document_title: History of the periodic table

question_text: who assigned atomic numbers to elements and arranged the periodic table that way

text: History of the periodic table

text: Ancient times[edit]

text: A number of physical elements (such as platinum, tin and zinc) have been known from antiquity, as they are found in their native form and are relatively simple to mine with primitive tools.[3] Around 330 BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed that everything is made up of a mixture of one or more roots, an idea that had originally been suggested by the Sicilian philosopher Empedocles. The four roots, which were later renamed as elements by Plato, were earth, water, air and fire. Similar ideas about these four elements also existed in other ancient traditions, such as Indian philosophy. While Aristotle and Plato understood the concept of an element, their ideas did nothing to advance the understanding of the nature of matter.

text: Hennig Brand[edit]

text: The history of the periodic table is also a history of the discovery of the chemical elements. The first person in history to discover a new element was Hennig Brand, a bankrupt German merchant. Brand tried to discover the Philosopher's Stone — a mythical object that was supposed to turn inexpensive base metals into gold. In 1649, his experiments with distilled human urine resulted in the production of a glowing white substance, which he named phosphorus.[4] He kept his discovery secret until 1680, when Robert Boyle rediscovered phosphorus and published his findings. The discovery of phosphorus helped to raise the question of what it meant for a substance to be an element.

text: In 1661, Boyle defined an element as "a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler substance by a chemical reaction". This simple definition served for three centuries and lasted until the discovery of subatomic particles.

text: Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier[edit]

text: Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry), which was written in 1789 and first translated into English by the writer Robert Kerr, is considered to be the first modern textbook about chemistry. It contained a list of "simple substances" that Lavoisier believed could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc and sulfur, which formed the basis for the modern list of elements. Lavoisier's list also included 'light' and 'caloric', which at the time were believed to be material substances. He has classified these substances into metals and non metals. While many leading chemists refused to believe Lavoisier's new revelations, the Elementary Treatise was written well enough to convince the younger generation. However, Lavoisier's descriptions of his elements lack completeness, as he only classified them as metals and non-metals.

text: 19th century[edit]

text: Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner[edit]

text: In 1817, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner began to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements. In 1829, he found that he could form some of the elements into groups of three, with the members of each group having related properties. He termed these groups triads.

text: Definition of Triad law:-"Chemically analogous elements arranged in increasing order of their atomic weights formed well marked groups of three called Triads in which the atomic weight of the middle element was found to be generally the arithmetic mean of the atomic weight of the other two elements in the triad.

text:
chlorine, bromine, and iodine
calcium, strontium, and barium
sulfur, selenium, and tellurium
lithium, sodium, and potassium

text: Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois[edit]

text: Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements — similar elements occurring at regular intervals when they are ordered by their atomic weights. In 1862 he devised an early form of periodic table, which he named Vis tellurique (the 'telluric helix'), after the element tellurium, which fell near the center of his diagram.[5] With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois saw that elements with similar properties lined up vertically. His 1863 publication included a chart (which contained ions and compounds, in addition to elements), but his original paper in the Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram. As a result, de Chancourtois' ideas received little attention until after the work of Dmitri Mendeleev had been publicised.[6]

text: John Newlands[edit]

text: In 1864, the English chemist John Newlands classified the sixty-two known elements into eight groups, based on their physical properties.[7][8]

text: Newlands noted that many pairs of similar elements existed, which differed by some multiple of eight in mass number, and was the first to assign them an atomic number.[1] When his 'law of octaves' was printed in Chemistry News, likening this periodicity of eights to the musical scale, it was ridiculed by some of his contemporaries. His lecture to the Chemistry Society on 1 March 1866 was not published, the Society defending their decision by saying that such 'theoretical' topics might be controversial[citation needed].

text: The importance of Newlands' analysis was eventually recognised by the Chemistry Society with a Gold Medal five years after they recognised Mendeleev's work. It was not until the following century, with Gilbert N. Lewis' valence bond theory (1916) and Irving Langmuir's octet theory of chemical bonding (1919), that the importance of the periodicity of eight would be accepted.[9][10] The Royal Chemistry Society acknowledged Newlands' contribution to science in 2008, when they put a Blue Plaque on the house where he was born, which described him as the "discoverer of the Periodic Law for the chemical elements".[1]

text: He contributed the word 'periodic' in chemistry.

text: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev[edit]

text: The Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev was the first scientist to make a periodic table similar to the one used today.[citation needed] Mendeleev arranged the elements by atomic mass, corresponding to relative molar mass. It is sometimes said that he played 'chemical solitaire' on long train journeys, using cards with various facts about the known elements.[11] On March 6, 1869, Mendeleev gave a formal presentation, The Dependence Between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements, to the Russian Chemical Society. In 1869, the table was published in an obscure Russian journal and then republished in a German journal, Zeitschrift für Chemie.[12] In it, Mendeleev stated that:

text:
The elements, if arranged according to their atomic mass, exhibit an apparent periodicity of properties.
Elements which are similar as regards to their chemical properties have atomic weights which are either of nearly the same value (e.g., Pt, Ir, Os) or which increase regularly (e.g., K, Rb, Cs).
The arrangement of the elements, or of groups of elements in the order of their atomic masses, corresponds to their so-called valencies, as well as, to some extent, to their distinctive chemical properties; as is apparent among other series in that of Li, Be, B, C, N, O, and F.
The elements which are the most widely diffused have small atomic weights.
The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of the element, just as the magnitude of the molecule determines the character of a compound body.
We must expect the discovery of many yet unknown elements – for example, elements analogous to aluminium and silicon – whose atomic weight would be between 65 and 75.
The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be amended by a knowledge of those of its contiguous elements. Thus the atomic weight of tellurium must lie between 123 and 126, and cannot be 128.
Certain characteristic properties of elements can be foretold from their atomic masses.

text: Scientific benefits of Mendeleev's table

text:
It enabled Mendeleev to predict the discovery of new elements and left spaces for them, namely eka-silicon (germanium), eka-aluminium (gallium), and eka-boron (scandium). Thus, there was no disturbance in the periodic table.
It could be used by Mendeleev to point out that some of the atomic weights being used at the time were incorrect.
It provided for variance from atomic weight order.

text: Shortcomings of Mendeleev's table

text:
The table was not able to predict the existence of the noble gases, but did, however, leave spaces for yet to be discovered elements to slot into. Time proved this audacious calculation correct. However, when this entire family of elements was discovered, Sir William Ramsay was able to add them to the table as Group 0, without the basic concept of the periodic table being disturbed.
A single position could not be assigned to hydrogen, which could be placed either in the alkali metals group, the halogens group or separately above the table between boron and carbon.[13]

text: Lothar Meyer[edit]

text: Unknown to Mendeleev, a German chemist, Lothar Meyer, was also working on a periodic table. Although his work was published in 1864, and was done independently of Mendeleev, few historians regard him as an equal co-creator of the periodic table. Meyer's table only included twenty-eight elements, which were not classified by atomic weight, but by valence, and he never reached the idea of predicting new elements and correcting atomic weights. A few months after Mendeleev published his periodic table of the known elements, predicted new elements to help complete his table and corrected the atomic weights of some of the elements, Meyer published a virtually identical periodic table.

text: Meyer and Mendeleev are considered by some historians of science to be the co-creators of the periodic table, but Mendeleev's accurate prediction of the qualities of undiscovered elements enables him to have the larger share of the credit.

text: William Odling[edit]

text: In 1864, the English chemist William Odling also drew up a table that was remarkably similar to the table produced by Mendeleev. Odling overcame the tellurium-iodine problem and even managed to get thallium, lead, mercury and platinum into the right groups, which is something that Mendeleev failed to do at his first attempt. Odling failed to achieve recognition, however, since it is suspected[by whom?] that he, as Secretary of the Chemical Society of London, was instrumental in discrediting Newlands' earlier work on the periodic table.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Henry Moseley[edit]

text: In 1914, a year before he was killed in action at Gallipoli, the English physicist Henry Moseley found a relationship between the X-ray wavelength of an element and its atomic number. He was then able to re-sequence the periodic table by nuclear charge, rather than by atomic weight. Before this discovery, atomic numbers were sequential numbers based on an element's atomic weight. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were in fact based upon experimental measurements.

text: Using information about their X-ray wavelengths, Moseley placed argon (with an atomic number Z=18) before potassium (Z=19), despite the fact that argon's atomic weight of 39.9 is greater than the atomic weight of potassium (39.1). The new order was in agreement with the chemical properties of these elements, since argon is a noble gas and potassium is an alkali metal. Similarly, Moseley placed cobalt before nickel and was able to explain that tellurium occurs before iodine, without revising the experimental atomic weight of tellurium, as had been proposed by Mendeleev.

text: Moseley's research showed that there were gaps in the periodic table at atomic numbers 43 and 61, which are now known to be occupied by technetium and promethium respectively.

text: Glenn T. Seaborg[edit]

text: During his Manhattan Project research in 1943, Glenn T. Seaborg experienced unexpected difficulties in isolating the elements americium and curium. Seaborg wondered if these elements belonged to a different series, which would explain why their chemical properties were different from what was expected. In 1945, against the advice of colleagues, he proposed a significant change to Mendeleev's table: the actinide series.

