document_title: United States Department of Homeland Security

question_text: when was the department of homeland security established

question_tokens: when was the department of homeland security established

text: United States Department of Homeland Security

text: Function[edit]

text: Whereas the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism.[7] On March 1, 2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and assumed its duties. In doing so, it divided the enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies: Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Citizenship and Immigration Services. The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations. Additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including the U.S. Border Patrol, the U.S. Customs Service, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service were consolidated into a new agency under DHS: U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The Federal Protective Service falls under the National Protection and Programs Directorate.

text: Structure[edit]

text: The Department of Homeland Security is headed by the Secretary of Homeland Security with the assistance of the Deputy Secretary. The Department contains the components listed below.[8]

text:
Subordinate agency
Title of head or leader
Incumbent

Citizenship & Immigration Services Ombudsman
Director
Julie Kirchner

Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office
Acting Assistant Secretary
James F. McDonnell

Federal Emergency Management Agency
Administrator
Brock Long

Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers
Director
Thomas J. Walters[9]

Management Directorate
Under Secretary
Claire Grady

National Protection and Programs Directorate
Acting Under Secretary
Christopher Krebs

Office for Civil Rights & Civil Liberties
Officer
Cameron Quinn

Office of General Counsel
Acting General Counsel
Joseph Maher

Office of Intelligence and Analysis
Under Secretary
David Glawe

Office of Legislative Affairs
Assistant Secretary
Benjamin Cassidy

Office of Operations Coordination
Director
Richard M. Chávez[10]

Office of Partnership & Engagement
Acting Assistant Secretary
John Barsa

Office of Strategy, Policy, and Plans
Acting Under Secretary
Ambassador James D. Nealon

Office of Public Affairs
Assistant Secretary
Jonathan Rath Hoffman

Office of the Inspector General
Acting Inspector General
John V. Kelly

Privacy Office
Chief Privacy Officer/Chief FOIA Officer
Philip S. Kaplan

Science & Technology Directorate
Acting Under Secretary
William Bryan

Transportation Security Administration
Administrator
David Pekoske

United States Citizenship and Immigration Services
Director
Lee Cissna

United States Coast Guard
Commandant
Admiral Paul F. Zukunft[11]

U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Commissioner
Kevin McAleenan[12]

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Acting Director
Thomas Homan[13]

United States Secret Service
Director
Randolph Alles[14]

text:
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services: Processes and examines citizenship, residency, and asylum requests from aliens.
U.S. Customs and Border Protection: Law enforcement agency that enforces U.S. laws along its international borders (air, land, and sea) including its enforcement of U.S. immigration, customs, and agriculture laws while at and patrolling between all U.S. ports-of-entry.
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement: Law enforcement agency divided into two bureaus:

text:
An agency that enforces U.S. laws while it investigates and gathers intelligence on national and international criminal activities that threaten the security of the homeland (Homeland Security Investigations); and
An agency that investigates violations of the Immigration and Nationality Act and enforces the detention, deportation, and removal of violators of United States immigration law (Enforcement and Removal Operations).

tag: ol

text:
Transportation Security Administration: Responsible for aviation security (domestic and international, most notably conducting passenger screenings at airports), as well as land and water transportation security
United States Coast Guard: Military service responsible for law enforcement, maritime security, national defense, maritime mobility, and protection of natural resources.[15]
United States Secret Service: Law enforcement agency tasked with two distinct and critical national security missions:

text:
Investigative Mission – The investigative mission of the USSS is to safeguard the payment and financial systems of the United States from a wide range of financial and electronic-based crimes.
Protective Mission – The protective mission of the USSS is to ensure the safety of the President of the United States, the Vice President of the United States, their immediate families, and foreign heads of state.

text: Federal Emergency Management Agency: agency that oversees the federal government's response to natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, forest fires, etc.

text: (Passports for U.S. citizens are issued by the United States Department of State, not the Department of Homeland Security.)

text: Advisory groups:

text:
Homeland Security Advisory Council: State and local government, first responders, private sector, and academics
National Infrastructure Advisory Council: Advises on security of public and private information systems
Homeland Security Science and Technology Advisory Committee: Advise the Under Secretary for Science and Technology.
Critical Infrastructure Partnership Advisory Council: Coordinate infrastructure protection with private sector and other levels of government
Interagency Coordinating Council on Emergency Preparedness and Individuals with Disabilities
Task Force on New Americans: "An inter-agency effort to help immigrants learn English, embrace the common core of American civic culture, and become fully American."

text: Other components:

text:
Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office: Counter attempts by terrorists or other threat actors to carry out an attack against the United States or its interests using a weapon of mass destruction. Secretary Kirstjen Nielsen established the CWMD Office in December 2017 by consolidating primarily the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office and a majority of the Office of Health Affairs, as well as other DHS elements.
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center: Interagency law enforcement training facilities located in Georgia, New Mexico, and South Carolina.
National Protection and Programs Directorate: risk-reduction, encompassing both physical and virtual threats and their associated human elements.

Federal Protective Service: Federal law enforcement and security agency that protects and investigates crimes against U.S. federal buildings, properties, assets, and federal government interests.
National Communications System

Directorate for Science and Technology: Research and development
Directorate for Management: Responsible for internal budgets, accounting, performance monitoring, and human resources
Office of Strategy, Policy, and Plans: Long-range policy planning and coordination

Office of Immigration Statistics

Office of Intelligence and Analysis: Identify and assess threats based on intelligence from various agencies
Office of Operations Coordination: Monitor domestic security situation on a daily basis, coordinate activities with state and local authorities and private sector infrastructure
Office of the Secretary includes the Privacy Office, Office for Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, Office of Inspector General, Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman, Office of Legislative Affairs, Office of the General Counsel, Office of Public Affairs, Office of Counternarcotics Enforcement (CNE), Office of the Executive Secretariat (ESEC), and the Military Advisor's Office.
National Cybersecurity Center

text: In an August 5, 2002 speech, President Bush said: "We're fighting ... to secure freedom in the homeland."[16] Prior to the creation of DHS, American presidents had referred to the U.S. as "the nation" or "the republic", and to its internal policies as "domestic".[17] Also unprecedented was the use, from 2002, of the phrase "the homeland" by White House spokespeople.[17]

text: National Terrorism Advisory System[edit]

text: In 2011, the Department of Homeland Security phased out the old Homeland Security Advisory System, replacing it with a two-level National Terrorism Advisory System. The system has two types of advisories: Alerts and Bulletins. NTAS Bulletins permit the Secretary to communicate critical terrorism information that, while not necessarily indicative of a specific threat against the United States, can reach homeland security partners or the public quickly, thereby allowing recipients to implement necessary protective measures. Alerts are issued when there is specific and credible information of a terrorist threat against the United States. Alerts themselves have two levels: Elevated and Imminent. An Elevated Alert is issued when there is credible information about an attack but only general information about timing or a target. An Imminent Alert is issued when the threat is very specific and impending in the very near term.

text: On March 12, 2002, the Homeland Security Advisory System, a color-coded terrorism risk advisory scale, was created as the result of a Presidential Directive to provide a "comprehensive and effective means to disseminate information regarding the risk of terrorist acts to Federal, State, and local authorities and to the American people." Many procedures at government facilities are tied into the alert level; for example a facility may search all entering vehicles when the alert is above a certain level. Since January 2003, it has been administered in coordination with DHS; it has also been the target of frequent jokes and ridicule on the part of the administration's detractors about its ineffectiveness. After resigning, Tom Ridge stated that he did not always agree with the threat level adjustments pushed by other government agencies.[18]

text: In January 2003, the office[clarification needed] was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security.[19]

text: As of January 13, 2011, the DHS advised the American public of an 'elevated national threat' level, recommending that all Americans 'should establish an emergency preparedness kit and emergency plan for themselves and their family, and stay informed about what to do during an emergency'.[20]

text: History[edit]

text: Creation[edit]

text: In response to the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate "homeland security" efforts. The office was headed by former Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, who assumed the title of Assistant to the President for Homeland Security. The official announcement stated:

text:
“
The mission of the Office will be to develop and coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive national strategy to secure the United States from terrorist threats or attacks. The Office will coordinate the executive branch's efforts to detect, prepare for, prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from terrorist attacks within the United States.[19]
”

text: Ridge began his duties as OHS director on October 8, 2001.

text: According to Peter Andreas, a border theorist, the creation of DHS constituted the most significant government reorganization since the Cold War,[21] and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947, which placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency. DHS also constitutes the most diverse merger of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies into a single organization.[22]

text: The Department of Homeland Security was established on November 25, 2002, by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. It was intended to consolidate U.S. executive branch organizations related to "homeland security" into a single Cabinet agency. The following 22 agencies were incorporated into the new department:[23]

text:
Original agency
Original department
New agency or office after transfer

U.S. Customs Service
Treasury
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

Immigration and Naturalization Service
Justice
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services

Federal Protective Service
General Services Administration
National Protection and Programs Directorate

Transportation Security Administration
Transportation
Transportation Security Administration

Federal Law Enforcement Training Center
Treasury
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(part)
Agriculture
U.S. Customs and Border Protection

Office for Domestic Preparedness
Justice
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

Federal Emergency Management Agency
none
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Strategic National Stockpile
National Disaster Medical System
Health and Human Services
Returned to HHS, July, 2004

Nuclear Incident Response Team
Energy
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

Domestic Emergency Support Team
Justice
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

National Domestic Preparedness Office
Justice (FBI)
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

