document_title: List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics

question_text: who won the nobel prize for economics in 2009

text: Laureates[edit]

text:
Year

Laureate
Country
Rationale
Alma mater
Institution (most significant tenure/at time of receipt)

1969

Ragnar Frisch
 Norway
"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes"[2]
University of Oslo
University of Oslo

Jan Tinbergen
 Netherlands
Leiden University
Erasmus University

1970

Paul Samuelson
 United States
"for the scientific work through which he has developed static and dynamic economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of analysis in economic science"[8]
Harvard University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1971

Simon Kuznets
 United States
"for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development"[9]
Columbia University
Harvard University

1972

John Hicks
 United Kingdom
"for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory."[10]
University of Oxford
University of Oxford

Kenneth Arrow
 United States
Columbia University
Stanford University

1973

Wassily Leontief
 Soviet Union
 United States
"for the development of the input-output method and for its application to important economic problems"[11]
University of Berlin
Harvard University

1974

Gunnar Myrdal
 Sweden
"for their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena."[12]
Stockholm University
Stockholm University

Friedrich Hayek
 Austria
 United Kingdom
University of Vienna
London School of Economics, University of Chicago

1975

Leonid Kantorovich
 Soviet Union
"for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources"[13]
Leningrad State University
Novosibirsk State University

Tjalling Koopmans
 Netherlands
 United States
University of Leiden
University of Chicago, Yale University

1976

Milton Friedman
 United States
"for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilisation policy"[14]
Columbia University
University of Chicago

1977

Bertil Ohlin
 Sweden
"for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements"[15]
Stockholm University
Stockholm School of Economics

James Meade
 United Kingdom
University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge

1978

Herbert A. Simon
 United States
"for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations"[16]
University of Chicago
Carnegie Mellon University

1979

Theodore Schultz
 United States
"for their pioneering research into economic development research with particular consideration of the problems of developing countries."[17]
South Dakota State University,
University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Chicago

Arthur Lewis
 Saint Lucia
 United Kingdom
London School of Economics
Princeton University

1980

Lawrence Klein
 United States
"for the creation of econometric models and the application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies"[18]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
University of Pennsylvania

1981

James Tobin
 United States
"for his analysis of financial markets and their relations to expenditure decisions, employment, production and prices"[19]
Harvard University
Yale University

1982

George Stigler
 United States
"for his seminal studies of industrial structures, functioning of markets and causes and effects of public regulation"[20]
University of Chicago
University of Chicago

1983

Gérard Debreu
 France
"for having incorporated new analytical methods into economic theory and for his rigorous reformulation of the theory of general equilibrium"[21]
École Normale Supérieure
University of California, Berkeley

1984

Richard Stone
 United Kingdom
"for having made fundamental contributions to the development of systems of national accounts and hence greatly improved the basis for empirical economic analysis"[22]
University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge

1985

Franco Modigliani
 Italy
"for his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets"[23]
The New School for Social Research
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1986

James M. Buchanan
 United States
"for his development of the contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making"[24]
University of Chicago
George Mason University

1987

Robert Solow
 United States
"for his contributions to the theory of economic growth"[25]
Harvard University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1988

Maurice Allais
 France
"for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources"[26]
École Polytechnique
École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, Paris Nanterre University

1989

Trygve Haavelmo
 Norway
"for his clarification of the probability theory foundations of econometrics and his analyses of simultaneous economic structures"[27]
University of Oslo
University of Oslo

1990

Harry Markowitz
 United States
"for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics"[28]
University of Chicago
City University of New York

Merton Miller
Johns Hopkins University
Carnegie Mellon University, University of Chicago

William F. Sharpe
University of California, Los Angeles
Stanford University

1991

Ronald Coase
 United Kingdom
"for his discovery and clarification of the significance of transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy"[29]
London School of Economics
University of Chicago, London School of Economics

1992

Gary Becker
 United States
"for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behaviour and interaction, including non-market behaviour"[30]
University of Chicago
University of Chicago

1993

Robert Fogel
 United States
"for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change"[31]
Johns Hopkins University
University of Chicago

Douglass North
University of California, Berkeley
Washington University in St Louis

1994

John Harsanyi
 United States
"for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games."[32]
Stanford University
University of California, Berkeley

John Forbes Nash
Princeton University
Princeton University

Reinhard Selten
 Germany
Goethe University Frankfurt
University of Bonn

1995

Robert Lucas, Jr.
 United States
"for having developed and applied the hypothesis of rational expectations, and thereby having transformed macroeconomic analysis and deepened our understanding of economic policy"[33]
University of Chicago
University of Chicago

1996

James Mirrlees
 United Kingdom
"for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information"[34]
University of Cambridge
University of Oxford, University of Cambridge

William Vickrey
 Canada
 United States
Columbia University
Columbia University

1997

Robert C. Merton
 United States
"for a new method to determine the value of derivatives."[35]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Myron Scholes
 Canada
 United States
University of Chicago
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1998

Amartya Sen
 India
"for his contributions to welfare economics"[36]
University of Cambridge
Harvard University, University of Cambridge

1999

Robert Mundell
 Canada
"for his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange rate regimes and his analysis of optimum currency areas"[37]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Columbia University

2000

James Heckman
 United States
"for his development of theory and methods for analyzing selective samples"[38]
Princeton University
University of Chicago

Daniel McFadden
 United States
"for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice"[38]
University of Minnesota
University of California Berkeley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

2001

George Akerlof
 United States
"for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information"[39]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Georgetown University, University of California Berkeley

Michael Spence
Harvard University
Harvard University

Joseph E. Stiglitz
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Princeton University, Columbia University

2002

Daniel Kahneman
 Israel
 United States
"for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty"[40]
University of California, Berkeley
Princeton University, University of British Columbia

Vernon L. Smith
 United States
"for having established laboratory experiments as a tool in empirical economic analysis, especially in the study of alternative market mechanisms"[40]
Harvard University
University of Arizona

2003

Robert F. Engle
 United States
"for methods of analyzing economic time series with time-varying volatility (ARCH)"[41]
Cornell University
University of California, San Diego

Clive Granger
 United Kingdom
"for methods of analyzing economic time series with common trends (cointegration)"[41]
University of Nottingham
University of California, San Diego

2004

Finn E. Kydland
 Norway
"for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles."[42]
Carnegie Mellon University
Carnegie Mellon University

Edward C. Prescott
 United States
Carnegie Mellon University
Carnegie Mellon University

2005

Robert J. Aumann
 United States
 Israel
"for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis."[43]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Thomas C. Schelling
 United States
Harvard University
Yale University, Harvard University

2006

Edmund S. Phelps
 United States
"for his analysis of intertemporal tradeoffs in macroeconomic policy"[44]
Yale University
Columbia University

2007

Leonid Hurwicz
 Poland
 United States
"for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory"[45]
London School of Economics
University of Minnesota, Iowa State University

