document_title: Computer

question_text: when was the first computer invented in the world

question_tokens: when was the first computer invented in the world

text: Computer

text: Etymology

text: According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer" was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I haue [sic] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." This usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.[1]

text: The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer" in the "1640s, [meaning] "one who calculates,"; this is an "... agent noun from compute (v.)". The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "calculating machine" (of any type) is from 1897." The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the "modern use" of the term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer" dates from "... 1945 under this name; [in a] theoretical [sense] from 1937, as Turing machine".[2]

text: History

text: Pre-20th century

text: Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.[3][4] The use of counting rods is one example.

text: The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.

text: The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer", according to Derek J. de Solla Price.[5] It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

text: Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century.[6] The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer[7][8] and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235.[9] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe,[10] an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine[11] with a gear train and gear-wheels,[12] circa 1000 AD.

text: The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

text: The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.

text: The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.

text: In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet-Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.[13]

text: The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

text: The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.[14] In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

text: First computing device

text: Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer",[15] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.[16][17]

text: The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand – this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.

text: Analog computers

text: During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.[18] The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.[14]

text: The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).

text: Digital computers

text: It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Digital computer. (Discuss) (May 2017)

text: Electromechanical

text: By 1938, the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

text: Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.[19]

text: In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer.[20][21] The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz.[22] Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.[23] The Z3 was Turing complete.[24][25]

text: Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits

text: Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.[18] In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,[26] the first "automatic electronic digital computer".[27] This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.[28]

text: During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes. To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ 40/42 machine, used for high-level Army communications, Max Newman and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus.[28] He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus.[29] After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944[30] and attacked its first message on 5 February.[28]

text: Colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.[18] It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.[31][32]

text: The U.S.-built ENIAC[33] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete. Like the Colossus, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.

text: It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.[34]

text: Modern computers

text: Concept of modern computer

text: The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936 paper,[35] On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine" and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the stored program, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.[36] Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

text: Stored programs

text: Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine.[28] With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.[18]

text: The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, nicknamed Baby, was the world's first stored-program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[37] It was designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random-access digital storage device.[38] Although the computer was considered "small and primitive" by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.[39] As soon as the SSEM had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1.

text: The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.[40] Built by Ferranti, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam.[41] In October 1947, the directors of British catering company J. Lyons & Company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The LEO I computer became operational in April 1951[42] and ran the world's first regular routine office computer job.

text: Transistors

text: The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.

text: At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.[43] Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955,[44] built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.[44][45]

text: Integrated circuits

text: The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit. The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 May 1952.[46]

text: The first practical ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor.[47] Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958.[48] In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated".[49][50] Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby.[51] His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium.

text: This new development heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers and led to the invention of the microprocessor. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004,[52] designed and realized by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor at Intel.[53]

text: Mobile computers become dominant

text: With the continued miniaturization of computing resources, and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s.[54] The same developments that spurred the growth of laptop computers and other portable computers allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular phones. These so-called smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and have become the dominant computing device on the market, with manufacturers reporting having shipped an estimated 237 million devices in 2Q 2013.[55]

text: Types

text: Computers are typically classified based on their uses:

text: Based on uses

text:
Analog computer
Digital computer
Hybrid computer

tag: ul

text: Based on sizes

text:
Smartphone
Microcomputer
Workstation
Personal computer
Laptop
Minicomputer
Mainframe computer
Supercomputer

text: Hardware

text: The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects. Circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware.

text: History of computing hardware

text:
First generation (mechanical/electromechanical)
Calculators
Pascal's calculator, Arithmometer, Difference engine, Quevedo's analytical machines

Programmable devices
Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, IBM ASCC/Harvard Mark I, Harvard Mark II, IBM SSEC, Z1, Z2, Z3

Second generation (vacuum tubes)
Calculators
Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120

Programmable devices
Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22

Third generation (discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI integrated circuits)
Mainframes
IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH

Minicomputer
HP 2116A, IBM System/32, IBM System/36, LINC, PDP-8, PDP-11

Desktop Computer
Programma 101, HP 9100

Fourth generation (VLSI integrated circuits)
Minicomputer
VAX, IBM System i

4-bit microcomputer
Intel 4004, Intel 4040

8-bit microcomputer
Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80

16-bit microcomputer
Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802

32-bit microcomputer
Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM

64-bit microcomputer[56]
Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64, ARMv8-A

Embedded computer
Intel 8048, Intel 8051

Personal computer
Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet PC, Wearable computer

Theoretical/experimental
Quantum computer, Chemical computer, DNA computing, Optical computer, Spintronics-based computer

text: Other hardware topics

text:
Peripheral device (input/output)
Input
Mouse, keyboard, joystick, image scanner, webcam, graphics tablet, microphone

Output
Monitor, printer, loudspeaker

Both
Floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, optical disc drive, teleprinter

Computer buses
Short range
RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB

Long range (computer networking)
Ethernet, ATM, FDDI

text: A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

text: Input devices

text: When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:

text:
Computer keyboard
Digital camera
Digital video
Graphics tablet
Image scanner
Joystick
Microphone
Mouse
Overlay keyboard
Real-time clock
Trackball
Touchscreen

text: Output devices

text: The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:

text:
Computer monitor
Printer
PC speaker
Projector
Sound card
Video card

text: Control unit

text: The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.[57] Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.

text: A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.[58]

text: The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

text:
Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
Jump back to step (1).

