document_title: No-hitter

question_text: how many no hitters in world series history

question_tokens: how many no hitters in world series history

text: No-hitter

text: Major League Baseball no-hitters[edit]

text: Definition[edit]

text: A no-hitter is defined by Major League Baseball as follows: "An official no-hit game occurs when a pitcher (or pitchers) allows no hits during the entire course of a game, which consists of at least nine innings."[1] This definition was specified by MLB's Committee for Statistical Accuracy in 1991, causing previously recognized no-hitters of fewer than nine innings or where the first hit had been allowed in extra innings to be stricken from the official record books. Games lost by the visiting team in 8½ innings but without allowing any hits do not qualify as no-hitters, as the visiting team has only pitched eight innings.[2][3]

text: Frequency[edit]

text: Major League Baseball has officially recognized 296 no-hitters thrown since 1876; only 23 of those were perfect games. Two no-hitters have been thrown on the same day twice: Ted Breitenstein and Jim Hughes on April 22, 1898; and Dave Stewart and Fernando Valenzuela on June 29, 1990.

text: Eight no-hitters were thrown by major league pitchers in the 1884 season. In the modern era (since 1901), seven no-hitters were thrown in 1990, 1991, 2012, and 2015.

text: The longest period between any two no-hitters in the modern era is 7003114000000000000♠3 years, 44 days between Bobby Burke on August 8, 1931, and Paul "Daffy" Dean on September 21, 1934. There was a drought of 3 years, 11 months, without a no-hitter after the first National League no-hitter on July 15, 1876, pitched by George Bradley. The most recent year without any no-hitters is 2005.

text: The greatest span of games without a no-hitter anywhere in the Major Leagues is 6,364, between Randy Johnson's perfect game on May 18, 2004, for the Arizona Diamondbacks, and Aníbal Sánchez's no-hitter on September 6, 2006, for the Florida Marlins. The previous record was a 4,015-game streak without a no-hitter from September 30, 1984, to September 19, 1986.

text: Individual[edit]

text: The pitcher who holds the record for the most no-hitters is Nolan Ryan, who threw seven in his long career. His first two came exactly two months apart, while he was with the California Angels: the first on May 15, 1973, and the second on July 15. He had two more with the Angels on September 28, 1974, and June 1, 1975. Ryan's fifth no-hitter with the Houston Astros on September 26, 1981, broke Sandy Koufax's previous record. His sixth and seventh no-hitters came with the Texas Rangers on June 1, 1990, and May 1, 1991. When he tossed number seven at age 44, he became the oldest pitcher to throw a no-hitter.

text: Only Ryan, Sandy Koufax (four), Cy Young (three), Bob Feller (three), and Larry Corcoran (three) have pitched more than two no-hitters.[4] Corcoran was the first pitcher to throw a second no-hitter in a career (in 1882), as well as the first to throw a third (in 1884).

text: Thirty-six pitchers have thrown more than one no-hitter, combined no-hitters not counting. Randy Johnson has the longest gap between no-hitters: he threw a no-hitter as a member of the Seattle Mariners on June 2, 1990, and a perfect game as an Arizona Diamondback on May 18, 2004.

text: The pitcher who holds the record for the shortest time between no-hitters is Johnny Vander Meer, the only pitcher in history to throw no-hitters in consecutive starts, while playing for the Cincinnati Reds in 1938.[5] Besides Vander Meer, Allie Reynolds (in 1951), Virgil Trucks (in 1952), Ryan (in 1973), and Max Scherzer (in 2015) are the only other major leaguers to throw two no-hitters in the same regular season.

text: Jim Maloney also had two no-hitters under the previous rules in the 1965 season, both of them taken into extra innings. On the first one on June 14, he gave up a home run to Johnny Lewis to open the top of the 11th inning, turning 10 innings of no-hit ball into a 1–0 loss to the New York Mets. According to the rules interpretation of the time, this was considered a no-hitter.[6] On August 19, a home run by Leo Cárdenas in the tenth inning allowed Maloney to earn a 1–0 10-inning no-hit win over the Chicago Cubs.[7]

text: Roy Halladay threw two no-hitters in 2010 – a perfect game during the regular season and a no-hitter in the 2010 National League Division Series. He is the only major leaguer to have thrown no-hitters in regular season and postseason play.

text: Two pitchers missing their non-pitching hand have thrown no-hitters; Hugh Daily, of the Cleveland Blues, defeated the Philadelphia Quakers 1–0 on September 13, 1883, and Jim Abbott, of the New York Yankees, defeated the Cleveland Indians 4–0 on September 4, 1993. Daily lost his left hand in a gun accident as a child, and Abbott was born without a right hand.

text: Edinson Vólquez of the Miami Marlins is the most recent pitcher to throw a no-hitter, the thirty-fifth player to do so, on June 3, 2017.

text: The record for most no-hitters caught by a catcher is four, a record shared by Boston Red Sox catcher Jason Varitek and Philadelphia Phillies catcher Carlos Ruiz. Varitek caught no-hitters for Hideo Nomo, Derek Lowe, Clay Buchholz, and Jon Lester.[8] Varitek also caught a rain-shortened, five-inning unofficial no-hitter for Devern Hansack on October 1, 2006.[9] Ruiz caught two no-hitters for Roy Halladay, including a perfect game, as well as one for Cole Hamels, and a combined no-hitter for Cole Hamels, Jake Diekman, Ken Giles, and Jonathan Papelbon.[10] Before MLB redefined "no-hitter", Ray Schalk had long held the record of catching four no-hitters, but his first nine-inning no-hitter had ended with a hit in the tenth inning.[9][11]

text: Five pitchers have thrown a no-hitter in both the American League and the National League: Cy Young, Ryan, Jim Bunning, Nomo, and Randy Johnson. Only five catchers have caught a no-hitter in each league: Gus Triandos, Jeff Torborg, Darrell Porter, Ron Hassey, and most recently, Drew Butera.[12] Triandos caught Hoyt Wilhelm's 1958 no-hitter and Jim Bunning's perfect game, Torborg caught Koufax's perfect game and Ryan's first no-hitter, Porter caught Jim Colborn's 1977 no-hitter and Bob Forsch's second no-hitter in 1983, and Hassey caught Len Barker's and Dennis Martínez's perfect games. Butera caught a 2011 no-hitter by Francisco Liriano and a 2014 no-hitter by Josh Beckett.[12]

text: Team[edit]

text: No team has thrown no-hitters in consecutive games, although it has happened once on consecutive days: On May 5, 1917, Ernie Koob of the St. Louis Browns no-hit the Chicago White Sox, and teammate Bob Groom repeated the feat in the second game of a doubleheader the following day.

text: On two occasions, there have been back-to-back no-hitters thrown by each team in a series. On September 17, 1968, Gaylord Perry of the San Francisco Giants no-hit the St. Louis Cardinals, and the Cardinals' Ray Washburn no-hit the Giants the following day. On April 30, 1969, Jim Maloney of the Cincinnati Reds no-hit the Houston Astros, and the Astros' Don Wilson no-hit the Reds the following day. Surprisingly, it was both Maloney's and Wilson's 2nd no-hitter in their careers.

text: Teams have thrown two straight no-hitters, with no other teams pitching one in the interim, 19 times; most recently by the Los Angeles Dodgers (Josh Beckett and Clayton Kershaw in 2014). The only team to throw three straight no-hitters was the Milwaukee Braves, with Lew Burdette, followed by consecutive no-no's by Warren Spahn, in 1960 and 1961. Individual pitchers have thrown two straight no-hitters seven times: Addie Joss 1908 and 1910; Vander Meer in 1938; Allie Reynolds in 1951; Warren Spahn in 1960 and 1961; Ryan twice, first in 1973, then in 1974 and 1975; and Bailey. All seven instances were with the same team.

text: The Tampa Bay Rays are the only MLB team to fail to get a hit in three games in a span of 12 months or fewer. No-hit by Arizona's Edwin Jackson on June 25, 2010, the Rays were also the victims of two perfect games: the first by White Sox pitcher Mark Buehrle on July 23, 2009, the second by Oakland's Dallas Braden on May 9, 2010. On August 15, 2012, the Rays were once again on the losing end of a perfect game, this time at the helm of Félix Hernández and the Seattle Mariners.[13]

text: Combined no-hitters[edit]

text: The vast majority of no-hit games are finished by the starting pitcher, but eleven MLB no-hitters have been thrown by a combination of the starting and relief pitchers. The first such combined no-hitter occurred on June 23, 1917, when Ernie Shore of the Boston Red Sox relieved starter Babe Ruth, who had been ejected for arguing with the umpire after walking the first batter of the game. The runner was subsequently caught stealing and Shore retired the next 26 batters without allowing any baserunners. This game was long considered a perfect game for Shore, since he recorded 27 outs in succession; current rules classify it only as a combined no-hitter. Another major league combined no-hitter did not occur until April 30, 1967, when Stu Miller of the Baltimore Orioles recorded the final out in relief of Steve Barber in a 2–1 loss to the Detroit Tigers. The most recent combined no-hitter occurred on September 1, 2014, when the Philadelphia Phillies beat the Atlanta Braves 7-0, as Cole Hamels threw 108 pitches through the first six innings; then Jake Diekman, Ken Giles, and Jonathan Papelbon successively pitched perfect innings to preserve the no-hitter.