Eric S. Maskin
 United States
Harvard University
Harvard University

Roger B. Myerson
Harvard University
Northwestern University

2008

Paul Krugman
 United States
"for his analysis of trade patterns and location of economic activity"[46]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

2009

Elinor Ostrom
 United States
"for her analysis of economic governance, especially the commons"[47]
University of California, Los Angeles
Indiana University

Oliver E. Williamson
"for his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm"[47]
Carnegie Mellon University
University of Pennsylvania, University of California Berkeley

2010

Peter A. Diamond
 United States
"for their analysis of markets with search frictions"[48]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Dale T. Mortensen
Carnegie Mellon University
Northwestern University

Christopher A. Pissarides
 Cyprus
London School of Economics
London School of Economics

2011

Thomas J. Sargent
 United States
"for their empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy"[49]
Harvard University
Hoover Institution, University of Minnesota

Christopher A. Sims
Harvard University
University of Minnesota

2012

Alvin E. Roth
 United States
"for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design."[50]
Stanford University
Stanford University, Harvard University

Lloyd S. Shapley
Princeton University
University of California, Los Angeles

2013

Eugene F. Fama
 United States
"for their empirical analysis of asset prices."[51]
University of Chicago
University of Chicago

Lars Peter Hansen
University of Minnesota
University of Chicago

Robert J. Shiller
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Yale University

2014

Jean Tirole
 France
"for his analysis of market power and regulation".[52]
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Toulouse School of Economics, École des hautes études en sciences sociales

2015

Angus Deaton
 United Kingdom
 United States
"for his analysis of consumption, poverty, and welfare".[53]
University of Cambridge
University of Bristol, Princeton University

2016

Oliver Hart
 United Kingdom
 United States
"for their contributions to contract theory".[54]
Princeton University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University

Bengt Holmström
 Finland
Stanford University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Yale University

2017

Richard Thaler
 United States
"for his contributions to behavioural economics".[55]
University of Rochester
Cornell University, University of Chicago


document_title: Lucas Scott

question_text: who ends up with lucas in one tree hill

question_tokens: who ends up with lucas in one tree hill

root

text: Lucas Scott

text: Character development[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Chad Michael Murray was the first person to be cast for One Tree Hill.[8] The producers were originally unsure as to who Murray would play. Series creator Mark Schwahn wanted him to play the character of Nathan Scott since Murray had played a bad guy several times before, and he felt it was only natural to give him this role.[8] Murray, however, wanted to portray Lucas due to a connection he felt with the character. He felt that he could inhabit the character as the two share several similarities. Murray's mother left him when he was young, and Lucas was abandoned by his father. Murray's passion for the role led the producers to cast him as Lucas.[8] Murray had turned down the lead role of Ryan Atwood in The O.C. to accept the role as Lucas Scott.[9]

tag: p

text: Personality and wardrobe[edit]

text: Schwahn said that in designing the show, he created Lucas as "this underdog kid from the wrong side of the tracks" who crosses over to the pretty and popular; he wanted to show what the life of such a person would be like in a basketball atmosphere.[10]

text: For Murray, in addition to their shared abandonment issues, Lucas's love for literature also appealed to him. Murray had become a fan of the genre during high school, and felt it changed his way of seeing things; it made him rethink his own actions. Lucas has been described as "caught between being charming and a nerd, a hermit and confident". Murray said of the character, "He's very introverted." He described Lucas as an observer, someone who likes to watch people and try to figure out who they really are, as opposed to who they think they are, another aspect similar to Murray's own personality.[6]

text: Murray never played much basketball before the show, and was more into football while in high school. Because of this, a basketball coach was hired for Murray in order to improve his basketball skills.[6] To go along with the character's personality, a "sedate" wardrobe was designed. Schwahn said of Lucas's wardrobe, "...He was a Levi's guy. He was, you know, he wore a lot of, like, plain T-shirts and things because we just wanted him to represent the everyman."[10] Despite having the character start out this way, the series eventually let his wardrobe evolve. Starting from the fourth season on, he was given some "wilder stuff". Schwahn clarified, "You know, he can [now] rock something from Sean John, which normally would have been Nathan's department." He said the style of the characters really does evolve on the show, especially with the four-year timeline jump.[10] "Diesel is so wonderful on [Murray]. Diesel jeans. It's an Italian company. A lot of times, Italian designers cut much more slimly...for a really lean physique," stated One Tree Hill's costume designer, Carol Cutshall. "Also, this year, they’ve had nice long sleeves and nice long shirts and really slim clothing and that looks best on [Murray]. He doesn’t need to be swallowed up. He's got his own style as a person. It's not just up to me. I try to bring in what I think is going to fit him best."[11] With the timeline jump, Lucas’s main brands become Diesel, Guess menswear, and Juicy Couture for men.[11]

text: Regarding the character's romantic life, Schwahn designed a love triangle between Lucas and the two girls, Peyton Sawyer and Brooke Davis, which created an intense fan base rivalry. While describing Lucas and Peyton as soulmates and a "meant to be" pairing,[12] he described Brooke and Lucas as "also genuine" and as having a great dynamic.[13] He acknowledged that the fan bases are large and "very passionate" about their pairings. "There is a huge fanbase dedicated to Brooke and Lucas, and sometimes [those people] feel a bit betrayed, just as the fanbase dedicated to Peyton and Lucas felt betrayed [in Season 2, and parts of Season 3]," said Schwahn. "That tells me that we've done things correctly – that's the strength of a love triangle."[14]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: Lucas Scott is the son of Dan Scott and Karen Roe, and the nephew of Keith Scott; he has a younger half brother, Nathan Scott, on his father's side and a younger half-sister, Lily Roe Scott, on his mother's side (she is also his cousin through Keith). He was raised by his mother after his father abandoned them to marry Deb Lee, Nathan's mother. His uncle Keith, who always had feelings for Karen, took over the father figure role. Lucas grew up in Tree Hill, a small North Carolina town along with his best friend and later sister-in-law, Haley James Scott. He shares romantic bonds with Peyton Sawyer and Brooke Davis, is interested in basketball and literature, and suffers from the genetic heart disease hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

text: Early seasons[edit]

