document_title: The Durrells

question_text: how many episodes in season 2 of the durrells in corfu

text: The Durrells

text: Story[edit]

text: The series begins in 1935, when Louisa Durrell suddenly announces that she and her four children will move from Bournemouth to the Greek island of Corfu. Her husband has died some years earlier and the family is experiencing financial problems. A Homeric battle ensues as the family adapts to life on the island which, despite a lack of electricity, proves that Corfu is cheap and an earthly paradise.

text: A degree of artistic licence is employed: in the TV series, the family move to Corfu together, whereas in real life Lawrence Durrell, the eldest child (23 years of age in 1935), had already moved to the island earlier the same year with his wife.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Character
Portrayed by
Series 1
Series 2
Series 3
No. of appearances[7]
Duration

Louisa Durrell
Keeley Hawes
Main
20
2016–present

Gerry Durrell
Milo Parker
Main
20
2016–present

Larry Durrell
Josh O'Connor
Main
20
2016–present

Margo Durrell
Daisy Waterstone
Main
20
2016–present

Leslie Durrell
Callum Woodhouse
Main
20
2016–present

Spiros Halikiopoulous
Alexis Georgoulis
Main
20
2016–present

Lugaretzia
Anna Savva
Main
20
2016–present

Theo Stephanides
Yorgos Karamihos
Main
20
2016–present

Florence Petrides
Lucy Black
Recurring
16
2016–present

Dr. Petrides
Alexis Conran
Recurring
8
2016–present

Sven Lundblad
Ulric von der Esch
Recurring
10
2016–present

Pavlos
Nikos Orestis Chaniotakis
Guest
Recurring
Guest
5
2016–present

Countess Mavrodaki
Leslie Caron
Recurring
Guest
5
2016–present

Aunt Hermione
Barbara Flynn
Guest
Recurring
4
2016–2018

Max
Maximilian Befort
Recurring

3
2016–2017

Donald
Ben Hall
Recurring

7
2016–2017

Captain Creech
James Cosmo
Recurring

Guest
3
2016–present

Nancy
Lizzy Watts
Recurring

3
2016

Alexia
Hara-Joy Ermidi
Recurring

3
2016

Dennis
Jeremy Swift
Recurring

4
2016

Angel
Jamie Ward
Recurring

3
2016

Hugh Jarvis
Daniel Lapaine

Recurring

6
2017

Vasilia Prifona
Errika Bigiou

Recurring

5
2017

Zoltan
Merch Husey

Guest
Recurring
6
2017–2018

Daphne Likourgou
Elli Tringou

Recurring
5
2018

Galini
Olivia Lebedeva-Alexopoulou

Recurring
3
2018-present

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Season premiere
Season finale
Average viewership

1

6

3 April 2016 (2016-04-03)

8 May 2016 (2016-05-08)

6.9 million

2

6

23 April 2017 (2017-04-23)

28 May 2017 (2017-05-28)

6.2 million

3

8

18 March 2018 (2018-03-18)

6 May 2018

5.6 million

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseriesTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateUK viewers(millions)11"Episode 1"Steve BarronSimon Nye3 April 2016 (2016-04-03)8.81[nb 1]
The island of Corfu's distinct contrast with England is what enthrals Bournemouth mother Louisa Durrell to uproot her disenchanted family from a life of no prospects and venture into one with a lessened need for conformity. However, the appeal becomes ever distant to see upon their arrival. An austere life involves her attempting to withstand her three sons' and daughter's lack of regard for anything other than their own interests, with Gerry befriending an animal lover and forming an ever growing menagerie; Leslie's penchant for using firearms, until an incident compels him to give it up and search for love; Margo discovering the local community's less-than-favourable attitudes toward women; and Larry's attempts to quell his mother proving this beyond a doubt; all begins with a welcoming local man, Spiros, whose unintentional gift of a housemaid is somewhat fleetingly relieving for Louisa, until her children inevitably get in the way.
22"Episode 2"Steve BarronSimon Nye10 April 2016 (2016-04-10)7.69[nb 2]
As Louisa deals with a despondent Margo, suffering from unrequited love and the middling advice from her siblings, Gerry's continuing disregard for education and his animal collection gaining more than first hoped and Spiros' attempts to take her mind off her money troubles (involving disappointing results from foraging, both for food and saleable items) and disintegrating house, Larry ends up requiring some rudimentary medical care from an unexpected source.
33"Episode 3"Steve BarronSimon Nye17 April 2016 (2016-04-17)7.58[nb 3]
Louisa, alongside trying to avoid Sven following an argument, begins to worry over Gerry's burgeoning relationship with a convict and, attempting to investigate the cause of his imprisonment, finds the two stealing from the Countess's goldfish pond. After finding she is not cut out for working at the surgery, Margo strikes up a friendship with the Countess. Leslie laments over finding his girlfriend with her ex-boyfriend and later rues his actions after spotting the two on an alcohol-fuelled night out with Larry.
44"Episode 4"Roger GoldbySimon Nye24 April 2016 (2016-04-24)7.14[nb 4]
Louisa finds herself torn between two men when throwing Leslie out leads him into a life of crime after being taken in by two local thugs, and using a supposedly rejuvenated Captain Creech to make Sven jealous. Leslie soon ends up in court following a string of accusations from a local turkey farmer, culminating in the addition of an armed-robbery charge. Being caught trying on one of the Countess's dresses to impress the gardener leads Margo to worry for her job, until the Countess surprises her by giving her the dress. Meanwhile, Gerry mourns the death of one of his bats and is encouraged to set up a centre for scientific learning with the rest of his animals.
55"Episode 5"Roger GoldbySimon Nye1 May 2016 (2016-05-01)6.93[nb 5]
A visit from some priggish relatives seems to deem the family's immigration to Corfu more temporary than first thought, and Louisa's aunt's insistence that they must return to England is made even more demanding by the revelation of her relationship with Sven. Larry, despondent at the rejection of his novel by publishers, subdues himself into a life of labour—soon discovering his ineptness. Margo tries to balance her devotion to the Countess and her growing adoration for her gardener, and Gerry's plans to embark into the world of conservation are thrown into disarray by his attempts to feed his adopted baby owls.
66"Episode 6"Roger GoldbySimon Nye8 May 2016 (2016-05-08)6.58[nb 6]
The family's concerns over Sven's true intentions are brought to light when Louisa realises that Sven's romantic feelings for her are merely a ruse to hide his homosexuality. Larry finds himself stuck when Nancy insists they must move to England together, while he is hesitant to leave his family behind. Leslie suffers an injury perusing Gerry's makeshift zoo, leading Gerry to question his future caging animals. Margo attempts to relieve the Countess of her agoraphobia by inviting her to the wedding party.