text: Seaborg's actinide concept of heavy element electronic structure, predicting that the actinides form a transition series analogous to the rare earth series of lanthanide elements, is now well accepted and included in the periodic table. The actinide series is the second row of the f-block (5f series). In both the actinide and lanthanide series, an inner electron shell is being filled. The actinide series comprises the elements from actinium to lawrencium. Seaborg's subsequent elaborations of the actinide concept theorized a series of superheavy elements in a transactinide series comprising elements from 104 to 121 and a superactinide series of elements from 122 to 153.


document_title: List of Houston Rockets seasons

question_text: when was the last time the houston rockets made the nba finals

root

text: List of Houston Rockets seasons

text: Table key[edit]

text:
AMVP
All-Star Game Most Valuable Player

COY
Coach of the Year

DPOY
Defensive Player of the Year

EOY
Executive of the Year

Finish
Final position in league or division standings

FMVP
Finals Most Valuable Player

GB
Games behind first-place team in division[a]

L
Number of regular-season losses

JWKC
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship

MVP
Most Valuable Player

ROY
Rookie of the Year

W
Number of regular-season wins

tag: table

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Note: Statistics are correct as of the 2017–18 season.

tag: p

text:
NBA Champions
(1968–present)
Conference Champions
(1971–present)
Division Champions
(1971–present)
Playoff Berth
(1968–present)

text:
Season
League
Conference
Finish
Division
Finish
Wins
Losses
Win%
GB
Playoffs
Awards

San Diego Rockets

1967–68
NBA
—
—
Western
6th
15
67
.183
41

—

1968–69
NBA
—
—
Western
4th
37
45
.461
18
Lost Division Semifinals (Hawks) 4–2[4]
—

1969–70
NBA
—
—
Western
7th
27
55
.329
21

—

1970–71
NBA
Western
7th
Pacific[b]
3rd
40
42
.488
8

—

Houston Rockets

1971–72
NBA
Western
7th
Pacific
4th
34
48
.415
35

—

1972–73
NBA
Eastern
5th
Central
3rd
33
49
.402
19

—

1973–74
NBA
Eastern
6th
Central
3rd
32
50
.390
15

—

1974–75
NBA
Eastern
4th
Central
2nd
41
41
.500
19
Won First Round (Knicks) 2–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–1[7]
—

1975–76
NBA
Eastern
6th
Central
3rd
40
42
.488
9

—

1976–77
NBA
Eastern
2nd
Central
1st
49
33
.598
—
Won Conference Semifinals (Bullets) 4–2
Lost Conference Finals (76ers) 4–2[8]
Tom Nissalke (COY)
Ray Patterson (EOY)

1977–78
NBA
Eastern
9th
Central
6th
28
54
.341
24

—

1978–79
NBA
Eastern
4th
Central
2nd
47
35
.573
1
Lost First Round (Hawks) 2–0[9]
Calvin Murphy (JWKC)
Moses Malone (MVP)

1979–80
NBA
Eastern
4th
Central
2nd
41
41
.500
9
Won First Round (Spurs) 2–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–0[10]
—

1980–81
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
3rd[c]
40
42
.488
12
Won First Round (Lakers) 2–1
Won Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–3
Won Conference Finals (Kings) 4–1
Lost NBA Finals (Celtics) 4–2[12]
—

1981–82
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
3rd[d]
46
36
.561
2
Lost First Round (SuperSonics) 2–1[14]
Moses Malone
(MVP)

1982–83
NBA
Western
12th
Midwest
6th
14
68
.171
39

—

1983–84
NBA
Western
12th
Midwest
6th
29
53
.354
16

Ralph Sampson
(ROY)

1984–85
NBA
Western
3rd
Midwest
2nd
48
34
.585
4
Lost First Round (Jazz) 3–2[15]
Ralph Sampson
(AMVP)

1985–86
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
51
31
.622
—
Won First Round (Kings) 3–0
Won Conference Semifinals (Nuggets) 4–2
Won Conference Finals (Lakers) 4–1
Lost NBA Finals (Celtics) 4–2[16]
—

1986–87
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
3rd
42
40
.512
13
Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 3–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–2[17]
—

1987–88
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
4th
46
36
.561
8
Lost First Round (Mavericks) 3–1[18]
—

1988–89
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
2nd
45
37
.549
6
Lost First Round (SuperSonics) 3–1[19]
—

1989–90
NBA
Western
8th
Midwest
5th
41
41
.500
15
Lost First Round (Lakers) 3–1[20]
—

1990–91
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
3rd
52
30
.634
3
Lost First Round (Lakers) 3–0[21]
Don Chaney
(COY)

1991–92
NBA
Western
9th
Midwest
3rd
42
40
.512
13

—

1992–93
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
55
27
.671
—
Won First Round (Clippers) 3–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–3[22]
Hakeem Olajuwon
(DPOY)

1993–94
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
58
24
.707
—
Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 3–1
Won Conference Semifinals (Suns) 4–3
Won Conference Finals (Jazz) 4–1
Won NBA Finals (Knicks) 4–3[23]
Hakeem Olajuwon
(MVP, FMVP, DPOY)

1994–95
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
3rd
47
35
.573
15
Won First Round (Jazz) 3–2
Won Conference Semifinals (Suns) 4–3
Won Conference Finals (Spurs) 4–2
Won NBA Finals (Magic) 4–0[24]
Hakeem Olajuwon
(FMVP)

1995–96
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
3rd
48
34
.585
11
Won First Round (Lakers) 3–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–0[25]
—

1996–97
NBA
Western
3rd
Midwest
2nd
57
25
.695
7
Won First Round (Timberwolves) 3–0
Won Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–3
Lost Conference Finals (Jazz) 4–2[26]
—

1997–98
NBA
Western
8th
Midwest
4th
41
41
.500
21
Lost First Round (Jazz) 3–2[27]
—

1998–99[e]
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
3rd
31
19
.620
6
Lost First Round (Lakers) 3–1[29]
—

1999–2000
NBA
Western
11th
Midwest
6th
34
48
.415
21

Steve Francis[f]
(ROY)

2000–01
NBA
Western
9th
Midwest
5th
45
37
.549
13

—

2001–02
NBA
Western
11th
Midwest
5th
28
54
.341
30

—

2002–03
NBA
Western
9th
Midwest
5th
43
39
.524
17

—

2003–04
NBA
Western
7th
Midwest
5th
45
37
.549
13
Lost First Round (Lakers) 4–1[31]
—

2004–05
NBA
Western
5th
Southwest
3rd
51
31
.622
8
Lost First Round (Mavericks) 4–3[32]
—

2005–06
NBA
Western
12th
Southwest
5th
34
48
.415
29

—

2006–07
NBA
Western
5th
Southwest
3rd
52
30
.634
15
Lost First Round (Jazz) 4–3[33]
—

2007–08
NBA
Western
5th
Southwest
3rd
55
27
.671
1
Lost First Round (Jazz) 4–2[34]
—

2008–09
NBA
Western
5th
Southwest
2nd
53
29
.646
1
Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 4–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 4–3
Dikembe Mutombo
(JWKC)

2009–10
NBA
Western
9th
Southwest
3rd
42
40
.512
13

Aaron Brooks
(MIP)

2010–11
NBA
Western
9th
Southwest
5th
43
39
.524
18

—

2011–12[g]
NBA
Western
9th
Southwest
4th
34
32
.515
16

—

2012–13
NBA
Western
8th
Southwest
3rd
45
37
.549
15
Lost First Round (Thunder) 4–2
—

2013–14
NBA
Western
4th
Southwest
2nd
54
28
.659
8
Lost First Round (Trail Blazers) 4–2
—

2014–15
NBA
Western
2nd
Southwest
1st
56
26
.683
—
Won First Round (Mavericks) 4–1
Won Conference Semifinals (Clippers) 4–3
Lost Conference Finals (Warriors) 4–1
—

2015–16
NBA
Western
8th
Southwest
4th
41
41
.500
26
Lost First Round (Warriors) 4–1
—

2016–17
NBA
Western
3rd
Southwest
2nd
55
27
.671
6
Won First Round (Thunder) 4–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–2
Mike D'Antoni (COY)
Eric Gordon (SMOY)

2017–18
NBA
Western
1st
Southwest
1st
65
17
.793
—
Won First Round (Timberwolves) 4–1
Won Conference Semifinals (Jazz) 4–1
Lost Conference Finals (Warriors) 4–3

Total (51 seasons)
2,172
1,962
.525

2 NBA Championships

text: All-time records[edit]

text:
Statistic
Wins
Losses
Win%

San Diego Rockets regular season record (1968–1971)
119
209
.363

Houston Rockets regular season record (1971–present)
2,053
1,753
.539

All-time regular season record (1968–2018)
2,172
1,962
.525

San Diego Rockets post-season record (1969)
2
4
.333

Houston Rockets post-season record (1975–present)
145
148
.495

All-time post-season record (1969–2018)
147
152
.492

All-time regular and post-season record
2,319
2,114
.523

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The formula is as followed:

G
a
m
e
s

b
e
h
i
n
d

=

(

T
e
a
m

A
′

s

w
i
n
s

−

T
e
a
m

B
′

s

w
i
n
s

)
+
(

T
e
a
m

B
′

s

l
o
s
s
e
s

−

T
e
a
m

A
′

s

l
o
s
s
e
s

)

2

{\displaystyle \mathrm {Games} \ \mathrm {behind} ={\frac {(\mathrm {TeamA's} \ \mathrm {wins} -\mathrm {TeamB's} \ \mathrm {wins} )+(\mathrm {TeamB's} \ \mathrm {losses} -\mathrm {TeamA's} \ \mathrm {losses} )}{\mathrm {2} }}}

