document_title: Field goal

question_text: who made the longest field goal in nfl history

text: Field goal

text: Strategy[edit]

text: As a field goal is worth only three points, while a touchdown scores at least six (which usually becomes seven with a successful conversion, and potentially 8 with a two-point conversion), teams will generally attempt a field goal only in the following situations:

text:
It is fourth down (third down in Canadian rules), especially if the offense is more than a yard or two from a new first down, and within about 45 yards of the goal posts.
In the first half, there is enough time remaining to execute only one more play.
In the second half, there is enough time remaining to execute only one more play, and the team on offense needs three points to win or tie (four points in a few leagues given special circumstances).
The game is in overtime, and a FG is the quickest, easiest, and least risky way to end the match.

text: Except in desperate situations, a team will generally attempt field goals only when keeping a drive alive is unlikely, and its kicker has a significant chance of success, as a missed field goal results in a turnover at the spot of the kick (in the NFL) or at the line of scrimmage (in the NCAA). In American high school rules and Canadian football, where a missed field goal is treated the same as a punt, most teams still opt not to attempt field goals from very long range since field goal formations are not conducive to covering kick returns. Even under ideal conditions, the best professional kickers historically had difficulty making kicks longer than 50 yards consistently (the NFL record is 64 yards and the CFL record, 62 yards).[2] If a team chooses not to attempt a field goal on their last down, they can punt to the other team. A punt cannot score any points in American football unless the receiving team touches the ball first and the kicking team recovers it (though it can result in a single in Canadian football), but it may push the other team back toward its own end.

text: The longest field goal kick in NFL history is 64 yards, a record set by Matt Prater on December 8, 2013. The previous record was 63, originally set by Tom Dempsey and then matched by Jason Elam, Sebastian Janikowski, and David Akers. High school, college and most professional football leagues offer only a three-point field goal; however, some professional leagues have encouraged more rare kicks through four-point field goals. NFL Europe encouraged long field goals of 50 yards or more by making those worth four points instead of three (much like Australian rules' Super Goal or basketball's three-point line), a rule since adopted by the Stars Football League. Similarly, the sport of arena football sought (unsuccessfully) to repopularize the drop kick by making that worth four points; it failed, since only one kicker (Brian Mitchell) was able to do it with any semblance of proficiency. (In six-man football, where there is no offensive line, all field goals are worth four points instead of the usual three.)

text: The overall field goal percentage during the 2010 NFL season was 82.3. In comparison, Jan Stenerud, one of only two pure kickers in the Pro Football Hall of Fame (along with Ray Guy), had a career field goal percentage of 66.8 from 1967 to 1985.[2]

text: How field goals are kicked[edit]

text: When a team decides to attempt a field goal, it will generally line up in a very tight formation, with all but two players lined up along or near the line of scrimmage: the placekicker and the holder. The holder is usually the team's punter or backup quarterback.[citation needed] Instead of the regular center, a team may have a dedicated long snapper trained especially to snap the ball on placekick attempts and punts.

text: The holder usually lines up seven to eight yards behind the line of scrimmage, with the kicker a few yards behind him. Upon receiving the snap, the holder holds the ball against the ground vertically, with the stitches away from the kicker. The kicker begins his approach during the snap, so the snapper and holder have little margin for error. A split-second mistake can disrupt the entire attempt.

text: The measurement of a field goal's distance is from the goalpost to the point where the ball was positioned for the kick by the holder. In American football, where the goalpost is located at the back of the end zone (above the end line), the ten yards of the end zone are added to the yard line distance at the spot of the hold.

text: Until the 1960s, placekickers approached the ball straight on, with the toe making first contact with the ball. The technique of kicking the ball "soccer-style", by approaching the ball at an angle and kicking it with the instep, was introduced by Hungarian-born kicker Pete Gogolak in the 1960s.[3] Reflecting his roots in European soccer, Gogolak observed that kicking the ball at an angle could cover more distance than kicking straight-on; he played college football at Cornell and made his pro debut in 1964 with the Buffalo Bills of the AFL; his younger brother Charlie was also an NFL kicker. The soccer-style kick gained popularity and was nearly universal by the late 1970s; the last straight-on kicker in the NFL was Mark Moseley, who retired 32 years ago in 1986.

