document_title: Powers of the President of the United States

question_text: who holds the executive power of the united states

text: Executive powers[edit]

text: Within the executive branch itself, the president has broad powers to manage national affairs and the priorities of the government. The president can issue rules, regulations, and instructions called executive orders, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies but do not require approval of the United States Congress. Executive orders are subject to judicial review and interpretation.

text: The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 put additional responsibilities on the presidency for the preparation of the United States federal budget, although Congress was required to approve it.[1] The act required the Office of Management and Budget to assist the president with the preparation of the budget. Previous presidents had the privilege of impounding funds as they saw fit, however the United States Supreme Court revoked the privilege in 1998 as a violation of the Presentment Clause. The power was available to all presidents and was regarded as a power inherent to the office. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 was passed in response to large-scale power exercises by President Nixon. The act also created the Congressional Budget Office as a legislative counterpoint to the Office of Management and Budget.

text: The president, as the Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, may also call into federal service individual state units of the National Guard. In times of war or national emergency, the Congress may grant the president broader powers to manage the national economy and protect the security of the United States, but these powers were not expressly granted by the United States Constitution.[2] During the Vietnam War, in 1973, Congress expeditiously passed the War Powers Act and severely limited the ability of the President to conduct warfare without Congressional approval. Congress was constitutionally provided the power to declare the war,[3] but if the president needed to send the troops to other countries for emergency reasons, approved statutes required the notification of Congress within forty-eight hours. For any time beyond sixty days, further congressional approval was required.

text: Powers related to legislation[edit]

text: The president has several options when presented with a bill from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can veto it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes unless the Congress is out of session then the president may rely on a pocket veto.

text: Presidents are required to approve all of a bill or none of it; selective vetoes have been prohibited. In 1996, Congress gave President Bill Clinton a line-item veto over parts of a bill that required spending federal funds. The Supreme Court, in Clinton v. New York City, found Clinton's veto of pork-barrel appropriations for New York City to be unconstitutional because only a constitutional amendment could give the president line-item veto power.[4]

text: When a bill is presented for signature, the president may also issue a signing statement with expressions of their opinion on the constitutionality of a bill's provisions. The president may even declare them unenforceable but the Supreme Court has yet to address this issue.[5]

text: Congress may override vetoes with a two-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate. The process has traditionally been difficult and relatively rare. The threat of a presidential veto has usually provided sufficient pressure for Congress to modify a bill so the President would be willing to sign it.

text: Much of the legislation dealt with by Congress is drafted at the initiative of the executive branch.[6] The president may personally propose legislation in annual and special messages to Congress including the annual State of the Union address and joint sessions of Congress. If Congress has adjourned without acting on proposals, the president may call a special session of the Congress.

text: Beyond these official powers, the U.S. president, as a leader of his political party and the United States government, holds great sway over public opinion whereby they may influence legislation.

text: To improve the working relationship with Congress, presidents in recent years have set up an Office of Legislative Affairs. Presidential aides have kept abreast of all important legislative activities.

text: Powers of appointment[edit]

text: The President of the United States has several different appointment powers.

text: Before taking office, the president-elect must appoint more than 6,000 new federal positions.[7] The appointments range from top officials at U.S. government agencies, to the White House Staff, and members of the United States diplomatic corps. Many, but not all, of these positions at the highest levels are appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the United States Senate.[8]

text: The president also nominates persons to fill federal judicial vacancies, including federal judges, such as members of the United States Courts of Appeals and the U.S. Supreme Court. These nominations require Senate confirmation, and this can provide a major stumbling block for presidents who wish to shape the federal judiciary in a particular ideological stance.

text: As head of the executive branch, the president appoints the top officials for all federal agencies. These positions are listed in the Plum Book which outlines more than seven thousand appointive positions in the government. Many of these appointments are made by the president. In the case of ten agencies, the president is free to appoint a new agency head. For example, it is not unusual for the CIA's Director or NASA's Administrator to be changed by the president. Other agencies that deal with federal regulation such as the Federal Reserve Board or the Securities and Exchange Commission have set terms that will often outlast presidential terms. For example, governors of the Federal Reserve serve for fourteen years to ensure agency independence. The president also appoints members to the boards of directors for government-owned corporations such as Amtrak. The president can also make a recess appointment if a position needs to be filled while Congress is not in session.[9]

text: In the past, presidents could appoint members of the United States civil service. This use of the spoils system allowed presidents to reward political supporters with jobs. Following the assassination of President James Garfield by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker, Congress instituted a merit-based civil service in which positions are filled on a nonpartisan basis.[10] The Office of Personnel Management now oversees the staffing of 2.8 million federal jobs in the federal bureaucracy.

text: The president must also appoint his staff of aides, advisers, and assistants. These individuals are political appointments and are not subject to review by the Senate. All members of the staff serve "at the pleasure of the President".[11][12] Since 1995, the president has been required to submit an annual report to Congress listing the name and salary of every employee of the White House Office. The 2011 report listed 454 employees.[13]

text: Executive clemency[edit]

text: Article II of the United States Constitution gives the president the power of clemency. The two most commonly used clemency powers are those of pardon and commutation. A pardon is an official forgiveness for an acknowledged crime. Once a pardon is issued, all punishment for the crime is waived. The person accepting the pardon must, however, acknowledge that the crime did take place.[14] The president can only grant pardons for federal offences.[15] The president maintains the Office of the Pardon Attorney in the U.S. Department of Justice to review all requests for pardons. The president can also commute a sentence which, in effect, changes the punishment to time served. While the guilty party may be released from custody or not have to serve out a prison term, all other punishments still apply.

text: Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the Federal Sentencing Guidelines are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket amnesty to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to Vietnam draft dodgers who had fled to Canada. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of respites. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.

text: Pardons can be controversial when they appear to be politically motivated. President George W. Bush commuted the sentence of White House staffer Lewis "Scooter" Libby.

text: Foreign affairs[edit]

text: Under the Constitution, the president is the federal official that is primarily responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials.[2] With the Secretary of State, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.

text: On occasion, the president may personally participate in summit conferences where heads of state meet for direct consultation.[16] For example, President Wilson led the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 after World War I; President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Allied leaders during World War II; and every president sits down with world leaders to discuss economic and political issues and to reach agreements.

text: Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments,[17] and negotiate treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds of the Senate. The president may also negotiate executive agreements with foreign powers that are not subject to Senate confirmation.[18]

text: Emergency powers[edit]

text: The Constitution does not expressly grant the president additional powers in times of national emergency. However, many scholars think that the Framers implied these powers because the structural design of the Executive Branch enables it to act faster than the Legislative Branch. Because the Constitution remains silent on the issue, the courts cannot grant the Executive Branch these powers when it tries to wield them. The courts will only recognize a right of the Executive Branch to use emergency powers if Congress has granted such powers to the president.[19]

text: A claim of emergency powers was at the center of President Abraham Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus without Congressional approval in 1861. Lincoln claimed that the rebellion created an emergency that permitted him the extraordinary power of unilaterally suspending the writ. With Chief Justice Roger Taney sitting as judge, the Federal District Court of Maryland struck down the suspension in Ex Parte Merryman, although Lincoln ignored the order. [20]

text: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt similarly invoked emergency powers when he issued an order directing that all Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast be placed into internment camps during World War II. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this order in Korematsu v. United States. [21]

text: Harry Truman declared the use of emergency powers when he nationalized private steel mills that failed to produce steel because of a labor strike in 1952.[22] With the Korean War ongoing, Truman asserted that he could not wage war successfully if the economy failed to provide him with the material resources necessary to keep the troops well-equipped.[23] The U.S. Supreme Court, however, refused to accept that argument in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, voting 6-3 that neither Commander in Chief powers nor any claimed emergency powers gave the president the authority to unilaterally seize private property without Congressional legislation. [24]

text: Executive privilege[edit]

text: Executive privilege gives the president the ability to withhold information from the public, Congress, and the courts in national security and diplomatic affairs.[25] George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, Washington's action created the precedent for privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed audio tapes to a special prosecutor in the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon that privilege was not absolute. The Court reasoned that the judiciary’s interest in the “fair administration of criminal justice” outweighed President Nixon’s interest in keeping the evidence secret.[26] Later President Bill Clinton lost in federal court when he tried to assert privilege in the Lewinsky affair. The Supreme Court affirmed this in Clinton v. Jones, which denied the use of privilege in cases of civil suits.[27]

text: Constraints on presidential power[edit]

text: Because of the vast array of presidential roles and responsibilities, coupled with a conspicuous presence on the national and international scene, political analysts have tended to place great emphasis on the president's powers. Some have even spoken of "the imperial presidency", referring to the expanded role of the office that Franklin D. Roosevelt maintained during his term.

text: President Theodore Roosevelt famously called the presidency a "bully pulpit" from which to raise issues nationally, for when a president raises an issue, it inevitably becomes subject to public debate. A president's power and influence may be limited, but politically the president is certainly the most important power in Washington and, furthermore, is one of the most famous and influential of all Americans.

text: Though constrained by various other laws passed by Congress, the president's executive branch conducts most foreign policy, and their power to order and direct troops as commander-in-chief is quite significant (the exact limits of what a president's military powers without Congressional authorization are open to debate).

text: The Separation of Powers devised by the founding fathers was designed to do one primary thing: to prevent the majority from ruling with an iron fist. Based on their experience, the framers shied away from giving any branch of the new government too much power. The separation of powers provides a system of shared power known as "checks and balances". For example, the President appoints judges and departmental secretaries, but these appointments must be approved by the Senate. The president can veto bills, or deny them. If he does that, the bill is sent back to Congress.