Jump up ^ The Western Division was renamed to the Western Conference and split into the Midwest and Pacific divisions.[5][6]
Jump up ^ Though the Rockets had the same record as the Kansas City Kings in the Midwest Division, the Rockets lost the tiebreaker and finished third.[11]
Jump up ^ Though the Rockets had the same record as the Denver Nuggets in the Midwest Division, the Rockets lost the tiebreaker and finished third.[13]
Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until February 5, 1999, and all 29 teams played a shortened 50-game regular season schedule.[28]
Jump up ^ Francis shared Rookie of the Year honors with Elton Brand of the Chicago Bulls.[30]
Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until December 25, 2011 and all 30 teams played a shortened 66 game regular season schedule.[35]

tag: ol


document_title: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series

question_text: 2013 winner of the emmy for outstanding supporting actress in a comedy

text: Winners and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

1953–1954
(6th)
[note 1]

Vivian Vance
Ethel Mertz
I Love Lucy
CBS

Bea Benaderet
Blanche Morton
The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show
CBS

Ruth Gilbert
Max
The Milton Berle Show
NBC

Marion Lorne
Mrs. Gurney
Mister Peepers

Audrey Meadows
Alice Kramden
The Jackie Gleason Show
CBS

1954–1955
(7th)
[note 1]

Audrey Meadows
Alice Kramden
The Jackie Gleason Show
CBS

Bea Benaderet
Blanche Morton
The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show
CBS

Jean Hagen
Margaret Williams
Make Room for Daddy
ABC

Marion Lorne
Mrs. Gurney
Mister Peepers
NBC

Vivian Vance
Ethel Mertz
I Love Lucy
CBS

1955–1956
(8th)
[note 1]

Nanette Fabray
Various Characters
Caesar's Hour
NBC

Ann B. Davis
Charmaine Schultz
The Bob Cummings Show
CBS

Jean Hagen
Margaret Williams
Make Room for Daddy
ABC

Audrey Meadows
Alice Kramden
The Honeymooners
CBS

Thelma Ritter #
Aggie Hurley
The Catered Affair
NBC

1956–1957
(9th)
[note 1]

Pat Carroll
Various Characters
Caesar's Hour
NBC

Ann B. Davis
Charmaine Schultz
The Bob Cummings Show
CBS

Audrey Meadows
Alice Kramden
The Jackie Gleason Show

Mildred Natwick #
Madame Arcati
Blithe Spirit

Vivian Vance
Ethel Mertz
I Love Lucy

1957–1958
(10th)
[note 1]

Ann B. Davis
Charmaine Schultz
The Bob Cummings Show
CBS, NBC

Pat Carroll
Various Characters
Caesar's Hour
NBC

Marion Lorne
Myrtle Banford
Sally

Verna Felton
Hilda Crocker
December Bride
CBS

Vivian Vance
Ethel Mertz
I Love Lucy

1958–1959
(11th)

Ann B. Davis
Charmaine Schultz
The Bob Cummings Show
CBS

Rosemary DeCamp
Margaret MacDonald
The Bob Cummings Show
NBC

Elinor Donahue
Betty
Father Knows Best
CBS, NBC

Verna Felton
Hilda Crocker
December Bride
CBS

Kathleen Nolan
Kate McCoy
The Real McCoys
ABC

ZaSu Pitts
Susanna Pomeroy
The Gale Storm Show
CBS

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

1959–1960
(12th)

No Award

1960-1961
(13th)
[note 1]

Don Knotts
Dep. Barney Fife
The Andy Griffith Show
CBS

Abby Dalton
Lt. Martha Hale
Hennesey
CBS

Barbara Hale
Della Street
Perry Mason

1961–1962
(14th)
[note 1]

Pamela Brown #
The Duchess of Kent
Victoria Regina
NBC

Jeanne Cooper §
Anna Medalle
Ben Casey
ABC

Colleen Dewhurst #
Gertrude Hart
Focus
NBC

Joan Hackett §
Ellen Parker
Ben Casey
ABC

Mary Wickes
Maxfield
The Gertrude Berg Show
CBS

1962–1963
(15th)
[note 1]

Glenda Farrell §
Martha Morrison
Ben Casey
ABC

Davey Davison §
Laura Hunter
The Eleventh Hour
NBC

Nancy Malone
Libby Kingston
Naked City
ABC

Rose Marie
Sally Rogers
The Dick Van Dyke Show
CBS

Kate Reid #
Queen Victoria
The Invincible Mr. Disraeli
NBC

1963–1964
(16th)
[note 1]

Ruth White #
Shelagh Mangan
Little Moon of Alban
NBC

Martine Bartlett §
Miranda Ledoux Porter
Arrest and Trial
ABC

Anjanette Comer §
Annabelle Selinsky

Rose Marie
Sally Rogers
The Dick Van Dyke Show
CBS

Claudia McNeil §
Mrs. Hill
The Doctors and the Nurses

1964–1965
(17th)

No Award

1965–1966
(18th)

Alice Pearce
Gladys Kravitz
Bewitched
ABC

Rose Marie
Sally Rogers
The Dick Van Dyke Show
CBS

Agnes Moorehead
Endora
Bewitched
ABC

1966–1967
(19th)

Frances Bavier
Aunt Bee
The Andy Griffith Show
CBS

Nancy Kulp
Jane Hathaway
The Beverly Hillbillies
CBS

Marion Lorne
Aunt Clara
Bewitched
ABC

1967–1968
(20th)

Marion Lorne (posthumously)
Aunt Clara
Bewitched
ABC

Agnes Moorehead
Endora
Bewitched
ABC

Marge Redmond
Sister Jacqueline
The Flying Nun

Nita Talbot §
Marya
Hogan's Heroes
CBS

1968–1969
(21st)
[note 1]

Susan Saint James
Peggy Maxwell
The Name of the Game
NBC

Barbara Anderson
Officer Eve Whitfield
Ironside
NBC

Agnes Moorehead
Endora
Bewitched
ABC

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

1969–1970
(22nd)

Karen Valentine
Miss Alice Johnson
Room 222
ABC

Agnes Moorehead
Endora
Bewitched
ABC

Lurene Tuttle
Hannah Yarby
Julia
NBC

1970–1971
(23rd)

Valerie Harper
Rhoda Morgenstern
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Agnes Moorehead
Endora
Bewitched
ABC

Karen Valentine
Miss Alice Johnston
Room 222

1971–1972
(24th)

Valerie Harper
Rhoda Morgenstern
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Sally Struthers
Gloria Stivic
All in the Family

Cloris Leachman
Phyllis Lindstrom
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

1972–1973
(25th)

Valerie Harper
Rhoda Morgenstern
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Cloris Leachman
Phyllis Lindstrom
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Sally Struthers
Gloria Stivic
All in the Family

1973–1974
(26th)

Cloris Leachman
Phyllis Lindstrom
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Sally Struthers
Gloria Stivic
All in the Family
CBS

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H

Valerie Harper
Rhoda Morgenstern
The Mary Tyler Moore Show

1974–1975
(27th)

Betty White
Sue Ann Nivens
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Julie Kavner
Brenda Morgenstern
Rhoda
CBS

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H

Nancy Walker
Ida Morgenstern
Rhoda

1975–1976
(28th)

Betty White
Sue Ann Nivens
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Georgia Engel
Georgette Franklin
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Julie Kavner
Brenda Morgenstern
Rhoda

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H

Nancy Walker
Ida Morgenstern
Rhoda

1976–1977
(29th)

Mary Kay Place
Loretta Haggers
Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman
Syndicated

Georgia Engel
Georgette Franklin
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
CBS

Julie Kavner
Brenda Morgenstern
Rhoda

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H

Betty White
Sue Ann Nivens
The Mary Tyler Moore Show

1977–1978
(30th)

Julie Kavner
Brenda Morgenstern
Rhoda
CBS

Polly Holliday
Florence Jean Castleberry
Alice
CBS

Sally Struthers
Gloria Stivic
All in the Family

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H

Nancy Walker
Ida Morgenstern
Rhoda

1978–1979
(31st)

Sally Struthers
Gloria Stivic
All in the Family
CBS

Polly Holliday
Florence Jean Castleberry
Alice
CBS

Marion Ross
Marion Cunningham
Happy Days
ABC

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H
CBS

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

1979–1980
(32nd)

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H
CBS

Loni Anderson
Jennifer Marlowe
WKRP in Cincinnati
CBS

Polly Holliday
Florence Jean Castleberry
Alice

Inga Swenson
Gretchen Kraus
Benson
ABC

1980–1981
(33rd)

Eileen Brennan
Cpt. Doreen Lewis
Private Benjamin
CBS

Loni Anderson
Jennifer Marlowe
WKRP in Cincinnati
CBS

Marla Gibbs
Florence Johnston
The Jeffersons

Anne Meara
Veronica Rooney
Archie Bunker's Place

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H

1981–1982
(34th)

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H
CBS

Eileen Brennan
Cpt. Doreen Lewis
Private Benjamin
CBS

Marla Gibbs
Florence Johnston
The Jeffersons

Andrea Martin
Various Characters
SCTV Network 90
NBC

Anne Meara
Veronica Rooney
Archie Bunker's Place
CBS

Inga Swenson
Gretchen Kraus
Benson
ABC

1982–1983
(35th)