text: Successful field goals[edit]

text: If there is any time left in the half, the method of resuming play after a successful field goal varies between leagues.

text: Missed field goals[edit]

text: A missed field goal is said to be "no good" if the kicked ball does not cross between the uprights and/or over the crossbar of the goal posts. If it misses to the posts' left it may be called "wide left" and "wide right" if it misses to the posts' right. A field goal attempt may be described as "short" if it does not have sufficient distance to go over the cross bar. Some commentators will only describe a field goal attempt as being short if it appears to have been aimed correctly while others will describe an attempt appearing to lack both accuracy and distance as being both wide and short.

text: If a field goal attempt is missed and does not go out of bounds, a defensive player may catch the ball and return it, like a punt or kickoff. This type of play usually occurs during an extremely long field goal attempt due to the distance the defense must travel to reach the returner. If there is a significant likelihood of a miss and the strategic game situation warrants it, the defense places a player downfield, in or near their end zone, to catch the ball. The risk in this is that the return man may be tackled deep in his own territory, at a considerably worse position than he could have gotten by letting the ball go dead (see below); furthermore, should the returner fumble the ball, the kicking team can recover it and gain a new set of downs (the advantage is that the kicking team is lined up very close together to stop kick blockers, and not spread across the field like a kickoff or punt team, and is therefore in poor position to defend the return). Thus, teams will usually return a kick only towards the end of a half (when the kick will be the final play) or in a particularly desperate situation.

text: If a ball caroms off one of the goal posts or the crossbar, but lands in the field of play, the ball is considered dead and cannot be returned. (This is not the case in arena football, where large "rebound nets" surround the goal posts for the explicit purpose of keeping the ball in play.) However, if the ball caroms off one of the goal posts or the crossbar and continues into the goal, the score counts.

text: Situations where the defense does not return a missed field goal vary between leagues and levels of play:

text: Blocked field goals[edit]

text: Occasionally, the defense will succeed in blocking a field goal. If a blocked field goal is in or behind the neutral zone, it is treated like a fumble and can be advanced by either team. Beyond the neutral zone, a blocked kick is treated like a punt and can be advanced only by the defense, unless a defensive player fumbles the ball, after which an offensive player can advance it.

text: History[edit]

text: In the early days of football, kicking was highly emphasized. In 1883, the scoring system was devised, with field goals counting for 5 points, and touchdowns and conversions worth 4 apiece. In 1897, the touchdown was raised to 5 points while the conversion was lowered to 1 point. Field goals were devalued to 4 points in 1904, and then to the modern 3 points in 1909. The touchdown was changed to 6 points in 1912 in American football; the Canadian game followed suit in 1956.

text: The spot of the conversion has also changed through the years. In 1924, NCAA rules spotted the conversion at the 3-yard line, before moving it back to the 5-yard line in 1925. In 1929, the spot was moved up to the 2-yard line, which the NFL had done until 2014. In 1968, the NCAA diverged from the NFL rules in moving the spot back to the original 3-yard line. Canadian rules originally spotted the conversion at the 5-yard line, which remains closer than in the American code as the goalposts are at the front of the end zone. In 2015, to make conversion kicks harder, the NFL and CFL moved the spot of the kick to the 15 and 25-yard lines, respectively. In addition, the CFL moved the spot for a two-point conversion up to the 3-yard line to entice more teams to go for 2 points as opposed to one.

