document_title: Minimum wage in the United States

question_text: who has the highest minimum wage in usa

question_tokens: who has the highest minimum wage in usa

text: Minimum wage in the United States

text: History[edit]

text:
It seems to me to be equally plain that no business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country.
— President Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1933[14][15]

tag: div

text: Minimum wage legislation emerged at the end of the nineteenth century from the desire to end sweated labor which had developed in the wake of industrialization.[16] Sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered nonliving wages that did not allow workers to afford the necessaries of life.[17] Besides substandard wages, sweating was also associated with long work hours and unsanitary work conditions.[18] From the 1890s to the 1920s, during the Progressive Era, a time of social activists and political reform across the United States, progressive reformers, women's organizations, religious figures, academics, and politicians all played an important role in getting state minimum wage laws passed throughout the United States.[19]

text: The first successful attempts at using minimum wage laws to ameliorate the problem of nonliving wages occurred in the Australian state of Victoria in 1896.[20][21] Factory inspector reports and newspaper reporting on the conditions of sweated labor in Melbourne, Victoria led in 1895 to the formation of the National Anti-Sweating League which pushed the government aggressively to deal legislatively with the problem of substandard wages.[22] The government, following the recommendation of the Victorian Chief Secretary Alexander Peacock, established wage boards which were tasked with establishing minimum wages in the labor trades which suffered from nonlivable wages. During the same time period, campaigns against sweated labor were occurring in the United States and England.[23]

text: Progressive Era[edit]

text: In the United States in 1890, a group of concerned female reformers who wanted to improve the harsh conditions of sweated workers formed the Consumer's League of the City of New York. The consumer group sought to improve working conditions by boycotting products which were made under sweated conditions and did not conform to a code of "fair house" standards drawn up by them. Similar, consumer leagues formed throughout the United States, and in 1899, they united under the National Consumer League (NCL) parent organization.[24] Consumer advocacy, however, was extremely slow at changing conditions in the sweated industries. When NCL leaders in 1908 went to an international anti-sweatshop conference in Geneva, Switzerland and were introduced to Australian minimum wage legislation, which had successfully dealt with sweated labor, they came home believers and made minimum wage legislation part of their national platform.[25]

text: In 1910, in conjunction with advocacy work led by Florence Kelley of the National Consumer League, the Women's Trade Union League (WTLU) of Massachusetts under the leadership of Elizabeth Evans took up the cause of minimum wage legislation in Massachusetts. Over the next two years, a coalition of social reform groups and labor advocates in Boston pushed for minimum wage legislation in the state.[26] On June 4, 1912, Massachusetts passed the first minimum wage legislation in the United States, which established a state commission for recommending non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children.[27][28] The passage of the bill was significantly assisted by the Lawrence textile strike which had raged for ten weeks at the beginning of 1912. The strike brought national attention to the plight of the low wage textile workers, and pushed the state legislatures, who feared the magnitude of the strike, to enact progressive labor legislation.[29]

text: By 1923, fifteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia had passed minimum wage laws, with pressure being placed on state legislatures by the National Consumers League in a coalition with other women's voluntary associations and organized labor.[30][31] The United States Supreme Court of the Lochner era (1897–1937), however, consistently invalidated labor regulation laws. Advocates for state minimum wage laws hoped that they would be upheld under the precedent of Muller v. Oregon (1908), which upheld maximum working hours laws for women on the grounds that women required special protection that men did not.[31] The Supreme Court, however, did not extend this principle to minimum wage laws.[30]:518 The court ruled in Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923) that the District of Columbia's minimum wage law was unconstitutional, because the law interfered with the ability of employers to freely negotiate wage contracts with employees. The court also noted that women did not require anymore special protection by the law, following the passage in 1920 of the Nineteenth Amendment, which gave women the right to vote and equal legal status.[32]

text: New Deal[edit]

text: In 1933, the Roosevelt administration during the New Deal made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage regiment with the National Industrial Recovery Act, which set minimum wage and maximum hours on an industry and regional basis. The Supreme Court, however, in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (1935) ruled the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage regulations were abolished.[33] Two years later after President Roosevelt's overwhelming reelection in 1936 and discussion of judicial reform, the Supreme Court took up the issue of labor legislation again in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937) and upheld the constitutionality of minimum wage legislation enacted by Washington state and overturned the Adkins decision which marked the end of the Lochner era.[34] In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, this time at a uniform rate of $0.25 per hour ($4.78 in 2017 dollars[35]). The Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941), holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.[36]

text: The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce," but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80.[37]

text: Legislation[edit]

text: The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009.[37] Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: Employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists.[38] The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses.

text: Inflation indexing[edit]

text: Some politicians in the United States advocate linking the minimum wage to the consumer price index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the consumer price index. Linking the minimum wage to the consumer price index avoids the erosion of the purchasing power of the minimum wage with time because of inflation. In 1998 Washington state became the first state to approve consumer price indexing for its minimum wage.[39] In 2003 San Francisco, California and Santa Fe, New Mexico were the first cities to approve consumer price indexing for their minimum wage.[40][41][42] Oregon and Florida were the next states to link their minimum wages to the consumer price index.[39] Later in 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio)  approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour, and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation.[43] As of 2018, the minimum wage is indexed to inflation in 17 states.[6]

text: Living wage protests[edit]

text:
Living wage to cover basic needs in select U.S. cities (2017)[44][45]

City

Living wage

Houston

$14.60[46]

Cleveland

$14.61[47]

New Orleans

$15.04[48]

Atlanta

$15.30[49]

Tampa

$15.44[50]

United States

$16.07[51]

Philadelphia

$16.35[52]

Chicago

$16.88[53]

Boston

$18.36[54]

Los Angeles

$18.95[55]

New York City

$21.55[56]

San Francisco

$23.79[57]

text: Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15", initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage to a living wage.[58] Since the start of these protests, a number of states and cities have increased their minimum wage. In 2014 Connecticut for instance passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 per hour by 2017, making it one of about six states at the time to aim at or above $10.00 per hour.[59] In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington D.C. passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00 per hour.[60][61] In 2016 New York and California became the first states to pass legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour in each state,[62][63] followed by Massachusetts in 2018.[64]

text: In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the minimum wage on the federal level by way of the Minimum Wage Fairness Act. The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two-year period.[65] The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House.[66][67][68] Later in 2014, voters in the Republican-controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all four states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines.[69]

text: In April 2017, Senator Bernie Sanders and Senator Patty Murray, backed by 28 of the Senate's Democrats, introduced new federal legislation which would raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour by 2024 and index it to inflation.[70] The Raise the Wage Act of 2017, which was simultaneously introduced in the House of Representatives with 166 Democratic cosponsors, would raise the minimum wage to $9.25 per hour immediately, and then gradually increase it to $15 per hour by 2024, while simultaneously raising the minimum wage for tipped workers and phasing it out.[71] The legislation was introduced according to Senator Bernie Sanders to make sure that every worker has at least a modest and decent standard of living.[72]

text: State laws[edit]

text: In the United States, different states are able to set their own minimum wages independent of the federal government. When the state and federal minimum wage differ the higher wage prevails. As of January 2018, there were 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum.[5] Washington has the highest state minimum wage at $11.50 per hour.[73] A number of states have also in recent years enacted state preemption laws, which restrict local community rights, and bar local governments from setting their own minimum wage amounts.[74] As of 2017, state preemption laws for local minimum wages have passed in 25 states.[75]