CBRN Countermeasures Programs
Energy
Science & Technology Directorate

Environmental Measurements Laboratory
Energy
Science & Technology Directorate

National Biological Warfare
Defense Analysis Center
Defense
Science & Technology Directorate

Plum Island Animal Disease Center
Agriculture
Science & Technology Directorate

Federal Computer Incident Response Center
General Services Administration
US-CERT, Office of Cybersecurity and Communications
National Programs and Predaredness Directorate

National Communications System
Defense
Office of Cybersecurity and Communications
National Programs and Predaredness Directorate

National Infrastructure Protection Center
Justice (FBI)
Office of Operations Coordination
Office of Infrastructure Protection

Energy Security and Assurance Program
Energy
Office of Infrastructure Protection

U.S. Coast Guard
Transportation
U.S. Coast Guard

U.S. Secret Service
Treasury
U.S. Secret Service

text: Prior to the signing of the bill, controversy about its adoption centered on whether the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Central Intelligence Agency should be incorporated in part or in whole (neither were included). The bill was also controversial for the presence of unrelated "riders", as well as for eliminating certain union-friendly civil service and labor protections for department employees. Without these protections, employees could be expeditiously reassigned or dismissed on grounds of security, incompetence or insubordination, and DHS would not be required to notify their union representatives.

text: The plan stripped 180,000 government employees of their union rights.[24] In 2002, Bush officials argued that the September 11 attacks made the proposed elimination of employee protections imperative.[25]

text: Congress ultimately passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 without the union-friendly measures, and President Bush signed the bill into law on November 25, 2002. It was the largest U.S. government reorganization in the 50 years since the United States Department of Defense was created.

text: Tom Ridge was named secretary on January 24, 2003 and began naming his chief deputies. DHS officially began operations on January 24, 2003, but most of the department's component agencies were not transferred into the new Department until March 1.[19]

text: After establishing the basic structure of DHS and working to integrate its components and get the department functioning, Ridge announced his resignation on November 30, 2004, following the re-election of President Bush. Bush initially nominated former New York City Police Department commissioner Bernard Kerik as his successor, but on December 10, Kerik withdrew his nomination, citing personal reasons and saying it "would not be in the best interests" of the country for him to pursue the post.

text: Changes under Michael Chertoff[edit]

text: On January 11, 2005, President Bush nominated federal judge Michael Chertoff to succeed Ridge. Chertoff was confirmed on February 15, 2005, by a vote of 98–0 in the U.S. Senate. He was sworn in the same day.[19]

text: In February 2005, DHS and the Office of Personnel Management issued rules relating to employee pay and discipline for a new personnel system named MaxHR. The Washington Post said that the rules would allow DHS "to override any provision in a union contract by issuing a department-wide directive" and would make it "difficult, if not impossible, for unions to negotiate over arrangements for staffing, deployments, technology and other workplace matters."[25]

text: In August 2005, U.S. District Judge Rosemary M. Collyer blocked the plan on the grounds that it did not ensure collective-bargaining rights for DHS employees.[25]

text: A federal appeals court ruled against DHS in 2006; pending a final resolution to the litigation, Congress's fiscal year 2008 appropriations bill for DHS provided no funding for the proposed new personnel system.[25] DHS announced in early 2007 that it was retooling its pay and performance system and retiring the name "MaxHR".[19]

text: In a February 2008 court filing, DHS said that it would no longer pursue the new rules, and that it would abide by the existing civil service labor-management procedures. A federal court issued an order closing the case.[25]

text: Seal[edit]

text: A DHS press release dated June 6, 2003[26] explains the seal as follows:

text: The seal is symbolic of the Department's mission – to prevent attacks and protect Americans – on the land, in the sea and in the air. In the center of the seal, a graphically styled white American eagle appears in a circular blue field. The eagle's outstretched wings break through an inner red ring into an outer white ring that contains the words "U.S. DEPARTMENT OF" in the top half and "HOMELAND SECURITY" in the bottom half in a circular placement. The eagle's wings break through the inner circle into the outer ring to suggest that the Department of Homeland Security will break through traditional bureaucracy and perform government functions differently. In the tradition of the Great Seal of the United States, the eagle's talon on the left holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 seeds while the eagle's talon on the right grasps 13 arrows.

text: Centered on the eagle's breast is a shield divided into three sections containing elements that represent the American homeland – air, land, and sea. The top element, a dark blue sky, contains 22 stars representing the original 22 entities that have come together to form the department. The left shield element contains white mountains behind a green plain underneath a light blue sky. The right shield element contains four wave shapes representing the oceans alternating light and dark blue separated by white lines.

text: The seal was developed with input from senior DHS leadership, employees, and the U.S. Commission on Fine Arts. The Ad Council – which partners with DHS on its Ready.gov campaign – and the consulting company Landor Associates were responsible for graphic design and maintaining heraldic integrity.

text: Headquarters[edit]

text: Since its inception, the department has had its temporary headquarters in Washington, D.C.'s Nebraska Avenue Complex, a former naval facility. The 38-acre (15 ha) site, across from American University, has 32 buildings comprising 566,000 square feet (52,600 m2) of administrative space.[27] In early 2007, the Department submitted a $4.1 billion plan to Congress to consolidate its 60-plus Washington-area offices into a single headquarters complex at the St. Elizabeths Hospital campus in Anacostia, Southeast Washington, D.C. The earliest DHS would begin moving to St. Elizabeths is 2012.[28]

text: The move is being championed by District of Columbia officials because of the positive economic impact it will have on historically depressed Anacostia. The move has been criticized by historic preservationists, who claim the revitalization plans will destroy dozens of historic buildings on the campus.[29] Community activists have criticized the plans because the facility will remain walled off and have little interaction with the surrounding area.[30] On January 8, 2009, the National Capital Planning Commission approved the Department of Homeland Security's plans to move into the campus of St. Elizabeths Hospital.[31] In February 2015 the General Services Administration said that the site would open in 2021.[32]

text: Disaster preparedness and response[edit]

text: Congressional budgeting effects[edit]

text: During a Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee hearing on the reauthorization of DHS, Elaine Duke, deputy secretary of DHS, said there is a weariness and anxiety within DHS about the repeated congressional efforts to agree to a long-term spending plan, which has resulted in several threats to shutdown the federal government. "Shutdowns are disruptive," Duke said. She said the "repeated failure on a longtime spending plan resulting in short-term continuing resolutions (CRs) has caused “angst” among the department’s 240,000 employees in the weeks leading up to the CRs."[33] The uncertainty about funding hampers DHS’s ability to pursue major projects and it takes away attention and manpower from important priorities. Seventy percent of DHS employees are considered essential and are not furloughed during government shutdowns.[33]

text: Ready.gov[edit]

text: Soon after the formation of Department of Homeland Security, the department worked with the Ad Council to launch the Ready Campaign, a national public service advertising (PSA) campaign to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man-made disasters. With pro bono creative support from the Martin Agency of Richmond, Virginia, the campaign website "Ready.gov" and materials were conceived in March 2002 and launched in February 2003, just before the launch of the Iraq War.[34][35][36] One of the first announcements that garnered widespread public attention to this campaign was one by Tom Ridge in which he stated that in the case of a chemical attack, citizens should use duct tape and plastic sheeting to build a homemade bunker, or "sheltering in place" to protect themselves.[37][38] As a result, the sales of duct tape skyrocketed and DHS was criticized for being too alarmist.[39]

text: On March 1, 2003, the Federal Emergency Management Agency was absorbed into the DHS, and in fall of 2008, took over coordination of the campaign. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish language version Listo.gov asks individuals to do three things: build an emergency supply kit,[40] make a family emergency plan[41] and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond.[42] The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs,[43] as well as brochures, toll-free phone lines and the English and Spanish language websites Ready.gov and Listo.gov.

text: The general campaign aims to reach all Americans, but targeted resources are also available via "Ready Business" for small- to medium-sized business and "Ready Kids" for parents and teachers of children ages 8–12. In 2015, the campaign also launched a series of PSAs to help the whole community,[44] people with disabilities and others with access and functional needs prepare for emergencies, which included open captioning, a certified deaf interpreter and audio descriptions for viewers who are blind or have low vision.[45]

text: National Incident Management System[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: On March 1, 2004, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was created. The stated purpose was to provide a consistent incident management approach for federal, state, local, and tribal governments. Under Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5, all federal departments were required to adopt the NIMS and to use it in their individual domestic incident management and emergency prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation program and activities.

text: National Response Framework[edit]

text: In December 2004, the National Response Plan (NRP) was created, in an attempt to align federal coordination structures, capabilities, and resources into a unified, all-discipline, and all-hazards approach to domestic incident management. The NRP was built on the template of the NIMS.

text: On January 22, 2008, the National Response Framework was published in the Federal Register as an updated replacement of the NRP, effective March 22, 2008.