text: The only combined extra inning no-hitter to date occurred on July 12, 1997. Pittsburgh Pirates pitchers Francisco Córdova (9 innings) and Ricardo Rincón (1 inning) combined to no-hit the Houston Astros, 3–0. Victory was secured with a three-run walk-off home run by pinch hitter Mark Smith in the bottom of the tenth inning.

text: On June 11, 2003, the Houston Astros set a record with six pitchers involved in a combined no-hitter. On that day, Roy Oswalt, Pete Munro, Kirk Saarloos, Brad Lidge, Octavio Dotel, and Billy Wagner combined to hold the New York Yankees hitless. Oswalt was removed after one inning due to injury. Munro pitched the most innings, 2⅔. He also allowed five of the six baserunners, giving up three walks, hitting a batter and seeing another reach on an error by third baseman Geoff Blum. The only other baserunner was allowed by Dotel, who threw a third-strike wild pitch to Alfonso Soriano with one out in the eighth; Dotel went on to record the forty-fifth four-strikeout inning in regular-season play.[14] Lidge, who retired all six hitters he faced over the sixth and seventh innings, earned the victory. On June 8, 2012, the Seattle Mariners tied this record when Kevin Millwood, Charlie Furbush, Stephen Pryor, Lucas Luetge, Brandon League, and Tom Wilhelmsen combined to no-hit the Los Angeles Dodgers. Millwood pitched 6 innings before he was taken out due to a groin injury.

text: Only one pitcher has thrown a no-hitter as a starter and contributed to a combined no-hitter as a reliever. On September 30, 1984, Mike Witt threw a 1–0 perfect game for the California Angels against the Texas Rangers. On April 11, 1990, pitching the eighth and ninth innings in relief of Mark Langston, Witt earned a save in another 1–0 no-hit victory for the Angels over the Seattle Mariners.

text: Vida Blue, Kent Mercker, Kevin Millwood, and Cole Hamels are the only pitchers to start both a complete game no-hitter and a combined no-hitter. Vida Blue no-hit the Minnesota Twins on September 21, 1970, while pitching for the Oakland Athletics. He combined with Glenn Abbott, Paul Lindblad, and Rollie Fingers to no-hit the California Angels on September 28, 1975. While with the Atlanta Braves in 1991, Mercker, Mark Wohlers and Alejandro Peña no-hit the San Diego Padres in the National League's first combined no-hitter. Mercker threw a complete game no-hitter against the Los Angeles Dodgers on April 8, 1994. In addition to the game above in which Millwood and the Seattle Mariners tied the record by using six pitchers in a no-hitter, Millwood previously threw a complete game no-hitter against the San Francisco Giants on April 27, 2003, while with the Philadelphia Phillies. Both Mercker and Blue were All-Stars in the seasons of their combined no-hitters, and Blue also won the Cy Young Award and the Most Valuable Player Award during his career.

text: Combined no-hitters are considered unofficial by Nippon Professional Baseball.

text: Earliest, latest, title-clinching, and postseason no-hitters[edit]

text: Hideo Nomo threw the earliest no-hitter based on calendar date: April 4, 2001, the second game of the season for the Boston Red Sox, against the Baltimore Orioles. The Cleveland Indians' Bob Feller left the Chicago White Sox hitless in the 1940 season opener on April 16, the only official Opening Day no-hitter.

text: There have been five no-hitters thrown on the final day of the regular season. Bumpus Jones of the Cincinnati Reds ended the season by no-hitting the Pittsburgh Pirates on October 15, 1892; this is also the latest calendar date for a no-hit game thus far. On September 28, 1975, four Oakland A's pitchers (Vida Blue, Glenn Abbott, Paul Lindblad, Rollie Fingers) combined for a season-ending no-hitter against the California Angels. Mike Witt of the California Angels threw a perfect game against the Texas Rangers on September 30, 1984. Henderson Álvarez of the Miami Marlins no-hit the Detroit Tigers on September 29, 2013, to close the regular season. Jordan Zimmermann of the Washington Nationals no-hit the Miami Marlins on the last day of the 2014 season, September 28.

text: The latest regular-season no-hitter by calendar date in the modern era is October 3, achieved by Max Scherzer of the Washington Nationals in 2015.

text: The Houston Astros' Mike Scott no-hit the San Francisco Giants on September 25, 1986, a victory that also clinched the National League West title for the Astros; this is the only such occurrence in Major League history to date. In the first game of a doubleheader on September 28, 1951, Allie Reynolds of the New York Yankees pitched a no-hitter against the Boston Red Sox which clinched a tie for the American League pennant (the pennant was clinched outright in the doubleheader's second game).

text: There have been two postseason no-hitters in MLB history, one by a pitcher from each league. For the AL, on October 8, 1956, Don Larsen of the New York Yankees threw a perfect game in Game 5 of that year's World Series against the Brooklyn Dodgers. The feat had nearly been accomplished nine years earlier by the Yankees' Bill Bevens, who came within one out of a no-hitter (though not a perfect game) against the Brooklyn Dodgers in Game 4 of the 1947 World Series, only to lose the game on a pinch-hit double by Cookie Lavagetto. There have been other one-hitters in the World Series, with the lone hit coming earlier in the game than in Bevens' effort. On October 6, 2010, Roy Halladay of the Philadelphia Phillies, in the first postseason appearance of his career, threw the second no-hitter in postseason history, and first in the NL, in Game 1 of the Phillies' NLDS against the Cincinnati Reds.

text: Rookie no-hitters[edit]

text: Twenty-two MLB rookies have pitched a no-hitter since 1901. Three pitchers have thrown a no-hitter in their first major league starts; two others have done it in their second major league starts.[15]

text: Bumpus Jones of the Cincinnati Reds threw a no-hitter on October 15, 1892 in his first major league game. Jones pitched only eight games in the big leagues, finishing with a career win/loss record of 2–4 and a career earned run average of 7.99.

text: Ted Breitenstein pitched a no-hitter in his first Major League start on October 4, 1891, however, it was not his first Major League game.[16] He later threw a second no-hitter on April 22, 1898.

text: On May 6, 1953, Bobo Holloman pitched a no-hitter for the St. Louis Browns in his first major league start (also not his first major league game). This game would prove to be one of only three major league wins that Holloman achieved, against seven losses, all in 1953. Bill Veeck, then-owner of the Browns, in his autobiography described the 27 outs of Holloman's no-hitter as consisting of hard-hit ground balls, screaming line drives, and deep fly balls. At the other end of the spectrum, there are nine 300-game winners—Grover Cleveland Alexander, Kid Nichols, Lefty Grove, Early Wynn, Steve Carlton, Don Sutton, Greg Maddux, Roger Clemens and Tom Glavine—who failed to pitch a no-hitter.

text: On August 11, 1991, Wilson Álvarez of the Chicago White Sox pitched a no-hitter in his second career major league start. During Alvarez's first career start, he had allowed three runs on a pair of home runs and did not retire a single batter. Unlike Jones and Holloman, Alvarez went on to win 102 games over a 16-year career.

text: Clay Buchholz pitched a no-hitter for the Boston Red Sox in his second major league start on September 1, 2007 at Fenway Park. The game ended in a 10–0 victory for the Red Sox over the Baltimore Orioles.

text: Chris Heston, pitcher for the San Francisco Giants, threw a no-hitter in a 5-0 victory over the New York Mets on June 9, 2015.

text: Nine-inning no-hitters in a losing effort[edit]

text: Unlike a perfect game, in which no batters reach base, in regular no-hitters batters can reach base in other ways, such as a walk, an error, or a hit batsman, thus it is possible for the team pitching the no-hitter to lose. On April 23, 1964, Ken Johnson of the Houston Colt .45s became the only pitcher to lose a complete game no-hitter in nine innings when he was beaten, 1–0, by Cincinnati. The winning run was scored by Pete Rose in the top of the ninth inning via an error, groundout, and another error.[17]

text: On April 30, 1967, Steve Barber and Stu Miller of the Baltimore Orioles pitched a combined no-hitter, but lost 2-1 to the Detroit Tigers.[18]

text: On July 1, 1990, Andy Hawkins of the Yankees pitched an eight-inning no-hitter (the Yankees were the away team) against the Chicago White Sox and lost the game 4–0 after an eighth inning which saw three errors.[19] The four runs that the White Sox scored are the most by any team in a game in which they had no hits.[20] Because Hawkins only threw eight innings, this game is not recognized as an official no-hitter by Major League Baseball; however, it was considered a no-hitter at the time it was pitched. Years after the game, the rules regarding no-hitters, (and rules regarding other statistics), were changed and applied retroactively in order to "clean up the record book". The Hawkins "no-hitter" failed on at least two provisions of the new standards. To be classified a valid no-hitter, the pitcher must face opposing batters in at least nine innings.

