document_title: Sandor Clegane

question_text: who is the man with the burned face on game of thrones

text: Sandor Clegane

text: Character description[edit]

text: Sandor Clegane, known as the Hound, is a retainer to House Lannister and the younger brother of Gregor Clegane, a.k.a. The Mountain. He is regarded as one of the most dangerous and skilled fighters in Westeros. His face is distinguished by gruesome burn scars, which he received as a child when his brother pushed his head into a brazier. Consequently, he fears fire and hates his brother. He is also scornful of knight's vows, as his brother is a knight, who indulges in rape and murder in spite of his knightly vows. He is described as a tormented man driven by anger and hate, aspiring only to kill his brother.

text: Overview[edit]

text: Sandor Clegane is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as Ned Stark, Sansa Stark, and Arya Stark. Sandor is mostly a background character in the novels.[2]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Sandor Clegane is played by the Scottish actor Rory McCann in the television adaptation of the series of books.[3] McCann has received acclaim for his role.[4]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: In the books[edit]

text: In A Game of Thrones, he acts as bodyguard and servant to Prince Joffrey Baratheon, who calls him Dog. While escorting Sansa home, he reveals to her how his face was scarred and expresses much resentment of his brutish older brother and towards the concept of knighthood in general. Clegane leads the attack on the Stark forces in the Tower of the Hand.

text: He is named a knight of Joffrey's Kingsguard towards the end of A Game of Thrones. Clegane advises Sansa to do whatever Joffrey tells her to do as the best way of staying alive. He is often assigned to guard Sansa, trying to protect her from Joffrey's abuse in A Clash of Kings. He flees King's Landing during the Battle of the Blackwater, due to the widespread use of wildfire, a fictional substance similar to Greek fire.

text: In A Storm of Swords, he is captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners which sentences him to trial by combat. Sandor prevails and is set free. He later kidnaps Arya to ransom her to her brother Robb Stark and hopes to earn a place in Robb's service. He takes her to the Twins, where Robb is attending a wedding. However, just as they arrive, the Freys begin slaughtering the Starks. Sandor and Arya escape. They encounter three of Gregor's men at an inn, and Sandor is seriously injured in the ensuing fight. Arya abandons him to his apparent death.[5]

text: He is mentioned a few times in A Feast for Crows (2005), where the Elder Brother mentions to Brienne of Tarth that he found Sandor, who is now "at rest". However, the appearance of a mute gravedigger who matches Sandor physically and the Elder Brother's refusal to confirm if Sandor is dead imply that he may still be alive.

text: In the show[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Clegane accompanies the royal court on Robert Baratheon's visit to Winterfell. On the way back to King's Landing, Joffrey falsely accuses a butcher's boy, Mycah, of threatening him, and Clegane kills the boy, attracting the hatred of Mycah's friend Arya Stark. During the Tourney of the Hand, Sandor's sadistic elder brother Gregor tries to kill Ser Loras Tyrell after he is unhorsed, but Sandor defends Loras from Gregor until Robert orders the men to stop fighting. When Ned Stark accuses Joffrey of being a bastard born of incest and orders his arrest, Clegane assists the Lannister soldiers in the subsequent purge of the Stark household and Sansa Stark's capture, though he later comforts Sansa when Joffrey orders her beaten. With Joffrey's ascension to the throne, Clegane is named to the Kingsguard to replace the ousted Ser Barristan Selmy, though Clegane refuses to take his knight's vows.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: Sandor continues to defend Sansa, including by covering her after Joffrey orders her stripped and rescuing her from being gang-raped during the King's Landing riots. He participates in the Battle of the Blackwater against Stannis' Baratheon's forces, but is visibly horrified when Tyrion Lannister uses wildfire to incinerate much of Stannis' fleet, and ultimately deserts after witnessing a man burning alive in the battle. Before he leaves, he offers to take Sansa north to Winterfell, but she ultimately refuses.

text: Season 3[edit]

text: In the Riverlands, Clegane is arrested by the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of knights and soldiers sent by Eddard Stark to kill his brother Gregor and restore order to the Riverlands. While being transported to their stronghold, he meets other members of the Brotherhood who are traveling with Arya Stark, and tells them of her true identity. At the Brotherhood's hideout, their leader Lord Beric Dondarrion accuses Clegane of being a murderer; though Clegane asserts that the murders were done in order to protect Joffrey, Arya testifies that he had killed Mycah despite the boy not harming Joffrey. Lord Beric sentences Clegane to a trial by combat, which Clegane wins to secure his freedom, although Lord Beric is immediately resurrected by the Red Priest Thoros of Myr. Clegane later captures Arya, intending to ransom her to King Robb Stark at the wedding of Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey at The Twins. However, as they arrive at the Twins the Freys turn on the Starks and attack them, and Clegane and Arya barely escape the massacre.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: With the rest of House Stark believed dead and the Riverlands now under the rule of House Frey, Clegane decides to ransom Arya to her aunt Lysa Arryn in the Vale. During their journey, Arya reveals to Clegane that she has not forgiven him for killing Mycah and has vowed to kill him. The duo arrive in the Vale to find that Lysa has ostensibly committed suicide. Returning from the Bloody Gate, they encounter Brienne of Tarth, sworn sword to Arya's mother Catelyn, who had promised to take the Stark children to safety. When Arya refuses to go with Brienne, she and Clegane engage in a brawl that culminates in her throwing Clegane off a cliff, gravely wounding him. Though he begs Arya to kill him, she instead leaves him to die.[6]

text: Season 6[edit]

text: It is revealed Clegane had been discovered by a warrior turned septon, Ray, who nursed him back to health. Clegane assists Ray and his followers in building a sept, but one day after a brief journey into nearby woods, he returns to the community to find the villagers slaughtered by members of the Brotherhood Without Banners. Clegane takes up arms again to hunt down those responsible, killing four of them before discovering the remaining three about to be hanged by Lord Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr, who inform him that the group were acting independently of the Brotherhood. Lord Beric allows Clegane to kill two of the outlaws, and asks him to join the Brotherhood in their journey north to fight the White Walkers.

text: Season 7[edit]

text: During their journey north, the Brotherhood stops at a farm owned by a farmer that Clegane had previously robbed; inside, they find the bodies of the farmer and his daughter. Remorseful, Clegane digs them a grave with the help of Thoros. Thoros has Clegane look into the flames of Brotherhood's campfire, and in it he sees the White Walkers and their forces marching towards the Wall.

text: The Brotherhood attempts to cross the Wall via Eastwatch-by-the-Sea, but are intercepted by wildling scouts manning the castle and locked in the ice cells. Soon after, Jon Snow, Davos Seaworth, Jorah Mormont, and Gendry arrive at Eastwatch, intending to capture a wight to present to Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms) as evidence of the White Walkers. Clegane, Beric, and Thoros are released to accompany Jon, Jorah, Gendry and Tormund Giantsbane beyond the Wall. The group soon captures a wight but are surrounded by the White Walkers and their army of wights, though not before Gendry flees to Eastwatch to request Daenerys Targaryen's aid. Daenerys arrives with her dragons before the group can be overrun, and flies them to safety. Clegane joins Jon, Daenerys and Davos as they sail to King's Landing.

text: At King's Landing, he meets Brienne of Tarth. Despite their previous brutal fight, they converse on civil terms. Sandor learns that Arya is alive and with her family, prompting a rare smile. During the summit in the Dragon Pit outside King's Landing, Sandor confronts his brother, promising that Sandor will eventually kill him. Sandor brings out the trunk containing the wight, revealing to Cersei and Jaime Lannister the threat that lies beyond the wall.


document_title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I

question_text: when did the ottoman empire drop out of ww1

root

text: Military activities[edit]

text: The Ottoman entry into World War I began on 29 October 1914 when it launched the Black Sea Raid against Russian ports. Following the attack, Russia and its allies (Britain and France) declared war on the Ottomans in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire started military action came after three months of formal neutrality, but it had signed a secret alliance with the Central Powers in August 1914.

tag: p

text: The political reasons for the Ottoman Sultan's entry into the war are disputed.[1] and the Ottoman Empire was an agricultural state in an age of industrialized warfare,[2] Also, the economic resources of the empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913.