text: Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).

text: The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.

text: Central processing unit (CPU)

text: The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

text: Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

text: The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.[59] The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?"). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

text: Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.[60] Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.

text: Memory

text: A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595." The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

text: In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (28 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

text: The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

text: Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:

text:
random-access memory or RAM
read-only memory or ROM

text: RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.[61]

text: In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.

text: Input/output (I/O)

text: I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.[62] Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.[63] On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O. I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics.[citation needed] Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.

text: Multitasking

text: While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.[64] One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time". then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.[65]

text: Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.

text: Multiprocessing

text: Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.

text: Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.[66] They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.

text: Software

text: Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware".

text: Operating systems

text:
Operating system /System Software
Unix and BSD
UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems

GNU/Linux
List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions

Microsoft Windows
Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows ME, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10

DOS
86-DOS (QDOS), IBM PC DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS

Macintosh operating systems
Classic Mac OS, macOS (previously OS X and Mac OS X)

Embedded and real-time
List of embedded operating systems

Experimental
Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs

Library
Multimedia
DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL, Vulkan (API)

Programming library
C standard library, Standard Template Library

Data
Protocol
TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP

File format
HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG

User interface
Graphical user interface (WIMP)
Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua

Text-based user interface
Command-line interface, Text user interface

Application Software
Office suite
Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software

Internet Access
Browser, Email client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging

Design and manufacturing
Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management

Graphics
Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing

Audio
Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music

Software engineering
Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated development environment, Software performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management

Educational
Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator

Games
Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction

Misc
Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager

text: Languages

text: There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.

text:
Programming languages

Lists of programming languages
Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by category, Generational list of programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages

Commonly used assembly languages
ARM, MIPS, x86

Commonly used high-level programming languages
Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, PL/1, REXX, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal

Commonly used scripting languages
Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl

text: Application Software

text: Programs

text: The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

text: Stored program architecture

text: This section applies to most common RAM machine–based computers.

text: In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

text: Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

text: Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language:

text: Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.

text: Machine code

text: In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program[citation needed], architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.

text: While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers,[67] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember – a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.

text: Programming language

text: Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.

text: Low-level languages

text: Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC.[68]

text: High-level languages/third generation language

text: Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler.[69] High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

text: Fourth-generation languages

text: Fourth-generation languages (4GL) are less procedural than 3G languages. The benefit of 4GL is that they provide ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer.

text: Program design

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

text: Bugs

text: Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to "hang", becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.[70] Admiral Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist and developer of the first compiler, is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the Harvard Mark II computer in September 1947.[71]

text: Firmware

text: Firmware is the technology which has the combination of both hardware and software such as BIOS chip inside a computer. This chip (hardware) is located on the motherboard and has the BIOS set up (software) stored in it.

text: Networking and the Internet

text: Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as Sabre.[72] In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that resulted was called the ARPANET.[73] The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.

text: In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

text: Unconventional computers

text: A computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, the modern[74] definition of a computer is literally: "A device that computes, especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information."[75] Any device which processes information qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is purposeful.[citation needed]

text: Unconventional computing

text: Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors. However, conceptually computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); an often quoted example.[citation needed] More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.

text: Future

text: There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by quantum factoring) very quickly.

text: Computer architecture paradigms

text: There are many types of computer architectures:

text:
Quantum computer vs. Chemical computer
Scalar processor vs. Vector processor
Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) computers
Register machine vs. Stack machine
Harvard architecture vs. von Neumann architecture
Cellular architecture

text: Of all these abstract machines, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing.[76] Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing-complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.

text: Artificial intelligence

text: A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule based systems and pattern recognition systems. Rule based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern based systems include voice recognition, font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing.

text: Professions and organizations

text: As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.

text:
Computer-related professions

Hardware-related
Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoengineering

Software-related
Computer science, Computer engineering, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information technology, Information systems, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game industry, Web design

text: The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

text:
Organizations

Standards groups
ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C

Professional societies
ACM, AIS, IET, IFIP, BCS

Free/open source software groups
Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation


document_title: Legal status of tattooing in the United States

question_text: how old do you have to be to get a tatoo in california

root

text: In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor cannot enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).

tag: p

text: In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and/or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.

text:
Legal Restrictions on Tattooing & Body Modification by State

State
Minimum Age (with parent/guardian consent)
Form of Parent/Guardian Consent
Notes & Exceptions
Intoxicated/Impaired Individuals
Area of Law/Type of Penalty
Licensing & Regulation
Relevant Statute(s) and Rules

Alabama
none specified[1]
informed written consent, signed in presence of the artist/service provider or their agent[1][2]
Ear piercing exempt from Alabama body art laws & rules.[2][3]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or pierced[1][2]
Violations of Alabama Tattoo & Body Piercing laws are a class c misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of up to $100 and/or up to 90 days imprisonment for each violation.[4]
Alabama's Department of Public Health licenses Tattoo, body piercing, & body art facilities, and sets standards for their operation.[5]
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.[2]

Ala. Code § 22-1-17A[3][6]
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.[2]

Alaska
18 (piercing excepted)[7]
parent/guardian must both give written consent and be present during the procedure[7]
Minors may be pierced with parental consent [7]
no restriction[8]

Alaska Stat. § 08.13.217[7]