document_title: Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice

question_text: who plays wonder woman in dawn of justice

root

text: Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice

text: Plot[edit]

text: Eighteen months after the battle between Superman and General Zod in Metropolis,[N 1] Superman has become a controversial figure. Billionaire Bruce Wayne, who has operated in Gotham City as the vigilante Batman for two decades, sees Superman as an existential threat to humanity. After learning of Batman's form of justice, Clark Kent (Superman's civilian identity) seeks to expose him via Daily Planet articles. Wayne learns that Russian weapon trafficker Anatoli Knyazev has been contacting LexCorp mogul Lex Luthor. Meanwhile, Luthor unsuccessfully tries to persuade Senator June Finch to allow him to import kryptonite retrieved from the Indian Ocean following Zod's terraforming attempt, claiming he wants to maintain it as a "deterrent" against future Kryptonian threats. He instead makes alternative plans with Finch's subordinate and gains access to Zod's body and the Kryptonian scout ship.

tag: p

text: Bruce attends a gala at LexCorp to steal encrypted data from the company's mainframe, where he also encounters with Clark, but has it taken from him by an antiquities dealer named Diana Prince; she eventually returns it to Bruce. While decrypting the drive, Bruce dreams of a post-apocalyptic world, where he leads a group of rebels against a fascist Superman. He is awoken from his vision by an unidentified person, appearing through a portal, who warns him of Lois Lane's crucial role in the future, and urges him to find "the others" before vanishing.[N 2] Wayne later discovers that Luthor is also investigating metahumans. One of them is Prince herself, who is shown in a photo taken during World War I. Wayne admits to Alfred Pennyworth that he plans to steal the kryptonite to weaponize it, should it become necessary to fight Superman.

text: At a congressional hearing, as Finch questions Superman on the validity of his actions, a bomb goes off and kills everyone present but Superman. Believing he should have detected the bomb, and frustrated by his failure to save them, Superman goes into self-imposed exile. Batman breaks into LexCorp and steals the kryptonite, planning to use it to battle Superman by building a powered exoskeleton, creating a kryptonite grenade launcher, and a kryptonite-tipped spear. Meanwhile, Luthor enters the Kryptonian ship and accesses a vast technology database accumulated from over 100,000 worlds.

text: Later, Luthor kidnaps Lois and Martha Kent, Clark's adoptive mother, to bring Superman out of exile. He reveals to him that he manipulated Superman and Batman by fueling their distrust for each other. Luthor demands that Superman kill Batman in exchange for Martha's life. Superman tries to explain the situation to Batman, but instead Batman fights Superman and eventually subdues him. Before Batman can kill him with the spear, Superman urges Batman to "save Martha", whose name is also shared with Bruce's late mother, confusing him long enough for Lois to arrive and explain what Superman meant. Realizing how far he has fallen and unwilling to let an innocent die, Batman rescues Martha, while Superman confronts Luthor on the scout ship.

text: Luthor executes his backup plan, unleashing a genetically engineered monster with DNA from both Zod's body and his own blood.[N 3] Diana Prince arrives unexpectedly; revealing her metahuman nature, she joins forces with Batman and Superman to eliminate the creature. When they are all outmatched, Superman realizes its vulnerability to kryptonite, and retrieves the spear to kill it. In the creature's last moments, it fatally wounds Superman.

text: Luthor is arrested and Batman confronts him in prison, warning Luthor that he will always be watching him. Luthor gloats that Superman's death has made the world vulnerable to powerful alien threats. A memorial is held for Superman in Metropolis. Clark is also declared dead, with various friends and family members including Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince attending for him in Smallville. Martha gives an envelope to Lois, which contains an engagement ring from Clark. After the funeral, Bruce expresses his regrets to Diana about how he failed Superman. He reveals to her that he plans to form a team of metahumans, starting with those from Luthor's files, to help protect the world in Superman's absence. After they leave, the dirt atop Clark's coffin levitates.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman

tag: ul

text: Henry Cavill as Clark Kent / Superman:

text: Amy Adams as Lois Lane:

text: Jesse Eisenberg as Lex Luthor:

text: Diane Lane as Martha Kent:

text: Laurence Fishburne as Perry White:

text: Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth:

text: Holly Hunter as June Finch:

text: Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman:[48]

text: Scoot McNairy as Wallace Keefe:

text: Callan Mulvey as Anatoli Knyazev:

text: Tao Okamoto as Mercy Graves:

text: Additionally, Robin Atkin Downes performed the motion-capture and voice work for Doomsday, although never named in the film, a monstrous creature created by Kryptonian technology after Luthor mixes his own blood with General Zod's DNA.[9] The role was kept under such heavy secrecy that Downes did not know who he was playing until the second trailer was released.[67] On his role, Downes stated that he was proud to be part of the film and expressed his admiration in helping bring Doomsday to life in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[68] When asked why Doomsday was chosen to be in the film, Zack Snyder stated "To go up against heroes like Batman and Superman, we wanted to introduce one of the DC Universe's most iconic and powerful villains", further explaining, "He is essentially an unstoppable force. He poses a real threat to the world within the film."[69] Snyder has confirmed Doomsday will return in the DCEU, stating "Well, you have Doomsday, right? He doesn't just crawl out of the ground. He has his own mythology, right? So that has to be explored."[70] Downes has previously provided voice roles for various DC animated films and shows as well as DC video games.[68] Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Lauren Cohan portray Thomas and Martha Wayne, Bruce Wayne's deceased parents,[71][72] Patrick Wilson portrays the President of the United States in a voice role, and Michael Cassidy portrays Jimmy Olsen, a CIA agent.[73] Reprising their roles from Man of Steel are Harry Lennix as Secretary Calvin Swanwick,[74] Christina Wren as Major Carrie Farris,[75] Kevin Costner as Jonathan Kent,[76] Rebecca Buller as Jenny Jurwich, Chad Krowchuk as Glen Woodburn, and Carla Gugino as the Kryptonian A.I. Kelor.[77] The corpse of General Zod also appears in the film in a crucial role; however, Michael Shannon did not film any scenes for the film and the corpse was created using the physique of fitness model Greg Plitt and a head-shot of Shannon.[78] Mark Edward Taylor portrays Jack O'Dwyer, an executive of Wayne Enterprises.[79][80]

text: Ezra Miller, Jason Momoa, and Ray Fisher appear as Barry Allen / Flash, Arthur Curry / Aquaman, and Victor Stone / Cyborg respectively in brief appearances, which led to their inclusion in the Justice League film.[81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88] Joe Morton appears in a role as Silas Stone, Victor's father.[89] U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy makes a cameo appearance as Senator Purrington, whilst U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow also makes a cameo as the Governor of New Jersey.[90][91] Neil deGrasse Tyson, Soledad O'Brien, Anderson Cooper, Nancy Grace and Charlie Rose appear as themselves. Jena Malone was cast as S.T.A.R. Labs scientist Jenet Klyburn, but her scenes were cut from the theatrical release, along with Man of Steel characters Coburn Goss as Father Leone and Joseph Cranford as Pete Ross; they were restored for the Ultimate Edition home media release.[92] Talk show host Jon Stewart has a cameo in the extended cut. To further establish the interconnection between the films of the shared universe, Chris Pine appears on Diana Prince's photo as Steve Trevor, which he reprised in Wonder Woman.[93][94][95]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text:
"... after Man of Steel finished and we started talking about what would be in the next movie, I started subtly mentioning that it would be cool if he faced Batman... You're in a story meeting talking about, like, who should [Superman] fight if he fought this giant alien threat Zod who was basically his equal physically, from his planet, fighting on our turf... You know, who to fight next?... But I'm not gonna say at all that when I took the job to do Man of Steel that I did it in a subversive way to get to Batman. I really believe that only after contemplating who could face [Superman] did Batman come into the picture."

— Snyder, on how Batman came into the film[96]

tag: div

text: In June 2013, Warner Bros. announced that director Zack Snyder and screenwriter David S. Goyer would return for a Man of Steel sequel,[97] with the studio considering the release for the film in 2015.[98] The following month, Snyder confirmed at San Diego Comic-Con International that the sequel to Man of Steel would feature Superman and Batman meeting for the first time on film. Goyer and Snyder would co-write the story, with Goyer authoring the script,[21][99] and Christopher Nolan involved in an advisory role as executive producer.[100] According to Snyder, the film would take inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns.[101]

text: In November 2013, Snyder clarified his film would not be based upon the aforementioned graphic novel. "If you were going to do that, you would need a different Superman. We're bringing Batman into the universe that now this Superman lives in."[102] Batman v Superman marks the first appearance of Wonder Woman in a live-action, theatrical film,[48] which Warner Bros. had been developing as far back as 1996.[103] In December 2013, Chris Terrio was hired to rewrite the script, due to Goyer's commitments to other projects.[104] Further commenting on the influences, Terrio revealed in an article published by the Wall Street Journal that the movie would draw inspiration from Nolan's Batman trilogy, Italian semiotician Umberto Eco's 1972 essay "The Myth of Superman", and the W.H. Auden poem "Musée des Beaux Arts" which contrasts the quotidian details of normal people's lives with the epic struggles of mythological figures. According to him, "In superhero stories, Batman is Pluto, god of the underworld, and Superman is Apollo, god of the sky. That began to be really interesting to me — that their conflict is not just due to manipulation, but their very existence."[4] The Joker and the Riddler were supposed to appear in the film, but Snyder ultimately decided to cut them from the final script.[105]