text: The great land mass of Anatolia was between the Ottoman army's headquarters in Istanbul and many of the theatres of war. During Abdulhamit II's reign civilian communications had improved, but the road and rail network was not ready for war.[2] It took more than a month to reach Syria and nearly two months to reach Mesopotamia. To reach the border with Russia, the railway ran only 60 km east of Ankara, and from there, it was 35 days to Erzurum.[2] The Army used Trabzon port as logistical shortcut to east. It took less time to arrive at any of those fronts from London than from the Ottoman War Department because of the poor condition of Ottoman supply ships.

text: The empire fell into disorder with the declaration of war along with Germany. On 11 November a conspiracy was discovered in Constantinople against Germans and the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in which some of the CUP leaders were shot. That followed the 12 November revolt in Adrianople against the German military mission. On 13 November, a bomb exploded in Enver Pasha's palace, which killed five German officers but missed the Enver Pasha. On 18 November were more anti-German plots. Committees formed around the country to rid the country of those who sided with Germany. Army and navy officers protested against the assumption of authority by Germans. On 4 December, widespread riots took place throughout the country. On 13 December was an anti-war demonstration by women in Konak (Izmir) and Erzurum. Throughout December, the CUP dealt with mutiny among soldiers in barracks and among naval crews. The head of the German Military Mission, Field Marshal von der Goltz, survived a conspiracy against his life.

text: The military power remained firmly in the hands of War Minister Enver Pasha, domestic issues (civil matters) on Interior Minister Talat Pasha, and, an interesting point, Cemal Pasha had sole control over Ottoman Syria.[3] Rest of the governance, provincial governors, ran their regions with differing degrees of autonomy.[3] An interesting case is Izmir; Rahmi Bey behaved almost as if his region was a neutral zone between the warring states.[4]

tag: table

text: War with Russia[edit]

text: Ottoman's entrance into the war greatly increased the Triple Entente's military burdens. Russia had to fight on the Caucasus Campaign alone and in the Persian Campaign along with the United Kingdom. İsmail Enver Pasha set off for the Battle of Sarikamish with the intention of recapturing Batum and Kars, overrunning Georgia and occupying north-western Persia and the oil fields. Fighting the Russians in the Caucasus, however, the Ottomans lost ground, and over 100,000 soldiers, in a series of battles. 60,000 Ottoman soldiers died in the winter of 1916—17 on the Mus—Bitlis section of the front.[5] Ottomans preferred to keep the Caucasus militarily silent as they had to regroup reserves to retake Baghdad and Palestine from the British. 1917 and first half of 1918 was the time for negotiations. On 5 December 1917, the armistice of Erzincan (Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) signed between the Russians and Ottomans in Erzincan that ended the armed conflicts between Russia and Ottoman Empire.[6] On 3 March, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. It stipulated that Bolshevik Russia cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan. In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obligated the Russians to demobilize Armenian national forces.[7]

text: Between 14 March – April 1918 the Trabzon peace conference held among the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Transcaucasian Diet. Enver Pasha offered to surrender all ambitions in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman reacquisition of the east Anatolian provinces at Brest-Litovsk at the end of the negotiations.[8] On 5 April, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation Akaki Chkhenkeli accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position.[9] The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledge the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.[9]

text: In April 1918, the Ottoman 3rd Army finally went on the offensive in Armenia. Opposition from Armenian forces led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. On 28 May 1918, the Armenian National Council based in Tiflis declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia. The new Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Batum.

text: In July 1918, Ottomans faced with the Centrocaspian Dictatorship at the Battle of Baku, with the goal of taking Britain Baku on the Caspian Sea.

text: War with Britain[edit]

text: The British captured Basra in November 1914, and marched north into Iraq.[5] Initially Ahmed Djemal Pasha was ordered to gather an army in Palestine to threaten the Suez Canal. In response, the Allies—including the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ("ANZACs")—opened another front with the Battle of Gallipoli. The army led by Ahmed Djemal Pasha (Fourth Army) to eject the British from Egypt was stopped at the Suez canal in February 1915, and again the next summer.[5] The canal was vital to the British war effort. The 1915 locust plague breaks out in the Palestine region, to be exact the Ottoman military hospitals record the period as March–October 1915:

text: The expected, and feared, British invasion came not through Cilicia or northern Syria, but through the straits.[3] The aim of the Dardanelles campaign was to support Russia. Most military observers recognized that the uneducated Ottoman soldier was lost without good leadership, and at Gallipoli Mustafa Kemal realized the capabilities of his man if their officers led from the front.[11] The war was something from a different era, as the agrarian Ottoman Empire faced two industrialized forces, at silent predawn attacks in which officers with drawn swords vent ahead of troops and only the troops to shout their battlecry of "Allahu Akbar!" when they reached the enemy’s trenches.[11]

text: The United Kingdom was obliged to defend India and the southern Persian oil territory by undertaking the Mesopotamian campaign. Britain also had to protect Egypt in the Sinai-Palestine-Syria Campaign. These campaigns strained Allied resources and relieved Germany.

text: The repulse of British forces in Palestine in the spring of 1917 was followed by the loss of Jerusalem in December of the same year.[5] The Ottoman authorities deport the entire civilian population of Jaffa and Tel Aviv, The Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation, pursuant to the order from Ahmed Jamal Pasha on 6 April 1917. The Muslim evacuees allowed to return before long, At the same period the Balfour Declaration was being negotiated (published on 2 November 1917) in which the British Government declares its support for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. Ahmed Jamal Pasha effectively separates these groups. The Jewish evacuees returned after the British conquest of Palestine.[12]

text: The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Edmund Allenby.

text: Empire in home front[edit]

text: The war tested to the limit the empire’s relations with its Arab population.[13] In February 1915 in Syria, Cemal Pasha exercised absolute power in both military and civil affairs.[14] Cemal Pasha was convinced that an uprising among local Arabs was imminent.[13] Leading Arabs were executed, and notable families deported to Anatolia.[13] Cemal’s policies did nothing to alleviate the famine that was gripping Syria; it was exacerbated by a British and French blockade of the coastal ports, the requisitioning of transports, profiteering and — strikingly — Cemal’s preference for spending scarce funds on public works and the restoration of historic monuments[13][15] During the war, Britain had been a major sponsor of Arab nationalist thought and ideology, primarily as a weapon to use against the power of the Empire. Sharif Hussein ibn Ali rebelled against the Ottoman rule during the Arab Revolt of 1916. In August he was replaced by Sharif Haydar, but in October he proclaimed himself king of Arabia and in December was recognized by the British as an independent ruler.[13] There was little the Empire could do to influence the course of events, other than try to prevent news of the uprising spreading, prevent it to demoralize the army or act as a propaganda for anti-Ottoman Arab factions.[13] On 3 October 1918 forces of the Arab Revolt enter Damascus accompanied by British troops, ending 400 years of Ottoman rule.

text: War in Eastern Europe[edit]

text: In order to support the other Central Powers, Enver Pasha sent 3 Army Corps or around 100.000 men to fight in Eastern Europe. [16]

text:
VI Corps under command of Mustafa Hilmi Pasha participated in the Romanian Campaign between September 1916 and April 1918.
XV Corps under command of Yakup Şevki Subaşı and later Cevat Pasha fought in Galicia against the Russians between August 1916 and August 1917.
XX Corps under command of Abdul Kerim Pasha participated in the Salonika Campaign between December 1916 and May 1917.