Arizona
none specified[9]
parent/guardian must be physically present[9]
Minors can have their ears pierced with the written or verbal consent of a parent/guardian, can have procedures prescribed by a health care provider.[9]
no restriction[9]
Violations are a class 6 felony.[9]
There are no health regulations for tattoo shops in Arizona. [10]
Tattoos. Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 13-3721[9]

Arkansas
16[11]
parent/guardian must both give written consent and be physically present[12]
none specified[12]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or pierced.[12]

Ark. Stat. Ann. §§ 20-27-1501 et seq.[12]

California
18 (piercing excepted)[13][14]
parent/guardian must be present during procedure
Minors may have their ears pierced with parental consent.[15] They may be pierced elsewhere with parental consent, but not on their genitals or nipples. Permanent cosmetics are permitted on nipples, when done by a cosmetic technician and with parental consent.[14]
no restriction

Body Art. Cal. Health & Safety Code § 119300 to 119328[6][15]
Cal. Penal Code 653[13]

Colorado
18 Express written consent of parent or guardian[16]
parent/guardian must be present during procedure
Persons who are "noticeably impaired" cannot have body art procedures[16]

Body Artists. Colo. Rev. Stat. § 25-4-2101 to 2103[6]

Connecticut
none specified
permission of parent or guardian[17][18]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent[17]
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.[18]

no restrictions

Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-92a,[6][18]
Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-92g[6][17]

District of Columbia
18 (ear piercing excepted)[19]
written consent (for ear piercing)[19]
minors may have their ears pierced with written parental consent[19]
no restrictions[19]

Body Artists. DC Code § 47-2853.76d[6][19]

Delaware
18[20]
notarized written consent to the specific procedure[20]
none specified[20]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or body pierced[20]

Del. Code Ann. Title 11, Ch 5 §1114(a)[6][20]
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 §122(3)(w)[6]

Florida
16[21]
Must be accompanied by parent or guardian who can show proof of guardianship, both parent and minor must present photo ID, and a consent form must be notarized.[21]
for medical or dental purposes by a licensed physician or dentist[21]
no restriction

Fla. Stat. § 381.00787[6]
Fla. Stat. §381.0775 et seq.[6] Fla. Stat. §381.075[6]

Georgia
18 (body piercing excepted)[22]
For body piercing: prior written consent of parent/guardian[23]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent[23]
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent[23]
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes."[22]
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.[24]

no restrictions

Ga. Code § 31-40-1 to 31-40-10[6]
Ga. Code § 16-12-5[6]
Ga. Code § 16-5-71.1[6]

Hawaii
none specified[25]
written consent of parent/guardian[25]

Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321-13[6]
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321-379[6]

Idaho
18[26]
Written informed consent of parent/guardian, executed in the presence of the person performing the procedure, or their agent/employee.[26]
Minors can have their ears pierced without parental consent.[6]
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.[6]

no restrictions

Idaho Code § 18-1523 (2004)[6]

Illinois
18 (body piercings excepted)[27]
Written consent of parent/guardian (for body piercings)[27]
Minors cannot be present in places where tattooing or body piercing is done except in the presence of a parent/guardian.[27]
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent/guardian consent.[27]

no restrictions

Ill. Stat. 720 §5/12-10.1[6]
Ill. Stat. 410 §54/1 t0 54/999[6]

Indiana
none specified[28]
Parent/guardian must both be present during the procedure and provide written permission.[28]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent.[28]
no restrictions

Ind. Code Ann. §35-42-2-7[6][28]
Ind. Code Ann. §16-19-3-4.1[6][29]

Iowa
18[30]
n/a - minors cannot be tattooed[30]
Body piercing is not regulated by state law in Iowa, however county or city laws may regulate it.[31]
no restrictions

Iowa Code §135.37[6]
Iowa Code §135.37[6]

Kansas
16[32]
Parent/guardian must give written consent, written consent must be notarized, and the parent/guardian must be present during the procedure.[32]
Minors may have their ears pierced[33]
no restrictions

Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-1953[6]
Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-1940 to 65-1954[6]

Kentucky
16
Parent/guardian must give written, notarized consent.[34]
none (ear piercing also requires written, notarized consent).[35]

Ky. Rev. Stat. §211.760[6]
Ky. Rev. Stat. §194A.050; 211.760[6]

Louisiana
16
Parent or guardian must consent, and their presence during the procedure is required for tattoos, but not for body piercings.[36]

no restrictions

La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §14:93.2[6]
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40:2831 et seq.[6]

Maine
18 (piercings excepted)[37]
For body piercings: prior legal consent of parent/guardian.[38]
Maine law does not require parent/guardian consent for ear piercing[39]
no restrictions

Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. Title 32 § 4201-4329[6]

Maryland
none specified[40]
written consent, which must be retained for 3 years.
Piercing of the ear lobe is exempt[41]
no restriction
Health Department Regulations
A license is not required, but any person performing tattooing or piercing must comply with all the relevant health code regulations[40]
COMAR 10.06.01.02 and 10.06.01.06

Massachusetts
18 (except body piercing other than genitalia)[42]
Minors cannot receive tattoo, branding, or scarification at all. For piercing of areas other than the genitalia, a parent may provide identification and sign the consent document.[42]
Physicians performing for treatment reasons and ear piercing are exempt from regulation.[42]
no restriction
County Health Department regulates body art, but all follow a model regulation set by the state.
Artists must have a permit, and establishments are subject to following specific health department regulations[42]
Model Regulations for Body Art Establishments[42]