text: Legislation has passed recently in multiple states that significantly raises the minimum wage. California is set to raise its minimum wage to $15.00 per hour by January 1, 2023.[76] Colorado is set to raise its minimum wage from $9.30 per hour to $12 per hour by January 1, 2020, rising $0.90 per year.[77] New York has also passed legislation to increase its minimum wage to $15.00 per hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster schedules than others.[78] A number of other cities and states across the country are also debating and enacting legislation to increase the minimum wage for low wage workers to a livable wage.[79]

text: Local ordinances[edit]

text: Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. In 2003 San Francisco, California and Santa Fe, New Mexico were the first two cities to introduce local minimum wage ordinances.[42] Another device to increase wages locally are living wage ordinances, which generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself. In 1994 Baltimore, Maryland was the first city in the United States to pass such a living wage ordinance. These targeted living wage ordinances for city contract workers have led in subsequent years to citywide local minimum wage laws which apply to all workers.[80]

text: In the current wave of minimum wage legislative action, Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass on June 2, 2014 a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage for all workers to $15.00 per hour,[81] which phases in over seven years.[82] This ordinance followed the referendum in SeaTac, Washington in November 2013, which raised on a more limited scale the local minimum wage to $15.00 for transportation and hospitality workers.[83][84] Numerous other cities have followed Seattle's example since. San Francisco became the first major city in the U.S. to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018.[85] New York City's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018.[86] The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020.[87][88] Similarly, the minimum wage in Minneapolis, Minnesota will be $15.00 per hour by 2022.[89] A growing number of other California cities have also enacted local minimum wage ordinances to increase the minimum wage to $15.00 per hour, including Berkeley, El Cerrito, Emeryville, Mountain View, Oakland, Richmond, and San Jose.[90]

text: Union exemptions[edit]

text: Some minimum wage ordinances have an exemption for unionized workers. For instance, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary in 2014 for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour which has such an exemption.[91] This led in some cases to longtime workers at unionized hotels such as the Sheraton Universal making $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton less than 500 feet away making at least $15.37 as mandated by law for non-unionized employees.[92]  Similar exemptions have been adopted in other cities. As of December 2014, unions were exempt from minimum wage ordinances in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland.[93] In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver.[94]

text: Historical trend[edit]

text: The federal minimum wage was introduced in 1938 at the rate of $0.25 per hour ($4.78 in 2018 dollars).[9][95] By 1950 the minimum wage had risen to $0.75 per hour.[35][9] The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.65 in 2018 dollars).[35][96][97] From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record-setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. In 2009 the minimum wage was adjusted to $7.25 where it has remained fixed for the past nine years.[9]

text: The purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has fluctuated. Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014.[35] If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars.[98][99] This would have been equal to a 31% increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216% in the same time period.

text: Economic effects[edit]

text:
The owner, the employees, and the buying public are all one and the same, and unless an industry can so manage itself as to keep wages high and prices low it destroys itself, for otherwise it limits the number of its customers. One's own employees ought to be one's own best customers.
— Henry Ford, 1926[100][101]

text: The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality, and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter.[102]

text: Employment[edit]

text: In neoclassical economics, the law of demand states that—all else being equal—raising the price of any particular good or service reduces the quantity demanded.[103] Therefore, neoclassical economists argue that—all else being equal—raising the minimum wage will have adverse effects on employment. Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, they do not hire or retain that worker.[104]

text: Other economists of different schools of thought argue that a limited increase in the minimum wage does not affect or increases the number of jobs available. Economist David Cooper for instance estimates that a higher minimum wage would support the creation of at least 85,000 new jobs in the United States.[105] This divergence of thought began with empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s which challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment."[106] In contrast, a 1995 analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey's minimum wage resulted in a 4.6% decrease in employment. Neumark's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast-food restaurant chains, whereas the Card-Krueger study relied on business surveys.[107]

text: A literature review conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher in 2007 (which surveyed 101 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that about two-thirds of peer-reviewed economic research showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment—especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark's review further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85% of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment.[108]

text: Statistical meta-analysis conducted by Tom Stanley in 2005 in contrast found that there is evidence of publication bias in minimum wage literature, and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment.[109] In 2008 Hristos Doucouliagos and Tom Stanley conducted a similar meta-analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger's initial claim of publication bias was correct. Moreover, they concluded, "Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains."[110]

text: The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) in 2014 estimated the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes).[112] The Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) in contrast in 2013 found in a review of multiple studies since 2000 that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage."[113] CEPR found in a later study that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage.[114] In 2014 the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States.[115] Washington had a job growth rate 0.3% faster than the national average job growth rate.[105]

text: A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia estimated that the 2004-6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2% to 21.8% reduction in employment for less-skilled, less-educated workers.[116] Similarly, a study led by Richard Burkhauser in 2000 concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working-age population—young adults without a high school degree (aged 20-24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16-24), and teenagers (aged 16-19)."[117]

text: The Economist wrote in December 2013 in sum that: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs...Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage...High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world's highest wage floor, at more than 60% of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26% for 15- to 24-year-olds."[118]

text: Prices[edit]

text: Conceptually, raising the minimum wage increases the cost of labor, ceteris paribus. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products, due to the effects of price elasticity of demand. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they cannot raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases.[119] However, there are studies that show that higher prices for products due to increased labor cost are usually only by about 0.4% of the original price.[105]

text: Effects on crime[edit]

text: A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review" argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime.[120] The study by the Council of Economic Advisers calculated that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent." To get those numbers, the study assumed that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower."[120]

text: In contrast in a 1987 journal article, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase.[121] According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also argued that to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity.[121]

text: Economic growth[edit]

text: Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment.[112] Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity.[122]

text: The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income.[112]

text: Income inequality[edit]

text: An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher-income persons (business owners or "capital") to lower income persons (workers or "labor") and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise.[112]

text: Poverty[edit]

text: Among hourly-paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum.Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7% of all hourly-paid workers.[124]

text: The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option.[112] Similarly, Arindrajit Dube, professor of economics at University of Massachusetts Amherst, found in a 2017 study "robust evidence that higher minimum wages lead to increases in incomes among families at the bottom of the income distribution and that these wages reduce the poverty rate." According to the study "a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage reduces the nonelderly poverty rate by about 5 percent."[125][126]

text: In contrast, research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues in 2004 found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low-wage workers.[127] A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line.[128] Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty…"[129]

text: Federal budget deficit[edit]

text: The CBO reported in February 2014 that "[T]he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits." On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less.[112]

text: Commentary[edit]

text: Economists[edit]

text:
Effective minimum wage  adjusted for cost of living  for select U.S. cities (2015)[130][131]

City

Effective  minimum wage

Seattle

$8.51

Denver

$7.57

Houston

$7.26

United States

$7.25

San Francisco

$7.03

Chicago

$7.01

Boston

$6.59

Washington, D.C.