Carol Kane
Simka Dahblitz
Taxi
ABC

Eileen Brennan
Cpt. Doreen Lewis
Private Benjamin
CBS

Marla Gibbs
Florence Johnston
The Jeffersons

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers
NBC

Loretta Swit
Maj. Margaret Houlihan
M*A*S*H
CBS

1983–1984
(36th)

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers
NBC

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Marla Gibbs
Florence Johnston
The Jeffersons

Paula Kelly
Liz Williams
Night Court
NBC

Marion Ross
Marion Cunningham
Happy Days
ABC

1984–1985
(37th)

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers
NBC

Selma Diamond (posthumously)
Selma Hacker
Night Court
NBC

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Marla Gibbs
Florence Johnston
The Jeffersons

Inga Swenson
Gretchen Kraus
Benson
ABC

1985–1986
(38th)

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers
NBC

Justine Bateman
Mallory Keaton
Family Ties
NBC

Lisa Bonet
Denise Huxtable
The Cosby Show

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Keshia Knight Pulliam
Rudy Huxtable
The Cosby Show

1986–1987
(39th)

Jackée Harry
Sandra Clark
227
NBC

Justine Bateman
Mallory Keaton
Family Ties
NBC

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers

1987–1988
(40th)

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Jackée Harry
Sandra Clark
227
NBC

Katherine Helmond
Mona Robinson
Who's the Boss?
ABC

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers
NBC

1988–1989
(41st)

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers
NBC

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Faith Ford
Corky Sherwood
Murphy Brown

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Katherine Helmond
Mona Robinson
Who's the Boss?
ABC

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

1989–1990
(42nd)

Bebe Neuwirth
Dr. Lilith Sternin
Cheers
NBC

Julia Duffy
Stephanie Vanderkellen
Newhart
CBS

Faith Ford
Corky Sherwood
Murphy Brown

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers

1990–1991
(43rd)

Bebe Neuwirth
Dr. Lilith Sternin
Cheers
NBC

Elizabeth Ashley
Frieda Evans
Evening Shade
CBS

Faith Ford
Corky Sherwood
Murphy Brown

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers

1991–1992
(44th)

Laurie Metcalf
Jackie Harris
Roseanne
ABC

Faith Ford
Corky Sherwood
Murphy Brown
CBS

Estelle Getty
Sophia Petrillo
The Golden Girls
NBC

Alice Ghostley
Bernice Clifton
Designing Women
CBS

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld
NBC

Frances Sternhagen §
Esther Clavin
Cheers

1992–1993
(45th)

Laurie Metcalf
Jackie Harris
Roseanne
ABC

Shelley Fabares
Christine Armstrong-Fox
Coach
ABC

Sara Gilbert
Darlene Conner
Roseanne

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld
NBC

Rhea Perlman
Carla Tortelli
Cheers

1993–1994
(46th)

Laurie Metcalf
Jackie Harris
Roseanne
ABC

Shelley Fabares
Christine Armstrong-Fox
Coach
ABC

Faith Ford
Corky Sherwood
Murphy Brown
CBS

Sara Gilbert
Darlene Conner
Roseanne
ABC

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld
NBC

Liz Torres
Mahalia Sanchez
The John Larroquette Show

1994–1995
(47th)

Christine Baranski
Maryann Thorpe
Cybill
CBS

Lisa Kudrow
Phoebe Buffay
Friends
NBC

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld

Laurie Metcalf
Jackie Harris
Roseanne
ABC

Liz Torres
Mahalia Sanchez
The John Larroquette Show
NBC

1995–1996
(48th)

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld
NBC

Christine Baranski
Maryann Thorpe
Cybill
CBS

Janeane Garofalo
Paula
The Larry Sanders Show
HBO

Jayne Meadows
Alice Morgan-DuPont-Sutton-Cushing-Ferruke
High Society
CBS

Renée Taylor
Sylvia Fine
The Nanny

1996–1997
(49th)

Kristen Johnston
Sally Solomon
3rd Rock from the Sun
NBC

Christine Baranski
Maryann Thorpe
Cybill
CBS

Janeane Garofalo
Paula
The Larry Sanders Show
HBO

Lisa Kudrow
Phoebe Buffay
Friends
NBC

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld

1997–1998
(50th)

Lisa Kudrow
Phoebe Buffay
Friends
NBC

Christine Baranski
Maryann Thorpe
Cybill
CBS

Kristen Johnston
Sally Solomon
3rd Rock from the Sun
NBC

Jane Leeves
Daphne Moon
Frasier

Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Elaine Benes
Seinfeld

1998–1999
(51st)

Kristen Johnston
Sally Solomon
3rd Rock from the Sun
NBC

Lisa Kudrow
Phoebe Buffay
Friends
NBC

Lucy Liu
Ling Woo
Ally McBeal
Fox

Wendie Malick
Nina Van Horn
Just Shoot Me!
NBC

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

1999–2000
(52nd)

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace
NBC

Jennifer Aniston
Rachel Green
Friends
NBC

Kim Cattrall
Samantha Jones
Sex and the City
HBO

Lisa Kudrow
Phoebe Buffay
Friends
NBC

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

2000–2001
(53rd)

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

Jennifer Aniston
Rachel Green
Friends
NBC

Kim Cattrall
Samantha Jones
Sex and the City
HBO

Lisa Kudrow
Phoebe Buffay
Friends
NBC

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace

2001–2002
(54th)

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

Kim Cattrall
Samantha Jones
Sex and the City
HBO

Wendie Malick
Nina Van Horn
Just Shoot Me!
NBC

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace

Cynthia Nixon
Miranda Hobbes
Sex and the City
HBO

2002–2003
(55th)

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

Kim Cattrall
Samantha Jones
Sex and the City
HBO

Cheryl Hines
Cheryl David
Curb Your Enthusiasm

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace
NBC

Cynthia Nixon
Miranda Hobbes
Sex and the City
HBO

2003–2004
(56th)

Cynthia Nixon
Miranda Hobbes
Sex and the City
HBO

Kim Cattrall
Samantha Jones
Sex and the City
HBO

Kristin Davis
Charlotte York Goldenblatt

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace
NBC

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

2004–2005
(57th)

Doris Roberts
Marie Barone
Everybody Loves Raymond
CBS

Conchata Ferrell
Berta
Two and a Half Men
CBS

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace
NBC

Holland Taylor
Evelyn Harper
Two and a Half Men
CBS

Jessica Walter
Lucille Bluth
Arrested Development
Fox

2005–2006
(58th)

Megan Mullally
Karen Walker
Will & Grace
NBC

Cheryl Hines
Cheryl David
Curb Your Enthusiasm
HBO

Elizabeth Perkins
Celia Hodes
Weeds
Showtime

Jaime Pressly
Joy Turner
My Name Is Earl
NBC

Alfre Woodard
Betty Applewhite
Desperate Housewives
ABC

2006–2007
(59th)

Jaime Pressly
Joy Turner
My Name Is Earl
NBC

Conchata Ferrell
Berta
Two and a Half Men
CBS

Jenna Fischer
Pam Beesly
The Office
NBC

Elizabeth Perkins
Celia Hodes
Weeds
Showtime

Holland Taylor
Evelyn Harper
Two and a Half Men
CBS

Vanessa Williams
Wilhelmina Slater
Ugly Betty
ABC

2007–2008
(60th)

Jean Smart
Regina Newly
Samantha Who?
ABC

Kristin Chenoweth
Olive Snook
Pushing Daisies
ABC

Amy Poehler
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Holland Taylor
Evelyn Harper
Two and a Half Men
CBS

Vanessa Williams
Wilhelmina Slater
Ugly Betty
ABC

2008–2009
(61st)

Kristin Chenoweth
Olive Snook
Pushing Daisies
ABC

Jane Krakowski
Jenna Maroney
30 Rock
NBC

Elizabeth Perkins
Celia Hodes
Weeds
Showtime

Amy Poehler
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Kristen Wiig

Vanessa Williams
Wilhelmina Slater
Ugly Betty
ABC

text:
Year
Actress
Role
Program
Network

2009–2010
(62nd)
[1]

Jane Lynch
Sue Sylvester
Glee
Fox

Julie Bowen
Claire Dunphy
Modern Family
ABC

Jane Krakowski
Jenna Maroney
30 Rock
NBC

Holland Taylor
Evelyn Harper
Two and a Half Men
CBS

Sofía Vergara
Gloria Pritchett
Modern Family
ABC

Kristen Wiig
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

2010–2011
(63rd)
[2]

Julie Bowen
Claire Dunphy
Modern Family
ABC

Jane Krakowski
Jenna Maroney
30 Rock
NBC

Jane Lynch
Sue Sylvester
Glee
Fox

Sofía Vergara
Gloria Pritchett
Modern Family
ABC

Betty White
Elka Ostrovsky
Hot in Cleveland
TV Land

Kristen Wiig
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

2011–2012
(64th)
[3]

Julie Bowen
Claire Dunphy
Modern Family
ABC

Mayim Bialik
Dr. Amy Farrah Fowler
The Big Bang Theory
CBS

Kathryn Joosten
Karen McCluskey
Desperate Housewives
ABC

Sofía Vergara
Gloria Pritchett
Modern Family
ABC

Merritt Wever
Zoey Barkow, RN
Nurse Jackie
Showtime

Kristen Wiig
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

2012–2013
(65th)
[4]