text: Jered Weaver and José Arredondo of the Angels also combined for eight innings of no-hit baseball in a 1–0 road loss to the Dodgers June 28, 2008, where Matt Kemp reached on an error, stole second, advanced to third on another error, and scored on a sacrifice fly. However, since the Angels only pitched eight innings, this game is not recognized as an official no-hitter.

text: On August 23, 2017, Rich Hill of the Los Angeles Dodgers pitched a nine-inning no-hitter, but his team lost 1-0 to the Pittsburgh Pirates. Hill had a perfect game in the ninth inning until a fielding error by Logan Forsythe. Later, Hill would have his no-hitter broken up on a walkoff-homerun by Josh Harrison in the bottom of the 10th inning.[21]

text: Shortened no-hitters[edit]

text: A game that cannot continue due to weather or darkness may be considered a completed official game, as long as at least five innings have been completed. Until 1991, any such game in which a pitcher held the opposing team without hits was considered an official no-hitter; however under the current rule, a no-hitter must last for at least nine innings to count. As the rule was applied retroactively, thirty-six games in which a no-hitter was interrupted by weather or darkness, with lengths ranging from 5 to 8 innings, are no longer considered no-hitters.

text: If the home team leads after the top of the ninth, they do not bat in the bottom of the ninth, thus the visiting team only pitches 8 innings. Since it is possible to score runs without getting hits, a visiting team can complete a full game without allowing a hit but not be credited with an official no-hitter. This has happened four times in MLB history: Silver King (1890), Andy Hawkins (1990), and Matt Young (1992) pitched complete games without allowing a hit, but pitched only 8 innings as the losing pitcher from the visiting team, and thus are not credited with a no-hitter.[22][23] On June 28, 2008, Jered Weaver and José Arredondo of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim threw 8 no-hit innings against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium, but lost the game, 1–0, and are not credited with a no-hitter. This is the first near no-hitter of this kind in which more than one pitcher was involved.

text: No-hitters lost in extra innings[edit]

text: A game that is a no-hitter through nine innings may be lost in extra innings. Under current rules, such a game is not considered an official no-hitter because the pitcher did not keep the opponent hitless for the entire course of the game.

text: On May 2, 1917, a game between the Chicago Cubs and the Cincinnati Reds reached the end of nine innings in a hitless scoreless tie,[24] the only time in baseball history that neither team has had a hit in regulation. Both Hippo Vaughn of the Cubs and Fred Toney of the Reds continued pitching into the tenth inning. Vaughn lost his no-hitter in the top of the tenth, as the Reds got two hits and scored the winning run. Toney retired the side in the bottom of the tenth and recorded a ten-inning no-hitter. This game was long considered a "double no-hitter", but Vaughn is no longer credited with a no-hitter under the current rules.

text: Of the thirteen potential no-hitters that have been lost in extra innings, two were perfect games until the inning when the first hit was surrendered. On May 26, 1959, Harvey Haddix of the Pittsburgh Pirates pitched a remarkable twelve perfect innings against the Milwaukee Braves before losing the perfect game on an error and then the no-hitter and the game in the thirteenth inning. On June 3, 1995, Pedro Martínez of the Montreal Expos pitched nine perfect innings against the San Diego Padres before giving up a hit in the tenth and exiting the game, which the Expos then won, 1–0.[25]

text: On August 23, 2017, in a game between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Pittsburgh Pirates, Dodgers pitcher Rich Hill pitched nine no-hit innings, only to lose his no-hit bid (and the game) on a walk-off homer by Josh Harrison in the 10th inning.[26] This was another potential perfect game; the perfect game was broken up by a ninth-inning error, the first time this had happened in MLB history.[27]

text: No-hitter droughts[edit]

text: Only one existing franchise in Major League Baseball has not had a pitcher toss a no-hitter: the San Diego Padres, who have gone 46 years without a no-hitter since they entered Major League Baseball in 1969. Their closest bid came against the Philadelphia Phillies on July 18, 1972; Steve Arlin came within one out of a no-hitter before Denny Doyle broke up the bid with a single. On July 9, 2011, five Padres pitchers combined for 8 2⁄3 innings of no-hit pitching against the Los Angeles Dodgers before Juan Uribe hit a double, which was followed by a Dioner Navarro single that won the game, which had been scoreless up to that point.

text: Of all the teams that have thrown at least one no-hit game, however, the Cleveland Indians, as of end of the 2017 MLB season, have had the longest drought; the last such game thrown by the team was by Len Barker on May 15, 1981, which was also a perfect game.

text: The New York Mets, who began play in 1962, went without a no-hitter until Johan Santana pitched one on the night of June 1, 2012, against the St. Louis Cardinals at home at Citi Field. The 8–0 victory closed out their era as the oldest franchise without a no-hitter and ended a drought that lasted 8,019 regular-season and 74 post-season games. Mets pitchers have thrown 39 one-hitters.

text: The longest no-hitter drought in Major League history was suffered by the Philadelphia Phillies between May 1, 1906, and June 21, 1964, a span that encompassed 8,945 games.

text: The Washington Nationals achieved their first no-hitter on September 28, 2014.[28] The franchise has four previous no-hitters in its history as the Montreal Expos, including a perfect game by Dennis Martínez.

text: Six current NL teams—the Braves, Dodgers, Giants, Phillies, Cubs and Reds—all pitched their first no-hitters before the advent of the American League in 1901. Among the early National League teams still playing, the last to get their first no-hitter was the St. Louis Cardinals, when Jesse Haines pitched one on July 17, 1924. Of the original American League teams, the last team to get their first no-hitter was the New York Yankees, when George Mogridge pitched one on April 24, 1917. There are a number of short-lived Major League franchises from the nineteenth century that folded without ever recording a no-hitter.

text:
Date of No-hitter
Pitcher(s)
Franchise
Time Since No-hitter

June 25, 2010
Edwin Jackson
Arizona Diamondbacks
7003273000000000000♠7 years, 173 days

April 8, 1994
Kent Mercker
Atlanta Braves
7003865200000000000♠23 years, 251 days

July 13, 1991
Bob Milacki (6 IP)
Mike Flanagan (1 IP)
Mark Williamson (1 IP)
Gregg Olson (1 IP)
Baltimore Orioles
7003965200000000000♠26 years, 155 days

May 19, 2008
Jon Lester
Boston Red Sox
7003349700000000000♠9 years, 210 days

April 21, 2016
Jake Arrieta
Chicago Cubs
7002603000000000000♠1 year, 238 days

April 21, 2012
Philip Humber
Chicago White Sox
7003206400000000000♠5 years, 238 days

July 2, 2013
Homer Bailey
Cincinnati Reds
7003162700000000000♠4 years, 166 days

May 15, 1981
Len Barker
Cleveland Indians
7004133630000000000♠36 years, 214 days

April 17, 2010
Ubaldo Jiménez
Colorado Rockies
7003279900000000000♠7 years, 242 days

May 7, 2011
Justin Verlander
Detroit Tigers
7003241400000000000♠6 years, 222 days

August 21, 2015
Mike Fiers
Houston Astros
7002847000000000000♠2 years, 116 days

August 26, 1991
Bret Saberhagen
Kansas City Royals
7003960800000000000♠26 years, 111 days

May 2, 2012
Jered Weaver
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
7003205300000000000♠5 years, 227 days

June 18, 2014
Clayton Kershaw
Los Angeles Dodgers
7003127600000000000♠3 years, 180 days

June 3, 2017
Edinson Vólquez
Miami Marlins
7002195000000000000♠195 days

April 15, 1987
Juan Nieves
Milwaukee Brewers
7004112020000000000♠30 years, 244 days

May 3, 2011
Francisco Liriano
Minnesota Twins
7003241800000000000♠6 years, 226 days

June 1, 2012
Johan Santana
New York Mets
7003202300000000000♠5 years, 197 days

July 18, 1999
David Cone
New York Yankees
7003672500000000000♠18 years, 150 days

May 9, 2010
Dallas Braden
Oakland Athletics
7003277700000000000♠7 years, 220 days

July 25, 2015
Cole Hamels
Philadelphia Phillies
7002874000000000000♠2 years, 143 days

July 12, 1997
Francisco Córdova (9 IP)
Ricardo Rincón (1 IP)
Pittsburgh Pirates
7003746100000000000♠20 years, 156 days

n/a
n/a
San Diego Padres
7004177840000000000♠48 years, 252 days

June 9, 2015
Chris Heston
San Francisco Giants
7002920000000000000♠2 years, 189 days