$6.53

Los Angeles

$6.38

Philadelphia

$6.08

New York City

$3.86

text: According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79% of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers."[132]

text: A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believes raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83%), adult employment levels (52%), and the number of jobs available (76%). Additionally, 67% of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business.[133]

text: A 2006 survey conducted by economist Robert Whaples of a sample of 210 Ph.D. economists randomly selected from the American Economic Association, found that, regarding the U.S. minimum wage:[134]

text:
46.8% favored eliminating it
14.3% favored keeping it the same
1.3% favored decreasing it
5.2% favored increasing it by about 50 cents per hour
15.6% favored increasing it by about $1 per hour
16.9% favored increasing it by more than $1 per hour

text: In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low-wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth.[135][136][137][138]  Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight" of economic research shows higher pay doesn't lead to fewer jobs.[139][140]

text: According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists:

text:
34% agreed with the statement that "Raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour would make it noticeably harder for low-skilled workers to find employment", with 32% disagreeing and 24% uncertain
42% agreed that "...raising the minimum wage to $9 per hour and indexing it to inflation...would be a desirable policy", with 11% disagreeing or strongly disagreeing and 32% uncertain.[141]

text: According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide-Stevenson, 73.5% (27.9% of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed[How many?] agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5% disagreed with the statement.[142]

text: Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including:

text:
The minimum wage was below its 1960s purchasing power, despite a near doubling of productivity;
The great preponderance of the evidence indicates there is no negative impact on employment from moderate increases; and
A high level of public support, specifically Democrats and Republican women.[143]

text: Major political parties[edit]

text: Democratic candidates, elected officials, and activists support an increase in the minimum wage.[145] In his 2013 State of the Union Address, President Barack Obama called for an increase in the federal minimum wage to $9 an hour; several months later, Democrats Tom Harkin and George Miller proposed legislation to increase the federal minimum wage to $10.10; and in 2015, congressional Democrats introduced a proposal to increase the federal minimum wage to $12 an hour.[146] These efforts did not succeed, but increases in city and state minimum wages prompted congressional Democrats to continue fighting for an increase on the federal level.[146] After much internal party debate,[147] the party's official platform adopted at the 2016 Democratic National Convention stated: "We should raise the federal minimum wage to $15 an hour over time and index it, give all Americans the ability to join a union regardless of where they work, and create new ways for workers to have power in the economy so every worker can earn at least $15 an hour."[148][149]

text: Most Republican elected officials oppose action to increase the minimum wage,[150][151] and have blocked Democratic efforts to increase the minimum wage.[152] Republican leadership such as Speakers of the House John Boehner[150] and Paul Ryan have opposed minimum wage increases.[153] Some Republicans oppose having a minimum wage altogether, while a few, conversely, have supported minimum wage increases or indexing the minimum wage to inflation.[150]

text: Polls[edit]

text: The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73% of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53% of Republicans and 90% of Democrats favored this action.[154] Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54% of whites opposing it.[12]

text: A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following:

text:
Strong support overall for raising the minimum wage, with 73% of likely voters supporting an increase to $10 and indexing it to inflation during 2014, including 58% who strongly support the action;
Support crosses party lines, with support from 91% of Democrats, 74% of Independents, and 50% of Republicans; and
A majority (56%) believe that raising the minimum wage will help the economy, 16% believe it won't make a difference, and only 21% felt it would hurt the economy.[155]

text: List by jurisdiction[edit]

text: This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage.[156]  A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce.

text: Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage.[157] Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit.[158] Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA.[159]

text: In addition, some counties and cities within states may implement a higher minimum wage than the rest of their state. Sometimes this higher wage applies only to businesses that contract with the local government, while in other cases the higher minimum applies to all work.

text: Federal[edit]

text:
Type

Min. wage ($/h)

Notes

Tipped

$2.13

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 has been requiring a minimum wage of $2.13 for tipped workers with the expectation that wages plus tips total no less than $7.25 per hour since September 1, 1991.[160] The employer must pay the difference if total income does not add up to $7.25 per hour.[161]

Non-tipped

$7.25

Per the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 (FMWA) since July 24, 2009.[162]

Youth

$4.25

The Fair Labor Standards Act has since September 1, 1996 allowed for persons under the age of 20 to be paid $4.25 for the first 90 calendar days of their employment .[163]

text: State[edit]

text:
The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation.[citation needed]
As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action.[96]
Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour.[164] New York City's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018.[165]

text:
State

Min. wage($/h)[166][167]

Tipped($/h)[168][a]

Youth/training($/h)[b]

Automatic indexed adjustment

Notes

Alabama

None[c]

No

Alaska

$9.84

$9.84

Yes

Minimum wage increased to $9.84 on January 1, 2018.[170]

Arizona

$10.50

$7.50

Yes

Voters passed Proposition 206 in 2016 to schedule a series of wage increases starting with $10.00/hour in 2017, $10.50 in 2018, $11.00 in 2019, $12.00 in 2020 and every year afterwards will be tied to inflation.[171]

Arkansas

$8.50

$2.63

No

Minimum wage increased to $8.50 on January 1, 2017. The rate applies to employers of four or more employees.[172]

California

$11.00[173]

$11.00

Yes

Minimum wage increased to $11.00 for business with 26 employees or more; $10.50 for business with 25 employees or fewer, effective on January 1, 2018[174] and increases to $15.00 by 2022.[175] At least 20 California cities will have a minimum wage higher than the state minimum on January 1, 2018.[176] Berkeley: $15.00 since October 1, 2018. El Cerrito: $13.60 since January 1, 2018 and increases to $15.00 by 2019. Emeryville: $15.69 for businesses with 56 or more employees; $15.00 for businesses with 55 employees or fewer, effective July 2018. Jackson Rancheria: $10.60 since January 1, 2014 on the Tribe's sovereign 1,500-acre reservation in Amador County. Oakland: $13.23 since January 1, 2018; unions are exempt from Oakland's minimum wage law. Los Angeles: $13.25 for businesses with 26 or more employees. $12.00 for businesses with 25 employees or fewer since July 1, 2018 and increases to $15.00 by 2020. Unions are exempt from Los Angeles's minimum wage law. San Francisco: $15.00 since July 1, 2018 and adjusts with Consumer Price Index (CPI) increases July 1st each following year;[177] unions are exempt from San Francisco's minimum wage law.[93] San Jose: $13.50 since January 1, 2018; unions are exempt from San Jose's minimum wage law.[93] San Diego: $11.50 since January 1, 2017.

Colorado

$10.20

$7.18

Yes

On January 1, 2018, the minimum wage increased to $10.20 and will increase annually by $0.90 until it becomes $12 in January 2020. Starting in 2021, it will be adjusted in line with the Consumer Price Index (CPI).[178] The tipped wage is $3.02 less than the minimum wage.[179]

Connecticut

$10.10

$6.59

No

On March 26, 2014, the state passed legislation to raise the minimum wage to $10.10 by January 1, 2017.[180] Connecticut's tipped minimum wage is 65.2% of the state minimum wage (tipped employees defined as $10/week or $2/day in tips).[181]

Delaware

$8.25

$2.23

No

Minimum wage increased to $8.25 on June 1, 2015.[182]

Florida

$8.25

$5.23[183]

Yes

Minimum wage is increased annually on September 30 (effective January 1 of the following calendar year) based upon a cost of living formula (the Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers, not seasonally adjusted, for the South Region or a successor index as calculated by the United States Department of Labor, using the rate of inflation for the 12 months prior to September 1).[184] Florida's minimum wage increased to $8.10 and the tipped minimum wage to $5.08 on January 1, 2017.[185]

Georgia

$5.15[186][187]

$2.13

No

Only applicable to employers of 6 or more employees. The state law excludes from coverage any employment that is subject to the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act when the federal rate is greater than the state rate.[188]

Hawaii

$10.10

$9.35

No

Minimum wage increased to $10.10 on January 1, 2018. Tipped employees earn 75 cents less than the current state minimum wage.[189]

Idaho

$7.25[190]