Merritt Wever
Zoey Barkow, RN
Nurse Jackie
Showtime

Mayim Bialik
Dr. Amy Farrah Fowler
The Big Bang Theory
CBS

Julie Bowen
Claire Dunphy
Modern Family
ABC

Anna Chlumsky
Amy Brookheimer
Veep
HBO

Jane Krakowski
Jenna Maroney
30 Rock
NBC

Jane Lynch
Sue Sylvester
Glee
Fox

Sofía Vergara
Gloria Pritchett
Modern Family
ABC

2013–2014
(66th)
[5]

Allison Janney
Bonnie Plunkett
Mom
CBS

Mayim Bialik
Dr. Amy Farrah Fowler
The Big Bang Theory
CBS

Julie Bowen
Claire Dunphy
Modern Family
ABC

Anna Chlumsky
Amy Brookheimer
Veep
HBO

Kate McKinnon
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Kate Mulgrew
Galina "Red" Reznikov
Orange Is the New Black
Netflix

2014–2015
(67th)
[6]

Allison Janney
Bonnie Plunkett
Mom
CBS

Mayim Bialik
Dr. Amy Farrah Fowler
The Big Bang Theory
CBS

Julie Bowen
Claire Dunphy
Modern Family
ABC

Anna Chlumsky
Amy Brookheimer
Veep
HBO

Gaby Hoffmann
Ali Pfefferman
Transparent
Amazon

Jane Krakowski
Jacqueline Voorhees
Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Netflix

Kate McKinnon
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Niecy Nash
Denise "DiDi" Ortley
Getting On
HBO

2015–2016
(68th)
[7]

Kate McKinnon
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Anna Chlumsky
Amy Brookheimer
Veep
HBO

Gaby Hoffmann
Ali Pfefferman
Transparent
Amazon

Allison Janney
Bonnie Plunkett
Mom
CBS

Judith Light
Shelly Pfefferman
Transparent
Amazon

Niecy Nash
Denise "DiDi" Ortley
Getting On
HBO

2016–2017
(69th)
[8]

Kate McKinnon
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Vanessa Bayer
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Anna Chlumsky
Amy Brookheimer
Veep
HBO

Kathryn Hahn
Raquel Fein
Transparent
Amazon

Leslie Jones
Various Characters
Saturday Night Live
NBC

Judith Light
Shelly Pfefferman
Transparent
Amazon

text: Superlatives[edit]

text:
Superlative
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series

Actress with most awards
Rhea Perlman, Doris Roberts

Actress with most nominations
Rhea Perlman, Loretta Swit

Actress with most nominations
without ever winning
Julia Duffy

Television program with most wins
Cheers

Television program with most nominations
The Mary Tyler Moore Show

text: Multiple awards[edit]

text:
4 awards

Rhea Perlman (3 consecutive)
Doris Roberts (3 consecutive)

3 awards

Valerie Harper (consecutive)
Laurie Metcalf (consecutive)

2 awards

Julie Bowen (consecutive)
Ann B. Davis (consecutive)
Allison Janney (consecutive)
Kristen Johnston
Kate McKinnon (consecutive)
Megan Mullally
Bebe Neuwirth (consecutive)
Sally Struthers
Loretta Swit
Betty White (consecutive)

text: Multiple nominations[edit]

text:
10 nominations

Rhea Perlman
Loretta Swit (consecutive)

7 nominations

Julia Duffy
Estelle Getty
Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Megan Mullally
Doris Roberts

6 nominations

Julie Bowen
Lisa Kudrow

5 nominations

Kim Cattrall
Anna Chlumsky
Faith Ford
Marla Gibbs
Jane Krakowski
Marion Lorne
Agnes Moorehead
Sally Struthers

4 nominations

Mayim Bialik
Christine Baranski
Ann B. Davis
Valerie Harper
Julie Kavner
Kate McKinnon
Audrey Meadows
Laurie Metcalf
Holland Taylor
Vivian Vance
Sofía Vergara
Betty White
Kristen Wiig

3 nominations

Eileen Brennan
Polly Holliday
Allison Janney
Kristen Johnston
Cloris Leachman
Jane Lynch
Rose Marie
Cynthia Nixon
Elizabeth Perkins
Inga Swenson
Nancy Walker
Vanessa Williams

2 nominations

Loni Anderson
Jennifer Aniston
Justine Bateman
Bea Benaderet
Pat Carroll
Kristin Chenoweth
Georgia Engel
Shelley Fabares
Verna Felton
Conchata Ferrell
Janeane Garofalo
Sara Gilbert
Jean Hagen
Jackée Harry
Katherine Helmond
Cheryl Hines
Gaby Hoffmann
Judith Light
Wendie Malick
Anne Meara
Niecy Nash
Bebe Neuwirth
Amy Poehler
Jaime Pressly
Marion Ross
Liz Torres
Karen Valentine
Merritt Wever

text: Notes[edit]

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Early Emmy ceremonies did not have genre specific acting categories


document_title: Ancient Olympic Games

question_text: where did the ancient olympic games take place

text: Ancient Olympic Games

text: Origins[edit]

text: To the Greeks, it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology.[13] During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games.[14]

text: These origin traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games.[15]

text:
The earliest myths regarding the origin of the games are recounted by the Greek historian, Pausanias. According to the story, the dactyl Heracles (not to be confused with the son of Zeus and the Roman god Hercules) and four of his brothers, Paeonaeus, Epimedes, Iasius and Idas, raced at Olympia to entertain the newborn Zeus. He crowned the victor with an olive tree wreath (which thus became a peace symbol), which also explains the four year interval, bringing the games around every fifth year (counting inclusively).[16][17] The other Olympian gods (so named because they lived permanently on Mount Olympus) would also engage in wrestling, jumping and running contests.[18]
Another myth of the origin of the games is the story of Pelops, a local Olympian hero. The story of Pelops begins with Oenomaus, the king of Pisa, Greece, who had a beautiful daughter named Hippodamia. According to an oracle, the king would be killed by her husband. Therefore, he decreed that any young man who wanted to marry his daughter was required to drive away with her in his chariot, and Oenomaus would follow in another chariot, and spear the suitor if he caught up with them. Now, the king's chariot horses were a present from the god Poseidon and were therefore supernaturally fast. Pelops was a very handsome young man and the king's daughter fell in love with him. Before the race, she persuaded her father's charioteer Myrtilus to replace the bronze axle pins of the king's chariot with wax ones. Naturally, during the race, the wax melted and the king fell from his chariot and was killed. At the same time, the king's palace was struck by lightning and reduced to ashes, save for one wooden pillar that was revered in the Altis for centuries, and stood near what was to be the site of the temple of Zeus. Pelops was proclaimed the winner and married Hippodamia. After his victory, Pelops organized chariot races as thanksgiving to the gods and as funeral games in honor of King Oenomaus, in order to be purified of his death. It was from this funeral race held at Olympia that the beginnings of the Olympic Games were inspired. Pelops became a great king, a local hero, and he gave his name to the Peloponnese.
One (later) myth, attributed to Pindar, states that the festival at Olympia involved Heracles, the son of Zeus: According to Pindar, Heracles established an athletic festival to honor his father, Zeus, after he had completing his labors.
The games of previous millennia were discontinued and then revived by Lycurgus of Sparta, Iphitos of Elis, and Cleisthenes of Pisa at the behest of the Oracle of Delphi who claimed that the people had strayed from the gods, which had caused a plague and constant war. Restoration of the games would end the plague, usher in a time of peace, and signal a return to a more traditional lifestyle.[19]

tag: ul

text: The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life.[20]

text: Since these myths were documented by historians like Pausanias, who lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the AD 160, it is likely that these stories are more fable than fact. It was often supposed that the origins of many aspects of the Olympics date to funeral games of the Mycenean period and later.[21] Alternatively, the games were thought to derive from some kind of vegetation magic or from initiation ceremonies. The most recent theory traces the origins of the games to large game hunting and related animal ceremonialism.[22]

text: History[edit]

text: The Olympic games were held to be one of the two central rituals in ancient Greece, the other being the much older religious festival, the Eleusinian Mysteries.[23]

text: The games started in Olympia, Greece, in a sanctuary site for the Greek deities near the towns of Elis and Pisa (both in Elis on the peninsula of Peloponnesos). The first games began as an annual foot race of young women in competition for the position of the priestess for the goddess, Hera,[24] and a second race was instituted for a consort for the priestess who would participate in the religious traditions at the temple.[25]

text: The Heraean Games, the first recorded competition for women in the Olympic Stadium, were held as early as the sixth century BC. It originally consisted of foot races only, as did the competition for males. Some texts, including Pausanias's Description of Greece, c. AD 175, state that Hippodameia gathered a group known as the "Sixteen Women" and made them administrators of the Heraea Games, out of gratitude for her marriage to Pelops. Other texts related to the Elis and Pisa conflict indicate that the "Sixteen Women" were peacemakers from Pisa and Elis and, because of their political competence, became administrators of the Heraea. Being the consort of Hera in Classical Greek mythology, Zeus was the father of the deities in the pantheon of that era. The Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia housed a 13-metre-high (43 ft) statue in ivory and gold of Zeus that had been sculpted by Phidias circa 445 BC. This statue was one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. By the time of the Classical Greek culture, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the games were restricted to male participants.

text: The historian Ephorus, who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to Hippias of Elis, to Eratosthenes, or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated.[26][27][28] The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using the term Olympiad for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except the historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad.[29] Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began.[30]

text: The only competition held then was, according to the later Greek traveller Pausanias who wrote in AD 175, the stadion race, a race over about 190 metres (620 feet), measured after the feet of Hercules. The word stadium is derived from this foot race.

