document_title: List of Test cricket records

question_text: who made maximum double century in test cricket

text: List of Test cricket records

text: Listing criteria

text: In general the top five are listed in each category (except when there is a tie for the last place among the five, when all the tied record holders are noted).

text: Listing notation

text:
(300–3) indicates that a team scored 300 runs for three wickets and the innings was closed, either due to a successful run chase or if no playing time remained
(300–3 d) indicates that a team scored 300 runs for three wickets, and declared its innings closed
(300) indicates that a team scored 300 runs and was all out

text:
(100) indicates that a batsman scored 100 runs and was out
(100*) indicates that a batsman scored 100 runs and was not out

text: (5–100) indicates that a bowler has captured 5 wickets while conceding 100 runs

text: indicates a current Test cricketer

text: Cricket is played during the summer months in most countries. Domestic cricket seasons in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Zimbabwe and the West Indies may therefore span two calendar years, and are by convention said to be played in (e.g.) "2008–09". A cricket season in England is described as a single year. e.g. "2009". An international Test series may be for a much shorter duration, and Cricinfo treats this issue by stating "any series or matches which began between May and September of any given year will appear in the relevant single year season and any that began between October and April will appear in the relevant cross-year season".[23] In the record tables, a two-year span generally indicates that the record was set within a domestic season in one of the above named countries.

text: Team records

text: Team wins, losses and draws

text:
Team
First Test match
Matches
Won
Lost
Tied
Drawn
 % Won

 Australia
000000001877-03-15-000015 March 1877
804
379
216
2
207
47.13

 Bangladesh
000000002000-11-10-000010 November 2000
104
10
79
0
15
9.62

 England
000000001877-03-15-000015 March 1877
991
356
292
0
343
35.92

 India
000000001932-06-25-000025 June 1932
517
143
158
1
215
27.65

 New Zealand
000000001930-01-10-000010 January 1930
422
89
170
0
163
21.09

 Pakistan
000000001952-10-16-000016 October 1952
412
132
122
0
158
32.03

 South Africa
000000001889-03-12-000012 March 1889
417
155
138
0
124
37.17

 Sri Lanka
000000001982-02-17-000017 February 1982
266
84
100
0
82
31.57

 West Indies
000000001928-06-23-000023 June 1928
528
168
185
1
174
31.81

 Zimbabwe
000000001992-10-18-000018 October 1992
104
11
66
0
27
10.57

ICC World XI
000000002005-10-14-000014 October 2005
1
0
1
0
0
0.00

Note:  Ireland and  Afghanistan were granted Test status on 22 June 2017; both are yet to play a Test match.

Last updated: 30 November 2017[24]

text: Result records

text: Greatest win margins (by innings)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

Innings and 579 runs
 England (903-7 d) beat  Australia (201 & 123)
The Oval, London
1938

Innings and 360 runs
 Australia (652–7 d) beat  South Africa (159 & 133)
New Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2001–02

Innings and 336 runs
 West Indies (614–5 d) beat  India (124 & 154)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata
1958–59

Innings and 332 runs
 Australia (645) beat  England (141 & 172)
Brisbane Cricket Ground
1946–47

Innings and 324 runs
 Pakistan (643) beat  New Zealand (73 & 246)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore
2002

Last updated: 12 December 2016[25]

text: Greatest win margin (by runs)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

675 runs
 England (521 & 342–8 d) beat  Australia (122 & 66)
Brisbane Exhibition Ground
1928–29

562 runs
 Australia (701 & 327) beat  England (321 & 145)
The Oval, London
1934

530 runs
 Australia (328 & 578) beat  South Africa (205 & 171)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1910–11

491 runs
 Australia (381 & 361–5 d) beat  Pakistan (179 & 72)
WACA Ground, Perth
2004–05

465 runs
 Sri Lanka (384 & 447–6 d) beat  Bangladesh (208 & 158)
Chittagong Divisional Stadium
2008–09

Last updated: 12 December 2016[26]

text: Matches that finished with scores level

text:
Result
Teams
Venue
Season

Tie
 Australia (505 & 232) vs  West Indies (453 & 284)
The Gabba
1960–61

Tie
 India (397 & 347) vs  Australia (574–7 d & 170–5 d)
MA Chidambaram Stadium, Madras
1986–87

Draw
 Zimbabwe (376 & 234) vs  England (406 & 204–5)
Queens Sports Club, Bulawayo
1996–97

Draw
 India (482 & 242–9) vs  West Indies (590 & 134)
Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai
2011–12

Last updated: 15 June 2016[27][28][29]

text: Narrowest win margin (by wickets)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

1 wicket
 England (183 & 263–9) beat  Australia (324 & 121)
The Oval, London
1902

 South Africa (91 & 287–9) beat  England (184 & 190)
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1905–06

 England (382 & 282–9) beat  Australia (266 & 397)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1907–08

 England (183 & 173–9) beat  South Africa (113 & 242)
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1922–23

 Australia (216 & 260–9) beat  West Indies (272 & 203)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1951–52

 New Zealand (249 & 104–9) beat  West Indies (140 & 212)
Carisbrook, Dunedin
1979–80

 Pakistan (256 & 315–9) beat  Australia (337 & 232)
National Stadium, Karachi
1994–95

 West Indies (329 & 311–9) beat  Australia (490 & 146)
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
1998–99

 West Indies (273 & 216–9) beat  Pakistan (269 & 219)
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1999–00

 Pakistan (175 & 262–9) beat  Bangladesh (281 & 154)
Ibn-e-Qasim Bagh Stadium, Multan
2003

 Sri Lanka (321 & 352–9) beat  South Africa (361 & 311)
Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium, Colombo
2006

 India (405 & 216–9) beat  Australia (428 & 192)
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali
2010–11

Last updated: 15 June 2016[30]

text: Narrowest win margin (by runs)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

1 run
 West Indies (252 & 146) beat  Australia (213 & 184)
Adelaide Oval
1992–93

2 runs
 England (407 & 182) beat  Australia (308 & 279)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
2005

3 runs
 Australia (299 & 86) beat  England (262 & 120)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1902

 England (284 & 294) beat  Australia (287 & 288)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1982–83

5 runs
 South Africa (169 & 239) beat  Australia (292 & 111)
Sydney Cricket Ground
1993–94

Last updated: 15 June 2016[31]

text: Victory after following-on

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

10 runs
 England (325 & 437) beat  Australia (586 & 166)
Sydney Cricket Ground
1894–95

18 runs
 England (174 & 356) beat  Australia (401–9 d & 111)
Headingley, Leeds
1981

171 runs
 India (171 & 657–7 d) beat  Australia (445 & 212)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata
2000–01

Last updated: 15 June 2016[32]

text: Most consecutive wins

text:
Wins
Team
First win
Last win

16
 Australia
 Zimbabwe at Harare, 14 October 1999
 India at Mumbai, 27 February 2001

16
 Australia
 South Africa at Melbourne, 26 December 2005
 India at Sydney, 2 January 2008

11
 West Indies
 Australia at Bridgetown, 30 March 1984
 Australia at Adelaide, 7 December 1984

9
 Sri Lanka
 India at Colombo, 29 August 2001
 Pakistan at Lahore, 6 March 2002

9
 South Africa
 Australia at Durban, 15 March 2002
 Bangladesh at Dhaka, 1 May 2003

Last updated: 15 June 2016[33]

text: Team scoring records

text:
Most runs in an innings

Runs
Teams
Venue
Season

952-6 d
 Sri Lanka (v  India)
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997

903-7 d
 England (v  Australia)
The Oval, London
1938

849
 England (v  West Indies)
Sabina Park, Kingston
1929–30

790–3 d
 West Indies (v  Pakistan)
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58

765–6 d
 Pakistan (v  Sri Lanka)
National Stadium, Karachi
2008–09

Last updated: 14 September 2017[34]

text:
Fewest runs in a completed innings

Runs
Teams
Venue
Date

26
 New Zealand (v  England)
Eden Park, Auckland
25 March 1955

30
 South Africa (v  England)
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
13 February 1896

 South Africa (v  England)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
14 June 1924

35
 South Africa (v  England)
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1 April 1899

36
 Australia (v  England)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
29 May 1902

 South Africa (v  Australia)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
12 February 1932

Last updated: 14 September 2017[35]

text:
Highest fourth-innings totals to win

Runs
Teams
Venue
Season

418–7
 West Indies (v  Australia)
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2002–03

414–4
 South Africa (v  Australia)
WACA Ground, Perth
2008–09

406–4
 India (v  West Indies)
Queen's Park Oval, Port of Spain
1975–76

404–3
 Australia (v  England)
Headingley, Leeds
1948

391–6
 Sri Lanka (v  Zimbabwe)
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
2017