The Rumeli Field Detachment (reinforced 177th Infantry Regiment) remained in Macedonia until May 1918.

tag: ul

text: Political activities[edit]

text: The Constantinople Agreement on 18 March 1915 was a set of secret assurances, which Great Britain promised to give the Capital, and the Dardanelles to the Russians in the event of victory.[17] The city of Constantinople was intended to be a free port.

text: During 1915, British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate."[this quote needs a citation]

text: Capitulations and public debt, 1915[edit]

text: On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations". On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders refused to recognize his action (unilateral action).[2] The American ambassador expressed the Great Power view:

text: The capitulary regime, as it exists in the Empire, is not an autonomous institution of the Empire, but the result of international treaties, of diplomatic agreements and of contractual acts of various sorts. The regime, consequently, cannot be modified in any of its parts and still less suppressed in its entirety by the Ottoman Government except in consequence of an understanding with the contracting Powers.[18]

text: Beside the capitulations, there was another issue which evolved under the shadow of capitulations. The dept and financial control (revenue generation) of the empire was intertwined under single institution, which its board was constituted from Great Powers rather than Ottomans. There is no sovereignty in this design. The public debt could and did interfere in state affairs because it controlled (collected) one-quarter of state revenues.[18] The debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (equates to modern central banks). Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the empire. The council had power over every financial affairs. Its control extended to determine the tax on livestock in districts. Ottoman public debt was part of a larger scheme of political control, through which the commercial interests of the world had sought to gain advantages that may not be to Empire's interest. The immediate purpose of the abolition of capitulations and the cancellation of foreign debt repayments was to reduce the foreign stranglehold on the Ottoman economy; a second purpose — and one to which great political weight was attached – was to extirpate non—Muslims from the economy by transferring assets to Muslim Turks and encouraging their participation with government contracts and subsidies.[19]

text: The French-Armenian Agreement of 27 October 1916, was reported to the interior minister, Talat Pasha, which agreement negotiations were performed with the leadership of Boghos Nubar the chairman of the Armenian National Assembly and one of the founder of the AGBU.

text: In 1917 the Ottoman Cabinet considered maintaining relations with Washington after the United States had declared war on Germany on 6 April. But the views of the war party prevailed and they insisted on maintaining a common front with their allies. Thus, relations with America were broken on 20 April 1917.

text: Diplomacy with new Russia, 1917[edit]

text: The 1917 Russian revolution changed the realities. The war devastated not only Russian soldiers, also the Russian economy was breaking down under the heightened strain of wartime demand by the end of 1915. The tsarist regime’s advances for the security on its southern borders proved ruinous.[20] The tsarist regime's desire to control the Eastern Anatolia and the straits (perceived as an underbelly), in the end created the conditions that brought about Russia's own downfall. Unable to use Straits disrupted the Russian supply chain. Russia might survived without the Straits, but the strain was the tipping point for its war economy.[20] This question was left to Soviet historians: "whether a less aggressive policy toward the Ottoman Empire before the war would have caused Istanbul to maintain neutrality or whether Russia later might have induced Istanbul to leave the war,[a] the outcome of tsarist future would be different.[20] Nicholas's inept handling of his country and the war destroyed the Tsar and ended up costing him both his reign and his life.

text: Enver immediately instructed the Vehib Pasha, Third Army, to propose a ceasefire to Russia’s Caucasus Army.[21] Vehib cautioned withdrawing forces, as due to the politics in Russia — neither Russia’s Caucasus Army nor Caucasian civil authorities give assurance that an armistice would hold.[22] On 7 November 1917 the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin over threw the Provisional Government in a violent coup plunged Russia into multitude of civil wars between ethnic groups. The slow dissolution of Russia’s Caucasus Army relieved one form of military threat from the east but brought another one. Russia was a long time threat, but at the same time kept the civil unrest in his land at bay without spreading to Ottomans in a violent. On 3 December the Ottoman foreign minister Ahmed Nesimi Bey informed the "Chamber of Deputies" about the prospects. Chamber discussed the possible outcomes and priorities. On 15 December Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers signed. On 18 December Armistice of Erzincan signed. The Bolsheviks’ anti-imperialist formula of peace with no annexations and no indemnities was close to Ottoman position. The Bolsheviks' position brought a conflict with the Germany's aim to preserve control over the East European lands it occupied and with Bulgaria’s claims on Dobruja and parts of Serbia. In December Enver informed the Quadruple Alliance that they would like to see the 1877 border (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)), pointing out that the only Ottomans lost territory and 1877 boarder was Ottoman territories inhabited by Muslims.[23] Ottomans did not pushed 1877 position too hard, scared to fall back to bilateral agreements. On the other hand, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria clearly stood behind on the pulling back the Ottoman and Russian forces from Iran.[24] Ottomans wanted Muslim Iran be under its own control. The ambassador to Berlin, Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, wrote: "Although Russia may be in a weakened state today, it is always an awesome enemy and it is probable that in a short time it will recover its former might and power.[23]

text: On 22 December 1917, the first meeting between Ottomans and the Bolsheviks, the temporary head Zeki Pasha, until Talat Pasha's arrival, requested of Lev Kamenev to put an end to atrocities being committed on Russian-occupied territory by Armenian partisans. Kamenev agreed and added "an international commission should be established to oversee the return of refugees (by own consent) and deportees (by forced relocation) to Eastern Anatolia. The battle of ideals, rhetoric, and material for the fate of Eastern Anatolia opened with this dialog .[23]

text: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk represented an enormous success for the empire.[according to whom?] Minister of Foreign Affairs Halil Bey announced the achievement of peace to the Chamber of Deputies. He cheered the deputies further with his prediction of the imminent signing of a third peace treaty (the first Ukraine, second Russia, and with Romania). Halil Bey thought the Entente to cease hostilities and bring a rapid end to the war. The creation of an independent Ukraine promised to cripple Russia, and the recovery of Kars, Ardahan and Batum gave the CUP a tangible prize. Nationalism emerged at the center of the diplomatic struggle between the Central Powers and the Bolsheviks. Empire recognized that Russia’s Muslims, their co-religionists, are disorganized and dispersed to come out as an entity in the future battles of ideals, rhetoric, and material. Thus, the Ottomans mobilized the Caucasus Committee to make claims on behalf of the Muslims.[25] The Caucasus Committee had declined Ottoman earnest requests to break from Russia and embrace independence. The Caucasian Christians was far ahead in this new world concept. Helping the Caucasian Muslims to be free, like their neighbors, would be the Ottomans’ challenge.[25]

text: In the overall war effort, the CUP was convinced that empire's contribution was essential. Ottoman armies had tied down large numbers of Allied troops on various fronts, keeping them away from theatres in Europe where they would have been used against German and Austrian forces. Moreover, they claimed that their success at Gallipoli had been an important factor in bringing about the collapse of Russia, resulting in the revolution of April 1917. They had turned the war in favor of Germany and her allies.[26] Hopes were initially high for the Ottomans that their losses in the Middle East might be compensated for by successes in the Caucasus Campaign. Enver Pasha maintained an optimistic stance, hid information that made the Ottoman position appear weak, and let most of the Ottoman elite believe that the war was still winnable.[27]

text: Diplomacy with new states, 1918[edit]

text: Ottoman policy toward the Caucasus evolved according to the changing demands of the diplomatic and geopolitical environment.[28] What was the Ottoman premise in involving with the Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus? The Empire’s leaders, in the parliament discussions throughout 1917, understood that Russia’s collapse presented a historic window of opportunity to redraw the map of the Caucasus. They were convinced, however, that soon enough Russia would recover and reemerge as the dominant power in the region and shut that window.

text: The principle of "self-determination" became the criterion, or at least in part, to give them a chance to stand on their feet.[29] The Bolsheviks did not regard national separatism in this region as a lasting force. Their expectation was whole region come under a "voluntary and honest union" [b] and this union bearing no resemblance to Lenin’s famous description of Russia as a "prison house of peoples."[30] Lenin's arrival to Russia was formally welcomed by Nikolay Chkheidze, the Menshevik Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet.

text: Ottoman's did not see a chance of these new states to stand against new Russia. These new Muslim states needed support to be emerged as viable independent states. In order to consolidate a buffer zone with Russia (both for the Empire and these new states), however, Ottomans needed to expel the Bolsheviks from Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus before the end of war.[31] Based on 1917 negotiations, Enver concluded that Empire should not to expect much military assistance from the Muslims of the Caucasus as they were the one in need. Enver also knew the importance of Kars—Julfa railroad and the adjacent areas for this support. Goal was set forward beginning from 1918 to end of the war.

text: The Empire duly recognized the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in February 1918. This preference to remain part of Russia led Caucasusian politics to the Trebizond Peace Conference to base their diplomacy on the incoherent assertion that they were an integral part of Russia but yet not bound[28] The representatives were Rauf Bey for the Empire, and Akaki Chkhenkeli from the Transcaucasian delegation.