text: The Greek tradition of athletic nudity (gymnos)[31] was introduced in 720 BC, either by the Spartans or by the Megarian Orsippus, and this was adopted early in the Olympics as well.

text: Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of Argos was commissioned by the town of Pisa to capture the sanctuary from the town of Elis, which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control.

text: The Olympic Games were part of the Panhellenic Games, four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The Olympic Games were more important and more prestigious than the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games.

text: The games were in decline for many years but continued past AD 385, by which time flooding and earthquakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia.[32] In 394 Theodosius I banned all pagan festivals, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held.[33]

text: Culture[edit]

text: The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god Zeus, and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him.[12] Over time Olympia, the site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek pantheon and a temple, built by the Greek architect Libon, was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest Doric temples in Greece.[12] The sculptor Pheidias created a statue of the god made of gold and ivory. It stood 42 feet (13 m) tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.[12] As the historian Strabo put it,

text: ... the glory of the temple persisted ... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece.[12]

text: Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets, painters and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Sculptors created works like Myron's Diskobolos or Discus Thrower. Their aim was to highlight natural human movement and the shape of muscles and the body. Poets would be commissioned to write poems in praise of the Olympic victors. Such victory songs or epinicians, were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose.[34] Pierre de Coubertin, one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games.[35] His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in 1896.[36]

text: Politics[edit]

text: Power in ancient Greece became centered around the city-state in the 8th century BC.[37] The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity.[38] These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction.[39] The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: on one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources.[40] The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other.[41]

text: In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to the mountain competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' rolls.[42] The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that Cyrene was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from Thera with Spartan support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, Hellenic culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted.[43]

text: The games faced a serious challenge during the Peloponnesian War, which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenic city-state.[44] The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory.[12][45]

text: During the Olympic Games, a truce, or ekecheiria was observed. Three runners, known as spondophoroi, were sent from Elis to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce.[46] During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia; and legal disputes, and the use of the death penalty, were forbidden. The truce — primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games — was, for the most part, observed.[46] Thucydides wrote of a situation when the Spartans were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 minae for assaulting the city of Lepreum during the period of the ekecheiria. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold.[45][47]

text: While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world.[48] As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, Pausanias, a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades,

text: Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans.[12]

text: Events[edit]

text:
Events at the Olympics

Olympiad
Year
Event first introduced

1st
776 BC
Stade

14th
724 BC
Diaulos

15th
720 BC
Long distance race (Dolichos)

18th
708 BC
Pentathlon, Wrestling

23rd
688 BC
Boxing (pygmachia)

25th
680 BC
Four horse chariot race (tethrippon)

33rd
648 BC
Horse race (keles), Pankration

37th
632 BC
Boys stade and wrestling

38th
628 BC
Boys pentathlon

41st
616 BC
Boys boxing

65th
520 BC
Hoplite race (hoplitodromos)

70th
500 BC
Mule-cart race (apene)

93rd
408 BC
Two horse chariot race (synoris)

96th
396 BC
Competition for heralds and trumpeters

99th
384 BC
Tethrippon for horse over one year

128th
266 BC
Chariot for horse over one year

131st
256 BC
Race for horses older than one year

145th
200 BC
Pankration for boys

text: Apparently starting with just a single foot race, the program gradually increased to twenty-three contests, although no more than twenty featured at any one Olympiad.[49] Participation in most events was limited to male athletes except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the equestrian events. Youth events are recorded as starting in 632 BC. Our knowledge of how the events were performed primarily derives from the paintings of athletes found on many vases, particularly those of the Archaic and Classical periods.[50]

text: Running[edit]

text: The only event recorded at the first thirteen games was the stade, a straight-line sprint of just over 192 metres.[51] The diaulos (lit. "double pipe"), or two-stade race, is recorded as being introduced at the 14th Olympiad in 724 BC. It is thought that competitors ran in lanes marked out with lime or gypsum for the length of a stade then turned around separate posts (kampteres), before returning to the start line.[52] Xenophanes wrote that "Victory by speed of foot is honored above all."

text: A third foot race, the dolichos ("long race"), was introduced in the next Olympiad. Accounts of the race's distance differ, it seems to have been from twenty to twenty-four laps of the track, around 7.5 km to 9 km, although it may have been lengths rather than laps and thus half as far.[53][54]

text: The last running event added to the Olympic program was the hoplitodromos, or "Hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the games. Competitors ran either a single or double diaulos (approximately 400 or 800 metres) in full military armour.[55] The hoplitodromos was based on a war tactic of soldiers running in full armor to surprise the enemy.

text: Combat[edit]

text: Wrestling (pale) is recorded as being introduced at the 18th Olympiad. Three throws were necessary for a win. A throw was counted if the body, hip, back or shoulder (and possibly knee) touched the ground. If both competitors fell nothing was counted. Unlike its modern counterpart Greco-Roman wrestling, it is likely that tripping was allowed.[56]

text: Boxing (pygmachia) was first listed in 688 BC,[57] the boys event sixty years later. The laws of boxing were ascribed to the first Olympic champion Onomastus of Smyrna.[58] It appears body-blows were either not permitted or not practised.[59][60] The Spartans, who claimed to have invented boxing, quickly abandoned it and did not take part in boxing competitions.[58] At first the boxers wore himantes (sing. himas), long leather strips which were wrapped around their hands.[57]

text: The pankration was introduced in the 33rd Olympiad (648 BC).[61] Boys' pankration became an Olympic event in 200 BC, in the 145th Olympiad.[62] As well as techniques from boxing and wrestling, athletes used kicks,[63] locks, and chokes on the ground. Although the only prohibitions were against biting and gouging, the pankration was regarded as less dangerous than boxing.[64]

text: It was one of the most popular events: Pindar wrote eight odes praising victors of the pankration.[65] A famous event in the sport was the posthumous victory of Arrhichion of Phigaleia who "expired at the very moment when his opponent acknowledged himself beaten."[66][67]

text: Pentathlon[edit]

text: The pentathlon was a competition made up of five events: running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw and wrestling.[68] The pentathlon is said to have first appeared at the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC.[69] The competition was held on a single day,[70] but it is not known how the victor was decided,[71][72] or in what order the events occurred,[73] except that it finished with the wrestling.[74]

text: Equestrian[edit]

text: Horse racing and chariot racing were the most prestigious competitions in the games, due to only the wealthy being able to afford the maintenance and transportation of horses. These races consisted of different events: the four-horse chariot race, the two-horse chariot race, and the horse with rider race, the rider being hand picked by the owner. The four-horse chariot race was the first equestrian event to feature in the Olympics, being introduced in 680 BC. It consisted of two horses that were harnessed under a Yoke in the middle, and two outer horses that were attached with a rope.[75] The two-horse chariot was introduced in 408 BC.[76] The horse with rider competition on the other hand, was introduced in 648 BC. In this race, Greeks didn't use saddles or stirrups, so they required good grip and balance.[77]

text: In AD 67, the Roman Emperor Nero competed in the chariot race at Olympia. He was thrown from his chariot and was thus unable to finish the race. Nevertheless, he was declared the winner on the basis that he would have won if he had finished the race.[78]

text: Famous athletes[edit]

text:
From Sparta

Cynisca of Sparta (owner of a four-horse chariot) (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor)

From Rhodes:

Diagoras of Rhodes (boxing 79th Olympiad, 464 BC) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (boxing and pankration)
Leonidas of Rhodes (running: stadion, diaulos and hoplitodromos) (His record of 12 individual olympic titles was broken in 2016 by Michael Phelps who received his 13th original title.[79][80][81])

From Croton:

Astylos of Croton (running: stadion, diaulos and hoplitodromos)
Milo of Croton (wrestling)
Timasitheos of Croton (wrestling)[82]

From other cities/kingdoms:

Koroibos of Elis (stadion, the very first Olympic champion)
Orsippus of Megara (running: diaulos)
Theagenes of Thasos (boxer, pankratiast and runner)
Alexander I of Macedon (running: stadion) [83]
Dionysodorus, Theban[84]

Non-Greek:

Tiberius (steerer of a four-horse chariot)[85]
Nero (steerer of a ten-horse chariot)
Varastades, Prince and future King of Armenia, last known Ancient Olympic victor (boxing) during the 291st Olympic Games in the 4th century[86]

text: Olympic festivals in other places[edit]

text: Athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original festival at Olympia, were established over time in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at Antioch, obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of Pisa.[87]


document_title: Beauty and the Beast (2017 soundtrack)

question_text: who sings final song on beauty and the beast

text: Beauty and the Beast (2017 soundtrack)

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Alan Menken. Songs originally written for the 1991 version by Menken and Howard Ashman. Lyrics for original songs are written by Tim Rice.

text:
No.
Title
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Overture" (Score)
Alan Menken
3:05

2.
"Main Title: Prologue Pt. 1"
Hattie Morahan (narration)
0:42

3.
"Aria"
Audra McDonald
1:02

4.
"Main Title: Prologue Pt. 2"
Hattie Morahan (narration)
2:21

5.
"Belle"
Emma Watson, Luke Evans, Ensemble
5:33

6.
"How Does a Moment Last Forever (Music Box)"
Kevin Kline
1:03

7.
"Belle (Reprise)"
Emma Watson
1:15

8.
"Gaston"
Luke Evans, Josh Gad, Ensemble
4:25

9.
"Be Our Guest"
Ewan McGregor, Emma Thompson, Gugu Mbatha-Raw and Ian McKellen
4:48