text: Series 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseriesTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateUK viewers(millions)71"Episode 1"Steve BarronSimon Nye23 April 2017 (2017-04-23)[note 1]7.32
One year has passed, and Louisa is fed up with being poor; to satisfy their new contemptuous landlady Vasilia, who repossesses the family's chairs over non-payment of rent, she sets up a market stall, the failure of which at first is taken by delight by fellow Briton Hugh Jarvis, who proceeds to try and woo her after the family uses his olive-pressing services. Purveying homemade British food doesn't work at first, before Spiros' advice on how to approach the Greek boosts sales. However, news her produce has resulted in food poisoning in the local residents is not well-received, but after discovering Vasilia has contaminated their food due to perceiving Louisa as a rival in her attempts to repair a past relationship with Hugh, warns her off – and the whole situation absolves Larry of his chronic writer's block, using the situation as inspiration for his next novel. Meanwhile, Gerry becomes preoccupied with finding otters, and when his mission to get up close to one is foiled by its death in a trap, he resolves to set up an otter breeding programme, while he develops hatred towards work-inept Leslie after he inadvertently shoots dog Roger; acne prompts appearance concerns for Margo, who has gained a boyfriend in monk Pavlos, but is disheartened in learning of his vow of celibacy, and dabbles in exploring how to become a nun in response.
82"Episode 2"Steve BarronSimon Nye30 April 2017 (2017-04-30)6.61
After Gerry goes missing, Louisa feels she has become too complacent in her parenting and has let her family down, particularly Larry, who is feeling downcast at the lack of response following the publication of his novel. While she attempts to drum up support for Larry's novel by disseminating leaflets for a reading, she resolves to give Gerry a proper education by hiring Spiros as a tutor, who transpires to be more stringent in teaching as she thought. However, the book reading draws a marginal crowd, and Larry chides his mother for the failure, and her generally lacklustre parenting, both before and after he receives mail praising his novel; as a result of this and Gerry's magpies stealing pages of his next novel's manuscript, Larry makes the decision to leave home. Meanwhile, Leslie and Margo become swayed by alcohol, with Leslie dipping his toes into selling it by selling homemade liqueur using the monks' recipe, and Margo's determination to become a nun is bogged down by her too readily able to enjoy it. Gerry finds a female mate for his otter, and is concerned when they struggle to procreate.
93"Episode 3"Steve BarronSimon Nye7 May 2017 (2017-05-07)6.32
A birthday party leaves Louisa with even more concerns about her advancing age, which her family attempt to relieve her of. Margo's acne exacerbates, while Leslie develops a passion for photography. Larry becomes tempted by Vasilia, to the family's dismay, and Gerry finds that his tutor's proclivity to teach can be easily distracted from. Louisa becomes concerned over Sven's new relationship with a woman and feels worried he is keeping up the ruse of being heterosexual; this draws Hugh's attention, and his intrusion into Sven's private life isn't well received.
104"Episode 4"Edward HallSimon Nye14 May 2017 (2017-05-14)5.96
The Durrells find themselves shut in when a torrential rainstorm hits Corfu, and not only are the family dealing with the grumpiness emerging from Larry's affliction with the mumps, but the unusual Mrs. Haddock (arriving with Aunt Hermione), who claims she is able to be in contact with the dead, and offers to conduct a seance for Louisa to engage with her deceased husband. Donald's insistence in conducting his tutoring duties proves annoying to Gerry, while Leslie's aggravation grows as his indoors reclusion continues, and Margo's also, as her acne troubles remain unsolved.
115"Episode 5"Edward HallSimon Nye21 May 2017 (2017-05-21)5.49
A hastily, and ill-advisedly, thrown together cricket match does nothing to soothe relations between the factions of the Greek and the English ex-pats – Spiros and Hugh, to be more specific – and actually works to exacerbate them. Larry is determined to use his Britishness to repel Vasilia (whose determination for the two of them to get married is forced upon him), who at first finds his attempts charming, but her capricious nature gets the better of her and purposely kisses Hugh in full view of Louisa, prompting her to develop doubts over the future of their relationship, and him to, in a desperate effort to keep her, speak of his intentions they should move back home to England. Meanwhile, Gerry finds teasing Donald with in-efficacious methods of winning over Margo a welcome distraction from his persistent attitude they must work.
126"Episode 6"Edward HallSimon Nye28 May 2017 (2017-05-28)5.57
Three different children are born as a fraught Leslie is on hand to help Lugaretzia's daughter give birth, Louisa aids with Florence's, and Gerry is overwhelmed with exuberance at the prospect of some otter cubs – all of which, as well as Corfu's rich culture and wildlife, helps Louisa realise she should refuse to fulfill Hugh's wish for the two of them to return to England. Hugh, however, finds himself in a more dangerous situation, as Vasilia, in a last-ditch attempt to win him back, and in a frantic displeasing at his choosing of Louisa, stabs him, and flees; Larry turns up at her doorstep for one last liaison, and she rejects him, adding more disappointment to his day as he later discovers he has missed everything exciting, an opinion soon put to rest when Donald, prior to leaving Corfu, engages in a fight with Margo's conceited new lover, Zoltan.

text: Jump up ^ The episode's world premiere date was at the BFI and Radio Times Television Festival on 8 April 2017.[11]

tag: ol

text: Series 3 (2018)[edit]

text: A third series was confirmed to be in production by writer Simon Nye at the BFI and Radio Times Television Festival on 8 April 2017. He described the third series as having "some exotic new animals",[11] and that production would begin in three weeks' time, upon Keeley Hawes's arrival in Corfu for filming. It will be set in 1937.[12]

text:
No.overallNo. inseriesTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateUK viewers(millions)131"Episode 1"Roger GoldbySimon Nye18 March 2018 (2018-03-18)7.03
While Larry languishes in despondence following the antipathy-inducing news of Aunt Hermione's impending arrival – and the suspected breaking of his leg – Louisa is determined to relieve Leslie of at least two of his three girlfriends, but this falls into difficulty when different members of the family prefer a different girl – and invite each to tea at the same time. Meanwhile, Gerry's adoption of flamingoes arrives with Louisa's disapproval, who believes they have too many animals to begin with, and Margo takes up soap sculpturing while looking for a hobby. Theo diversifies from animal studies into human X-rays, while Florence struggles – becoming irascible and exhausted – after the birth of her son.
142"Episode 2"Roger GoldbySimon Nye25 March 2018 (2018-03-25)6.21
Louisa's worries her previous "birds and the bees" talks with Leslie were insufficient are confirmed when she discovers he has impregnated Daphne, one of his three girlfriends. As a result, Leslie is presented with the potentiality of a wife; Daphne's father orders him by gunpoint to marry her – and loses a girlfriend he loves in Dionisia. Meanwhile, the family's exposure to a more genial – and multiple-suitored – Aunt Hermione ends curtailed, with her death eliciting baseless fears of her bedroom being haunted by her "restless soul" and that the family should slay a goat as a sacrifice. Margo's new vocation as an assistant to Theo's radiography and X-ray endeavours and to Florence's motherhood is disturbed by her ex-boyfriend Zoltan, who is persistent in his attempts to win her back, all while organising a memorial service for her late aunt, which incorporates a rather vociferous imitation of a Hawaiian tradition. Larry volunteers to accompany Louisa back to England for Aunt Hermione's burial, while Gerry's new hobby, staring at a wall of insects and small creatures (and waiting for one to eat another), invites intrigue – exhausting at that – from the rest of the family.
153"Episode 3"Roger GoldbySimon Nye1 April 2018 (2018-04-01)5.39
Larry and Louisa arrive in England for Aunt Hermione's funeral, with Larry easily drawn into the welcoming, ideal lifestyle of a Bohemian fan and his housemates, and becomes disconcerted when Louisa's arrival plunges her into a lifestyle she is overly enthusiastic about the ideals of – which she later finds overwhelming, following a night of inebriation-fuelled antics with a prurient housemate leading to the misplacement of a necklace of Hermione's Louisa borrowed – which is later transpired to be extremely valuable. Back in Corfu, the rest of the family establish their own order, ignoring that Louisa set out for them – and that Spiros is enforcing, strongly with regards to controlling, albeit falteringly, Margo's access to boyfriend Zoltan; she later discovers this is due to Spiros' deep-rooted hatred of Turks (which Zoltan is). Lugaretzia takes the time to slack off when she sees the state the rest of the family has left the house in, while Leslie and Gerry become dedicated to different causes – to protecting the family against a roaming gang and to educate the Greek public on how to not mistreat donkeys. Serendipity strikes when Leslie is approached to join the police force, although later placed on shaky ground when his contraption to prevent against a gang encroaching on their home leads to Zoltan being shot. Meanwhile, Gerry ends up rescuing a beaten donkey from its abusive farmer.
164"Episode 4"Roger GoldbySimon Nye8 April 2018 (2018-04-08)5.56
Two visitors are invited into the Durrell family home: Larry's friend Jeejeebuoy, whom is misconstrued at first to be a royal, and the second a destitute and dejected Captain Creech. They offer polarised opinions when it comes to Louisa's drinking, with Jeejee cautioning her on her doing so excessively, while Creech actively encourages it. This plays to Gerry's amusement after an interview at the local school – sought after Louisa is disappointed by Gerry's lack of work as an autodidact – ends in rejection due to Louisa's drunken state failing to make a good first impression. Leslie faces a dilemma when he discovers Daphne's father is spearheading a cigarette smuggling racket, while Larry's adventures aboard Creech's boat – hindered by his ineptness at being able to sail – leads him to a destination very far offshore. Guest Jeejee concerns the family with his persistent attempts at gaining enlightenment through fasting and going into a trance, which he later reduces to meditation to engage – and mollify – the family with. Theo and Gerry conclude their studies into whether diet changes affect a flamingo's pigmentation.
175"Episode 5"Niall MacCormickSimon Nye15 April 2018 (2018-04-15)5.59
Louisa grows jealous when Spiros begins spending time helping a new Italian family, the Ferraris, that has arrived on the island. Immediate relations between the families are fractious; nevertheless, the Durrells are roped into home-training the children, who had been dependent on their tending staff and late mother. However, the aloof behaviour of the Ferrari son, Paolo, soon draws concern, and the Durrells discover the reason behind the family's sudden departure from their home country; the tragic actions of the father his son was made to take as his own. Louisa and Spiros' relationship sours through a disagreement over his devotion to her family split with another, which they later become repentant over. Larry joins the local volunteer fire department, where his efforts to modernise it go awry. Theo acts as an inadvertent third wheel when Gerry is joined by a local girl on their search for vultures. Margo's new destiny is to gain the level of beauty bestowed upon one of the Ferrari daughters, and a suggestion to kiss the footwear of a dead saint to do so is fulfilled as a last resort - and results in the completely opposite effect.
186"Episode 6"Niall MacCormickSimon Nye22 April 2018 (2018-04-22)5.45
Kept inside by a mosquito infestation, Gerry's birthday celebrations do not go to plan, as Louisa insists on shoehorning in activities and stories to help relive, and elongate, the last moments of Gerry's childhood - to his chagrin, and with her ignorance towards his precocious maturity. Exasperated and frustrated, he protests, and in response, she decides to go overboard the opposite way, overly attempting to tend to his adulthood - replete with fallacies. While the adult guests enjoy the festivities, a certain number are kept surreptitious in corners of the house: concerns brew over an incongruously lugubrious Spiros, who plagues Larry with guitar-playing, reflecting his solemn mood (due to his recent separation), while Dr. Petrides' presence is taken advantage of, and Leslie and Daphne grow closer.
197"Episode 7"Niall MacCormickSimon Nye29 April 2018 (2018-04-29)5.50
Leslie makes the fraught - and veritably contentious - decision to arrest Sven after a complaint regarding overt homosexual behaviour - and after the government imposes a crackdown on "immoral behaviour". In response, Larry breaks into the Countess's library to find material to defend Sven and challenge his detention; the aftermath leaves Leslie torn between his job and his family. Attempts to raise the spirits of a despondent, reclusive Spiros get mixed results, but ultimately - through persistence - achieve a beneficial one. Larry's author friend from London, Henry Miller, pays the Durrells a visit and quickly makes himself at home - through recrudescence to his preferred nude state - while Louisa's cousin Basil does so too, informing the family - contrary to what they expected - Hermione's estate is non-existent. Meanwhile, Gerry's continual vegetarianism results in him being told to cook his own food.
208"Episode 8"Niall MacCormickSimon Nye6 May 2018 (2018-05-06)4.90
Relationships and love are on the table when a travelling circus arrives in Corfu - between banding together to drum up ticket sales and partaking to replace disgruntled acts. Larry and contortionist Elena are in a relationship just minutes after first meeting; Margo enlists in a rather perilous performance to distract her from the worries regarding the reasons behind Zoltan's spurning of her; Daphne's reaction to a proposal leads to the revelation he is not the father of her baby places Leslie in a fraught position; and Spiros and Louisa grow noticeably - and tantalisingly - closer. Albeit, the prospects from each soon falter.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Reception to the first episode was positive, with Gerard O'Donovan (The Telegraph) calling it "a series that's not only sun-drenched and liberating, but also catches its source material's high good humour without labouring it and weaves an authentic sense of the innocent exoticism of the original," before awarding it four stars.[13] The Daily Mail's Christoper Stevens bestowed even more praise, giving it five stars and focusing on the cast's performance, primarily Keeley Hawes as widowed mother Louisa Durrell and Milo Parker as young Gerry.[14]