text: At the beginning of the first season, 16-year-old Lucas Scott is recruited by coach Whitey Durham to play for the Ravens basketball team after most of the players are suspended for drunk-driving. He soon has troubles with his half-brother Nathan, who is also the Ravens captain, because Nathan wants to remain the star of the team and feels threatened by Lucas's arrival.[15] Encouraged by Dan, who also wants Lucas off the team, Nathan and his teammates make life difficult for Lucas, on one occasion kidnapping him and throwing him into a ditch. Nevertheless, Lucas is determined to stay on the team (although he removes the name "Scott" from his jersey). He is attracted to and shares a deep emotional connection with Peyton (Nathan's girlfriend). Disgusted by Nathan's behavior towards his brother, she eventually breaks up with him. Nathan retaliates by pursuing Lucas's best friend Haley, who agrees to tutor Nathan in return for him leaving Lucas alone. Lucas and Peyton fall in love, but Peyton is initially scared of a romance with Lucas (not wanting to be "serious" with him).[16][17] Lucas is devastated and starts seeing Peyton's best friend, Brooke, at the same moment Peyton realizes she has made a mistake in turning Lucas away.[17] He soon cheats on Brooke with Peyton, though sex is never involved in the betrayal.[18] On the night that Lucas and Peyton are about to tell Brooke about their affair, Lucas and Keith are involved in a car accident, and, for the first time in the series, Dan calls Lucas his son so that Lucas can get immediate treatment.[19] Lucas wakes up from a short coma and wants to be with Peyton, but Peyton ends their affair for Brooke's sake after Brooke finds out about their tryst.[20] Lucas's feelings towards Dan are challenged when he learns that Dan wanted joint custody of Lucas, but Karen refused. He also finds himself in Dan's position when Brooke claims to be pregnant, although this turns out to be false as Brooke was lying to seek her revenge on Lucas for breaking her heart. His friendship with Peyton is broken once she learns he had a one-night stand with new resident Nicki not long after she ended their affair.[21] However, his relationship with Nathan improves as Lucas realizes that he got a better deal than Nathan, who is damaged as a result of being raised by Dan. Wanting a fresh start, Lucas decides to leave town with Keith. Lucas and Nathan have a final conversation where Nathan calls Lucas his brother and Lucas says, "I'll miss you, little brother." Before leaving with Keith, he goes to say goodbye to Haley and discovers that she and Nathan have married.[22]

text: In Season 2, Lucas and Keith return to Tree Hill after Dan has a heart attack.[23] Lucas tries to make up for his behavior with Peyton and Brooke and becomes friends with both of them. He also starts seeing a new girl named Anna Taggaro, but they break up amicably when Anna accepts that she is a lesbian.[24][25] Lucas realizes that he has romantic feelings for Brooke and begins to focus on building on a relationship with her, even though she is seeing Anna's brother Felix.[26] Lucas discovers that he has inherited Dan's heart condition, but does not tell anyone except Dan.[27] After discovering that Keith's new girlfriend Jules was actually hired by Dan to break Keith's heart, Lucas agrees to move in with Dan if he leaves Keith alone and pays for Lucas's heart medication. This sets Lucas at odds with his mother, as she cannot believe that Lucas would want to live with Dan rather than her.[27] It also causes a new rift between Lucas and Nathan, as Nathan feels that Lucas is replacing him and is bitter about Haley's departure to go on tour singing. Lucas and Karen are reconciled when she learns half of the reason he is staying with Dan, which is to protect Keith. This plan to protect his uncle fails when Jules leaves Keith at the altar and Keith leaves town after discovering that Lucas and Karen knew that she was hired by Dan.[28] Lucas discovers Deb's painkiller addiction and decides to avenge all of Dan's victims. He finds a stash of cash and an incriminating ledger in the attic at Dan's dealership and plans to expose Dan's illegal dealings, but ultimately fails as Dan has also incriminated Deb.[28] Dan then reveals that the whole thing was a set-up to test Lucas's loyalty, which Lucas failed. As a result, he loses Dan's college fund for him (which Dan had been saving since Lucas was a baby) and even his heart medication. Nathan also ends his friendship with Lucas after discovering that Lucas had planned to bring Dan down and visited Haley behind his back in an attempt to patch up her and Nathan's marriage. Lucas does, however, kiss Brooke in the season finale and confesses that he wants to be with her, but she still leaves for California to spend the summer with her parents. Ultimately, it is just Lucas and a broken-hearted Peyton (after boyfriend Jake left her) for the summer and the last shot is of the two of them sharing a meaningful hug on the beach.[29]

text: In Season 3, after the summer, Lucas remains at odds with Dan, who accuses Lucas of starting the fire at the dealership that nearly killed him. Dan tries to strangle Lucas on the basketball court, but Peyton, having learned the truth from Lucas, tells Dan that Lucas actually saved him from the fire. Lucas also protects the true arsonist: Deb. Lucas and Nathan continue to argue over Nathan's treatment of the returned Haley and have a public fight after Lucas accuses Nathan of being just like Dan. Lucas struggles to pay for his heart medication and steals money from his mother, which Haley sees, forcing Lucas to tell her about his condition. He begins a non-exclusive relationship with Brooke and uses Rachel Gatina to make her jealous, but a series of events leads Brooke to sleep with Chris Keller, tearing them apart.[30] Later, he forgives her after she gives him the 82 letters she wrote to him during her vacation but did not send. He and Nathan gradually become friends again. Keith returns, and he and Karen finally get together and become engaged. Keith also plans to adopt Lucas. Tragedy strikes when Lucas's former friend Jimmy Edwards brings a gun to school and fires it, accidentally hitting Peyton and causing a lockdown ("With Tired Eyes, Tired Minds, Tired Souls, We Slept"). Lucas saves Peyton and is devastated by Jimmy and Keith's eventual deaths. After seeing the effect of Keith's death on his mother, Lucas decides to finally tell Whitey, Nathan, and Karen about his heart condition and quits basketball. He goes on a university tour with his mother and realizes that he wants to become a writer. He is also Nathan's best man for his second wedding to Haley. He and Brooke break up for good during the wedding when Brooke learns that Lucas kissed Peyton back during the school shooting.

text: In Season 4, Lucas tries to get Brooke back, but she rejects him, feeling that the passion is no longer there. One day, he hurries to save Peyton from Internet stalker "Psycho Derek", and becomes considerably closer to her afterward. He also helps Karen, who is pregnant with Keith's baby, and plans on going to the University of North Carolina when he graduates so that he can be close to home in case she needs him. Dan also helps Karen with her pregnancy, wanting to make amends for Keith's death. After talking with Dan, Karen persuades Whitey to let Lucas play 15 minutes a game, so as not to let him miss out on something he loves. Brooke and Lucas try dating each other again, but realize that it is not what they truly want and is not what is meant to be, prompting Peyton to confess her feelings for Lucas. Lucas then discovers that Nathan is planning to throw the state championship game because of his debts. Lucas plans to prevent this and deliberately fails to take his heart medication in order to play better, but Nathan is inspired by learning that he is going to have a son and they win, with Lucas making the winning shot. During the celebration, Lucas, after receiving Brooke's blessing, sees Peyton and tells her that she is the girl he has been meant for. The two then share a long-awaited kiss. They become a couple at the after-party, but their happiness is short-lived when Haley gets hit by a car and Lucas tries to tell the paramedics what happened only to suffer a heart attack. As he is in the hospital, Lucas dreams that he is visited by Keith, who shows Lucas what life would have been like if he had been a lesser person. In the end, Lucas realizes that he has to go back to his life because he never told Peyton that he loves her. Lucas wakes up and begins a relationship with Peyton. After the failed attempt of prom in Tree Hill High, the group go on a rescue mission to save Mouth who has become stranded in Honeygrove. They all then crash the local Prom, where he and Peyton have sex with each other for the first time. He begins to investigate Keith's death, as the Keith in his dream suggested that Jimmy did not kill him, but he also starts getting closer to Dan, who tells Karen he wants a bigger part in Lucas's life. Lucas discovers the truth about Dan thanks to witness Abby Brown. He attacks Dan after walking in on him and Karen kissing and tells Karen that Dan killed Keith, but Dan convinces Karen that Lucas is delusional and needs help. Lucas then steals Deb's gun and confronts Dan in front of Karen, having set him up by sending him a message from "Abby". Karen collapses and Lucas fires a warning shot at Dan, telling him not to touch her. Karen is rushed to hospital with eclampsia and has an emergency c-section. Lucas is given a half-sister, who is named Lily Roe Scott when Karen regains consciousness. Later, Dan turns himself in for Keith's murder. Lucas graduates and gets, as a reward, his book (An Unkindness of Ravens) from his mother. That same day, he becomes an uncle with the birth of Nathan and Haley's son, James Lucas Scott, partly named after him. Lucas is named the godfather of James and announces that he will be assisting Whitey as Nathan's college basketball coach.