$3.35

No

Illinois

$8.25

$4.95

$7.75

No

Employers may pay anyone under the age of 18, or anyone for the first 90 days of employment, fifty cents less. Tipped employees earn 60% of the minimum wage (employers may claim credit for tips, up to 40% of wage). There is a training wage for tipped employees.[191] Chicago: $12.00 from July 1, 2018 and increases to $13.00 by 2019.[192] Unions are exempt from Chicago's minimum wage law.[93]

Indiana

$7.25[193]

$2.13

No

Iowa

$7.25[194]

$4.35

No

Most small retail and service establishments grossing less than $300,000 annually are not required to pay the minimum wage.[194] A tipped employee who makes $30.00 per month or more in tips, can be paid 60% of the minimum wage, i.e. as little as $4.35 per hour.[194] Increased minimum wage laws in Johnson and Linn counties were nullified by the legislature.[195]

Kansas

$7.25[196]

$2.13

No

Kansas had the lowest legislated, non-tipped worker minimum wage in the U.S., $2.65 per hour, until it was raised to $7.25, effective January 1, 2010.[197]

Kentucky

$7.25[198]

$2.13

No

Louisville: $8.10 from July 1, 2015 and increases to $9.00 by 2017.[199][200] However, the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled that localities do not have authority to increase the minimum wage.[201]

Louisiana

None[c]

No

Maine

$10.00

$5.00

Yes

Tipped rate is half of the current state minimum wage.[202] On July 6, 2015, the city council of Portland voted 6-3 to raise the city's minimum wage to $10.10 beginning on January 1, 2016 – an increase of 34%.[203] Note: The tipped wage returns to 50% of the regular minimum wage starting January 1, 2018. Minimum wage will increase to $10 in January 2018, $11 in January 2019, and $12 in January 2020.[204][205]

Maryland

$10.10

$3.63

No

Minimum wage is $10.10 as of July 1, 2018.[206][207]
For employees working in Prince George's County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour, effective October 1, 2017.[206]
For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $12.00 per hour for businesses with 50 or fewer employees. $12.25 per hour for businesses with 51 or more employees effective July 1, 2018.[208]  County Council bill 12-16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive.[209][210]

Massachusetts

$11.00

$3.75

No

Minimum wage increased to $11.00 ($3.75 for tipped workers) on January 1, 2017. Massachusetts is the only state in the country that mandates time-and-a-half for retail workers working on Sunday. With state minimum wage at $11 an hour the effective minimum wage for a retail worker working on Sunday is $16.50 an hour.[211] As of 2017, Massachusetts has the largest gap between the hourly minimum wage for tipped workers ($3.75) and the general minimum wage ($11).[212]
The "Grand Bargain" passed in 2018 raises wages on the following schedule, and phases out time-and-a-half while prohibiting employers from requiring work on Sundays and holidays against employee wishes.[213][214]

Jan 1, 2019 - $12.00 regular, $4.35 tipped, 1.4x Sundays and holidays
Jan 1, 2020 - $12.75 regular, $4.95 tipped, 1.3x Sundays and holidays
Jan 1, 2021 - $13.50 regular, $5.55 tipped, 1.2x Sundays and holidays
Jan 1, 2022 - $14.25 regular, $6.15 tipped, 1.1x Sundays and holidays
Jan 1, 2023 - $15.00 regular, $6.75 tipped, Sunday and holiday extra pay requirement eliminated

Michigan

$9.25[215]

$3.52

$4.25 (training) $7.86 (youth)

Yes

Annual minimum wage increases, linked to the Consumer Price Index, will start on February 1, 2019, and shall not exceed 3.5%. There is no increase in minimum wage if the unemployment rate rises to or above 8.5% in the previous year. Tipped workers must earn at least standard Michigan minimum wage once tips are included in their wages.[216][217]

Minnesota

$9.65[186]

$9.65

$7.87 (for small employers, training, youth and J-1 Visas)[218]

Yes

Small employers, whose annual receipts are less than $500,000 and who do not engage in interstate commerce, can pay their employees $7.25 per hour. Overtime applies after 48 hours per week.[219] Note: For large employers, the minimum wage became $9.65 on January 1, 2018. For small employers, the minimum wage became $7.87 on January 1, 2018. Beginning January 1, 2018, all minimum wage rates will increase by the national implicit price deflator or 2.5%, whichever is lower.[220]

Mississippi

None[c]

No

Missouri

$7.85

$3.925[221]

Yes

Minimum wage rate is automatically adjusted annually based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index rounded to the nearest five cents, and increased to $7.85 on January 1, 2018.[222] While a city ordinance was passed in the St. Louis area to increase the minimum wage to $8.25 in 2015,[223] in October 2015 the law was voided by a new statewide bill barring cities from setting their own minimum wages.[224] The State Supreme Court ruled on 28 February 2017 that the ordinance was lawful and could go into effect, with the minimum wage rate set to rise to $11.00 an hour by 2018 in St. Louis.[225] However, on July 5, 2017, another law was passed to nullify the increase and to have a statewide minimum wage of $7.70.[226]

Montana

$8.30

$8.30

Yes

Minimum wage rate is automatically adjusted annually based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index, and increased to $8.30 on January 1, 2018. Income from tips cannot offset an employee's pay rate. The state minimum wage for business with less than $110,000 in annual sales is $4.00.[166]

Nebraska

$9.00[227]

$2.13

No

Minimum wage increased to $9.00 January 1, 2016.[228]

Nevada

$8.25

$8.25

Yes

The minimum wage has been $8.25 ($1 higher than the federal minimum) since July 1, 2010. Employers who offer health benefits can pay employees $7.25.[229] The rate is adjusted every July 1, based on the federal minimum or the accumulated inflation since 2006, whichever is higher, based on a 2006 Minimum Wage Amendment to the Nevada Constitution.[230]

New Hampshire

$7.25[231]

$3.27

No

New Jersey

$8.60[232]

$2.13

Yes

Minimum wage increased to $8.60 on January 1, 2018.[232]

New Mexico

$7.50

$2.13

No

Santa Fe: $10.84 since January 1, 2015.[233] Albuquerque: $8.75 since January 1, 2015.[234]

New York

$10.40[235]

Varies

Yes

The minimum wage rate increased to $9.00 on December 31, 2015.[236] As of July 24, 2009 there has been a minimum for exempt employees of $543.75 per week.[237]  Tipped employee minimum ranges from $4.90 to $5.65 depending on industry.[169]  Effective December 31, 2013, there have been different rules for the minimum cash wage for tipped employees outside of the hospitality industry,  (e.g., in car washes and in salons). For workers earning more than $1.95 on average per hour in tips, the minimum cash wage has been $6.05 per hour; for workers earning between $1.20 and $1.95 in tips on average per hour, the cash wage has been $6.80.[238]
A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large" employers have 11 or more employees, and "small" have between 1 and 10. "Downstate" includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties.[239] NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00.
Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two-thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher.[citation needed]

North Carolina

$7.25[240]

$2.13

No

The employer may take credit for tips earned by a tipped employee and may count them as wages up to the amount permitted in section 3(m) of the Fair Labor Standards Act.[240]

North Dakota

$7.25[241]

$4.86

No

Tipped minimum is 67% of the minimum wage.[169]

Ohio

$8.30

$4.15

$7.25 under 16 years old

Yes

The rate is $7.25 for employers grossing $350,000 or less.[242] The rate is adjusted annually on January 1 based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index.[243]  Ohio's minimum wage will increase to $8.55 ($4.30 for tipped employees) on January 1, 2019

Oklahoma

$7.25[244]

$2.13

No

Minimum wage for employers grossing under $100,000 and with fewer than 10 employees per location is $2.00.[245] (OK Statutes 40-197.5).