text: Surge Capacity Force[edit]

text: The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act directs the DHS Secretary to designate employees from throughout the Department to staff a Surge Capacity Force (SCF). During a declared disaster, the DHS Secretary will determine if SCF support is necessary. The Secretary will then authorize FEMA to task and deploy designated personnel from DHS components and other Federal Executive Agencies to respond to extraordinary disasters.[46]

text: Cyber-security[edit]

text: The DHS National Cyber Security Division (NCSD) is responsible for the response system, risk management program, and requirements for cyber-security in the U.S. The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System.[47][48] The DHS Science and Technology Directorate helps government and private end-users transition to new cyber-security capabilities. This directorate also funds the Cyber Security Research and Development Center, which identifies and prioritizes research and development for NCSD.[48] The center works on the Internet's routing infrastructure (the SPRI program) and Domain Name System (DNSSEC), identity theft and other online criminal activity (ITTC), Internet traffic and networks research (PREDICT datasets and the DETER testbed), Department of Defense and HSARPA exercises (Livewire and Determined Promise), and wireless security in cooperation with Canada.[49]

text: On October 30, 2009, DHS opened the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center. The center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.[50]

text: In January 2017, DHS officially designated state-run election systems as critical infrastructure. The designation made it easier for state and local election officials to get cybersecurity help from the federal government. In October 2017, DHS convened a Government Coordinating Council (GCC) for the Election Infrastructure Subsection with representatives from various state and federal agencies such as the Election Assistance Commission and National Association of Secretaries of State.[51]

text: Expenditures[edit]

text: In the United States Federal Budget for 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', the DHS was allocated a discretionary budget of $42.7 billion (financial year 2009: $40.1 billion).[52] The end-of-year DHS Annual Financial Report for financial year 2010 showed a net cost of operations of $56.4 billion (FY 2009, restated: $49.9 billion), out of total budgetary resources of $83.2 billion (FY 2009, restated: $85.2 billion).[53] The components with the highest net cost were US Coast Guard ($12.1 billion), U.S. Customs and Border Protection ($11.6 billion), and Federal Emergency Management Agency ($10.5 billion).[53] Revenues of $10.4 billion were generated in the year (FY 2009, restated: $9.8 billion).[53]

text: According to the Washington Post, "DHS has given $31 billion in grants since 2003 to state and local governments for homeland security and to improve their ability to find and protect against terrorists, including $3.8 billion in 2010."[54]

text: Audit of expenditures[edit]

text: The DHS independent auditor is KPMG, one of the Big Four audit firms.[55] Due to the level of material weaknesses identified, KPMG was unable to audit the DHS financial statements for FY 2010.[55] KPMG was unable to express an audit opinion on the FY 2009,[56] FY 2008,[57] FY 2007,[58] FY 2005,[59] and FY 2003[60] financial statements. Attempts to access the reports for FY 2006 and FY 2004 within the 'information for citizens' portal met with a 404 error.[61] The Message from the DHS Chief Financial Officer in the FY 2010 report states 'This Annual Financial Report (AFR) is our principal financial statement of accountability to the President, Congress and the American public. The AFR gives a comprehensive view of the Department's financial activities and demonstrates the Department's stewardship of taxpayer dollars.'[62] The Message from the DHS Chief Financial Officer concludes 'I am extremely proud of the Department's accomplishments ... we will continue to build upon our successes.'[62] The Secretary of Homeland Security endorsed this message saying that the DHS is 'continuing to be responsible stewards of taxpayer resources. The scope of our mission is broad, challenging, and vital to the security of the Nation ... Thank you for your partnership and collaboration. Yours very truly, Janet Napolitano.'[63]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: The Department of Homeland Security has received substantial criticism over excessive bureaucracy, waste, fraud, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Its information sharing centers have been accused of violating American civil liberties and targeting American citizens as potential threats to national security.

text: Excess, waste, and ineffectiveness[edit]

text: The Department of Homeland Security has been dogged by persistent criticism over excessive bureaucracy, waste, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Congress estimates that the department has wasted roughly $15 billion in failed contracts (as of September 2008[update]).[64] In 2003, the department came under fire after the media revealed that Laura Callahan, Deputy Chief Information Officer at DHS with responsibilities for sensitive national security databases, had obtained her bachelor, masters, and doctorate computer science degrees through Hamilton University, a diploma mill in a small town in Wyoming.[65] The department was blamed for up to $2 billion of waste and fraud after audits by the Government Accountability Office revealed widespread misuse of government credit cards by DHS employees, with purchases including beer brewing kits, $70,000 of plastic dog booties that were later deemed unusable, boats purchased at double the retail price (many of which later could not be found), and iPods ostensibly for use in "data storage".[66][67][68][69]

text: A 2015 inspection of IT infrastructure found that the department was running over a hundred computer systems whose owners were unknown, including Secret and Top Secret databases, many with out of date security or weak passwords. Basic security reviews were absent, and the department had apparently made deliberate attempts to delay publication of information about the flaws.[70]

text: Data mining (ADVISE)[edit]

text: The Associated Press reported on September 5, 2007, that DHS had scrapped an anti-terrorism data mining tool called ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight and Semantic Enhancement) after the agency's internal Inspector General found that pilot testing of the system had been performed using data on real people without required privacy safeguards in place.[71][72] The system, in development at Lawrence Livermore and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory since 2003, has cost the agency $42 million to date. Controversy over the program is not new; in March 2007, the Government Accountability Office stated that "the ADVISE tool could misidentify or erroneously associate an individual with undesirable activity such as fraud, crime or terrorism." Homeland Security's Inspector General later said that ADVISE was poorly planned, time-consuming for analysts to use, and lacked adequate justifications.[73]

text: Fusion centers[edit]

text: Fusion centers are terrorism prevention and response centers, many of which were created under a joint project between the Department of Homeland Security and the US Department of Justice's Office of Justice Programs between 2003 and 2007. The fusion centers gather information not only from government sources, but also from their partners in the private sector.[74][75]

text: They are designed to promote information sharing at the federal level between agencies such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Department of Justice, US Military and state and local level government. As of July 2009[update], the Department of Homeland Security recognized at least seventy-two fusion centers.[76] Fusion centers may also be affiliated with an Emergency Operations Center that responds in the event of a disaster.

text: There are a number of documented criticisms of fusion centers, including relative ineffectiveness at counterterrorism activities, the potential to be used for secondary purposes unrelated to counterterrorism, and their links to violations of civil liberties of American citizens and others.[77]

text: David Rittgers of the Cato Institute has noted:

text: a long line of fusion center and DHS reports labeling broad swaths of the public as a threat to national security. The North Texas Fusion System labeled Muslim lobbyists as a potential threat; a DHS analyst in Wisconsin thought both pro- and anti-abortion activists were worrisome; a Pennsylvania homeland security contractor watched environmental activists, Tea Party groups, and a Second Amendment rally; the Maryland State Police put anti-death penalty and anti-war activists in a federal terrorism database; a fusion center in Missouri thought that all third-party voters and Ron Paul supporters were a threat....[78]

text: MIAC report[edit]

text: The Missouri Information Analysis Center (MIAC) made news in 2009 for targeting supporters of third party candidates (such as Ron Paul), pro-life activists, and conspiracy theorists as potential militia members.[79] Anti-war activists and Islamic lobby groups were targeted in Texas, drawing criticism from the American Civil Liberties Union.[80]

text: According to the Department of Homeland Security:[81]

text: The Privacy Office has identified a number of risks to privacy presented by the fusion center program:

text:
Justification for fusion centers
Ambiguous Lines of Authority, Rules, and Oversight
Participation of the Military and the Private Sector
Data Mining
Excessive Secrecy
Inaccurate or Incomplete Information
Mission Creep

text: 2009 Virginia terrorism threat assessment[edit]

text: In 2009, the Virginia Fusion Center came under criticism for publishing a terrorism threat assessment which stated that certain universities are potential hubs for terror related activity.[82] The report targeted historically black colleges and identified hacktivism as a form of terrorism.[83]

text: Mail interception[edit]

text: In 2006, MSNBC reported that Grant Goodman, "an 81-year-old retired University of Kansas history professor, received a letter from his friend in the Philippines that had been opened and resealed with a strip of dark green tape bearing the words "by Border Protection" and carrying the official Homeland Security seal."[84] The letter was sent by a devout Catholic Filipino woman with no history of supporting Islamic terrorism.[84] A spokesman for U.S. Customs and Border Protection "acknowledged that the agency can, will and does open mail coming to U.S. citizens that originates from a foreign country whenever it's deemed necessary":

text: "All mail originating outside the United States Customs territory that is to be delivered inside the U.S. Customs territory is subject to Customs examination," says the CBP Web site. That includes personal correspondence. "All mail means 'all mail,'" said John Mohan, a CBP spokesman, emphasizing the point.[84]

text: The Department declined to outline what criteria are used to determine when a piece of personal correspondence should be opened or to say how often or in what volume Customs might be opening mail.[84]

text: Goodman's story provoked outrage in the blogosphere,[85] as well as in the more established media. Reacting to the incident, Mother Jones remarked that "[u]nlike other prying government agencies, Homeland Security wants you to know it is watching you."[86] CNN observed that "[o]n the heels of the NSA wiretapping controversy, Goodman's letter raises more concern over the balance between privacy and security."[87]

text: Employee morale[edit]

text: In July 2006, the Office of Personnel Management conducted a survey of federal employees in all 36 federal agencies on job satisfaction and how they felt their respective agency was headed. DHS was last or near to last in every category including;

text:
33rd on the talent management index
35th on the leadership and knowledge management index
36th on the job satisfaction index
36th on the results-oriented performance culture index

text: The low scores were attributed to major concerns about basic supervision, management and leadership within the agency. Examples from the survey reveal most concerns are about promotion and pay increase based on merit, dealing with poor performance, rewarding creativity and innovation, leadership generating high levels of motivation in the workforce, recognition for doing a good job, lack of satisfaction with various component policies and procedures and lack of information about what is going on with the organization.[88][89]

text: DHS is the only large federal agency to score below 50% in overall survey rankings. It was last of large federal agencies in 2014 with 44.0% and fell even lower in 2015 at 43.1%, again last place.[90]

text: Freedom of Information Act processing performance[edit]

text: In the Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data), the Department of Homeland Security earned a D by scoring 69 out of a possible 100 points, i.e. did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. It also had not updated its FOIA policies since the 2007 FOIA amendments.[91]


