 2400 BCE) with the inscriptions reading: "The ointment is to make it acceptable." and "Hold him so that he does not fall".[citation needed] In the oldest written account, by an Egyptian named Uha, in the 23rd century BCE, he describes a mass circumcision and boasts of his ability to stoically endure the pain: "When I was circumcised, together with one hundred and twenty men ... there was none thereof who hit out, there was none thereof who was hit, and there was none thereof who scratched and there was none thereof who was scratched."[20]

text: Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BCE, wrote that the Egyptians "practise circumcision for the sake of cleanliness, considering it better to be cleanly than comely."[21] Gollaher (2000) considered circumcision in ancient Egypt to be a mark of passage from childhood to adulthood. He mentions that the alteration of the body and ritual of circumcision were supposed to give access to ancient mysteries reserved solely for the initiated. (See also Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis 1.15) The content of those mysteries are unclear but are likely to be myths, prayers, and incantations central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptian Book of the Dead, for example, tells of the sun god Ra cutting himself, the blood creating two minor guardian deities. The Egyptologist Emmanuel vicomte de Rougé interpreted this as an act of circumcision.[22] Circumcisions were performed by priests in a public ceremony, using a stone blade. It is thought to have been more popular among the upper echelons of the society, although it was not universal and those lower down the social order are known to have had the procedure done.[23] The Egyptian hieroglyph for "penis" depicts either a circumcised or an erect organ.

text: Circumcision was also adopted by some Semitic peoples living in or around Egypt. Herodotus reported that circumcision is only practiced by the Egyptians, Colchians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, the 'Syrians of Palestine', and "the Syrians who dwell about the rivers Thermodon and Parthenius, as well as their neighbours the Macronians and Macrones". He also reports, however, that "the Phoenicians, when they come to have commerce with the Greeks, cease to follow the Egyptians in this custom, and allow their children to remain uncircumcised."[21]

text: According to Genesis, God told Abraham to circumcise himself, his household and his slaves as an everlasting covenant in their flesh, see also Abrahamic Covenant. Those who were not circumcised were to be "cut off" from their people. [Genesis 17:10–14] Covenants in biblical times were often sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate. In Hebrew, the verb meaning to seal a covenant translates literally as "to cut". It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant.[24] Moses might not have been circumcised; one of his sons was not, nor were some of his followers while traveling through the desert.[Joshua 5:4–7]. Moses's wife Zipporah circumcised their son when God threatened to kill Moses.[Exodus 4:24–26]

text: Hellenistic and Judaic culture[edit]

text: According to Hodges, ancient Greek aesthetics of the human form considered circumcision a mutilation of a previously perfectly shaped organ. Greek artwork of the period portrayed penises as covered by the foreskin (sometimes in exquisite detail), except in the portrayal of satyrs, lechers, and barbarians.[25] This dislike of the appearance of the circumcised penis led to a decline in the incidence of circumcision among many peoples that had previously practiced it throughout Hellenistic times.

text: In Egypt, only the priestly caste retained circumcision, and by the 2nd century, the only circumcising groups in the Roman Empire were Jews, Jewish Christians, Egyptian priests, and the Nabatean Arabs. Circumcision was sufficiently rare among non-Jews that being circumcised was considered conclusive evidence of Judaism (or Early Christianity and others derogatorily called Judaizers) in Roman courts—Suetonius in Domitian 12.2 described a court proceeding in which a ninety-year-old man was stripped naked before the court to determine whether he was evading the head tax placed on Jews and Judaizers.[26]

text: Cultural pressures to circumcise operated throughout the Hellenistic world: when the Judean king John Hyrcanus conquered the Idumeans, he forced them to become circumcised and convert to Judaism, but their ancestors the Edomites had practiced circumcision in pre-Hellenistic times.

text: Some Jews tried to hide their circumcision status, as told in 1 Maccabees. This was mainly for social and economic benefits and also so that they could exercise in gymnasiums and compete in sporting events. Techniques for restoring the appearance of an uncircumcised penis were known by the 2nd century BCE. In one such technique, a copper weight (called the Judeum pondum) was hung from the remnants of the circumcised foreskin until, in time, they became sufficiently stretched to cover the glans. The 1st-century writer Celsus described two surgical techniques for foreskin restoration in his medical treatise De Medicina.[27] In one of these, the skin of the penile shaft was loosened by cutting in around the base of the glans. The skin was then stretched over the glans and allowed to heal, giving the appearance of an uncircumcised penis. This was possible because the Abrahamic covenant of circumcision defined in the Bible was a relatively minor circumcision; named milah, this involved cutting off the foreskin that extended beyond the glans. Jewish religious writers denounced such practices as abrogating the covenant of Abraham in 1 Maccabees and the Talmud.[28]

text: Because of these attempts, and for other reasons, a second more radical step was added to the circumcision procedure. This was added around 140 CE, and was named Brit Peri'ah. In this step, the foreskin was cut further back, to the ridge behind the glans penis, called the coronal sulcus. The inner mucosal tissue was removed by use of a sharp finger nail or implement, including the excising and removal of the frenulum from the underside of the glans.[29] Later during the Talmudic period (500–625 CE) a third step, known as Metzitzah, began to be practiced. In this step the mohel would suck the blood from the circumcision wound with his mouth to remove what was believed to be bad excess blood. As it actually increases the likelihood of infections such as tuberculosis and venereal diseases, modern day mohels use a glass tube placed over the infant's penis for suction of the blood. In many Jewish ritual circumcisions this step of Metzitzah has been eliminated.[29]

text: First Maccabees tells us that the Seleucids forbade the practice of brit milah, and punished those who performed it – as well as the infants who underwent it – with death.

text: The 1st-century Jewish author Philo Judaeus (20 BCE - 50 CE)[30] defended Jewish circumcision on several grounds, including health, cleanliness and fertility.[31] He also thought that circumcision should be done as early as possible as it would not be as likely to be done by someone's own free will. He claimed that the foreskin prevented semen from reaching the vagina and so should be done as a way to increase the nation's population. He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure: "The legislators thought good to dock the organ which ministers to such intercourse thus making circumcision the symbol of excision of excessive and superfluous pleasure."[32] There was also division in Pharisaic Judaism between Hillel the Elder and Shammai on the issue of circumcision of proselytes.

text: The Jewish philosopher Maimonides (1135–1204) insisted that faith should be the only reason for circumcision. He recognised that it was "a very hard thing" to have done to oneself but that it was done to "quell all the impulses of matter" and "perfect what is defective morally." Sages at the time had recognised that the foreskin heightened sexual pleasure. Maimonides reasoned that the bleeding and loss of protective covering rendered the penis weakened and in so doing had the effect of reducing a man's lustful thoughts and making sex less pleasurable. He also warned that it is "hard for a woman with whom an uncircumcised man has had sexual intercourse to separate from him."[33][34][35][36]

text: A 13th-century French disciple of Maimonides, Isaac ben Yediah claimed that circumcision was an effective way of reducing a woman's sexual desire. With a non-circumcised man, he said, she always orgasms first and so her sexual appetite is never fulfilled, but with a circumcised man she receives no pleasure and hardly ever orgasms "because of the great heat and fire burning in her."[37][38]

text: Flavius Josephus in Jewish Antiquities book 20, chapter 2 records the story of King Izates who having been persuaded by a Jewish merchant named Ananias to embrace the Jewish religion, decided to get circumcised so as to follow Jewish law. Despite being reticent for fear of reprisals from his non-Jewish subjects he was eventually persuaded to do it by a Galileean Jew named Eleazar on the grounds that it was one thing to read the Law and another thing to practice it. Despite his mother Helen and Ananias's fear of the consequences, Josephus said that God looked after Izates and his reign was peaceful and blessed.[39]

text: Decline in Christianity[edit]

text: The Council of Jerusalem in Acts of the Apostles 15 addressed the issue of whether circumcision was required of new converts to Christianity. Both Simon Peter and James the Just spoke against requiring circumcision in Gentile converts and the Council ruled that circumcision was not necessary. However, Acts 16 and many references in the Letters of Paul show that the practice was not immediately eliminated. Paul of Tarsus, who was said to be directly responsible for one man's circumcision in Acts 16:1–3 and who appeared to praise Jewish circumcision in Romans 3:2, said that circumcision didn't matter in 1 Corinthians 7:19 and then increasingly turned against the practice, accusing those who promoted circumcision of wanting to make a good showing in the flesh and boasting or glorying in the flesh in Galatians 6:11–13. In a later letter, Philippians 3:2, he is reported as warning Christians to beware the "mutilation" ([permanent dead link] Strong's G2699). Circumcision was so closely associated with Jewish men that Jewish Christians were referred to as "those of the circumcision" (e.g. Colossians 3:20) [40] or conversely Christians who were circumcised were referred to as Jewish Christians or Judaizers. These terms (circumcised/uncircumcised) are generally interpreted to mean Jews and Greeks, who were predominant, however it is an oversimplification as 1st-century Iudaea Province also had some Jews who no longer circumcised, and some Greeks (called Proselytes or Judaizers) and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did. According to the Gospel of Thomas saying 53, Jesus says:

text: Parallels to Thomas 53 are found in Paul's Romans 2:29, Philippians 3:3, 1 Corinthians 7:19, Galatians 6:15, Colossians 2:11–12.