Last updated: 14 September 2017[36]

text: Individual records

text: Individual records (batting)

text: Career runs

text:
Most career runs

Runs
Player
Period

15,921 (329 innings)
 Sachin Tendulkar
1989–2013

13,378 (287 innings)
 Ricky Ponting
1995–2012

13,289 (280 innings)
 Jacques Kallis
1995–2013

13,288 (286 innings)
 Rahul Dravid
1996–2012

12,400 (233 innings)
 Kumar Sangakkara
2000–2015

Last updated: 15 June 2016[37]

text:
Most career runs – progression of record

Runs
Player
Record held until
Duration of record

239
 Charles Bannerman
4 January 1882
4 years, 295 days

676
 George Ulyett[a]
13 August 1884
2 years, 222 days

860
 Billy Murdoch[b]
14 August 1886
2 years, 1 day

1,277
 Arthur Shrewsbury
23 January 1902
15 years, 162 days

1,293
 Joe Darling[c]
18 February 1902
26 days

1,366
 Syd Gregory[d]
14 June 1902
116 days

1,531
 Archie MacLaren[e]
13 August 1902
60 days

3,412
 Clem Hill
27 December 1924
22 years, 136 days

5,410
 Jack Hobbs
29 June 1937
12 years, 184 days

7,249
 Wally Hammond
27 November 1970
33 years, 151 days

7,459
 Colin Cowdrey[f]
23 March 1972
1 year, 117 days

8,032
 Garfield Sobers
23 December 1981
9 years, 275 days

8,114
 Geoffrey Boycott
12 November 1983
1 year, 324 days

10,122
 Sunil Gavaskar
25 February 1993
9 years, 105 days

11,174
 Allan Border
25 November 2005
12 years, 273 days

11,953
 Brian Lara
17 October 2008
2 years, 327 days

15,921
 Sachin Tendulkar
current
7003341300000000000♠9 years, 126 days

Last updated: 15 June 2016[38]

Notes:

^[a] Ulyett finished his career with 949 runs
^[b] Murdoch finished his career with 908 runs
^[c] Darling finished his career with 1,657 runs
^[d] Gregory finished his career with 2,282 runs
^[e] MacLaren finished his career with 1,931 runs
^[f] Cowdrey finished his career with 7,624 runs

text: Most runs in each batting position

text:
Batting position
Player
Runs
Average

Opener
 Alastair Cook
11378
45.88

Number 3
 Kumar Sangakkara
11679
60.83

Number 4
 Sachin Tendulkar
13492
54.40

Number 5
 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
6883
56.42

Number 6
 Steve Waugh
3165
51.05

Number 7
 Adam Gilchrist
3948
46.45

Number 8
 Daniel Vettori
2227
39.77

Number 9
 Stuart Broad
1292
20.51

Number 10
 Dale Steyn
518
12.95

Number 11
 Muttiah Muralitharan
623
11.33

Last updated: 17 January 2018[39]

text: Highest career batting average

text:
Average
Player
Period

99.94 (80 innings)
 Donald Bradman
1928–1948

64.02 (108 innings)
 Steve Smith
2010–

61.87 (31 innings)
 Adam Voges
2015–2016

60.97 (41 innings)
 Graeme Pollock
1963–1970

60.83 (40 innings)
 George Headley
1930–1954

60.73 (84 innings)
 Herbert Sutcliffe
1924–1935

Qualification: 20 innings.

Note: If the qualification is removed, the record Test batting average is  Andy Ganteaume's 112.00; Ganteaume was dismissed for 112 runs in his only Test innings.[40] A very few one-Test wonders have never been dismissed, leaving them without a defined Test batting average. Notable players who played only a single Test innings without a dismissal are  Stuart Law (54*, innings declared) and  Andy Lloyd (10*, retired hurt).[41][42]

Last updated: 6 January 2017[43]

text: Innings or series

text:
Highest individual score (see also List of Test cricket triple centuries)

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04

380
 Matthew Hayden
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground, Perth
2003–04

375
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1993–94

374
 Mahela Jayawardene
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

365*
 Garfield Sobers
 Pakistan
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58

Last updated: 15 June 2015[44]

text:
Highest individual score – progression of record

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season
Test match Number

165*
 Charles Bannerman
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77
Test No. 1

211
 Billy Murdoch
 England
The Oval, London
1884
Test No. 16

287
 R. E. Foster
 Australia
Sydney Cricket Ground
1903–04
Test No. 78

325
 Andy Sandham
 West Indies
Sabina Park, Kingston
1929–30
Test No. 193

334
 Don Bradman
 England
Headingley, Leeds
1930
Test No. 196

336*
 Wally Hammond
 New Zealand
Eden Park, Auckland
1932–33
Test No. 226

364
 Len Hutton
 Australia
The Oval, London
1938
Test No. 266

365*
 Garfield Sobers
 Pakistan
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58
Test No. 452

375
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1993–94
Test No. 1259

380
 Matthew Hayden
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground, Perth
2003–04
Test No. 1661

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04
Test No. 1696

Last updated: 15 June 2016[45]

text:
Most runs in a match

Runs
Scores
Player
Match

456
333 and 123
 Graham Gooch
v  India at Lord's, 1990

426
334* and 92
 Mark Taylor
v  Pakistan at Peshawar, 1998–99

424
319 and 105
 Kumar Sangakkara
v  Bangladesh at Chittagong, 2013–14

400
400*
 Brian Lara
v  England at St John's, Antigua, 2003–04

380
247* and 133
 Greg Chappell
v  New Zealand at Wellington, 1973–74

380
 Matthew Hayden
v  Zimbabwe at Perth, 2003–04

Last updated: 15 June 2016[46]

text:
Most runs in a series

Runs
Player
Series

974 (7 innings)
 Donald Bradman
v  England, 1930

905 (9 innings)
 Wally Hammond
v  Australia, 1928–29

839 (11 innings)
 Mark Taylor
v  England, 1989

834 (9 innings)
 Neil Harvey
v  South Africa, 1952–53

829 (7 innings)
 Viv Richards
v  England, 1976

Last updated: 15 June 2016[47]

text: Calendar year and between dismissals

text:
Most runs in a calendar year

Runs
Player
Average
Year

1788
 Mohammad Yousuf
99.33
2006

1710
 Vivian Richards
90.00
1976

1656
 Graeme Smith
72.00
2008

1595
 Michael Clarke
106.33
2012

1562
 Sachin Tendulkar
78.10
2010

Last updated: 15 June 2015[48]

text:
Most runs between consecutive dismissals

Runs
Player
Innings
Sequence
Season

614
 Adam Voges
3
269*, 106*, 239
2015-16

497
 Sachin Tendulkar
4
241*, 60*, 194*, 2
2003-04

490
 Garfield Sobers
2
365*, 125
1957-58

489
 Michael Clarke
2
259*, 230
2012-13

473
 Rahul Dravid
4
41*, 200*, 70*, 162
2000-01

Last updated: 21 December 2017[49][50]

text: Highest scores at each batting position

text:
Batting position
Player
Score
Opponent
Venue
Date

Opener
 Matthew Hayden
380
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground
9 October 2003

Number 3
 Brian Lara
400*
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground
10 April 2004

Number 4
 Mahela Jayawardene
374
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground
27 July 2006

Number 5
 Michael Clarke
329*
 India
Sydney Cricket Ground
3 January 2012

Number 6
 Ben Stokes
258
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground
2 January 2016

Number 7
 Donald Bradman
270
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1 January 1937

Number 8
 Wasim Akram
257*
 Zimbabwe
Sheikhupura Stadium
17 October 1996

Number 9
 Ian Smith
173
 India
Eden Park
22 February 1990

Number 10
 Walter Read
117
 Australia
Kennington Oval
11 August 1884

Number 11
 Ashton Agar
98
 England
Trent Bridge
10 July 2013

Last updated: 18 November 2017[51]

text: Innings as captain

text:
Highest individual score as captain

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04

374
 Mahela Jayawardene
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

334*
 Mark Taylor
 Pakistan
Arbab Niaz Stadium, Peshawar
1998

333
 Graham Gooch
 India
Lord's, London
1990

329*
 Michael Clarke
 India
Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney
2012

Last updated: 15 June 2015[52]

text: Innings carrying the bat

text:
Highest individual score (see also List of cricketers who have carried the bat in international cricket)

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

244*
 Alastair Cook
 Australia
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne
2017-18

223*
 Glenn Turner
 West Indies
Sabina Park, Kingston
1972

216*
 Marvan Atapattu
 Zimbabwe
Queens Sports Club, Bulawayo
1999-00

206*
 Bill Brown
 England
Lord's, London
1931

202*
 Len Hutton
 West Indies
The Oval, London
1950

Last updated: 29 December 2017[53]

text: Most runs in an over

text:
Runs
Sequence
Batsman
Bowler
Venue
Season

28
4–6–6–4–4–4
 Brian Lara
 Robin Peterson
Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2003–04

4–6–2–4–6–6
 George Bailey
 James Anderson
WACA, Perth
2013–14

27
6–6–6–6–2–1
 Shahid Afridi
 Harbhajan Singh
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore
2005–06