document_title: Common warthog

question_text: is a warthog a herbivore carnivore or omnivore

root

text: Common warthog

text: Subspecies[edit]

text:
Nolan warthog (P. a. africanus) Gmelin, 1788 – Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Chad, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan
Eritrean warthog (P. a. aeliani) Cretzschmar, 1828 – Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia
Central African warthog (P. a. massaicus) Lönnberg, 1908 – Kenya, Tanzania
Southern warthog (P. a. sundevallii) Lönnberg, 1908 – Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe

tag: ul

text:
Nolan warthog P. a. africanus
Senegal

Eritrean warthog P. a. aeliani
Ethiopia

text: Description[edit]

text: The common warthog is a medium-sized species, with a head-and-body length ranging from 0.9 to 1.5 m (3.0 to 4.9 ft), and shoulder height from 63.5 to 85 cm (25.0 to 33.5 in). Females, at 45 to 75 kg (99 to 165 lb), are typically a bit smaller and lighter in weight than males, at 60 to 150 kg (130 to 330 lb).[4][5] A warthog is identifiable by the two pairs of tusks protruding from the mouth and curving upwards. The lower pair, which is far shorter than the upper pair, becomes razor-sharp by rubbing against the upper pair every time the mouth is opened and closed. The upper canine teeth can grow to 25.5 cm (10.0 in) long and have a wide elliptical cross section, being about 4.5 cm (1.8 in) deep and 2.5 cm (0.98 in) wide. A tusk will curve 90° or more from the root, and will not lie flat on a table, as it curves somewhat backwards as it grows. The tusks are used for digging, for combat with other hogs, and in defense against predators – the lower set can inflict severe wounds.

tag: p

text: Common warthog ivory is taken from the constantly growing canine teeth. The tusks, particularly the upper set, work in much the same way as elephant tusks with all designs scaled down. Tusks are carved predominantly for the tourist trade in east and southern Africa.

text: The head of the common warthog is large, with a mane down the spine to the middle of the back.[4] Sparse hair covers the body. Its color is usually black or brown. Tails are long and end with a tuft of hair. Common warthogs do not have subcutaneous fat and the coat is sparse, making them susceptible to extreme environmental temperatures.[4]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: The common warthog is the only pig species that has adapted to grazing and savanna habitats.[6] Its diet is omnivorous, composed of grasses, roots, berries and other fruits, bark, fungi, insects, eggs and carrion.[7] The diet is seasonably variable, depending on availability of different food items. During the wet seasons, warthogs graze[6] on short perennial grasses.[8] During the dry seasons, they subsist on bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots.[6][8] Warthogs are powerful diggers, using both their snouts and feet. Whilst feeding, they often bend their front feet backwards and move around on the wrists.[9] Calloused pads that protect the wrists during such movement form quite early in the development of the fetus. Although they can dig their own burrows, they commonly occupy abandoned burrows of aardvarks[8] and other animals. The common warthog commonly reverses into burrows, with its head facing the opening and ready to burst out if necessary. Common warthogs will wallow in mud to cope with high temperatures and huddle together to cope with low temperatures.[10]

text: Although capable of fighting (males aggressively fight each other during mating season), the common warthog's primary defense is to flee by means of fast sprinting. The common warthog's main predators are humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs, crocodiles, wild dogs and hyenas. Birds of prey such as Verreaux's eagle owls and martial eagles sometimes prey on piglets.[11][12] However, if a female common warthog has any piglets, she will defend them very aggressively. On occasion, common warthogs have been observed charging and even wounding large predators. Common warthogs have also been observed allowing banded mongooses and vervet monkeys to groom them to remove ticks.[13][14]

text: Social behavior and reproduction[edit]

text: Common warthogs are not territorial, but instead occupy a home range.[15] Common warthogs live in groups called sounders. Females live in sounders with their young and with other females.[7] Females tend to stay in their natal groups, while males leave, but stay within the home range.[7] Subadult males associate in bachelor groups, but live alone when they become adults.[6] Adult males only join sounders with estrous females. Warthogs have two facial glands: the tusk gland and the sebaceous gland. Common warthogs of both sexes begin to mark around six to seven months old.[16] Males tend to mark more than females.[16] They mark sleeping and feeding areas and waterholes.[16] Common warthogs use tusk marking for courtship, for antagonistic behaviors, and to establish status.[16]

text:
suckling
Etosha National park, Namibia

Female with young
Etosha National park, Namibia

Young males fighting
Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa

Young male kneels to protect throat
Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa

P. a. africanus juveniles
Senegal

text: Common warthogs are seasonal breeders.[6] Rutting begins in the late rainy or early dry season and birthing begins near the start of the following rainy season.[6] The mating system is described as "overlap promiscuity"; the males have ranges overlapping several female ranges, and the daily behavior of the female is unpredictable. Boars employ two mating strategies during the rut. With the "staying tactic", a boar will stay and defend certain females or a resource valuable to them.[17] In the "roaming tactic", boars seek out estrous sows and compete for them.[17] Boars will wait for sows to emerge outside their burrows.[6] A dominant boar will displace any other boar that also tries to court his female. When a sow leaves her den, the boar will try to demonstrate his dominance and then follow her before copulation.[6] For the "staying tactic", monogamy, female-defense polygyny, or resource-defense polygyny is promoted, while the "roaming tactic" promotes scramble-competition polygyny.[17]

text: The typical gestation period is five to six months. When they are about to give birth, sows temporarily leave their families to farrow in a separate hole.[6] The litter is 2–8 piglets, with 2–4 typical. The sow will stay in the hole for several weeks, nursing her piglets.[6] Common warthog sows have been observed to nurse foster piglets if they lose their own litter.[18] This behavior, known as allosucking, makes them cooperative breeders. Allosucking does not seem to be a case of mistaken identity or milk theft,[18] and may be a sign of kin altruism. Piglets begin grazing at about two to three weeks and are weaned by six months.[6] Warthog young quickly attain mobility and stay close to their mothers for defense.[19]

text: Conservation status[edit]

text: As of 1999, the common warthog population in southern Africa is estimated to be about 250,000.[20] Typical densities range between one and 10 per km2 in protected areas, but local densities of 77 per km2 were found on short grass in Nakuru National Park.[21] The species is susceptible to drought and hunting (especially with dogs), which may result in localized extinctions.[1] The common warthog is present in numerous protected areas across its extensive range.[1]

text: Related species[edit]

text:
Metridiochoerus – extinct giant warthog
Wild boar


document_title: TLC (TV network)

question_text: when did tlc stop being the learning channel

text: TLC (TV network)

text: History[edit]

text: 1972–80: Early history[edit]

text: The channel was founded in 1972 by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and NASA as the Appalachian Community Service Network,[2][3] and was an informative and instructional network focused on providing real education through the medium of television; it was distributed at no cost by NASA satellite.

text: 1980–98: The Learning Channel, "A place for learning minds"[edit]

text: ACSN was privatized in 1980, and its name was changed to The Learning Channel in November of that year; the name was subsequently shortened to "TLC."[4] (NASA immediately launched NASA TV as the ACSN's internal replacement.) The channel mostly featured documentary content pertaining to nature, science, history, current events, medicine, technology, cooking, home improvement, and other information-based topics. These are often agreed to have been more focused, more technical, and of a more academic nature than the content that was being broadcast at the time on its rival, The Discovery Channel. The channel was geared toward an inquisitive and narrow audience during this time, and had modest ratings except for the boating safety series Captain's Log with Captain Mark Gray (hosted by Mark Graves AKA Captain Mark Gray, a USMC Vietnam Vet 1967–70, Entertainer (Escape Artist, Magician, and TV Writer/Producer/Host) - who worked in multimedia (radio, newspapers, TV and Internet since 1974). Captain's Log aired weekly in primetime on TLC from 1987 to 1990. It achieved between a 4.5 to 6 share in the ratings and was the highest compensated series in the history of TLC with over 30 times the compensation of any other TLC series. Mark Graves AKA "Captain Mark Gray" was also allowed to sign yearly rather than quarterly contracts. He decided to not seek another contract renewal when Discovery acquired TLC in 1990 and moved its operations from Virginia to Denver, Colorado.

text: By the early 1990s, The Learning Channel was a sister channel to the Financial News Network (FNN), which owned 51 percent of the channel with Infotechnology Inc. After FNN went into bankruptcy in 1991, the Discovery Channel's owners went into discussions to purchase The Learning Channel. An agreement was made with FNN and Infotech to buy their shares for $12.75 million. The non-profit Appalachian Community Service Network owned 35 percent of the network, and was also bought out.[5][6]

text: The Learning Channel continued to focus primarily on instructional and educational programming through much of the 1990s, but began to air shows less focused on education and themed more toward popular consumption and mass marketing; these would be later expanded.

text: TLC still aired educational programs such as Paleoworld (a show about prehistoric creatures), though more and more of its programming began to be devoted to niche audiences for shows regarding subjects like home improvement (HomeTime and Home Savvy were two of the first), arts and crafts, crime programs such as The New Detectives, medical programming (particularly reality-based shows following real patients through the process of operations), and other shows that appealed to daytime audiences, particularly housewives. This was to be indicative of a major change in programming content and target audience over the next few years.

text: 1998–2006: "Life Unscripted", new direction[edit]

text: Perhaps due to poor ratings from a narrow target audience, TLC began to explore new avenues starting in the late 1990s, deemphasizing educational material in favor of entertainment.[4] "Ready Set Learn", the network's children's program block, was slowly reduced through the years as the network deliberately redirected viewers towards the full-day lineup of children's programming on Discovery Kids. The block was dropped completely in late 2008, and Cable in the Classroom programming, meant for recording by teachers, had completely disappeared by the early 2000s.