text: The film's official title, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, was revealed in May 2014.[106] Snyder stated that having the "v" in the title instead of "vs." was a way "to keep it from being a straight 'versus' movie, even in the most subtle way".[107] Henry Cavill later stated, "I wouldn't call this a Superman sequel [...] This is Batman versus Superman. It's a separate entity altogether. It's introducing the Batman character and expanding upon the universe, which was kicked off by Man of Steel."[108] Forbes noted that although the film originated as a sequel to Man of Steel, it was "revamped into a backdoor pilot for Justice League and/or an eventual stand-alone Batman movie."[109] As part of a settlement with his heirs, this is the first Batman production that lists Bill Finger as a co-creator.[110]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Kevin Costner, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Harry Lennix and Christina Wren reprise their roles from Man of Steel.[74][75][111] Joining the cast are Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Jesse Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth,[111] Ray Fisher as Cyborg,[86] Jason Momoa as Aquaman,[84][85] and Tao Okamoto as Luthor's assistant Mercy Graves.[64] Scoot McNairy and Callan Mulvey were cast as Wallace Keefe and Anatoli Knyazev, while Jena Malone was cast as Jenet Klyburn, a character that was featured exclusively in the Ultimate Edition home media release.[42][58][93][112]

text: Dawn of Justice is Affleck's second film as a comic book superhero; he played Daredevil in the 2003 film of the same name,[113] and was initially reluctant to accept playing Batman, citing that he "felt [he] didn't fit the traditional mold. But once Zack [Snyder] showed [him] the concept, and that it would be both different from the great movies that Chris[topher Nolan] and Christian [Bale] made, but still in keeping with tradition, [he] was excited."[114] Affleck previously stated in 2006 that Daredevil had "inoculated [him] from ever playing another superhero".[115]

text: Snyder cast an older Batman to be a layered juxtaposition against a younger Superman; while "bear[ing] the scars of a seasoned crime fighter, but retain[ing] the charm that the world sees in billionaire Bruce Wayne."[10] Nolan was involved with the casting of Affleck and he was the first actor Snyder approached for the part.[100] The director had also discussed the part with Josh Brolin.[116] Bale admitted he wanted to play Batman again after The Dark Knight Rises,[117] though he stated that his Batman does not belong in any other film and he was never approached by Warner Bros. to play the role again.[118][119]

text: On casting Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Snyder offered, "Having Jesse in the role allows us to explore that interesting dynamic, and also take the character in some new and unexpected directions".[26] Bryan Cranston was considered for the role before Eisenberg was cast.[120] Producer Charles Roven revealed that this incarnation of Wonder Woman would use the character's origins from 2011's The New 52 reboot of the DC continuity, wherein the character would be a demigoddess, and the daughter of Zeus. This deviates from the character's original origins, where she was "a clay figure brought to life by the gods".[50] Olga Kurylenko was considered for the role of Wonder Woman before Gadot was cast.[121] Dawn of Justice is Ray Fisher's feature film debut,[122] and the first live-action film to feature Cyborg,[123] whose role will become more significant in future DC Comics films.[124] It is also the live-action theatrical debut of Aquaman.[125]

text: The casting of Affleck, Gadot, and Eisenberg was criticized. Affleck's casting caused significant backlash from comic book fans, with multiple online petitions demanding his removal from the role; unlike previous Batman actors, he was not considered intimidating enough for the role by the protesters.[126] Conversely, PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III supported Affleck's casting as Batman, stating, "Way back when the news was new I wrote a PopMatters article defending the choice of Ben Affleck as Batman. I'll let that one speak for itself."[127][128] Via social media, fans criticized Gadot's small frame in contrast to Wonder Woman's warrior-like build in the comics.[129] Responding to this, Gadot stated that she had been participating in various training regimens to achieve a body that stays closer to the source material.[130] Fans also criticized Eisenberg's casting, feeling that the then-30-year-old was too young for the role, and not physically imposing enough.[131] Upon the film's release, both Affleck and Gadot received considerable praise for their performances, despite the overall negative reception of the film itself.[132][133]

text: Design[edit]

text: Michael Wilkinson reprised his duties as costume designer. He updated the Superman suit from Man of Steel so that it "feels fresh and right for this installment of Zack Snyder's comic-book universe".[134] The first Batsuit featured in the film is influenced by The Dark Knight Returns;[135] unlike the suits seen in previous live-action Batman films, it is made of cloth instead of armor and is a cast of the physique of fitness model Rossano Rea.[136][137] An image of the Wonder Woman costume was revealed at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con, in which the costume desaturates the red, blue, and gold colors that make up the costume of most versions of the character.[138]

text: A second Batsuit was also unveiled at Comic-Con, and unlike the first, it is armored.[139] Aquaman's look in this film shows him "tattooed in Maori-like patterns", and wearing a suit "decked out in shades of gold, black and silver armor".[140] According to the Warner Bros. Studios lot, the next generation Batmobile combined inspiration from both the sleek, streamlined design of classic Batmobiles and the high-suspension, military build from the more recent Tumbler from The Dark Knight Trilogy. Designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos, the Batmobile is about 20 feet long and 12 feet wide.[141] The glasses Cavill wears as Clark Kent are made by British spectacle designer Tom Davies.[142]

text: Filming[edit]

text: In September 2013, Larry Fong joined the crew as cinematographer, having previously worked with Zack Snyder on 300, Watchmen, and Sucker Punch.[143] Initial filming commenced on October 19, 2013, at East Los Angeles College, to shoot an American football game between Gotham City University and rival Metropolis State University.[144] At the end of the month, construction began on the Kent farm seen in Man of Steel for the film.[145] Principal photography involving the main cast of the film began on May 19, 2014, in Detroit, Michigan,[146] with scenes featuring Gal Gadot as Diana Prince being filmed early on May 16.[147] While filming in Michigan, the production spent a total of $199 million in the state.[2] The scene of a state funeral at the Arlington National Cemetery, a tribute by the United States Army,[148] was actually filmed in Michigan as well, using green screen.[149]

text: Additional filming began in Chicago, Illinois in November 2014.[150] Other locations included the Michigan Motion Picture Studios, the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University, Yorkville, Illinois, and New Mexico.[151][152][153] Sequences of the film, including a scene depicting the murder of Bruce Wayne's parents, were filmed using IMAX cameras.[154] The planned shoot in Morocco was shifted to New Mexico due to incidents related to the 2014 Ebola outbreak.[155] Principal photography wrapped on December 5, 2014.[156]

text: Music and soundtrack[edit]

text: Hans Zimmer composed the film score,[157] emphasizing a challenge not to reuse the themes he established with the Batman character from Christopher Nolan's trilogy.[158] Junkie XL, who provided additional music in Man of Steel, also returned for this film, helping to compose the theme for Batman.[159] Originally, Zimmer enlisted Junkie XL to compose the Batman material, with Zimmer planning to focus solely on the Superman side of the score, but the final Batman theme was written by both composers as a collaboration.[160] Zimmer noted that he had significant trouble in finding a new angle from which to tell the story and after the release of the film, Zimmer announced that he was retired from superhero films.[161] The soundtrack album of the film was released on March 18, 2016 by WaterTower Music.[162]

text: Songs featured in the film include: "Kang Ling (An Instrument Made From A Human Thigh Bone)", a traditional song performed by the monks of the Dip Tse Chok Ling Monastery, Dharamshala; "Night and Day" and "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye" written by Cole Porter and performed by Richard Cheese; "Shostakovich: Waltz II (Jazz Suite No. 2)" written by Dmitri Shostakovich[163][164] performed by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Chailly; and "Amazing Grace" arranged and performed by John Allan[165] and again performed by the Canadian Scottish Regiment Pipes and Drums and the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.[166][167]

text: Release[edit]

text: In November 2013, Warner Bros. announced that Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice would be released on July 17, 2015. In January 2014, however, the studio announced that it was delayed from its original release date of July 17, 2015, and moved to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story."[168] The release date was moved once again in August 2014 from May 6, 2016, to March 25, 2016, with a Warner Bros. insider saying the studio was "not flinching" in regards to the previous opening date being on the same day as Marvel Studios' Captain America: Civil War, but instead stating that March 2016 was a "fantastic corridor" for them.[169] According to sources obtained by The Hollywood Reporter, Warner Bros. considered the possibility of having a 70mm release for the film, which was partially shot in the 65mm IMAX format.[170]

text: Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016,[171] followed by a New York City premiere on March 20 at Radio City Music Hall.[172] Following the Brussels attacks, Warner Bros. originally cancelled the red carpet of the London premiere, but decided to carry on with the premiere for the fans.[173] The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on March 25 in 3D.[169][174] It opened simultaneously in North America, China and Japan, the world's three largest film markets, as well as additional international territories,[175] with the exception of Poland, where theaters do not open on Good Friday.[3] The film debuted simultaneously across 30,000 screens in nearly every major foreign territory across 61 markets, including China, with domestic open across roughly 4,242 locations of which 3,500 theaters (85%) were in 3D, 390 IMAX screens, 470 PLF locations, 150 D-Box theaters and ten 70 mm prints.[176][177][178]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: An estimated $165 million marketing effort helped promote Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[179] At the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International, Snyder introduced the film's first footage intended to be exclusive to the event.[180] A teaser trailer was scheduled to be screened in selected cinemas on April 20, 2015.[181] However, on April 16, the trailer leaked online,[182] and within a few hours Snyder officially released the trailer to Twitter.[183] At the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International, Snyder and the cast attended to present an initial trailer of the film. The trailer was, unlike the teaser, which received mixed response, positively received by attendees, who gave the trailer a standing ovation.[184] Mark Hughes of Forbes said the trailers "both set the stage for a story about the world's distrust and fear of Superman, Batman's rage at Superman and intention to duke it out with the Man of Steel, and Wonder Woman's participation in a big fight featuring the 'Trinity.'"[185]