26
4–4–6–0–6–6
 Mitchell Johnson
 Paul Harris
Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2008–09

4–0–6–6–6–4
 Brian Lara
 Danish Kaneria
Multan Cricket Stadium
2006–07

4–4–4–4–6–4
 Craig McMillan
 Younis Khan
Seddon Park, Hamilton
2000–01

4–6–6–0–4–6
 Brendon McCullum
 Suranga Lakmal
Hagley Oval, Christchurch, New Zealand
2014–15

4–4–6–6–6–0
 Hardik Pandya
 Malinda Pushpakumara
Pallekele International Cricket Stadium,Sri Lanka
2017

Last updated: 14 August 2017[54]

text: Centuries

text: Most Test centuries

text:
Centuries
Player
Matches
Innings
Inns/Century

51
 Sachin Tendulkar
200
329
6.4

45
 Jacques Kallis
166
280
6.2

41
 Ricky Ponting
168
287
7.0

38
 Kumar Sangakkara
132
229
6.0

36
 Rahul Dravid
164
286
7.9

Last updated: 15 June 2016[55]

text:
Fastest Test centuries

No. of balls
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

54
 Brendon McCullum
 Australia
Hagley Oval, Christchurch
2015–16

56
 Viv Richards
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1985–86

 Misbah-ul-Haq
 Australia
Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Abu Dhabi
2014

57
 Adam Gilchrist
 England
WACA Ground, Perth
2006–07

67
 Jack Gregory
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1921–22

Last updated: 15 June 2016[56]

text:
Most Test double centuries

Double centuries
Player
Matches

12
 Donald Bradman
52

11
 Kumar Sangakkara
130

9
 Brian Lara
131

7
 Wally Hammond
85

 Mahela Jayawardene
149

Last updated: 15 June 2016[57]

text:
Most Test triple centuries

Triple centuries
Player
Matches

2
 Donald Bradman
52

 Virender Sehwag
104

 Chris Gayle
103

 Brian Lara
131

Last updated: 11 December 2016[58]

Note:
21 other players have scored a triple century in a Test: see List of Test cricket triple centuries for more details[59]

text:
Most Test quadruple centuries

Quadruple centuries
Player
Matches

1
 Brian Lara
131

Last updated: 15 June 2016[60]

text: Half Centuries

text: Most Test 50+

text:
50+
Player
Matches
Innings

119
 Sachin Tendulkar
200
329

103
 Jacques Kallis
166
280

103
 Ricky Ponting
168
287

99
 Rahul Dravid
164
286

96
 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
164
280

Last updated: 15 June 2016[61]

text:
Fastest Test half-centuries

No. of balls
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

21
 Misbah-ul-Haq
 Australia
Sheikh Zayed Stadium, Abu Dhabi
2014/15

24
 Jacques Kallis
 Zimbabwe
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
2004/05

25
 Shane Shillingford
 New Zealand
Sabina Park, Kingston
2014

26
 Shahid Afridi
 India
M Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore
2004/05

 Mohammad Ashraful
 India
Sher-e-Bangla Cricket Stadium, Mirpur
2007

 Dale Steyn
 West Indies
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
2014/15

Last updated: 15 June 2016[62]

text: Most fours in career

text:
Fours
Player
Innings

2058+
 Sachin Tendulkar
329

1654
 Rahul Dravid
286

1559
 Brian Lara
232

1509
 Ricky Ponting
287

1491
 Kumar Sangakkara
233

Key: + means the complete career records aren't known
Last updated: 15 February 2016[63]

text: Individual records (bowling)

text: Career

text:
Most wickets in a career

Wickets
Player
Matches
Average

800
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133
22.72

708
 Shane Warne
145
25.41

619
 Anil Kumble
132
29.65

563
 Glenn McGrath
124
21.64

523
 James Anderson
133
27.40

Last updated: 8 January 2018[64]

text:
Most wickets in a career – Progression of record

Wickets
Player
Matches
Average
Record held until
Duration of record

8[a]
 Alfred Shaw
1
10.75
31 March 1877
16 days

14
 Tom Kendall
2
15.35
4 January 1879
1 year, 279 days

94[b]
 Fred Spofforth
18
18.41
12 January 1895
16 years, 8 days

118
 Johnny Briggs
33
17.75
2 January 1904
8 years, 355 days

141
 Hugh Trumble
32
21.78
13 December 1913
9 years, 345 days

189
 Sydney Barnes
27
16.43
4 January 1936
22 years, 22 days

216
 Clarrie Grimmett
37
24.21
24 July 1953
17 years, 201 days

236
 Alec Bedser
51
24.89
26 January 1963
9 years, 186 days

242[c]
 Brian Statham
67
24.27
15 March 1963
48 days

307
 Fred Trueman
67
21.57
1 February 1976
12 years, 323 days

309
 Lance Gibbs
79
29.09
27 December 1981
5 years, 329 days

355
 Dennis Lillee
70
23.92
21 August 1986
4 years, 237 days

373[d]
 Ian Botham
94
27.86
12 November 1988
2 years, 83 days

431
 Richard Hadlee
86
22.29
8 February 1994
5 years, 88 days

434
 Kapil Dev
131
29.64
27 March 2000
6 years, 48 days

519
 Courtney Walsh
132
24.44
8 May 2004
4 years, 42 days

532[e]
 Muttiah Muralitharan
91
22.87
15 October 2004
160 days

708
 Shane Warne
145
25.41
3 December 2007
3 years, 49 days

800
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133
22.72
Current
7003373200000000000♠10 years, 79 days

Notes
^[a] Allen Hill took the first Test wicket, but only two in the First Test match. Alfred Shaw (3/51 & 5/35) and Tom Kendall (1/54 & 7/55) both took eight wickets, but as Australia batted first Shaw was the first to take five wickets in an innings and the first to take eight Test wickets. Kendall overtook him in the Second Test and Shaw subsequently increased his total to 12 wickets (15.35) in seven Tests[65]
^[b] Johnny Briggs equalled Fred Spofforth's record of 94 Test wickets on 29 December 1894 in the Second Test at Melbourne, as did Charles Turner two days later. Briggs overook Turner and Spofforth in the Third Test at Adelaide, which Turner missed, and became the first man to claim 100 Test wickets on 1 February 1895 in the Fourth Test at Sydney. Turner became the second three days later and ended with a total of 101 wickets (16.53) in 17 Tests[66]
^[c] Fred Trueman overtook Brian Statham's then record of 242 Test wickets and Statham subsequently increased his total to 252 wickets (24.84) in 70 Tests
^[d] Richard Hadlee overtook Ian Botham's then record of 373 Test wickets and Botham subsequently increased his total to 383 wickets (28.40) in 102 Tests
^[e] Shane Warne overtook Muttiah Muralitharan's then record of 532 Test wickets and Muralitharan subsequently increased his total to 800 wickets (22.72) in 133 Tests[67]

text:
Best career average

Average
Player
Balls
Wickets

10.75
 George Lohmann
3,830
112

12.70
/ John Ferris[a]
2,302
61

15.54
 Billy Barnes
2,289
51

16.42
 Billy Bates
2,364
50

16.43
 Sydney Barnes
7,873
189

Qualification: 2000 balls bowled
Last updated: 15 June 2016[68]

Note: If the qualification is removed, the best career average record is at 0.00 runs per wicket (i.e. no runs were conceded). This record is shared by Englishmen A N Hornby, Wilf Barber and New Zealander, Bruce Murray who took one wicket without conceding a run[69]

^[a] John Ferris was one of a few cricketers to play Test cricket for more than one country. He played in eight Tests for Australia from 1886–87 and a single Test for England in South Africa in 1891–92.[70]

text:
Best career strike rate

Strike rate
Player
Balls
Wickets

34.1
 George Lohmann
3,830
112

37.7
 /  J. J. Ferris
2,302
61

38.7
 Shane Bond
3,372
87

41.4
 Dale Steyn
17,286
417

41.6
 Sydney Barnes
7,873
189

Qualification: 2000 balls bowled
Last updated: 2 September 2017[71]

text:
Most 5 wickets in an innings

5 wickets in an innings
Player
Matches

67
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133

37
 Shane Warne
145

36
 Richard Hadlee
86

35
 Anil Kumble
132

29
 Glenn McGrath
124

Last updated: 15 June 2016[72]

text:
Most 10 wickets in a match

10 wickets in a match
Player
Matches

22
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133

10
 Shane Warne
145

9
 Richard Hadlee
86

 Rangana Herath
83

8
 Anil Kumble
132

Last updated: 2 September 2017[73]

text: Series

text:
Most wickets in a series

Wickets
Player
Series

49 (4 Tests)
 Sydney Barnes
v  South Africa 1913–14

46 (5 Tests)
 Jim Laker
v  Australia, 1956

44 (5 Tests)
 Clarrie Grimmett
v  South Africa 1935–36

42 (6 Tests)
 Terry Alderman
v  England, 1981

41 (6 Tests)
 Terry Alderman
v  England, 1989

 Rodney Hogg
v  England, 1978–79

Last updated: 15 June 2016[74]

text: Innings

text:
Best figures in an innings

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

10–53
 Jim Laker
 Australia (2nd innings)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