Michigan
none specified[43]
Written, informed consent of parent/guardian. Must be executed (signed) in the presences of the person performing the procedure, or their employee.[43]

cannot be tattooed, branded, or body pierced.[43]

Mich. Comp. Laws § 333.13101 to 333.13112[44]

Minnesota
18 (piercings excepted)[45]
For piercings: presence of parent/guardian and a consent form are both required.[45]
Minors cannot be tattooed. They can be body pierced, but not in the nipples or genitals. Branding, scarification, suspension, subdermal implantation, microdermal, and tongue bifurcation are also prohibited for minors.[45]
cannot have any body art procedures.[45]

Minnesota Statutes 146B.07[45]

Mississippi
18
n/a - minors cannot be tattooed
piercing also prohibited except for the outer perimeter or lobe of the ear.
no restriction

Miss.Code Ann. §73-61

Missouri
none specified[46]
For both piercings and tattoos, parent/guardian must sign written consent in the presence of the person performing the procedure, or their employee.[46]

cannot be tattooed, branded or body pierced.[46]
violations are a misdemeanor, punishable with a fine of up to $500 (more for repeat offenses)[46]
The state director of the division of professional registration licenses all body artists, and sets rules & regulations for the operation of body art establishments.[47]
Mo. Rev. Stat. §324.520[46]

Montana
none specified[48]
Parent or guardian must give "explicit, in-person" consent.[48] Montana administrative rules also require that the parent/guardian be present throughout the procedure.[49]

cannot be tattooed or body pierced.[49]
A person who tattoos or body pierces a minor without parent/guardian consent is guilty of Unlawful transactions with children, punishable by a fine of up to $500 or six months in county jail, or both.[48]
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50–100 for a first offense to $300 and/or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.[50]

Montana's Department of Health and Safety licenses and regulates body art establishments.[51] Local health boards may establish their own licensing and regulatory schemes in lieu of the state department's.[52]
Mont. Code Ann. §45-5-623[48]
Mont. Code Ann. §50-48-101 to 110[53]
Mont. Code Ann. §50-48-201 to 209[54]

Nebraska
none specified[55]
written consent, must be present during procedure
Piercing does not include the external parts of the ear[56]
No restrictions

Nebraska Revised Statute 38-1008, 38-1009, 38-1010, 38-1011, 38-1060, 38-10,165

Nevada
n/a[6]
n/a[6]
Nevada state law does not regulate tattoos, piercings, or other body art. Regional health districts may regulate the practice. The southern Nevada Health District, for example, does not allow minors below the age of 14 to be tattooed, and requires a parent or guardian to provide written consent and be present during the procedure for 14- to 18-year-olds. The southern Nevada district also bans tattoos on those who are under the influence of drugs or alcohol.[57]
n/a[6]

n/a[6]

New Hampshire
18 (piercings excepted)[58]
For piercings: parent/guardian must both sign written consent and be present during the procedure.
Minors cannot be tattooed or branded. They may be pierced with parent/guardian consent.[58] Minors may have their ears pierced without parent/guardian consent.[59]
no restrictions

N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 314[6]

New Jersey
none specified[60]
written permission of parent/guardian is required for tattooing and body piercing.[60]
Parent/guardian must be present and sign written consent for ear piercings as well as for body piercing. Minors cannot have genital piercings even with parent/guardian consent.[61]
no restrictions
no restrictions
no restrictions
N.J. Stat. Ann. §2C:40-21
N.J.A.C. 8:27-1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. §26-1A-7[6]

New Mexico
none specified[62]
Written consent and presence during the procedure.
Medical procedures by physicians and ear piercing are exempt[63]
no restrictions
Administrative Regulations set by the Board of Barbers and Cosmetologists
All body artists are required to be licensed through the state, and are subject to regulations from the Board
Body Art Safe Practices Act. N.M. Stat. Ann. § 61-17B et seq.,[63] N.M. Administrative Code 16.36 et seq.[62]

New York
18 (piercings excepted) [64]
Minors cannot be tattooed with parent/guardian consent. For piercings: parent/guardian must give written consent, signed in presence of the body artist or body art establishment owner.[65]
Written parental consent is not required for ear piercings.[66]
no restrictions

New York Public Health Law, Article 4-A[6][65]
N.Y. Public Health Law §460-466[6]
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21[6]

North Carolina
18 (piercings excepted)[67]
Minors cannot be tattooed, even with parent/guardian consent. "Prior consent" of parent/guardian is required for body piercings.[67]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent.[67]
no restrictions

N.C. Gen. Stat. § 130A-283[68]
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14-400[69]

North Dakota
none specified[70]
Parent/guardian must be present during the procedure and give written consent.[70]

cannot get tattoos or other body art[71]

N.D. Code §23-01-35[72]
N.D. Code §12.1-31-13[6][70]

Ohio
none specified[73]
Parent/guardian must both sign a consent form and "appear in person at the business at the time the procedure is performed."[73]
none - parent/guardian consent and presence is also required for ear piercings.[73]
no restrictions

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §3730.01 to 3730.99[6][73]

Oklahoma
18 (piercings excepted)[74]
Minors cannot be tattooed, even with parent/guardian consent. For piercings: parent/guardian must both give written consent and be present during the procedure.[74]
Ear piercing is not governed/restricted by Oklahoma law.[74]
Scleral tattooing is illegal.[74]

cannot be tattooed.[74]