text: In John's Gospel 7:23 Jesus is reported as giving this response to those who criticized him for healing on the Sabbath:

text: This passage has been seen as a comment on the Rabbinic belief that circumcision heals the penis (Jerusalem Bible, note to John 7:23) or as a criticism of circumcision.[40]

text: Europeans, with the exception of the Jews, did not practice male circumcision. A rare exception occurred in Visigothic Spain, where during the armed campaign king Wamba ordered circumcision of everyone who committed atrocities against the civilian population.[42]

text: As part of an attempted reconciliation of Coptic and Catholic practices, the Catholic Church condemned the observance of circumcision as a moral sin and ordered against its practice in the Council of Basel-Florence in 1442.[43] According to UNAIDS, the papal bull of Union with The Copts issued during that council stated that circumcision was merely unnecessary for Christians;[44] El-Hout and Khauli, however, regard it as condemnation of the procedure.[45]

text: In the 18th century, Edward Gibbon referred to circumcision as a "singular mutilation" practised only by Jews and Turks and as "a painful and often dangerous rite" ... (R. Darby)[46]

text: In 1753 in London there was a proposal for Jewish emancipation. It was furiously opposed by the pamphleteers of the time, who spread the fear that Jewish emancipation meant universal circumcision. Men were urged to protect:

text: These negative attitudes remained well into the 19th century. English explorer Sir Richard Burton observed that "Christendom practically holds circumcision in horror".

text: Revival in the English-speaking world[edit]

text: Although negative attitudes prevailed for much of the 19th century, this began to change in the latter part of the century, especially in the English-speaking world. This shift can be seen in the account on circumcision in the Encyclopædia Britannica. The ninth edition, published in 1876, discusses the practice as a religious rite among Jews, Muslims, the ancient Egyptians and tribal peoples in various parts of the world. The author of the entry rejected sanitary explanations of the procedure in favour of a religious one: "like other body mutilations ... [it is] of the nature of a representative sacrifice". (R. Darby)[46]

text: However, by 1910 the entry [in the Encyclopædia Britannica] had been turned on its head:

text: "This surgical operation, which is commonly prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an initiation or religious ceremony among Jews and Muslims".

text: Now it was primarily a medical procedure and only after that a religious ritual. The entry explained that "in recent years the medical profession has been responsible for its considerable extension among other than Jewish children ... for reasons of health" (11th edition, Vol. 6).

text: By 1929 the entry is much reduced in size and consists merely of a brief description of the operation, which is "done as a preventive measure in the infant" and "performed chiefly for purposes of cleanliness". Ironically, readers are then referred to the entries for "Mutilation" and "Deformation" for a discussion of circumcision in its religious context (14th edition, 1929, Vol. 5). (R. Darby)[46]

text: There were two related concerns that led to the widespread adoption of this surgical procedure at this time. The first was a growing belief within the medical community regarding the efficacy of circumcision in reducing the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, such as syphilis. The second was the notion that circumcision would lessen the urge towards masturbation, or "self abuse" as it was often called.

text: The tradition of male circumcision is said to have been practiced within the British Royal Family, with varying accounts regarding which monarch started it: either Queen Victoria on account of her rumored adherence to British Israelism and the notion she was a descendant of King David (or on the advice of her personal physician), or her grandfather King George.[47] The German-born King George was also the Prince-Elector of Hanover, and rumors existed that the Prince electors were circumcised.[47] This is highly dubious since there is no evidence that Victoria was a supporter of the British Israeli movement, and the links between the royal family and the ancient House of David were only first proposed by its followers in the 1870s, long after she bore her sons (there is also evidence lacking that her sons, particularly Edward, had circumcisions); there is also no indication that the prince electors (or George himself) were circumcised and that the king introduced it upon his arrival to Britain and his ascension to the throne in 1714.[47] If male members of the royal family were circumcised, the reason was due to their embrace of a custom popular amongst the upper-classes in the late 19th and 20th centuries.[47] Prince Charles and his brothers are believed to have been circumcised (the former by a reputable rabbi and mohel), but the supposed tradition ended before the births of William and his brother, Harry due to their mother's objections.[47] Speculations arose in the media that William's son may have been circumcised following his birth in 2013, but this is also highly unlikely.[47]

text: Medical concerns[edit]

text: The first medical doctor to advocate for the adoption of circumcision was the eminent English physician, Jonathan Hutchinson.[48] In 1855, he published a study in which he compared the rate of contraction of venereal disease amongst the gentile and Jewish population of London. Although his manipulation and usage of the data has since been shown to have been flawed (the protection that Jews appear to have are more likely due to cultural factors[49]), his study appeared to demonstrate that circumcised men were significantly less vulnerable to such disease.[50] (A 2006 systematic review concluded that the evidence "strongly indicates that circumcised men are at lower risk of chancroid and syphilis."[51])

text: Hutchinson was a notable leader in the campaign for medical circumcision for the next fifty years, publishing A plea for circumcison in the British Medical Journal (1890), where he contended that the foreskin "... constitutes a harbour for filth, and is a constant source of irritation. It conduces to masturbation, and adds to the difficulties of sexual continence. It increases the risk of syphilis in early life, and of cancer in the aged."[52] As can be seen, he was also a convert to the idea that circumcision would prevent masturbation, a great Victorian concern. In an 1893 article, On circumcision as a preventive of masturbation he wrote: "I am inclined to believe that [circumcision] may often accomplish much, both in breaking the habit [of masturbation] as an immediate result, and in diminishing the temptation to it subsequently."[53]

text: Nathaniel Heckford, a paediatrician at the East London Hospital for Children, wrote Circumcision as a Remedial Measure in Certain Cases of Epilepsy, Chorea, etc. (1865), in which he argued that circumcision acted as an effective remedial measure in the prevention of certain cases of epilepsy and chorea.

text: These increasingly common medical beliefs were even applied to females. The controversial obstetrical surgeon Isaac Baker Brown founded the London Surgical Home for Women in 1858, where he worked on advancing surgical procedures. In 1866, Baker Brown described the use of clitoridectomy, the removal of the clitoris, as a cure for several conditions, including epilepsy, catalepsy and mania, which he attributed to masturbation.[54][55] In On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females, he gave a 70 per cent success rate using this treatment.[55]

text: However, during 1866, Baker Brown began to receive negative feedback from within the medical profession from doctors who opposed the use of clitoridectomies and questioned the validity of Baker Brown's claims of success. An article appeared in The Times in December, which was favourable towards Baker Brown's work but suggested that Baker Brown had treated women of unsound mind.[55] He was also accused of performing clitoridectomies without the consent or knowledge of his patients or their families.[55] In 1867 he was expelled from the Obstetrical Society of London for carrying out the operations without consent.[56] Baker Brown's ideas were more accepted in the United States, where, from the 1860s, the operation was being used to cure hysteria, nymphomania, and in young girls what was called "rebellion" or "unfeminine aggression".

text: Lewis Sayre, New York orthopedic surgeon, became a prominent advocate for circumcision in America. In 1870, he examined a five-year-old boy who was unable to straighten his legs, and whose condition had so far defied treatment. Upon noting that the boy's genitals were inflamed, Sayre hypothesized that chronic irritation of the boy's foreskin had paralyzed his knees via reflex neurosis. Sayre circumcised the boy, and within a few weeks, he recovered from his paralysis. After several additional incidents in which circumcision also appeared effective in treating paralyzed joints, Sayre began to promote circumcision as a powerful orthopedic remedy. Sayre's prominence within the medical profession allowed him to reach a wide audience.

text: As more practitioners tried circumcision as a treatment for otherwise intractable medical conditions, sometimes achieving positive results, the list of ailments reputed to be treatable through circumcision grew. By the 1890s, hernia, bladder infections, kidney stones, insomnia, chronic indigestion, rheumatism, epilepsy, asthma, bedwetting, Bright's disease, erectile dysfunction, syphilis, insanity, and skin cancer had all been linked to the foreskin, and many physicians advocated universal circumcision as a preventive health measure.

text: Specific medical arguments aside, several hypotheses have been raised in explaining the public's acceptance of infant circumcision as preventive medicine. The success of the germ theory of disease had not only enabled physicians to combat many of the postoperative complications of surgery, but had made the wider public deeply suspicious of dirt and bodily secretions. Accordingly, the smegma that collects under the foreskin was viewed as unhealthy, and circumcision readily accepted as good penile hygiene.[57] Secondly, moral sentiment of the day regarded masturbation as not only sinful, but also physically and mentally unhealthy, stimulating the foreskin to produce the host of maladies of which it was suspected. In this climate, circumcision could be employed as a means of discouraging masturbation.[58] All About the Baby, a popular parenting book of the 1890s, recommended infant circumcision for precisely this purpose. (However, a survey of 1410 men in the United States in 1992, Laumann found that circumcised men were more likely to report masturbating at least once a month.) As hospitals proliferated in urban areas, childbirth, at least among the upper and middle classes, was increasingly under the care of physicians in hospitals rather than with midwives in the home. It has been suggested that once a critical mass of infants were being circumcised in the hospital, circumcision became a class marker of those wealthy enough to afford a hospital birth.[59]

text: During the same time period, circumcision was becoming easier to perform. William Stewart Halsted's 1885 discovery of hypodermic cocaine as a local anaesthetic made it easier for doctors without expertise in the use of chloroform and other general anaesthetics to perform minor surgeries. Also, several mechanically aided circumcision techniques, forerunners of modern clamp-based circumcision methods, were first published in the medical literature of the 1890s, allowing surgeons to perform circumcisions more safely and successfully.