August 12, 2015
Hisashi Iwakuma
Seattle Mariners
7002856000000000000♠2 years, 125 days

September 3, 2001
Bud Smith
St. Louis Cardinals
7003594700000000000♠16 years, 103 days

July 26, 2010
Matt Garza
Tampa Bay Rays
7003269900000000000♠7 years, 142 days

July 28, 1994
Kenny Rogers
Texas Rangers
7003854100000000000♠23 years, 140 days

September 2, 1990
Dave Stieb
Toronto Blue Jays
7003996600000000000♠27 years, 104 days

October 3, 2015
Max Scherzer
Washington Nationals
7002804000000000000♠2 years, 73 days

text: Avoiding no-hitters[edit]

text: All modern-era MLB teams have experienced at least two no-hitters pitched against them. The record for the longest period of time without being no-hit is held by the Chicago Cubs, who succeeded in getting at least one hit in every game since Sandy Koufax's perfect game against them on September 9, 1965, until they were no-hit by Cole Hamels of the Philadelphia Phillies on July 25, 2015, a period of 7004182150000000000♠49 years, 318 days (7951 games – including 31 Post Season games). The second-longest streak without having an official no-hitter pitched against them is held by the New York Yankees, who had a gap of 7004163340000000000♠44 years, 263 days between nine-inning no-hitters from September 21, 1958 to June 10, 2003. However, during this time, the Yankees team hitting streak ended in a rain-shortened official game on July 12, 1990,[29] after 7004116170000000000♠31 years, 294 days. The St. Louis Cardinals have the second-longest team hitting streak in MLB history: May 12, 1919 to May 14, 1960, a period of 7004149790000000000♠41 years, 3 days. Among AL teams, the Kansas City Royals have the longest team hitting streak: May 15, 1973 to May 19, 2008, a period of 7004127880000000000♠35 years, 4 days.

text: The longest current streak is held by the Oakland Athletics at 7003937300000000000♠25 years, 241 days (4103 games, including 44 postseason games) as of March 11, 2017. They were last held hitless on July 13, 1991, when four Baltimore Orioles pitchers combined to shut down the A's offense.

text: No-hitters and ballparks[edit]

text: Forbes Field, home of the Pittsburgh Pirates from the middle of the 1909 season until the middle of the 1970 season, is the only long-term major league ballpark where a no-hitter was never thrown during its existence. There are several recently built fields where no-hitters have not yet been thrown. Five parks presently in existence for a decade or more have only seen one no-hitter each: the Orioles' current home, Oriole Park at Camden Yards, known for being hitter friendly (Hideo Nomo on April 4, 2001); Coors Field, the hitter-friendly home of the Colorado Rockies (Nomo on September 17, 1996); Petco Park, home of the San Diego Padres, which initially was known as a pitcher's park but was modified with shorter fences in 2013 (Tim Lincecum on July 13, 2013); PNC Park, the current home of the Pirates, which like Forbes Field is known for being hitter-friendly (Homer Bailey on September 28, 2012); and Minute Maid Park, the home of the Houston Astros which is known for the short Crawford Boxes in left and for its deep outfield in center (Mike Fiers on August 21, 2015).

text: International competition[edit]

text: In the 2006 World Baseball Classic, Shairon Martis pitched a no-hitter for the Netherlands against Panama, however it was only seven innings due to the mercy rule.

text: Superstitions[edit]

text: One of the most common baseball superstitions is that it is bad luck to mention a no-hitter in progress, especially to the pitcher and in particular by their teammates (who sometimes even go so far as to not even be near the pitcher).[30] Some sportscasters observe this taboo while others have no reservations about mentioning no-hitters before completion. When Sandy Koufax pitched his no-hitter against the Mets in 1962, one of their 120 losses that season, Mets' coach Solly Hemus, apparently trying to jinx Koufax, kept heckling him through the game about pitching a no-hitter, according to a post-game interview Koufax gave after pitching his third no-hitter in 1964. An early biography of Koufax quoted him as telling his catcher, during that 1964 no-hitter, "Let's just go to the fastball and get this no-hit thing over with." Mickey Mantle, in an interview for Ken Burns' 1994 Baseball documentary series, related that Don Larsen, famed for his 1956 World Series perfect game, tried to talk about his no-hitter throughout the contest but much to his chagrin his Yankee teammates avoided his conversation and maintained the superstition.

text: When Los Angeles Angels rookie Bo Belinsky entered the final inning of his no-hitter in 1962, Baltimore Orioles outfielder Jackie Brandt passed him on the field as the teams changed sides. According to Belinsky biographer Maury Allen, Brandt told Belinsky, "Nice game, Bo, but it's over. I'm leading off with a bunt single." Belinsky got Brandt out to start the final inning of his no-hitter.

text: In 2009, when Mark Buehrle was pitching his perfect game, as he exited the field after the eighth inning, White Sox broadcaster Ken Harrelson exclaimed, "Call your sons! Call your daughters! Call your friends! Call your neighbors! Mark Buehrle has a perfect game going into the ninth!" Buehrle retired the side in the ninth to complete the perfect game.

text: When Jim Bunning was pitching his perfect game in 1964, he deliberately violated this superstition, talking to his teammates about the perfect game's progress in order to dispel the tension in the dugout.[31]


document_title: N,N-Dimethyltryptamine

question_text: what is the function of dmt in humans

question_tokens: what is the function of dmt in humans

root

text: N,N-Dimethyltryptamine

text: Usage[edit]

text: DMT is produced in many species of plants often in conjunction with its close chemical relatives 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin (5-OH-DMT).[9] DMT-containing plants are commonly used in South American shamanic practices. It is usually one of the main active constituents of the drink ayahuasca;[10][11] however, ayahuasca is sometimes brewed with plants that do not produce DMT. It occurs as the primary psychoactive alkaloid in several plants including Mimosa tenuiflora, Diplopterys cabrerana, and Psychotria viridis. DMT is found as a minor alkaloid in snuff made from Virola bark resin in which 5-MeO-DMT is the main active alkaloid.[9] DMT is also found as a minor alkaloid in bark, pods, and beans of Anadenanthera peregrina and Anadenanthera colubrina used to make Yopo and Vilca snuff in which bufotenin is the main active alkaloid.[9][12] Psilocin and its precursor psilocybin, an active chemical in many psychedelic mushrooms, are structurally similar to DMT.

tag: p

text: The psychotropic effects of DMT were first studied scientifically by the Hungarian chemist and psychologist Dr. Stephen Szára, who performed research with volunteers in the mid-1950s. Szára, who later worked for the US National Institutes of Health, had turned his attention to DMT after his order for LSD from the Swiss company Sandoz Laboratories was rejected on the grounds that the powerful psychotropic could be dangerous in the hands of a communist country.[13]

text: DMT is generally not active orally unless it is combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) such as a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), for example, harmaline.[4] Without an MAOI, the body quickly metabolizes orally administered DMT, and it therefore has no hallucinogenic effect unless the dose exceeds monoamine oxidase's metabolic capacity. Other means of ingestion such as vaporizing, injecting, or insufflating the drug can produce powerful hallucinations for a short time (usually less than half an hour), as the DMT reaches the brain before it can be metabolized by the body's natural monoamine oxidase. Taking a MAOI prior to vaporizing or injecting DMT prolongs and potentiates the effects.[8]

text: Effects[edit]

text: Subjective psychedelic experiences[edit]

text: Several scientific experimental studies have tried to measure subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness induced by drugs under highly controlled and safe conditions.

text: In the 1990s, Rick Strassman and his colleagues conducted a five-year-long DMT study at the University of New Mexico.[14] The results provided insight about the quality of subjective psychedelic experiences. In this study participants received the DMT dosage intravenously via injection and the findings suggested that different psychedelic experiences can occur, depending on the level of dosage. Lower doses (0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg) produced somaesthetic and emotional responses, but not hallucinogenic experiences (e.g., 0.05 mg/kg) had mild mood elevating and calming properties).[14] In contrast, higher doses (0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg) researchers labeled as "hallucinogenic" that elicited "intensely colored, rapidly moving display of visual images, formed, abstract or both". Comparing to other sensory modalities the most affected was visual domain. Participants reported visual hallucinations, less auditory hallucinations and specific physical sensation progressing to a sense of bodily dissociation, as well as experiences of euphoria, calm, fear, and anxiety.[14]

text: Strassman also stressed the importance of the context where the drug has been taken. He claimed that DMT has no beneficial effects of itself, rather the context when and where people take it plays an important role.[13][14]

text: It appears that DMT can produce a hallucinogenic experience. It can induce a state or feeling to a person that he or she is able to "communicate with other intelligent-life forms" (see "Machine Elves"). High doses of DMT produce a hallucinatory state that involves sense of "another intelligence" that people sometimes describe as "super-intelligent", but "emotionally detached".[14]

text: In 1995 Adolf Dittrich and Daniel Lamparter did a study where they found that DMT-induced altered state of consciousness (ASC) is strongly influenced by habitual, rather than situative factors. In the study researchers used three dimensions of the APZ questionnaire to describe ASC (rating scales of ASC). First, oceanic boundlessness (OB) refers to dissolution of ego boundaries mostly associated with positive emotions.[15] Second, anxious ego-dissolution (AED) includes disorder of thoughts, loss of autonomy and self-control and third, visionary restructuralization (VR) that includes auditory and visual illusions, hallucinations.[16] Results showed strong effects within first and third dimensions for all conditions, especially DMT and suggested strong intrastability of elicited reactions independently of the condition for the OB and VR scales.[15] Importantly, the experiment was conducted in a safe laboratory environment. This particular setting had a certain influence on found results that might be very different outside the laboratory environment.