Okla. Stat. Title 21 §842.1, 842.2, 842.3[6]

Oregon
18 (piercings excepted)[75]
For piercings: parent/guardian must give written consent and present proof of identity.[76][77]
Minors can only be tattooed with the authorization of a physician.[75]
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited[78]
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders cannot be tattooed or pierced.[75][77]
Minors cannot be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent/guardian consent.[76]
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.[77]

cannot be tattooed or pierced.[75][77]
Violations of Oregon body art laws are a misdemeanor.[79]
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).[80]

Both body artists and body art establishments are licensed by the Oregon Health Licensing Office.[81] With the assistance of a Board of Body Art practitioners, the Health Licensing Office also sets detailed rules and regulations for body art.[82]
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.350 et seq
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500[6]
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920[82]

Pennsylvania
none specified[83]
parent/guardian must both give consent and be present during the procedure.[83]

no restrictions

Pa. Cons. Stat. Title 18 § 6311[6][83]

Rhode Island
18 (piercings excepted)[84][85]
Minors cannot be tattooed.[84] For piercings: parent/guardian must both give consent and be present for the procedure.[85]

no restrictions
Tattooing a minor is a criminal offense (misdemeanor), maximum fine $300[84]
Tattooing and body art are regulated by the department of health, artists must be registered.[85]
RI Gen L § 23-1-39[85]
RI Gen L § 11-9-15[84]

South Carolina
18 (piercings excepted)[86][87]
Minors cannot be tattooed.[86] For piercings: parent/guardian must either give written, notarized consent or be present during the procedure.[87]
Head, face, and neck tattoos are illegal.[86]
cannot be tattooed or body pierced[86][88]
Under the Health Code, persons violating restrictions on tattooing and body piercing are guilty of a misdemeanor. Upon conviction, they may be fined up to $2500 or imprisoned for a year, or both.[86][87]
Tattoo and body piercing facilities are regulated by the Department of Health and Environmental Control. Tattoo facilities are licensed, body piercing facilities require a permit, and artists must be registered[89][90]
S.C. Code § 44-32-10 to 44-32-120[88]
S.C. Code § 44-34-10 to 44-34-110[91]

South Dakota
none specified[92]
Parent/guardian must sign a consent form.[92]

cannot be tattooed or pierced[93][94]
Tattooing a minor is a class 2 misdemeanor.[95]
Tattooing and Body Piercing are governed by Department of Health rules.[96] Municipalities may set stricter regulations, and have the authority to license body artists.[95]
S.D. Codified Laws Ann. §26-10-19[92]
S.D. Laws § 9-34-17[95]

Tennessee
18 (piercings excepted)[97][98]
For tattoos that cover an existing tattoo (see Notes & Exceptions): Parent/Guardian must be present during the procedure.[97]
For piercings: Parent/Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.[98]

Minors over the age of sixteen may be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo, with parent/guardian consent.[97]

Minors who lie about their age to be tattooed are guilty of a "delinquent act," are required to pay a fine of $50–$250 and serve at least 20 hours of community service.[97]
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor,[97] breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.[99]

Tattoo artists and body piercers are licensed by the state department of health, tattoo shops require a certificate from the local health department.[100][101]
Tenn. Code §§ 62-38-201-310[102]

Texas
18 (piercings excepted)[103][104]
For body piercings and for covering existing tattoos (see Notes & Exceptions): Parent/guardian must be present during procedure, sign an affidavit[103][104]
Ear piercing is exempt from body piercing statutes[105]
Minors may, with parent/guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang-related, or drug-related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover"[103]
Tongue splitting prohibited.[106]

Cannot be tattooed or pierced.[103][107]
Misrepresenting one's age to get a tattoo, or to get a piercing without parental consent, is a class B misdemeanor[103][104]
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.[108]
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation[109]

Tattoo artists and body piercers must be registered with the Texas Department of Health[110] Tattoo and body piercing shops must be licensed[111]
Texas Health and Safety Code Ann. §146[112]

Utah
none specified[113]
Parent/guardian must be present during the procedure, give written permission, and provide proof of identity.[113]
Parental consent not required by law for ear piercing[113]

Tattooing or body piercing a minor is a class b misdemeanor, shops can be fined up to $1000 for each violation.[113]

Utah Code Ann. §76-10-2201[6]

Vermont
none specified[114]

Tattooists and body piercers must be registered.[114]
Vt. Stat. Ann. Title 26 §4101 to 4109[6][115]

Virginia
none specified[116]
Parent/Guardian must be present during the procedure.[116]
Virginia law does not limit minors' ability to have their ears pierced.[116]

Tattooing or body piercing a minor is a class 1 misdemeanor[116]
Tattoo artists and body piercers, as well as the operators of tattoo and body piercing establishments, are licensed by the state.[117][118]
Civic/local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.[119]

Va. Code §54.1-700 et seq.
Va. Code §15.2-912
Va. Code § 18.2-371.3.[6]

Washington
18 (piercings excepted)[120]

cannot have tattoos, body piercings, or other body art.[121]

Wash. Code §26.28.085[120]
Wash. Code § 18.300[122]
Wash. Code § 246-145-001 to 060[123]
Wash. Code §70.54[124]