text: The opening episode averaged just under 6.4 million people and was watched by 29% of the audience over the hour, including those watching on British television network ITV's +1 channel, and was the biggest drama launch of any channel so far in 2016[15] and the most-watched show of the day (including +1).[16] Following a seven-day catch-up period, the figure aggregated to just under 8.2 million people.[17] Citing the show as its "best rating new drama of the year and its highest rating new show since September 2014", ITV recommissioned the show for a second series on 15 April 2016.[18] Over the course of the first series, ratings averaged out at 6.9 million viewers.[19]

text: The show and its episodes attained high ratings on IMDb, around 8/10.[20]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text:
Internationally, the series was acquired in Australia by the Seven Network[21] and premiered on 24 August 2016.[22] In the United States, PBS began airing the show, retitled as The Durrells in Corfu, on 16 October 2016 at 8 pm.[23]
The Durrells started screening in New Zealand on 26 October 2016 on Prime TV. In Canada, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation began airing Series 1 on 13 September 2017.[24] In Spain, the series has been acquired by the streaming platform Filmin.[25]

text: A third series of The Durrells was announced by writer Simon Nye at the BFI and Radio Times Television Festival on 8 April 2017.[11] It began filming in May 2017 and aired on ITV in the northern-hemisphere in the spring of 2018.[26]

text: A fourth series was announced by ITV on 22 June 2018, with filming scheduled for later in the year.[27]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Award
Nominee
Result

2017
Best Actress
Broadcasting Press Guild Award
Keeley Hawes
Won[28]

2017
Best Drama Series
BAFTA TV Award
The Durrells
Nominated[29]

2017
Best Costume Design
BAFTA TV Award
Charlotte Holdich
Nominated[29]

2017
Best Titles & Graphic Identity
BAFTA TV Award
Alex Maclean
Nominated[29]

2017
Best Writer: Drama
BAFTA TV Award
Simon Nye
Nominated[29]

2016
Best Production Design: Drama
RTS Craft & Design Award
Stevie Herbert
Won[30]

2016
Best Graphic Design: Titles
RTS Craft & Design Award
Alex Maclean
Nominated[30]


document_title: Louisiana Purchase

question_text: who negotiated the price of the louisiana purchase

root

text: Louisiana Purchase

text: Background

text: Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics.[2] It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.[3]

tag: p

text: Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece." The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration" of this policy necessary.[2] New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit" in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.[3]

text: In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.[4] The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on December 20, 1803.[5] A further ceremony was held in St. Louis, Upper Louisiana regarding the New Orleans formalities. The March 9–10, 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.[6][7]

text: James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.[8]

text: The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish didn't want the Americans to settle in their territory.[9]

text: Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States.[10] On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:

text: The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I cannot forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...

text: Jefferson's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans." Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France's history, for it would seal America's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.[11]

text: Negotiation

text: While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere.[12] Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction.[12] In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.

text: Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801[13] after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.

text: In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.[14]

text: In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere.[15] In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.[16]

text: In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back-channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.[17]

text: Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.[citation needed]

text: Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two.[citation needed] Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.

text: Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.

text: As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.[18]

text: Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million,[19] (equivalent to about $300 million in 2016 dollars,[20]) which averages to less than three cents per acre (7 ¢/ha).[21][22]

text: The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.[23]

text: The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803.[24] On July 4, 1803, the treaty was announced,[25] but the documents did not arrive in Washington, D.C. until July 14.[26] The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.

text: Domestic opposition and constitutionality

text: Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase.[27] This argument goes as follows:

text: The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.[citation needed]

text: Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59–57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.[28]

text: The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave-holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.

text: Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.[29]

text: Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.[30]

text: Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless."[31] The sale of course was not "worthless"—the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests." Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.[32]

text: Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.[33]

text: Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution"), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction" if the Congress approved the treaty.[34]

text: The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.[35][36]

text: The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self-interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.[35][37]

text: When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.[38]

text: Treaty signing

text: The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on April 30 by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank."[39]

text: The United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of twenty-four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.

text: On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[40]

text: A timeline of legislation can be found at the Library of Congress: American Memory:The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline--1803-1804.[41]

text: Formal transfers and initial organization

text: France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag-raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.

text: On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.[citation needed]

text: Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805–1812).[citation needed]

text: New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.[citation needed]

text: Boundaries

text: A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.[42]

text: The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida.[43] Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis.[44] The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.[citation needed]

text: The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain's internal provinces.[45]

text: If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill-defined British possession—Rupert's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.[citation needed]

text: The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.[citation needed]

text: Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.

text: Slavery

text: Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present-day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present-day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.

text: During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French-speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American-held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint-Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.[46]

text: The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African-Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over).[47] In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836.[47] The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later.[46] As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states."

text: The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.[citation needed]

text: Asserting U.S. possession

text: After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox.[48] In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present-day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present-day Iowa.[49] With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.

text: During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.[49]

text: Financing

text: The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations.[50] Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.

text: Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France.[50] Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.[51]


document_title: Constituent Assembly of India

question_text: who moved the objective resolution on 13 december 1946

text: Constituent Assembly of India

text: Description [edit]

text: The Constituent Assembly, consisting of indirectly elected representatives, was established to draft a constitution for India (including the now-separate countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh). It existed for approximately three years, the first parliament of India after independence in 1947. The Assembly was not elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage, and Muslims and Sikhs received special representation as minorities. The Muslim League boycotted the Assembly after failing to prevent its creation. Although a large part of the Constituent Assembly was drawn from the Congress Party in a one-party environment, the Congress Party included a wide diversity of opinions—from conservative industrialists to radical Marxists, to Hindu revivalists.