text: On 11 May, a new peace conference opened at Batum. The Treaty of Batum was signed on 4 June 1918, in Batum between the Ottoman Empire and three Trans-Caucasus states: First Republic of Armenia, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and Democratic Republic of Georgia.

text: The goal was to assist Azerbaijan Democratic Republic at Battle of Baku, then turn north to assist the embattled Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus and then sweep southward to encircle the British in Mesopotamia and retake Baghdad.[29] The British in Mesopotamia already moving north, with forty vans (claimed to loaded with gold and silver for buying mercenary) accompanied with only a brigade, to establish a foothold. At the time Baku was under the control of the 26 Baku Commissars which were Bolshevik and Left Socialist Revolutionary (SR) members of the Baku Soviet Commune. The commune was established in the city of Baku. In this plan, they expected resistance from Bolshevik Russia and Britain, but also Germany, which opposed the extension of their influence into the Caucasus.[29] Ottoman's goal to side with Muslims of Azerbaijan and MRNC managed to get Bolsheviks of Russia, Britain and Germany on the same side of a conflict box at this brief point in the history.

text: Winding down toward the armistice, 1918[edit]

text: Developments in Southeast Europe squashed the Ottoman government's hopes. In September 1918, the Allied forces under the command of Louis Franchet d'Espèrey mounted a sudden offensive at the Macedonian Front, which proved quite successful. Bulgaria was forced to sue for peace in the Armistice of Salonica. This development undermined both the German and Ottoman cause simultaneously - the Germans had no troops to spare to defend Austria-Hungary from the newly formed vulnerability in Southeast Europe after the losses it had suffered in France, and the Ottomans suddenly faced having to defend Istanbul against an overland European siege without help from the Bulgarians.[27]

text: Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha visited both Berlin, and Sofia, in September 1918, and came away with the understanding that the war was no longer winnable. With Germany likely seeking a separate peace, the Ottomans would be forced to as well. Grand Vizier Talaat convinced the other members of the ruling party that they must resign, as the Allies would impose far harsher terms if they thought the people who started the war were still in power. He also sought out the United States to see if he could surrender to them and gain the benefits of the Fourteen Points despite the Ottoman Empire and the United States not being at war; however, the Americans never responded, as they were waiting on British advice as to how to respond which never came. On 13 October, Talaat and the rest of his ministry resigned. Ahmed Izzet Pasha replaced Talaat as Grand Vizier.

text: Two days after taking office, Ahmed Izzet Pasha sent the captured British General Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend to the Allies to seek terms on an armistice.[27] The British Cabinet were eager to negotiate a deal. British government interpreted that not only should Britain conduct the negotiations, but should conduct them alone. There may be a desire to cut the French out of territorial "spoils" promised to them in the Sykes-Picot agreement. Talaat (before resigning) had sent an emissary to the French as well, but that emissary had been slower to respond back. The British cabinet empowered Admiral Calthorpe to conduct the negotiations, and to explicitly exclude the French from them.[27] The negotiations began on Sunday, 27 October on the HMS Agamemnon, a British battleship. The British refused to admit French Vice-Admiral Jean Amet, the senior French naval officer in the area, despite his desire to join; the Ottoman delegation, headed by Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey.[27]

text: Unknown to both sides, both sides were actually quite eager to sign a deal and willing to give up their objectives to do so. The British delegation had been given a list of 24 demands, but were told to concede on any of them except allowing the occupation of the forts on the Dardanelles as well as free passage through the Bosphorus; the British desired access to the Black Sea for the Rumanian front. Prime Minister David Lloyd George also desired to make a deal quickly before the United States could step in; according to the diary of Maurice Hankey:

text: [Lloyd George] was also very contemptuous of President Wilson and anxious to arrange the division of Empire between France, Italy, and G.B. before speaking to America. He also thought it would attract less attention to our enormous gains during the war if we swallowed our share of Empire now, and the German colonies later.[27]

text: The Ottomans, for their part, believed the war to be lost and would have accepted almost any demands placed on them. As a result, the initial draft prepared by the British was accepted largely unchanged; the Ottomans did not know they could have pushed back on most of the clauses, and the British did not know they could have demanded even more. The Ottomans ceded the rights to the Allies to occupy "in case of disorder" any Ottoman territory, a vague and broad clause.[27] The French were displeased with the precedent; French Premier Clemenceau disliked the British making unilateral decisions in so important a matter. Lloyd George countered that the French had concluded a similar armistice on short notice in the Armistice of Salonica which had been negotiated by French General d'Esperey, and that Great Britain (and Czarist Russia) had committed the vast majority of troops to the campaign against the Ottomans. The French agreed to accept the matter as closed.

text: On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending Ottoman involvement in World War 1. The Ottoman public, however, was given misleadingly positive impressions of the severity of the terms of the Armistice. They thought its terms were considerably more lenient than they actually were, a source of discontent later that the Allies had betrayed the offered terms.[27]

text: Genocide[edit]

text: During WWI the Ottoman Empire engaged in a genocide against local ethnicities in its territory. The Armenian Genocide,[32] also known as the Armenian Holocaust,[33] was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of 1.5 million Christian Armenians, mostly Ottoman citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey.[34][35] The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders from Constantinople to Ankara, the majority of whom were eventually murdered. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre.[36][37][38] Other indigenous and Christian ethnic groups such as the Assyrians and the Ottoman Greeks were similarly targeted for extermination by the Ottoman government in the Assyrian genocide and the Greek genocide, and their treatment is considered by some historians to be part of the same genocidal policy.[39][40] Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a direct result of the genocide.[41]

text: Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters and to coin the word genocide in 1943.[42] The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides,[43][44][45] because scholars point to the organized manner in which the killings were carried out in order to eliminate the Armenians, and it is the second most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust.[46]

text: Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in 1915. It has in recent years been faced with repeated calls to recognize them as genocide.[47] To date, 29 countries have officially recognized the mass killings as genocide,[48] as have most genocide scholars and historians.[49][50][51]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Sazonov’s commitment to a two-front war and disregard for Yudenich’s warnings to seek peace with the Ottomans had overstretched Russia.[20]
Jump up ^ The reference "voluntary and honest union" realized with the Soviet Union, as the 11th Red Army had its virtually unopposed advance to the region on 29 November 1920.
Jump up ^ Hovhannes Katchaznouni was in city of Van until 1914. He was on the Armenian delegation that conducted peace talks at Trabzon and Batoum negotiations with the Empire.

tag: ol

text: Includes most of to daysader nation of Europe


document_title: Asbestos

question_text: when did the dangers of asbestos became known

question_tokens: when did the dangers of asbestos became known

text: Asbestos

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable.[1][8][9] The word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/.

text: Types and associated fibers[edit]

text: Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine class and those belonging to the amphibole class. All six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens.[10][11] The visible fibers are themselves each composed of millions of microscopic "fibrils" that can be released by abrasion and other processes.[2]

text:
Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos fibers

Asbestos

Asbestos

Blue asbestos (crocidolite). The ruler is 1 cm.