text: Induced DMT experiences can include profound time-dilation, visual and auditory illusions, and other experiences that, by most firsthand accounts, defy verbal or visual description. Some users report intense erotic imagery and sensations and utilize the drug in a ritual sexual context.[17][18][19]

text: Reported encounters with external entities[edit]

text: Entities perceived during DMT inebriation have been represented in diverse forms of psychedelic art.[20] The term Machine Elf was coined by ethnobotanist Terence McKenna for the entities he encountered in DMT "hyperspace", also using terms like fractal elves, or self-transforming machine elves.[21][22] McKenna first encountered the “machine elves” after smoking DMT in Berkeley in 1965. His subsequent speculations regarding the hyperdimensional space in which they were encountered, has inspired a great many artists and musicians, and the meaning of DMT entities has been a subject of considerable debate among participants in a networked cultural underground, enthused by McKenna’s effusive accounts of DMT hyperspace.[23] Cliff Pickover has also written about the "machine elf" experience, in the book Sex, Drugs, Einstein, & Elves[7], while Rick Strassman notes many similarities between self-reports of his DMT study participants' encounters with these "entities", and mythological descriptions of figures such as Chayot Ha Kodesh in Ancient religions.[24] Strassman also argues for a similarity in his study participants' descriptions of mechanized wheels, gears and machinery in these encounters, with those described in visions of encounters with the Living Creatures and Ophanim of the Hebrew Bible, noting they may stem from a common neuropsychopharmacological experience.[25]

text: Strassman argues that the "external entities" encountered in DMT experiences should be understood as analogous to certain forms of angels:

text:
“

The medieval Jewish philosophers whom I rely upon for understanding the Hebrew Bible text and its concept of prophecy portray angels as God's intermediaries. That is, they perform a certain function for God. Within the context of my DMT research, I believe that the beings that volunteers see could be conceived of as angelic - that is, previously invisible, incorporeal spiritual forces that are engarbed or enclothed in a particular form - determined by the psychological and spiritual development of the volunteers - bringing a particular message or experience to that volunteer.[26]

”

tag: table

text: Hallucinations of strange creatures had been reported by Szara in the Journal of Mental Science (now the British Journal of Psychiatry) (1958) "Dimethyltryptamine Experiments with Psychotics", Stephen Szara described how one of his subjects under the influence of DMT had experienced "strange creatures, dwarves or something" at the beginning of a DMT trip.[27][28]

text: Other researchers of the entities seemingly encountered by DMT users, describe them as "entities" or "beings" in humanoid as well as animal form, with descriptions of "little people" being common (non-human gnomes, elves, imps, etc.).[29] This form of hallucination has been speculated to be the cause of alien abduction and extraterrestrial encounter experiences through endogenously-occurring DMT.[30][31] Psychology Today writes: "One of the most remarkable features of the DMT experience is the frequency with which users encounter non-human intelligences, often resembling aliens."[32]

text: The external "entities" consistently encountered in DMT user self-reports, are described in university studies as overwhelmingly giving the impression of being "supremely powerful, wise and loving".[33] However, their form is not consistent across experiences, and are reported in user experience as variously resembling extraterrestrial spirits or mystical gods, but also as clowns, elves and reptilian beings.[34]

text: Likening them to descriptions of rattling and chattering auditory phenomenon described in angel encounters with the mythical Hayyoth in the Book of Ezekiel, Rick Strassman notes that participants in his studies, when reporting encounters with the alleged entities, often described loud auditory hallucinations, such as one subject reporting typically "the elves laughing or talking at high volume, chattering, twittering".[35]

text: Physical[edit]

text: According to a dose-response study, "dimethyltryptamine does slightly elevate blood pressure, heart rate, pupil diameter, and rectal temperature, in addition to elevating blood concentrations of beta-endorphin, corticotropin, cortisol, and prolactin. Growth hormone blood levels rise equally in response to all doses of DMT, and melatonin levels were unaffected."[14]

text: Dependence liability[edit]

text:
The dependence potential of DMT and the risk of sustained psychological disturbance are minimal when used for religious ceremonies.[36]
DMT, like most psychedelics, is considered to be neither addictive, nor toxic.

text: Routes of administration[edit]

text: Inhalation[edit]

text: A standard dose for vaporized DMT is 20-40 mg.[37][unreliable source?] In general, this is inhaled in a few successive breaths. The effects last for a short period of time, usually 5 to 15 minutes, dependent on the dose. The onset after inhalation is very fast (less than 45 seconds) and peak effects are reached within a minute. In the 1960s, DMT was known as a "businessman's trip" in the US because of the relatively short duration (and rapid onset) of action when inhaled.[38] DMT can be inhaled using an e-cigarette.[39]

text: Injection[edit]

text: In a study conducted from 1990 through 1995, University of New Mexico psychiatrist Rick Strassman found that some volunteers injected with high doses of DMT reported experiences with perceived alien entities. Usually, the reported entities were experienced as the inhabitants of a perceived independent reality that the subjects reported visiting while under the influence of DMT.[13] In a September 2009 interview, Strassman described the effects on participants in the study. He stated that "subjectively, the most interesting results were that high doses of DMT seemed to allow the consciousness of our volunteers to enter into non-corporeal, free-standing, independent realms of existence inhabited by beings of light who oftentimes were expecting the volunteers, and with whom the volunteers interacted. While 'typical' near-death and mystical states occurred, they were relatively rare."[40]

text: Oral ingestion[edit]

text: DMT is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase through a process called deamination, and is quickly inactivated orally unless combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI).[4] The traditional South American beverage ayahuasca, or yage, is derived by boiling the ayahuasca vine (Banisteriopsis caapi) with leaves of one or more plants containing DMT, such as Psychotria viridis,  Psychotria carthagenensis,  or Diplopterys cabrerana.[4] The Ayahuasca vine contains harmala alkaloids,[41] highly active reversible inihibitors of monoamine oxidase A (RIMAs),[42] rendering the DMT orally active by protecting it from deamination.[4] A variety of different recipes are used to make the brew depending on the purpose of the ayahuasca session,[43] or local availability of ingredients. Two common sources of DMT in the western US are reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) and Harding grass (Phalaris aquatica). These invasive grasses contain low levels of DMT and other alkaloids but also contain gramine, which is toxic and difficult to separate. In addition, Jurema (Mimosa tenuiflora) shows evidence of DMT content: the pink layer in the inner rootbark of this small tree contains a high concentration of N,N-DMT.[citation needed]

text: Taken orally with an RIMA, DMT produces a long lasting (over 3 hour), slow, deep metaphysical experience similar to that of psilocybin mushrooms, but more intense.[17] RIMAs should be used with caution as they can have fatal interactions with some prescription drugs such as SSRI antidepressants, and some over-the-counter drugs known as sympathomimetics such as Ephedrine or certain cough medicines and even some herbal remedies .[41]

text: History[edit]

text: DMT was first synthesized in 1931 by chemist Richard Helmuth Fredrick Manske (born 1901 in Berlin, Germany – 1977).[44][45] In general, its discovery as a natural product is credited to Brazilian chemist and microbiologist Oswaldo Gonçalves de Lima (1908–1989) who, in 1946, isolated an alkaloid he named nigerina (nigerine) from the root bark of jurema preta, that is, Mimosa tenuiflora.[45][13][46] However, in a careful review of the case Jonathan Ott shows that the empirical formula for nigerine determined by Gonçalves de Lima, which notably contains an atom of oxygen, can match only a partial, "impure" or "contaminated" form of DMT.[47] It was only in 1959, when Gonçalves de Lima provided American chemists a sample of Mimosa tenuiflora roots, that DMT was unequivocally identified in this plant material.[47][48] Less ambiguous is the case of isolation and formal identification of DMT in 1955 in seeds and pods of Anadenanthera peregrina by a team of American chemists led by Evan Horning (1916–1993).[47][49] Since 1955, DMT has been found in a host of organisms: in at least fifty plant species belonging to ten families,[50] and in at least four animal species, including one gorgonian[51] and three mammalian species.