text: By the 1920s, advances in the understanding of disease had undermined much of the original medical basis for preventive circumcision. Doctors continued to promote it, however, as good penile hygiene and as a preventive for a handful of conditions local to the penis: balanitis, phimosis, and penile cancer.[citation needed]

text: Masturbation concerns[edit]

text: Circumcision in English-speaking countries arose in a climate of negative attitudes towards sex, especially concerning masturbation. In her 1978 article The Ritual of Circumcision,[58] Karen Erickson Paige writes: "The current medical rationale for circumcision developed after the operation was in wide practice. The original reason for the surgical removal of the foreskin, or prepuce, was to control 'masturbatory insanity' – the range of mental disorders that people believed were caused by the 'polluting' practice of 'self-abuse.'"

text: "Self-abuse" was a term commonly used to describe masturbation in the 19th century. According to Paige, "treatments ranged from diet, moral exhortations, hydrotherapy, and marriage, to such drastic measures as surgery, physical restraints, frights, and punishment. Some doctors recommended covering the penis with plaster of Paris, leather, or rubber; cauterization; making boys wear chastity belts or spiked rings; and in extreme cases, castration." Paige details how circumcision became popular as a masturbation remedy:

text: In the 1890s, it became a popular technique to prevent, or cure, masturbatory insanity. In 1891 the president of the Royal College of Surgeons of England published On Circumcision as Preventive of Masturbation, and two years later another British doctor wrote Circumcision: Its Advantages and How to Perform It, which listed the reasons for removing the "vestigial" prepuce. Evidently the foreskin could cause "nocturnal incontinence," hysteria, epilepsy, and irritation that might "give rise to erotic stimulation and, consequently, masturbation." Another physician, P.C. Remondino, added that "circumcision is like a substantial and well-secured life annuity ... it insures better health, greater capacity for labor, longer life, less nervousness, sickness, loss of time, and less doctor bills." No wonder it became a popular remedy.[58]

text: At the same time circumcisions were advocated on men, clitoridectomies (removal of the clitoris) were also performed for the same reason (to treat female masturbators). The US "Orificial Surgery Society" for female "circumcision" operated until 1925, and clitoridectomies and infibulations would continue to be advocated by some through the 1930s. As late as 1936, L. E. Holt, an author of pediatric textbooks, advocated male and female circumcision as a treatment for masturbation.[58]

text: One of the leading advocates of circumcision was John Harvey Kellogg. He advocated the consumption of Kellogg's corn flakes to prevent masturbation, and he believed that circumcision would be an effective way to eliminate masturbation in males.

text: Covering the organs with a cage has been practiced with entire success. A remedy which is almost always successful in small boys is circumcision, especially when there is any degree of phimosis. The operation should be performed by a surgeon without administering an anesthetic, as the brief pain attending the operation will have a salutary effect upon the mind, especially if it be connected with the idea of punishment, as it may well be in some cases. The soreness which continues for several weeks interrupts the practice, and if it had not previously become too firmly fixed, it may be forgotten and not resumed. If any attempt is made to watch the child, he should be so carefully surrounded by vigilance that he cannot possibly transgress without detection. If he is only partially watched, he soon learns to elude observation, and thus the effect is only to make him cunning in his vice.

text: Robert Darby (2003), writing in the Medical Journal of Australia, noted that some 19th-century circumcision advocates—and their opponents—believed that the foreskin was sexually sensitive:

text: In the 19th century the role of the foreskin in erotic sensation was well understood by physicians who wanted to cut it off precisely because they considered it the major factor leading boys to masturbation. The Victorian physician and venereologist William Acton (1814–1875) damned it as "a source of serious mischief", and most of his contemporaries concurred. Both opponents and supporters of circumcision agreed that the significant role the foreskin played in sexual response was the main reason why it should be either left in place or removed. William Hammond, a Professor of Mind in New York in the late 19th century, commented that "circumcision, when performed in early life, generally lessens the voluptuous sensations of sexual intercourse", and both he and Acton considered the foreskin necessary for optimal sexual function, especially in old age. Jonathan Hutchinson, English surgeon and pathologist (1828–1913), and many others, thought this was the main reason why it should be excised.[12]

text: Born in the United Kingdom during the late-nineteenth century, John Maynard Keynes and his brother Geoffrey, were both circumcised in boyhood due to parents' concern about their masturbatory habits.[60] Mainstream pediatric manuals continued to recommend circumcision as a deterrent against masturbation until the 1950s.[12]

text: Spread and decline[edit]

text: Infant circumcision was taken up in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and the English-speaking parts of Canada. Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate[61] of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, and 72% in 1950.

text: In South Korea, circumcision was largely unknown before the establishment of the United States trusteeship in 1945 and the spread of American influence.[62] More than 90% of South Korean high school boys are now circumcised at an average age of 12 years, which makes South Korea a unique case.[63] However circumcision rates are now declining in South Korea.[64]

text: Decline in circumcision in the English-speaking world began in the postwar period. The British paediatrician Douglas Gairdner published a famous study in 1949, The fate of the foreskin,[65][66] described as "a model of perceptive and pungent writing."[67] It revealed that for the years 1942–1947, about 16 children per year in England and Wales had died because of circumcision, a rate of about 1 per 6000 circumcisions.[65] The article had an influential impact on medical practice and public opinion.[68]

text: In 1949, a lack of consensus in the medical community as to whether circumcision carried with it any notable health benefit motivated the United Kingdom's newly formed National Health Service to remove infant circumcision from its list of covered services. Since then, circumcision has been an out-of-pocket cost to parents, and the proportion of circumcised men is around 9%.[69]

text: Similar trends have operated in Canada, (where public medical insurance is universal, and where private insurance does not replicate services already paid from the public purse) individual provincial health insurance plans began delisting non-therapeutic circumcision in the 1980s. Manitoba was the final province to delist non-therapeutic circumcision, which occurred in 2005.[70] The practice has also declined to about nine percent of newborn boys in Australia and is almost unknown in New Zealand.[71]


document_title: SMART criteria

question_text: who came up with the idea of smart goals

root

text: SMART criteria

text: History[edit]

text: The November 1981 issue of Management Review contained a paper by George T. Doran called There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management's goals and objectives.[1][3] It discussed the importance of objectives and the difficulty of setting them.

tag: p

text: Ideally speaking, each corporate, department, and section objective should be:

text:
Specific – target a specific area for improvement.
Measurable – quantify or at least suggest an indicator of progress.
Assignable – specify who will do it.
Realistic – state what results can realistically be achieved, given available resources.
Time-related – specify when the result(s) can be achieved.

tag: ul

text: Notice that these criteria don't say that all objectives must be quantified on all levels of management. In certain situations it is not realistic to attempt quantification, particularly in staff middle-management positions. Practicing managers and corporations can lose the benefit of a more abstract objective in order to gain quantification. It is the combination of the objective and its action plan that is really important. Therefore serious management should focus on these twins and not just the objective.

text: Current definitions[edit]

text: Each letter in SMART refers to a different criterion for judging objectives. Different sources use the letters to refer to different things. Typically accepted criteria are as follows.

text:
Letter
Most common
Alternative

S
Specific[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]
(Strategic and specific)[15]

M
Measurable[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
Motivating (Source: One Minute Manager)

A
Achievable[4][7][8][10][12][13]
Agreed,[6][16] attainable,[11][15] action-oriented,[5] ambitious,[9] aligned with corporate goals,[17] (agreed, attainable and achievable)[14]

R
Relevant[4][7][10][12][18]
Realistic,[6][8][9][11][13][16] resourced,[18] reasonable,[5] (realistic and resourced),[14] results-based[15]

T
Time-bound[4][7][8][9][14][15]
Trackable (Source: One Minute Manager), time-based,[10] time limited,[12] time/cost limited,[6] timely,[5] time-sensitive,[11] timeframe[13], testable[19]

tag: table

text: Choosing certain combinations of these labels can cause duplication, such as selecting 'attainable' and 'realistic', or can cause significant overlapping as in combining 'appropriate' and 'relevant'. The term 'agreed' is often used in management situations where buy-in from stakeholders is desirable (e.g. appraisal situations).

text: Additional criteria[edit]

text: Some authors have added additional letters giving additional criteria. Examples are given below.

text:
SMARTER

Evaluated and reviewed[4]
Evaluate consistently and recognize mastery[5]

SMARTTA

Trackable and agreed[13]

SMARRT

Realistic and relevance.[20] 'Realistic' refers to something that can be done given the available resources. 'Relevance' to the bigger picture and vision.