text: Warner Bros. Consumer Products partnered-up with "a powerhouse slate of global licensees for a broad, multi-category licensing and merchandising program", including Mattel, Lego, Rubies, Funko, Thinkway Toys, Hot Toys, Junkfood, Bioworld, Pez, Seiko, Converse and among many other licensees to sell merchandise related to the film.[186][187] Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was also a licensee for the film, offering a special edition Jeep Renegade in exchange for a near-exclusive product placement deal; aside from Bruce Wayne's Aston Martin, all vehicles in the film were either from Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, Ram, or Iveco.[188] Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice – Cross Fire, an original companion novel tied to the film, telling a tie-in story set before the events of the movie, was published by Scholastic Corporation.[189]

text: A five-issue comic-book prelude exploring what happened in the weeks and months leading up to the events of the film was released as a tie-in with Dr Pepper's character-branded bottles.[190] Also, there are a series of four minicomics found in Batman v Superman-branded General Mills cereals. Additionally, those who purchased Batman v Superman-themed Doritos Family Fun Mix at Walmart received the comic book prequel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice – Upstairs/Downstairs.[191] Rocksteady Studios released a downloadable content for the video game Batman: Arkham Knight that featured the Batmobile and Batsuit from the film.[192]

text: The third trailer debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on December 3, 2015. It received positive responses,[193][194][195] with Scott Mendelson of Forbes calling the trailer a "Saturday morning cartoon nerd's wildest dreams."[196] Molly Driscoll of CS Monitor stated that it looks like the film "will continue the trend of adapting comic book stories as timely tales."[197] Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter noted that based on the trailer's content, the film might be the anti-Civil War, referring to Marvel's Captain America: Civil War as "Superman and Batman complete the comic book trope by overcoming their differences to fight a common foe, alongside a third hero, who saves them both — that feels the most fresh, especially in light of the Civil War trailer. While that ended with a showdown between three heroes, this trailer moves beyond that to show three heroes standing united."[198] However, it was criticized for revealing that,[199] with Rob Tornoe of NewsWorks pointing out that this trailer was targeting the "broadest audience" rather than just fans, as studios try to "maximize a film's opening day box office."[200]

text: Warner Bros. did not buy a Super Bowl 50 commercial;[201] instead, they worked with Turkish Airlines to put together a pair of Batman v Superman-themed airline commercials.[202] McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the spots "inform interested parties about the culture, geography and history of Batman and Superman's individual stomping grounds, each one filled with Easter eggs for the comic book faithful and newcomer alike."[203] Jesse Eisenberg's part as Lex Luthor in these commercials was praised, as Dirk Libbey of CinemaBlend noted that "he matches up well with Bruce Wayne by playing the welcoming billionaire business man. It's a far cry from the somewhat cartoonish villain we've seen in the clips from the film."[202]

text: The final trailer was released to the public on February 11, 2016, which was described as "intense" by Kwame Opam of The Verge.[204] Mendelson of Forbes felt that Warner Bros. "probably wouldn't have even dropped this one had the prior trailer back in December been received better. So now we have this fourth and final sell, and at least they are going out on a high note."[205] Jonathon Dornbush of Entertainment Weekly said that the footage "works to establish Batman as his own independent crime fighting force, while also providing a deeper look at his existential struggle against Superman."[206]

text: In February 2016, Warner Bros. and Doritos formed a partnership, creating a website offering fans the opportunity to enter codes found on Doritos purchases branded with the film's logo, and enter to win movie tickets, tech toys, and a trip the premiere in New York City.[207][208] Warner Bros also partnered with Omaze to give fans who donated a chance to win "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience", while benefiting three nonprofit organizations nominated by Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill and Jesse Eisenberg. "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience" offered a fan and their friend the chance to win tickets to the premiere of the film, as well as fly on a helicopter with Cavill or ride in the Batmobile with Affleck.[209] Hendrick Motorsports drivers Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. drove cars based on Superman and Batman respectively, at Auto Club Speedway on March 20, 2016.[210] A tie-in endless runner video game to the film, entitled Batman vs Superman – Who Will Win?, debuted March 16, 2016, released by Warner Bros. International Enterprises.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film grossed $166 million in the USA & Canada in its opening weekend,[211][212] the eighth-biggest opening of all time, ahead of The Dark Knight Rises' $160.9 million.[211] The film had a worldwide opening of $422.5 million, which stands as the second-biggest for Warner Bros. and the fifth-biggest of all time.[213][214] It became the fourth film to have a global opening above $400 million.[215] It also had an IMAX worldwide opening weekend total of $36 million from 945 IMAX screens, the third-biggest ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($48 million) and Jurassic World ($44 million).[215] However, both inside and outside of the United States, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a notable poor Friday-to-Sunday hold and set a new record for the worst Friday-to-Sunday drop for a superhero movie release in modern box office history with a 58% decline, which was previously held by Fantastic Four.[216]

text: In its second weekend, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a "historic" box-office drop,[217][218] with an 81.2% decline on Friday that was "one of the biggest Friday-to-Friday drops any blockbuster has ever seen", and an overall 68.4% drop for the weekend despite not "facing any big competition at the box office",[219][220][221] making it the second largest decline for a marquee superhero title, behind only 2003's Hulk.[217] Brad Brevet, writing for Box Office Mojo, reported that "it appeared Batman v Superman was looking at a drop anywhere from 58–68% and it ended up settling in on the wrong side of those expectations."[221] Scott Mendelson, writing for Forbes, said "Whether or not the movie is any good, and whether or not audiences respond to the picture, is best measured by the second and third weekends...Yes, we're still talking about a $15.35 million second Friday and a $50m+ second weekend, but in terms of legs, this film sadly doesn't seem to have any."[222] Continuing this trend, in its third weekend, the film dropped by 54.3% in which Brad Brevet concluded in a follow-up for Box Office Mojo that "the legs on this one are proving quite short."[223]

text: In the weeks leading up to the film's release, advance ticket sales outpaced The Dark Knight Rises, The Avengers, and Furious 7.[224] Worldwide, it was estimated to gross between $300–340 million in over 35,000 screens in its opening weekend.[176][225] It passed the $50 million mark in IMAX ticket sales on its second weekend, grossing a total of $53.4 million from 571 IMAX screens.[226][227] Warner Bros. domestic distribution chief Jeff Goldstein described the film's box office performance as a "fantastic result, by any measure."[228] Box office analyst Jeff Bock said "Still, outside of Christopher Nolan's two Dark Knight movies, and Tim Burton's Batman films when you adjust for inflation, this is the highest-grossing property in DC's bullpen thus far. It tops Man of Steel by more than $200 million," and that "overall, BvS successfully relaunched DC's cinematic universe. The film needed to reach $800 million in revenue at the box office to "recoup its investment" according to financial analysts.[229][230][179] Despite surpassing this amount, it was considered "a disappointment" for failing to reach $1 billion,[229][231][232] This resulted in Warner Bros., in May 2016, creating DC Films, giving a dedicated executive team responsibility for films based on DC Comics, similar to the dedicated Marvel Comics focus of Marvel Studios within the larger Walt Disney Studios group.[233] Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice grossed $330.4 million in North America and $543.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $873.6 million, making it the seventh-highest-grossing film of 2016 behind Captain America: Civil War, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, Finding Dory, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, and The Secret Life of Pets.[1] Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $105.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.[234]

text: North America[edit]

text: Following reports of pre-tickets sales in both the United States and Canada on February 29, many insiders and analysts predicted an opening weekend haul between $120–140 million for Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, with projections as high as $185 million.[176][178][225][235][236][237] However, Warner Bros. insiders were more conservative in their estimates projecting in the lower range of $110 million.[3] According to Deadline.com, an undisclosed rival studio box office analyst indicated that if the film is truly pacing in tandem with The Dark Knight Rises, then Dawn of Justice could possibly be looking at a $180 million+ debut.[225] The film also became Fandango's top pre-selling superhero film ever, beating The Dark Knight Rises and Avengers: Age of Ultron, representing 90% of the site's weekend's ticket sales. A survey carried out showed that the introduction of Wonder Woman is a primary draw for moviegoers.[236][238] It pre-sold around $20–25 million worth of advance tickets.[236] Dawn of Justice made $27.7 million in Thursday previews from around 3,800 theaters which is the biggest of 2016, the biggest Easter weekend preview, the second-biggest for a superhero film (behind The Dark Knight Rises), and the seventh-biggest of all time of which $3.0 million came from IMAX showings, also a new record for Easter weekend.[239][240]

text: On its opening day, it earned $81.59 million from 4,242 theaters, including previews, marking the biggest pre-summer opening day of all time, the second-biggest superhero Friday opening and the fourth-biggest opening-day and fourth-biggest single-day gross, with $9 million coming from IMAX showings.[241] Excluding the Thursday previews, it earned $53.89 million on Friday which is the fifth-biggest ever.[241] It fell 37.8% on Saturday, which is the second-worst superhero opening Friday-to-Saturday drop, only behind the 40% drop of The Dark Knight Rises.[216] In total, it earned $166 million for its debut weekend, setting records for the biggest March and pre-summer openings, (these have since been broken by Beauty and the Beast) [242] the biggest Easter opening,[243] the second-biggest opening for Warner Bros.,[244] the biggest for a DC Comics property,[245] and the eighth-biggest opening of all time.[212][246][247] Conversely, the film holds the record for the worst superhero Friday-to-Sunday drop with a 58% decline, eclipsing the previous 48% decline record held by Fantastic Four in 2015.[216] IMAX comprised 11% or $18 million of the weekend's gross from 388 theaters which is the fifth-biggest of all time (a record it shares with Age of Ultron) and 3D represented 40% ($68 million) of the total ticket sales.[248] RealD 3D comprised $47 million of the opening gross.[246] Premium large formats generated $17.6 million (10%), with $3.6 million of that coming from Cinemark XD auditoriums from 475 theaters.[246]