Oregon

$10.50 (rural counties)$10.75 (non-rural counties)$12.00 (Portland metro)[246]

$10.50 (rural counties)$10.75 (non-rural counties)$12.00 (Portland metro)

Yes

On March 2, 2016, Senate Bill 1532 was signed into law, increasing minimum wage depending on the county. Beginning July 1, 2018 the minimum wage increased to $10.75 for non-rural counties and to $10.50 for rural counties, thereafter increasing each year by fixed amounts until June 30, 2022 when the minimum wage will be $14.75 for the Portland metro area, $13.50 for other non-rural counties, and $12.50 for rural counties. Thereafter, the minimum wage will be adjusted each year based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index.[247] Non-rural counties are defined as Benton, Clackamas, Clatsop, Columbia, Deschutes, Hood River, Jackson, Josephine, Lane, Lincoln, Linn, Marion, Multnomah, Polk, Tillamook, Wasco, Washington, and Yamhill counties.[248] Rural counties are defined as Baker, Coos, Crook, Curry, Douglas, Gilliam, Grant, Harney, Jefferson, Klamath, Lake, Malheur, Morrow, Sherman, Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, Wheeler counties.[248] The Portland Metro rate ($1.25 over the non-rural rate) applies to employers located within the urban growth boundary (UGB) of the Portland metropolitan service district.[246]

Pennsylvania

$7.25[249]

$2.83

No

Rhode Island

$10.10

$3.89[250]

No

Minimum wage is $10.10 as of January 1, 2018. The minimum wage will increase to $10.50 as of January 1, 2019.[251]

South Carolina

None[c]

No

South Dakota

$8.85[252]

$4.425

Yes

Minimum wage increased to $8.85 on January 1, 2018, and is indexed to inflation.

Tennessee

None[c]

No

Texas

$7.25[253]

$2.13

No

Applies to all workers in the state, excluding patients of the Texas Department of Mental Health and Mental Retardation who have diminished production capacity and who work on behalf of the Department; their salary is calculated at the minimum wage times a percentage of their diminished capacity.

Utah

$7.25

$2.13

No

Vermont

$10.50

$5.25[254]

Yes

Minimum wage increased to $10.50 on January 1, 2018 and will be indexed to inflation beginning on January 1, 2019.[255]

Virginia

$7.25[256]

$2.13

No

Washington

$11.50[257]

$11.50[257]

$9.78[258]

Yes

Minimum wage increases annually by a voter-approved cost-of-living adjustment based on the federal Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI-W).[259] Seattle: $11.00 for businesses with fewer than 500 employees, $15.00 for businesses with 500 employees or more, and for all businesses by 2021.[260][261] SeaTac: $15.00 for airport-related businesses.[262] Union workshops are exempt from SeaTac's $15 minimum wage law.[263]

West Virginia

$8.75[264]

$2.62

No

Minimum wage increased to $8.75 on December 31, 2015.[265] The state minimum wage is applicable to employers of six or more employees at one location not involved in interstate commerce[166] and for tipped employees is 30% of the federal minimum wage.[169]

Wisconsin

$7.25[266]

$2.33

No

Wyoming

$5.15[186]

$2.13

No

text:
Jump up ^ Generally applies to employees who make over $30 in tips per month, unless otherwise noted.[169]

Jump up ^ Applies to persons under age 20, for the first 90 days of employment (per FMWA), unless otherwise noted.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e No state minimum wage law.  Federal rates apply, although some small businesses exempt from FMWA may not be covered.

text: Territory[edit]

text:
Territory

Min. wage ($/h)[166]

Tipped
($/h)[168]

Notes

American Samoa

$4.58–$5.99

$2.13

Varies by industry.[267] On September 30, 2010, President Obama signed legislation that delays scheduled wage increases for 2010 and 2011. On July 26, 2012, President Obama signed S. 2009 into law, postponing the minimum wage increase for 2012, 2013, and 2014. Annual wage increases of $0.40 recommenced on September 30, 2015 and will continue every three years until all rates have reached the federal minimum.[268]

Guam

$8.25

$8.25

Northern Mariana Islands

$7.05

$2.13

Since September 30, 2016. Wages are to go up $0.50 annually until reaching the federal $7.25 rate by 2018.[269] Bill S. 256 to delay the planned increases to the full rate until 2018 passed in Sept. 2013.[270]

Puerto Rico

$7.25

$2.13

Following the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, Employers covered by the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)[which?] are subject to the federal minimum wage and all applicable regulations. Employers not covered by the FLSA will be subject to a minimum wage that is at least 70 percent of the federal minimum wage or the applicable mandatory decree rate, whichever is higher. The Secretary of Labor and Human Resources may authorize a rate based on a lower percentage for any employer who can show that implementation of the 70 percent rate would substantially curtail employment in that business. Puerto Rico also has minimum wage rates that vary according to the industry. These rates range from a minimum of $5.08 to $7.25 per hour.

U.S. Virgin Islands

$10.50[271]

$4.20

The Virgin Islands' minimum wage increased to $9.50 on June 1, 2017 for all employees, with the exception of tourist service and restaurant employees (or those businesses with gross annual receipts of less than $150,000 set at $4.30). It further increased to $10.50 on June 1, 2018.[272]

text: Federal District[edit]

text:
Federal District

Min. wage($/h)

Tipped($/h)

Youth/training($/h)

Notes

District of Columbia

$13.25

$4.17

None

In accordance with a law signed on June 27, 2016,[273][274] the minimum wage increased to $13.25 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $14.00 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $15.00 per hour as of July 1, 2020.[275] As of each successive July 1, the minimum wage will increase by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers in the Washington Metropolitan Statistical Area for the preceding twelve months.[275]
The minimum wage for tipped-employees increased to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020.[275]
The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age.[276]

text: Large corporations[edit]

text: Some large employers in the traditionally low-paying retail sector have declared an internal minimum wage. As of 2018:

text:
Amazon.com - $15/hour[277]
Costco - $14/hour[278]
Target - $11/hour (promising $15/hour by the end of 2020)[279]
Walmart - $11/hour[280]

text: Low-paying occupations, 2006 and 2009[edit]

text: Jobs that a minimum wage is most likely to directly affect are those that pay close to the minimum.

text: According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest-paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following:[281]

text:
Sector

Workers employed

Median wage

Mean wage

Mean annual

Food preparation and serving related occupations

11,029,280

$7.90

$8.86

$18,430

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations

450,040

$8.63

$10.49

$21,810

Personal care and service occupations

3,249,760

$9.17

$11.02

$22,920

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations

4,396,250

$9.75

$10.86

$22,580

text: Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest-paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data)[282] was:

text:
Sector

Workers employed

Median wage

Mean wage

Mean annual

Food preparation and serving related occupations

11,438,550

$8.59

$9.72

$20,220

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations

438,490

$9.34

$11.32

$23,560

Personal care and service occupations

3,437,520

$9.82

$11.59

$24,120

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations

4,429,870

$10.52

$11.72

$24,370

text: In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour:[281]