West Virginia
none specified[125]
parent/guardian must give written consent[125]

All persons receiving a tattoo must attest they are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol.[125]

Tattoo shop owners and body piercing studios must register with local board of health, and must be registered as a business with the state[126][127][128]
W. Va. Code §16-37
W. Va. Code §16-38[129]

Wisconsin
18[130]
n/a (tattooing not permitted under 18)
Physicians in the course of professional practice are exempt
no restriction
Tattooing a minor or even offering to do so is subject to a fine of up to $200
Artists must be satisfy training requirements and obtain a license from the health department. Establishments are subject to inspection and licensing[131]
Wisconsin Statutes & Annotations 948.70 and 252.235

Wyoming
none specified[132]
Verbal consent, presence during procedure.[132]
Procedures performed under the supervision of a licensed physician, and piercing of the ear, do not count as body art for this law.
no restriction[132]
Misdemeanor criminal offense, punishable by fine and prison time[132]

Wyoming Statute §14-3-107[132]

tag: table


document_title: Dave Meltzer

question_text: who has the most 5 star wrestling matches

text: Dave Meltzer

text: Early life[edit]

text: Meltzer was born in New York City, lived in upstate New York until he was ten, before his family settled in San Jose, California.[6] Meltzer earned a journalism degree from San Jose State University and started out as a sports writer for the Wichita Falls Times Record News and the Turlock Journal. He demonstrated an interest in professional wrestling and a journalistic approach to it early in life. Meltzer wrote several wrestling-related publications that predate WON, dating back to 1971. The most notable of these was the California Wrestling Report, ca. 1973–1974, which reported on the still-extant National Wrestling Alliance territories operating out of Los Angeles and San Francisco.

text: Wrestling Observer Newsletter[edit]

text: The beginnings of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter (WON) date back to 1980, when Meltzer began an annual poll amongst those with whom he corresponded regarding professional wrestling. According to Meltzer, he was just a fan at first. A short time later, he began maintaining a tape-trading list, and would occasionally send match results and news updates along with tape updates. Meltzer stated that he wanted to keep his friends in college "in the loop" for his tape trading as well as the happenings in the business, as the mainstream wrestling magazines catered to a somewhat younger demographic.[7]

text: Impact[edit]

text: Meltzer popularized the "star rating" system (devised by Jim Cornette and his childhood friend Norm M. Dooley[citation needed]), which rates matches on a scale of zero to five stars (sometimes going to negative five stars in the case of very bad matches) in a similar manner to that used by many movie critics.[6] As in the field of film, a rating is a largely subjective affair that may take into account the amount of action as opposed to restholds ("workrate"), the difficulty and variety of moves used, the history of the workers and their feud, the development of an in-match storyline based on the wrestling moves and how they affect the wrestlers, and the overall reaction of the crowd.

text: Five-star matches, as rated by Meltzer, are extremely rare. The latest was Donovan Dijak vs. Keith Lee from Pro Wrestling Guerrilla's Battle of Los Angeles 2017 Night 3.[8] 94 matches[citation needed] have received the honor since Dynamite Kid and Tiger Mask I were the inaugural "five star match". Mitsuharu Misawa has the most five-star matches with 23 (including one match wrestling as Tiger Mask II).

text: Meltzer has also given ratings that have exceeded five-stars, giving a six-star rating to a match between Mitsuharu Misawa and Toshiaki Kawada,[9] and to the Wrestle Kingdom 11 match between Kazuchika Okada and Kenny Omega on January 4, 2017.[10] Meltzer went even further beyond the six-star rating in June 2017, when he gave the Dominion 6.11 in Osaka-jo Hall rematch between Okada and Omega 6¼ (******1/4) stars.[11] Meltzer continued going past the five-star rating for two matches in the 2017 G1 Climax; giving the third match between Okada and Omega 6 stars and the final between Omega and Tetsuya Naito 5¾ stars.[8]

text: Despite this rating system representing only the subjective opinion of one individual, wrestlers, such as Bret Hart, have written how proud they were when their performances were praised in the WON.[12]

text: Bibliography[edit]

text:
Tributes: Remembering Some of the World's Greatest Wrestlers (Winding Stair Press, 2001, Hardcover) ISBN 1-55366-085-4 ISBN 978-1553660859
Tributes II: Remembering More of the World's Greatest Wrestlers (Sports Publishing, 2004, Hardcover) ISBN 1-58261-817-8 ISBN 978-1582618173

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Cauliflower Alley Club

James Melby Historian Award (2017)[13]

George Tragos/Lou Thesz Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame

Jim Melby Award (2016)[2]


document_title: Saints & Sinners (2016 TV series)

question_text: when does the new season of saints and sinners come on

text: Saints & Sinners (2016 TV series)

text: Production[edit]

text: On May 7, 2015, Bounce TV announced that it had ordered a new original drama, Saints & Sinners, from independent production company Swirl Films to premiere in 2016. The series serves as the first original drama commissioned by the African-American-oriented digital television network, whose previous originals were sitcoms.[6][7][8] Saints & Sinners also has same African-American church storyline like Oprah Winfrey Network drama series Greenleaf, which also being produced in Atlanta at the same time.[9]