text: Following its record breaking opening weekend, it posted the biggest March Monday with $15.05 million, a drop of 55% from its Sunday gross. This broke The Hunger Games' previous record of $10.8 million,[249][250] and also the biggest March Tuesday with $12.2 million.[251] It made $209 million in its first week full which stands at the eleventh-biggest opening week of all time[252] and surpassed the lifetime total Batman Begins.[253] Despite earning $15.35 million in its second Friday, the film dropped 81.2% and broke the record for the biggest Friday-to-Friday drop for a comic book adaptation film, not including $27.7 million worth of previews which represented an even larger decline.[254] It fell precipitously by 69.1% in its second weekend, grossing $51.3 million from 4,256 theaters (an addition of 14 cinemas) due to poor reviews and mixed word of mouth, establishing itself an infamous record for the seventh steepest drop for a superhero/comic book adapted film and the steepest decline since the -69% posted by X-Men Origins: Wolverine in 2009, despite facing little to no competition or new wide-releases and having the added benefit of 30% K–12 schools off, and 9% of colleges on break, per ComScore.[255][256] The steep drop also marks the fourth-biggest for a film that opened above $100 million (tied with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2).[227] In its third weekend it was overtaken by the comedy The Boss after falling 54% with $23.3 million.[257][258]

text: Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice proved to be front-loaded, failing to generate significant revenue after its opening weekend/week release. It earned just 1.99 times ($330 million) its opening weekend numbers ($166 million), which is lower than Man of Steel's 2.28 multiplier.[259] Like other DC films, such as Watchmen, Green Lantern and Man of Steel, it opened to record breaking numbers but then dropped the following weekend onward due largely to bad critical reception and mixed word of mouth from audiences.[260] It earned just 1.99 times its opening weekend, the worst [multiplier] for a film opening above $100 million.[261] A similar result was followed by DC's third superhero film, Suicide Squad released in August 2016,[262] although Suicide Squad became less front loaded than Dawn of Justice.[263]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: Internationally, it was projected to open between $180–200 million; however, Deadline.com pointed out that these figures were only early predictions pegged to the performance of similar films in their respective territories.[225] It opened in ten countries on Wednesday, March 23, 2016, earning $7 million and debuting at No. 1 in all markets on approximately 5,900 screens.[264][265] The following day, the film was released in 38 additional countries, earning $33.1 million on 19,700 screens for a two-day total of $44 million.[264] On March 25, it opened in the remaining 17 countries delivering $67.2 million in revenue, for a three-day total of $115.3 million in 62 countries on more than 30,000 screens.[264] Through Sunday, March 27, it earned an opening-weekend total of $256.5 million from 66 countries on over 40,000 screens, making it the biggest superhero opening weekend of all time, the biggest overall March opening, the second-biggest opening ever for Warner Bros., and the fifth-biggest international opening on record.[215][266] The film's accomplishements also included the second-biggest IMAX opening record of $18 million, behind only Jurassic World which tallied $23.5 million.[215] 3D accounted 59% or $149.86 million of the weekend gross led by China (98%), Germany (88%), Brazil (81%), Russia (55%), and France (51%).[215] As with North America, the film witnessed a steep decline in its second Friday internationally, falling 72% to $19.2 million, with the biggest decline in the U.K. (77%) and China (87%).[267][268] Its second weekend earnings fell 66% overall to $85.25 million.[226] Despite the decline, the film topped the box office for three consecutive weekends.[269]

text: In Mexico, it had the biggest opening day for Warner Bros. and the second-biggest of all time with $5.8 million, including record-breaking midnight showings.[264] It also scored the biggest opening day of all time in Brazil ($3.5 million) and the biggest opening day for a superhero film in Germany ($2.8 million).[270] Elsewhere, it opened in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($9 million), Australia ($2.5 million), India ($2.54 million), Russia ($1.9 million), South Korea ($1.7 million), Japan ($1.2 million), the United Arab Emirates and Hong Kong ($1.1 million respectively).[264][270] In China, it earned $21.22 million on its opening day, including around $1.34 million worth of previews, which is the biggest for Warner Bros. and the sixth-biggest Hollywood opening day of all time.[264][271] However, other Chinese sources have the film open to around $20 million.[272][273] In terms of opening weekends, the biggest openings were recorded in China ($57.2 million), the United Kingdom and Ireland ($20.7 million), Mexico ($18.2 million), Brazil ($12 million), South Korea ($10.2 million), Australia ($9.9 million), France ($8.6 million), Germany ($8.1 million), Russia ($7.7 million), India ($6.6 million), Spain ($6.1 million) and Japan ($4.5 million).[215][274] It broke all-time opening record in Brazil and Warner Bros. opening records in Mexico, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela.[215] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it benefited from the long Easter weekend holiday and despite a distinctly mixed bag of reviews in the U.K. press, it posted an opening £14.62 million or $20.7 million from 612 theaters, a record for 2016 so far and for a superhero title on straight Friday to Sunday, but fell short of The Avengers and Avengers: Age of Ultron, when accounting for previews.[275][276]

text: In Japan, it opened in third place, behind two local films, Assassination Classroom: Graduation and Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan 2016.[277] In South Korea, it scored the biggest March opening after opening on a Tuesday and dominating 68.3% of the market share with $10.2 million.[278] In China, after scoring the biggest Hollywood opening Friday (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction),[279] it earned an estimated $57.2 million from approximately 16,000 screens in its opening weekend, besting all other DC Comics adaption film just by its weekend haul except for Man of Steel and gave Warner Bros. its biggest three day opening there with $7 million coming from 557 IMAX screens.[215][280] However, the opening figure fell below analysts projections of $70–80 million.[281] It held the top spot for its first seven days only, after which it faced stiff competitions from local productions,[268] and fell dramatically from then onwards in accruing revenue.[282] As a result, it fell to third place in its second weekend after falling enormously by 78% to $12.7 million, a record for a superhero film.[226][283]

text: It became the Warner Bros.' highest-grossing film of all time in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam.[284] It also crossed $100 million Latin American markets, making it Warner Bros.' second highest-grossing film there.[284] In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America are China ($95 million),followed by the UK ($52.1 million), Mexico ($36 million) and Brazil ($35.5 million).[285]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice received generally unfavorable reviews from film critics.[286][287][288][289] On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 27% based on 379 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice smothers a potentially powerful story – and some of America's most iconic superheroes – in a grim whirlwind of effects-driven action."[290] Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average to critics' reviews, gave the film an average score of 44 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[291] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[292] It earned "B–" from men, "B" from women, a "B" from those under 25 and a "B–" from those over 25.[248] According to comScore, 73% of audiences graded the film "very good" or "excellent", with a 60% definite recommend.[293] BBC News reported that, "the film had been widely praised by fans after its first screening in New York".[294]

text: Critics generally reacted more harshly to the film. Lindy West in The Guardian described it as "153 minutes of a grown man whacking two dolls together", asking "(h)as the definition of 'movie' changed from 'motion picture story that a human wrote on purpose' to '700 only tangentially related 12-second grey and red vignettes'?"[295] A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: "The point of Batman v Superman isn't fun, and it isn't thinking, either. It's obedience. The theology is invoked ... to buttress a spectacle of power. And in that way the film serves as a metaphor for its own aspirations. The corporations that produce movies like this one, and the ambitious hacks who sign up to make them, have no evident motive beyond their own aggrandizement."[296] Writing in The Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "humourless" and "the most incoherent blockbuster in years".[297] Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters said, "As you're watching this movie, you might also contemplate your own part, in being swayed into consuming so much of what you've consumed before." Adding, "Wonder Woman's remains Batman v Superman's most compelling story, precisely because it's untold."[298] Matt Patches of Thrillist wrote "what Batman v Superman can do, it does, at the cost of coherency and thrills. The movie is bat-shit crazy. A dour, disdainful demeanor, plus a gluttony of complex plot twists, dissipates most of the contact high."[299] Michael Philips of Chicago Tribune wrote, "A near-total drag, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice plays like a loose, unofficial quarter-billion-dollar remake of The Odd Couple, in which Oscar and Felix are literally trying to kill each other."[300] On his podcast Hollywood Babble-On, film director Kevin Smith, a long-time friend and collaborator of Affleck, praised Affleck's performance but panned the film, commenting that it "didn't really have a heart" and was "humorless", arguing that "there seems to be a fundamental lack of understanding of what those characters are about. It's almost like Zack Snyder didn't read a bunch of comics, he read one comic once, and it was Dark Knight Returns, and his favorite part was the last part where Batman and Superman fight."[301] On a second viewing, however, Smith via his Instagram lightened his stance.[302] Jeremy Irons expressed displeasure with the film, feeling it was "deservedly so" savaged by critics and calling the feature "very muddled" while expressing hope that the forthcoming Justice League (2017) would be better due to its story being "...a lot smaller, it's more linear".[303]

text: Taking a softer tone, David Betancourt of The Washington Post and Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the film's visual spectacle and performances from Affleck and Gadot, though Mendelson also called the film "an utter mess of thinly sketched characters, haphazard plotting, surprisingly jumbled action".[304][305] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "better than Man of Steel but below the high bar set by Nolan's Dark Knight," adding that "Dawn of Justice is still a colossus, the stuff that DC Comics dreams are made of for that kid in all of us who yearns to see Batman and Superman suit up and go in for the kill."[306] Jake Coyle of Associated Press wrote, "it hurtles not with the kinetic momentum of Mad Max: Fury Road nor the comparatively spry skip of a Marvel movie, but with an operatic grandeur it sometimes earns and often doesn't."[307] Mark Hughes of Forbes called it "the follow-up to The Dark Knight that many viewers and fans wanted or hoped for", adding that it's "visually stunning, with powerful emotional storytelling and awe-inspiring action spectacle."[308] Andrew Barker of Variety said "as a pure visual spectacle... Batman V Superman ably blows the hinges off the multiplex doors."[309] Charles Koplinski of the Illinois Times called it "a brooding, but most importantly intelligent take on the seminal figures of our 20th century pop culture mythology, a movie that at once pays tribute to these characters' roots while offering up modern incarnations of them that ring true for our times."[310] Nicolas Barber of the BBC called the film "a four-star epic" praising Affleck's performance as Batman and the visual grandeur of Fong's cinematography.[311] Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave an ambivalent review; he especially criticized the "very bad writing", but conceded "there are a lot of moments... that work" and praised Affleck and Gadot's performances, calling Gadot as Wonder Woman the best thing in the film.[312]