text: The goalposts were originally located on the goal line; this led to many injuries and sometimes interfered with play. The NCAA moved the goal posts to the rear of the end zone in 1927. The NFL (still following NCAA rules at the time) followed suit, but moved the posts back to the goal line starting in the 1932 NFL Playoff Game, a change made necessary by the size of the indoor Chicago Stadium and kept when the NFL rules stopped mirroring the NCAA rules in 1933. The NFL kept the post at the goal line until 1974, when they were moved back to the rear of the end zone. This was partly a result of the narrowed hashmark distance made in 1972, which had made for easier field-goal angles. The Canadian game still has posts on the goal line.

text: The width of the goalposts and the hashmarks have also varied throughout the years. In 1959, the NCAA goalposts were widened to 23 feet 4 inches (7.11 m), the standard width for high school posts today. In 1991, the college goalposts were reduced in width to 18 ft 6 in (5.64 m), matching the NFL. For the 1991 and 1992 seasons, this meant potentially severe angles for short field goal attempts, since the hashmark width remained at 53 ft 4 in (16.26 m). In 1993, the NCAA narrowed the distance between the hashmarks to 40 ft (12.19 m), matching what was the width of hashmarks in the NFL from 1945 through 1971; the NFL narrowed the hashmarks in 1972 to goalpost width at 18.5 feet (5.64 m). In the CFL, the hashmarks are 51 feet (16 m), but the field is 195 feet (59 m) in width, 35 feet (11 m) wider than the American field.

text: The NFL increased the height of the uprights above the crossbar to 20 feet (6.10 m) in 1966 and 30 feet (9.14 m) in 1974. In 2014, they were raised five feet to 35 feet (10.67 m) after the adoption of a proposal by New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick.[7]

text: The "slingshot" goalpost, with a single post curving to support the crossbar, was invented by Jim Trimble and Joel Rottman in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.[8] The first were built by Alcan and displayed at Expo 67,[8][9] the World's fair in Montreal. The NFL had standardized the goalposts in 1966 and adopted the slingshot for the 1967 season;[8] the NCAA later adopted the same rule, but later allowed the use of "offset" goalposts, with two posts rather than one (which were the norm prior to the invention of the "slingshot" goalposts). The CFL was the first league to use the new goalposts; they made their debut in the 2nd game of the CFL's Eastern Conference final in 1966 (which was played at Montreal's Autostade as Landsdowne Park [now TD Place Stadium], the home of Ottawa Rough Riders, was undergoing renovations), and were used in the Grey Cup the next week at Vancouver's Empire Stadium. Three schools in Division I FBS currently use dual-support posts: Florida State, LSU, and Washington State. A special exemption was allowed by the NFL for the New Orleans Saints to use the offset goalposts during the 2005 season, when they used LSU's stadium for home games after Hurricane Katrina.

text: Goalposts at the professional level today are sometimes equipped with a camera mounted to the stanchion immediately behind the center of the crossbar. Since these cameras are both above and slightly behind the crossbar, a field goal attempt will be judged good if it strikes this equipment.

text: In 1989, the NCAA banned the kicking tee for field goals and extra points, requiring kicks from the ground.[10][11]

text: During the 2011 NFL season, a record 90 field goals of 50 yards or longer were made.[12] In 2012, this record was increased to 92 field goals of 50 yards or longer.[12]

text: Longest field goal records[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: As recorded in Guinness World Records:

text: The record for a field goal at any level is 69 yards. It was kicked by Ove Johansson of the Abilene Christian University Wildcats in the 1976 game against East Texas State University Lions (now Texas A&M University–Commerce) in Shotwell Stadium, Abilene, Texas.[13]

text: NFL[edit]

text: The longest field goal made was 64 yards by Matt Prater of the Denver Broncos on December 8, 2013.[14] The longest field goal attempt in an NFL game was 76 yards by Sebastian Janikowski on September 28, 2008.[15]

text: In the history of the NFL regular season, only 18 field goals have been made from at least 60 yards:[16]

text:
Distance
Kicker
Team
Result
Opposition
Date
Notes
Location
Elevation
Weather