text:
Occupation

Workers employed

Median wage

Mean wage

Mean annual

Gaming dealers

82,960

$7.08

$8.18

$17,010

Waiters and waitresses

2,312,930

$3.14

$4.27

$11,190

Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food

2,461,890

$7.24

$7.66

$15,930

Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers

401,790

$7.36

$7.84

$16,320

Cooks, fast food

612,020

$7.41

$7.67

$15,960

Dishwashers

502,770

$7.57

$7.78

$16,190

Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers

101,530

$7.64

$8.41

$17,500

Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop

524,410

$7.76

$8.15

$16,950

Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop

340,390

$7.78

$8.10

$16,860

Shampooers

15,580

$7.78

$8.20

$17,050

Amusement and recreation attendants

235,670

$7.83

$8.43

$17,530

Bartenders

485,120

$7.86

$8.91

$18,540

Farmworkers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse

230,780

$7.95

$8.48

$17,630

text: In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour:[282]

text:
Occupation

Workers employed

Median wage

Mean wage

Mean annual

Gaming dealers

91,130

$7.84

$9.56

$19,890

Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food

2,708,840

$7.90

$8.36

$17,400

text: According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates,[283] the lowest-paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:

text:
Sector

Workers employed

Median wage

Mean wage

Mean annual

Gaming dealers

86,900

$8.19

$9.76

$20,290

Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food

2,695,740

$8.28

$8.71

$18,120

Waiters and waitresses

2,302,070

$8.50

$9.80

$20,380

Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers

402,020

$8.51

$9.09

$18,900

Cooks, fast food

539,520

$8.52

$8.76

$18,230


document_title: Golden Gate Bridge

question_text: what is the official colour of the golden gate bridge

root

text: Golden Gate Bridge

text: History

text: Ferry service

text: Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay. A ferry service began as early as 1820, with a regularly scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for the purpose of transporting water to San Francisco.[10]

tag: p

text: The Sausalito Land and Ferry Company service, launched in 1867, eventually became the Golden Gate Ferry Company, a Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, the largest ferry operation in the world by the late 1920s.[10][11] Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacific's automobile ferries became very profitable and important to the regional economy.[12] The ferry crossing between the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco and Sausalito in Marin County took approximately 20 minutes and cost $1.00 per vehicle, a price later reduced to compete with the new bridge.[13] The trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes.

text: Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County. San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats. Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, the city's growth rate was below the national average.[14] Many experts said that a bridge could not be built across the 6,700 ft (2,042 m) strait, which had strong, swirling tides and currents, with water 372 ft (113 m) deep[15] at the center of the channel, and frequent strong winds. Experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation.[14]

text: Conception

text: Although the idea of a bridge spanning the Golden Gate was not new, the proposal that eventually took hold was made in a 1916 San Francisco Bulletin article by former engineering student James Wilkins.[16] San Francisco's City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million, which would have been $2.12 billion in 2009, and impractical for the time. He asked bridge engineers whether it could be built for less.[10] One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an ambitious engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis, designed a 55-mile-long (89 km) railroad bridge across the Bering Strait.[17] At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges—most of which were inland—and nothing on the scale of the new project.[3] Strauss's initial drawings[16] were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, which Strauss promised could be built for $17 million.[10]

text: Local authorities agreed to proceed only on the assurance that Strauss would alter the design and accept input from several consulting project experts.[citation needed] A suspension-bridge design was considered the most practical, because of recent advances in metallurgy.[10]

text: Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California.[18] The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources. The Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic. The navy feared that a ship collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors. Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs. Southern Pacific Railroad, one of the most powerful business interests in California, opposed the bridge as competition to its ferry fleet and filed a lawsuit against the project, leading to a mass boycott of the ferry service.[10]

text: In May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use federal land for construction. Deakyne, on behalf of the Secretary of War, approved the transfer of land needed for the bridge structure and leading roads to the "Bridging the Golden Gate Association" and both San Francisco County and Marin County, pending further bridge plans by Strauss.[19] Another ally was the fledgling automobile industry, which supported the development of roads and bridges to increase demand for automobiles.[13]

text: The bridge's name was first used when the project was initially discussed in 1917 by M.M. O'Shaughnessy, city engineer of San Francisco, and Strauss. The name became official with the passage of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act by the state legislature in 1923, creating a special district to design, build and finance the bridge.[20] San Francisco and most of the counties along the North Coast of California joined the Golden Gate Bridge District, with the exception being Humboldt County, whose residents opposed the bridge's construction and the traffic it would generate.[21]

text: Design

text: Strauss was chief engineer in charge of overall design and construction of the bridge project.[14] However, because he had little understanding or experience with cable-suspension designs,[22] responsibility for much of the engineering and architecture fell on other experts. Strauss's initial design proposal (two double cantilever spans linked by a central suspension segment) was unacceptable from a visual standpoint. The final graceful suspension design was conceived and championed by Leon Moisseiff, the engineer of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City.[23]

text: Irving Morrow, a relatively unknown residential architect, designed the overall shape of the bridge towers, the lighting scheme, and Art Deco elements, such as the tower decorations, streetlights, railing, and walkways. The famous International Orange color was originally used as a sealant for the bridge.[24] The US Navy had wanted it to be painted with black and yellow stripes to ensure visibility by passing ships.[14]

text: Senior engineer Charles Alton Ellis, collaborating remotely with Moisseiff, was the principal engineer of the project.[25] Moisseiff produced the basic structural design, introducing his "deflection theory" by which a thin, flexible roadway would flex in the wind, greatly reducing stress by transmitting forces via suspension cables to the bridge towers.[25] Although the Golden Gate Bridge design has proved sound, a later Moisseiff design, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, collapsed in a strong windstorm soon after it was completed, because of an unexpected aeroelastic flutter.[26] Ellis was also tasked with designing a "bridge within a bridge" in the southern abutment, to avoid the need to demolish Fort Point, a pre–Civil War masonry fortification viewed, even then, as worthy of historic preservation. He penned a graceful steel arch spanning the fort and carrying the roadway to the bridge's southern anchorage.[27]

text: Ellis was a Greek scholar and mathematician who at one time was a University of Illinois professor of engineering despite having no engineering degree. He eventually earned a degree in civil engineering from the University of Illinois prior to designing the Golden Gate Bridge and spent the last twelve years of his career as a professor at Purdue University. He became an expert in structural design, writing the standard textbook of the time.[28] Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work that built the bridge, but he received none of the credit in his lifetime. In November 1931, Strauss fired Ellis and replaced him with a former subordinate, Clifford Paine, ostensibly for wasting too much money sending telegrams back and forth to Moisseiff.[28] Ellis, obsessed with the project and unable to find work elsewhere during the Depression, continued working 70 hours per week on an unpaid basis, eventually turning in ten volumes of hand calculations.[28]

text: With an eye toward self-promotion and posterity, Strauss downplayed the contributions of his collaborators who, despite receiving little recognition or compensation,[22] are largely responsible for the final form of the bridge. He succeeded in having himself credited as the person most responsible for the design and vision of the bridge.[28] Only much later were the contributions of the others on the design team properly appreciated.[28] In May 2007, the Golden Gate Bridge District issued a formal report on 70 years of stewardship of the famous bridge and decided to give Ellis major credit for the design of the bridge.

text: Finance

text: The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, authorized by an act of the California Legislature, was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge.[14] However, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the District was unable to raise the construction funds, so it lobbied for a $30 million bond measure. The bonds were approved in November 1930,[17] by votes in the counties affected by the bridge.[29] The construction budget at the time of approval was $27 million. However, the District was unable to sell the bonds until 1932, when Amadeo Giannini, the founder of San Francisco–based Bank of America, agreed on behalf of his bank to buy the entire issue in order to help the local economy.[10]

text: Construction

text:
Construction began on January 5, 1933.[10] The project cost more than $35 million,[30]  ($493 million in 2016 dollars[31]) completing ahead of schedule and $1.3 million under budget.[32]
The Golden Gate Bridge construction project was carried out by the McClintic-Marshall Construction Co., a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel Corporation founded by Howard H. McClintic and Charles D. Marshall, both of Lehigh University.