text: Missing years[edit]

text: One year from Season 4, Lucas becomes the head coach of the Cobras, his college basketball team, and leads them to victory in the championships. Thinking about his future, he goes to see Peyton and asks her to marry him. She declines, feeling that it is too soon. As he is about to leave LA, his novel is picked up by a fresh new editor, Lindsey Strauss. It is a moment when his greatest dream came true. He is about to call Peyton, but decides against it, and instead calls Brooke. They spend a crazy evening together, and, in the end, he kisses her because he feels lonely. Although Brooke still loves him at the time, she pushes him away, remembering Peyton. Soon after, he is scheduled to have a book signing in LA where Peyton is living and working. Having missed her, he calls her and invites her to come to the signing. Peyton comes, but she witnesses Lindsey giving Lucas a congratulatory kiss and assumes they are in a relationship and leaves thinking there is no hope for her and Lucas. Lucas thinks that Peyton did not bother to come, and consequently begins dating Lindsey.[31]

text: Final seasons[edit]

text: In Season 5, four years after high school graduation, Lucas, now 22, suffers from writer's block and is under pressure from his editor/girlfriend Lindsey. He also tries to help Haley with her son, James Lucas Scott.[31] When Peyton comes back home, she reveals to him that she did come to the signing, and then inspires him by repeating his quote: "Your art matters".[32] When he tells Peyton that the bartender she is flirting with at the Clothes Over Bros store opening is not good enough for her, it becomes obvious that, despite his relationship with Lindsey, he still loves Peyton.[33] After remembering the night he proposed, he goes straight to her house, though she is not there.[34] When Peyton begins to antagonize Lindsey, he goes to confront her, but things escalate into a verbal fight about their break up.[35] A little bit later, after Peyton confesses her feelings and kisses him, he kisses her back, passionately, but later proposes to Lindsey,[36] leading Peyton to tell him that she will bury her feelings so that he can be happy.[37] He then wins his first game as the Ravens coach, although the female counterparts miss it because they were locked in the library.[38] He soon has to go to Dan's parole and speak up in order to have him stay locked up. He decides to have Nathan as his best man and then fuses his bachelor party with Lindsey's.[39] He also gives Haley his new book, and she tells him not to marry Lindsey after reading it.[40] Lucas proceeds with the wedding, but Lindsey stops him after realizing his book is about Peyton. She leaves him, and when he chases after her, he sees Lindsey's bags packed. After a confrontation, she leaves him, saying, "People always leave, Luke. You know that." (A reference to one of Peyton's famous lines, also featured in his first book.)[41] Lucas flees to stay with his mother and Andy after the failed wedding. Andy convinces Lucas to go after Lindsey, prompting him to go to her and tell her that one day she will come back to him.[42] She comes back to Tree Hill for Jamie's 5th birthday, but tells Lucas that it was really over.[43] He then helps Brooke cope with having baby Angie around. After Lindsey calls him to tell him she is seeing someone, he blows up after an opposing player gets away with attempting to injure Quentin Fields, drawing himself a 10-game suspension.[44][45] He becomes heavily drunk and tells Peyton he hates her when she comes to his help.[46] He later apologizes to her after being confronted by Haley. He tells her that it was hard to let her go, hard to see her and that it remains difficult for him, making apparent his love for Peyton. Lindsey comes by to tell him his book is over and he can e-mail her the dedication. When he does, she reveals by phone that she still loves him. He then decides to go to Las Vegas and calls someone to get married. Brooke, Peyton, and Lindsey are all shown answering the phone, and the viewers are left hanging as to whom he decides to propose to.[47]

text: In the first episode of the sixth season, the audience discovers that Peyton was on the receiving end of Lucas's phone call. He waits to see if she actually arrives, and moments later, he finds her through the crowd, making her way toward him with bags packed. They share passionate kisses, Peyton glowing with happiness, and then board the plane on their way to Las Vegas. When they get there, they spend the night in a kinky Vegas hotel room. The next day, they go to the wedding chapel, but the tackiness of the place convinces them that this was the wrong decision. Instead, Peyton takes Lucas to the hotel room where he first proposed to her and they do it all over again, but this time Peyton says "yes" before he has even asked the question. With the upcoming release of his new book, Lucas travels to New York to meet with Lindsey, and eventually tells her about his engagement to Peyton. He soon starts his book tour, but it fails fast and is canceled, so he returns home to Peyton. After the two resolve problems and fears of moving in together, Lucas is offered a movie deal by Julian Baker. Julian asks Lucas questions about Peyton before she gets there, and after she runs into Julian near the bathroom, it is revealed that he is her ex-boyfriend.[48] For three weeks, Peyton fails to tell Lucas about Julian, and Lucas is angry when he discovers their past on his own.[49] Although he is initially angry, they patch things up, and Peyton convinces Lucas to continue taking a part in the making of the film, despite his reluctance to work with Julian. The film is to be shot in Tree Hill, North Carolina. He also learns Peyton is expecting their first child. Though they initially have problems with Peyton's pregnancy, the fact that she may die if the baby is born,[50] the two are eventually married by the lake where they first met, and have their reception at Tric. They soon have a healthy daughter, Sawyer Brooke Scott, which Peyton names after her best friend Brooke (similar to the naming of James Lucas Scott), and the two ride off into the sunset.