text: Another historical milestone is the discovery of DMT in plants frequently used by Amazonian natives as additive to the vine Banisteriopsis caapi to make ayahuasca decoctions. In 1957, American chemists Francis Hochstein and Anita Paradies identified DMT in an "aqueous extract" of leaves of a plant they named Prestonia amazonicum (sic) and described as "commonly mixed" with B. caapi.[52] The lack of a proper botanical identification of Prestonia amazonica in this study led American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes (1915–2001) and other scientists to raise serious doubts about the claimed plant identity.[53][54] The mistake likely led William Burroughs to regard the DMT he experimented with in Tangier in 1961 as "Prestonia".[55] Better evidence was produced in 1965 by French pharmacologist Jacques Poisson, who isolated DMT as a sole alkaloid from leaves, provided and used by Aguaruna Indians, identified as having come from the vine Diplopterys cabrerana (then known as Banisteriopsis rusbyana).[54] Published in 1970, the first identification of DMT in the plant Psychotria viridis,[46] another common additive of ayahuasca, was made by a team of American researchers led by pharmacologist Ara der Marderosian.[56] Not only did they detect DMT in leaves of P. viridis obtained from Kaxinawá indigenous people, but they also were the first to identify it in a sample of an ayahuasca decoction, prepared by the same indigenous people.[46] In the 1990s, ethnobotanist and speaker Terence McKenna significantly helped popularize DMT across North America, Europe, Australia and elsewhere.[57]

text: Legal status[edit]

text: International law[edit]

text: DMT is classified as a Schedule I drug under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, meaning that international trade in DMT is supposed to be closely monitored; use of DMT is supposed to be restricted to scientific research and medical use. Natural materials containing DMT, including ayahuasca, are not regulated under the 1971 Psychotropic Convention.[58]

text: By country and continent[edit]

text: Asia[edit]

text: Israel – DMT is an illegal substance; production, trade and possession are prosecuted as crimes.[59]

text: Europe[edit]

text:
France – DMT, along with most of its plant sources, is classified as a stupéfiant (narcotic).
Germany – DMT is prohibited as a class I drug.[60]
Netherlands – The drug is banned as it is classified as a List 1 Drug per the Opium Law. Production, trade and possession of DMT are prohibited.
Russia – Classified as a Schedule I narcotic.[61]
United Kingdom – DMT is classified as a Class A drug.

tag: ul

text: North America[edit]

text: Canada – DMT is classified as a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.

text: United States[edit]

text: DMT is classified in the United States as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.

text: In December 2004, the Supreme Court lifted a stay, thereby allowing the Brazil-based União do Vegetal (UDV) church to use a decoction containing DMT in their Christmas services that year. This decoction is a tea made from boiled leaves and vines, known as hoasca within the UDV, and ayahuasca in different cultures. In Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, the Supreme Court heard arguments on November 1, 2005, and unanimously ruled in February 2006 that the U.S. federal government must allow the UDV to import and consume the tea for religious ceremonies under the 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act.

text: In September 2008, the three Santo Daime churches filed suit in federal court to gain legal status to import DMT-containing ayahuasca tea. The case, Church of the Holy Light of the Queen v. Mukasey,[62] presided over by Judge Owen M. Panner, was ruled in favor of the Santo Daime church. As of March 21, 2009, a federal judge says members of the church in Ashland can import, distribute and brew ayahuasca. U.S. District Judge Owen Panner issued a permanent injunction barring the government from prohibiting or penalizing the sacramental use of "Daime tea". Panner's order said activities of The Church of the Holy Light of the Queen are legal and protected under freedom of religion. His order prohibits the federal government from interfering with and prosecuting church members who follow a list of regulations set out in his order.[63]

text: Oceania[edit]

text: New Zealand – DMT is classified as a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975.[64][65]

text: Australia[edit]

text: DMT is listed as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).[66] A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO."[67]

text: Under the Misuse of Drugs act 1981 6.0 g of DMT is considered enough to determine a court of trial and 2.0 g is considered intent to sell and supply.[68]

text: Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian Federal Government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants".[69] DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing Mescaline or Ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official Floral Emblem of Australia, Acacia pycnantha (Golden Wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native and/or religious people).[70]

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: The DMT molecule contains a terminal secondary amine, which acts as a weak base with a pKa of approximately 10.5. Depending on the synthetic route, or extraction procedure, it is possible to isolate the free base or various salts obtained by protonation of the secondary amine. Common salts insluce the sulfate, the hydrochloride, the fumarate, the oxalate and the picrate.[71] The free base and each salt has its own properties including CAS Number, stability, solubility, and melting point. Each salt will also have a different molecular weight, thus also changing the exact dosage as measured in weight. [71]

text: Biosynthesis[edit]

text: Dimethyltryptamine is an indole alkaloid derived from the shikimate pathway. Its biosynthesis is relatively simple and summarized in the adjacent picture. In plants, the parent amino acid L-tryptophan is produced endogenously where in animals L-tryptophan is an essential amino acid coming from diet. No matter the source of L-tryptophan, the biosynthesis begins with its decarboxylation by an aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme (step 1). The resulting decarboxylated tryptophan analog is tryptamine. Tryptamine then undergoes a transmethylation (step 2): the enzyme indolethylamine-N-methyltransferase (INMT) catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from cofactor S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM), via nucleophilic attack, to tryptamine. This reaction transforms SAM into S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), and gives the intermediate product N-methyltryptamine (NMT).[72][73] NMT is in turn transmethylated by the same process (step 3) to form the end product N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Tryptamine transmethylation is regulated by two products of the reaction: SAH,[74][75][76] and DMT[74][76] were shown ex vivo to be among the most potent inhibitors of rabbit INMT activity.

text: This transmethylation mechanism has been repeatedly and consistently proven by radiolabeling of SAM methyl group with carbon-14 (14C-CH3)SAM).[72][74][76][77][78]

text: Laboratory synthesis[edit]

text: DMT can be synthesized through several possible pathways from different starting materials. Following Shulgin's notes, the first synthesis starts with tryptamine followed by trimethylation using methyl iodide to obtain the trimethylammonium iodide salt. This is then demethylated using LiEt3BH to obtain DMT. The iodide salt of the trimethylammonium intermediate can be converted to the chloride salt followed by a different demethylation procedure. The second procedure avoids the over methylation of the amine and uses ethyl formate reacted with tryptamine for a double N-formylation. These are then reduced using lithium aluminum hydride to obtain the the dimethyl amine product. The third synthesis starts from indole and oxalyl chloride which forms indol-3-ylglyoxyl chloride. This is then reacted with dimethylamine followed by reduction using lithium aluminum hydride to obtain DMT. Depending on the final work-up the free base or any of its various salts may be obtained as products. Shulgin gives a procedure for obtaining the hydrochloride salt by dissolving DMT in diethyl ether followed by sparging with HCl gas. He also mentions the picrate, oxalate and fumarate salts.[79]

text: Clandestine manufacture[edit]

text: In a clandestine setting, DMT is not typically synthesized due to the lack of availability of the starting materials, namely tryptamine and oxalyl chloride.  It is more often extracted from plant sources using a hydrocarbon solvent such as hexane due to the ease of ability of both the plant source and solvents, neither of which are controlled in most countries.

text: Evidence in mammals[edit]

text: Published in Science in 1961, Julius Axelrod found an N-methyltransferase enzyme capable of mediating biotransformation of tryptamine into DMT in a rabbit's lung.[72] This finding initiated a still ongoing scientific interest in endogenous DMT production in humans and other mammals.[73][80] From then on, two major complementary lines of evidence have been investigated: localization and further characterization of the N-methyltransferase enzyme, and analytical studies looking for endogenously produced DMT in body fluids and tissues.[73]

text: In 2013 researchers first reported DMT in the pineal gland microdialysate of rodents.[81]

text: A study published in 2014 reported the biosynthesis of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in the human melanoma cell line SK-Mel-147 including details on its metabolism by peroxidases.[82]

text: In a 2014 paper a group first demonstrated the immunomodulatory potential of DMT and 5-MeO-DMT through the Sigma-1 receptor of human immune cells. This immunomodulatory activity may contribute to significant anti-inflammatory effects and tissue regeneration.[83]

text: Endogenous DMT[edit]

text: The first claimed detection of mammalian endogenous DMT was published in June 1965: German researchers F. Franzen and H. Gross report to have evidenced and quantified DMT, along with its structural analog bufotenin (5-HO-DMT), in human blood and urine.[84] In an article published four months later, the method used in their study was strongly criticized, and the credibility of their results challenged.[85]

text: Few of the analytical methods used prior to 2001 to measure levels of endogenously formed DMT had enough sensitivity and selectivity to produce reliable results.[86][87] Gas chromatography, preferably coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), is considered a minimum requirement.[87] A study published in 2005[80] implements the most sensitive and selective method ever used to measure endogenous DMT:[88] liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (LC-ESI-MS/MS) allows for reaching limits of detection (LODs) 12 to 200 fold lower than those attained by the best methods employed in the 1970s. The data summarized in the table below are from studies conforming to the abovementioned requirements (abbreviations used: CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; LOD = limit of detection; n = number of samples; ng/L and ng/kg = nanograms (10−9 g) per litre, and nanograms per kilogram, respectively):

text:
DMT in body fluids and tissues (NB: units have been harmonized)