text: The Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on 9 December 1946, and its last session was held on 24 January 1950.[1] The hope of the Assembly was expressed by Jawaharlal Nehru:

text: The first task of this Assembly is to free India through a new constitution, to feed the starving people, and to clothe the naked masses, and to give every Indian the fullest opportunity to develop himself according to his capacity. This is certainly a great task. Look at India today. We, are sitting here and there in despair in many places, and unrest in many cities. The atmosphere is surcharged with these quarrels and feuds which are called communal disturbances, and unfortunately we sometimes cannot avoid them. But at present the greatest and most important question in India is how to solve the problem of the poor and the starving. Wherever we turn, we are confronted with this problem. If we cannot solve this problem soon, all our paper constitutions will become useless and purposeless. Keeping this aspect in view, who could suggest to us to postpone and wait?

text: Background and election[edit]

text: India was still under British rule when the Constituent Assembly was established following negotiations between Indian leaders and members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India from the United Kingdom. Provincial assembly elections were held early in 1946. Constituent Assembly members were elected indirectly by members of the newly elected provincial assemblies, and initially included representatives for those provinces that formed part of Pakistan (some of which are now in Bangladesh). The Constituent Assembly had 299 representatives, including nine women.

text: The Interim Government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly. The Congress Party held a large majority in the Assembly (69 percent of the seats), and the Muslim League held nearly all the seats reserved in the Assembly for Muslims. There were also members of smaller parties, such as the Scheduled Caste Federation, the Communist Party of India and the Unionist Party.

text: In June 1947 delegations from Sindh, East Bengal, Baluchistan, West Punjab and the North West Frontier Province withdrew to form the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, meeting in Karachi. On 15 August 1947 the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan became independent nations, and members of the Constituent Assembly who had not withdrawn to Karachi became India's Parliament. Twenty-eight members of the Muslim League joined the Indian Assembly, and 93 members were later nominated from the princely states; the Congress Party secured a majority of 82 percent.

text: Constitution and elections[edit]

text: At 11 am on 9 December 1946 the Assembly began its first session, with 208 members attending.  By early 1947, representatives of the Muslim League and princely states joined, and the Assembly approved the draft constitution on 26 November 1949. On 26 January 1950 the constitution took effect (commemorated as Republic Day), and the Constituent Assembly became the Provisional Parliament of India (continuing until after the first elections under the new constitution in 1952).

text: Organization[edit]

text: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first chairman (temporary) of Constituent Assembly. Later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president and Its vice-president was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian from Bengal and former vice-chancellor of Calcutta University. Also chairing the assembly's Minorities Committee, Mookerjee was appointed governor of West Bengal after India became a republic. Jurist B. N. Rau was appointed constitutional adviser to the assembly; Rau prepared the original draft of the constitution, and was later appointed a judge in the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague.

text: The assembly's work had five stages:

text:
Committees presented reports on issues.
B.N. Rau prepared an initial draft based on the reports and his research into the constitutions of other nations.
The drafting committee, chaired by B. R. Ambedkar, presented a detailed draft constitution which was published for public discussion.
The draft constitution was discussed, and amendments proposed and enacted.
The constitution was adopted, with a committee of experts led by the Congress Party (known as the Congress Assembly Party) played a pivotal role.[2]

tag: ul

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
9 December 1946: The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House). Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting. Sachchidananda Sinha was elected temporary president of the assembly, in accordance with French practice.
11 December 1946: Rajendra Prasad was elected as president and H. C. Mukherjee was elected as vice-president of the constituent assembly. B. N. Rau was appointed as its constitutional adviser.
13 December 1946: An 'Objective Resolution' was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru in the assembly, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. It finally became the Preamble of the constitution.
22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.
22 July 1947: National flag adopted.
15 August 1947: Indian independence achieved as the Dominion of India.
29 August 1947: Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as the Chairman.
16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar Mookerjee V. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.
26 November 1949: Constitution passed and accepted by the assembly.
24 January 1950: "Jana Gana Mana" adopted as the national anthem, with the first two verses of "Vande Mataram" the national song. Rajendra Prasad elected the first president of India.

text: The assembly was chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad when it met as a constituent body, and by G. V. Mavlankar when it met as a legislative body. It completed the task of drafting a constitution in two years, eleven months and eighteen days, at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million.

text: Committees of the Constituent Assembly[edit]

text: The Constituent Assembly appointed a total of 22 committees to deal with different tasks of constitution-making. Out of these, eight were major committees and the others were minor committees.

text: Major Committees

text:
Drafting Committee – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Union Powers Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
Provincial Constitution Committee – Sardar Patel
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas – Sardar Patel.	This committee had the following subcommittees:
Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee – J.B. Kripalani
Minorities Sub-Committee – Harendra Coomar Mookerjee,
North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded & Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee – Gopinath Bardoloi
Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas (Other than those in Assam) Sub-Committee – A V Thakkar
Rules of Procedure Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad
States Committee (Committee for Negotiating with States) – Jawaharlal Nehru
Steering Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad

text: Prominent members[edit]

text:
B. R. Ambedkar, Minister for Law; Chairman of Drafting Committee.
B. N. Rau, Constitutional Advisor
Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of India
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Minister for Education
Rajendra Prasad, President of Constituent Assembly
C. Rajagopalachari, Governor-General of India
Sarat Chandra Bose, Barrister and Indian independence activist
Krishna Sinha, first Chief Minister, Bihar
Binodanand Jha,  Minister, Bihar
Shyam Nandan Prasad Mishra
Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Deputy Chief Minister and Finance Minister, Bihar
Rafi Ahmed Kidwai
Asaf Ali
Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Industries Minister, President, Hindu Mahasabha
Moturi Satyanarayana, Freedom Fighter
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Health Minister
Hansa Mehta, President, All India Women's Conference
N. G. Ranga
Deep Narayan Singh, Minister, Bihar
Gopinath Bordoloi, Prime Minister of Assam[3]
Sir Syed Muhammad Saadulla, Assam
P. Subbarayan
Kailashnath Katju
N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
T. T. Krishnamachari
Rameshwar Prasad Sinha
Durgabai Deshmukh
K. M. Munshi
Krishana Ballabh Sahay
Frank Anthony, Anglo-Indian representative
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
John Mathai,first railway minister of India
Pratap Singh Kairon
L. Krishnaswamy Bharati - Madras Province
Chidambaram Subramaniam
Jaipal Singh Munda, Former Indian Hockey captain, and Tribal leader

text: Members (by province/state)[edit]

text:
Madras:
Annie Mascarene, O. V. Alagesan,
Mrs. Ammu Swaminathan,
M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar,
Moturi Satyanarayana,
Mrs. Dakshayani Velayudhan,
Mrs. G. Durgabai,
Kala Venkatarao,
N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar,
D. Govinda Das,
Revd. Jerome D'Souza,
P. Kakkan,
T.M. Kaliyannan Gounder,
K. Kamaraj,
V. C. Kesava Rao,
T. T. Krishnamachari,
Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
L. Krishnaswami Bharathi,
P. Kunhiraman,
Mosalikanti Thirumala Rao,
V. I. Munuswamy Pillai,
M. A. Muthiah Chettiar,
V. Nadimuthu Pillai,
S. Nagappa,
P. L. Narasimha Raju,
B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya,
C. Perumalswamy Reddy,
T. Prakasam,
S. H. Prater,
Raja Swetachalapati Ramakrishna Renga Roa of Bobbili,
R. K. Shanmukham Chetty,
T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar,
Ramnath Goenka,
O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiar,
N. G. Ranga,
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy,
Sheik Galib Sahib,
K. Santhanam,
B. Shiva Rao,
Kallur Subba Rao,
U. Srinivasa Mallya,
P. Subbarayan,
C. Subramaniam,
V Subramaniam,
M. C. Veerabahu Pillai,
P. M. Velayudapani,
A. K. Menon,
T. J. M. Wilson,
Mohamed Ismail Sahib,
K. T. M. Ahmed Ibrahim,
Mahboob Ali Baig Sahib Bahadur,
B. Pocker Sahib Bahadur, pattam Tanupillai

text:
Bombay:
Balchandra Maheshwar Gupte,
Hansa Mehta,
Hari Vinayak Pataskar,
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar,
Joseph Alban D'Souza,
Kanayalal Nanabhai Desai,
Keshavrao Marutirao Jedhe,
Khandubhai Kasanji Desai,
Bal Gangadhar Kher,
M.R. Masani,
K.M. Munshi,
Narahar Vishnu Gadgil,
S. Nijalingappa,
S. K. Patil,
Ramchandra Manohar Nalavade,
R. R. Diwakar,
Shankarrao Deo,
G. V. Mavalankar,
Vallabhbhai Patel,
Abdul Kadar Mohammad Shaikh,
A. A. Khan