text: For Season 7, Mark Schwahn, the series' creator, said Lucas and Peyton are traveling the world; they are spending time with Karen and her husband Andy, and Lucas is writing a new book.[51] In the season opener, Jamie celebrates his seventh birthday, his second without his uncle. Lucas sends Jamie the basketball which was given to him by Keith on Lucas's seventh birthday. In the card, Lucas says he and Peyton miss Jamie every day.[52] In the later half of the season, Jamie asks Nathan about his relationship with Lucas. Nathan tells him that although they were not close when they were younger they became more like real brothers as they got older. He said, "Having a brother is a lot like having a best friend, he helped make me the man I am today."[53]

text: On August 30, 2011, it was confirmed that Chad Michael Murray would be returning to the series' final season as Lucas. He returns to Tree Hill as Haley reaches out to him for help regarding Nathan's disappearance.[54][55]

text: Lucas returned to Tree Hill during season nine, per the request of Haley. She asks him to take the kids out of town to live with him and Peyton until she can find Nathan and bring him home.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Lucas has been popular among teenagers and young adults, especially among female fans of the series.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] He has been described as having "a romantic heart",[56] and his love life has been heavily debated among fans. "If you're a huge fan of One Tree Hill, chances are you've had a debate at some point about who Lucas Scott should ultimately settle down with," stated Don Williams of BuddyTV.com. "[ These shippers ] can be an extremely rabid bunch. There are some fans who want Lucas with Peyton, others who'd like to see him go back to Brooke, and even a few who think that Lindsey was his perfect match."[57] Described as this generation's Joey and Pacey, "the overly dramatic couple you could not help but root for,"[58] Lucas and Peyton emerged as one of the show's supercouples.[59][60][61][62] Their departure received significant media attention and was picked as one of the "12 most essential episodes of One Tree Hill" in 2009 by fans at starnewsonline.com.[63]

text: Regarding Murray's portrayal of the character, Paul Cooke of DVDActive.com said, "Murray does a fine job as a brooding Lucas."[64] Kelsey Zukowsk of 2snaps.tv said, "Chad Michael Murray as Lucas plays one of the deeper roles... [He] does far better as Lucas, the one who seems to be motivated by truth and what is right, than any movie role I have seen him in."[65] Television Without Pity, on the other hand, stated, "Chad Michael Murray is almost too pretty, looks good pouting on promo posters and modeling sponsored fashions, and can only muster one and a half emotions convincingly."[66]


document_title: Active transport

question_text: where do cells get energy for active transport

text: Active transport

text: Cellular transportation mechanisms[edit]

text: Active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient or other obstructing factor.

text: Unlike passive transport, which uses the kinetic energy and natural entropy of molecules moving down a gradient, active transport uses cellular energy to move them against a gradient, polar repulsion, or other resistance. Active transport is usually associated with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.[1]

text: History[edit]

text: In 1848, the German physiologist Emil du Bois-Reymond suggested the possibility of active transport of substances across membranes.[2]

text: Rosenberg (1948) formulated the concept of active transport based on energetic considerations,[3] but later it would be redefined.

text: In 1997, Jens Christian Skou, a Danish physician [4] received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research regarding the sodium-potassium pump [4]

text: One category of cotransporters that is especially prominent in research regarding diabetes treatment [5] is sodium glucose cotransporters. These transporters were discovered by scientists at that National Health Institute.[6] These scientists had noticed a discrepancy in the absorption of glucose at different points in the kidney tubule of a rat. The gene was then discovered for intestinal glucose transport protein and linked to these membrane sodium glucose cotransport systems. The first of these membrane transport proteins was named SGLT1 followed by the discovery of SGLT2.[6] Robert Krane also played a prominent role in this field.

text: Background[edit]

text: Specialized transmembrane proteins recognize the substance and allow it to move across the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable to the substance moved or because the substance is moved against the direction of its concentration gradient.[7] There are two forms of active transport, primary active transport and secondary active transport. In primary active transport, the proteins involved are pumps that normally use the chemical energy in the form of ATP. Secondary active transport, however, makes use of potential energy, which is usually derived through exploitation of an electrochemical gradient. The energy created from one ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is used to power the transport of another ion moving against its electrochemical gradient.[8] This involves pore-forming proteins that form channels across the cell membrane. The difference between passive transport and active transport is that the active transport requires energy, and moves substances against their respective concentration gradient, whereas passive transport requires no energy and moves substances in the direction of their respective concentration gradient.[9]

text: In an antiporter, one substrate is transported in one direction across the membrane while another is cotransported in the opposite direction.  In a symporter, two substrates are transported in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and symport processes are associated with secondary active transport, meaning that one of the two substances is transported against its concentration gradient, utilizing the energy derived from the transport of another ion (mostly Na+, K+ or H+ ions) down its concentration gradient.

text: If substrate molecules are moving from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration[10] (i.e., in the opposite direction as, or against the concentration gradient), specific transmembrane carrier proteins are required. These proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and transport them across the cell membrane. Because energy is required in this process, it is known as 'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine.

text: Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil or other sources, but these salts exist in very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient. For example, the molecules chlorine (Cl^-) and nitrate NO3- exist in the cytosol of plant cells, and need to be transported into the vacuole. While the vacuole has channels for these ions, transportation of them is against the concentration gradient, and thus movement of these ions is driven by hydrogen pumps, or proton pumps[11]

text: Primary active transport[edit]

text: Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses metabolic energy to transport molecules across a membrane.[12] Substances that are transported across the cell membrane by primary active transport include metal ions, such as Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+. These charged particles require ion pumps or ion channels to cross membranes and distribute through the body.

text: Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are transmembrane ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all animal life is the sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. The sodium-potassium pump maintains the membrane potential by moving three Na+  ions out of the cell for every two [13] K+ ions moved into the cell. Other sources of energy for Primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light).  An example of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient.  An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH.

text: Model of active transport[edit]

text: ATP hydrolysis is used to transport hydrogen ions against the electrochemical gradient (from low to high hydrogen ion concentration). Phosphorylation of the carrier protein and the binding of a hydrogen ion induce a conformational (shape) change that drives the hydrogen ions to transport against the electrochemical gradient. Hydrolysis of the bound phosphate group and release of hydrogen ion then restores the carrier to its original conformation.[14]

text: Types of  primary active transporters[edit]

text:
P-type ATPase: sodium potassium pump, calcium pump, proton pump
F-ATPase: mitochondrial ATP synthase, chloroplast ATP synthase
V-ATPase: vacuolar ATPase
ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporter: MDR, CFTR, etc.

tag: ol

text: Adenosine Triphosphate-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) comprise a large and diverse protein family, often functioning as ATP-driven pumps.  Usually, there are several domains involved in the overall transporter protein's structure, including two nucleotide-binding domains that constitute the ATP-binding motif and two hydrophobic transmembrane domains that create the "pore" component.  In broad terms, ABC transporters are involved in the import or export of molecules across a cell membrane; yet within the protein family there is an extensive range of function.[15]

text: In plants, ABC transporters are often found within cell and organelle membranes, such as the mitochondria, chloroplast, and plasma membrane.  There is evidence to support that plant ABC transporters play a direct role in pathogen response, phytohormone transport, and detoxification.[15]  Furthermore, certain plant ABC transporters may function in actively exporting volatile compounds[16] and antimicrobial metabolites.[17]

text: In petunia flowers (Petunia hybrida), the ABC transporter PhABCG1 is involved in the active transport of volatile organic compounds.  PhABCG1 is expressed in the petals of open flowers.  In general, volatile compounds may promote the attraction of seed-dispersal organisms and pollinators, as well as aid in defense, signaling, allelopathy, and protection.  To study the protein PhABCG1, transgenic petunia RNA interference lines were created with decreased PhABCG1 expression levels.  In these transgenic lines, a decrease in emission of volatile compounds was observed.  Thus, PhABCG1 is likely involved in the export of volatile compounds.  Subsequent experiments involved incubating control and transgenic lines that expressed PhABCG1 to test for transport activity involving different substrates.    Ultimately, PhABCG1 is responsible for the protein-mediated transport of volatile organic compounds, such as benezyl alcohol and methylbenzoate, across the plasma membrane.[16]