Species

Sample

Results

Human

Blood serum

< LOD (n = 66)[80]

Blood plasma

< LOD (n = 71)[80]  ♦  < LOD (n = 38); 1,000 & 10,600 ng/L (n = 2)[89]

Whole blood

< LOD (n = 20); 50–790 ng/L (n = 20)[90]

Urine

< 100 ng/L (n = 9)[80]  ♦  < LOD (n = 60); 160–540 ng/L (n = 5)[87]  ♦  Detected in n = 10 by GC-MS[91]

Feces

< 50 ng/kg (n = 12); 130 ng/kg (n = 1)[80]

Kidney

15 ng/kg (n = 1)[80]

Lung

14 ng/kg (n = 1)[80]

Lumbar CSF

100,370 ng/L (n = 1); 2,330–7,210 ng/L (n = 3); 350 & 850 ng/L (n = 2)[92]

Rat

Kidney

12 &16 ng/kg (n = 2)[80]

Lung

22 & 12 ng/kg (n = 2)[80]

Liver

6 & 10 ng/kg (n = 2)[80]

Brain

10 &15 ng/kg (n = 2)[80]  ♦  Measured in synaptic vesicular fraction[93]

Rabbit

Liver

< 10 ng/kg (n = 1)[80]

text: A 2013 study found DMT in microdialysate obtained from a rat's pineal gland, providing evidence of endogenous DMT in the mammalian brain.[81]

text: Detection in body fluids[edit]

text: DMT may be measured in blood, plasma or urine using chromatographic techniques as a diagnostic tool in clinical poisoning situations or to aid in the medicolegal investigation of suspicious deaths. In general, blood or plasma DMT levels in recreational users of the drug are in the 10–30 μg/L range during the first several hours post-ingestion.[citation needed] Less than 0.1% of an oral dose is eliminated unchanged in the 24-hour urine of humans.[94][95][clarification needed]

text: INMT[edit]

text: Before techniques of molecular biology were used to localize indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (INMT),[76][78] characterization and localization went on a par: samples of the biological material where INMT is hypothesized to be active are subject to enzyme assay. Those enzyme assays are performed either with a radiolabeled methyl donor like (14C-CH3)SAM to which known amounts of unlabeled substrates like tryptamine are added[73] or with addition of a radiolabeled substrate like (14C)NMT to demonstrate in vivo formation.[74][77] As qualitative determination of the radioactively tagged product of the enzymatic reaction is sufficient to characterize INMT existence and activity (or lack of), analytical methods used in INMT assays are not required to be as sensitive as those needed to directly detect and quantify the minute amounts of endogenously formed DMT (see DMT subsection below). The essentially qualitative method thin layer chromatography (TLC) was thus used in a vast majority of studies.[73] Also, robust evidence that INMT can catalyze transmethylation of tryptamine into NMT and DMT could be provided with reverse isotope dilution analysis coupled to mass spectrometry for rabbit[96][97] and human[98] lung during the early 1970s.

text:
Selectivity rather than sensitivity proved to be an Achilles’ heel for some TLC methods with the discovery in 1974–1975 that incubating rat blood cells or brain tissue with (14C-CH3)SAM and NMT as substrate mostly yields tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives,[73][74][99] and negligible amounts of DMT in brain tissue.[73] It is indeed simultaneously realized that the TLC methods used thus far in almost all published studies on INMT and DMT biosynthesis are incapable to resolve DMT from those tetrahydro-β-carbolines.[73] These findings are a blow for all previous claims of evidence of INMT activity and DMT biosynthesis in avian[100] and mammalian brain,[101][102] including in vivo,[103][104] as they all relied upon use of the problematic TLC methods:[73] their validity is doubted in replication studies that make use of improved TLC methods, and fail to evidence DMT-producing INMT activity in rat and human brain tissues.[105][106] Published in 1978, the last study attempting to evidence in vivo INMT activity and DMT production in brain (rat) with TLC methods finds biotransformation of radiolabeled tryptamine into DMT to be real but "insignificant".[107] Capability of the method used in this latter study to resolve DMT from tetrahydro-β-carbolines is questioned later.[74]
To localize INMT, a qualitative leap is accomplished with use of modern techniques of molecular biology, and of immunohistochemistry. In humans, a gene encoding INMT is determined to be located on chromosome 7.[78] Northern blot analyses reveal INMT messenger RNA (mRNA) to be highly expressed in rabbit lung,[76] and in human thyroid, adrenal gland, and lung.[78][108] Intermediate levels of expression are found in human heart, skeletal muscle, trachea, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, testis, prostate, placenta, lymph node, and spinal cord.[78][108] Low to very low levels of expression are noted in rabbit brain,[78] and human thymus, liver, spleen, kidney, colon, ovary, and bone marrow.[78][108] INMT mRNA expression is absent in human peripheral blood leukocytes, whole brain, and in tissue from 7 specific brain regions (thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, amygdala, substantia nigra, and corpus callosum).[78][108] Immunohistochemistry showed INMT to be present in large amounts in glandular epithelial cells of small and large intestines. In 2011, immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of INMT in primate nervous tissue including retina, spinal cord motor neurons, and pineal gland.[109]

text: Conjecture[edit]

text: In the 1950s, the endogenous production of psychoactive agents was considered to be a potential explanation for the hallucinatory symptoms of some psychiatric diseases; this is known as the transmethylation hypothesis.[110] Several speculative and yet untested hypotheses suggest that endogenous DMT is produced in the human brain and is involved in certain psychological and neurological states.[111][112] DMT is naturally occurring in small amounts in rat brain, human cerebrospinal fluid, and other tissues of humans and other mammals.[80][92][93][113] A biochemical mechanism for this was proposed by the medical researcher J. C. Callaway, who suggested in 1988 that DMT might be connected with visual dream phenomena: brain DMT levels would be periodically elevated to induce visual dreaming and possibly other natural states of mind.[114] A role of endogenous hallucinogens including DMT in higher level sensory processing and awareness was proposed by J. V. Wallach (2009) based on a hypothetical role of DMT as a neurotransmitter.[112] In 2011, Nicholas V. Cozzi, of the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, concluded that INMT, an enzyme that may be associated with the biosynthesis of DMT and endogenous hallucinogens, is present in the primate (rhesus macaque) pineal gland, retinal ganglion neurons, and spinal cord.[109] Neurobiologist Andrew Gallimore (2013) suggested that while DMT might not have a modern neural function, it may have been an ancestral neuromodulator once secreted in psychedelic concentrations during REM sleep, a function now lost.[115]

text: Pharmacology[edit]

text: Pharmacokinetics[edit]

text:
DMT peak level concentrations (Cmax) measured in whole blood after intramuscular (IM) injection (0.7 mg/kg, n = 11)[116] and in plasma following intravenous (IV) administration (0.4 mg/kg, n = 10)[14] of fully psychedelic doses are in the range of ≈14 to 154 μg/L and 32 to 204 μg/L, respectively.
The corresponding molar concentrations of DMT are therefore in the range of 0.074–0.818 µM in whole blood and 0.170–1.08 µM in plasma. However, several studies have described active transport and accumulation of DMT into rat and dog brain following peripheral administration.[117][118][119][120][121]
Similar active transport, and accumulation processes likely occur in human brain and may concentrate DMT in brain by several-fold or more (relatively to blood), resulting in local concentrations in the micromolar or higher range. Such concentrations would be commensurate with serotonin brain tissue concentrations, which have been consistently determined to be in the 1.5-4 μM range.[122][123]

text:
Closely coextending with peak psychedelic effects, mean time to reach peak concentrations (Tmax) was determined to be 10–15 minutes in whole blood after IM injection,[116] and 2 minutes in plasma after IV administration.[14] When taken orally mixed in an ayahuasca decoction, and in freeze-dried ayahuasca gel caps, DMT Tmax is considerably delayed: 107.59 ± 32.5 minutes,[124] and 90–120 minutes,[125] respectively.
The pharmacokinetics for vaporizing DMT have not been studied or reported.