text:
West Bengal:
Monomohan Das,
Arun Chandra Guha,
Lakshmi Kanta Maitra,
Mihir Lal Chattopadhyay,
Satis Chandra Samanta,
Suresh Chandra Majumdar,
Upendranath Barman,
Prabhudayal Himatsingka,
Basanta Kumar Das,
Renuka Ray,
H. C. Mukherjee,
Surendra Mohan Ghose,
Syama Prasad Mookerjee,
Ari Bahadur Gurung,
R. E. Platel,
K. C. Neogy,
Raghib Ahsan,
Somnath Lahiri,
Jasimuddin Ahmad,
Naziruddin Ahmad,
Abdul Hamid,
Abdul Halim Ghuznavi

text:
United Provinces:
Ajit Prasad Jain,
Algu Rai Shastri,
Balkrishna Sharma,
Banshi Dhar Misra,
Bhagwan Din,
Damodar Swarup Seth,
Dayal Das Bhagat,
Dharam Prakash,
A. Dharam Dass,
R. V. Dhulekar,
Feroz Gandhi,
Gopal Narain,
Krishna Chandra Sharma,
Govind Ballabh Pant,
Govind Malviya,
Har Govind Pant,
Harihar Nath Shastri,
Hriday Nath Kunzru,
Jaspat Roy Kapoor,
Jagannath Baksh Singh,
Jawaharlal Nehru,
Jogendra Singh,
Jugal Kishore,
Jwala Prasad Srivastava,
B. V. Keskar,
Kamala Chaudhry,
Kamalapati Tripathi,
J. B. Kripalani,
Mahavir Tyagi,
Khurshed Lal,
Masurya Din,
Mohan Lal Saksena,
Padampat Singhania,
Phool Singh,
Paragi Lal,
Purnima Banerjee,
Purushottam Das Tandon,
Hira Vallabha Tripathi,
Ram Chandra Gupta,
Shibban Lal Saxena,
Satish Chandra,
John Matthai,
Sucheta Kripalani,
Sunder Lall,
Venkatesh Narayan Tiwari,
Mohanlal Gautam,
Vishwambhar Dayal Tripathi,
Vishnu Sharan Dublish,
Begum Aizaz Rasul,
Hyder Hussain,
Hasrat Mohani,
Abul Kalam Azad,
Muhammad Ismail Khan,
Rafi Ahmad Kidwai,
Mohd. Hifzur Rahman,
Z H Lari

text:
East Punjab:
Bakshi Tek Chand,
Jairamdas Daulatram,
Thakurdas Bhargava,
Bikramlal Sondhi,
Yashwant Rai,
Ranbir Singh Hooda,
Lala Achint Ram,
Nand Lal,
Baldev Singh,
Giani Gurmukh Singh Musafir,
Sardar Hukam Singh,
Sardar Bhopinder Singh Mann,
Sardar Rattan Singh Lohgarh
Chaudhry Suraj Mal

text:
Bihar:
Nasif Arafat,
Amiyo Kumar Ghosh,
Anugrah Narayan Sinha,
Banarsi Prasad Jhunjhunwala,
Bhagwat Prasad,
Boniface Lakra,
Brajeshwar Prasad,
Chandika Ram,
K. T. Shah,
Devendra Nath Samanta,
Dip Narain Sinha,
Guptanath Singh,
Jadubans Sahay,
Jagat Narain Lal,
Jagjivan Ram,
Jaipal Singh Munda,
Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga,
Kamaleshwari Prasad Yadav,
Mahesh Prasad Sinha,
Krishna Ballabh Sahay,
Raghunandan Prasad,
Rajendra Prasad,
Rameshwar Prasad Sinha,
Ramnarayan Singh,
Sachchidananda Sinha,
Sarangdhar Sinha,
Satyanarayan Sinha,
Binodanand Jha,
P. K. Sen,
Sri Krishna Sinha,
Sri Narayan Mahtha,
Syamanandan Mishra,
Hussain Imam,
Syed Jafar Imam,
Latifur Rahman,
Mohammad Tahir,
Tajamul Hussain,
Choudhry Abid Hussain.
Hargovind Mishra

text:
Central Provinces and Berar:
Ambica Charan Shukla,
Raghu Vira,
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur,
B.A. Mandloi,
Brijlal Nandlal Biyani,
Thakur Cheedilal,
Seth Govind Das,
Hari Singh Gour,
Hari Vishnu Kamath,
Hemchandra Jagobaji Khandekar,
Ghanshyam Singh Gupta,
Lakshman Shrawan Bhatkar,
Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh,
Ravi Shankar Shukla,
R. K. Sidhva,
Shankar Trimbak Dharmadhikari,
Frank Anthony,
Kazi Syed Karimuddin,
Ganpatrao Dani

text:
Assam:
Nibaran Chandra Laskar,
Dharanidhar Basu-Matari,
Gopinath Bardoloi,
J. J. M. Nichols-Roy,
Kuladhar Chaliha,
Rohini Kumar Chaudhury,
Muhammad Saadulla,
Abdur Rouf

text:
Orissa:
Biswanath Das,
Krishna Chandra Gajapati Narayana Dev,
Harekrushna Mahatab,
Laxminarayan Sahu
Lokanath Mishra,
Nandkishore Das,
Rajkrishna Bose,
Santanu Kumar Das,
Yudhishir Mishra

text:
Delhi:
Deshbhandhu Gupta

text:
Ajmer-Merwara:
Mukut Bihari Lal Bhargava

text:
Coorg:
C. M. Poonacha

text:
Mysore:
K.C. Reddy,
T. Siddalingaiya,
H. R. Guruv Reddy,
S. V. Krishnamurthy Rao,
K. Hanumanthaiya,
H. Siddaveerappa,
T. Channiah

text:
Jammu and Kashmir:
Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah,
Motiram Baigra,
Mirza Mohammad Afzal Beg,
Maulana Mohammad Sayeed Masoodi

text:
Travancore-Cochin:
Pattom A. Thanu Pillai,
R. Sankar,
P. T. Chacko,
Panampilly Govinda Menon,
Annie Mascarene,
P.S.Nataraja Pillai,
K.A. Mohamed

text:
Madhya Bharat:
Vinayak Sitaram Sarwate,
Brijraj Narain,
Gopikrishna Vijayavargiya,
Ram Sahai,
Kusum Kant Jain,
Radhavallabh Vijayavargiya,
Sitaram S. Jajoo

text:
Saurashtra:
Balwant Rai Gopalji Mehta,
Jaisukhlal Hathi,
Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar,
Chimanlal Chakubhai Shah,
Samaldas Laxmidas Gandhi

text:
Rajasthan:
V. T. Krishnamachari,
Hiralal Shastri,
Sardar Singhjhi of Khetri,
Jaswant Singhji,
Raj Bhadur,
Manikya Lal Varma,
Gokul Lal Asava,
Ramchandra Upadhyaya,
Balwant Sinha Mehta,
Dalel Singh,
Jainarain Vyas

text:
Patiala and East Punjab States Union:
Ranjit Singh,
Sochet Singh,
Bhagwant Roy

text:
Bombay States:
Vinayakrao Balshankar Vaidya,
B. N. Munavalli,
Gokulbhai Daulatram Bhatt,
Jivraj Narayan Mehta,
Gopaldas A. Desai,
Paranlal Thakurlal Munshi,
B. H. Khardekar,
Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar

text:
Orissa States:
Lal Mohan Pati,
N. Madhava Rau,
Raj Kunwar,
Sarangadhar Das,
Yudhishthir Mishra

text:
Central Provinces States:
R. L. Malaviya,
Kishorimohan Tripathi,
Ramprasad Potai

text:
United Provinces States:
B. H. Zaidi,
Krishna Singh

text:
Madras States:
V. Ramaiah,
Ramakrishna Ranga Rao

text:
Vindhya Pradesh:
Avdesh Pratap Singh,
Shambu Nath Shukla,
Ram Sahai Tiwari,
Mannulalji Dwidedi

text:
Cooch Behar:
Himmat Singh K. Maheshwari

text:
Tripura and Manipur:
Girja Shankar Guha

text:
Bhopal:
Lal Singh

text:
Kutch:
Bhawani Arjun Khimji

text:
Himachal Pradesh:
Yashwant Singh Parmar

text: Members who later withdrew after partition[edit]