text: Additionally in plants, ABC transporters may be involved in the transport of cellular metabolites.  Pleiotropic Drug Resistance ABC transporters are hypothesized to be involved in stress response and export antimicrobial metabolites.  One example of this type of ABC transporter is the protein NtPDR1.  This unique ABC transporter is found in Nicotiana tabacum BY2 cells and is expressed in the presence of microbial elicitors.  NtPDR1 is localized in the root epidermis and aerial trichomes of the plant.  Experiments using antibodies specifically targeting NtPDR1 followed by Western blotting allowed for this determination of localization.  Furthermore, it is likely that the protein NtPDR1 actively transports out antimicrobial diterpene molecules, which are toxic to the cell at high levels.[17]

text: Secondary active transport[edit]

text: In secondary active transport, also known as coupled transport or cotransport, energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead it relies upon the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions in/out of the cell.[18] Permitting one ion or molecule to move down an electrochemical gradient, but possibly against the concentration gradient where it is more concentrated to that where it is less concentrated increases entropy and can serve as a source of energy for metabolism (e.g. in ATP synthase). The energy derived from the pumping of protons across a cell membrane is frequently used as the energy source in secondary active transport. In humans, sodium (Na+) is a commonly co-transported ion across the plasma membrane, whose electrochemical gradient is then used to power the active transport of a second ion or molecule against its gradient.[19] In bacteria and small yeast cells, a commonly cotransported ion is hydrogen.[19] Hydrogen pumps are also used to create an electrochemical gradient to carry out processes within cells such as in the electron transport chain, an important function of cellular respiration that happens in the mitochondrion of the cell.[20]

text: In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.[21] Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology.[22][23]

text: Cotransporters can be classified as symporters and antiporters depending on whether the substances move in the same or opposite directions.

text: Antiporter[edit]

text: In an antiporter two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one.

text: An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.[24] This antiporter mechanism is important within the membranes of cardiac muscle cells in order to keep the calcium concentration in the cytoplasm low.[8] Many cells also possess calcium ATPases, which can operate at lower intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this important second messenger.[25] But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables rapid recovery.[26] This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to meet specific, intermittent needs.

text: Symporter[edit]

text: A symporter uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its concentration gradient). Both molecules are transported in the same direction.

text: An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell.[27] This symporter is located in the small intestines,[28] heart,[29] and brain.[30] It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys.[31]  Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy[32] This mechanism uses the absorption of sugar through the walls of the intestine to pull water in along with it.[33] Defects in SGLT2 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria.[34]

text: Bulk transport[edit]

text: Endocytosis and exocytosis are both forms of bulk transport that move materials into and out of cells, respectively, via vesicles.[35] In the case of endocytosis, the cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell.[36] The ingested particle becomes trapped within a pouch, known as a vesicle, inside the cytoplasm. Often enzymes from lysosomes are then used to digest the molecules absorbed by this process. Substances that enter the cell via signal mediated endocytosis include proteins, hormones and growth factors.[37] Viruses enter cells through a form of endocytosis that involves their outer membrane fusing with the membrane of the cell. This forces the viral DNA into the host cell.[38]

text: Biologists distinguish two main types of endocytosis: pinocytosis and phagocytosis.[39]

text:
In pinocytosis, cells engulf liquid particles (in humans this process occurs in the small intestine, where cells engulf fat droplets).[40]
In phagocytosis, cells engulf solid particles.[41]

tag: ul

text: Exocytosis involves the removal of substances through the fusion of the outer cell membrane and a vesicle membrane[38] An example of exocytosis would be the transmission of neurotransmitters across a synapse between brain cells.


document_title: iPod Touch

question_text: when did the ipod touch 3 come out

question_tokens: when did the ipod touch 3 come out

text: iPod Touch

text: Software[edit]

text: The iPod Touch runs Apple's Unix-based iOS operating system (called 'iPhone OS' until 2010) and includes bundled software to browse the Internet, view maps, send and receive email, view media, and work with office documents, presentations, spreadsheets. Users type on a virtual keyboard displayed on the screen. Apple operates an online store, allowing users to buy and directly download music, videos and third-party software. From launch, the iPod Touch was described by journalists as an 'iPhone without the phone',[9] and each iPod Touch model to date has been introduced with the same release number of iOS as the contemporary iPhone model.

text: Successive updates to iOS since the initial release in 2007 have released additional features. iPhone OS 2.0, released on July 11, 2008, introduced the App Store, which allowed third-party applications for the first time. iPhone OS 3.0, released on June 17, 2009, added features such as cut, copy, and paste, data tethering and push notification support. iOS 4.0, released on June 21, 2010, introduced iBooks, FaceTime, and multitasking. It dropped support for the first generation iPod Touch.

text: In June 2011, iOS 5, the fifth major release of iOS software, was announced at Apple's WWDC 2011, which added notification, messaging and reminder features.[10] Apple limited some features, most notably the voice control system Siri, to the iPhone.[11] iOS 6, which was released on September 19, 2012 to the fourth and fifth generation iPod Touch models, contains 200 new features including Passbook, Facebook integration and Apple Maps. The fifth generation iPod Touch gained the ability to take panoramic photos, a feature shared with the iPhone 4S and iPhone 5.[12]

text: On June 8, 2015, it was announced at the WWDC that the iPod Touch fifth generation would support iOS 9, along with other A5 devices. This makes the iPod Touch fifth generation the only iPod Touch to support 4 major versions of iOS.

text: Recent iOS updates have been free for owners of supported iPod Touch models, but Apple received criticism for charging iPod Touch owners for versions 2.0 and 3.0, which iPhone owners received for free, and for excluding certain features from the iPod Touch software that the iPhone included.[13][14] Apple's position was that they could add features for free to the iPhone because the revenue from it is accounted for on a subscription basis under accounting rules, rather than as a one time payment.[15] At WWDC in June 2010, as of iOS 4, Steve Jobs announced that Apple had "found a way" to make subsequent OS upgrades available free to iPod Touch owners.

text: Purchasing content[edit]

text: To purchase content on the iPod Touch, the user must create an Apple ID or have an existing account. With this account one may download music and videos from the iTunes Store, apps from the App Store, or books from the iBookstore. An Apple ID account created without a credit card can be used to get free content, and gift cards can be bought to pay for apps instead of using credit cards. This is convenient for users who want to purchase an app, song, video, or E-book, but they do not have a credit card.