text: Multiple commentators criticized Eisenberg on the grounds that his interpretation of Lex Luthor hewed too close to character traits associated with another DC Comics villain, the Joker.[313] Even before the film was released, Affleck compared Eisenberg's performance to that of Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight.[314] Once the film came out, critics lambasted Eisenberg's take on Luthor. Sonny Bunch of The Washington Post lamented that "As the film progresses, Lex degenerates into a gibbering mad man, some strange mix of the Riddler and the Joker with a little bit of Mark Zuckerberg added for flair."[315] Charlie Jane Anders of Gizmodo wrote that "Someone clearly told Jesse Eisenberg that this movie is the Dark Knight to Man of Steel's Batman Begins, and he's doing his damndest to give a Heath Ledger-esque performance... Watching the trailers, I had thought Eisenberg's loopy acting might be this movie's saving grace – but a concentrated dose of his faux mania actually turns out to be the worst thing." Andy Scott of Grunge, in an article titled "How Jesse Eisenberg Ruined Batman v Superman," wrote that "Eisenberg's speech patterns and mannerisms felt almost entirely lifted from Ledger's iconic performance, to the point where he walked the dangerous grey line between respectful homage and downright thievery."[316]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)

Critics' Choice Awards
Best Actress in an Action Movie
Gal Gadot
Nominated
[317]

Golden Raspberry Awards
Worst Picture
Charles Roven and Deborah Snyder
Nominated
[318]
[319]

Worst Director
Zack Snyder
Nominated

Worst Screenplay
Chris Terrio and David S. Goyer
Won

Worst Actor
Ben Affleck
Nominated

Henry Cavill
Nominated

Worst Supporting Actor
Jesse Eisenberg
Won

Worst Screen Combo
Ben Affleck and Henry Cavill
Won

Worst Prequel, Remake, Ripoff or Sequel
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice
Won

Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite Movie
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice
Nominated
[320]

Favorite Movie Actress
Amy Adams
Nominated

Favorite Movie Actor
Ben Affleck
Nominated

Henry Cavill
Nominated

Favorite Butt-Kicker
Ben Affleck
Nominated

Henry Cavill
Nominated

Favorite Frenemies
Ben Affleck and Henry Cavill
Nominated

People's Choice Awards
Favorite Action Movie
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice
Nominated
[321]

Saturn Awards
Best Comic-to-Film Motion Picture
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice
Nominated
[322]

Teen Choice Awards
Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie - Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice
Nominated
[323]

Choice Movie Actor: Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Henry Cavill
Nominated

Ben Affleck
Nominated

Choice Movie Actress: Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Amy Adams
Nominated

Choice Movie: Scene Stealer
Gal Gadot
Nominated

Choice Movie: Villain
Jesse Eisenberg
Nominated

Choice Movie: Liplock
Henry Cavill and Amy Adams
Nominated

Jupiter Awards
Best International film
Zack Snyder
Nominated

Golden Trailer Awards
Most Original Poster
Warner Bros. Pictures
Won

tag: table

text: Home media[edit]

text: An extended cut of the film dubbed the Ultimate Edition was released on home media platforms, alongside the theatrical cut. This version received an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, for more violence than the PG-13 rated theatrical cut,[94][324] and is longer by 31 minutes.[325] With the release of the Ultimate Edition, which was the director's original version of the film before additional editing, critics noted that the film would have likely been better received with the additional footage.[326][327] Ben Kendrick of ScreenRant stated that while it was more "intelligible", character portrayal was not "fundamentally changed" and "for viewers who didn't like Man of Steel or Batman v Superman for larger reasons, such as tone, approach, and the darker characterization of DC's most iconic heroes, the Ultimate Edition is only a longer... version of a film that... is likely to remain divisive, even if the final product is a better film."[328] Phil Owens of TheWrap called it an improvement upon the original cut, writing, "Lo and behold somehow Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice has become something that approaches a functional movie. In the process, it only makes the original cut even more inexplicable and terrible."[329]

text: The film debuted in first place on the home video sales chart for the week ending July 24, 2016.[330] As of November 25, 2017[update], it has made $21.2 million in DVD sales and $54.8 million in Blu-Ray sales, totaling nearly $76 million.[331]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ As depicted in Man of Steel (2013).
Jump up ^ Even though the film never explicitly identifies the mysterious man who warns Bruce nor where he comes from, producer Deborah Snyder has confirmed that he is The Flash, played by Ezra Miller, who is traveling back in time.[7]
Jump up ^ While never identified onscreen or in the credits, beyond Luthor telling Superman the creature is "your doomsday,"[8] actor Robin Atkin Downes has identified the character as Doomsday.[9]

tag: ol


document_title: Vectors in gene therapy

question_text: what is one problem associated with using retroviruses as human gene therapy vectors

text: Vectors in gene therapy

text: Viruses[edit]

text: All viruses bind to their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of the virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Some types of viruses insert their genome into the host's cytoplasm, but do not actually enter the cell. Others penetrate the cell membrane disguised as protein molecules and enter the cell.

text: There are two main types of virus infection: lytic and lysogenic. Shortly after inserting its DNA, viruses of the lytic cycle quickly produce more viruses, burst from the cell and infect more cells. Lysogenic viruses integrate their DNA into the DNA of the host cell and may live in the body for many years before responding to a trigger. The virus reproduces as the cell does and does not inflict bodily harm until it is triggered. The trigger releases the DNA from that of the host and employs it to create new viruses.

text: Retroviruses[edit]

text: The genetic material in retroviruses is in the form of RNA molecules, while the genetic material of their hosts is in the form of DNA. When a retrovirus infects a host cell, it will introduce its RNA together with some enzymes, namely reverse transcriptase and integrase, into the cell. This RNA molecule from the retrovirus must produce a DNA copy from its RNA molecule before it can be integrated into the genetic material of the host cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed reverse transcription. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called reverse transcriptase. After this DNA copy is produced and is free in the nucleus of the host cell, it must be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. That is, it must be inserted into the large DNA molecules in the cell (the chromosomes). This process is done by another enzyme carried in the virus called integrase.

text: Now that the genetic material of the virus has been inserted, it can be said that the host cell has been modified to contain new genes. If this host cell divides later, its descendants will all contain the new genes. Sometimes the genes of the retrovirus do not express their information immediately.

text: One of the problems of gene therapy using retroviruses is that the integrase enzyme can insert the genetic material of the virus into any arbitrary position in the genome of the host; it randomly inserts the genetic material into a chromosome. If genetic material happens to be inserted in the middle of one of the original genes of the host cell, this gene will be disrupted (insertional mutagenesis). If the gene happens to be one regulating cell division, uncontrolled cell division (i.e., cancer) can occur. This problem has recently begun to be addressed by utilizing zinc finger nucleases[1] or by including certain sequences such as the beta-globin locus control region to direct the site of integration to specific chromosomal sites.

text: Gene therapy trials using retroviral vectors to treat X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) represent the most successful application of gene therapy to date. More than twenty patients have been treated in France and Britain, with a high rate of immune system reconstitution observed. Similar trials were restricted or halted in the USA when leukemia was reported in patients treated in the French X-SCID gene therapy trial.[citation needed] To date, four children in the French trial and one in the British trial have developed leukemia as a result of insertional mutagenesis by the retroviral vector. All but one of these children responded well to conventional anti-leukemia treatment. Gene therapy trials to treat SCID due to deficiency of the Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) enzyme (one form of SCID)[2] continue with relative success in the USA, Britain, Ireland, Italy and Japan.

text: Adenoviruses[edit]

text: Adenoviruses are viruses that carry their genetic material in the form of double-stranded DNA. They cause respiratory, intestinal, and eye infections in humans (especially the common cold). When these viruses infect a host cell, they introduce their DNA molecule into the host. The genetic material of the adenoviruses is not incorporated (transient) into the host cell's genetic material. The DNA molecule is left free in the nucleus of the host cell, and the instructions in this extra DNA molecule are transcribed just like any other gene. The only difference is that these extra genes are not replicated when the cell is about to undergo cell division so the descendants of that cell will not have the extra gene. As a result, treatment with the adenovirus will require readministration in a growing cell population although the absence of integration into the host cell's genome should prevent the type of cancer seen in the SCID trials. This vector system has been promoted for treating cancer and indeed the first gene therapy product to be licensed to treat cancer, Gendicine, is an adenovirus. Gendicine, an adenoviral p53-based gene therapy was approved by the Chinese food and drug regulators in 2003 for treatment of head and neck cancer. Advexin, a similar gene therapy approach from Introgen, was turned down by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2008.

text: Concerns about the safety of adenovirus vectors were raised after the 1999 death of Jesse Gelsinger while participating in a gene therapy trial. Since then, work using adenovirus vectors has focused on genetically crippled versions of the virus.