Blue asbestos, teased to show the fibrous nature of the mineral

text: Serpentine[edit]

text: Serpentine class fibers are curly. Chrysotile is the only member of the serpentine class.

text: Chrysotile[edit]

text: Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4.[12] Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.

text: Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.[13] Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor tiles, residential shingles, and gaskets for high temperature equipment.[citation needed]

text: Amphibole[edit]

text: Amphibole class fibers are needle-like. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class.

text: Amosite[edit]

text: Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, often referred to as brown asbestos, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the cummingtonite-grunerite solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial acronym for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles.[13]

text: Crocidolite[edit]

text: Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4, is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2. Crocidolite is seen under a microscope as a blue fiber.

text: Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with breadths less than 1 micrometer in bundles of very great widths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus".

text: Other materials[edit]

text: Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been used in a few consumer products.

text: Other natural asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2, though not regulated, are said by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite.[14] They are termed "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the American Thoracic Society have recommended them for inclusion as regulated materials because they may also be hazardous to health.[14]

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2009, about 9% of world's asbestos production was mined in Canada.[15] In late 2011, Canada's remaining two asbestos mines, both located in the Province of Quebec, halted operations.[16] In September 2012, the government in the Province of Quebec halted asbestos mining.[17]

text: In 2015, 2 million tonnes of asbestos were mined worldwide. The Russian Federation was the largest producer with about 55% world share followed by China (20%), Brazil (15.6%), and Kazakhstan (10.8%).[18]

text: History of use[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Early uses[edit]

text: Asbestos use dates back at least 4,500 years, when the inhabitants of the Lake Juojärvi region in East Finland strengthened earthenware pots and cooking utensils with the asbestos mineral anthophyllite (see Asbestos-ceramic).[19] One of the first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos is in Theophrastus, On Stones, from around 300 BC, although this identification has been questioned.[20] In both modern and ancient Greek, the usual name for the material known in English as "asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure"), which was adapted into the French amiante and Portuguese amianto. In modern Greek, the word ἀσβεστος or ασβέστης stands consistently and solely for lime.

text: The term asbestos is traceable to Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder's manuscript Natural History, and his use of the term asbestinon, meaning "unquenchable".[1][8][19] While Pliny or his nephew Pliny the Younger is popularly credited with recognising the detrimental effects of asbestos on human beings,[21] examination of the primary sources reveals no support for either claim.[22]

text: Wealthy Persians amazed guests by cleaning a cloth by exposing it to fire. For example, according to Tabari, one of the curious items belonging to Khosrow II Parviz, the great Sassanian king (r. 531–579), was a napkin (Persian: منديل) that he cleaned simply by throwing it into fire. Such cloth is believed to have been made of asbestos imported over the Hindu Kush.[23] According to Biruni in his book, Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (Persian: آذرشست, āzarshost) were called shostakeh (Persian: شستكه).[24] Some Persians believed the fiber was the fur of an animal, called the samandar (Persian: سمندر), which lived in fire and died when exposed to water,[25][26] which was where the former belief that the salamander could tolerate fire originated.[27]

text: Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor (800–814), is said to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos.[28]

text: Marco Polo recounts having been shown, in a place he calls Ghinghin talas, "a good vein from which the cloth which we call of salamander, which cannot be burnt if it is thrown into the fire, is made ..."[29]

text: Some archaeologists believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings, in order to preserve only their ashes, and prevent them being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in funeral pyres.[30][31] Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral or other lamps.[25] A famous example is the golden lamp asbestos lychnis, which the sculptor Callimachus made for the Erechtheion.[32] In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term asbestos for soapstone, because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.[30][page needed]

text: Industrial era[edit]

text: The large scale asbestos industry began in the mid-19th century. Early attempts at producing asbestos paper and cloth in Italy began in the 1850s, but were unsuccessful in creating a market for such products. Canadian samples of asbestos were displayed in London in 1862, and the first companies were formed in England and Scotland to exploit this resource. Asbestos was first used in the manufacture of yarn, and German industrialist Louis Wertheim adopted this process in his factories in Germany. [33] In 1871, the Patent Asbestos Manufacturing Company was established in Glasgow, and within the following decades, the Clydebank area became a centre for the nascent industry.[34]

text: Industrial scale mining began in the Thetford hills, Quebec from the 1870s. Sir William Edmond Logan was the first to notice the large deposits of chrysotile in the hills in his capacity as head of Geological Survey of Canada. Samples of the minerals from here were displayed in London, and excited much interest.[33] With the opening up of the Quebec Central Railway in 1876, mining entrepreneurs, such as Andrew Stuart Johnson established the asbestos industry in the province.[35] The 50 ton output of the mines in 1878 rose to over 10,000 tons in the 1890s with the adoption of machine technologies and expanded production.[33][36] For a long time, the world's largest asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of Asbestos, Quebec.[37]

text: Asbestos production began in the Urals of the Russian Empire in the 1880s, and in the Alpine regions of Northern Italy with the formation in Turin of the Italo-English Pure Asbestos Company in 1876, although this was soon swamped by the greater production levels from the Canadian mines. Mining also took off in South Africa from 1893 under the aegis of the British businessman Francis Oates, the Director of the De Beers company.[38] It was in South Africa that the production of amosite began in 1910. The U.S. asbestos industry had an early start in 1858, when fibrous anthophyllite was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a predecessor to the current Johns Manville, at a quarry at Ward's Hill on Staten Island, New York.[39] US production began in earnest in 1899, with the discovery of large deposits in the Belvidere Mountain.

text: The use of asbestos became increasingly widespread towards the end of the 19th century, when its diverse applications included fire retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. In 2011 it was reported that over 50% of UK houses still contained asbestos, despite a ban on asbestos products some years earlier.[40]

text: In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990, when production began to drop dramatically.[41]

text: Discovery of toxicity[edit]

text: In 1899, Dr. Montague Murray noted the negative health effects of asbestos.[42] The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.[43]

text: In the early 1900s researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos-mining towns. The first such study was conducted by Dr. H. Montague Murray at the Charing Cross Hospital, London, in 1900, in which a postmortem investigation of a young man who had died from pulmonary fibrosis after having worked for 14 years in an asbestos textile factory, discovered asbestos traces in the victim's lungs. Adelaide Anderson, the Inspector of Factories in Britain, included asbestos in a list of harmful industrial substances in 1902. Similar investigations were conducted in France and Italy, in 1906 and 1908, respectively.[44]

text: The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in 1924.[43][45][46] Nellie Kershaw was employed at Turner Brothers Asbestos in Manchester, England from 1917, spinning raw asbestos fibre into yarn.[46][47] Her death in 1924 led to a formal inquest. Pathologist Dr William Edmund Cooke testified that his examination of the lungs indicated old scarring indicative of a previous, healed, tuberculosis infection, and extensive fibrosis, in which were visible "particles of mineral matter ... of various shapes, but the large majority have sharp angles."[45] Having compared these particles with samples of asbestos dust provided by Dr S.A. Henry, His Majesty's Medical Inspector of Factories, Cooke concluded that they "originated from asbestos and were, beyond a reasonable doubt, the primary cause of the fibrosis of the lungs and therefore of death".[46][48]

text: As a result of Cooke's paper, parliament commissioned an inquiry into the effects of asbestos dust by Dr E. R. A. Merewether, Medical Inspector of Factories, and C. W. Price, a factory inspector and pioneer of dust monitoring and control.[2] Their subsequent report, Occurrence of Pulmonary Fibrosis & Other Pulmonary Affections in Asbestos Workers, was presented to parliament on 24 March 1930.[49] It concluded that the development of asbestosis was irrefutably linked to the prolonged inhalation of asbestos dust, and included the first health study of asbestos workers, which found that 66% of those employed for 20 years or more suffered from asbestosis.[2] The report led to the publication of the first Asbestos Industry Regulations in 1931, which came into effect on 1 March 1932.[50] These regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work-related disease.[12] The term mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s. Similar legislation followed in the U.S. about ten years later.

text: Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or are terminally ill, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate.[51] Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to insulate piping, boilers, steam engines, and steam turbines. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during WWII; for every 1,000 workers about 14 died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis.[52]

text: The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s, court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.[52]

text: In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1946 and 1980. From the 1970s there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos, and its use was phased out. Mining ceased in 1983. The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia and there is help and support for sufferers from asbestosis or mesothelioma.[53]

text: Usage by industry and product type[edit]

text: Serpentine group[edit]

text: Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile is the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States, chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United States.[citation needed] Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and materials, including:

text:
Chlor Alkali diaphragm membranes used to make chlorine (currently in the USA) [54]
Drywall and joint compound
Plaster
Gas mask filters pre-1960s and gas mask filters from the USSR
Mud and texture coats
Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles[55]
"Transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
Popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings
Fireproofing

text:
Caulk
Industrial and marine gaskets
Brake pads and shoes
Stage curtains
Fire blankets
Interior fire doors
Fireproof clothing for firefighters
Thermal pipe insulation
Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids and wine
Dental cast linings
HVAC flexible duct connectors
Drilling fluid additives

text: In the European Union and Australia it has recently been banned as a potential health hazard[56] and is not used at all. Japan is moving in the same direction, but at a slower pace.