SMART-VT

Specific, Measurable, Actionable, Realistic, Testable, Verifiable, and Traceable


document_title: Six Flags

question_text: what are the 6 flags of 6 flags

question_tokens: what are the 6 flags of 6 flags

text: Six Flags

text: History[edit]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The name "Six Flags" refers to the flags of the six different nations that have governed Texas: Spain, France, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the United States, and the Confederate States of America.[6] The original park was (and still is) split into separate regions, such as the Spain and Mexico section which featured Spanish-themed rides, attractions, and buildings.

text: The Six Flags chain originated in 1957 with the creation of The Great Southwest Corporation by Angus G. Wynne and other investors. Construction of "Six Flags Over Texas" started in 1960, and the park was opened the next year for a short (45-day) season. The first park initially featured a Native American village, a gondola ride, a railroad, some Wild West shows, a stagecoach ride, and "Skull Island", a pirate-themed adventure attraction. There was also an excursion, inspired by the historical La Salle Expeditions in the late 1600s, called "LaSalle's River Adventure", aboard French riverboats through a wilderness full of animated puppets.[7][8] Over time, all of those attractions, except for the railroad, would be replaced by others, such as roller coasters, swing rides, log flumes, and shoot-the-chute rides, as well as an observation tower.

text: Growth and acquisitions[edit]

text: The original park, in Arlington (between Dallas and Fort Worth) was sold in 1966 to a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which was actively pursuing non-railroad investments in an effort to diversify its sources of income. (In 1968, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with the New York Central Railroad to form Penn Central Corp.) With the new owners came a more abundant supply of capital for geographic expansion and park additions. Six Flags opened Six Flags Over Georgia in 1967 and Six Flags Over Mid-America in 1971, which would, along with Six Flags Over Texas, be the only three parks that would be constructed by the company.

text: The company continued to grow by acquiring independent parks. Six Flags purchased AstroWorld in Houston, Texas in 1975, Great Adventure in Jackson, New Jersey in 1977 and Magic Mountain in Valencia, California in 1979. These purchases were followed by Penn Central selling assets to Bally Manufacturing in 1982.

text: In 1984, the Great America theme park in Gurnee, Illinois was acquired from the Marriott hotel chain.

text: Also in 1984, as a result of its acquisition of Great America, Six Flags acquired the rights to Time Warner/Warner Bros.' Looney Tunes animated characters for use in Six Flags properties. Bally surrendered control of the chain to Wesray Capital Corporation in a 1987 leveraged buyout. Time Warner quickly began to gain more leverage in the company, gaining a 19.5% stake in Six Flags in 1990 and then 50% in 1991, with the remaining shares of the company being split by Blackstone Group and Wertheim Schroder & Company. Time Warner purchased the remaining stake in Six Flags in 1993, changing the company's name from Six Flags Corp. to Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc.

text: In 1996, Six Flags began to manage Fiesta Texas theme park in San Antonio, Texas and purchased the park from USAA in 1998.

text: History of Premier Parks[edit]

text: Premier Parks originally operated as the Tierco Group, Inc., an Oklahoma-based real estate company. The company purchased the Frontier City theme park in Oklahoma City in 1982 for $1.2 million, although Tierco had no intention of entering the amusement park business. Company officials described Frontier City as "beat up" and "run down"; they planned to demolish it, subdivide the land, and build a shopping center. However, given an oil bust in Oklahoma, developers lost interest in converting the park into a shopping center. In 1984 Tierco hired Gary Story as general manager of Frontier City and sunk about $13 million into improving the park. As the new head of Frontier City, he quadrupled the park's attendance and revenues. Under his leadership, two rides, a ticket booth, sales office, and a petting zoo were added to the park. Food service improved.

text: In 1988, Tierco shifted its strategic direction to amusement parks. It sold much of its property in the late 1980s, generating capital to reinvest in Frontier City. As this reinvestment paid off, more capital became available, creating further growth. By 1991, Tierco opened White Water waterpark in Oklahoma City (the name later became White Water Bay). The company realized the key to boosting a park's attendance was to add new and exciting rides, and make it family-friendly.

text: Tierco acquired the financially troubled Wild World in Largo, Maryland, in 1992 and later changed that park's name to Adventure World. With a $500,000 investment, Tierco expanded Wild World's kiddie section and remodeled its buildings to give the park a tropical look and feel. Story was promoted to executive vice president after the purchase of Wild World. In 1994, he was promoted again to president and chief operating officer (COO). More flat rides and two roller coasters were added to that park.

text: Since Tierco was on its way to becoming a "premier" regional theme park operator, in 1994 it changed its name to Premier Parks, Inc. Kieran E. Burke, chairman and chief executive officer (CEO), noted that the new name signified the beginning of a new era for the company.

text: In the second half of the 1990s, Premier picked up speed. In 1995, the company acquired these Funtime Parks, Inc. properties: Geauga Lake near Cleveland, Ohio, Wyandot Lake in Powell, Ohio, Darien Lake near Buffalo, New York, and Lake Compounce in Bristol, Connecticut. In 1996, Premier added to its portfolio, buying Elitch Gardens in Denver, Colorado, the Waterworld USA waterparks in Sacramento and Concord, California, Riverside Park in Agawam, Massachusetts, and Great Escape and Splashwater Kingdom in Lake George, New York. Premier immediately sold the Lake Compounce park to Kennywood in Pennsylvania.

text: Geauga Lake, Wyandot Lake, and Adventure World included water parks, while Frontier City was 14.8 miles away from White Water Bay that required separate admission. Riverside added one just before being sold. Premier Parks, in 1995 and 1996, added water parks to Darien Lake, Lake Compounce (immediately before the Kennywood sale), Elitch Gardens, and Great Escape.

text: Premier went public in 1996 and raised nearly $70 million through an initial offering at $18 per share. The company planned to use the money to expand its ten parks and acquire others. In 1997, Premier purchased Kentucky Kingdom in Louisville, and Marine World near San Francisco. A second public offering, at $29 per share, raised an additional $2 million.

text: Nearly 8.8 million people visited Premier's parks in 1996.

text: Premier added amusement park rides and roller coasters to Marine World in 1998.

text: Acquisition of Six Flags by Premier Parks[edit]

text: Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc. was purchased in whole on April 1, 1998 from Time Warner by Premier Parks for $1.86 billion.[9] Premier began to apply the Six Flags name to several smaller parks that the company had already owned: Darien Lake, Elitch Gardens, Kentucky Kingdom, and Adventure World.

text: In 1999, Premier Parks purchased Warner Bros. Movie World Germany and the yet-to-be-built Warner Bros. Movie World Madrid from Warner Bros.. As part of the acquisition Premier Parks had the opportunity to open more European theme parks with Warner Bros. Movie World branding. Warner Bros. Movie World on the Gold Coast, Australia was not part of the deal. The same transaction saw Premier Parks obtain exclusive rights for Warner Bros. licensing in Europe and Latin America, in addition to their existing rights for the United States and Canada.[10]

text: In 2000, Premier Parks assumed the Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc. name and continued re-branding its parks, including the Geauga Lake park into Six Flags Ohio and Riverside Park to Six Flags New England. Six Flags began a vigorous expansion, attempting to branch out internationally, acquiring numerous properties across the USA, plus the Walibi chain, and the historic Belgian park Bellewaerde in Europe, La Ronde in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and Reino Aventura in Mexico. Three of those parks were re-branded as Six Flags parks: Walibi Flevo became Six Flags Holland, Walibi Wavre became Six Flags Belgium, and Reino Aventura became Six Flags Mexico.

text: In 2001, Six Flags acquired the former SeaWorld Ohio from Anheuser-Busch, merged it with the adjacent Six Flags Ohio and re-branded the combined park as Six Flags Worlds of Adventure.[11] The park was positioned to compete against northern Ohio's Cedar Point.

text: Asset sales and shareholder revolt[edit]

text: In 2004, Six Flags began to close and sell properties in an effort to help alleviate the company's growing debt. On March 10, Six Flags sold its European parks, with the exception of the Movie World park in Madrid, Spain, to Star Parks, a division of Palamon Capital Partners.[12] The Madrid park was sold back to Time Warner and renamed "Parque Warner Madrid".[13] In April, Six Flags determined that the investment required to keep Worlds of Adventure competitive with Cedar Point would be too great, leading to that park being sold to Cedar Fair.[14] These sales raised $345 million in an effort to relieve Six Flags' massive debt.[15]

text: In 2005, Six Flags endured even more turmoil. Some of the company's largest investors, notably Bill Gates's Cascade Investments (which then owned about 11% of Six Flags) and Daniel Snyder's Red Zone, LLC (which owned 12%), demanded change. On August 17, 2005, Red Zone began a proxy battle to gain control of Six Flags' board of directors. On August 29, Six Flags New Orleans was severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina.

text: On September 12, Six Flags Chief Executive Officer Kieran Burke announced that Six Flags AstroWorld would be closed and demolished at the end of the 2005 season. The company cited issues such as the park's performance, and parking issues involving the Houston Texans football team, Reliant Stadium, and the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, leveraged with the estimated value of the property which included the park. Company executives were expecting to receive upwards of $150 million for the real estate, but ended up receiving $77 million when the bare property (which cost $20 million to clear) was sold to a development corporation in 2006.[16]

text: On November 22, Red Zone announced it had gained control of the board. Kieran Burke was removed on December 14 and replaced by Mark Shapiro, former Executive Vice President of Programming at ESPN. Six Flags then named former Representative Jack Kemp, entertainment mogul Harvey Weinstein, and Michael Kassan, the former president of the Interpublic Group of Companies Incorporated, to their newly revamped board of directors.