10–74
 Anil Kumble
 Pakistan
Feroz Shah Kotla Ground, Delhi
1998–99

9–28
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1895–96

9–37
 Jim Laker
 Australia (1st innings)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

9–51
 Muttiah Muralitharan
 Zimbabwe
Asgiriya Stadium, Kandy
2001–02

Last updated: 15 June 2016[75]

text:
Best figures in an innings – progression of record

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

7–55
 Tom Kendall
(in the inaugural Test match)
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77

7–44
 Fred Spofforth
 England
The Oval, London
1882

7–28
 Billy Bates
 Australia
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1882–83

8–35
 George Lohmann
 Australia
Sydney Cricket Ground
1886–87

8–11
 Johnny Briggs
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1888–89

8–7
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
1895–96

9–28
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1895–96

10–53
 Jim Laker
 Australia
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

Calculated at the conclusion of each Test
Last updated: 15 June 2016

text: Match records

text:
Best figures in a match

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

19–90
 Jim Laker
 Australia
Manchester, England,
1956

17–159
 Sydney Barnes
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1913–14

16–136
 Narendra Hirwani
 West Indies
M. A. Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai
1987–88

16–137
 Bob Massie
 England
Lord's, London
1972

16–220
 Muttiah Muralitharan
 England
The Oval, London
1998

Last updated: 15 June 2016[76]

text: Innings as captain

text:
Best figures in an innings as captain

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

9–83
 Kapil Dev
 West Indies
Sardar Patel Stadium, Ahmedabad
1983

8–60
 Imran Khan
 India
National Stadium, Karachi, Karachi
1982

8–63
 Rangana Herath
 Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare
2016

8–106
 Kapil Dev
 Australia
Adelaide Oval, Adelaide
1985

7–37
 Courtney Walsh
 New Zealand
Basin Reserve, Wellington
1995

Last updated: 16 March 2017[77]

text: Match records as captain

text:
Best figures in a match

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

13–55
 Courtney Walsh
 New Zealand
Basin Reserve, Wellington, New Zealand
1995

13–135
 Waqar Younis
 Zimbabwe
Southend Club Cricket Stadium, Karachi, Pakistan
1993

13–152
 Rangana Herath
 Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare, Zimbabwe
2016

12–100
 Fazal Mahmood
 West Indies
Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka, Bangladesh
1959

11–79
 Imran Khan
 India
National Stadium, Karachi, Pakistan
1982

Last updated: 15 June 2016[78]

text: Individual records (fielding)

text: Most catches in Test career

text:
Catches
Player
Matches

210
 Rahul Dravid
164

205
 Mahela Jayawardene
149

200
 Jacques Kallis
166

196
 Ricky Ponting
168

181
 Mark Waugh
128

Note:The list excludes catches made as wicket-keeper[79] Last updated: 15 June 2016

text: Individual records (wicket-keeping)

text:
Most dismissals

Dismissals
Player
Matches

555 (532 catches + 23 stumpings)
 Mark Boucher
147

416 (379 catches + 37 stumpings)
 Adam Gilchrist
96

395 (366 catches + 29 stumpings)
 Ian Healy
119

355 (343 catches + 12 stumpings)
 Rod Marsh
96

294 (256 catches + 38 stumpings)
 MS Dhoni
90

Last updated: 15 June 2016[80]

text:
Most catches

Catches
Player
Matches

532
 Mark Boucher
147

379
 Adam Gilchrist
96

366
 Ian Healy
119

343
 Rod Marsh
96

265
 Jeff Dujon
81

Last updated: 15 June 2016[81]

text:
Most stumpings

Stumpings
Player
Matches

52
 Bert Oldfield
54

46
 Godfrey Evans
91

38
 Syed Kirmani
88

 MS Dhoni
90

37
 Adam Gilchrist
96

Last updated: 15 June 2016[82]

text: Individual records (as an all-rounder)

text:
10 Wickets and a Century in a Test match

Player
Runs
Wickets
Date
Opponent
Venue

 Ian Botham[83]
114
13/109
15 February 1980
 India
Mumbai, India

 Imran Khan[83]
117
11/180
3 January 1983
 India
Faisalabad, Pakistan

 Shakib Al Hasan[83]
137
10/124
3 November 2014
 Zimbabwe
Khulna, Bangladesh

Last updated: 15 June 2016[84]

text: Individual records (other)

text:
Most matches played

Matches
Player
Period

200
 Sachin Tendulkar
1989–2013

168
 Steve Waugh
1985–2004

 Ricky Ponting
1995–2012

166
 Jacques Kallis
1995–2013

164
 Rahul Dravid
1996–2012

 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
1994–2015

Last updated: 15 June 2016[85]

text:
Most matches played as captain

Matches
Player
Won
Lost
Drawn
Tied

109
 Graeme Smith
53
29
27
0

93
 Allan Border
32
22
38
1

80
 Stephen Fleming
28
27
25
0

77
 Ricky Ponting
48
16
13
0

74
 Clive Lloyd
36
12
26
0

Last updated: 15 June 2016[86]

text:
Most matches won as captain

Won
Player
Lost
Drawn
Ties
Matches

53
 Graeme Smith
26
26
0
109

48
 Ricky Ponting
16
13
0
77

41
 Steve Waugh
9
7
0
57

36
 Clive Lloyd
12
26
0
74

32
 Allan Border
22
38
1
93

Last updated: 15 June 2016[87]

text: Partnership records

text: Highest partnership for each wicket

text:
Partnership
Runs
Team
Players
Opposition
Venue
Season

1st wicket
415
 South Africa
Graeme Smith (232)
Neil McKenzie (226)
 Bangladesh
Chittagong Divisional Stadium
2008

2nd wicket
576
 Sri Lanka
Sanath Jayasuriya (340)
Roshan Mahanama (225)
 India
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997–98

3rd wicket
624
 Sri Lanka
Kumar Sangakkara (287)
Mahela Jayawardene (374)
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

4th wicket
449
 Australia
Adam Voges (269*)
Shaun Marsh  (182)
 West Indies
Bellerive Oval, Hobart
2015–16

5th wicket
405
 Australia
Sid Barnes (234)
Donald Bradman (234)
 England
Sydney Cricket Ground
1946–47

6th wicket
399
 England
Ben Stokes  (258)
Jonny Bairstow  (150*)
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
2015–16

7th wicket
347
 West Indies
Denis Atkinson (219)
Clairmonte Depeiaza (122)
 Australia
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
1954–55

8th wicket
332
 England
Jonathan Trott (184)
Stuart Broad  (169)
 Pakistan
Lord's, London
2010

9th wicket
195
 South Africa
Mark Boucher (78)
Pat Symcox (108)
 Pakistan
New Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
1997–98

10th wicket
198
 England
Joe Root  (154*)
James Anderson  (81)
 India
Trent Bridge, Nottingham
2014

Last updated: 15 June 2016[88]

text: Highest partnerships

text:
Runs
Team
Players
Opposition
Venue
Season

624 (3rd wicket)
 Sri Lanka
Kumar Sangakkara (287)
Mahela Jayawardene (374)
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

576 (2nd wicket)
 Sri Lanka
Sanath Jayasuriya (340)
Roshan Mahanama (225)
 India
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997–98

467 (3rd wicket)
 New Zealand
Andrew Jones (186)
Martin Crowe (299)
 Sri Lanka
Basin Reserve, Wellington
1990–91

451 (2nd wicket)
 Australia
Bill Ponsford (266)
Donald Bradman (244)
 England
The Oval, London
1934

451 (3rd wicket)
 Pakistan
Mudassar Nazar (231)
Javed Miandad (280*)
 India
Niaz Stadium, Hyderabad
1982–83