text: Amphibole group[edit]

text: Amphiboles including amosite (brown asbestos) and crocidolite (blue asbestos) were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s.[citation needed] Tremolite asbestos constituted a contaminant of many if not all naturally occurring chrysotile deposits. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and in Japan by 1995.[citation needed] Some products that included amphibole types of asbestos included the following:

text:
Low density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles;
Asbestos-cement pipe (made until the early 1990s by at least one manufacturer);
Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services;
Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets).

text: Cigarette manufacturer Lorillard (Kent's filtered cigarette) used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956.[57]

text: While mostly chrysotile asbestos fibers were once used in automobile brake pads, shoes, and clutch discs, contaminants of amphiboles were present. Since approximately the mid-1990s, brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic and aramid fiber (Twaron or Kevlar—the same material used in bulletproof vests).

text: Artificial Christmas snow, known as flocking, was previously made with asbestos.[58] It was used as an effect in films including The Wizard of Oz and department store window displays and it was marketed for use in private homes under brand names that included "Pure White", "Snow Drift" and "White Magic".[59]

text: Construction[edit]

text: Developed countries[edit]

text: The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions, including the European Union, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. The 5th Circuit Court prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991 because EPA research showed the ban would cost between $450 and 800 million while only saving around 200 lives in a 13-year timeframe, and that the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of alternative products.[60] Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the manufacture of Artex, a decorative stipple finish,[61] however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex were still adding white asbestos until 1999.[62]

text: Prior to the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry in thousands of materials. Some are judged to be more dangerous than others due to the amount of asbestos and the material's friable nature. Sprayed coatings, pipe insulation and Asbestos Insulating Board (AIB) are thought to be the most dangerous due to their high content of asbestos and friable nature. Many older buildings built before the late 1990s contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by ASTM Standard E 2356–04. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency includes some but not all asbestos-contaminated facilities on the Superfund National Priorities list (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos contaminated buildings is subject to EPA NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and of substances containing it are covered by the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006.[63]

text: U.S. asbestos consumption hit a peak of 804,000 tons in 1973; world asbestos demand peaked around 1977, with 25 countries producing nearly 4.8 million metric tons annually.[64]

text: In older buildings (e.g. those built prior to 1999 in the UK, before white asbestos was banned), asbestos may still be present in some areas. Being aware of asbestos locations reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos.[65]

text: Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally provided.[65][66]

text: Outside Europe and North America[edit]

text: Some countries, such as India, Indonesia, China, Russia and Brazil, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C sheets" for roofing and for side walls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C sheets in developing countries following the widespread restrictions in developed nations[citation needed].

text: 11 September 2001 attacks[edit]

text: As New York City's World Trade Center collapsed following the September 11 attacks, Lower Manhattan was blanketed in a mixture of building debris and combustible materials. This complex mixture gave rise to the concern that thousands of residents and workers in the area would be exposed to known hazards in the air and in the dust, such as asbestos, lead, glass fibers, and pulverized concrete.[67] More than 1,000 tons of asbestos are thought to have been released into the air following the buildings' destruction.[68] Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate from cancer of emergency service workers since the disaster.[68] Thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the 'tip of the iceberg'.[68] Some commentators have criticised authorities for using asbestos in the buildings' construction.

text: In May 2002, after numerous cleanup, dust collection, and air monitoring activities were conducted outdoors by EPA, other federal agencies, New York City and the state of New York, New York City formally requested federal assistance to clean and/or test residences in the vicinity of the World Trade Center site for airborne asbestos.[67]

text: Asbestos contaminants in other products[edit]

text: Vermiculite[edit]

text: Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate which resembles mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as insulation. Some deposits of vermiculite have been found to be contaminated with small amounts of asbestos.[69]

text: One vermiculite mine operated by W. R. Grace and Company in Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining vermiculite contaminated with asbestos, typically richterite, winchite, actinolite or tremolite.[70] Vermiculite contaminated with asbestos from the Libby mine was used as insulation in residential and commercial buildings through Canada and the United States. W. R. Grace and Company's loose-fill vermiculite was marketed as Zonolite but was also used in sprayed-on products such as Monokote.

text: In 1999 the EPA began cleanup efforts in Libby and now the area is a Superfund cleanup area.[71] The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.[72]

text: Talc[edit]

text: Talc can sometimes be contaminated with asbestos due to the proximity of asbestos ore (usually tremolite) in underground talc deposits.[73] By 1973, US federal law required all talc products to be asbestos-free,[74] and today there is strict quality control in the production of talc products, separating cosmetic-grade talc (e.g. talcum powder) from industrial-grade talc (often used in friction products) has largely eliminated this issue for consumers.[75]

text: In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos in three out of eight bigger brands of children's crayons that are made partly from talc: Crayola, Prang, and RoseArt.[76] In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels from 0.05% in Carnation Pink to 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands contained more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The Art and Creative Materials Institute, a trade association which tests the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must be incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos.[76] In May 2000, Crayola said tests by Richard Lee, a materials analyst whose testimony on behalf of the asbestos industry has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times, found two of its crayons tested negative for asbestos.[77] In June 2000, Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States.[77]

text: The mining company, R T Vanderbilt Co of Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, states that "to the best of our knowledge and belief" there is no asbestos in its talc.[78] However media reports claim that the United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) had found asbestos in four talc samples tested in 2000.[76] The Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health subsequently wrote to the news reporter, stating that "In fact, the abbreviation ND (non detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers actually were found in the samples",[79] and multiple studies by both mineral studies laboratories[80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88] and biological cell studies[89][90][91] do not report asbestos. These findings have been rejected by other health reports and studies which advocate a "same as" asbestos risk.[92][93]

text: Health impact[edit]

text: All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health hazards in humans.[94][95][96] Amosite and crocidolite are considered the most hazardous asbestos fiber types;[citation needed] however, chrysotile asbestos has also produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant mesothelioma in humans,[97] and mesothelioma has been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.[98]

text: During the 1980s and again in the 1990s it was suggested at times that the process of making asbestos cement could "neutralize" the asbestos, either via chemical processes or by causing cement to attach to the fibers and changing their physical size; subsequent studies showed that this was untrue, and that decades-old asbestos cement, when broken, releases asbestos fibers identical to those found in nature, with no detectable alteration.[99]

text: Exposure to asbestos in the form of fibers is always considered dangerous. Working with, or exposure to, material that is friable, or materials or works that could cause release of loose asbestos fibers, is considered high risk. However, in general, people who become ill from inhaling asbestos have been regularly exposed in a job where they worked directly with the material.

text: The most common diseases associated with chronic exposure to asbestos are asbestosis and mesothelioma.[100]

text: Substitutes for asbestos in construction[edit]

text: Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of insulation material. The safety of this material is also being called into question due to similarities in material structure.[101] However, the International Agency for Research on Cancer removed fiberglass from its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001[102] and a scientific review article from 2011 claimed epidemiology data was inconsistent and concluded that the IARC's decision to downgrade the carcinogenic potential of fiberglass was valid (however, this study was funded by sponsored research contract from the North American Insulation Manufacturer’s Association).[103]

text: In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by Bal Dixit, called Zetex. This fabric is lighter than asbestos, but offers the same bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength.[104]

text: In Europe mineral wool and glass wool are the main insulators in houses.

text: Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as "Eternit" and another "Everite" now use "Nutec" fibers which consist of organic fibers, portland cement and silica. Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.

text: Another potential fiber is polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber is a synthetic fiber with high melting point of 760 °C (1,400 °F) that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by fire departments and space agencies.

text: Recycling and disposal[edit]

text: Asbestos alternatives for industrial use include sleeves, rope, tape, fabric, textiles and insulation batt materials made from fiberglass and silica.

text: In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in landfill sites.

text: The demolition of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the Red Road Flats in Glasgow, Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – here British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed to a landfill site via an approved route at certain times of the day in specially adapted vehicles.