text: The eight-episode first season began filming in Atlanta, Georgia in January 2016. On January 12, 2016, Vanessa Bell Calloway, Gloria Reuben, Clifton Powell, Richard Lawson, Keith Robinson, Christian Keyes, Jasmine Burke, J. D. Williams, and Afemo Omilami were announced as main cast members of the series .[8][10] The pilot was directed by filmmaker Jerry Lamothe. Principal photography ended February 25, 2016.[11] To promote the series, Bounce TV allowed affiliates who carry the network on a digital subchannel to air an encore of the series premiere on their main channels.[12]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Regular cast[edit]

text:
Vanessa Bell Calloway as Lady Ella Johnson
Gloria Reuben as the Mayor Pamela Clayborne
Christian Keyes as Levi Sterling
Jasmine Burke as Dr. Christie Johnson
Clifton Powell as Rex Fisher
Keith Robinson as Miles Calloway
J. D. Williams as Jabari Morris
David Banner as Pastor Greene
Tray Chaney as Kendrick Murphy
Demetria McKinney as Tamara Austin
Lisa Arrindell as Rebecca Jourdan
Emilio Rivera as Officer Francisco Cooper
Afemo Omilami as Detective Noah St. Charles

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Dawn Halfkenny as Angela
Jonny Hazen as Vice Det. Mario Rodriguez
Kendrick Cross as Ben Truman
Chris Gann as Travis Ford
Sarafina King Rachel
Maria Howell as Lt. Hawkins
Tony Vaughn as Vernon
Richard Lawson as Pastor Evan Johnson
Summer Parker as Savannah Sterling
Jeff Rose as Chief Herman Douglas
Neil Carter as Maxwell Wallace
Karlie Redd as Paige Morris
Chelle Ramos as Detective Josephine Alvarez
Jevon “Vawn” Sims as T.K.
Mara Hall as Caledonia Kendall
L. Warren Young as Zeke

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
8
March 6, 2016 (2016-03-06)
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)

2
8
March 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)

3
TBA
March 7, 2018 (2018-03-07)
Not Aired

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date[13]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"Power Is Our Religion"
Jerry Lamothe
T.S. Grant
March 6, 2016 (2016-03-06)
1.30[14]

The prodigal son returns to Greater Hope Baptist Church, dodging fallout of an Insider Trading investigation, only to find the hometown of his past has been swallowed up by greed, lust and deceit.

2
"The Hustle Is The Hustle"
Jerry Lamothe
J. Bishop
March 13, 2016 (2016-03-13)
TBA

Past wounds are reopened as a murder investigation resurrects details of another tragedy that shook the town of Cypress decades earlier.

3
"Even The Devil Was An Angel"
Jerry Lamothe
Katrina M. Andrews
March 20, 2016 (2016-03-20)
TBA

Ulterior motives come into focus as ruthless ambition and secret alliances continue to blur the lines between saint and sinner.

4
"We're In This Together"
Darren Grant
Jazmen Darnell Brown
March 27, 2016 (2016-03-27)
TBA

Old debts come due, but money trumps all at Greater Hope. Desire, jealousy and the pursuit of power collide at Greater Hope.

5
"Pain"
Darren Grant
Norman Anderson
April 3, 2016 (2016-04-03)
TBA

As the investigation heats up, time runs out to settle a dead man's debt. A brutal attack puts Levi face-to-face with devious players from Pastor Johnson's past.

6
"Needy Not Greedy"
Russ Parr
Norman Anderson
April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)
TBA

Levi must step over the line to protect the innocent, while the detectives close in on their prime suspect.

7
"Don't Go"
Darren Grant
Aigefrnon Thackery
April 17, 2016 (2016-04-17)
TBA

Police scramble to follow new leads and discover a key that may unlock the dark and lethal secrets to this murder mystery.

8
"Revelations"
Darren Grant
T.S. Grant
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)
1.4[15]

In the season finale, sinful power plays and wicked double-crosses take center stage as the Pastor's killer is finally revealed.

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date[16]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

9
"Playing Dirty"
Darren Grant
T.S. Grant
March 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
1.4[17]

A new murder mystery is uncovered at Greater Hope Baptist Church. Newly elected Mayor Ella Johnson and the remaining power players in Cypress face corruption, courtrooms, and scandal.

10
"Tragic Circumstances"
Darren Grant
Norman Anderson
March 12, 2017 (2017-03-12)
TBA

Past wounds are reopened as a murder investigation resurrects details of another tragedy that shook the town of Cypress decades earlier.

11
"I Had No Choice"
Darren Grant
Francisco J. Bustamante
March 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)
TBA

A mysterious kidnapping costs Jabari nearly everything he's sacrificed to build his new empire. Levi shocks everyone with a prediction by Pastor Johnson that has come true.

12
"Who’s The Boss?"
Darren Grant
Jazmen Darnell Brown
March 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)
TBA

Worlds collide when a powerful trio comes from out the shadows to take down Lady Ella and keep Jabari at bay. The detectives’ clues about Dead Debra lead them right back to where they started, Greater Hope Baptist Church.

13
"This Union Will Be The Death Of Me"
Russ Parr
Norman Anderson
April 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)
TBA

Christie faces blackmail as she prepares for her wedding. Elsewhere, Rex reverts back to his old ways of doing business.

14
"Day of Reckoning"
Russ Parr
Rhonda F. Baraka
April 9, 2017 (2017-04-09)
TBA

Wedding bells sound as the detectives gain enough clues to re-enact the murder. Rex and Jabari’s struggle for power takes a violent turn.