text: Even with the new management team, the sell-off would continue into 2006. On January 27, Six Flags announced the sale of Frontier City and White Water Bay after the 2006 operating season. At the same time, Six Flags announced it would close corporate offices in Oklahoma City, moving its headquarters to New York City. Six Flags CEO Mark Shapiro said he expected the parks to continue operation after the sale, a lesson the company learned after its public relations debacle with the closure of AstroWorld. In June, Six Flags announced it was considering closing or selling up to six of its parks, including Elitch Gardens, Darien Lake, WaterWorld in (Concord, California), Wild Waves and Enchanted Village in Federal Way, Washington, Splashtown in Houston, Texas and, most notably, Six Flags Magic Mountain.[17] In addition, Six Flags announced the sale of Wyandot Lake in Powell, Ohio to the neighboring Columbus Zoo and Aquarium.[18] Ultimately, Six Flags Magic Mountain was spared, with the remaining six parks sold on January 11, 2007 to CNL Lifestyle Properties for $312 million: $275 million cash and a note for $37 million.[19]

text: Bankruptcy[edit]

text: The company's cash flow had decreased by over $120 million annually during the Shapiro years. In October 2008, Six Flags was warned its stock value had fallen below the required minimums to remain listed on the New York Stock Exchange.[20] With the financial crisis of 2007–08 weighing both on consumer spending and the ability to access credit facilities, Six Flags was believed to be unable to make a payment to preferred stockholders due in August 2009.[21] Management saw the business as a sound one, noting that attendance across the company's parks increased slightly in 2008 compared to 2007.[20] Six Flags CEO Mark Shapiro said that the company's problem was the declining attendance and cash flow created by his new management initiatives .[20] If not resolved, the company warned in its 2008 annual report[22] that the situation might require a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing, with Six Flags already retaining counsel should that occur.[21] The company stated at the time that it expected business to continue as normal in the event of such a filing,[20] although one analyst believed attendance at the company's parks would decrease by six percent, suggesting parents would be leery of letting their children ride a roller coaster operated by a bankrupt company.[21] In April 2009, the New York Stock Exchange announced it would delist Six Flags' stock on April 20, a decision that the company did not intend to appeal.[23] On June 1, 2009, Six Flags announced they would delay their $15 million debt payment further using a 30-day grace period. Less than two weeks later, on June 13, the firm filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection,[4][24] but issued a statement that the parks would continue to operate normally while the company restructured.[25] On August 21, 2009, Six Flags' Chapter 11 restructuring plan was announced in which lenders would control 92% of the company in exchange for cancelling $1.13 billion in debt.[26]

text: One component of the restructuring was negotiating a new lease agreement with the Kentucky State Fair Board, which owned much of the land and attractions for Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom.[27] Six Flags had asked to forgo rent payments for the remaining nine years of its current lease agreement in exchange for profit-sharing from the park's operations.[28] When it appeared that the offer had been rejected, Six Flags announced in February 2010 that it would not re-open the park.[27] However, the Kentucky State Fair Board stated at the time that they were still open to negotiating a revised lease agreement.[29]

text: On April 28, 2010, the company's bondholders reached an agreement on a reorganization plan.[30] Junior note holders, including hedge funds Stark Investments and Pentwater Capital Management,[5] assumed control of the company, while senior note holders were paid in cash.[30] Despite objections from some parties who stood to gain nothing,[30] the bankruptcy judge approved the plan on April 30, 2010.[31] As part of the settlement, Chairman of the Board Dan Snyder was removed, while Chief Executive Officer Mark Shapiro briefly remained in his post.[31]

text: Emergence from bankruptcy[edit]

text: Six Flags officially emerged from bankruptcy protection as Six Flags Entertainment Corp. on May 3, 2010, and announced plans to issue new stock on the New York Stock Exchange.[5] Amid suspected disagreements regarding the future of the company with the board, Shapiro left the company and Al Weber, Jr. was brought in as interim President and CEO.[32] The company announced their corporate headquarters would move from New York City to Grand Prairie, Texas.[33]

text: Six Flags announced that Jim Reid-Anderson would replace Weber and become Chairman, President and chief executive officer (CEO) on August 13, 2010.[34] John Duffey also joined the company in 2010,[35] taking the role of chief financial officer (CFO).[36] As of October 1, 2012, Al Weber, Jr. had retired as chief operating officer (COO) with no immediate successor.

text: On February 18, 2016, Six Flags announced that Jim Reid-Anderson had been promoted as Executive Chairman and John M. Duffey succeeded him as President and CEO.[35][36]

text: On January 11, 2016, Six Flags announced Six Flags Zhejiang, then named Six Flags Haiyan, in China. On the same day, a website was created along with concept art for the property.[37] A month later on February 2, 2016. Six Flags announced Six Flags Hurricane Harbor Oaxtepec.[38] The water park, originally named Parque Acuatico Oaxtepec, is a 76-acre park located in Morelos that went bankrupt in 2011.[39]

text: On March 21, 2016, Six Flags announced a partnership with NaVi Entertainment to build a Six Flags-branded theme park and a Six Flags Hurricane Harbor-branded water park in Vietnam.[40]

text: On March 29, 2016, Six Flags announced the revival of its previously cancelled Six Flags Dubai. As part of the second phase of the Dubai Parks and Resorts project in Jebel Ali, the park is expected to open in 2019.[41]

text: On July 20, 2016, Six Flags announced an agreement with Riverside Investment Group Co. Ltd. for the development of a second Six Flags-branded theme park in China together with a water park. The two parks will be located in Bishan District, a district of Chongqing.[42]

text: On April 27, 2017, the company announced it would take over operations of Waterworld California in Concord, California making it Six Flags' 20th property.

text: On July 18, 2017, Six Flags announced that President and CEO John M. Duffey had retired from the company and Jim Reid-Anderson had re-assumed the roles of Chairman, President, and CEO.[35][43]

text: Confederate flag controversy[edit]

text: At the flagship Six Flags Over Texas theme park, from 1960 to the mid-1990s, the version of the flag representing the Confederacy was depicted by the rectangular version of the now-inflammatory battle flag. During this time, Civil War re-enactment shows were regularly scheduled at the park, and a variety of different versions of the Confederate flag were used, including the battle flag. However, starting in the 1990s, the Confederate flag depicted was replaced by the lesser-known first national flag of the Confederacy, the "Stars and Bars" with seven stars.[44]

text: In June 2015, shortly after Dylann Roof A known Democratic supporter killed nine parishioners in Charleston, South Carolina, the park declared they used no variation of the battle flag, either in display nor for sale in shops.

text: Marketing efforts[edit]

text: Initially, Six Flags parks would prepare separate marketing campaigns for each park, sometimes with special themes (like the 25th anniversary of Six Flags Great America and the 35th anniversary of Six Flags Over Georgia in 2002).

text: TV commercials[edit]

text: In 2004, although DC Comics and Looney Tunes as well as Scooby-Doo still had a major presence at the parks, Six Flags began a new series of commercials for the parks. The commercials introduced a new mascot: "Mr. Six", a seemingly feeble old man in a tuxedo and red bow tie. In many of the commercials, Mr. Six would slowly exit a multi-colored bus, only to start frenetically dancing to the Vengaboys' "We Like to Party". The commercials were an immediate hit and Mr. Six almost instantly became the de facto mascot, and his presence was felt for years after the character was retired. These ads have become widely parodied on the Internet, with faces from other Internet memes being superimposed over Mr. Six's face.

text: From 2008 to 2010, Six Flags' TV ads consisted of a "Fun-O-Meter" in which the beginning of the ad showed something boring or embarrassing and a man's face judges it "One Flag!" or sometimes " Oh! Two Flags!" Then roller coasters and attractions of Six Flags are shown and says "Six Flags, More Flags, More Fun!" for Six Flags parks. However, the thick accent of the Asian man in the original commercials had drawn criticism for being an offensive caricature.[45] In 2009, the Mr. Six character came back from retirement and replaced the Asian man in Six Flags' ads, still using the Fun-O-Meter. In 2011, Six Flags' TV ads got a brand-new slogan "Go Big! Go Six Flags!" for its theme parks.

text: Licensing with other brands and companies[edit]

text: Six Flags has licensed its name and its theme park creations to other companies, who have used these assets to create licensed products. One notable such example is the theme park simulation game Roller Coaster Tycoon 2, which featured recreations of Six Flags parks and rides that could be expanded and operated at the player's discretion.