text: In 1998, the channel began to distance itself from its original name "The Learning Channel", and instead began to advertise itself only as "TLC". During this period, there was a huge shift in content, with most new programming being geared towards reality-drama and interior design shows. The huge success of shows like Trading Spaces, Junkyard Wars, A Wedding Story, and A Baby Story exemplified this new shift in programming towards more mass-appeal shows.

text: This came at a time when Discovery itself was overhauling much of its own programming, introducing shows like American Chopper (which Discovery moved to TLC for a time). Much of the old, more educationally focused programming can still be found occasionally dispersed amongst other channels owned by Discovery Communications. Most of TLC's programming today is geared towards reality-based drama or interests such as home design, emergency room or medical dramas, extreme weather, law enforcement, dating, and human interest programs.

text: 2006–08: "Live and learn"[edit]

text: On March 27, 2006, the network launched a new look and promotional campaign, dropping the "Life Unscripted" tag and introducing a new theme, "Live and learn", trying to turn around the network's reliance on decorating shows and reality programming. As part of the new campaign, the channel's original name, "The Learning Channel", returned to occasional usage in promotions. The new theme also played on life lessons, which featured heavily in the network's advertising and promotional clips. This campaign used humor to appeal to a target audience in their 30s.[7][8]

text: 2008–present: "Life surprises"[edit]

text: In early March 2008, TLC launched a slightly refreshed look and promotional campaign, alongside a new slogan: "Life surprises". This new slogan came as TLC began to shift even more to personal stories, and away from the once-dominating home improvement shows. Programs focused on family life became the core of the channel. Jon & Kate Plus 8, which by 2008 was the highest-rated program on TLC,[9] and Little People, Big World were joined by 17 Kids and Counting (which became 18 Kids and Counting and then 19 Kids and Counting as the Duggars, the family that the series centers on, expanded), and Table for 12 in 2008 and 2009 respectively. The series Toddlers & Tiaras also debuted in 2008, and proved popular enough to spawn a spin-off in 2012, Here Comes Honey Boo Boo, focusing on the family life of recurring contestant Alana "Honey Boo Boo" Thompson, which was canceled in 2014. Also premiering on TLC in 2009 was Cake Boss, which focuses on the head baker at Carlo's Bakery and his staff, who mostly consist of his family.

text: Programming[edit]

text: TLC HD[edit]

text: A high definition simulcast of TLC was launched on September 1, 2007. It is currently available on many cable and satellite systems in the United States, Mexico and Canada, including Bell TV, Cogeco, Cox, Dish Network, DirecTV, Shaw Cable, Rogers Cable, Telus, Mediacom, insight Communications, Bright House Networks, Charter Spectrum, Verizon FiOS and Comcast.

text: International[edit]

text: Middle East and North Africa[edit]

text: OSN — the leading paid platform in the Middle East and North Africa[citation needed] — launched TLC HD and broadcast it with the Discovery Network, using the same form as the American TLC channel and adding new exclusive Arabic-English programs from its production as "Nidaa".[citation needed]

text: The Americas[edit]

text: Canada[edit]

text: TLC's American feed is available in Canada on most cable and satellite providers, as it is authorized for carriage as a foreign cable television service by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission; save for a few differences it features the same programming schedule as that seen in the United States.

text: Latin America[edit]

text: The Latin American TLC HD, was launched on December 1, 2009, exclusively in high-definition, in the same style as the American channel (most of TLC's programming is available in standard-definition on Discovery Home & Health). On November 1, 2011, the Latin American version of Discovery Travel & Living was relaunched as TLC: Travel & Living Channel, which now also has a dedicated feed for Brazil.

text: Europe[edit]

text: United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland[edit]

text: An English-speaking version of the channel was originally launched in 1994 across Europe and was subsequently renamed Discovery Home and Leisure and later Discovery Real Time as part of Discovery's slate of themed channels. TLC relaunched in the UK and the Republic of Ireland on April 30, 2013.[10]

text: Romania[edit]

text: TLC Romania was launched on 20 January 2011, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in this country.

text: Bulgaria[edit]

text: In early 2013 the channel launched in Bulgaria.

text: Finland[edit]

text: In November, 2016, TLC began to appear free, before that TLC was payment channel in Finland.

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In November, 2011, TLC Portugal debuted on ZON TV distributor and satellite services.

text: Greece[edit]

text: On October 3, 2011, TLC Greece debuted on the Conn-x TV IPTV and OTE TV satellite services.

text: Germany[edit]

text: TLC Germany launched on April 10, 2014 on cable, IPTV and satellite services in both HD and SD.

text: Norway[edit]

text: A Norwegian version of the channel was launched on March 4, 2010 as TLC Norway, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in Norway.

text: Poland[edit]

text: On October 1, 2010, the Polish version of Discovery Travel & Living was relaunched as TLC Poland, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in Poland.

text: The Balkans[edit]

text: TLC Balkans was also launched on October 1, 2010, replacing the European version of the "Travel & Living Channel" in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia and Bulgaria. TLC Balkans' playout is from Belgrade, Serbia.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: On July 4, 2011, a Dutch version was launched, time sharing with Animal Planet's standard definition feed. Animal Planet remained a 24-hour service for high-definition viewers. TLC became a 24-hour channel on January 8, 2013. It is also available in HD.

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: On June 3, 2014, the Swiss cable provider UPC Cablecom launched TLC in Switzerland.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: On November 6, 2015, TLC Turkey began broadcasting replacing CNBC-e channel.[11]

text: Asia[edit]

text: On September 1, 2010, the Asia Pacific versions of Discovery Travel & Living were relaunched as TLC, with the acronym standing for "Travel and Living Channel".[12]

text: India[edit]

text: An Indian version was launched in 2006 under the jurisdiction of Discovery Channel. It was relaunched as TLC on September 1, 2010.

text: South Korea[edit]

text: A South Korean version was launched in December 4, 2013 under the Discovery Communications and CMB (Central Media Broadcasting Korea). The channel was replaced by EXF (Extreme Fun TV) in May 1st 2016.

text: Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]

text: Available across sub-Saharan Africa on the DStv satellite service.[13]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: On September 1, 2011, the South African feed of TLC replaced the Discovery Travel & Living channel on TopTV.[citation needed] In 2013 TopTV lost the channel to DStv.[13]


document_title: Duel (1971 film)

question_text: who drove the truck in the movie duel

question_tokens: who drove the truck in the movie duel

text: Duel (1971 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: David Mann is a middle-aged salesman driving on a business trip. He encounters a tanker truck on a two-lane highway in the Mojave Desert, traveling below the speed limit and expelling sooty diesel exhaust. Mann passes the truck, but the truck then roars past him. When Mann overtakes and passes it again, the truck blasts its horn. Mann leaves it in the distance.

text: Mann pulls into a gas station, and shortly afterward the truck arrives and parks next to him. Through the space beneath the truck bed, he sees the driver is wearing cowboy boots. Mann phones his wife, who is upset with him after an argument the previous night. The gas station attendant refills Mann's car and mentions that it needs a new radiator hose, but he says he will get it fixed later.

text: Back on the road, the truck catches up, passes, and blocks Mann’s path each time he attempts to pass. After antagonizing Mann for some time, the driver waves him past. However, when Mann attempts to pass he almost runs into an oncoming vehicle. He realizes the truck driver tried to trick him into a crash, so he passes the truck using an unpaved turnout next to the highway and taunts the driver as he speeds past.

text: The truck tailgates Mann at high speeds, forcing him to increase his speed to avoid being rear-ended. Mann finally drives his car off the road and collides with a fence opposite a diner. The truck continues down the road, and Mann enters the diner to compose himself. Though he assumes the truck driver's road rage has been satisfied, upon returning from the restroom he sees the truck parked outside. He studies the diner patrons and confronts a man wearing the same cowboy boots he saw on the truck driver. Offended, the driver strikes Mann and drives away in a different truck. The pursuing truck leaves seconds later, indicating its driver was never inside the diner.

text: Mann leaves the diner and stops to help a stranded school bus, but his front bumper becomes caught underneath the bus's rear bumper. The truck appears at the end of a tunnel. Mann panics, frees his car by jumping on the hood while the bus driver puts the car in reverse, and flees. To Mann's slight chagrin, the truck starts the bus by giving it a push-start to get it moving. Shortly afterward, Mann is stopped at a railroad crossing when the truck pushes his car toward a passing freight train. After the train passes, Mann crosses the tracks and pulls over. The truck continues down the road and Mann follows.

text: Mann stops at a gas station to call the police and replace his radiator hose, but when he steps into the phone booth, the truck drives into it. Mann jumps clear just in time, However, the truck also drives into some glass cages, featuring wild animals, where Mann barely escapes from getting bitten by a rattlesnake. The lady who runs the station cries out in horror as the truck destroys her cages and potentially kills some of the animals that lived in them. He gets into his car and speeds away. Around a corner he pulls off the road, hiding behind an embankment as the truck drives past.

text: After a long wait, Mann heads off again but finds the truck waiting for him down the road. Mann attempts to speed past, but it moves across the road, blocking his way. Mann seeks help from an older couple in a car, but they flee when the truck backs up towards them at speed. The truck stops before hitting Mann's car and the driver waves him past. At one point, Mann observes a black-and-white car parked on the side of the road. Thinking that it is a police car, he skids to a stop, only for him to realize that it is a pest control vehicle. He speeds off and the chase continues. The truck chases him up a mountain range. The radiator hose of Mann's car breaks, causing the car to overheat. He barely makes the summit and coasts downhill in neutral as the truck bears down on him. However, a sign states that trucks have to use low gear the next twelve miles and the truck driver is forced to slow down, allowing Mann to gain speed.