Last updated: 15 June 2016[89]


document_title: Viceroy (butterfly)

question_text: what are the little butterflies that look like monarchs

root

text: Viceroy (butterfly)

text: Description[edit]

text: Its wings feature an orange and black pattern, and over most of its range it is a Müllerian mimic[3] with the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus). The viceroy's wingspan is between 53 and 81 mm.[4] It can be distinguished from the monarch by its smaller size and the postmedian black line that runs across the veins on the hindwing.[4]

tag: p

text: In Florida, Georgia, and the American Southwest, viceroys share the pattern of the queen (Danaus gilippus) and in Mexico they share the pattern of the soldier (Danaus eresimus). In all three areas, the local Danaus population mimic the coloration of the viceroy species. It was originally believed that the viceroy was a Batesian mimic of the three other species, and presumed edible or only mildly unpalatable to predators, but this has since proven not to be true.[3] In an experiment with both the monarch's and viceroy's wings removed, birds were discovered to think the viceroy was just as unpalatable as the monarchs.[3]

text: Food sources[edit]

text: The caterpillar feeds on trees in the willow family Salicaceae, including willows (Salix), and poplars and cottonwoods (Populus). The caterpillars sequester the salicylic acid in their bodies, which makes them bitter, and upsets predators' stomachs. As further protection, the caterpillars, as well as their chrysalis stage, resemble bird droppings.[5]

text: Adults are strictly diurnal, flying preferentially in the late morning and early afternoon.[6] Adult viceroys nectar on milkweeds, thistles and other common flowers.[5]

text: Life stages[edit]

text:
Adult

Caterpillar

Pupa

tag: ul

text: Evolution of admiral butterflies (Limenitis)[edit]

text: The world is divided into eight biogeographic areas called ecozones: Palearctic, Nearctic, Afrotropic, Neotropic, Australasia, Indo-Malaya, Oceania, and Antarctica. Palearctic includes most of Eurasia and North Africa while Nearctic includes most of North America. Limenitis butterfly wing patterns are much more diverse in the Nearctic than the Palearctic. Three lineages of mimetic butterflies occur in North America and the evolution of mimicry may have played a large role in the diversification of this group.[7] For butterflies to travel from the Palearctic region to the Nearctic region of the world, the migration must have occurred during a time period when Beringia, the land bridge between Eurasia and North America, was still above water.[8] Based on crude divergence rate calculations,[9] the colonization of the Nearctic Leminitis dates back approximately four million years.[7] Whether the migration event was a single or multiple occurrence event has a significant effect on how we look at the evolution of mimicry. A history of multiple migrations would suggest that speciation occurred before the evolution of mimicry, meaning mimicry was the result of speciation instead of the driver of speciation.

text: However, much evidence supports that a single event colonization is the best explanation. One theory of Nearctic colonization states that the reason for the colonization was a larvae host plant shift. The position of the poplar admiral (L. populi), a Palearctic species, in a phylogenetic tree confirms that the poplar is the closest existing relative of the Nearctic taxa and is consistent with the theory that the host plant had a large effect on the evolution of North American admirals. Just like the wing-pattern of the Palearctic butterflies has little evidence of divergence, the host plant use of these species also shows no sign of divergence. These species only feed on different species of honeysuckle (Lonicera ssp.) The exception is the poplar that feeds exclusively on aspen (Populus tremulus of the willow family).[7] All North American Limenitis feed on members of the willow family as well, suggesting that an (ancestral host plant shift) expansion of a novel host plant across the Bering land bridge could have driven the colonization of the Nearctic. Species level phylogenies based on the mitochondrial gene COI and the gene EFI-α of Nearctic and Palearctic species also indicate a single colonization of the Nearctic species.[7] The phylogenies produced indicate that a white-banded ancestor similar to the species L. arthemis.[10] established itself in North America and resulted in several major lineages, three of which involved mimicry independently of each other. Given the present monophyly of the Nearctic species, it is likely that a single migration and subsequent expansion of the population was the foundation of the Nearctic butterflies.

text: Predators and avoidance[edit]

text: Color warnings in viceroy butterflies have been shaped by natural selection in an evolutionary relationship between prey and predator.[11] The viceroy's main predators – like many other butterflies – consist mostly of birds.

text: Batesian Mimicry[edit]

text: The viceroy's wing color ranges from tawny orange (resembling monarchs) in the north to dark mahogany (resembling queens) in the south.[12] It has been argued that selective pressures from predators have given rise to "model switching"[12] in the viceroy, with each subspecies choosing to copy the color pattern of the locally dominant Danaine subspecies. When the monarch's breeding range overlaps with the viceroy, the viceroy will adopt the lighter shades of orange. Towards the south, the viceroy mostly displayed darker orange phenotypes in response to the larger population of queens. It is important to note that the differences between these two morphs is only the color of the wings and the line drawn through the viceroy's lower wings; other features, such as body size and wing-pattern elements, are identical.[12]

text: It had been long accepted that the viceroy practiced Batesian mimicry, with the monarch and the queen serving as models. Batesian mimicry is a type of defensive behavior in which a palatable species closely resembles unpalatable or toxic species to avoid predation.

text: Early experiments suggested that the viceroys use Batesian mimicry to defend themselves against predators. In these experiments, birds that had not been exposed to monarchs willingly ate viceroys, but those that had tasted the unpalatable monarch refused to touch the mimic.[13] In addition, when given the choice between a mimic and non-mimic after being exposed to an unpalatable model, avian predators never ate the viceroy mimic.[14]

text: The Müllerian Mimicry Dispute[edit]

text: Recent research has argued that the viceroy may be unpalatable to avian predators. If that is the case, then the viceroy butterfly displays Müllerian mimicry, and both viceroy and monarch are co-mimics of each other.[15]

text: Some literature suggests that the queen-viceroy may not be a good model-mimic pair for Batesian mimicry. Experimental evidence has shown that avian predators express aversion to the queen butterfly after being exposed to viceroys.[16] That the avian predators avoided the queen butterfly implies that the queen does not serve as a model and the viceroy as a parasitic mimic; rather, they may be Müllerian co-mimics.[16]

text: When avian predators were exposed to butterfly abdomens without the wings, many avian predators rejected the viceroy after a single peck. Furthermore, they exhibited distress behavior similar to that displayed when eating other, known, unpalatable species.[15]

text: Interestingly, when palatability was measured by looking at avian responses to butterfly abdomen, it was found that the viceroy butterfly was significantly more unpalatable than the queen.[15] The queen-viceroy relationship is too asymmetrical for them to be considered real co-mimics of each other. Instead, mathematical models have suggested that the queen enjoys the benefits of mimicry at the viceroy's expense, and that the model-mimic dynamic between the two should be switched.[15]

text: In light of this new interpretation, it has been speculated that different food plants in different geographical locations influence the palatability of the viceroy.[16] Further investigation is needed to clarify the relationship between the viceroy and its purported models.

text: Evolution of viceroy mimicry[edit]

text: Based on phylogenic evidence, it is known that mimicry in the North American admirals was a driver of speciation. An essential condition for the evolution of mimicry was the presence and abundance of unpalatable models. Mimetic evolution also involved direct selection with the model acting as a "starting block" for the mimic to evolve against.[17] The drive behind this type of evolution must be predation. Eventually, the mimetic population undergoes phenotypic fixation, usually at a point where the wing pattern and colors of the mimic have reached the closest superficial resemblance of its model.[17] As these processes continued, the subspecies divergences began occurring as the mimetic species expanded their geographical range and began mimicking other species of butterfly. Determining what part of the butterfly genome controls wing color and pattern is also a major component that must be taken into account when trying to understand the evolution of mimicry. Each individual stripe or spot on a wing has a distinct identity that can be traced from species to species within a family.[18]

text: A fascinating feature of pattern genetics is that the dramatic phenotypic changes are primarily due to small changes in the gene that determines the sizes and positions of pattern elements.[18] This discovery is in accord with the principal theory for the evolution of mimicry. The theory proposes that initial mimicry is achieved by a single mutation that has a large effect on the phenotype, which immediately gives the organism some protection, and is then refined by so-called modifier genes with lesser phenotypic effects.[18] Consequently, if the genes for wing pattern and color were normal functioning genes, a single mating would produce several phenyotypically different offspring, making the ability for mimicry to evolve very difficult.

text: This unique puzzle led to proposal of a possible supergene. A supergene is a tight cluster of loci that facilitate the co-segregation of adaptive variation, providing integrated control of complex adaptive phenotypes.[19] Different genomic rearrangements have tightened the genetic linkage between different color and pattern loci with complete suppression of recombination in experimental crosses in a 400,000 base section containing at least 18 genes.[19] This single supergene locus controls differences in a complex phenotype like wing coloration that can involve modifications of wing pattern, shape, and body color. Mimetic patterns have high fitness correlated to locally abundant wing patterns and low fitness when the offspring have recombinant, non-mimetic phenotypes.[19] This tight-linked area of wing pattern genes explains how mimetic phenotypes are not broken up during recombination during sexual reproduction.

text: Polymorphism in viceroy butterflies[edit]

text: Viceroys display geographic color polymorphism, which occurs when the viceroy butterflies are observed having different color forms in different regions of their territory. Color polymorphism is hypothesized to be affected by interaction between the viceroy, monarch and queen's overlapping environments. In the northern areas of their region, where monarchs predominate, viceroys are lighter, while in southern Florida, they are darker due to queens being more abundant than monarchs.[20]


document_title: Minister of Finance (India)

question_text: who is the minister of finance in india

question_tokens: who is the minister of finance in india

text: Minister of Finance (India)

text:
Minister of Finance

Emblem of India

Incumbent
Arun Jaitley
since 26 May 2014

Ministry of Finance

Style
The Honourable

Member of
Cabinet
Cabinet Committee on Security

Appointer
President on the advice of the Prime Minister

Inaugural holder
Liaquat Ali Khan

Formation
29 October 1946

tag: table

text: The Minister of Finance (or simply, Finance Minister) is the head of the Ministry of Finance of the Government of India. One of the senior-most offices in the Union Cabinet, the finance minister is responsible for the fiscal policy of the government. As part of this, a key duty of the Finance Minister is to present the annual Union Budget in Parliament, which details the government's plan for taxation and spending in the coming financial year. Through the Budget, the finance minister also outlines the allocations to different ministries and departments. Occasionally, he is assisted by the Minister of State for Finance and the lower-ranked Deputy Minister of Finance.