text: In 2008, Six Flags partnered with Brash Entertainment to create a video game based on the Six Flags parks named Six Flags Fun Park.[citation needed] The game was first released on the Nintendo DS and PC in October 2008. The Wii version was delayed after Brash Entertainment went out of business and so the rights were taken over by Ubisoft and released the game on the Wii in March 2009. The game allows players to explore the themed areas and mini-games representative of a visit to a Six Flags park. In the game, players are tasked with quests that encourage them to explore the park's universe. After creating a unique custom character, Six Flags Fun Park patrons can win prizes, and compete with other players in 40 mini-games. Although the video game is called Six Flags Fun Park, it lacks any major reference of Six Flags outside of the names of the different areas. This caused some to speculate that the video game was created separately, then the rights to the name of the game were sold as a way to pay for the game's development.[citation needed] When the game was released, it eventually ended up getting abysmal ratings across the board. IGN gave the Wii version a 4.5 out of 10, saying "The quests are uninteresting and the game's '40 Thrilling Games' (as touted by the box) are far from entertaining."[citation needed]

text: In recent years, Six Flags has created strategic partnerships with other companies who would feature their products inside the parks. On March 30, 2006, Six Flags announced that it will sell no other pizza besides Papa John's at its parks. In turn, Six Flags will receive an annual sponsorship and promotional opportunities from Papa John's, though financial details of the deal have not been disclosed. However, in the 2011 season, it was replaced by another pizza brand. Other recent partners have included Cold Stone Creamery, Johnny Rockets, Tyson Foods (chicken), Chrysler, and Nintendo, which added testing stations in several parks to show off its Wii console.[46]

text: In late 2010, Six Flags began the process of removing Non-WB licensed theming from attractions. They terminated licenses with Thomas the Tank Engine, The Wiggles, Tony Hawk, Evel Knievel, and Terminator.[47][48] However, since then there has been an expansion of licensing agreements with Warner Bros., with whom the company park has had a long-standing relationship with. The expansion lies specifically with Warner Bros. DC Comics brand, where the two teamed up to create the innovative Justice League: Battle for Metropolis as well as many other roller coasters and other rides.

text: On May 18, 2017, Six Flags and Riverside Group signed an agreement with Paws, Inc. to use Garfield in children's areas in Six Flags-branded theme parks in China.[49]

text: Other assets[edit]

text: On June 19, 2007, Six Flags announced it had purchased 40% of Dick Clark Productions, which owns rights to American Bandstand and other shows and productions.[50]

text: In 2012, Jim Reid-Anderson stated that the company would sell its stake in Dick Clark Productions.

text: Current properties[edit]

text: Amusement parks[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Year Opened
Year Acquired
Notes

Great Escape
Queensbury, New York
1954
1996
Acquired in Premier Parks deal.

La Ronde
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
1967
2001
Emphyteutic lease from the City of Montreal through 2065

Six Flags America
Largo, Maryland
1973
1999
Acquired in Premier Parks deal. Formerly known as Adventure World.

Six Flags Discovery Kingdom
Vallejo, California
1968
1997
Acquired in Premier Parks deal. Initially re-branded as Six Flags Marine World, it received its current name in 2007.

Six Flags Fiesta Texas
San Antonio, Texas
1992
1999
Originally owned by USAA and was managed by Gaylord Entertainment from 1992–1995. Six Flags took over park management in 1996 and the park was purchased mid season 1998.

Six Flags Great Adventure
Jackson, New Jersey
1974
1977
Six Flags Wild Safari now attached to the park, making Great Adventure the world's largest theme park.

Six Flags Great America
Gurnee, Illinois
1976
1984
Acquired from Marriott Corporation.

Six Flags Magic Mountain
Valencia, California
1971
1979
Acquired from Newhall Land and Farming Company.

Six Flags México
Mexico City, Mexico
1982
1999
Acquired from Reino Aventura

Six Flags New England
Agawam, Massachusetts
1870
1997
Acquired in Premier Parks deal.

Six Flags Over Georgia
Austell, Georgia
1967
Built by Six Flags
Like Six Flags Over Texas, the park is owned by a limited partnership and is managed and operated by Six Flags.

Six Flags Over Texas
Arlington, Texas
1961
Built by Six Flags
The first Six Flags park. The park is owned by a limited partnership and is managed and operated by Six Flags.

Six Flags St. Louis
Eureka, Missouri
1971
Built by Six Flags
Last park built by Six Flags. Originally opened as Six Flags Over Mid-America (name changed in 1996). The only original park totally owned by Six Flags.

text: Water parks[edit]

text: Outdoor[edit]

text: Included with admission[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Year Opened
Year Acquired
Notes

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Largo, Maryland
1982
1992
Located within Six Flags America.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Gurnee, Illinois
2005
N/A
Located within Six Flags Great America. Guests without a season pass are required to pay an additional fee to enter.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Agawam, Massachusetts
1997
1998
Located within Six Flags New England.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Austell, Georgia
2014
N/A
Located within Six Flags Over Georgia.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Eureka, Missouri
1999
N/A
Located within Six Flags St. Louis.

Splashwater Kingdom
Queensbury, New York
1995
1996
Located within Great Escape.

White Water Bay
San Antonio, Texas
1992
1998
Located within Six Flags Fiesta Texas.

text: Separate admission/property[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Year Opened
Year Acquired
Notes

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Valencia, California
1995
N/A
Located adjacent to Six Flags Magic Mountain.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Arlington, Texas
1983
1995
Acquired from Wet 'n Wild. Located across Interstate 30 from Six Flags Over Texas.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Jackson, New Jersey
2000
N/A
Located adjacent to Six Flags Great Adventure.

Six Flags White Water
Marietta, Georgia
1983
1999
Located about 15 miles from Six Flags Over Georgia.

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Oaxtepec, Mexico
2017
2016
Reopened in the former Parque Acuatico Oaxtepec location

Waterworld California
Concord, California
1995
2017
This water park was built by Premier Parks prior to its purchase of Six Flags. It was sold to PARC Management in the 2007 property sell-off. On April 27, 2017, Six Flags announced it had entered into an agreement with EPR Properties to manage the park.

text: Indoor[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Year Opened
Year Acquired
Notes

Six Flags Great Escape Lodge & Indoor Waterpark
Queensbury, New York
2006
N/A
Located across from Great Escape. It includes a resort.

text: Upcoming properties[edit]

text: Amusement parks[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Year Opening
Year Acquired
Notes
Source

Six Flags Zhejiang
Haiyan, China
2019
N/A
First Six Flags theme park in China in partnership with Riverside Group

Six Flags Dubai
Dubai, U.A.E.
2019
N/A
Located in the second phase of Dubai Parks and Resorts, it is expected to include 27 rides and attractions
[51][52]

Six Flags Kids World
Haiyan, China
2020
N/A
Six Flags theme park designed especially for families with young children. Located adjacent to Six Flags Zhejiang
[53]

Six Flags Kids World
Bishan, China
2020
N/A
Six Flags theme park designed especially for families with young children. Located adjacent to Six Flags Chongqing
[53]

Six Flags Adventure Park
Bishan, China
2020
N/A
Adjoining the Six Flags Chongqing complex
[53]

Six Flags Chongqing
Bishan, China
2020
N/A
This will be the second Six Flags-branded theme park in China.
[54]

text: Water parks[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Year Opening
Year Acquired
Notes

Six Flags Hurricane Harbor
Haiyan, China
2019
N/A
Located within Six Flags Zhejiang[55]

text: Former properties[edit]

text: These properties are listed in alphabetical order by the final name of the park while under Six Flags control.

text:
Park
Location
Year opened
Year closed/Sold
Notes

American Adventures
Marietta, Georgia
1990
2008
This park was located adjacent to Six Flags White Water, and was marketed to families with young children. It was acquired by Zuma Holdings in 2008 and permanently closed in 2010.

Bellewaerde
Ypres, Belgium
1954
2004
This park was acquired in 1998. The property was sold and remains in operation under another company.

Frontier City
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
1958
2007
This park was owned by Premier Parks when it purchased the Six Flags chain. It was sold to PARC Management in the 2007 property sell-off.

Movieland Wax Museum
Buena Park, California
1962
1985
Purchased in 1970, this wax museum sold all of its holdings and moved many of the sets and wax figures to California, but sold the original clothing and props to the American Musical Academy of Arts Association. It was eventually closed in 2005.

Six Flags AstroWorld
Houston, Texas
1968
2005
AstroWorld was acquired in 1974. The park closed on October 30, 2005 and was demolished between late 2005 and 2006 for other development.

Six Flags Atlantis
Hollywood, Florida
1982
1989
This water park was acquired in 1984. Property was sold, but was eventually demolished in 1994.

Six Flags AutoWorld
Flint, Michigan
1984
1985
This indoor entertainment venue was eventually closed and the facility demolished.

Six Flags Belgium
Wavre, Belgium
1975
2004
The Walibi properties were purchased in 1998. Renamed Six Flags Belgium in 2000. Sold to CDA Parks in 2004. The park remains open today under the name Walibi Belgium.

Six Flags Darien Lake
Corfu, New York
1964
2007
This park was purchased by Premier Parks in 1995. It was sold to PARC Management in the 2007 property sell-off.

Six Flags Elitch Gardens
Denver, Colorado
1890
2007
This park was owned by Premier Parks when it purchased the Six Flags chain. It was sold to PARC Management in the 2007 property sell-off.

Six Flags Holland
Biddinghuizen, Netherlands
1971
2004
Like the other Walibi properties, the former Walibi Flevo was purchased in 1998. Renamed Six Flags Holland in 2000. Sold to CDA Parks in 2004. It remains open today under the name Walibi Holland.

Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom
Louisville, Kentucky
1987
2010
Initially built by local investors.
This park includes Six Flags Splashwater Kingdom water park, which opened in 1992. In February 2010, Six Flags announced it would close the park due to a dispute with the Kentucky State Fair Board, from which Six Flags leased much of the park's land area and attractions.[28] In 2014, Kentucky Kingdom reopened under new management.