text: Mann's car cools off enough to allow him to drive up a dirt road and the truck follows him. He turns to face his opponent on a hill overlooking a canyon. He places his briefcase on the accelerator and steers toward the oncoming truck, jumping from the car at the last moment. The tanker hits the car, which bursts into flames, obscuring the truck driver's view. The driver realizes it is too late and honks one final time at Mann, before the truck plunges over the cliff, killing him. Above the wreckage, Mann jumps up and down, laughing with glee and relief. Physically and mentally exhausted and with no way to get home, he sits at the cliff's edge and throws stones into the canyon as the sun sets.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Dennis Weaver as David Mann
Jacqueline Scott as Mrs. Mann
Carey Loftin as the Truck Driver
Eddie Firestone as Café owner
Lou Frizzell as Bus Driver
Eugene Dynarski as Man in café
Lucille Benson as Lady at Snakerama
Tim Herbert as Gas station attendant

Charles Seel as Old man
Shirley O'Hara as Waitress
Alexander Lockwood as Jim, Old man in car
Amy Douglass as Old woman in car
Sweet Dick Whittington as Radio interviewer
Dale Van Sickel as Car Driver
Shawn Steinman as Girl on School Bus (uncredited)

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: The script is adapted by Richard Matheson from his own short story, originally published in Playboy magazine. Matheson got the inspiration for the story when he was tailgated by a trucker while on his way home from a golfing match with friend Jerry Sohl on November 22, 1963, the same day as the John F. Kennedy assassination.[1] After a series of unsuccessful attempts to pitch the idea as an episode for various television series, he decided to write it as a short story instead.[1] In preparation for writing the story, he drove from his home to Ventura and recorded everything he saw on a tape recorder.[1]

text: The original short story was given to Spielberg by his secretary, who told him that it was being made into a movie of the week and suggested he apply to be the director.[2] Duel was Spielberg's second feature-length directing effort, after his 1971 The Name of the Game NBC television series episode "L.A. 2017".

text: Much of the movie was filmed in and around the communities of Canyon Country, Agua Dulce, and Acton, California. In particular, sequences were filmed on the Sierra Highway, Agua Dulce Canyon Road, Soledad Canyon Road, and Angeles Forest Highway. Many of the landmarks from Duel still exist today, including the tunnel, the railroad crossing, and Chuck's Café, where Mann stops for a break. The building is still on Sierra Highway and has housed a French restaurant called Le Chene since 1980.[3] The "Snakerama" gas station seen in the film also appears in Spielberg's comedy film 1941 (1979) as an homage to Duel, with actress Lucille Benson again appearing as the proprietor.

text: Production of the television film was overseen by ABC's director of movies of the week Lillian Gallo.[4] The original made-for-television version was 74 minutes long and its filming was completed in 13 days (three longer than the scheduled 10 days), leaving 10 days for editing prior to broadcast as the ABC Movie of the Week. Following Duel's successful TV airing, Universal released the film overseas in 1972. The TV movie was not long enough for theatrical release, so Universal had Spielberg spend two days filming several new scenes, turning Duel into a 90-minute film. The new scenes were set at the railroad crossing, school bus, and the telephone booth. A longer opening sequence was added with the car backing out of a garage and driving through the city. Expletives were also added, to make the film sound less like a television production.[citation needed]

text: Spielberg lobbied to have Dennis Weaver in the starring role because he admired Weaver's work in Orson Welles' Touch of Evil.[2] Weaver repeats one of his lines from Touch of Evil, telling the truck driver in the cafe that he has "another think coming." This phrase is commonly misstated as "another thing coming", as Weaver's character did in Touch of Evil.[5]

text: In the Archive of American Television website, Spielberg is quoted in an interview given by Weaver as saying: "You know, I watch that movie at least twice a year to remember what I did".[6]

text: The truck as the villain[edit]

text: Matheson's script made explicit that the unnamed truck driver, the villain of the film, is unseen aside from the shots of his arms and boots that were needed to convey the plot.[7] In the DVD documentary, Spielberg observes that the fear of the unknown is perhaps the greatest fear of all and that Duel plays heavily to that fear. Throughout the film, the driver of the truck remains anonymous and unseen, with the exception of two separate shots where his arm waves Weaver on into oncoming traffic, and another shot where Weaver observes the driver's snakeskin boots. His motives for targeting Weaver's character are never revealed. Spielberg says that the effect of not seeing the driver makes the real villain of the film the truck itself, rather than the driver.

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: The car was carefully chosen, a red Plymouth Valiant, although three cars were used in the actual production of the movie.[8] The original release of Duel featured a 1970 model with a 318 V-8 engine[9] and "Plymouth" spelled out in block letters across the hood, as well as trunk lid treatment characteristic of the 1970 model; a 1971 model with a 225 Slant Six was also used.[10] When the film was released in theaters and scenes were added, a 1972 model with a 225 Slant Six was added, with the "Plymouth" name on the hood as one emblem.

text: Spielberg did not care what kind of car was used in the film, but insisted the final chosen model be red to enable the vehicle to stand out from the general landscape in the wide shots of the desert highway.[2]

text: Spielberg had what he called an "audition" for the truck, wherein he viewed a series of trucks to choose the one for the film. He selected the older 1955 Peterbilt 281 over the current flat-nosed "cab-over" style of trucks because the long hood of the Peterbilt, its split windshield, and its round headlights gave it more of a "face", adding to its menacing personality.[2] Additionally, Spielberg said that the multiple license plates on the front bumper of the Peterbilt subtly suggested that the truck driver is a serial killer, having "run down other drivers in other states".[2] For each shot, several people were tasked to make it uglier; each successively adding oil, grease, fake dead insects and other blemishes.[7]

text: The truck had twin rear axles, a CAT 1674 turbocharged engine with a 13-speed transmission, making it capable of hauling loads over 30 tons and top speeds reaching 75–80 mph. During the original filming, the crew only had one truck, so the shots of the truck falling off the cliff had to be completed in one take.[7] For the film's theatrical release, though, two additional trucks were purchased in order to film the additional scenes that were not in the original made-for-television version (the school bus scene and the railroad crossing scene). One of these, a 1964 Peterbilt 351, virtually identical to the original truck except for its air intake, was later destroyed in another movie production. Only one of those trucks has survived, a 1960 Peterbilt 281 that was kept and prepared as a back up truck for the 351 truck, but wasn't used.[11]

text: Stock footage of both vehicles was later used in an episode of the television series The Incredible Hulk, titled "Never Give a Trucker an Even Break". Spielberg was not happy about this, but the usage was legal, as the show was produced by Universal and the Duel contract said nothing about reusing the footage in other Universal productions.[12]

text: The 1960 Peterbilt 281 truck was purchased several times. It is currently owned by a truck collector and is on display at Brad's Trucks in North Carolina.[13]

text: Music[edit]

text: The film's original score was composed by Billy Goldenberg, who had previously written the music for Spielberg's segment of the Night Gallery pilot and his Columbo episode "Murder by the Book," and co-scored Spielberg's The Name of the Game episode "L.A. 2017" with Robert Prince. Spielberg and Duel producer George Eckstein told him that because of the short production schedule, he would have to write the music during filming, and Goldenberg visited the production on location at Soledad Canyon to help get an idea of what would be required. Spielberg then had Goldenberg ride in the tanker truck being driven by stunt driver Carey Loftin on several occasions; the experience terrified the composer, although he did eventually get used to it. Goldenberg then composed the score in about a week, for strings, harp, keyboards and heavy use of percussion instruments, with Moog synthesiser effects but eschewing brass and woodwinds. He then worked with the music editors to "pick from all the pieces (they) had and cut it together (with the sound effects and dialogue)." Much of his score was ultimately not used in the finished film.[14][15] In 2015 Intrada Records released a limited edition album featuring the complete score, plus four radio source music tracks composed by Goldenberg.

text: Release[edit]

text: Duel was initially shown on American television as an ABC Movie of the Week installment. It was eventually released to cinemas in Europe and Australia; it had a limited cinema release to some venues in the United States, while it was widely praised in the UK. The film's success enabled Spielberg to establish himself as a film director.[2]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received many positive reviews and is often considered one of the greatest TV movies ever made.[16][17] On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Duel currently has a score of 87% based on 39 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7 out of 10.).[18] Television critic Matt Zoller Seitz in his 2016 book co-written with Alan Sepinwall titled TV (The Book) named Duel as the greatest American TV-movie of all time, stating that "Almost fifty years after its initial broadcast, this stripped-down, subtly mythic action thriller retains a good deal of its power".[19]

text: Interpretations of Duel often focus on the symbolism of Mann and the truck. Some critics follow Spielberg's own interpretation of the story as an indictment against the mechanization of life, both by literal machines and by social regimentation.[20] The theme of gender performativity in Mann's quest to prove his manhood is another interpretation several observers have noted.[20][21] The film has been placed at #66 on The 100 Scariest Movie Moments on Bravo.