64 yards
Matt Prater
Denver Broncos
51–28
Tennessee Titans
December 8, 2013
End of 1st half
Sports Authority Field at Mile High
5,280 ft (1,610 m)
13 °F; Sunny; Wind: S at 3 mph; Humidity: 72%

63 yards
Tom Dempsey
New Orleans Saints
19–17
Detroit Lions
November 8, 1970
Born with a stub for a right foot. Game-winning kick as time expired. Detroit kicker Errol Mann had kicked a field goal with :08 remaining to give Lions the lead.
Tulane Stadium
16 ft (4.9 m)

63 yards
Jason Elam
Denver Broncos
37–24
Jacksonville Jaguars
October 25, 1998
First field goal to tie record; soccer-style kicker
Mile High Stadium
5,280 ft (1,610 m)

63 yards
Sebastian Janikowski
Oakland Raiders
23–20
Denver Broncos
September 12, 2011
Left-footed
Sports Authority Field at Mile High
5,280 ft (1,610 m)
Light rain early

63 yards
David Akers
San Francisco 49ers
30–22
Green Bay Packers
September 9, 2012
Left-footed; end of first half; ball bounced off crossbar before crossing the plane
Lambeau Field
640 ft (200 m)
70 °F; Mostly Cloudy; Wind: N at 7 mph; Humidity: 43%

62 yards
Matt Bryant
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
23–21
Philadelphia Eagles
October 22, 2006
Game-winning kick as time expired
Raymond James Stadium
35 ft (11 m)

62 yards
Stephen Gostkowski
New England Patriots
33–8
Oakland Raiders
November 19, 2017
Right-footed; kicked as time expired at the end of the first half
Azteca Stadium
7,280 ft (2,220 m)
63 °F; Mostly Cloudy

61 yards
Sebastian Janikowski
Oakland Raiders
9–23
Cleveland Browns
December 27, 2009
Left-footed
FirstEnergy Stadium
580 ft (180 m)

61 yards
Jay Feely
Arizona Cardinals
16–19 (OT)
Buffalo Bills
October 14, 2012
Right-footed; longest game-tying field goal with 1:09 remaining in the 4th quarter, missed a 38-yard field goal that would have won the game at the end of regulation
University of Phoenix Stadium
1,150 ft (350 m)
Retractable roof closed

61 yards
Justin Tucker
Baltimore Ravens
18–16
Detroit Lions
December 16, 2013
Right-footed; game-winning field goal with 43 seconds remaining; sixth field goal of the game
Ford Field
601 ft (183 m)[17]
Dome

61 yards
Greg Zuerlein
St. Louis Rams
18–21 (OT)
Minnesota Vikings
November 8, 2015
Right-footed
TCF Bank Stadium
869 ft (265 m)
58 °F (14 °C); sunny

61 yards
Jake Elliott
Philadelphia Eagles
27–24
New York Giants
September 24, 2017
Right-footed; game winning kick as time expired. Second game of NFL career. NFL rookie record for longest made field goal.
Lincoln Financial Field
39 ft (12 m)
91 °F (33 °C); sunny

60 yards
Steve Cox
Cleveland Browns
9–12
Cincinnati Bengals
October 21, 1984
Straight-ahead kick; on AstroTurf
Riverfront Stadium
490 ft (150 m)

60 yards
Morten Andersen
New Orleans Saints
17–20
Chicago Bears
October 27, 1991
Left-footed; on AstroTurf; first 60-yard kick done indoors
Louisiana Superdome
Sea level
Dome

60 yards
Rob Bironas
Tennessee Titans
20–17
Indianapolis Colts
December 3, 2006
Right-footed; game winner with six seconds remaining
LP Field
400 ft (120 m)

60 yards
Dan Carpenter
Miami Dolphins
10–13
Cleveland Browns
December 5, 2010
End of 1st half
Sun Life Stadium
5 ft (1.5 m)
77 °F (25 °C), wind SW at 14 mph (23 km/h)