Six Flags New Orleans
New Orleans
2000
2005
Originally opened as Jazzland, this park was bought in 2002 and re-branded as Six Flags New Orleans in 2003.
It was closed after severe damage from Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The city of New Orleans sued Six Flags in 2009 for not making progress to re-open and for not making required lease payments;[56] ultimately, the site was turned over to the city along with a cash payment.[57] In 2011, the city made plans to auction the site and all remaining rides and equipment.[58]

Six Flags Power Plant
Baltimore
1985
1989
Located in the Inner Harbor district of Baltimore, the site of this indoor amusement park has been redeveloped with Hard Rock Cafe, Barnes & Noble, Gold's Gym (closed 2010), and the world's first ESPN Zone location (closed 2010). This was Six Flags' second attempt at an indoor amusement park after AutoWorld. It was a little more successful, but it too closed down eventually.

Six Flags SplashTown
Houston, Texas
1984
2007
This water park was sold to PARC Management in the 2007 property sell-off and currently operates as Wet'n'Wild Splashtown.

Six Flags Stars Hall of Fame
Orlando, Florida
1975
1984
This wax museum was located near SeaWorld Orlando. Like SeaWorld, it was acquired by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, but it was closed almost immediately after the sale.

Six Flags Waterworld
Houston, Texas
1983
2005
This water park was adjacent to Six Flags AstroWorld. Park was sold and demolished for other development.

Six Flags Worlds of Adventure
Aurora, Ohio
1887
2004
Geauga Lake park was purchased by Premier Parks in 1995 prior to its purchase of the entire Six Flags chain. Re-branded as Six Flags Ohio for its opening season in 2000. It was then renamed Six Flags Worlds of Adventure when Six Flags annexed the adjacent SeaWorld Ohio marine park in 2001. In 2004, the entire property was sold to competing amusement park operator Cedar Fair. The park was closed after the 2007 season, but the attached water park remained open until the end of the 2016 season.

Warner Bros. Movie World Germany
Bottrop, Germany
1967
2004
This park was purchased in 1998. It was sold, with most of the other European parks, in the same transaction in 2004, and being renamed as Movie Park Germany.

Warner Bros. Movie World Madrid
Madrid, Spain
2002
2004
This park was built in a joint venture, to be managed by Six Flags. Unlike the other European Six Flags parks, this one was sold back to Time Warner, and currently operates under the name Parque Warner Madrid.

Walibi Aquitaine
Bordeaux, France
1992
2004
The Walibi properties were purchased in 1998. The park remains open today under new management, and under the name Walibi Sud-Ouest.

Walibi Lorraine
Metz, France
1989
2004
The Walibi properties were purchased in 1998. The park remains open today under the name Walygator Parc.

Walibi Rhône-Alpes
Lyon, France
1979
2004
The Walibi properties were purchased in 1998. The park remains open today under new management.

White Water Bay
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
1981
2007
This water park was sold to PARC Management in the 2007 property sell-off.

Wild Waves and Enchanted Village
Federal Way, Washington
1977
2007
This combination water park and amusement park was sold in 2007, and remains open to this day.

Wyandot Lake
Columbus, Ohio
1896
2006
The property was sold to the adjacent Columbus Zoo and Aquarium in 2006. The park reopened under zoo management on May 26, 2008 as Zoombezi Bay.


document_title: Police misconduct

question_text: how to press charges on a police officer

text: Police misconduct

text: Contributors and prediction[edit]

text: Misconduct has been shown to be related to personality and correlated to education, but it can also be significantly affected by the culture of the police agency.[10] Education is negatively correlated to misconduct, with better-educated officers receiving fewer complaints on average.[11]

text: Some analyses have found that changes in structural disadvantage, population mobility, and immigrant population have been associated with changes in police misconduct. Social disorganization may create a context for police misconduct because residents may not have in place the social networks necessary to organize against police malpractice.[12] The fact that most police officers enjoy broad discretion and minimal supervision has been cited as increasing opportunities for police misconduct.[13]

text: Video and audio recording[edit]

text: Many police cars are now equipped with recording systems, which can deter, document or rebut police misconduct during traffic stops. Usually, the recordings have rebutted claims of police misconduct according to a 2004 study by the International Association of Chiefs of Police and Community Oriented Policing Service;[14] future innovations in recording equipment could allow an officer's entire workday to be recorded.[14] Some transparency advocates believe that such cameras should be installed in all police cruisers to ensure accountability.[15] Some police departments have experimented with Taser cameras that automatically begin recording when the Taser is deployed.[16] The Cato Institute recommends that police film all no-knock raids.[17] In recent times, police departments have been trying to implement the body camera as a step to fixing misconduct. The police departments in Pittsburgh have been trying body cameras on their officers to see both the positive and negative aspects of using body cameras.[18]

text: Recording by witnesses have made a significant impact on the notability and handling of police incidence, such as the Rodney King beating.

text: Mobile devices[edit]

text: As digital recording technology usage has increased, especially using cell phones, there have been more cases of civilians capturing video of alleged police misconduct.[2][19] In response, members of law enforcement have begun using eavesdropping and wiretapping laws to charge civilians who record police without their knowledge. Some police organizations such as the Fraternal Order of Police support the prosecutions.[20] In Illinois, from 1994-2014, recording police without consent was a class 1 felony that could carry a prison term of 15 years.[21] In a May 2012 ruling, the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals ruled 2-1 that the statute "likely violates the First Amendment’s free-speech and free-press guarantees."[22]  On December 30, 2014, then-Governor Pat Quinn signed into law an amendment to the Statute, PA 98-1142, which decriminalized the recording of law enforcement officers in the performance of their duties in public places or in circumstances in which the officers have no reasonable expectation of privacy.[23]

text: Most charges involving recording police are dropped or dismissed as courts have ruled on-duty cops in public have no reasonable expectation of privacy.[2] However, police "can use vaguer charges, such as interfering with a police officer, refusing to obey a lawful order, obstructing an arrest or police action, or disorderly conduct."[20] Arrests for these charges are more common, as are incidents of police illegally confiscating cameras, deleting evidence or misinforming citizens they cannot film. This evidence has played a key role in raising public awareness of police misconduct during and after an incident such as the BART Police shooting of Oscar Grant, Death of Ian Tomlinson, Robert Dziekański death and Death of Eric Garner.

text: Noted cases[edit]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In October 2007, there was an incident at Vancouver International Airport involving new Polish immigrant Robert Dziekański. Dziekański was tasered five times during the arrest, became unresponsive and died.[24] The incident was video recorded by a civilian who turned it over to police, then sued to get it back for release to news outlets.[3] The official inquiry found the RCMP were not justified deploying the taser and that the officers deliberately misrepresented their actions to investigators.[25] The incident affected taser use in Canada and relations with Poland.[26][27]

text: During the 2010 G-20 Toronto summit protests, police enacted regulations the Ombudsman found contributed to "massive violations of civil rights."[28] One regulation made the security zone public works and police interpreted this to permit them to arrest anyone not providing identification within five-metres of the temporary fence.[29] There were 1,118 arrests with 800 released without charge,[30][31] Police Chief Blair conceded later no five-metre rule existed in law[32] and Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty was criticized for allowing this misinterpretion.[33] In September 2011, officers who removed their name tags during the G-20 protests were refused promotion.[34]

text: Security officers in Metrotown, Burnaby mall demanded pictures taken of an arrest be deleted from a teen's camera. This led to a verbal confrontation and the RCMP handcuffing the teen and cutting off his backpack to search it. While the mall supports its officers actions according to the teen's lawyer: "private mall security guards and police have no right to try to seize someone’s camera or demand that photos be deleted — even on private property."[35]

text: China[edit]

text: The collusion between local gangs and police officers is a serious problem in many Chinese cities.[36] Local gang bosses make use of personal networks to bribe police officers, and police officers seek corrupt benefits by safegurading their illegal businesses.[37] [38]The most widely publicized case is the Wen Qiang Case.[39] Wen Qiang a deputy police chief, along with family members, was arrested as part of a massive crackdown on corruption of the People's Armed Police and organized crime in Chongqing in late 2009. His crimes included bribes, rape and failing to account for assets; Wen was executed in July 2010.[40] The trials highlighted the continued use of torture by police to obtain confessions,[41] despite laws implemented in June 2010 excluding tortured confessions being used in trials.[42]

text: India[edit]

text:
It is believed corruption among the Indian Police Service is pervasive and goes up to the top brass.[43] Reform has been made difficult with honest officers pressured by powerful local officials and suffer punitive transfers and threats while corrupt officers receive promotions.[44]
A number of officers face charges in Central Bureau of Investigation cases.[45] Some of the past scandals include murder,[46] sexual harassment,[47] sex-on-tape scandal,[48] dowry harassment,[49] fraud[50] and fake killing encounter.[51]

text: Norway[edit]

text: Police misconduct has become an issue of high media attention in Norway. The death of Eugene Ejike Obiora, a naturalized Norwegian of Nigerian origin in September 2006 stirred an uproar that as of  September 2007[update] has caused the authorities to announce significant changes to the way charges of police brutality and other forms of police misconduct, including corruption, involving the Norwegian police will be handled in the future. As a consequence of the Obiora case, training at the Norwegian Police Academy has undergone changes and national police director Ingelin Killengreen has instigated a thorough review of police methods in general.[52]

text: One officer employed in Oslo Police District was sentenced in 2006 to two years in prison for human trafficking, embezzlement of money and weapons, as well as theft of emergency passports.[53] Two cases were from Follo Police District.[54] One officer was accused of having felt up a number of women during interrogations. He was acquitted on almost all charges by the regional court. Another officer had been accused of abuse of power during an arrest. This case will be retried in the regional court by order of the Supreme Court after the acquittal was appealed. Another case involves a female officer from Telemark Police District who was issued a fine of 10.000 kroner and the loss of her employment for a period of five years for embezzlement and breach of confidentiality, among other issues.[55]

text: The most prominent case of intentional miscarriage of justice was against Fritz Moen,[56] several officers appear to have manipulated timelines, threatened the accused and witnesses and made false statements to close the case.