text: The first Finance Minister of independent India was R. K. Shanmukham Chetty, who also presented its first Budget. The incumbent Arun Jaitley, of the Bharatiya Janata Party, has held office since 26 May 2014. As of September 2017[update], Morarji Desai has presented 10 budgets which is the highest followed by P Chidambaram's 9 and Pranab Mukherjee's 8. Yashwant Sinha, Yashwantrao Chavan and C.D. Deshmukh have presented 7 budgets each while Manmohan Singh and T.T. Krishnamachari have presented 6 budgets.[1] As of February 2018, four Finance Ministers have gone on to become the Prime Minister who are: Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, V. P. Singh and Manmohan Singh.

text: Lists of finance ministers[edit]

text:
Name
Portrait
Term of office
Political party
(Alliance)
Prime Minister

Liaquat Ali Khan
(Interim government)

29 October 1946
14 August 1947
All-India Muslim League

Jawaharlal Nehru
(Vice President of the interim govt)

R. K. Shanmukham Chetty

15 August 1947
1949
Indian National Congress

Jawaharlal Nehru

John Mathai

1949
1950

C. D. Deshmukh

29 May 1950[2]
1957

T. T. Krishnamachari

1957
13 February 1958

Jawaharlal Nehru

13 February 1958
13 March 1958

Morarji Desai

13 March 1958
29 August 1963

T. T. Krishnamachari

29 August 1963
1965
Jawaharlal Nehru
Lal Bahadur Shastri

Sachindra Chaudhuri

1965
13 March 1967
Lal Bahadur Shastri
Indira Gandhi

Morarji Desai

13 March 1967
16 July 1969
Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi

1970
1971

Yashwantrao Chavan

1971
1975

Chidambaram Subramaniam

1975
1977

Haribhai M. Patel

24 March 1977
24 January 1979
Janata Party

Morarji Desai

Charan Singh

24 January 1979
28 July 1979

Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna

28 July 1979
14 January 1980
Janata Party (Secular)

Charan Singh

R. Venkataraman

14 January 1980
15 January 1982
Indian National Congress

Indira Gandhi

Pranab Mukherjee

15 January 1982
31 December 1984

V. P. Singh

31 December 1984
24 January 1987
Rajiv Gandhi

Rajiv Gandhi

24 January 1987
25 July 1987

N. D. Tiwari

25 July 1987
25 June 1988

Shankarrao Chavan

25 June 1988
2 December 1989

Madhu Dandavate

2 December 1989
10 November 1990
Janata Dal
(National Front)

V. P. Singh

Yashwant Sinha

10 November 1990
21 June 1991
Samajwadi Janata Party
(National Front)

Chandra Shekhar

Manmohan Singh

21 June 1991
16 May 1996
Indian National Congress

P. V. Narasimha Rao

Jaswant Singh

16 May 1996
1 June 1996
Bharatiya Janata Party

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

P. Chidambaram

1 June 1996
21 April 1997
Tamil Maanila Congress
(United Front)

H. D. Deve Gowda

I.K. Gujral

21 April 1997
1 May 1997
Janata Dal
(United Front)

I. K. Gujral

P. Chidambaram

1 May 1997
19 March 1998
Tamil Maanila Congress
(United Front)

Yashwant Sinha

19 March 1998
1 July 2002
Bharatiya Janata Party
(National Democratic Alliance)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Jaswant Singh

1 July 2002
22 May 2004

P. Chidambaram

22 May 2004
30 November 2008
Indian National Congress
(United Progressive Alliance)

Manmohan Singh

Manmohan Singh

30 November 2008
24 January 2009

Pranab Mukherjee

24 January 2009
26 June 2012

Manmohan Singh

26 June 2012
31 July 2012

P. Chidambaram

31 July 2012
26 May 2014

Arun Jaitley

26 May 2014
Incumbent
Bharatiya Janata Party
(National Democratic Alliance)

Narendra Modi


document_title: The Two Pots

question_text: what is the moral of the two pots

question_tokens: what is the moral of the two pots

text: The Two Pots

text: The Fable[edit]

text: There is a short Greek version of the fable and a longer, more circumstantial late Latin poem by Avianus. It concerns two pots, one of earthenware and the other of metal, that are being swept along a river. While the metal pot is willing that they should journey together, the clay pot hopes it will keep its distance for ‘Whether the wave crashes me into you or you into me, in either case I will be the only victim’. The moral drawn is that equal partnership is best, and especially that the poor or powerless should avoid the company of the powerful.

text: In this connection, there is a likeness between the story and a passage in the debated book of Ecclesiasticus that advises caution in such unequal relationships: 'Have no fellowship with one that is richer than thyself. What agreement shall the earthen pot have with the kettle? For if they knock one against the other, it shall be broken' (13.2-3). Since this particular scripture is in Greek and dates from the 2nd century BCE, it is possible that the passage quoted and the fable are both based on a popular proverb. But there is also a connection with a later Talmudic proverb which underlines the no-win situation of the fable: 'If a pot falls upon a stone, woe to the pot; if a stone falls upon a pot, woe to the pot; either way, woe to the pot' (Esther Rabbah, 7:10).

text: Yet another oriental connection with this proverbial lore occurs in the Indian Panchatantra. In its second section, which deals with the gaining of friends, there is a long debate between Hiranyaka the rat and Laghupatanaka the crow about partnership between such natural enemies as themselves. One of the points made is that 'Friendship with bad men is like a pot of clay, easy to break but difficult to rejoin. With good men it is like a pot of gold, difficult to break but easy to mend.'[2] Here once again we find earthenware and metal pots contrasted.

text: The connection with the passage in Ecclesiasticus was noted by Andrea Alciato in the various editions of his Emblemata. The aim of his collection was to point a moral lesson through an iconic illustration, supported by Latin verses (and translations into other languages) and a commentary. The fable of the two pots was chosen to illustrate the Latin proverb Aliquid mali propter vicinum malum (Bad comes of a bad neighbour), which Erasmus had included in his Adagia (Adage 32).[3] The English poet Geoffrey Whitney followed Alciato in all this, using an illustration from one of his editions in his Choice of Emblemes (1568), but supporting it with an 18-line poem of his own.[4] The final stanza sums up the meaning of the fable:

text: While the title of Aesop's fable is almost always given as "The Two Pots", La Fontaine's Fables contrast their different constituents in a rather different fable based on it, Le pot de terre et le pot de fer (Fables V.2).[5] In this the iron pot proposes a journey together to the clay pot, which is only persuaded by the stronger pot's offer to protect him. When they are jostled together on their way, the clay pot is shattered and only has himself to blame. 'Only equals should associate' is the conclusion. A French proverb derives from this fable, where the phrase 'It's the iron pot against the clay pot' (C'est le pot de fer contre le pot de terre) is used in cases when the weak come off worst.

text: Artistic interpretations[edit]

text: Book illustrations of Aesop's fable inevitably picture two contrasting pots being carried along a river. In the lively woodblock print by the Japanese artist Kawanabe Kyosai, the pots are given human forms and shown tossed on the waves of a heavy sea. There the earthen pot is desperately fending off the friendly approach of the metal pot. In the distance is a town with mountains behind it. How much Kyosai has added is plain when one compares his version with the one by John Tenniel on which it is based. The gated town in the background is almost identical, but Tenniel shows the two pots becalmed in an eddy near the mouth of an estuary.[6] This in turn looks back to the various illustrations in Alciato's Book of Emblems, especially that of the 1591 edition. There the pots are tossed on waves as they are carried towards the sea; in the background are mountains with a town at their foot and a castle perched on a height.[7]

text: Two French composers have set La Fontaine's fable. Isabelle Aboulker among Les Fables enchantées (1979) and Dominique Preschez (1954-) as the second of her Trois fables en une (1995).


document_title: Energy policy of China

question_text: what is the leading source of energy used in china

text: Energy policy of China

text: Summary[edit]

text:
Energy in China[10]

Population (million)

Primary energy TWh

Production TWh

Import TWh

Electricity TWh

CO2 emissions Mt

2004
1,296
18,717
17,873
1,051
2,055
4,732

2007
1,320
22,746
21,097
1,939
3,073
6,028

2008
1,326
24,614
23,182
2,148
3,252
6,508

2009
1,331
26,250
24,248
3,197
3,503
6,832

2010
1,338
28,111
25,690
3,905
3,938
7,270

Change 2004-10
3.3%
50%
44%
272%
92%
54%

 Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, excludes Hong Kong.