text: Pharmacodynamics[edit]

text: DMT binds non-selectively with affinities < 0.6 μM to the following serotonin receptors: 5-HT1A,[126][127][128] 5-HT1B,[126][129] 5-HT1D,[126][128][129] 5-HT2A,[126][128][129][130] 5-HT2B,[126][129] 5-HT2C,[126][129][130] 5-HT6,[126][129] and 5-HT7.[126][129] An agonist action has been determined at 5-HT1A,[127] 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C.[126][129][130] Its efficacies at other serotonin receptors remain to be determined. Of special interest will be the determination of its efficacy at human 5-HT2B receptor as two in vitro assays evidenced DMT's high affinity for this receptor: 0.108 μM[129] and 0.184 μM.[126] This may be of importance because chronic or frequent uses of serotonergic drugs showing preferential high affinity and clear agonism at 5-HT2B receptor have been causally linked to valvular heart disease.[131][132][133]

text: It has also been shown to possess affinity for the dopamine D1, α1-adrenergic, α2-adrenergic, imidazoline-1, and σ1 receptors.[128][129][134] Converging lines of evidence established activation of the σ1 receptor at concentrations of 50–100 μM.[135] Its efficacies at the other receptor binding sites are unclear. It has also been shown in vitro to be a substrate for the cell-surface serotonin transporter (SERT) and the intracellular vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), inhibiting SERT-mediated serotonin uptake in human platelets at an average concentration of 4.00 ± 0.70 μM and VMAT2-mediated serotonin uptake in vesicles (of army worm Sf9 cells) expressing rat VMAT2 at an average concentration of 93 ± 6.8 μM.[136]

text: As with other so-called "classical hallucinogens",[137] a large part of DMT psychedelic effects can be attributed to a functionally selective activation of the 5-HT2A receptor.[14][126][138][139][140][141][142] DMT concentrations eliciting 50% of its maximal effect (half maximal effective concentration = EC50 or Kact) at the human 5-HT2A receptor in vitro are in the 0.118–0.983 μM range.[126][129][130][143] This range of values coincides well with the range of concentrations measured in blood and plasma after administration of a fully psychedelic dose (see Pharmacokinetics).

text: As DMT has been shown to have slightly better efficacy (EC50) at human serotonin 2C receptor than at the 2A receptor,[129][130] 5-HT2C is also likely implicated in DMT's overall effects.[139][144] Other receptors, such as 5-HT1A[128][139][141] σ1,[135][145] may also play a role.

text: In 2009, it was hypothesized that DMT may be an endogenous ligand for the σ1 receptor.[135][145] The concentration of DMT needed for σ1 activation in vitro (50–100 μM) is similar to the behaviorally active concentration measured in mouse brain of approximately 106 μM[146] This is minimally 4 orders of magnitude higher than the average concentrations measured in rat brain tissue or human plasma under basal conditions (see Endogenous DMT), so σ1 receptors are likely to be activated only under conditions of high local DMT concentrations. If DMT is stored in synaptic vesicles,[136] such concentrations might occur during vesicular release. To illustrate, while the average concentration of serotonin in brain tissue is in the 1.5-4 μM range,[122][123] the concentration of serotonin in synaptic vesicles was measured at 270 mM.[147] Following vesicular release, the resulting concentration of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, to which serotonin receptors are exposed, is estimated to be about 300 μM. Thus, while in vitro receptor binding affinities, efficacies, and average concentrations in tissue or plasma are useful, they are not likely to predict DMT concentrations in the vesicles or at synaptic or intracellular receptors. Under these conditions, notions of receptor selectivity are moot, and it seems probable that most of the receptors identified as targets for DMT (see above) participate in producing its psychedelic effects.

text:
Binding Sites

Binding Affinity Ki (µM)[148]

5-HT1A

0.075

5-HT2A

0.237

5-HT2C

0.424

D1

6

D2

3

D3

6.3

α1A

1.3

α2A

2.1

TAAR1

2.2

H1

0.22

SERT

6

DAT

22

NET

6.5


document_title: 3 Percenters

question_text: american flag with circle of stars and roman numeral 2

text: 3 Percenters

text: The Three Percenters (also styled "3%ers") is an American "patriot movement"[1] which pledges resistance against the United States government regarding what it believes to be infringement of the United States Constitution.[1] The group's stated primary purpose is to protect constitutional rights[2] and has been characterized as being ideologically similar to the Oath Keepers.[1]

text: The group's name is derived from the claim that only three percent of the population of the thirteen British colonies of North America fought the British in the American Revolution. (Current scholarship holds that at least 15% of the overall population are estimated to have served in either the Continental Army or state militias,[3] about 375,000 people served a nation of 2.5 million -- a participation rate higher than in most other US-American military conflicts.)

text: Foundation and aims[edit]

text: The movement was started on December 17, 2008. The movement was co-founded by Mike Vanderboegh[4] from Alabama, a member of the Oath Keepers, a group with whom the 3 Percenters remain loosely allied.[5] Vanderboegh claims to have formerly been a member of Students for a Democratic Society and the Socialist Workers Party, but abandoned left-wing politics and politics in general in 1977 after being introduced to libertarianism.[6] Beginning in November 2008, Vanderboegh began promoting the movement on his blog "Sipsey Street Irregulars."[7] The "Three Percenters Club" website was established in 2011 by Michael Graham.[8]

text: The "Nyberg Three Percent Flag," designed by Gayle Nyberg in 2008, is based on the Betsy Ross flag with the Roman numeral III inscribed in the circle of thirteen stars.

text: Activities and reception[edit]

text: Vanderboegh self-published a serial novel online, Absolved, in 2008, described as "a cautionary tale for the out-of-control gun cops of the ATF."[9]

text: Vanderboegh and his novel Absolved first received wider media attention in 2011, when four suspected militia members in Georgia were arrested for an alleged plan for a biological attack that had supposedly been inspired by the novel.[10][11] Vanderboegh distanced himself from the alleged plot.[12]

text: In 2013, Christian Allen Kerodin and associates were working on construction of a walled compound in Benewah County, Idaho "for three percenters," designed to house 7,000 persons following a major disaster, an initiative which local law enforcement has described as a "scam."[13]

text: In April 2013, a group of Jersey City police officers were disciplined for wearing patches reading "ONE OF THE 3%."[14][15]

text: Following the 2015 Chattanooga shootings at a strip mall military recruitment center and a Navy Operational Support Center in Tennessee, 3 Percenters, Oath Keepers, and other militia groups began organizing armed gatherings outside of recruiting centers in several states, with the stated objective of providing protection to service members, who were barred from carrying weapons while on duty in civilian recruitment centers.[16] In response, the Army Command Operations Center Security Division issued a letter ordering soldiers not to interact with or acknowledge armed civilians outside of recruitment centers, and that "If questioned by these alleged concerned citizens, be polite, professional and terminate the conversation immediately and report the incident to local law enforcement," noting that while the issuing officer is "sure the citizens mean well, but we cannot assume this in every case and we do not want to advocate this behavior".[16]

text: On January 8, 2016, the "3 Percenters of Idaho" group announced it was sending some of its members in support of the occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in Oregon, allegedly in order to "secure the perimeter" and to prevent a "Waco-style situation."[17] They left several hours later after being told their assistance was not needed.[18] Two days previously, Vanderboegh had described the occupiers as "a collection of fruits and nuts."[19] "What Bundy and this collection of fruits and nuts has done is give the feds the perfect opportunity to advance their agenda to discredit us," he said.[19]


document_title: Earth's orbit

question_text: what is the shape of the earth's orbit around the sun

question_tokens: what is the shape of the earth 's orbit around the sun

text: Earth's orbit

text: History of study[edit]

text: Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe[4] in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution" resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus's groundbreaking book...had been [printed] over a century earlier, [the Dutch mapmaker] Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world."[5]

text: Influence on Earth[edit]

text: Because of Earth's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no sunlight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth's axial tilt) results in the seasons.[6]

text: Events in the orbit[edit]

text: By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices –  the two points in the Earth's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun –  and the equinoxes –  the two points in the Earth's orbit where the Earth's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23.[7] The effect of the Earth's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).

text: In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9%[8] in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.[9]

text: The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon.[10][nb 2] This is the maximal distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

text:
Orbital characteristics

epoch

J2000.0[nb 3]

aphelion

152.10×10^6 km (94.51×10^6 mi) 1.0167 AU[nb 4]

perihelion

147.10×10^6 km (91.40×10^6 mi) 0.98329 AU[nb 4]

semimajor axis

149.60×10^6 km (92.96×10^6 mi) 1.000001018 AU[11]

eccentricity

0.0167086[11]

inclination

7.155° to Sun's equator1.578690°[12] to invariable plane

longitude of the ascending node

174.9°[11]

longitude of perihelion

102.9°[11]

argument of periapsis

288.1°[11][nb 5]

period

365.256363004 days[13]

average speed

29.78 km/s (18.50 mi/s)[3]107,200 km/h (66,600 mph)

text: The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis — nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on  March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis — farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23.[7] The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.

text: Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).[14]

text: Future[edit]

text: Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs" of stability for the Solar System.[15] By most predictions, Earth's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.[16]

text: In 1989, Jacques Laskar's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time.[17] Modeling the Solar System is a subject covered by the n-body problem.