text: Third-party applications[edit]

text: The only official way to obtain third-party applications for the iPod Touch is Apple's App Store, which is a branch of iTunes Store. The App Store application, available in all versions of iOS from 2.0 onwards, allows users to browse and download applications from a single online repository (hosted by Apple) with the iTunes Store. To develop such software, a software development kit (SDK) was officially announced on March 6, 2008, at an Apple Town Hall meeting.[16] The iOS SDK allows making applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch after paying a fee to join the development team. The developer can then set the price for the applications they develop and will receive 70% of money earned. Apple retains 30% of the sale price with no minimum fixed fee.

text: User-made modifications[edit]

text: Like all of Apple's iOS devices, the iPod Touch is a tightly controlled or closed platform. Modifying or replacing the operating system violates the device warranty, communication between apps is limited and controlled, and Apple is the only authorized software vendor. Hackers have attempted to 'jailbreak' all iOS devices to enable forbidden or unsupported features, such as multitasking in iOS versions before 4.0, themes for the home screen and the use of software Apple has refused to sell such as a battery percentage indicator. Jailbreaks for the iPod Touch first surfaced a month after the first model was released in September 2007, when hackers released JailbreakMe 1.0 (also called "AppSnapp") to jailbreak iPhone OS 1.1.1.[17][18] This allowed users to install third-party programs on their devices before Apple permitted this.

text: As of August 2014, each version of iOS on iPod Touches can be jailbroken using tools such as PwnageTool, redsn0w, Absinthe, both versions of evasi0n, and Pangu.[citation needed] Apple's warranty statement implies that an iPod Touch after jailbreaking or other modification made by unofficial means is not covered by Apple's warranty. Jailbreaking is a violation of the Terms and Conditions for using iOS. The jailbreaking process can normally be undone by performing a restore through iTunes.[19]

text: Comparison to the iPhone[edit]

text: The iPod Touch is generally similar to the iPhone. Compared to a same-generation iPhone, an iPod Touch is thinner, lighter and less expensive, while lacking some hardware and software features. Steve Jobs once referred to the iPod Touch as "training wheels for the iPhone".[20]

text: All iPods lack Touch ID, 3D Touch, NFC, GPS, an earpiece speaker and a noise-cancelling microphone. Depending on the generation, the iPod Touch may have a smaller or inferior display and camera(s). Newer models (5th and 6th generation) lack the ambient light sensor that makes automatic brightness available. Older models lack a built in speaker, a microphone, a camera, and a flash.

text: No iPod Touch has a modem through which it can place phone calls or send SMS and MMS. However, 5th and 6th generation models can either piggy-back on iPhones using Continuity or use VOIP and online SMS services to provide this functionality.

text: Requirements[edit]

text: As of the 6th Generation iPod Touch:

text:
iTunes 12.3 or later
macOS 10.8.5 or later
Windows 7 or later

text: Setup and synchronization[edit]

text: For iPod Touch units bought before October 12, 2011 users must own a Mac or PC computer to be able to use the iPod. Users then must install iTunes and connect the iPod through a USB port. The iPod will then be set up in iTunes. New iPods bought after October 12, 2011 have iOS 5.0 preloaded, and allow activation wirelessly, without the need of a PC or Mac.[21]

text: Earlier iPod Touch units must be plugged into a computer to be synced. This will charge the iPod Touch and sync the music library, videos, pictures and backup data. iOS 5 enables the user to do all this from the device and send it to the iCloud service, which supports macOS Lion and later.

text: Battery charging with FireWire[edit]

text: Starting with the second generation model, the iPod Touch dropped support charging from the 12 V pin of a FireWire cable.[22] Charging the iPod Touch takes about 2 hours (80 per cent capacity) for fast charge, and full charge takes about 4 hours.[citation needed]

text: Apple Lightning connector[edit]

text: The fifth and sixth generations of the iPod touch both feature a new dock connector, dubbed "Lightning", which replaces the 30-pin Dock Connector on older iPhone, iPad and iPod models. The Apple Lightning connector has eight pins and all signaling is digital. This new connector is smaller than the previous one allowing a slimmer form factor. Apple Lightning cables have duplicate pins on two sides of the plug, with the aim of making the plug reversible. Various accessories are available to convert the Apple Lightning connector to the older Apple Dock connector or USB,[23] although not all old accessories will work, as not all signals are available.[24]

text: Models[edit]

text: As of July 2015[update], there are six types of produced iPod Touch devices.

text:
1st generation (2007–2008) Supported until 2010 (iPhone OS 3.1.3)
2nd generation (2008–2010) Supported until 2011 (iOS 4.2.1)
3rd generation (2009–2010) Supported until 2012 (iOS 5.1.1)
4th generation (2010–2013) Supported until 2014 (iOS 6.1.6)
5th generation (2012–2015) Supported until 2016 (iOS 9.3.5)
6th generation (2015–present) Supported until 2018 (iOS 11.3)

text: Timeline of models[edit]


document_title: Predestination in Islam

question_text: where is al-lawh al- mahfudh to be found

question_tokens: where is al-lawh al - mahfudh to be found

text: Predestination in Islam

text: Definition[edit]

text: In Islam, "predestination" is the usual English language rendering of a belief that Muslims call al-qaḍdāʾ wa al-qadr. The phrase means "the divine decree and the predestination"; al-qadr derives from a root that means to measure out.[4]

text: Concept[edit]

text: Qadar is one of the aspects of aqidah. Some Muslims believe that the divine destiny is when God wrote down in the Preserved Tablet ("al-Lauḥ al-Maḥfūẓ") all that has happened and will happen, which will come to pass as written. According to this belief, a person's action is not caused by what is written in the preserved tablet, but rather the action is written in the tablet because God already knows all occurrences without the restrictions of time.[5] On the other hand, the causal relationships are also part of Qadar, since human acts affect what's stated in the Erasing And Stating Tablet ("Lauḥ al-Mahu w al-Ithbat"). The phrase reflects a Muslim doctrine that Allah has measured out the span of every person's life, their lot of good or ill fortune, and the fruits of their efforts.[6] Again Allah does not need to force anyone to do good or evil by interfering with his will, and nobody will bear witness that Allah did so.[7] When referring to the future, Muslims

text: "They will cry out to them: Were we not with you? They shall say: Yes! but you caused yourselves to fall into temptation, and you waited and doubted, and vain desires deceived you till the threatened punishment of Allah came, while the archdeceiver deceived you about Allah. "

text: According to the Qur'an, certain people go to hell because they chose to do bad deeds, and others to heaven by doing good deeds and even if Allah had chosen to guide them to the truth they themselves would choose to reject the faith:

text: "And if Allah had known any good in them He would have made them hear, and if He makes them hear they would turn back while they withdraw. "

text: "Nor would thy Lord be the One to destroy communities for a single wrong-doing, if its members were likely to mend. If thy Lord had so willed, He could have made mankind one people: but they will not cease to dispute. Except those on whom thy Lord hath bestowed His Mercy: and for this did He create them: and the Word of thy Lord shall be fulfilled: "I will fill Hell with jinns and men all together."

text: No calamity befalls on the earth or in yourselves but is inscribed in the Book of Decrees (Al-Lauh Al-Mahfuz), before We bring it into existence. Verily, that is easy for Allah.