text: Asbestos can be recycled by transforming it into harmless silicate glass. A process of thermal decomposition at 1000–1250 °C produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at temperatures above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass.[105] Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.[106]

text: The combination of oxalic acid with ultrasound fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers.[107]


document_title: Hypercapnia

question_text: why does carbon dioxide increase in the body

text: Hypercapnia

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: Symptoms and signs of early hypercapnia include flushed skin, full pulse, tachypnea, dyspnea, extrasystoles, muscle twitches, hand flaps, reduced neural activity, and possibly a raised blood pressure. According to other sources, symptoms of mild hypercapnia might include headache, confusion and lethargy. Hypercapnia can induce increased cardiac output, an elevation in arterial blood pressure, and a propensity toward arrhythmias.[4][5] Hypercapnia may increase pulmonary capillary resistance.[citation needed] In severe hypercapnia (generally PaCO2 greater than 10 kPa or 75 mmHg), symptomatology progresses to disorientation, panic, hyperventilation, convulsions, unconsciousness, and eventually death.[6][7]

text: Causes[edit]

text: Hypercapnia is generally caused by hypoventilation, lung disease, or diminished consciousness. It may also be caused by exposure to environments containing abnormally high concentrations of carbon dioxide, such as from volcanic or geothermal activity, or by rebreathing exhaled carbon dioxide. It can also be an initial effect of administering supplemental oxygen on a patient with sleep apnea. In this situation the hypercapnia can also be accompanied by respiratory acidosis.[8]

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: Laboratory values[edit]

text: Hypercapnia is generally defined as a blood gas carbon dioxide level over 45 mmHg. Since carbon dioxide is in equilibrium with carbonic acid in the blood, hypercapnia can drive serum pH down, resulting in a respiratory acidosis. Clinically, the effect of hypercapnia on pH is estimated using the ratio of the arterial pressure of carbon dioxide to the concentration of bicarbonate ion, PaCO2/[HCO3−].

text: Tolerance[edit]

text:
Tolerance to increased atmospheric CO2 concentration[6]

 %CO2 in inspired air
Expected tolerance for useful activity on continued exposure to elevated CO2

Duration
Major limitation

0.04
lifetime
normal atmosphere

0.5
lifetime
no detectable limitations

1.0
lifetime

1.5
> 1 month
mild respiratory stimulation

2.0
> 1 month

2.5
> 1 month

3.0
> 1 month
moderate respiratory stimulation

3.5
> 1 week

4.0
> 1 week
moderate respiratory stimulation, exaggerated respiratory response to exercise

4.5
> 8 hours

5.0
> 4 hours
prominent respiratory stimulus, exaggerated respiratory response to exercise

5.5
> 1 hours

6.0
> 0.5 hours
prominent respiratory stimulus, exaggerated respiratory response to exercise, beginnings of mental confusion

6.5
> 0.25 hours

7.0
> 0.1 hours
limitation by dyspnea and mental confusion

text: During diving[edit]

text: Normal respiration in divers results in alveolar hypoventilation resulting in inadequate CO2 elimination or hypercapnia. Lanphier's work at the US Navy Experimental Diving Unit answered the question, "Why don't divers breathe enough?":[9]

text:
Higher inspired oxygen (PiO2) at 4 atm (400 kPa) accounted for not more than 25% of the elevation in end tidal CO2 (etCO2)[10] above values found at the same work rate when breathing air just below the surface.[11][12][13][14]
Increased work of breathing accounted for most of the elevation of PACO2 (alveolar gas equation) in exposures above 1 atm (100 kPa), as indicated by the results when helium was substituted for nitrogen at 4 atm (400 kPa).[11][12][13][14]
Inadequate ventilatory response to exertion was indicated by the fact that, despite resting values in the normal range, PetCO2 rose markedly with exertion even when the divers breathed air at a depth of only a few feet.[11][12][13][14]

text: Failure to adequately eliminate CO2[edit]

text: There is a variety of reasons for carbon dioxide not being expelled completely when the diver exhales:

text:
The diver is exhaling into a vessel that does not allow all the CO2 to escape to the environment, such as a long snorkel, full face diving mask, or diving helmet, and the diver then re-inhales from that vessel, causing increased dead space.[14]
The carbon dioxide scrubber in the diver's rebreather is failing to remove sufficient carbon dioxide from the loop (Higher inspired CO2).
The diver is over-exercising, producing excess carbon dioxide due to elevated metabolic activity.
The density of the breathing gas is higher at depth, so the effort required to fully inhale and exhale has increased, making breathing more difficult and less efficient (high work of breathing).[9] The higher gas density also causes gas mixing within the lung to be less efficient, thus increasing the dead space .[14]
The diver is deliberately hypoventilating, known as "skip breathing" (see below).

text: Skip breathing[edit]

text: Skip breathing is a controversial technique to conserve breathing gas when using open-circuit scuba, which consists of briefly holding one's breath between inhalation and exhalation (i.e., "skipping" a breath). It leads to CO2 not being exhaled efficiently.[15] There is also an increased risk of burst lung (pulmonary barotrauma of ascent) if the breath is held while ascending. It is particularly counterproductive with a rebreather, where the act of breathing pumps the gas around the "loop", pushing carbon dioxide through the scrubber and mixing freshly injected oxygen.[citation needed]

text: Rebreathers[edit]

text: In closed circuit SCUBA (rebreather) diving, exhaled carbon dioxide must be removed from the breathing system, usually by a scrubber containing a solid chemical compound with a high affinity for CO2, such as soda lime.[16] If not removed from the system, it may be re-inhaled, causing an increase in the inhaled concentration.

text: MRI[edit]

text: The hypercapnic state is routinely used to calibrate blood-oxygen-level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging (BOLD fMRI), a modality that is sensitive to changes in blood oxygenation. However, this calibration crucially relies on the assumption that hypercapnia has no effect on neuronal function, which is a matter of debate.[17]

text: Names[edit]

text: The spelling hypercapnea is occasionally seen in published medical articles (44 results in a PubMed search in 2016), but it is not entered in major dictionaries and is not tied to any etymology that involves the -pnea suffix. It is most likely a misspelling by writers who misapprehend that the word hypercapnia ends in the same suffix that apnea does.


document_title: Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn

question_text: who plays ricky on nicky ricky dicky and dawn

text: Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn

text: Premise[edit]

text: The series focuses on quadruplets Nicky, Ricky, Dicky, and Dawn Harper, 10-years-old at the start of the series,[1] who have nothing in common and often fight, but must work together to solve everyday situations.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
20
September 13, 2014 (2014-09-13)
March 24, 2015 (2015-03-24)

2
25
May 23, 2015 (2015-05-23)
August 6, 2016 (2016-08-06)

3
23
January 7, 2017 (2017-01-07)
August 5, 2017 (2017-08-05)

4
14[2]
January 6, 2018 (2018-01-06)
TBA

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Tom (Brian Stepanek) is the father of the quadruplets. It is a running gag in the series that he cares more about his possessions than his children, but he loves his family and is a kid at heart.
Anne (Allison Munn) is the mother of the quadruplets who usually gets caught up in Tom's new obsessions.
Nicky (Aidan Gallagher) is the youngest of the quadruplets. He is shown to be quite comedic, quirky, and easily confused.
Ricky (Casey Simpson) is the second oldest of the quadruplets. He is the smart one of the group, always seen carrying a book or doing his homework. He is also a neat freak and a bit of a goody two-shoes, though he occasionally tries to prove to Dawn and his brothers that he can bend rules as well.
Dicky (Mace Coronel) is the third oldest and easy-going quadruplet who cares a great deal about his appearance. He always takes the easy way out.
Dawn (Lizzy Greene) is the oldest of the quadruplets. Although she's always seen bothering her brothers, she does care about them deeply. There is a consistent rivalry for the leader spot of the quads between her and Ricky.
Josie (Gabrielle Elyse) is a worker at Tom's sporting shop and babysitter for Nicky, Ricky, Dicky and Dawn. She only appears in the first season.
Mae (Kyla-Drew Simmons) is the quads' friend and Dawn's best friend. She once called herself "the fifth quad". In the first two seasons, she is a recurring character, but is promoted to a main character in the third season.