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival

text: Grand Prize: 1973[22]

text: Emmy

text: Outstanding Achievement in Film Sound Editing: 1972[23]

text: Golden Globe

text: Best Movie Made for TV: 1972[24]

text: Emmy

text: Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography for Entertainment Programming – For a Special or Feature Length Program Made for Television: 1972[25]

text: Saturn Award

text: Best DVD Classic Film Release: 2005[26]

text: References in other works[edit]

text: In computer games[edit]

text:
In 18 WOS PTTM, the truck appears as a very rare, exclusive mod since its upload in 2006.
In Euro Truck Simulator 2, the Peterbilt 351 and its interiors (mods, not part of the vanilla game) are based on the truck from the movie. It may come back in American Truck Simulator as both a 281 and as a 351.
In Grand Theft Auto V, a random encounter is based on the film.
In Hard Truck: 18 Wheels of Steel, the "Rusty" truck was based on the truck from Duel.
In Hidden Folks, in the Suburb-level, one of the hidden characters the player is tasked with finding is Driver Dave, who is tailgated by a crazy truck driver on one of the streets.

text: In film[edit]

text:
The dinosaur roar sound effect that is heard as the truck goes over the cliff is also heard in Jaws (1975), also directed by Spielberg, as the shark's carcass sinks into the ocean. Spielberg has said that this is because he feels there is a "kinship" between Duel and Jaws, as they are both about "these leviathans targeting everyman." He has also said that inserting the sound effect into Jaws was "my way of thanking Duel for giving me a career."[2]
The anime film Lupin III: The Mystery of Mamo (1978) parodies Duel by depicting a chase scene whereby lead characters Arsène Lupin III, Daisuke Jigen and Goemon Ishikawa XIII, driving in a red Austin Cooper, are pursued by a giant Kenworth W900 sent by the film's villain, Mamo, to eliminate them.[27]
The truck from Duel is seen in the film Torque (2004) and causes a biker to wipe out shortly after a red 4-door Valiant had driven past the bikers.
The horror anthology film Nightmares (1983) featured a segment very similar to Duel, though with overt supernatural elements.
In Fire Down Below (1997), the scene where Taggart is chased and nearly run off the road before luring the truck to ram his truck off of a cliff is directly inspired by Duel.
The Barcelona-based Spanish filmmaker Enric Folch crowdfunded the documentary film The Devil on Wheels.[28] The documentary centers the development of Duel.[29][30]
The film Joy Ride (2001) is heavily influenced by Duel and contains many direct references. In one scene a similar model truck menaces the protagonists, but the driver is revealed to be harmless.
The film Wrecker (2015), starring Drea Whitburn and Anna Hutchison, is almost a shot for shot remake of Duel.

text: In music[edit]

text:
The image of the truck pushing the Plymouth over the cliff is seen on the cover of the album Smokin' Taters! by Kentucky-based band Nine Pound Hammer.
The Swervedriver song "Duel" from their album Mezcal Head was named after the film.[31]
In David Lee Roth's (1994) music video "She's my Machine", the truck appears several times as a green tanker truck.

text: In print[edit]

text:
The Mr. Monk book Mr. Monk on the Road features a similar sub-plot in which Adrian Monk, driving a rented RV, is pursued by a truck like that from Duel, which meets a similar end, although the truck driver's motive is known.
In the third part of JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, Stardust Crusaders, the Wheel of Fortune chapters have various references to the movie, as the protagonists must deal with an assassin controlling a car (which resembles a Plymouth).
In 2009, writers Stephen King and Joe Hill decided to honor Matheson's classic with an homage prose story titled "Throttle." In time, this was turned into a four-issue miniseries called "Road Rage". IDW Publishing gave both "Duel" and "Throttle" two issues each to find a new audience with their comic book adaptation. "Road Rage" #1 was released to the public on Feb 15th, 2012.[32]

text: In television[edit]

text:
Stock footage from Duel appears throughout The Incredible Hulk first season episode "Never Give a Trucker an Even Break" (originally airdate on CBS: April 28, 1978).[33] Spielberg was reportedly "not too happy about it," according to Matheson.[34]
In the Red Dwarf series 8 episode "Only the Good...", Arnold Rimmer claims that a scar on the right side of his neck resulted from a friend's attacking him with the video case from the film Duel.
The opening scene of the Transformers: Prime episode "Nemesis Prime" pays homage to Duel.
The one-hour special Tiny Toons' Night Ghoulery features a parody segment of the film named "Fuel" with Calamity Coyote.
The Bob's Burgers season four episode "Christmas in the Car" contains numerous references to Duel when Bob is terrorized by a candy-cane shaped truck.
In the television murder mystery series Murder, She Wrote episode "The Cemetery Vote", Jessica is traveling along a country road as a passenger in a station wagon when they are chased and rammed by a large powerful truck covered in mud with the driver invisible behind a mud-caked windshield.
It was the movie of the week for the Svengoolie program on November 5, 2016, his first airing of the film.[35]

text: Notes[edit]


document_title: Drink can

question_text: who invented the flip top for soda cans

question_tokens: who invented the flip top for soda cans

text: Drink can

text: History[edit]

text: The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia.[2] Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for storing drinks in cans was the interior liner, typically plastic or sometimes a waxy substance, that helped to keep the product's flavor from being ruined by a chemical reaction with the metal. Another major factor for the timing was the repeal of Prohibition in the United States at the end of 1933.

text: In 1935,[3] the Felinfoel Brewery at Felinfoel in Wales was the first brewery outside the USA to commercially can beer. Prior to this time, beer was only available in barrels or in glass bottles. From this time, lightweight tin cans could be used. Felinfoel was a major supplier to British armed forces abroad in the Second World War - cans saved a great deal of space and weight for wartime exports compared to glass bottles, and did not have to be returned for refilling. These early cans did not have a pull tab, instead they had a crown cork (beer bottle top). All modern UK canned beer is descended from these small, early cans which helped change the drinking and beer-buying habits of the British public. From the 18th century until the early 20th century Wales dominated world tinplate production, peaking in the early 1890s when 80% of the world's tinplate was produced in south Wales.

text: Canned drinks were factory-sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom.  They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a "church key", that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.

text: In the mid-1930s, some cans were developed with caps so that they could be opened and poured more like a bottle. These were called "cone tops", as their tops had a conical taper up to the smaller diameter of the cap. Cone top cans were sealed by the same crimped caps that were put on bottles, and could be opened with the same bottle-opener tool. There were three types of conetops: high profile, low profile, and j-spout. The low profile and j-spout were the earliest, dating from about 1935. The "crowntainer" was a different type of can that was drawn steel with a bottom cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading drink packaging and drink can producer. Various breweries used crowntainers and conetops until the late 1950s, but many breweries kept using the simple cylindrical cans.

text: The popularity of canned drinks was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas.  Cans had two advantages over glass bottles.  First for the distributors, flat-top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles.  Second for consumers, they did not require the deposit typically paid for bottles, as they were discarded after use.  Glass-bottle deposits were reimbursed when consumers took the empties back to the store.

text: By the time the United States entered World War II, cans had gained only about ten percent of the drink container market; this was drastically reduced during the war to accommodate strategic needs for metal.

text:
In 1959, the recyclable aluminum can was introduced to the market in a 7 oz. size by the Adolph Coors Company. Also in 1959, Ermal Fraze devised a can-opening method that would come to dominate the canned drink market. His invention was the "pull-tab". This eliminated the need for a separate opener tool by attaching an aluminium pull-ring lever with a rivet to a pre-scored wedge-shaped tab section of the can top. The ring was riveted to the center of the top, which created an elongated opening large enough that one hole simultaneously served to let the drink flow out while air flowed in.  In 1959, while on a family picnic, Mr. Fraze had forgotten to bring a can opener and was forced to use a car bumper to open a can of beer. Thinking there must be an easier way, he later stayed up all night until he came up with the pull tab.[4]  Pull-tab cans, or the discarded tabs from them, were also called "pop-tops" colloquially.  In Australia these were colloquially known as "ring-pull". Into the 1970s, the pull-tab was widely popular, but its popularity came with a significant problem, as people would frequently discard the pull-tabs on the ground as litter, or drop them into the can and risk choking on them.
These problems were both addressed by the invention of the "push-tab". Used primarily on Coors Beer cans in the mid-1970s, the push-tab was a raised circular scored area used in place of the pull-tab. It needed no ring to pull up. Instead, the raised aluminium blister was pushed down into the can, with a small unscored piece that kept the tab connected after being pushed inside. Push-tabs never gained wide popularity because while they had solved the litter problem of the pull-tab, they created a safety hazard where the person's finger upon pushing the tab into the can was immediately exposed to the sharp edges of the opening.  An unusual feature of the push-tab Coors Beer cans was that they had a second, smaller, push-tab at the top as an airflow vent — a convenience that was lost with the switch from can opener to pull-tab. The "push-tab" was introduced into Australia in the early 1980s and was locally known as "pop-tops".

text: The safety and litter problems were both eventually solved later in the 1970s with Daniel F. Cudzik's invention of the non-removing "Stay-Tab". The pull-ring was replaced with a stiff aluminium lever, and the removable tab was replaced with a pre-scored round tab that functioned similarly to the push-tab, but the raised blister was no longer needed, as the riveted lever would now do the job of pushing the tab open and into the interior of the can.

text: In 2008, an aluminium version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca-Cola's Caribou Coffee drink. In 2004, Anheuser-Busch adopted an all-aluminium bottle for use with Budweiser and Bud Light beers.

text: Standard sizes[edit]

text:
Comparison chart of various standards

ml

imp fl oz

US fl oz

1,000

35.2

33.8

568

20.0[nb 1]

19.2

500

17.6

16.9

473

16.6

16.0[nb 2]