text: A hadith reports that Muhammad said about Qadr:

text: Ali narrated that one day the Messenger of Allah was sitting with a wooden stick in his hand with which he was scratching the ground. He raised his head and said, “There is none of you, but has his place assigned either in the Fire or in Paradise.” They (the Companions) inquired, “O Allah’s Messenger! Why should we carry on doing good deeds, shall we depend (upon Qadar) and give up work?” Muhammad said: “No, carry on doing good deeds, for everyone will find it easy (to do) such deeds that will lead him towards that for which he has been created.” Then he recited the verse: “As for him who gives (in charity) and keeps his duty to Allah and fears Him, and believes in al-Husna, We will make smooth for him the path of Ease (goodness) (Surah al-Lail 92:5-7). Sahih Muslim

text: However, it is made clear that no person has the power to benefit or harm himself or others, and that guidance is only given by Allah, no one else has the power to give guidance. The Quran says:

text: "For those who do good is good (reward) and more (than this); and blackness or ignominy shall not cover their faces; these are the dwellers of the garden; in it they shall abide."

text: History[edit]

text: There are only two groups who represent the extremes regarding Qadar. Al-Jabiriyah are of the opinion that humans have no control over their actions and everything is dictated by God. The other group is Al-Qadiriyyah (not to be confused with the Sufi order, Al-Qaadirriyah) and they are of the opinion of humans having complete control over their destiny, to the extent that God does not even know what we will choose to do. The Sunni view is in the middle between these two views, where they believe that God has knowledge of everything that will be, but that humans have freedom of choice.

text: Among the historical proponents of the Sunni view of the doctrine were:

text: Ibn Umar was a strong proponent of this concept[13]

text: Among those who criticized the Sunni view of the doctrine were:

text: Ma'bad al-Juhani, the first man who discussed Qadar in Basra.

text: Sunni view[edit]

text: Sunni enumerate Qadar as one aspect of their creed (error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)). They believe that the divine destiny is when God wrote down in the Preserved Tablet ("al-Lawhu 'l-Mahfuz") all that has happened and will happen, which will come to pass as written.[citation needed]

text: According to this belief, a person's action is not caused by what is written in the Preserved Tablet but, rather, the action is written in the Preserved Tablet because God already knows all occurrences without the restrictions of time.[5]{{dead link))

text: An individual has power to choose, but since God created time and space he knows what will happen. God is without any bond of time and space. Therefore, what will happen has meaning only to humans, who are limited in time and space. An analogy is someone who watches a movie for the second time, who knows what will happen next, while for the first time watcher the next movie is unknown.[citation needed]

text: According to Maturidi belief, all possible actions are already created by God and humans just choose which action they follow. Even the decisions are predetermined, they happen on humans own essence.[14]

text: Belief in al-Qadar is based on four things[edit]

text:
– العلم Al-'Ilm – Knowledge: i.e., that Allah knows what had been, what will be, what has never been, and how it could be if it was. He also knows what his creation will do, by virtue of His eternal knowledge, including their choices that will take place.
– كتابة Kitabat – Writing: i.e., that Allah has written every thing that exists including the destiny of all creatures in al-Lauh al-Mahfuz prior to creation.
– مشيئة Mashii'at – Will: i.e., that what Allah wills happens and what He does not will does not happen. There is no movement in the heavens or on earth but happens by His will. This does not mean that He forces things to happen the way they happen in the area of human beings' voluntary actions. It means that He knew what they will choose, wrote it and now lets it happen.
– الخلق Al-Khalq – Creation and formation: i.e., that Allah is the Creator of all things, including the actions of His servants. They do their actions in a real sense, and Allah is the Creator of them and of their actions.

text: Stages of Taqdeer (fate)[edit]

text: There are five stages where Qadar is determined and prescribed/sent to creation:

text:
The Decree of Allah that is written in Al-Lawh Al-Mahfuud before the creation of the universe. This destiny written in the preserved tablet is never changed and encompasses everything that will be.
Allah made a divine decree after the creation of Adam. Allah took out all of the progeny of Adam (i.e. all of the humans from the beginning of time until the end of time), and asked them "Am I not your Lord?" and all of the humans responded "We testify that You are our Lord!" Then Allah decreed to them who shall go to paradise and who shall go to hell.
The Life-time decree. This occurs when a person is in the womb of their mother, specifically 120 days after conception. Allah sends an angel to put a soul into the person, and the angel writes down the decree that Allah has made; their life-span, their actions, their sustenance (how much they will earn throughout their lifetime) and whether they will be a dweller of paradise or a dweller of hell.[15]
The yearly decree. This is during the Night of Qadr (Night of Decree) where Allah sends down his decrees from heaven to earth, in it he destines the actions (deeds, sustenance, births, deaths, etc.) of creation for the next year. The word Qadar should not be confused with Qadr; Qadar is destiny, Qadr is that which has been destined, i.e. decree, thus the translation – Night of Decree.
The Daily Decree. Allah decrees the daily actions of his creation.

text: An example of how these categorizations help clear the idea of destiny is as follows: It is possible that Allah sends a daily/yearly decree dictating that a person will get a profit. However, due to that person's good deeds (for instance, fulfilling the ties of kinship [being good to your relatives and maintaining the relationship]), Allah sends another decree increasing that person's profit. The reversal of the two decrees is all within Allah's knowledge and is recorded in the Preserved Tablet. The person himself knows nothing of his own destiny or of Allah's decrees, but what he does know is that if he performs certain good deeds, then He will increase his profit (as in the example above) more than if he does not do that deed.

text: In the light of the above the following may be derived:

text:
Our supplications do change destiny and are of much avail.
Good deeds are a source of an increase in one's sustenance, and can avert calamities.
Sins result in a decrease in one's sustenance, and invite calamities.[16]

text: Shi'a view[edit]

text: Twelvers, along with other Shia sects such as the Zaydis, reject predestination.[17][18][19][20] This belief is further emphasized by the Shia concept of Bada', which states that God has not set a definite course for human history. Instead, God may alter the course of human history as is seen to be fit.

text: To show that there is no contradiction between being predestined, and free will, Shiite states that matters relating to the human destiny is of two kinds: definite and indefinite. To explain the definitive one, Shiite argues that God has definite power over the whole of existence, however, whenever He wills, He can replace a given destiny with another one; and that is what is called indefinite destiny. Some of these changes of destiny, thus, are brought about by man himself, who can through his free will, his decisions, and his way of life—lay the groundwork for a change in his destiny as been pointed out in the verses: Truly, God will not change the condition of a people as long as they do not change Their state themselves.[21] Both types of destinies, however, are contained within God's foreknowledge, Shiite argues, so that there could be no sort of change (Bada) concerning His knowledge. So the first type of destiny does not mean a limitation of God’s power; since God, in contrast to the belief of Jews who says the hand of God is tied’ asserts: Nay, His hands are spread out wide ....[22] So God has the power to change everything he wills and God's creativity is continuous. Accordingly, as Sobhani puts it, "all groups in Islam regard "bada" as a tenet of the faith, even if not all actually use the term."[23]