text: Strauss remained head of the project, overseeing day-to-day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions. A graduate of the University of Cincinnati, he placed a brick from his alma mater's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured. He innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the construction site, which saved the lives of many otherwise-unprotected ironworkers. Of eleven men killed from falls during construction, ten were killed on February 17, 1937, when the bridge was near completion when the net failed under the stress of a scaffold that had fallen.[33] The workers' platform that was attached to a rolling hanger on a track collapsed when the bolts that were connected to the track were too small and the amount of weight was too great to bear. The platform fell into the safety net, but was too heavy and the net gave way. Two out of the twelve workers survived the 200-foot (61 m) fall into the icy waters, including the 37-year-old foreman, Slim Lambert. Nineteen others who were saved by the net over the course of construction became members of their Half Way to Hell Club.[34]

text: The project was finished and opened May 27, 1937.  The Bridge Round House diner was then included in the southeastern end of the Golden Gate Bridge, adjacent to the tourist plaza which was renovated in 2012.[35]  The Bridge Round House, an Art Deco design by Alfred Finnila completed in 1938, has been popular throughout the years as a starting point for various commercial tours of the bridge and an unofficial gift shop.[36]  The diner was renovated in 2012[35] and the gift shop was then removed as a new, official gift shop has been included in the adjacent plaza.[36]

text: During the bridge work, the Assistant Civil Engineer of California Alfred Finnila had overseen the entire iron work of the bridge as well as half of the bridge's road work.[37]  With the death of Jack Balestreri in April 2012, all workers involved in the original construction are now deceased.

text: Opening festivities, 50th, and 75th anniversaries

text: The bridge-opening celebration began on May 27, 1937, and lasted for one week. The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed either on foot or on roller skates.[10] On opening day, Mayor Angelo Rossi and other officials rode the ferry to Marin, then crossed the bridge in a motorcade past three ceremonial "barriers", the last a blockade of beauty queens who required Joseph Strauss to present the bridge to the Highway District before allowing him to pass. An official song, "There's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate", was chosen to commemorate the event. Strauss wrote a poem that is now on the Golden Gate Bridge entitled "The Mighty Task is Done." The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington, D.C. signaling the official start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge at noon. As the celebration got out of hand there was a small riot in the uptown Polk Gulch area. Weeks of civil and cultural activities called "the Fiesta" followed. A statue of Strauss was moved in 1955 to a site near the bridge.[16]

text: In May 1987, as part of the 50th anniversary celebration, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross the bridge. However, this celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight.[38] Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40% of the yielding stress of the suspension cables,[39] bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012,[40][41][42] because of the additional law enforcement costs required "since 9/11".[43]

text:
A pedestrian poses at the old railing on opening day, 1937.

Play media

Opening of the Golden Gate Bridge

Official invitation to the opening of the bridge. This copy was sent to the City of Seattle.

tag: ul

text: Structural specifications

text: Until 1964, the Golden Gate Bridge had the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet (1,300 m). Since 1964 its main span length has been surpassed by ten bridges; it now has the second-longest main span in the United States, after the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in New York City. The total length of the Golden Gate Bridge from abutment to abutment is 8,981 feet (2,737 m).[44]

text: The Golden Gate Bridge's clearance above high water averages 220 feet (67 m) while its towers, at 746 feet (227 m) above the water,[44] were the world's tallest on a suspension bridge until 1993 when it was surpassed by the Mezcala Bridge, in Mexico.

text: The weight of the roadway is hung from 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes, which are attached to two main cables. The main cables pass over the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end. Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire. The total length of galvanized steel wire used to fabricate both main cables is estimated to be 80,000 miles (130,000 km).[44]

text: In 1961, BART completed a study that determined the bridge's suspension section was capable of supporting planned rapid transit rail service on a new lower deck.[45] These plans were not followed out.

text: The bridge has approximately 1,200,000 total rivets.[citation needed]

text: Aesthetics

text:
The color of the bridge is officially an orange vermilion called international orange.[46] The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow[47] because it complements the natural surroundings and enhances the bridge's visibility in fog.
Aesthetics was the foremost reason why the first design of Joseph Strauss was rejected. Upon re-submission of his bridge construction plan, he added details, such as lighting, to outline the bridge's cables and towers.[48] In 1999, it was ranked fifth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.

text: The bridge was originally painted with red lead primer and a lead-based topcoat, which was touched up as required. In the mid-1960s, a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint and repainting the bridge with zinc silicate primer and vinyl topcoats.[49][46] Since 1990, acrylic topcoats have been used instead for air-quality reasons. The program was completed in 1995 and it is now maintained by 38 painters who touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously corroded.[50]

text:
A view of the Golden Gate Bridge from the Marin Headlands on a foggy morning at sunrise

View of the northern tower of the bridge

text: Traffic

text: Most maps and signage mark the bridge as part of the concurrency between U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1. Although part of the National Highway System, the bridge is not officially part of California's Highway System.[51] For example, under the California Streets and Highways Code § 401, Route 101 ends at "the approach to the Golden Gate Bridge" and then resumes at "a point in Marin County opposite San Francisco". The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District has jurisdiction over the segment of highway that crosses the bridge instead of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).

text: The movable median barrier between the lanes is moved several times daily to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, four lanes run northbound. During off-peak periods and weekends, traffic is split with three lanes in each direction.[52]

text: From 1968 to 2015, opposing traffic was separated by small, plastic pylons, and during that time, there were 16 fatalities resulting from 128 head-on collisions.[53] To improve safety, the speed limit on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from 50 to 45 mph (80 to 72 km/h) on October 1, 1983.[54] Although there had been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, only in March 2005 did the Bridge Board of Directors commit to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a movable median barrier.[53] Installation of the resulting barrier was completed on January 11, 2015, following a closure of 45.5 hours to private vehicle traffic, the longest in the bridge's history.  The new barrier system, including the zipper trucks, cost approximately $30.3 million to purchase and install.[53][55]

text: Usage and tourism

text: The bridge is popular with pedestrians and bicyclists, and was built with walkways on either side of the six vehicle traffic lanes. Initially, they were separated from the traffic lanes by only a metal curb, but railings between the walkways and the traffic lanes were added in 2003, primarily as a measure to prevent bicyclists from falling into the roadway.[56]

text: The main walkway is on the eastern side, and is open for use by both pedestrians and bicycles in the morning to mid-afternoon during weekdays (5 am to 3:30 pm), and to pedestrians only for the remaining daylight hours (until 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST). The eastern walkway is reserved for pedestrians on weekends (5 am to 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST), and is open exclusively to bicyclists in the evening and overnight, when it is closed to pedestrians. The western walkway is open only for bicyclists and only during the hours when they are not allowed on the eastern walkway.[57]

text: Bus service across the bridge is provided by two public transportation agencies: San Francisco Muni and Golden Gate Transit. Muni offers Saturday and Sunday service on the Marin Headlands Express bus line, and Golden Gate Transit runs numerous bus lines throughout the week.[58][59] The southern end of the bridge, near the toll plaza and parking lot, is also accessible daily from 5:30 a.m. to midnight by Muni line 28.[60] The Marin Airporter, a private company, also offers service across the bridge between Marin County and San Francisco International Airport.[61]