60 yards
Greg Zuerlein
St. Louis Rams
19–13
Seattle Seahawks
September 30, 2012
In his rookie season; longest field goal in third quarter; also kicked a 58-yard field goal in the first quarter
Edward Jones Dome
466 ft (142 m)
Dome

60 yards
Chandler Catanzaro
Arizona Cardinals
18–33
Buffalo Bills
September 25, 2016
Longest field goal in career
New Era Field
600 ft (180 m)

text: Prior to Dempsey's 1970 kick, the longest field goal in NFL history was a 56-yard field goal by Bert Rechichar in 1953. A 55-yard field goal, achieved by a drop kick, was recorded by Paddy Driscoll in 1924, and stood as the unofficial record until that point; some sources indicate a 54-yarder by Glenn Presnell in 1934 as the record, due to the inability to precisely verify Driscoll's 55-yarder.

text: In a pre-season NFL game between the Denver Broncos and the Seattle Seahawks on August 29, 2002, Ola Kimrin kicked a 65-yard field goal.[18] However, because pre-season games are not counted toward official records, this accomplishment is not the official record.

text: CFL[edit]

text:
62 yards, Paul McCallum, Saskatchewan Roughriders vs. Edmonton Eskimos, October 27, 2001[19]
60 yards, Dave Ridgway, Saskatchewan Roughriders vs. Winnipeg Blue Bombers, September 6, 1987[19]

text: College football[edit]

text:
69 yards, Ove Johansson, Abilene Christian vs. East Texas State on October 16, 1976. (NAIA)
67 yards, Tom Odle, Fort Hays State vs. Washburn, 1988. (NCAA)
67 yards, Joe Williams, Wichita State vs. Southern Illinois, 1978. (NCAA Division I)
67 yards, Russell Erxleben, Texas vs. Rice, 1977. (NCAA Division I)
67 yards, Steve Little, Arkansas vs. Texas, 1977.[20] (NCAA Division I)
65 yards, J. T. Haxall, Princeton vs. Yale, 1882.

text: All of the above kicks were successful with the use of a kicking tee, which was banned by the NCAA after the 1988 season.

text: 65 yards, Martin Gramatica, Kansas State vs. Northern Illinois, 1998 - without a tee [21]

text: The longest known drop-kicked field goal in college football was a 62-yard kick from Pat O'Dea, an Australian kicker who played on the Wisconsin Badgers football team. O'Dea's kick took place in a blizzard against Northwestern on November 15, 1898.[22]

text: U Sports[edit]

text: The longest field goal in U Sports football history is 59 yards, by Niko Difonte of Calgary Dinos, playing against the UBC Thunderbirds on November 11, 2017. The field goal was the final and winning play of the 81st Hardy Cup.[23][24]

text: High school[edit]

text:
68 yards, Dirk Borgognone, Reno High School vs. Sparks High School (Nevada), September 27, 1985[25][26]
67 yards, Austin Rehkow, Central Valley High School (Spokane Valley, Washington) vs. Shadle Park High School (Spokane, Washington), October 18, 2012, game-tying FG with :02 left in 4th quarter (CV would go on to win 62-55). [27][28] (tied with two others)
62 yards, David Rosenbaum, Woodrow Wilson High School (Washington, D.C.) vs. Spingarn High School, October 3, 2003. While no records are kept, considered to be the longest extra point scored. Penalties due to excessive celebration, unsportsmanlike conduct, and taunting.[29]

text: Independent amateur[edit]

text: 68 yards, Fabrizio Scaccia, Treasure Coast Bobcats (FL), March 29, 2009[30] (world record for a kick without the aid of a tee, which was banned for field goal and extra point attempts in the NCAA in 1989)

text: Independent Women's Football League[edit]

text: 44 yards, Sarah Oliver, California Quake vs. New Mexico Menace, April 26, 2008.[31]

text: Longest missed field goal return records[edit]

text: NFL[edit]

text: Field goal returns are rare in the NFL, since an attempt with sufficient distance that misses the uprights will automatically be dead. Returns are possible when a field goal is short, but in that case returners will usually down the ball so as to scrimmage from the spot of the kick. Normally, a return will only be attempted when there is not enough time left in the half to run a play from scrimmage. Nevertheless, four field goals have been returned for at least 107 yards in the 21st century:

text:
Distance returned
Returner
Team
Opposing kicker
Opposing team
Distance attempted
Date
Location