text:
East Bengal:
Abdullah al Mahmood,
Maulana Mohd Abdullah el Baqui,
Abdul Hamid,
Abdul Kasem Khan,
Mohammad Akram Khan,
A. Hamid,
Azizuddin Ahmad,
Muhammad Habibullah Bahar,
Prem Hari Barma,
Raj Kumar Chakraverty,
Sris Chandra Chattopadhyaya,
Abdul Matin Chaudhary,
Murtaza Raza Choudhry,
Hamidul Haq Chowdhury,
Akhay Kumar Das,
Dhirendra Nath Datta,
Bhupendra Kumar Datta,
Ebrahim Khan,
Fazlul Huq,
Fazlur Rahman,
Ghayasuddin Pathan,
Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah,
Liaquat Ali Khan,
Mafizuddin Ahmad,
Mahmud Hussain,
Jnanendra Chandra Majumdar,
A. M. Malik,
Birat Chandra Mandal,
Jogendra Nath Mandal,
Mohammed Ali,
Khwaja Nazimuddin,
M.A.B.L. Nur Ahmed,
Nurul Amin,
Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi,
Sri Dhananjoy M.A. B.L. Roy,
Maudi Bhakesh Chanda,
B.L. Serajul Islam,
Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Osmani,
Shahabudin Khwaja,
H.S. Suhrawardy,
Harendra Kumar Sur,
Tamizuddin Khan,
Kawivi Kerwar Datta,
Ghulam Mohammed

text:
West Punjab:
Mian Mumtaz Mohammad Khan Daultana,
Ganga Saran,
Zafarullah Khan,
Iftikhar Hussain Khan,
Mian Muhammad Iftikharuddin,
Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
Sheikh Karamat Ali,
Nazir Ahmad Khan,
Sardar Abdur Rab Nistar,
Feroz Khan Noon,
Omar Hayat Malik,
Shah Nawaz Begum Jahan Ara,
Sardar Shaukat Hyat Khan,

text:
Northwest Frontier Province:
Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan,
Khan Sardar Bahadur Khan,
Sardar Asad Ullah Jan Khan

text:
Sindh:
Abdus Sattar Abdur Rahman,
Alhajj Muhammad Hashim Gazder,
M.A. Khuhro

text:
Balochistan:
S. B. Nawab Mohammad Khan Jogezai

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Jawaharlal Nehru and other members taking pledge during the midnight session of the Constituent Assembly of India held on 14 and 15 August 1947.

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Chairman, Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution with other members on Aug. 29, 1947.

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the Drafting Committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian Constitution to Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 25 November, 1949.

B. R. Ambedkar in Constituent Assembly of India.

Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the constituent assembly in 1946.


document_title: Football helmet

question_text: first nfl team to put logo on helmet

question_tokens: first nfl team to put logo on helmet

text: Football helmet

text: History[edit]

text: Invention[edit]

text: One of the first instances of football headgear dates to 1896 when Lafayette College halfback George "Rose" Barclay began to use straps and earpieces to protect his ears. It is not certain who invented the football helmet. Many sources give credit for the creation of the helmet to James Naismith, while other sources credit U.S. Naval Academy Midshipman Joseph M. Reeves (later to become the "Father of Carrier Aviation"), who had a protective device for his head made out of mole skin to allow him to play in the 1893 Army-Navy game. Reeves had been advised by a Navy doctor that another kick to his head would result in "instant insanity" or even death, so he commissioned an Annapolis shoemaker to make him a helmet out of leather.[1] Later, helmets were made of padded leather and resembled aviators' helmets or modern day scrum caps. At least in professional football, they were optional. Some National Football League players, notably Hall-of-Famer Bill Hewitt, played all or most of their careers without a helmet.

text: Early years[edit]

text: One innovation from the early 1900s period was hardened leather. 1917 marked the first time helmets were raised above the head in an attempt to direct blows away from the top of the head.[clarification needed] Ear flaps also had their downfall during this period as they had little ventilation and made it difficult for players to hear. The 1920s marked the first time that helmets were widely used in the sport of football. These helmets were made of leather and had some padding on the inside, but the padding was insufficient and provided little protection. In addition, they lacked face masks. As a result, injuries were very common. Early helmets also absorbed a lot of heat, making them very uncomfortable to wear.

text: In 1939, the Riddell Company of Chicago, Illinois started manufacturing plastic helmets because it felt that plastic helmets would be safer than those made of leather. Plastic was found to be more effective because it held its shape when full collision contact occurred on a play. These helmets were also much more comfortable and had more padding to cushion the head in an impact. Included with the plastic helmet came plastic face mask, which allowed the helmet to protect the entire head. By the mid-1940s, helmets were required in the NFL. They were still made of leather, but with improved manufacturing techniques had assumed their more familiar spherical shape. The NFL initially allowed either plastic or leather helmets, but in 1948 the league outlawed the plastic helmet, considering the hard-plastic material to be an injury risk. The NFL repealed this rule in 1949, and by 1950, the plastic helmet had become universal in that league.[2]

text: Introduction of advanced materials[edit]

text: By the 1950s, the introduction of polymers ended the leather helmet era. The last leather helmet manufacturer, MacGregor, ceased production of leather helmets in the mid-1960s. The NFL also recommended face masks for players in 1955,[3] reducing the number of broken noses and teeth, but also necessitating new rules prohibiting opposing players from grabbing the face mask. By varying accounts, either Pat Studstill or Garo Yepremian was the last to forgo the facemask; among non-kickers, Tommy McDonald was the last to do so.

text: Modern helmet components[edit]

text: Inflatable padding[edit]

text: According to Andrew Tucker, football helmets adequately protected players from catastrophic brain injuries, but helmet manufacturers were motivated to design helmets that decrease the risk of concussions. Vin Ferrara,{[4]} a former Harvard quarterback, accidentally discovered a new way to cushion football helmets. One night, Ferrara was looking for an aspirin when he saw a squirt bottle in his medicine cabinet. As he pumped it and then punched it, he realized that the bottle withstood the blows of different forces. Ferrara immediately came up with the idea to encase football helmets with a number of inflatable pockets in order to cushion the blows a football player receives and reduce concussions.

text: More recently, in 2003 Schutt sports introduced their football helmets which contained TPU, or thermoplastic urethane. They would argue that this helps cushion the head more than any other helmet in the market. Schutt also believes that TPU makes the helmet less prone to mold and easier overall to clean and keep sanitary.[5]

text: Visors[edit]

text: A more recent addition to the football helmet is the visor or eye shield, which is affixed to the face mask to protect players from glare or eye injuries, such as pokes. It is believed that the first player to use a protective visor Mark Mullaney of the NFL's Minnesota Vikings in 1984, in order to protect a healing eye injury. Top manufacturers of visors are Nike, Oakley, and Under Armour, with Leader being the first to come out with a visor/shield for former Chicago Bears quarterback Jim McMahon (who needed the visor because of a childhood eye injury).[citation needed] While Mullaney and McMahon's visors were tinted, most of the earlier visors were clear or smoked, but they are now offered in a variety of styles ranging from blue, gold, black, rainbow, silver, or amber. High-school and pee-wee leagues prohibit all but clear visors. This rule was enacted so that training staff and coaches can easily view a player's face and eyes in the case of a serious injury, to discern if the player is conscious.[citation needed] The NCAA banned the use of tinted visors for the same reason, and the NFL has followed suit as well. However, players with eye problems may still obtain special permission to wear tinted visors, some notable examples being LaDainian Tomlinson and Chris Canty.[6]

text: Sensors[edit]

text: Helmet shock data loggers and shock detectors monitor impacts a player receives, such as the force and direction of the impact. If the force recorded by the sensors is over 100 Gs, it signals a possible concussion.{[7]} Some players will experience up to 2,000 of these potential concussion blows each season.This data is then analyzed by doctors. New rules have been implemented which instruct that any player who has a particularly high reading of force needs to be taken off the field and examined before they can play another down.

text: Headsets[edit]

text: Two Ohio inventors devised a headset for Cleveland Browns coach Paul Brown so he could radio plays to his quarterback. It was banned shortly after its first use in 1956. The NFL approved use of headsets for all NFL teams in 1994.[8]

text: NFL rules state that all helmets equipped with headsets must have a visible green dot on the back. A few times in 2006, the holder on the field goal attempt was told to pull up and throw or run at the last second because of a change the coaches saw on the field. According to the NFL, this gave teams an "unfair advantage." The new rules let each team know who is wearing a headset and hearing the plays being called.[citation needed]

text: One-bar face masks[edit]

text: The one-bar face mask was once common but its use has been supplanted in professional and amateur sport. For example, it has been illegal in the National Football League since 2004, but a grandfather clause allowed players who wore the mask prior to 2004 to continue to do so for the remainder of their careers. No current professional player currently wears such a face mask; the last player to do so was Scott Player, who last played professionally in 2009.

text: Typically, by the mid-1980s only placekickers and punters in professional football in Canada and the United States wore the one-bar face mask, a notable exception being quarterback Joe Theismann.

text: The one-bar had two different variations. The standard one-bar was made from nylon or other hard plastic and was bolted to both side of the helmet just in front of the earholes. There was a "snub" version that did not extend as far out in front of the helmet as the standard.