text: Environment and carbon emissions[edit]

text: On June 19, 2007, the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency announced that a preliminary study had indicated that China's greenhouse gas emissions for 2006 had exceeded those of the United States for the first time. The agency calculated that China’s CO2 emissions from fossil fuels increased by 9% in 2006, while those of the United States fell by 1.4%, compared to 2005.[11] The study used energy and cement production data from British Petroleum which they believed to be 'reasonably accurate', while warning that statistics for rapidly changing economies such as China are less reliable than data on OECD countries.[12]

text: The Initial National Communication on Climate Change of the People's Republic of China calculated that carbon dioxide emissions in 2004 had risen to approximately 5.05 billion metric tons, with total greenhouse gas emissions reaching about 6.1 billion metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent.[13]

text: In 2002, China ranked 2nd (after the United States) in the list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions, with emissions of 3.3 billion metric tons, representing 14.5% of the world total.[14] However, due to its huge population size (the largest in the world), it only ranked 43 in the list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita, with emissions of 7.6 metric tons per person (compared to 16.4 metric tons per person in the United States).[15] In addition, it has been estimated that around a third of China's carbon emissions in 2005 were due to manufacturing exported goods.[16]

text: Since 2006, China has overtaken the USA, producing 8% more emissions than the US to become the worlds biggest emitter of pollution.[17]

text: Energy use and carbon emissions by sector[edit]

text: In the industrial sector, six industries – electricity generation, steel, non-ferrous metals, construction materials, oil processing and chemicals – account for nearly 70% of energy use.[18]

text: In the construction materials sector, China produced about 44% of the world's cement in 2006.[12] Cement production produces more carbon emissions than any other industrial process, accounting for around 4% of global carbon emissions.[12]

text: National Action Plan on Climate Change[edit]

text: China has been taking action on climate change for some years, with the publication on June 4, 2007 of China's first National Action Plan on Climate Change,[1] and in that year China became the first developing country to publish a national strategy addressing global warming.[19] The plan did not include targets for carbon dioxide emission reductions, but it has been estimated that, if fully implemented, China's annual emissions of greenhouse gases would be reduced by 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by 2010.[19] Other commentators, however, put the figure at 0.950 billion metric tons.[20]

text: The publication of the strategy was officially announced during a meeting of the State Council, which called on governments and all sectors of the economy to implement the plan, and for the launch of a public environmental protection awareness campaign.[21]

text: The National Action Plan includes increasing the proportion of electricity generation from renewable energy sources and from nuclear power, increasing the efficiency of coal-fired power stations,[22] the use of cogeneration, and the development of coal-bed and coal-mine methane.[20]

text: In addition, the one child policy in China has successfully slowed down the population increase, preventing 300 million births, the equivalent of 1.3 billion tons of CO2 emissions based on average world per capita emissions of 4.2 tons at 2005 level.[23]

text: 12th Five-year Plan 2011-2015[edit]

text: In January 2012, as part of its 12th Five-year Plan, China published a report 12th Five-year Plan on Greenhouse Emission Control (guofa [2011] No. 41), which establishes goals of reducing carbon intensity by 17% by 2015, compared with 2010 levels and raising energy consumption intensity by 16%, relative to GDP.[24] More demanding targets were set for the most developed regions and those with most heavy industry, including Guangdong, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Tianjin.[24] China also plans to meet 11.4% of its primary energy requirements from non-fossil sources by 2015.[24]

text: The plan will also pilot the construction of a number of low-carbon Development Zones and low-carbon residential communities, which it hopes will result in a cluster effect among businesses and consumers.[24]

text: In addition, the Government will in future include data on greenhouse emissions in its official statistics.[24]

text: Carbon trading scheme[edit]

text: In a separate development, on January 13, 2012,[25] the National Development and Reform Commission announced that the cities of Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing and Shenzhen, and the provinces of Hubei and Guangdong would become the first to participate in a pilot carbon cap and trade scheme that would operate in a similar way to the European Union Emission Trading Scheme.[24] The development follows an unsuccessful experiment with voluntary carbon exchanges that was set up in 2009 in Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin.[24]

text: Fossil fuels[edit]

text: Coal[edit]

text:
Coal in China (Mt) [26]

Production

Net import

Net available

2005
2,226
-47
2,179

2008
2,761
nd
2,761

2009
2,971
114
3,085

2010
3,162
157
3,319

2011
3,576
177
3,753

2015
3,527
199
3,726

Excludes Hong Kong

text: Coal remains the foundation of the Chinese energy system, covering close to 70 percent of the country’s primary energy needs and representing 80 percent of the fuel used in electricity generation. Coal has grown rapidly in importance in recent years along with the rising demand for electricity.[8] In 2011, according to the IEA, Chinese coal production was equivalent to 3,576 Mt*0.522 toe/Mt*11.630 TWh/toe = 21,709 TWh. Assuming the same caloric value for the imported coal, the net coal energy available would be 22,784 TWh. Equally calculated available coal was 17,000 TWh in 2008 and 22,800 TWh in 2011, with increase of 5,800 TWh in three years. Total renewable energy in China was 3,027 TWh in 2008 and 2,761 TWh in 2005, with increase of 266 TWh in three years. Same period from 2005 to 2008 annual coal use increased 3,341 TWh.

text: China's coal supply was in 2009 18,449 TWh which was 47% of the world coal supply.[27]

text: China is the world's top coal producer and ranks third in the amounts of coal reserves. It is approximately self-sufficient in coal, with a production of 2.38 billion ton and a consumption of 2.37 billion tons in 2006.[28]

text: Top 10 hard and brown coal producers in 2010 (2009) were (Mt): China 3,162 (2,971), United States 997 (985), India 571 (561), Australia 420 (399), Indonesia 336 (301), Russia 324 (297), South Africa 255 (247), Kazakhstan 111 (101), Poland 134 (135) and Colombia 74 (73).[29]

text: In 2010 China was second highest hard coal importer (157 Mt).[29]

text: China consumes more coal than any other country. Its share of the world coal production was 48% in 2009 and 28% in 2000. Coal use in the world increased 48% from 2000 to 2009. In practice, the majority of this growth occurred in China and the rest in other parts of Asia.[27] In China, Coal usage double between 2003 and 2007.[30]

text: Analysis in 2016 shows that China's coal consumption appears to have peaked in 2014.[31][32]

text: Petroleum[edit]

text: China's oil supply was 4,855 TWh in 2009 which represented 10% of the world's supply.[33]

text: Although China is still a major crude oil producer, it became an oil importer in the 1990s. China became dependent on imported oil for the first time in its history in 1993 due to demand rising faster than domestic production.[1] In 2002, annual crude petroleum production was 1,298,000,000 barrels, and annual crude petroleum consumption was 1,670,000,000 barrels. In 2006, it imported 145 million tons of crude oil, accounting for 47% of its total oil consumption.[34][35] By 2014 China was importing approximately 7 mil. barrels of oil per day. Three state-owned oil companies – Sinopec, CNPC, and CNOOC – dominate its domestic market.

text: China announced on June 20, 2008 plans to raise petrol, diesel and aviation kerosene prices. This decision appeared to reflect a need to reduce the unsustainably high level of subsidies these fuels attract, given the global trend in the price of oil.[36]

text: Top oil producers were in 2010: Russia 502 Mt (13%), Saudi Arabia 471 Mt (12%), US 336 Mt (8%), Iran 227 Mt (6%), China 200 Mt (5%), Canada 159 Mt (4%), Mexico 144 Mt (4%), UAE 129 Mt (3%). The world oil production increased from 2005 to 2010 1.3% and from 2009 to 2010 3.4%.[29]

text: Natural gas[edit]

text: China's natural gas supply was 1,015 TWh in 2009 that was 3% of the world supply.[37]

text: CNPC, Sinopec, and CNOOC are all active in the upstream gas sector, as well as in LNG import, and in midstream pipelines. Branch pipelines and urban networks are run by city gas companies including China Gas Holdings, ENN Energy, Towngas China, Beijing Enterprises Holdings and Kunlun Energy.

text: Issued by China’s State Council in September 2013, China’s Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution illustrates government desire to increase the share of natural gas in China’s energy mix.[1] In May 2014 China signed a 30-year deal with Russia to deliver 38 billion cubic metres of natural gas each year.[38]

text: China was top seventh in natural gas production in 2010.[29]

text: Electricity generation[edit]

text:
In 2013, China's total annual electricity output was 5.398 trillion kWh and the annual consumption was 5.380 trillion kWh with an installed capacity of 1247 GW (all the largest in the world).
[39]

text: This is an increase from 2009, when China's total annual electricity output was 3.71465 trillion kWh,[40] and the annual consumption was 3.6430 trillion kWh (second largest in the world).[41] In the same year, the total installed electricity generating capacity was 874 GW.[42] China is undertaking substantial long distance transmission projects with record breaking capacities, and has the goal of achieving an integrated nationwide grid in the period between 2015 and 2020.[43]

text: Coal[edit]

text: In 2015, China generated 73% of its electricity from coal-fired power stations, which has been dropping from a peak of 81% in 2007.[26]

text:
Coal electricity in China (TWh) [26]