15
"The Queen and the Criminal"
Vanessa Bell Calloway
Rhonda F. Baraka
April 16, 2017 (2017-04-16)
TBA

A new first family emerges as Lady Ella and Rex drop a bomb on Kendrick and Christie. Miles faces double grief on his own, when a loved one returns right on time.

16
"Revival"
Darren Grant
T.S. Grant
April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)
TBA

In the shocking season finale, Christie snaps under the pressure of losing everything. Old truths are finally uncovered as new ones are buried.

text: Season 3 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

17
TBA
To Be Announced
To Be Announced
March 7, 2018 (2018-03-07)
N/A

18
TBA
To Be Announced
To Be Announced
March 13, 2018 (2018-03-13)
N/A


document_title: List of cities and towns in India by nicknames

question_text: which city is known as india's detroit

question_tokens: which city is known as india 's detroit

text: List by states[edit]

text: Andhra Pradesh[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Kakinada

Pensioner's Paradise[1]

Piduguralla

Lime City[2]

Rajahmundry

Cultural Capital of Andhra Pradesh[3]

Tenali

Andhra Paris[4]

Tirupati

Spiritual Capital of Andhra Pradesh[5]

Visakhapatnam

Financial Capital of Andhra Pradesh[5]
The Jewel of the East Coast[6]
Goa of the East[6]
The City of Destiny[6]

text: Bihar[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Muzaffarpur

The Land of Leechi[7]
Sweet City
Cultural Capital of Bihar

text: Gujarat[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Ahmedabad

INDIA'S first world heritage city

Surat

Textile City of India
Diamond City of India
Cleanest City of India
4th fastest growing city of the world

Valsad

Mango capital of the world (Alphonso Mangoes)

Baroda (Vadodara)

Banyan City[8]
Cultural Capital of Gujarat (Sanskari Nagari)[9]
Power Hub of India[10]

text: Haryana[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Panipat

City of Weavers[11]

Fatehabad

2nd Pink City of India

text: Jharkhand[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Jamshedpur

Steel City of India[12]

text: Karnataka[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Bangalore (Bengaluru)

Silicon Valley of India[13]
Science City of India[14]
Garden City of India[15]

Coorg (Kodagu)

Scotland of India[16]

Mangalore (Mangaluru)

Rome of the East[17]

Mysore (Mysuru)

Sandalwood City[18]
Cultural Capital of Karnataka[19]
City of Palaces (†3)
Heritage City of Karnataka[20]

text: Kerala[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Kochi (Cochin)

Queen of Arabian Sea[21]

Thrissur (Trichur)

Banking City of India[22]
Gold Capital of India[23]
Cultural Capital of Kerala[24]

Kollam

Cashew Capital of the World[25]

Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram)

Evergreen City of India[26]

Alappuzha (alleppey)
venice of east

Kasaragod

Land of Seven Languages ( Saptha bhasha sangama bhoomi)[27]
Harkwillia[28]

text: Madhya Pradesh[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Bhopal

The City of Lakes

text: (Indore )

text: Mini Mumbai city

text: (jabalpur) Sanskari city, marble city (Ujjain) Dharmik nagari (Satana) Cement city

text: Maharashtra[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Yavatmal

Cotton City of India[29]

Nagpur

Orange City,[30] tiger city

Pune

Queen of Deccan[31]

Kolhapur

City of Wrestlers[32]

Jalgaon

Banana City

text: Odisha[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Bhubaneswar

The Temple City[33]

Cuttack

The Millennium City, The Silver City

text: Odisha[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Berhampur
The Textile City[34]

Balangir
Cloth City of Orrisa[34]

text: Punjab[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Patiala

Royal City[35]

text: Rajasthan[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Jaipur

Pink City[36]

Jodhpur

Blue City[37]
Sun City[38]

bhilwara

textile City[39]
textile City[40]

Udaipur

City of Lakes[41]
Venice of the East (†4)[41][42]

text: Tamil Nadu[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Chennai (Madras)

Detroit of Asia[43]
Automobile Capital of India[43]
Healthcare Capital of India[44]

Coimbatore

Manchester of South India[45][46]

Madurai

Athens of the East
City of Festivals
City that never Sleeps

Tiruppur

Knit wear capital of India
Textile City
Dollar City of India
Cotton city
Baniyan city

Puducherry (Pondicherry)

Paris of the East (†3)

Tirunelveli

City of paddy fields[47]
Oxford of Southindia

Tuticorin (Thoothukudi)

Pearl City[48]

text: Auroville - City of Dawn

text: Telangana[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Hyderabad

City of Pearls[49]

text: Uttar Pradesh[edit]

text:
City/town
Nickname

Lucknow

City of Nawabs[50]

text:
City
Nickname

Kanpur

The Leather City Of The World
Manchester Of The East[51]

Varanasi

The City Of Ghats

text: West Bengal[edit]

text:
City
Nickname(s)

Calcutta (Kolkata)

City of Joy[52]
City of Palaces(†3)
Cultural Capital of India[53]

Siliguri

Gateway to the Duaars[54]

text: Anchors[edit]

text:
(†1) (For other places with the same nickname as 'Paris of the East', see Paris of the East)
(†2) (For other places with the same nickname as 'Venice of the East', see List of places called Venice of the East)
(†3) (For other places with the same nickname as 'City of Palaces', see City of Palaces)