440

15.5

14.9

375

13.2

12.7

355

12.5

12.0

350

12.3

11.8

341

12.0

11.5

330

11.6

11.2

250

8.8

8.5

237

8.3

8.0

222

7.8

7.5

200

7.0

6.8

150

5.3

5.1

Jump up ^ one imp pint

Jump up ^ one US pint

text: Capacity in countries[edit]

text: Various standard capacities are used throughout the world.

text: In Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks are commonly served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes.

text: In Brazil the standard can size is 355 ml.

text: In New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml, although Coca-Cola Amatil changed its canned drinks to 330 ml in 2017.[5]

text: In China the most common size is 330 ml.

text: Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units. Imperial dimensions for canmaking are written as inches+sixteenths of an inch (e.g. "202" = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).[6]

text: In Europe the standard can used to be 330 ml but since the 1990s the 250 ml size has slowly become about just as common. In European countries the 500 ml can size is second standard. It's often used for beer, cider and energy drinks.

text: In the UK 440 ml is commonly used for lager and cider.

text: In Austria energy drinks are usually sold in sizes 200 to 330 ml.

text: In Hong Kong most cans are  330 ml.

text: In India standard cans are 500 ml.

text: In Japan the most common sizes are 350 ml and 500 ml.  Larger and smaller cans are also sold.

text: In South Korea 250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks. However, when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper. Finally, beer cans also come in 500 ml forms.

text: In both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.

text: In Pakistan the most common sizes are 250 ml and 330 ml. 200 ml cans are also sold.

text: In North America, the standard can size is 12 US fl oz or 355 ml. The US standard can is 4.83 inches high, 2.13 inches in diameter at the lid, and 2.60 inches in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are 16oz cans known as pounders, and 24oz cans or larger are referred to as tall boys.[citation needed]

text: In Canada, the standard size was previously 10 Imperial fluid ounces (284 ml), later redefined and labeled as 280 ml in around 1980.  This size was commonly used with steel drink cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s, upon the conversion from steel to aluminium.  Some drinks such as Nestea are sold in 341 ml cans. In Quebec by the year 2015, a new standard for carbonated drinks has been added as many important grocery stores now only sell cans of all major carbonated drinks in six-packs of 222 ml cans instead of the original 341 ml. Many convenience stores began selling "slim cans" with a 310ml capacity as of late 2015

text: South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml.  There is also the 500 ml can.  A smaller 200 ml can is used for "mixers" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans.

text: Middle East

text: In the Middle East standard cans are 330 ml.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Most metal drink cans manufactured in the United States are made of aluminium,[7] whereas in some parts of Europe and Asia approximately 55 percent are made of steel and 45 percent are aluminium alloy. Steel cans often have a top made of aluminium. The aluminium used in United States and Canada are alloys containing 92.5% to 97% aluminium, <5.5% magnesium, <1.6% manganese, <0.15% chromium and some trace amounts of iron, silicon and copper according to MSDS from aluminium producer Alcoa.[8] Alloys used include 3004, 3105, or other 3xxx/5xxx series aluminium.[9]

text: An empty aluminium can weighs approximately half an ounce (14.2 grams). There are 34 empty 12 ounce aluminium cans to a pound or 70 to a kilogram.[10]

text: In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminium containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminium cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminium is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid.  Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminium requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.

text: Aluminium cans are coated internally to protect the aluminium from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminium can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition.[11][12] Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.[13]

text: In order to achieve primary aluminium for manufacturing, bauxite is converted to alumina through the Bayer process.[14]  After this process, aluminium can be extracted from alumina. Subsequently, it goes through a process called aluminium smelting and ingot casting.  Simply, these two stages require aluminum to undergo an extremely hot temperature and high-energy bath. Following this process is hot rolling and cold rolling. This is ultimately done to cast the aluminium can into shape for further processing.  Finally, the process of “ironing” is performed which forms the shape of the can.

text: Filling cans[edit]

text: Cans are filled before the top is crimped on. The filling and sealing operations need to be extremely fast and precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the drink flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling.

text: Fabrication process[edit]

text: Modern cans are generally produced through a mechanical cold forming process that starts with punching a flat blank from very stiff cold-rolled sheet. This sheet is typically alloy 3104-H19 or 3004-H19, which is aluminium with about 1% manganese and 1% magnesium to give it strength and formability. The flat blank is first formed into a cup about three inches in diameter. This cup is then pushed through a different forming process called "ironing" which forms the can. The bottom of the can is also shaped at this time. The malleable metal deforms into the shape of an open-top can. With the sophisticated technology of the dies and the forming machines, the side of the can is significantly thinner than either the top and bottom areas, where stiffness is required.

text: Plain lids (known as shells) are stamped from a coil of aluminium, typically alloy 5182-H48, and transferred to another press that converts them to easy-open ends. This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening, while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminium.

text: Opening mechanisms [edit]

text: Early metal drink cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can-piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid—a large one for drinking, and a second (smaller) one to admit air.

text: As early as 1922, inventors were applying for patents on cans with tab tops, but the technology of the time made these inventions impractical.[15] Later advancements saw the ends of the can made out of aluminium instead of steel.

text: Cans are usually in sealed paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, or trays covered with plastic film. The entire distribution system and packaging need to be controlled to ensure freshness.[16]

text: Pop-tab[edit]

text: Mikolaj Kondakow and James Wong of Thunder Bay,[dubious  – discuss] Ontario, Canada invented the pull tab version for bottles in or before 1951 (Canadian patent 476789).[17] Then, in 1962, Ermal Cleon Fraze (1913–1989)[18] of Dayton, Ohio, United States, invented the similar integral rivet and pull-tab version (also known as ring pull in British English), which had a ring attached at the rivet for pulling, and which would come off completely to be discarded. He received US Patent No. 3,349,949 for his pull-top can design in 1963 and licensed his invention to Alcoa and Pittsburgh Brewing Company, the latter of which first introduced the design on Iron City Beer cans. The first soft drinks to be sold in all-aluminium cans were R.C. Cola and Diet-Rite Cola, both made by the Royal Crown Cola company, in 1964.

text: The early pull-tabs detached easily. In 1976 the Journal of the American Medical Association noted cases of children ingesting pull-tabs that had broken off and dropped into the can.[19]

text: Full-top pull-tabs were also used in some oil cans and are currently used in some soup, pet food, tennis ball, nuts and other cans.

text: Stay-on-tab[edit]

text: In 1975, Daniel F. Cudzik, an engineer with Reynolds Metals, filed a design patent application for a "End closure for a container."[20] This later became known as a "Sta-Tab." When the Sta-Tab launched in 1975, on Falls City beer and, quickly, other drinks, there was an initial period of consumer testing and education. Cudzik later received patents for this "Easy Open Wall" (US 3967752, issued 1976-07-06  US 3967753, issued 1976-07-06 ). The validity of these patents was upheld in subsequent litigation.[21]

text: The similarly designed "Easy-open ecology end" was invented by Ermal Fraze and Omar Brown. Its patent application was also filed in 1975. This design, like Cudzik's, uses a separate tab attached to the upper surface as a lever to depress a scored part of the lid, which folds underneath the top of the can and out of the way of the resulting opening, thus reducing injuries and roadside litter caused by removable tabs.[22]

text: Such "retained ring-pull" cans supplanted pull-off tabs in the United Kingdom in 1989 for soft drinks and 1990 for alcoholic drinks.[23]

text: Wide mouth[edit]

text: One of the more recent modifications to can design was the introduction of the "wide mouth" can in the late 1990s.[24] The American Can Company, now a part of Rexam,[25] and Coors Brewing Company have owned wide mouth design patent (number D385,192)[26] since 1997. Other companies have similar designs for the wide mouth. Ball Corporation's from 2008 has a vent tube to allow direct airflow into the can reducing the amount of gulps during the pour.[27]

text: Sustainable beverage ends[edit]

text: The SuperEnd[28] from Crown Holdings launched in 2000 was designed to use 10% less metal in production than standard beverage ends.[29]

text: Press button can[edit]

text: One variation was the press button can,[30] which featured two pre-cut buttons—one small and one large—in the top of the can sealed with a plastic membrane. These buttons were held closed by the outward pressure of the carbonated drink. The consumer would open the can by depressing both buttons, which would result in two holes.  The small hole would act as a vent to relieve internal pressure so the larger button could then be pressed down to create the hole used for consuming the drink.  Consumers could also easily cut themselves on the edges of the holes or get their fingers stuck.

text: Press button cans were used by Pepsi in Canada from the 1970s to 1980s and Coors in the 1970s. They have since been replaced with pull tabs.  Used in Australia, locally known as "pop-tops", for soft drinks during the early 1980s.

text: Full aperture end[edit]

text: Another variation on the drink can is the "full aperture end", where the entire lid can be removed – turning an aluminium can into a cup. Crown Holdings first designed the "360 End"[31] for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.[28]  It has been used by Anheuser-Busch InBev in China[32] and Brazil[33] and by the Sly Fox Brewing Company[34]  in the United States.

text: Resealable lid[edit]

text: Another variation on the drink can is to have a resealable lid.  A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.

text: Collecting[edit]

text: Beer can collecting was a minor fad in the late 1970s and 1990s. However, the hobby waned rapidly in popularity. The Beer Can Collectors of America (BCCA), founded in 1970, was an organization supporting the hobby, but has now renamed itself Brewery Collectibles Club of America to be more modern.[35]

text: As of late 2009, membership in the Brewery Collectibles Club of America was 3,570, down from a peak of 11,954 in 1978. Just 19 of the members were under the age of 30, and the members' average age had increased to 59.[36]