text: Face masks for football helmets today are multibar. The multibar facemasks are typically constructed out of metal, such as titanium, stainless steel, or most commonly carbon steel. Each facemask is coated with Polyarmor G17, a powder coating that is resistant to impact and corrosion. The Polyarmor is a thermoplastic coating used on a number of surfaces. While some organizations purchase new face masks every season, others have their equipment reconditioned.

text: Recent designs[edit]

text: In 2002, American football equipment manufacturer Riddell released a new design of helmet called the Revolution.[9] The newer design was released in response to a study on concussions. In addition, Riddell has recently come out with a new design of helmets, the Riddell Speed Flex. This helmet came out in 2014.[10] This new helmet uses elements of Riddell's older helmets, the 360 and the Revolution, such as Side Impact Protection and All Points Quick Release face mask attachment system.[11]

text: In 2007, Schutt Sports announced the arrival of a next generation helmet, the Schutt ION 4D. This next generation design was in response to the demand for a safer football helmet. The design includes an integrated face guard. This new face guard design features shock absorbing "Energy Wedges" that reduce the force of impacts to the face guard. College teams wearing the helmet include Air Force, Penn State and Virginia.[12] Schutt has also distinguished between their varsity helmets and youth helmets. The varsity helmets from Schutt are made with polycarbonate, which is a very strong polymer designed to take bigger hits. The Schutt youth helmets however; are made from ABS, which is a lighter material, meant for kids who do not take as powerful of hits.[5]

text: Recently, a brand new type of helmet has come into play. Vicis is a new company that is producing helmets that have a softer outer layer. The softer layer absorbs more energy from impacts. In addition, the inside of the helmet also has a foam like substance which absorbs energy and improves comfort.[13]

text: Safety research and testing[edit]

text: NOCSAE certification[edit]

text: Rules in place for NFL, NCAA, and high school football require that all helmets be certified by the National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment.[14][15][16] Reliance on NOCSAE certification has been criticized on numerous grounds, including that organization's control by equipment manufacturers causes a conflict of interest, testing data that focuses on skull fractures instead of concussions, and failure to take into account new research.[14][17][18]

text: The most common NOCSAE test is the drop test. This test uses a 13-pound dummy head full of sensors and a gelatin material. The head and helmet is dropped from a height of 60 at one of the six NOCSAE specified locations on the helmet. These locations include the front, rear, left side, right side, right boss, and left boss. The sensors in the dummy head measure the amount of force that the head experiences. The NOCSAE has certain regulations such as the peak severity index can never more than1200 SI. If a helmet fails to meet these requirements, they do not pass the NOCSAE drop test.[19][20]

text: Current research[edit]

text: There has been significant study/research regarding head injuries in football, as well as football helmet design in recent years. Kevin Guskiewicz, a professor at The University of North Carolina and a MacArthur Fellow, has for many years been researching concussions in football of all age groups.[21] He has been equipping UNC football helmets with accelerometers to measure impacts and concussions. Also, the NFL has awarded over $1.6 million in sports medical research, almost $1 million of which has been toward concussion prevention.[22] All this concussion prevention research has led football helmet manufacturers to develop safer products. A joint effort between Virginia Tech and Wake Forest has been testing current football helmets and giving them yearly ratings since 2011. On a scale out of 5 stars, only one helmet was awarded a 5 in 2011. In 2012, two additional helmet designs were awarded 5 stars.[23][24]

text: Controversies revolving around football helmets always regard their ability to decrease head/brain injury rates, including concussions. However, recent research has begun to assess the tests specifically employed to create the safest football equipment. In 2015, David Camarillo at Stanford conducted a study that suggested football helmet tests did not account for the delay between injury-causing brain movement and stress impact.[25]

text: Other research[edit]

text: Neuroscientists at Ohio State University launched baseballs from air cannons at football helmets in order to simulate a kick or blow to the head such as a tackle. It was found that the helmets could withstand 2,500 Newtons or about 562 pounds of force.

text: Vijay Gupta, a professor at UCLA, has done research and produced a special polymer that if added as a layer on the inside of football helmets can produce up to a 25% decrease in the g-forces a player would experience.[26] This reduction of forces would produce a similar amount of reduction of the probability of a player suffering a concussion from the same hits.

text: Logo display[edit]

text: National Football League[edit]

text: In 1948, the Los Angeles Rams were the first NFL team to put logos on their helmets; the basic "ram's horn" logo on the helmet has remained mostly the same, except for color, ever since. As of 2018 the Cleveland Browns are the last remaining NFL teams not using any form of primary logo on its helmets. The Pittsburgh Steelers are the only NFL team that puts its logo on only one side of the helmet (the right side), while the Cincinnati Bengals, after using a wordmark for a helmet logo into the 1980s, use a striping pattern instead of a logo.


document_title: List of NBA players with most championships

question_text: who has won the nba finals the most

question_tokens: who has won the nba finals the most

text: List[edit]

text:
Pos

G
Guard

F
Forward

C
Center

*

Denotes players who have been inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame

^

Denotes players who are currently active in the NBA

tag: table

text:
Rank

Player

Pos

Seasons played

Total won

Championship teams

Ref.

1

Bill Russell*

C

13

11

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[26]

2

Sam Jones*

G

12

10

Boston Celtics (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[9]

3

Tom Heinsohn*[a]

F/C

9

8

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965)

[10]

K. C. Jones*[b]

G

9

8

Boston Celtics (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966)

[11]

Tom "Satch" Sanders*[c]

F

13

8

Boston Celtics (1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[12]

John Havlicek*

F/G

16

8

Boston Celtics (1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1976)

[13]

7

Jim Loscutoff

F

9

7

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960[d], 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964)

[14]

Frank Ramsey*

F/G

9

7

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964)

[15]

Robert Horry

F

16

7

Houston Rockets (1994, 1995)Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002)San Antonio Spurs (2005, 2007)

[16]

10

Bob Cousy*

G

14

6

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963)

[17]

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar* (formerly Lew Alcindor)[e]

C

20

6

Milwaukee Bucks (1971)Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[18]

Michael Jordan*

G

15

6

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)

[19]

Scottie Pippen*

F

17

6

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)

[20]

14

George Mikan*

C

7

5

Minneapolis Lakers (1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)

[27]

Jim Pollard*

F/C

7

5

Minneapolis Lakers (1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)

[28]

Slater Martin*

G

11

5

Minneapolis Lakers (1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)St. Louis Hawks (1958)

[29]

Larry Siegfried

F

9

5

Boston Celtics (1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[30]

Don Nelson*[f]

G

14

5

Boston Celtics (1966, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1976)

[31]

Michael Cooper

G/F

12

5

Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[32]

Earvin "Magic" Johnson*

G

13

5

Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[33]

Dennis Rodman*

F

14

5

Detroit Pistons (1989, 1990)Chicago Bulls (1996, 1997, 1998)

[34]

Ron Harper

G

15

5

Chicago Bulls (1996, 1997, 1998)Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001)

[35]

Steve Kerr[g]

G

15

5

Chicago Bulls (1996, 1997, 1998)San Antonio Spurs (1999, 2003)

[25]

Kobe Bryant

G

20

5

Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010)

[36]

Derek Fisher

G

18

5

Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010)

[37]

Tim Duncan

F/C

19

5

San Antonio Spurs (1999, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2014)

[38]

27

Vern Mikkelsen*

F/C

10

4

Minneapolis Lakers (1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)

[39]

Frank Saul

G/F

6

4

Rochester Royals (1951)Minneapolis Lakers (1952, 1953, 1954)

[24]

Bill Sharman*[h]

G

11

4

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961)

[40]

Jamaal Wilkes*

G/F

12

4

Golden State Warriors (1975)Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985[i])

[41]

Kurt Rambis

F

14

4

Los Angeles Lakers (1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[42]

Robert Parish*

C

21

4

Boston Celtics (1981, 1984, 1986)Chicago Bulls (1997)

[43]

Will Perdue

C

13

4

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993)San Antonio Spurs (1999)

[44]

John Salley

F/C

11

4

Detroit Pistons (1989, 1990)Chicago Bulls (1996)Los Angeles Lakers (2000)

[22]

Horace Grant

F/C

17

4

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993)Los Angeles Lakers (2001)

[45]

Shaquille O'Neal*

C

19

4

Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002)Miami Heat (2006)

[46]

Manu Ginóbili

G

16

4

San Antonio Spurs (2003, 2005, 2007, 2014)

[47]

Tony Parker^

G

17

4

San Antonio Spurs (2003, 2005, 2007, 2014)

[48]


document_title: Brave (soundtrack)

question_text: mumford and sons song in the movie brave

text: Brave (soundtrack)

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Differently from songs from Disney musical movies, in movies where the songs are only used as a background, Disney Character Voices International does not require for them to be dubbed. So, in the Arabic, Cantonese, Croatian, Estonian, German, Icelandic, Japanese, Latvian, Lithuanian, Taiwanese Mandarin, Romanian, Serbian and Slovak dubs, the songs were left in English.