10.
"Days in the Sun"
Adam Mitchell, Stanley Tucci, Ewan McGregor, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Emma Thompson, Audra McDonald, Emma Watson, Ian McKellen, Clive Rowe
2:40

11.
"Something There"
Emma Watson, Dan Stevens, Emma Thompson, Nathan Mack, Ian McKellen, Ewan McGregor, Gugu Mbatha-Raw
2:54

12.
"How Does a Moment Last Forever (Montmartre)"
Emma Watson
1:55

13.
"Beauty and the Beast"
Emma Thompson
3:19

14.
"Evermore"
Dan Stevens
3:14

15.
"The Mob Song"
Luke Evans, Josh Gad, Ensemble, Emma Watson, Ian McKellen, Stanley Tucci, Nathan Mack, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Ewan McGregor, Gerard Horan, Haydn Gwynne
2:28

16.
"Beauty and the Beast (Finale)"
Audra McDonald, Emma Thompson, Ensemble
2:14

17.
"How Does a Moment Last Forever"
Celine Dion
3:37

18.
"Beauty and the Beast"
Ariana Grande & John Legend
3:47

19.
"Evermore"
Josh Groban
3:09

Total length:
53:31

text:
[show]Deluxe edition – Disc one (Bonus Tracks)

No.
Title
Performer(s)
Length

20.
"Aria" (Demo)
Menken
0:36

21.
"How Does a Moment Last Forever" (Demo)
Menken
0:59

22.
"Days in the Sun" (Demo)
Menken
3:30

23.
"How Does a Moment Last Forever" (Demo)
Menken
1:21

24.
"Evermore" (Demo)
Menken
2:55

Total length:
62:52

text:
[show]Deluxe edition – Disc two

No.
Title
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Main Title: Prologue" (Score)
Menken
3:01

2.
"Belle Meets Gaston" (Score)
Menken
0:54

3.
"Your Mother" (Score)
Menken
2:13

4.
"The Laverie" (Score)
Menken
1:22

5.
"Wolf Chase" (Score)
Menken
3:14

6.
"Entering the Castle" (Score)
Menken
1:18

7.
"A White Rose" (Score)
Menken
3:57

8.
"The Beast" (Score)
Menken
4:03

9.
"Meet the Staff" (Score)
Menken
1:00

10.
"Home" (extended mix) (Score)
Menken
2:04

11.
"Madame de Garderobe" (Score)
Menken
1:28

12.
"There's a Beast" (Score)
Menken
2:02

13.
"A Petal Drops" (Score)
Menken
1:02

14.
"A Bracing Cup of Tea" (Score)
Menken
2:06

15.
"The West Wing" (Score)
Menken
2:58

16.
"Wolves Attack Belle" (Score)
Menken
3:17

17.
"The Library" (Score)
Menken
3:05

18.
"Colonnade Chat" (Score)
Menken
2:54

19.
"The Plague" (Score)
Menken
0:51

20.
"Maurice Accuses Gaston" (Score)
Menken
2:01

21.
"Beast Takes a Bath" (Score)
Menken
1:21

22.
"The Dress" (Score)
Menken
1:01

23.
"You Must Go to Him" (Score)
Menken
2:50

24.
"Belle Stops the Wagon" (Score)
Menken
2:42

25.
"Castle Under Attack" (Score)
Menken
4:20

26.
"Turret Pursuit" (Score)
Menken
2:12

27.
"You Came Back" (Score)
Menken
5:13

28.
"Transformations" (Score)
Menken
4:06

Total length:
68:34

text: The Spotify version of the album instead opens with Celine Dion's "How Does a Moment Last Forever", followed by Ariana Grande and John Legend's "Beauty and the Beast", and Josh Groban's "Evermore", with the rest of the songs in the same order.

text: Commercial performance[edit]

text: The album debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 chart with 57,000 units, 48,000 of which are traditional album sales.[3] It has sold 337,000 copies in the United States as of July 2017.[4]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017)
Peak
position

Australian Albums (ARIA)[5]
4

Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[6]
10

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[7]
5

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[8]
26

Canadian Albums (Billboard)[9]
7

Danish Albums (Hitlisten)[10]
32

Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[11]
44

Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[12]
23

Irish Albums (IRMA)[13]
8

Mexican Albums (AMPROFON)[14]
(Spanish version)
11

New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[15]
7

Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[16]
12

Polish Albums (ZPAV)[17]
46

Scottish Albums (OCC)[18]
6

South Korean Albums (Gaon)[19]
34

South Korean Albums International (Gaon)[20]
1

Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[21]
60

Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[22]
19

UK Albums (OCC)[23]
8

UK Soundtrack Albums (OCC)[24]
1

US Billboard 200[25]
3

US Soundtrack Albums (Billboard)[26]
1

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

United Kingdom (BPI)[27]
Silver
60,000^

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone


document_title: Right-to-work law

question_text: when did louisiana became a right to work state

text: Right-to-work law

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: According to Slate, "right-to-work" laws are derived from legislation forbidding unions from forcing strikes on workers, as well as from legal principles such as "liberty of contract," which as applied here sought to prevent passage of laws regulating workplace conditions.[8]

text: According to PandoDaily and NSFWCORP, the term itself was coined by Vance Muse, a Republican operative who headed an early "right-to-work" group, the "Christian American Association", to replace the term "American Plan" after it became associated with the anti-union violence of the First Red Scare.[9][10] Muse used racist rhetoric in his defense of "right-to-work" laws.[9][10]

text: According to the Conservative think tank, the American Enterprise Institute, the term "right to work" was coined by Dallas Morning News editorial writer William Ruggles.[11]

text: (An unrelated use of term "right to work" had been coined by French socialist leader Louis Blanc before 1848.[12])

text: Wagner Act (1935)[edit]

text: The National Labor Relations Act, generally known as the Wagner Act, was passed in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Second New Deal." Among other things, the Act provided that a company could lawfully agree to be any of the following:

text:
A closed shop, in which employees must be members of the union as a condition of employment. Under a closed shop, an employee who ceased being a member of the union for whatever reason, from failure to pay dues to expulsion from the union as an internal disciplinary punishment, was required to be fired even if the employee did not violate any of the employer's rules.
A union shop, which allows for hiring non-union employees, provided that the employees then join the union within a certain period.
An agency shop, in which employees must pay the equivalent of the cost of union representation, but need not formally join the union.
An open shop, in which an employee cannot be compelled to join or pay the equivalent of dues to a union or be fired for joining the union.[13]

text: The Act tasked the National Labor Relations Board, which had existed since 1933, with overseeing the rules.

text: Taft–Hartley Act (1947)[edit]

text: In 1947 Congress passed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, generally known as the Taft–Hartley Act, over President Harry S. Truman's veto. The Act repealed some parts of the Wagner Act, including outlawing the closed shop. Section 14(b) of the Taft–Hartley Act also authorizes individual states (but not local governments, such as cities or counties) to outlaw the union shop and agency shop for employees working in their jurisdictions. Any state law that outlaws such arrangements is known as a "right-to-work state."

text: In the early development of the right-to-work policy, segregationist sentiment was used as an argument, as many people in the South felt that it was wrong for blacks and whites to belong to the same unions. Vance Muse, one of the early developers of the policy in Texas, used that argument in the development of anti-union laws in Texas in the 1940s.[14]

text: Current status[edit]

text: The federal government operates under open shop rules nationwide, but many of its employees are represented by unions. Unions that represent professional athletes have written contracts that include particular representation provisions (such as in the National Football League),[15] but their application is limited to "wherever and whenever legal," as the Supreme Court has clearly held that the application of a right-to-work law is determined by the employee's "predominant job situs."[16] Players on professional sports teams in states with right-to-work laws are thus subject to those laws and cannot be required to pay any portion of union dues as a condition of continued employment.[17]

text: Twenty-two states, as well as the District of Columbia, do not have right-to-work laws. Missouri's is on hold after a petition called for a statewide vote on the issue.

text: On November 18, 2016, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the right of local governments to enact local right-to-work laws in Kentucky, Ohio, and the other states of its jurisdiction.[18]

text: Arguments[edit]

text: In favor[edit]

text: Minority rights and due process[edit]

text: The first arguments concerning the right to work centered around the rights of a dissenting minority with respect to an opposing majoritarian collective bargain. President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" had prompted many U.S. Supreme Court challenges, among which were challenges regarding the constitutionality of the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA). In 1936, as a part of its ruling in Carter v. Carter Coal Co. the Court ruled against mandatory collective bargaining, stating:

text: The effect, in respect to wages and hours, is to subject the dissentient minority ... to the will of the stated majority .... To ‘accept’ in these circumstances, is not to exercise a choice, but to surrender to force. The power conferred upon the majority is, in effect, the power to regulate the affairs of an unwilling minority. This is legislative delegation in its most obnoxious form; for it is not even delegation to an official or an official body ... but to private persons .... [A] statute which attempts to confer such power undertakes an intolerable and unconstitutional interference with personal liberty and private property. The delegation is so clearly arbitrary, and so clearly a denial of rights safeguarded by the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, that it is unnecessary to do more than refer to decisions of this Court which foreclose the question.[19]

text: Freedom of association[edit]

text: Besides the U.S. Supreme Court, other proponents of right-to-work laws also point to the Constitution and the right to freedom of association. They argue that workers should both be free to join unions or to refrain, and thus, sometimes refer to non-right-to-work states as "forced unionism" states. These proponents argue that by being forced into a collective bargain, what the majoritarian unions call a fair share of collective bargaining costs is actually "financial coercion and a violation of freedom of choice." An opponent to the union bargain is forced to "financially support an organization they did not vote for, in order to receive monopoly representation they have no choice over."[20]

text: Some religions, such as the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, prohibit or discourage the joining of unions,[21] citing Ellen White and the Loss of Free Will if you join a union.[clarification needed]

text: Unfairness[edit]

text: Proponents such as the Mackinac Center for Public Policy contend that it is unfair that unions can require new and existing employees to either join the union or pay fees for collective bargaining expenses as a condition of employment under union security agreement contracts.[22] Other proponents contend that unions may still be needed in new and growing sectors of the economy, for example, the voluntary and third party sectors, to assure adequate benefits for new immigrant, "part-time" aides in America (e.g., US Direct Support Workforce).