text: Envelope protein pseudotyping of viral vectors[edit]

text: The viral vectors described above have natural host cell populations that they infect most efficiently. Retroviruses have limited natural host cell ranges, and although adenovirus and adeno-associated virus are able to infect a relatively broader range of cells efficiently, some cell types are refractory to infection by these viruses as well. Attachment to and entry into a susceptible cell is mediated by the protein envelope on the surface of a virus. Retroviruses and adeno-associated viruses have a single protein coating their membrane, while adenoviruses are coated with both an envelope protein and fibers that extend away from the surface of the virus. The envelope proteins on each of these viruses bind to cell-surface molecules such as heparin sulfate, which localizes them upon the surface of the potential host, as well as with the specific protein receptor that either induces entry-promoting structural changes in the viral protein, or localizes the virus in endosomes wherein acidification of the lumen induces this refolding of the viral coat. In either case, entry into potential host cells requires a favorable interaction between a protein on the surface of the virus and a protein on the surface of the cell. For the purposes of gene therapy, one might either want to limit or expand the range of cells susceptible to transduction by a gene therapy vector. To this end, many vectors have been developed in which the endogenous viral envelope proteins have been replaced by either envelope proteins from other viruses, or by chimeric proteins. Such chimera would consist of those parts of the viral protein necessary for incorporation into the virion as well as sequences meant to interact with specific host cell proteins. Viruses in which the envelope proteins have been replaced as described are referred to as pseudotyped viruses. For example, the most popular retroviral vector for use in gene therapy trials has been the lentivirus Simian immunodeficiency virus coated with the envelope proteins, G-protein, from Vesicular stomatitis virus. This vector is referred to as VSV G-pseudotyped lentivirus, and infects an almost universal set of cells. This tropism is characteristic of the VSV G-protein with which this vector is coated. Many attempts have been made to limit the tropism of viral vectors to one or a few host cell populations. This advance would allow for the systemic administration of a relatively small amount of vector. The potential for off-target cell modification would be limited, and many concerns from the medical community would be alleviated. Most attempts to limit tropism have used chimeric envelope proteins bearing antibody fragments. These vectors show great promise for the development of "magic bullet" gene therapies.

text: Replication-competent vectors[edit]

text: A replication-competent vector called ONYX-015 is used in replicating tumor cells. It was found that in the absence of the E1B-55Kd viral protein, adenovirus caused very rapid apoptosis of infected, p53(+) cells, and this results in dramatically reduced virus progeny and no subsequent spread. Apoptosis was mainly the result of the ability of EIA to inactivate p300. In p53(-) cells, deletion of E1B 55kd has no consequence in terms of apoptosis, and viral replication is similar to that of wild-type virus, resulting in massive killing of cells.

text: A replication-defective vector deletes some essential genes. These deleted genes are still necessary in the body so they are replaced with either a helper virus or a DNA molecule.

text: Cis and trans-acting elements[edit]

text: Replication-defective vectors always contain a “transfer construct”. The transfer construct carries the gene to be transduced or “transgene”. The transfer construct also carries the sequences which are necessary for the general functioning of the viral genome: packaging sequence, repeats for replication and, when needed, priming of reverse transcription. These are denominated cis-acting elements, because they need to be on the same piece of DNA as the viral genome and the gene of interest. Trans-acting elements are viral elements, which can be encoded on a different DNA molecule. For example, the viral structural proteins can be expressed from a different genetic element than the viral genome.

text: Herpes simplex virus[edit]

text: The Herpes simplex virus is a human neurotropic virus. This is mostly examined for gene transfer in the nervous system. The wild type HSV-1 virus is able to infect neurons and evade the host immune response, but may still become reactivated and produce a lytic cycle of viral replication. Therefore, it is typical to use mutant strains of HSV-1 that are deficient in their ability to replicate. Though the latent virus is not transcriptionally apparent, it does possess neuron specific promoters that can continue to function normally[further explanation needed]. Antibodies to HSV-1 are common in humans, however complications due to herpes infection are somewhat rare.[4] Caution for rare cases of encephalitis must be taken and this provides some rationale to using HSV-2 as a viral vector as it generally has tropism for neuronal cells innervating the urogenital area of the body and could then spare the host of severe pathology in the brain.

text: Non-viral methods[edit]

text: Non-viral methods present certain advantages over viral methods, with simple large scale production and low host immunogenicity being just two. Previously, low levels of transfection and expression of the gene held non-viral methods at a disadvantage; however, recent advances in vector technology have yielded molecules and techniques with transfection efficiencies similar to those of viruses.[5]

text: Injection of naked DNA[edit]

text: This is the simplest method of non-viral transfection. Clinical trials carried out of intramuscular injection of a naked DNA plasmid have occurred with some success; however, the expression has been very low in comparison to other methods of transfection. In addition to trials with plasmids, there have been trials with naked PCR product, which have had similar or greater success. Cellular uptake of naked DNA is generally inefficient. Research efforts focusing on improving the efficiency of naked DNA uptake have yielded several novel methods, such as electroporation, sonoporation, and the use of a "gene gun", which shoots DNA coated gold particles into the cell using high pressure gas.[6]

text: Physical methods to enhance delivery[edit]

text: Electroporation[edit]

text: Electroporation is a method that uses short pulses of high voltage to carry DNA across the cell membrane. This shock is thought to cause temporary formation of pores in the cell membrane, allowing DNA molecules to pass through. Electroporation is generally efficient and works across a broad range of cell types. However, a high rate of cell death following electroporation has limited its use, including clinical applications.

text: More recently a newer method of electroporation, termed electron-avalanche transfection, has been used in gene therapy experiments. By using a high-voltage plasma discharge, DNA was efficiently delivered following very short (microsecond) pulses. Compared to electroporation, the technique resulted in greatly increased efficiency and less cellular damage.

text: Gene gun[edit]

text: The use of particle bombardment, or the gene gun, is another physical method of DNA transfection. In this technique, DNA is coated onto gold particles and loaded into a device which generates a force to achieve penetration of the DNA into the cells, leaving the gold behind on a "stopping" disk.

text: Sonoporation[edit]

text: Sonoporation uses ultrasonic frequencies to deliver DNA into cells. The process of acoustic cavitation is thought to disrupt the cell membrane and allow DNA to move into cells.

text: Magnetofection[edit]

text: In a method termed magnetofection, DNA is complexed to magnetic particles, and a magnet is placed underneath the tissue culture dish to bring DNA complexes into contact with a cell monolayer.

text: Hydrodynamic delivery[edit]

text: Hydrodynamic delivery involves rapid injection of a high volume of a solution into vasculature (such as into the inferior vena cava, bile duct, or tail vein). The solution contains molecules that are to be inserted into cells, such as DNA plasmids or siRNA, and transfer of these molecules into cells is assisted by the elevated hydrostatic pressure caused by the high volume of injected solution.[7][8][9]

text: Chemical methods to enhance delivery[edit]

text: Oligonucleotides[edit]

text: The use of synthetic oligonucleotides in gene therapy is to deactivate the genes involved in the disease process. There are several methods by which this is achieved. One strategy uses antisense specific to the target gene to disrupt the transcription of the faulty gene. Another uses small molecules of RNA called siRNA to signal the cell to cleave specific unique sequences in the mRNA transcript of the faulty gene, disrupting translation of the faulty mRNA, and therefore expression of the gene. A further strategy uses double stranded oligodeoxynucleotides as a decoy for the transcription factors that are required to activate the transcription of the target gene. The transcription factors bind to the decoys instead of the promoter of the faulty gene, which reduces the transcription of the target gene, lowering expression. Additionally, single stranded DNA oligonucleotides have been used to direct a single base change within a mutant gene. The oligonucleotide is designed to anneal with complementarity to the target gene with the exception of a central base, the target base, which serves as the template base for repair. This technique is referred to as oligonucleotide mediated gene repair, targeted gene repair, or targeted nucleotide alteration.

text: Lipoplexes[edit]

text: To improve the delivery of the new DNA into the cell, the DNA must be protected from damage and positively charged. Initially, anionic and neutral lipids were used for the construction of lipoplexes for synthetic vectors. However, in spite of the facts that there is little toxicity associated with them, that they are compatible with body fluids and that there was a possibility of adapting them to be tissue specific; they are complicated and time consuming to produce so attention was turned to the cationic versions.

text: Cationic lipids, due to their positive charge, were first used to condense negatively charged DNA molecules so as to facilitate the encapsulation of DNA into liposomes. Later it was found that the use of cationic lipids significantly enhanced the stability of lipoplexes. Also as a result of their charge, cationic liposomes interact with the cell membrane, endocytosis was widely believed as the major route by which cells uptake lipoplexes. Endosomes are formed as the results of endocytosis, however, if genes can not be released into cytoplasm by breaking the membrane of endosome, they will be sent to lysosomes where all DNA will be destroyed before they could achieve their functions. It was also found that although cationic lipids themselves could condense and encapsulate DNA into liposomes, the transfection efficiency is very low due to the lack of ability in terms of “endosomal escaping”. However, when helper lipids (usually electroneutral lipids, such as DOPE) were added to form lipoplexes, much higher transfection efficiency was observed. Later on, it was figured out that certain lipids have the ability to destabilize endosomal membranes so as to facilitate the escape of DNA from endosome, therefore those lipids are called fusogenic lipids. Although cationic liposomes have been widely used as an alternative for gene delivery vectors, a dose dependent toxicity of cationic lipids were also observed which could limit their therapeutic usages.

text: The most common use of lipoplexes has been in gene transfer into cancer cells, where the supplied genes have activated tumor suppressor control genes in the cell and decrease the activity of oncogenes. Recent studies have shown lipoplexes to be useful in transfecting respiratory epithelial cells.