text: According to a 2012 official report, 18 police officers have lost their jobs as result of misconduct since 2005.[57]

text: Poland[edit]

text: The Ministry of Public Security (Poland) (MBP) was a Polish communist secret police service operating from 1945 to 1954 under Jakub Berman. The MBP carried out brutal pacification of civilians, mass arrests, makeshift executions such as the Mokotów Prison murder and 1946 public execution in Dębica, and secret assassinations.[58]

text: Individual law enforcement officers noted for torture and terror include Anatol Fejgin (1909–2002) and his deputy Józef Światło (1915–94), in charge of the MBP's notorious Special Bureau; Salomon Morel (1919–2007), commander of the Zgoda labour camp; Stanisław Radkiewicz (1903–87), head of the MBP's Department of Security (UB) 1944–54; and Józef Różański (1907–1981), colonel in the MBP.

text: After the fall of communism the instances of police brutality are still noted in relation to policing sports matches, mostly football; the 1998 Słupsk riots and 2015 Knurów riots were the result of the killing a fan by the police each time.

text: Russia[edit]

text: Police corruption and brutality is rampant in Russia as it is common for officers to be hired as private security on the side by businessman and Russian mafia.[59] This leads to conflicts of interest as business and political rivals are jailed with selective enforcement of laws and trumped-up charges, or kidnapped for ransom. These tactics are believed to have been used against billionaire Mikhail Khodorkovsky to "weaken an outspoken political opponent, to intimidate other wealthy individuals and to regain control of strategic economic assets."[60] Meanwhile, bureaucrats who are found guilty of significant crimes get away with light sentences.[59] Intimidation and violence against journalists and whistle blowers is high as Russia remains one of the worst countries at solving their murders.[61] It is widely believed the Federal Security Service (successor to the KGB) remain in control using the police as foot soldiers, and are unaccountable with connections to organized crime and the Russian leadership.[59]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: At least 25 people were killed after South African police opened fire on a crowd of about 3,000 striking miners, in Rustenburg, 100 km northwest of Johannesburg, on 16 August 2012. The police were armed with automatic rifles and pistols. Workers at a Lonmin PLC, a platinum mine, were asking better wages.[62][63]

text: United States[edit]

text: The Chicago Police Department in August 1968 initiated a "police riot" according to the Walker Report which gathered testimony on the violence surrounding the 1968 Democratic National Convention and Anti-Vietnam War protests.[64] Years later, the Chicago Police Department would deal with even more scandal involving the now infamous crooked cop Lt. Jon Burge and the torture cases that came out of his district. The New York Police Department (NYPD) had a prominent case of two detectives working for the Mafia during the 1980s. The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) in the late 1990s had a large incident of misconduct with the Rampart scandal implicating 70 officers of an anti-gang unit called C.R.A.S.H.. This resulted $125-million in lawsuit settlement payouts, dissolving of the unit and the LAPD entering into a consent decree with the U.S. Department of Justice on comprehensive reforms.

text: During the 1990s the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) also came under the scrutiny of the Justice Department when a series of crimes, including murders, by officers prompted attempts at reform by then Police Chief Richard Pennington. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina there was a spike in allegations of misconduct and in March 2011 the Justice Department published a 158-page report that found "systemic violations of civil rights" by a NOPD that routinely failed to discipline officers involved.[65] Six cases stemming from Katrina have been investigated and followed closely by ProPublica,[66] one is the Danziger Bridge shootings that resulted in two civilian deaths and four wounded. In August 2011, four officers were convicted of unlawfully firing on citizens then trying to cover it up with the assistance of a fifth investigating officer.[67]

text: In a number of jurisdictions, police officers have been accused of ticket fixing.[68]

text: Police lying under oath, particularly in drug crimes, is allegedly commonplace in certain areas; some federal grant programs such as Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Assistance Grant Program are tied to numbers, and police officers may also feel pressured to prove their productivity.[69]

text: The New York State Police Troop C scandal involved the fabrication of evidence used to convict suspects in New York by the New York State Police.[70]

text: Police complaint process[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, a person can submit a written, or in some jurisdictions a verbal, complaint to the administration of a law enforcement agency against an employee.  There are four outcomes that can result from the findings of the administration:[citation needed]

text:
Substantiated/Sustained: the misconduct allegation was proven to be true.
Unsubstantiated/Not Substantiated/Not Sustained: the misconduct allegation could not be proven nor disproven.  This finding is in favor of the employee and usually no disciplinary action is taken.
Exonerated: the facts alleged in the complaint did in fact happen, but the employee was found to have acted lawfully and no law or policy was broken.
Unfounded: the facts as alleged were found to be false.  A charge of filing a false police report or perjury may be filed and prosecuted if this was found to be knowing or intentional.

text: Reform[edit]

text: Metropolitan police[edit]

text: The Hong Kong and New York City police departments, both of which have had issues with police misconduct and corruption, have approached the problem in different ways. For corruption, Hong Kong created an external agency which actually investigates corruption, while New York reviews corruption through an internal department, although the information is reported to a monitoring commission. New York also uses "integrity checks" in which an officer's integrity is tested through an opportunity for corruption. For misconduct, Hong Kong reviews complaints internally with a monitoring commission while New York has created the New York City Civilian Complaint Review Board (NYCCCRB) which investigates and makes a formal recommendation to the commissioner.[71]

text: Norway[edit]

text: The Special Unit for Police Affairs (SUPA) was established on 1 January 2005. In 2006 the unit received 904 complaints, of which 101 led to indictment. Of these 26 ended with the issuance of a fine, 8 cases criminal charges were brought, 64 went to trial, and 3 cases were given "påtaleunnlatelse" (no charges despite misconduct likely took place). Four police officers alone were responsible for 63 of the 101 cases. In September 2007, Jan Egil Presthus director of SUPA stated to the Oslo newspaper Dagsavisen that investigations of police conduct involving death are going to be posted on the Internet. He states that total openness will strengthen the publics confidence in the unit's integrity and impartially. This came following Dagsavisen in June 2007 publishing an overview of police cases with a deadly outcome. The article showed that in the ten most serious cases after the establishment of the SUPA all charges against the police were eventually dropped.

text: A buzzing media discourse focusing on deaths incurred during police arrests and transports continued in Norway throughout 2007, and Presthus counts this as one factor triggering the initiative to publish ongoing investigations on the Internet. The cases will be presented on the web pages of SUPA, and they will be presented in a way that preserves the anonymity of officers and other parties involved where deemed necessary.[72]

text: United States[edit]

text: The U.S. government does not regularly collect data on police misconduct. One attempt to track misconduct is the Cato Institute's National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, which estimates misconduct rates using newspaper reports.[73] The project's data suggest that police are more likely than the average person to commit a number of crimes including assault, sexual assault, and murder, but less likely to commit robbery.[74] The NPMSRP projects that roughly 1 in 4.7 officers will be implicated in an act of misconduct during the course of their career.[75] In the United States, the exclusionary rule means that evidence gathered through misconduct is sometimes inadmissible in court.

text: The Black Panther Party sought to oppose police brutality through neighborhood patrols. Police officers were often followed by armed Black Panthers, who at times came to aid African-Americans who were victims of brutality and racial prejudice. Groups like Copwatch continue to use the patrol method in communities, often using video cameras to document them.[76]

text: In a 2004 United States survey of the public's opinions on accountability in reforming police, most members of the public wanted an "early warning system" that flags officers who have received many complaints, video cameras on police cars, detailed records of police stops, and citizen review boards.[77] Citizen review of police has been an issue, with law enforcement concerned that citizens reviewing their actions do not understand the procedures they operate by and the citizen review board advocates arguing that the law enforcement "code of silence" requires that they have input into the disciplinary action. As of 2003, three-fourths of the United States' largest cities had citizen review boards.[78] Early warning systems are procedures designed to identify and address issues of problem officers, as around 10% of officers are theorized to cause 90% of the problems. Early warning systems were recommended by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights in 1981, and by 1999 an estimated 27% of police agencies serving populations of over 50,000 people had implemented these programs. The systems collect data such as complaints, which triggers an intervention at a certain point. After the intervention, the officer is monitored as a follow-up.[10]

text: It is sometimes argued that civil liability can create new deterrents to police misconduct.[79] Police commissioners and citizen review boards have been cited as institutions that can help reduce police misconduct.[80] There is some variation as to how much access the civilian reviewers are given to internal police documents and personnel files.[81] Decertification of police has been cited as another possible remedy.[82] Surveys suggest that officers are aware of the detrimental impacts of police misconduct and hold strong opinions as to what strategies are preferable.[83] The exclusionary rule has been one classic deterrent to obtaining evidence through police misconduct, but it is proposed that it be replaced with restitution to victims of misconduct.[84]