text: Production[edit]

text: The series was originally picked up for 13 episodes on March 13, 2014, but was later increased to 20 episodes.[3] The series premiered on September 13, 2014. On November 18, 2014, the series was renewed for a second season.[4] The second season premiered on May 23, 2015. On February 9, 2016, Nickelodeon renewed Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn for a third season of 14 episodes. It was also confirmed that Matt Fleckenstein would step down as show runner.[5] Actress Lizzy Greene announced on her Twitter account that production for season three started on April 26, 2016.[6] The third season premiered on January 7, 2017. The series was renewed for a fourth season and had its episode order for the third season increased from 14 to 24 by Nickelodeon on March 20, 2017.[7] On October 4, 2017, it was announced that Mace Coronel would be leaving both Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn and Nickelodeon.[8] On November 15, 2017, Nickelodeon announced that the fourth season will be the last.[9]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)

Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)

1
20
September 13, 2014 (2014-09-13)
1.60[10]
March 24, 2015 (2015-03-24)
1.75[11]
1.75

2
25
May 23, 2015 (2015-05-23)
1.11[12]
August 6, 2016 (2016-08-06)
1.31[13]
1.46

3
23
January 7, 2017 (2017-01-07)
1.58[14]
August 5, 2017 (2017-08-05)
2.00[15]
1.47

4
6
January 6, 2018 (2018-01-06)
1.08[16]
TBA
TBD
1.05

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Year
Award
Category
Result
Refs

2015
Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show
Nominated

2017
Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show – Kids' Show
Nominated


document_title: Front of house

question_text: what do front of house staff do in theatre

text: Front of house

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the performing arts, front of house (FOH) is the part of a performance venue that is open to the public. In theatre and live music venues, it is the auditorium and foyer, as opposed to the stage and backstage areas. In theatre, the front of house manager is responsible for ticket sales, refreshments, and making sure the auditorium is set out properly.

text: Live venues[edit]

text: Sound operators, excluding the monitor engineers, are normally positioned in a small sectioned-off area front of house, surrounded by the audience or at the edge of the audience area. From this position they have unobstructed listening and a clear view of the performance, enabling the operation of the main speaker system, show control consoles and other equipment. In this case front of house can refer to both the general audience/public area or to the specific small section from where the show is mixed.

text: The front of house speakers are the main speakers that cover the audience, and the front of house desk is the desk that generates the front of house audio mix. In smaller venues the front of house desk may also produce foldback (monitor) mixes for the monitor speakers onstage, whereas in larger venues there will normally be a second mixing desk for monitor control positioned just off the side of the main stage. The audio engineer that designs the front of house sound system and puts it into place for the show/event is the system engineer, and this role is often separate from the person who operates the mixing desk who is often employed by the band directly.

text: In stage lighting, any lighting fixtures that are on the audience side of the proscenium arch are referred to as being FOH. The lighting operator may also be located in the audience area as well, but are often in a lighting booth.

text: This term can also refer to the individuals whose primary work is dealing with patrons, including house managers, ticket vendors, bartenders, merchandise vendors, ushers, and museum attendants.


document_title: Age of marriage in the United States

question_text: what is the legal age of marriage in texas

text: Age of marriage in the United States

text: Unlike most Western countries, 18 of the U.S. states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. Individuals aged 18 have the ability to marry in U.S. states except Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, all states, except Delaware and New Jersey, allow minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. Most states allow parties aged 16 and 17 to marry with parental consent alone. In most states, children under 16 can be married too. In the 32 states [1] which have an absolute minimum age set by statute, this age varies between 14 and 18, while in 18 states there is no statutory minimum age if other legal conditions are met. Although in such states there is no set minimum age by statute, the traditional common law minimum age is 14 for boys and 12 for girls - ages which have been confirmed by case law in some states.[2] Over the past 15 years, more than 200,000 minors married in US, and in Tennessee girls as young as 10 were married in 2001,[3] before the state finally set a minimum age of 17 in 2018.[4]

text:
State

Minimum age

Notes

Statutory age when all exceptions are taken into account[2]

General age

 Alabama[5]

16

18

 Alaska[6]

14

18

 Arizona[7][8]

16

18

Since 2018, the minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent is 16.[7][8]

 Arkansas[6]

none

18

 California[9]

none

18

No minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent.

 Colorado[6][10][11]

none

18

No minimum age with judicial approval and parental consent.

 Connecticut[12]

16

18

Since 2017, the minimum age is 16 with parental and judicial consent.[12]

 Delaware[6]

18

18

Since May 2018, the Delaware child marriage ban bill was signed into law and went into effect immediately to implement a clear minimum age of 18 with no exceptions.[13][14][15]

 District of Columbia[6]

16

18

 Florida

17

18

Since July 1, 2018 17-year-olds need both parental and judicial approval and may not marry anyone more than 2 years older.[16][17]

 Georgia[6]

16

18

 Hawaii[6]

15

18

15 with parental or judicial consent.

 Idaho[6]

none

18

 Illinois[6]

16

18

 Indiana[18]

15

18

15 in the case of pregnancy with both parental and judicial consent.

 Iowa[6]

16

18

 Kansas[6]

15

18

 Kentucky[19]

17

18

Since 2018, 17-year-olds need judicial approval.[20]

 Louisiana[6]

none

18

 Maine[6]

none

18

 Maryland[6]

15

18

 Massachusetts[6]

none[21]

18

Consent can be just judicial, but is normally both parental and judicial. In the absence of any statutory minimum age, one opinion is that the traditional minimum common law marriageable age of 12 for girls and 14 for boys may still be in effect.[22][23]

 Michigan[citation needed][24]

none

18

16  with parental consent

 Minnesota[6]

16

18

 Mississippi

none

21

females 15–21 and males 17–21 can marry with parental consent alone[25]

 Missouri[26]

16 (in effect from August 28, 2018)[27]

18

Since 2018, the minimum age is 16. In July 2018 a bill was signed into law by the Governor of Missouri, to implement an absolute minimum age of 16 and to ban people over 21 years old marrying people under the age of 18. The law goes into effect on August 28, 2018.[28][29][30][31][32]

 Montana[6]

16

18

 Nebraska[6]

17

19

 Nevada[6]

none

18

 New Hampshire[33]

16 (in effect from January 1, 2019)

18

In 2018, the minimum age was set at 16 (in effect from 1 January, 2019).[34][35][36]

 New Jersey[37]

18

18

Since June 2018, the New Jersey child marriage ban bill was signed into law and went into effect immediately to implement a clear minimum age of 18 with no exceptions.[38]

 New Mexico[6]

none

18

 New York[39]

17

18

Since 2017, the minimum age is 17 with parental and judicial consent.

 North Carolina

14

18

  North Dakota[6]

16

18

16 with parental consent [40].

 Ohio[41]

none

18

18 for males regardless of parental consent. 16 for females with parental consent, 18 for females without parental consent.[41]

 Oklahoma[6]

none

18

 Oregon[6]

17

18

Consenting parent or guardian must accompany the applicant when applying for the marriage license.

 Pennsylvania[citation needed]

none

18

Under 16 years of age if a Judge of the Orphans Court "decides that it is to the best interest of the applicant and authorizes the issuance of the license."[42]

 Rhode Island[6]

none

18

 South Carolina[6]

16/none (conflicting laws)

18

The age is 16, with parental consent, but there is controversy regarding the interpretation of the law, which some judges consider to allow marriage without an age limit in case of pregnancy.[43]

 South Dakota[6]

16

18

 Tennessee[44]

17

18

In 2018, the minimum age was set to 17 and no minor can marry someone more than 4 years older.[45][4]

 Texas[46]

16

18

Since 2017, the minimum age is 18, however emancipated minors aged 16–17 have an exemption to legally marry.[47][48][49]

 Utah[50]

15

18

15 with court approval and parental consent.

 Vermont[6]

16

18

 Virginia

16

18

In 2016, VA made 18 the minimum age; and 16 with court approval in special cases[51][52]

 Washington[6]

none

18

May be waived by superior court judge.[53]

 West Virginia[6]

none

18

No minimum with both parental and judicial consent

 Wisconsin[6]

16

18

 Wyoming[6]

none

18