text: Polymersomes[edit]

text: Polymersomes are synthetic versions of liposomes (vesicles with a lipid bilayer), made of amphiphilic block copolymers. They can encapsulate either hydrophilic or hydrophobic contents and can be used to deliver cargo such as DNA, proteins, or drugs to cells. Advantages of polymersomes over liposomes include greater stability, mechanical strength, blood circulation time, and storage capacity.[10][11][12]

text: Polyplexes[edit]

text: Complexes of polymers with DNA are called polyplexes. Most polyplexes consist of cationic polymers and their fabrication is based on self-assembly by ionic interactions. One important difference between the methods of action of polyplexes and lipoplexes is that polyplexes cannot directly release their DNA load into the cytoplasm. As a result, co-transfection with endosome-lytic agents such as inactivated adenovirus was required to facilitate nanoparticle escape from the endocytic vesicle made during particle uptake. However, a better understanding of the mechanisms by which DNA can escape from endolysosomal pathway, i.e. proton sponge effect,[13] has triggered new polymer synthesis strategies such as incorporation of protonable residues in polymer backbone and has revitalized research on polycation-based systems.[14]

text: Due to their low toxicity, high loading capacity, and ease of fabrication, polycationic nanocarriers demonstrate great promise compared to their rivals such as viral vectors which show high immunogenicity and potential carcinogenicity, and lipid-based vectors which cause dose dependence toxicity. Polyethyleneimine[15] and chitosan are among the polymeric carriers that have been extensively studies for development of gene delivery therapeutics. Other polycationic carriers such as poly(beta-amino esters)[16] and polyphosphoramidate[17] are being added to the library of potential gene carriers. In addition to the variety of polymers and copolymers, the ease of controlling the size, shape, surface chemistry of these polymeric nano-carriers gives them an edge in targeting capability and taking advantage of enhanced permeability and retention effect.[18]

text: Dendrimers[edit]

text: A dendrimer is a highly branched macromolecule with a spherical shape. The surface of the particle may be functionalized in many ways and many of the properties of the resulting construct are determined by its surface.

text: In particular it is possible to construct a cationic dendrimer, i.e. one with a positive surface charge. When in the presence of genetic material such as DNA or RNA, charge complimentarity leads to a temporary association of the nucleic acid with the cationic dendrimer. On reaching its destination the dendrimer-nucleic acid complex is then taken into the cell via endocytosis.

text: In recent years the benchmark for transfection agents has been cationic lipids. Limitations of these competing reagents have been reported to include: the lack of ability to transfect some cell types, the lack of robust active targeting capabilities, incompatibility with animal models, and toxicity. Dendrimers offer robust covalent construction and extreme control over molecule structure, and therefore size. Together these give compelling advantages compared to existing approaches.

text: Producing dendrimers has historically been a slow and expensive process consisting of numerous slow reactions, an obstacle that severely curtailed their commercial development. The Michigan-based company Dendritic Nanotechnologies discovered a method to produce dendrimers using kinetically driven chemistry, a process that not only reduced cost by a magnitude of three, but also cut reaction time from over a month to several days. These new "Priostar" dendrimers can be specifically constructed to carry a DNA or RNA payload that transfects cells at a high efficiency with little or no toxicity.[citation needed]

text: Inorganic nanoparticles[edit]

text: Inorganic nanoparticles, such as gold, silica, iron oxide (ex. magnetofection) and calcium phosphates have been shown to be capable of gene delivery.[19] Some of the benefits of inorganic vectors is in their storage stability, low manufacturing cost and often time, low immunogenicity, and resistance to microbial attack. Nanosized materials less than 100 nm have been shown to efficiently trap the DNA or RNA and allows its escape from the endosome without degradation. Inorganics have also been shown to exhibit improved in vitro transfection for attached cell lines due to their increased density and preferential location on the base of the culture dish. Quantum dots have also been used successfully and permits the coupling of gene therapy with a stable fluorescence marker. Engineered organic nanoparticles are also under development, which could be used for co-delivery of genes and therapeutic agents.[20]

text: Cell-penetrating peptides[edit]

text: Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), also known as peptide transduction domains (PTDs), are short peptides (< 40 amino acids) that efficiently pass through cell membranes while being covalently or non-covalently bound to various molecules, thus facilitating these molecules’ entry into cells. Cell entry occurs primarily by endocytosis but other entry mechanisms also exist. Examples of cargo molecules of CPPs include nucleic acids, liposomes, and drugs of low molecular weight.[21][22]

text: CPP cargo can be directed into specific cell organelles by incorporating localization sequences into CPP sequences. For example, nuclear localization sequences are commonly used to guide CPP cargo into the nucleus.[23] For guidance into mitochondria, a mitochondrial targeting sequence can be used; this method is used in protofection (a technique that allows for foreign mitochondrial DNA to be inserted into cells' mitochondria).[24][25]

text: Hybrid methods[edit]

text: Due to every method of gene transfer having shortcomings, there have been some hybrid methods developed that combine two or more techniques. Virosomes are one example; they combine liposomes with an inactivated HIV or influenza virus. This has been shown to have more efficient gene transfer in respiratory epithelial cells than either viral or liposomal methods alone. Other methods involve mixing other viral vectors with cationic lipids or hybridising viruses.


document_title: Kalinda Sharma

question_text: who plays kalinda's husband on the good wife

question_tokens: who plays kalinda 's husband on the good wife

text: Kalinda Sharma

text: Background[edit]

text: Kalinda previously worked for Peter Florrick (Chris Noth) for three years. He fired her after accusing her of working two jobs. After becoming good friends, Peter's wife Alicia Florrick (Julianna Margulies) finds out Kalinda had a one-night stand with Peter before she knew Alicia, damaging their friendship; but over time, the two start to reconcile. In season four, it is revealed that Kalinda has an estranged abusive husband, Nick Saverese (played by Marc Warren). Kalinda also grows romantically close with Cary Agos (Matt Czuchry). In season six, she desperately tries to save Cary from a malicious prosecution on drug-related charges while Alicia is busy running for office, and at a point of desperation, fakes a Brady violation through computer hacking to have Cary's charges dropped. Later, when her deception is caught, she is forced to surrender drug dealer Lemond Bishop (Mike Colter) to the state's attorney's office in order to spare Diane Lockhart (Christine Baranski) from prosecution; Diane had unknowingly used the fake evidence in court. In order not to be found by Bishop for turning him over to the state's attorney office, Kalinda disappears for her own safety.

text: Personality[edit]

text: Kalinda is unflappable, inscrutable, fiercely private, and occasionally physically violent. She is exceptionally good at her job, although her tactics are not always strictly legal. She is often the key to the firm's winning a case, usually at the 11th hour. She generally does not work well with others. Although Kalinda doesn't let many people close to her, she becomes good friends with Alicia, with the aid of tequila shots; and she feels protective of Alicia. Kalinda has a cynical, misanthropic outlook on human behavior. She is bisexual and has a series of relationships through the show, mostly with women and often because they can help her with a case. Kalinda once claimed that she prefers women because to her, women are better lovers than men for women understand her needs and feelings better. Very little is known about Kalinda when the series begins, and she is incredibly secretive about her past.

text: Style[edit]

text: Kalinda's fashion plays a huge role in her character. As an employee in a prestigious law firm her outfit is a contrast to those of the lawyers as it's a lot more provocative and edgy.[3] The character's signature wardrobe piece has become a pair of knee-high boots;[4][5][6][7] the character initially wore pumps but Panjabi felt that boots "grounded her in the character."[8] The character is also noted for wearing a lot of leather jackets often seen in Burberry, Elie Tahari, Dolce & Gabbana and Prada.[9][10] The character according to the costume designer has over 60 leather jackets.[11]


document_title: Australian ten-dollar note

question_text: who is on the $10 note australia

question_tokens: who is on the $ 10 note australia

text: Australian ten-dollar note

text: Printing[edit]

text: From 1966–1974 the main title identifying the country was Commonwealth of Australia; there were 470,000,000 notes issued in this period. This was subsequently changed to Australia until the end of issue of paper currency for this denomination in 1993, with 1,265,959,091 of these notes being printed. In the 1988 polymer issue 17,500,000 banknotes were printed and was the new Australia's 10 dollar note.

text: Design[edit]

text: The people depicted on the paper note issue were Francis Greenway on the obverse along with public building he helped construct, and Henry Lawson on the reverse with his poetry and scenes of the outback gold mining town of Gulgong in the 19th century including the Times Bakery.[4]

text:
Francis Greenway

Henry Lawson

text: The polymer note features Andrew Barton (Banjo) Paterson on the obverse with a horse from the Snowy Mountains region, and a wattle plant, also included is his signature. His poetry is in the background. Dame Mary Gilmore is on the reverse with 19th-century heavy transport with horse and cart and verses from her poetry. Her signature is included. A windmill is in the clear window with the raised wavy lines.[5] The $10 note of 2017 retains the themes of the original, with this issue featuring the Bramble Wattle (Acacia victoriae) and the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita).[6]

text: Obverse design included the sailing ship HMS Supply anchored at Sydney Cove with the early colony in the background. Above are people who symbolise all who have contributed to Australia, from left the early settlers to right the modern working man.

text: Reverse includes portraits of the aboriginal population, the main picture is a young native youth with ceremonial paint, and in the background is a Morning Star Pole, other Aboriginal artworks commissioned by the Bank and a human like figure from Dreamtime.[7]

text:
1988 commemorative polymer note—obverse

1988 commemorative polymer note—reverse

text: Security features[edit]

text: The paper design included a watermark in the white field of Captain James Cook, the watermark was also used in the last issue of pound banknotes. A metallic strip, first near the centre of the note, then from 1976 moved to the left side on the obverse of the note. Polymer issue includes a shadow image of the coat of arms which is printed over. Embossing or a raised image in the clear window of wavy lines. Also for this issue fluorescent colouring was added to the serial numbers. A star with four points on the obverse and three on the reverse which join under light. Raised print and micro printing of the poem The Man from Snowy River and the denomination value are included.[8][9]

text: 1988 Commemorative This issue includes an optically variable device of Captain James Cook, who first mapped Botany Bay.