text: A visitor center and gift shop, dubbed the "Bridge Pavilion", is located on the San Francisco side of the bridge, adjacent to the southeast parking lot.  It opened in 2012, in time for the bridge's 75th anniversary celebration.  A cafe, outdoor exhibits, and restroom facilities are located nearby.[62] On the Marin side of the bridge, only accessible from the northbound lanes, is the H. Dana Bower Rest Area and Vista Point,[63] named after the first landscape architect for the California Division of Highways.[64]

text: Lands and waters under and around the bridge are homes to varieties of wildlife such as bobcats and sea lions.[65][66] Three species of cetaceans that had been absent in the area for many years show recent recoveries/(re)colonizations vicinity to the bridge, and researchers study them to strengthen protections, concerning actions by public and recommending to watch whales either from the bridge and nearby, or to use a local whale watching operator.[67][68][69]

text: Tolls

text: When the Golden Gate Bridge opened in 1937, the toll was 50 cents per car, collected in each direction. It was reduced to 40 cents each way in 1950, then lowered to 25 cents in 1955. In 1968, the bridge was converted to only collect tolls from southbound traffic, with the toll amount reset back to 50 cents.[70]

text: The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls.[54] Tolls continued to be collected and subsequently incrementally raised; by 1991, the toll was $3.[70]

text: The bridge began accepting tolls via the FasTrak electronic toll collection system in 2002, with $4 tolls for FasTrak users and $5 for those paying cash.[70] In November 2006, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District recommended a corporate sponsorship program for the bridge to address its operating deficit, projected at $80 million over five years. The District promised that the proposal, which it called a "partnership program," would not include changing the name of the bridge or placing advertising on the bridge itself. In October 2007, the Board unanimously voted to discontinue the proposal and seek additional revenue through other means, most likely a toll increase.[71][72] The District later increased the toll amounts in 2008 to $5 for FasTrak users and $6 to those paying cash.[70]

text: In an effort to save $19.2 million over the following 10 years, the Golden Gate District voted in January 2011 to eliminate all toll takers by 2012 and use only open road tolling.[73] Subsequently, this was delayed and toll taker elimination occurred in March 2013. The cost savings have been revised to $19 million over an eight-year period. In addition to FasTrak, the Golden Gate District implemented the use of license plate tolling (branded as "Pay-by-Plate"), and also a one time payment system for drivers to pay before or after their trip on the bridge. Twenty-eight positions were eliminated as part of this plan.[74]

text: On April 7, 2014, the toll for users of FasTrak was increased from $5 to $6, while the toll for drivers using either the license plate tolling or the one time payment system was raised from $6 to $7. Bicycle, pedestrian, and northbound motor vehicle traffic remain toll free. For vehicles with more than two axles, the toll rate is $7 per axle for those using license plate tolling or the one time payment system, and $6 per axle for FasTrak users. During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying two or more people and motorcycles pay a discounted toll of $4; drivers must have Fastrak to take advantage of this carpool rate.[74] The Golden Gate Transportation District then planned to increase the tolls by 25 cents in July 2015, and then by another 25 cents each of the next three years.[75]

text:
Golden Gate Bridge toll increases (2014–18)[75][76]

Effective date

FasTrak

Toll-by-plate

Carpool

Multi-axle vehicle

April 7, 2014

$6.00

$7.00

$4.00

$7.00 per axle

July 1, 2015

$6.25

$7.25

$4.25

$7.25 per axle

July 1, 2016

$6.50

$7.50

$4.50

$7.50 per axle

July 1, 2017

$6.75

$7.75

$4.75

$7.75 per axle

July 1, 2018

$7.00

$8.00

$5.00

$8.00 per axle

tag: table

text: Congestion pricing

text: In March 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge District board approved a resolution to start congestion pricing at the Golden Gate Bridge, charging higher tolls during the peak hours, but rising and falling depending on traffic levels. This decision allowed the Bay Area to meet the federal requirement to receive $158 million in federal transportation funds from USDOT Urban Partnership grant.[77] As a condition of the grant, the congestion toll was to be in place by September 2009.[78][79]

text: The first results of the study, called the Mobility, Access and Pricing Study (MAPS), showed that a congestion pricing program is feasible.[80] The different pricing scenarios considered were presented in public meetings in December 2008.[81]

text: In August 2008, transportation officials ended the congestion pricing program in favor of varying rates for metered parking along the route to the bridge including on Lombard Street and Van Ness Avenue.[82]

text: Issues

text: Suicides

text: The Golden Gate Bridge is the second-most used suicide site/suicide bridge in the world, after the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge.[83] The deck is about 245 feet (75 m) above the water.[84] After a fall of four seconds, jumpers hit the water at around 75 mph or about 120 km/h. Most of the jumpers die from impact trauma. About 5% of the jumpers survive the initial impact but generally drown or die of hypothermia in the cold water.[85][86]

text: After years of debate and over an estimated 1,500 deaths, suicide barriers began to be installed in April 2017. Construction will take approximately four years at a cost of over $200 million.[87]

text: Wind

text: Since its completion, the Golden Gate Bridge has been closed because of weather conditions only three times: on December 1, 1951, because of gusts of 69 mph (111 km/h); on December 23, 1982, because of winds of 70 mph (113 km/h); and on December 3, 1983, because of wind gusts of 75 mph (121 km/h).[49]

text: An anemometer, placed midway between the two towers on the west side of the bridge, has been used to measure wind speeds. Another anemometer was placed on one of the towers.

text: Seismic vulnerability and improvements

text: Modern knowledge of the effect of earthquakes on structures led to a program to retrofit the Golden Gate to better resist seismic events. The proximity of the bridge to the San Andreas Fault places it at risk for a significant earthquake. Once thought to have been able to withstand any magnitude of foreseeable earthquake, the bridge was actually vulnerable to complete structural failure (i.e., collapse) triggered by the failure of supports on the 320-foot (98 m) arch over Fort Point.[88] A $392 million program was initiated to improve the structure's ability to withstand such an event with only minimal (repairable) damage. One challenging undertaking is completing this program without disrupting traffic. A complex electro-hydraulic synchronous lift system was custom built for construction of temporary support towers and a series of intricate lifts, transferring the loads from the existing bridge onto the temporary supports. This was completed with engineers from Balfour Beatty and Enerpac, accomplishing this task without disrupting day-to-day San Francisco commuter traffic.[89][90] The retrofit was planned to be completed in 2012.[90][91]

text:
The former elevated approach to the Golden Gate Bridge through the San Francisco Presidio, known as Doyle Drive, dated to 1933 and was named after Frank P. Doyle, President and son of the founder of the Exchange Bank in Santa Rosa, and the man who, more than any other person, made it possible to build the Golden Gate Bridge.[92] The highway carried about 91,000 vehicles each weekday between downtown San Francisco and the North Bay and points north.[93] The road was deemed "vulnerable to earthquake damage", had a problematic 4-lane design, and lacked shoulders, and a San Francisco County Transportation Authority study recommended that it be replaced. Construction on the $1 billion[94] replacement, temporarily known as the Presidio Parkway, began in December 2009.[95]
The elevated Doyle Drive was demolished on the weekend of April 27–30, 2012, and traffic used a part of the partially completed Presidio Parkway, until it was switched onto the finished Presidio Parkway on the weekend of July 9–12, 2015. As of May 2012, an official at Caltrans said there is no plan to permanently rename the portion known as Doyle Drive.[96]

text: In popular culture

text: As a prominent American landmark, the Golden Gate Bridge has been used in numerous media which includes books, films and video games.