text: The Canadian French and Vietnamese soloists singing the songs (Marilou Bourdon and Bảo Thy respectively), are also Merida's voice actors.

text: The songs have been released as soundtracks in Brazilian Portuguese,[3] Castilian Spanish,[4] European French,[5] Italian[6] and Latin American Spanish.[7]

text: Since its first release, some local TV stations and studios have been dubbing the movie in their local languages, creating some unofficial dubs. Namely: Arabic,[8] Armenian,[9] Kabardian,[10] Persian,[11] Sinhala[12] and Tagalog.[13]

text:
show"Touch the Sky" & "Into the open Air" in other languages

Language

Performer(s)[14]

Touch the Sky

Into the open Air

Title

Translation

Title

Translation

Brazilian Portuguese

Manu Gavassi

"O céu eu vou tocar"

"I will touch the sky"

"Ao ar livre"

"Into the free air"

Bulgarian

Невена Цонева (Nevena Tsoneva)

"Летя с вятъра" ("Letya s vyatera")

"Fly with the wind"

"По цялата земя" ("Po tsyalata zyemya")

"Over the whole world"

Canadian French

Marilou Bourdon

"Au gré du vent"

"At the mercy of the wind"

"Tout là-bas au grand jour"

"Over there, in broad daylight"

Castilian Spanish

Russian Red

"Volaré"

"I’ll fly"

"A la luz del sol"

"In the day light"

Catalan

Ana Fernández Pellicer

"Cel vull ser"

"I want to be the sky"

"A cel obert"

"Under the clear sky"

Chinese Mandarin

胡维纳 ("Hú Wéi-Nà"; Jalane Hu) (zh)

"拥抱蓝天" ("Yǒngbào lántiān")

"Embrace the blue sky"

"與全世界分享" ("Yǔ quán shìjiè fēnxiǎng")

"To share with the world"

Czech

Radka Fišarová

"Dotkni se oblohy"

"Touch the sky"

?

?

Danish

Guðrun Sólja Jacobsen (da)

"Frie fugle flyv med mig"

"Free birds, fly with me"

"Slip kærligheden fri"

"Let love free"

Dutch

Marieke Dollekamp

"Laat mij gaan"

"Let me go"

"Een nieuw begin voor ons"

"A new beginning for us"

European French

Maeva Méline

"Vers le ciel"

"Toward the sky"

"Soleil brûlant"

"Burning sun"

European Portuguese

Isabel Jacobetty

"O céu tocar"

"Touch the sky"

"Céu aberto"

"Open sky"

Finnish

Saara Aalto

"Taivaankaari"

"The arc of the sky"

"Lämpöiseen ilmaan"

"Warm air"

Flemish

Eva De Roovere (nl)

"Laat mij gaan"

"Let me go"

"Een nieuw begin voor ons"

"A new beginning for us"

Greek

Πέννυ Μπαλτατζή (Pénny Baltatzí)

"Τώρα αγγίζω ουρανό" ("Tora angizo ourano")

"Now I touch the sky"

"Στον ανοιχτό ουρανό" ("Ston anoichtó ouranó")

"To the open sky"

Hebrew

רויטל זלצמן (Revital Zaltsman)

"לשחקים" ("La’shchakim")

"To the skies"

"אל האוויר הצח" ("El ha’avir ha’tsach")

"Toward the fresh air"

Hindi

Aparnaa Bhaagwat

"आसमां को छूना हैं" ("Aasman ko chhuna hai")

"I want to touch the sky"

"खुली हवा में महके" ("Khuli hawa mein mehke")

?

Hungarian

Lola (hu)

"A hűvös szél szárnyán"

"The cool wind’s wings up above"

"A szívünk égig száll"

"Our hearts fly to the skies"

Indonesian

Miranti

"Ke angkasa"

"To the sky"

"Menuju angkasa"

?

Italian

Noemi

"Il cielo toccherò"

"I’ll touch the sky"

"Tra vento ed aria"

"Into the wind and the air"

Kazakh

Мақпал Исабекова (Makpal Isabekova)

"Caмғaйын" ("Samgaiyn")

?

"Таза ауаға" ("Taza auaga")

"Into the fresh air"

Korean

송상은 (Song Sang-Eun)

"하늘 향해" ("Hanŭl hyang-hae")

"Sky bound"

"저 넓은 세상으로" ("Chŏ nŏlbŭn sesang-ŭro")

"To that wide world"

Latin American Spanish

Yuridia

"Viento y cielo alcanzar"

"Reach the wind and the sky"

"Con toda libertad"

"Completely freely"

Malaysian

Unknown

"ك اوڠن" ("Ke awangan")

"To the air"

"Damailah selamanya"

"Peaceful it is forever"

Marathi

Aparnaa Bhaagwat

?

?

?

?

Norwegian

Signe Marie Rustad

"Bli fri på ny"

"Become free again"

"Og leve i det fri"

"And living in the wilderness"

Polish

Anita Lipnicka

"Chwytam wiatr"

"I catch the wind"

"Tam serca nasze są"

"There are our hearts"

Russian

Ксения Шемякина (Kseniya Shemyakina)

"Небо крыльями обнять" ("Nebo kryl’yami obsyat’")

"Sky wings hug"

"Небесный свет" ("Nyebesnyj svyet")

"Sky light"

Slovene

Tanja Ravljen

"Dotaknem se neba"

"I will touch the sky"

"Pobarvajva nebo"

"Let’s paint the sky"

Swedish

Hanna Hedlund and Sanna Martin

"Fri som fågeln"

"Free like the bird"

"Ut i det fria"

"Out in the open"

Thai

กานต์พิชชา วุฒิฐิติการ ("Kanpitcha Wutthititikan"; TangMo)

"สู่โลกที่แสนกว้างใหญ่" ("S̄ū̀ lok thī̀ s̄æn kŵāngh̄ıỵ̀")

?

"ล่องลอยลมท้าทายดั่งใจ" ("Lông loi lom táa taai dang jai")

?

Turkish

Deniz Sujana

"Göklere ulaşırım"

"To the skies I will reach"

"Bu sonsuz göklere"

"Up to these infinite skies"

Ukrainian

Міла Нітіч (Mila Nytych) (uk)

"Я лечу" ("Ya lechu")

"I am flying"

"У цей чудовий день" ("U tsyej chudovij den’")

"This wonderful day"

Vietnamese

Bảo Thy

"Vươn dôi tay níu lấy bầu trời"

"Reach the hands to grasp the sky"

?

?

text:
hideAll official versions of "My Spirit Flies"

Language

Singer(s)[15]

Title

Czech

Lucie Vondráčková[16][17]

"Kdy vzlétnu já"

English

Frankie Barranco[18][19]

"My Spirit Flies"

Hungarian

Lola[20][21]

"Lelkem száll"

Polish

Justyna Bojczuk[22][23]

„Kiedy nie śpią sny”

Romanian

Paula Seling[24][25][26]

"Chiar Pot Zbura"

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Patrick Doyle, except "Touch the Sky" (music by Alex Mandel, lyrics by Mandel and Mark Andrews), "Into the Open Air" (music and lyrics by Mandel),[27] and "Learn Me Right" (music and lyrics by Mumford & Sons).[28]

text: No.TitleLength1."Touch the Sky" (Julie Fowlis)2:312."Into the Open Air" (Julie Fowlis)2:413."Learn Me Right" (Birdy, Mumford & Sons)3:464."Fate and Destiny"4:175."The Games"1:536."I Am Merida"2:237."Remember to Smile"2:178."Merida Rides Away"4:079."The Witch's Cottage"4:2610."Song of Mor'du" (Billy Connolly and Cast)2:1711."Through the Castle"4:3412."Legends Are Lessons"4:0613."Show Us the Way"3:4614."Mum Goes Wild"3:2515."In Her Heart"2:3616."Noble Maiden Fair (A Mhaighdean Bhan Uasal)" (Emma Thompson and Peigi Barker)2:3617."Not Now!"3:3418."Get the Key"3:1519."We've Both Changed"5:3020."Merida's Home"1:32Total length:65:32

text: Charts[edit]

text: Brave debuted as the highest-charting Pixar soundtrack at US Billboard since Cars in 2006.[29] Ratatouille never placed, WALL-E debuted at No. 127 and Cars 2 at No. 153. The soundtracks to Up and Toy Story 3 were only released digitally, instead of being given a traditional CD release, until 2011.

text:
Chart (2012)

Peakposition

Spanish Albums Chart[30]

33

Canadian Albums Chart[31]

70

U.S. Billboard Soundtracks[32]

2

U.S. Billboard Top 200[32]

33

U.S. Billboard Digital Albums[32]

13