text: Political contributions[edit]

text: Right-to-work proponents, including the Center for Union Facts, contend that political contributions made by unions are not representative of the union workers.[23] The agency shop portion of this had previously been contested with support of National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation in Communications Workers of America v. Beck, resulting in "Beck rights" preventing agency fees from being used for expenses outside of collective bargaining if the non-union worker notifies the union of their objection.[24]

text: Opposed[edit]

text: Free riders[edit]

text: This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: article needs a coherent summary of arguments by someone at least slightly familiar with the subject Please help improve this article if you can. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Opponents such as Richard Kahlenberg have argued that while it is an effective political slogan, the phrase "right-to-work" is a misnomer because the lack of such a law does not deprive anyone of the right to work. The Taft–Hartley Act (1947) outlawed the union-only "closed shops" which did deprive people of the right to work, and the "right to work" doesn't eliminate a worker's option of joining a work or labor union. A right-to-work law simply "gives employees the right to be free riders—to benefit from collective bargaining without paying for it".[25][26][6][27] Under labor laws in the United States, the union as the exclusive collective bargaining agent has a duty of fair representation for all persons in the bargaining unit, including those who choose not to be members and pay dues. Thus, in Abood v. Detroit Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States permitted agency fees so that employees in the public sector could be required to pay for the costs of representation, even as they opted not to be a member. The right to challenge the fees must include the right to have it heard by an impartial fact finder.[28]

text: Freedom of contract and association[edit]

text: Opponents argue that right-to-work laws restrict freedom of association, and limit the sorts of agreements individuals acting collectively can make with their employer, by prohibiting workers and employers from agreeing to contracts that include "fair share fees". Moreover, American law imposes a duty of fair representation on unions; consequently non-members in right to work states can and do force unions to provide without compensation grievance services that are paid for by union members.[29] Hence right-to-work laws are not neutral, but rather impose an active and artificial burden on labor unions.

text: In December 2012, libertarian writer J.D. Tuccille, in Reason magazine, wrote:

text: I consider the restrictions right-to-work laws impose on bargaining between unions and businesses to violate freedom of contract and association. ... I'm disappointed that the state has, once again, inserted itself into the marketplace to place its thumb on the scale in the never-ending game of playing business and labor off against one another. ... This is not to say that unions are always good. It means that, when the state isn't involved, they're private organizations that can offer value to their members.[30]

text: Corporate interests[edit]

text: Critics from organized labor have pointed out since the late 1970s[31] that while the National Right to Work Committee purports to engage in grass-roots lobbying on behalf of the "little guy", the National Right to Work Committee was formed by a group of southern businessmen with the express purpose of fighting unions, and that they "added a few workers for the purpose of public relations".[32]

text: The unions also contend that the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation and National Right to Work Committee have received millions of dollars in grants from foundations controlled by major U.S. industrialists like the New York-based Olin Foundation, Inc., which grew out of a family manufacturing business, but now funds primarily conservative think tanks, media outlets, and university law programs.[32][33]

text: Kahlenberg and Marvit also argue that, at least in efforts to pass a right-to-work law in Michigan, excluding police and firefighter unions—traditionally less hostile to Republicans—from the law caused some to question claims that the law was simply an effort to improve Michigan's businesses climate, not to seek partisan advantage.[25]

text: Corporate interests have now involved the growing non-profit and voluntary sectors of the economy which "achieved parity in wages and benefits" to the state, unionized workforces, while not assuring provisions such as adverse hearings which benefit employees.

text: Studies of economic effect[edit]

text: According to Tim Bartik of the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, studies of the effect of right-to-work laws "abound," but are not "consistent." Studies have found both "some positive effect on job growth," and no effect.[34] Thomas Holmes argues that it is difficult to analyze right-to-work laws by comparing states due to other similarities between states that have passed these laws. For instance, right-to-work states often have some strong pro-business policies, making it difficult to isolate the effect of right-to-work laws.[35] Looking at the growth of states in the Southeast following World War II, Bartik notes that while they have right-to-work laws they have also benefited from "factors like the widespread use of air conditioning and different modes of transportation that helped decentralize manufacturing".[36]

text: Economist Thomas Holmes compared counties close to the border between states with and without right-to-work laws (thereby holding constant an array of factors related to geography and climate). He found that the cumulative growth of employment in manufacturing in the right-to-work states was 26 percentage points greater than that in the non-right-to-work states.[37] However, given the study design, Holmes points out "my results do not say that it is right-to-work laws that matter, but rather that the 'probusiness package' offered by right-to-work states seems to matter."[38] Moreover, as noted by Kevin Drum and others, this result may reflect business relocation rather than an overall enhancement of economic growth, since "businesses prefer locating in states where costs are low and rules are lax."[39]

text: A February 2011 study by the Economic Policy Institute found:[26]

text:
Wages in right-to-work states are 3.2% lower than those in non-RTW states, after controlling for a full complement of individual demographic and socioeconomic variables as well as state macroeconomic indicators. Using the average wage in non-RTW states as the base ($22.11), the average full-time, full-year worker in an RTW state makes about $1,500 less annually than a similar worker in a non-RTW state. The study goes on to say "How much of this difference can be attributed to RTW status itself? There is an inherent “endogeneity” problem in any attempt to answer that question, namely that RTW and non-RTW states differ on a wide variety of measures that are also related to compensation, making it difficult to isolate the impact of RTW status."[26]
The rate of employer-sponsored health insurance (ESI) is 2.6 percentage points lower in RTW states compared with non-RTW states, after controlling for individual, job, and state-level characteristics. If workers in non-RTW states were to receive ESI at this lower rate, 2 million fewer workers nationally would be covered.
The rate of employer-sponsored pensions is 4.8 percentage points lower in RTW states, using the full complement of control variables in [the study's] regression model. If workers in non-RTW states were to receive pensions at this lower rate, 3.8 million fewer workers nationally would have pensions.

text: A 2008 editorial in The Wall Street Journal comparing job growth in Ohio and Texas stated that from 1998 to 2008, Ohio lost 10,400 jobs, while Texas gained 1,615,000. The opinion piece suggested right-to-work laws might be among the reasons for the economic expansion in Texas, along with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the absence of a state income tax in Texas.[40] Another Wall Street Journal editorial in 2012, by the president and the labor policy director of the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, reported 71% employment growth in right-to-work states from 1980 to 2011, while employment in non-right-to-work states grew just 32% during the same period.[41] The 2012 editorial also stated that since 2001, compensation in right-to-work states had increased 4 times faster than in other states.[41]

text: Polling[edit]

text: In January 2012, in the immediate aftermath of passage of Indiana's right-to-work law, Rasmussen Reports found that 74% of likely U.S. voters supported right-to-work laws, but "most also don’t think a non-union worker should enjoy benefits negotiated by the union."[42]

text: In Michigan in January through March 2013, a poll found that 43 percent of those polled thought the law would help Michigan's economy, while 41 percent thought it would hurt.[43]

text: U.S. states with right-to-work laws[edit]

text: The following states (28) are right-to-work states:

text:
Alabama (adopted 1953, Constitution 2016)
Arizona (Constitution, State Constitution Article 25 approved 1946)[44] (adopted 1944)
Arkansas (Constitution, 1947, Amendment 34)
Florida (Constitution, 1944, revised 1968, Article 1, Section 6)[45]
Georgia (adopted 1947)
Idaho (adopted 1985)
Indiana[4] (State law, 2012)
Iowa (adopted 1947)
Kansas (Constitution, 1958, Article 15, Section 12)
Kentucky (adopted 2017)
Louisiana (adopted 1976)
Michigan (State law, 2012)[3]
Mississippi (Constitution, adopted 1954)
Missouri (adopted 2017) (Postponed by petition to 2018 for citizen voting)
Nebraska (Constitution and statute, adopted 1946)
Nevada (adopted 1951)
North Carolina (adopted 1947)
North Dakota (adopted 1947)
Oklahoma (Constitution, adopted 2001)
South Carolina[46] (adopted 1954)
South Dakota (adopted 1946)
Tennessee (adopted 1947)
Texas[47] (adopted 1947, revised 1993)
Utah (adopted 1955)
Virginia (adopted 1947)
West Virginia (adopted 2016) (Went into effect September 2017 due to lower court injunctions)
Wisconsin (adopted 2015)
Wyoming (adopted 1963)

text: In addition, the territory of Guam also has right-to-work laws, and employees of the US Federal Government have the right to choose whether or not to join their respective unions.[48]

text: New Hampshire adopted a right-to-work bill in 1947, but it was repealed in 1949 by the state legislature and governor.[49]