From coal

Total

%

2004

1,713
2,200
78%

2007

2,656
3,279
81%

2008

2,733
3,457
79%

2009

2,913
3,696
79%

2010

3,273
4,208
78%

2011

3,724
4,715
79%

2012

3,850
4,937
78%

2013

4,200
5,398
78%

2014

4,354
5,583
78%

2015

4,115
5,666
73%

text: Renewables[edit]

text: China is the world's leading renewable energy producer, with an installed capacity of 152 GW.[7] China has been investing heavily in the renewable energy field in recent years. In 2007, the total renewable energy investment was $12 billion USD, second only to Germany.[44] In 2012, China invested $65.1 billion USD in clean energy (20% more than in 2011), fully 30% of the total investment by the G-20, including 25% ($31.2 billion USD) of global solar energy investment, 37% percent ($27.2 billion USD) of global wind energy investment, and 47% ($6.3 billion USD) of global investment in "other renewable energy" (small hydro, geothermal, marine, and biomass); 23 GW of clean generation capacity was installed.[45]

text: China is also the largest producer of wind turbines and solar panels.[46] Approximately 7% of China's energy was from renewable sources in 2006, a figure targeted to rise to 10% by 2010 and to 16% by 2020.[20] The major renewable energy source in China is hydropower. Total hydro-electric output in China in 2009 was 615.64 TWh, constituting 16.6% of all electricity generated. The country already has the most hydro-electric capacity in the world, and the Three Gorges Dam is currently the largest hydro-electric power station in the world, with a total capacity of 22.5 GW. It has been in full operation since May 2012.

text: Nuclear power[edit]

text: In 2012, China had 15 nuclear power units with a total electric capacity of 11 GW and total output of 54.8 billion kWh, accounting for 1.9% country's total electricity output. This rose to 17 reactors in 2013. By 2016 the number of operating nuclear reactors was 32 with 22 under construction and other dozen to start construction this year. There are plans to increase nuclear power capacity and nuclear power percentage, bringing the total electricity output to 86 GW and 4% respectively by 2020.[47] Plans are to increase this to 200 GWe by 2030, and 400 GWe by 2050. China has set an end-of-the-Century goal 1500GWs of nuclear energy, most of this from fast reactors. China has 32[48] reactors under construction, the highest number in the world.

text: Rural electrification[edit]

text: Following the completion of the similar Township Electrification Program in 2005, the Village Electrification Program plans to provide renewable electricity to 3.5 million households in 10,000 villages by 2010. This is to be followed by full rural electrification using renewable energy by 2015.[49]

text: Renewable energy sources[edit]

text: Although a majority of the renewable energy in China is from hydropower, other renewable energy sources are in rapid development. In 2006, a total of 10 billion US dollars had been invested in renewable energy, second only to Germany.[50]

text: Bioenergy[edit]

text: In 2006, 16 million tons of corn have been used to produce ethanol.[51] However, because food prices in China rose sharply during 2007, China has decided to ban the further expansion of the corn ethanol industry.

text: On February 7, a spokesman for the State Forestry Administration announced that 130,000 square kilometres (50,000 sq mi) would be devoted to biofuel production. Under an agreement reached with PetroChina in January 2007, 400 square kilometres of Jatropha curcas is to be grown for biodiesel production. Local governments are also developing oilseed projects. There are concerns that such developments may lead to serious environmental damage.[52]

text: Solar power[edit]

text: China has become the world's largest consumer of solar energy.[53] It is the largest producer of solar water heaters, accounting for 60 percent of the world’s solar hot water heating capacity, and the total installed heaters is estimated at 30 million households.[54] Solar PV production in China is also in rapid development. In 2007, 0.82 GW of Solar PV was produced, second only to Japan.[7]

text: As part of the stimulus plan of "Golden Sun", announced by the government in 2009, several developments and projects became part of the milestones for the development of solar technology in China. These include the agreement signed by LDK for a 500MW solar project, a new thin film solar plant developed by Anwell Technologies in Henan province using its own proprietary solar technology and the solar power plant project in a desert, headed by First Solar and Ordos City. The effort to drive the renewable energy use in China was further assured after the speech by the Chinese President, given at the UN climate summit on 22 Sept 2009 in New York, pledging that China will plan to have 15% of its energy from renewable sources within a decade. China is using solar power in houses, buildings, and cars.[55][56][57]

text: Wind power[edit]

text: China's total wind power capacity reached 2.67 gigawatts (GW) in 2006, 6.05 GW by 2007, 12.2 GW by 2008, 25 GW by 2009, and 44.7 GW by 2010, making China the world leader in installed wind power generation capacity.[58][59]

text: Energy conservation[edit]

text: General work plan[edit]

text: Officials were warned that violating energy conservation and environmental protection laws would lead to criminal proceedings, while failure to achieve targets would be taken into account in the performance assessment of officials and business leaders.[18]

text: After achieving less than half the 4% reduction in energy intensity targeted for 2006, all companies and local and national government were asked to submit detailed plans for compliance before June 30, 2007.[60][61]

text: During the first four years of the plan, energy intensity improved by 14.4%, but dropped sharply in the first quarter of 2010. In August 2010, China announced the closing of 2,087 steel mills, cement works and other energy-intensive factories by September 30, 2010. The factory closings were made more palatable by a labor shortage in much of China making it easier for workers to find other jobs.[62]

text: Space heating and air conditioning[edit]

text: A State Council circular issued on June 3, 2007, restricts the temperature of air conditioning in public buildings to no lower than 26 °C in summer (78.8 °F), and of heating to no higher than 20 °C (68 °F) in winter. The sale of inefficient air conditioning units has also been outlawed.[63]

text: Businesspeople[edit]

text: Chinese billionaires in energy business by Forbes included in 2013 Wang Yusuo & family ($2.4 B) the chairman of ENN Group, one of China's largest non-government-controlled energy businesses and Huo Qinghua ( $1.1 B) chairman of China Kingho Energy Group, one of the country's largest privately held mining and energy companies, with operations in China, Africa and Mongolia.[64] and in Hong Kong Sit Kwong Lam ($1.35 B) the founder and chairman of Hong Kong-listed Brightoil Petroleum.[65]

text: Public opinion[edit]

text: The Chinese results from the 1st Annual World Environment Review, published on June 5, 2007 revealed that, in a sample of 1024 people (50% male):[66]

text:
88% are concerned about climate change.
97% think their Government should do more to tackle global warming.
63% think that China is too dependent on fossil fuels.
56% think that China is too reliant on foreign oil.
91% think that a minimum 25% of electricity should be generated from renewable energy sources.
61% are concerned about nuclear power.
79% are concerned about carbon dioxide emissions from developing countries.
62% think it appropriate for developed countries to demand restrictions on carbon dioxide emissions from developing countries.

text: Another survey published in August 2007 by China Youth Daily and the British Council sampled 2,500 Chinese people with an average age of 30.1. It showed that 80% of young Chinese are concerned about global warming.[67]

text: Protests[edit]

text: In December 2011 in Haimen, Guangdong, a coastal town of about 120,000 people, residents have protested ongoing for three days (22.12.2011) against plans for another coal-fired power plant. Police were armed with batons and shields and fired teargas to break up demonstrations.[68]


document_title: Reabsorption

question_text: where are amino acids reabsorbed in the nephron

text: Reabsorption

text:
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text: In renal physiology, reabsorption or tubular reabsorption is the process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the tubular fluid (pre-urine) and returns them to the circulating blood. It is called reabsorption (and not absorption) both because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines) and because the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is well on its way to becoming urine (that is, they will soon be lost to the urine unless they are reclaimed). Substances are reabsorbed from the tubule into the peritubular capillaries. This happens as a result of sodium transport from the lumen into the blood by the Na+/K+ATPase in the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells. Thus, the glomerular filtrate becomes more concentrated, which is one of the steps in forming urine. Reabsorption allows many useful solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids), salts and water that have passed through Bowman's capsule, to return to the circulation. These solutes are reabsorbed isotonically, in that the osmotic potential of the fluid leaving the proximal convoluted tubule is the same as that of the initial glomerular filtrate. However, glucose, amino acids, inorganic phosphate, and some other solutes are reabsorbed via secondary active transport through cotransport channels driven by the sodium gradient.

text: Renin–angiotensin system:

text: 1. The kidneys sense low blood pressure.

text: 2. Release renin into the blood.

text: 3. Renin causes production of Angiotensin I.

text: 4. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II.

text: 5. Angiotensin II stimulates the release of Aldosterone, ADH, and thirst.

text: 6. Aldosterone causes kidneys to reabsorb sodium; ADH increases the uptake of water.

text: 7. Water follows sodium.

text: 8. As blood volume increases, pressure also increases.