109 yards[32]
Antonio Cromartie
San Diego Chargers
Ryan Longwell
Minnesota Vikings
58 yards
November 4, 2007
Metrodome

108 yards[33]
Devin Hester
Chicago Bears
Jay Feely
New York Giants
52 yards
November 12, 2006
Giants Stadium

108 yards[34]
Nathan Vasher
Chicago Bears
Joe Nedney
San Francisco 49ers
52 yards
November 13, 2005
Soldier Field

107 yards[35]
Chris McAlister
Baltimore Ravens
Jason Elam
Denver Broncos
57 yards
September 30, 2002
Ravens Stadium

text: CFL[edit]

text: Because the goalposts in Canadian football are on the goal line, and because downing the ball in the end zone results in the kicking team scoring a single point, field goal returns are much more common. The longest missed field goal return in the CFL is 131 total yards. Against the Montreal Alouettes on August 22, 1958, the Toronto Argonauts' Boyd Carter ran 15 yards, then threw a lateral to Dave Mann, who then returned it for the final 116 yards.[36] This return, which started 21 yards behind the goal line, was during the era of 25-yard end zones (which made the maximum theoretical missed field return distance 134 yards in those days) and therefore cannot be met or exceeded on the modern field with 20-yard end zones. Since the shortening of the end zones in the CFL in 1986, a field goal has been returned for the maximum 129 yards on two occasions: by Tristan Jackson of the Saskatchewan Roughriders on July 14, 2012 [37] and by Trent Guy of the Montreal Alouettes on September 23, 2012.[38]

text: NCAA[edit]

text: In NCAA college football, only five missed field goals returns for touchdowns have ever been returned 100 yards or more:[39]

text:
September 17, 1966: Don Guest (California Golden Bears), 108-yard return for a touchdown after a failed 47-yard field goal attempt by Washington State.[39]
September 28, 1968: Richie Luzzi (Clemson Tigers), 108-yard return for a touchdown after a failed 47-yard field goal attempt by Georgia.[40]
September 7, 2013: Odell Beckham Jr. (LSU Tigers), 109-yard return for a touchdown after a failed 59-yard field goal attempt by UAB.[39]
November 30, 2013: Chris Davis, Jr. (Auburn Tigers), 109-yard return for a touchdown after what would have been a tie-breaking 57-yard field goal attempt by Alabama fell short as time expired, what some writers and fans call the greatest play in college football history.[41][42][43][44]
September 3, 2016: Brandon Wilson (Houston Cougars), 109-yard return for a touchdown after a failed 53-yard field goal attempt by Oklahoma.[45]

text: U Sports[edit]

text: In U Sports football, like in the CFL, the longest possible missed field goal return is 129 yards, and this has occurred three times.[24]

text:
Jeremy Botelho of the Manitoba Bisons playing against the Simon Fraser Clansmen on September 11, 2009
Jedd Gardner of the Guelph Gryphons playing against the McMaster Marauders on October 8, 2010
Tunde Adeleke of the Carleton Ravens playing against the Ottawa Gee-Gees on October 5, 2013


document_title: Pancreas

question_text: where does the pancreas secrete digestive enzymes into

root

text: Pancreas

text: Structure[edit]

text: The pancreas is an endocrine and digestive organ that, in humans, lies in the upper left part of the abdomen. It is found behind the stomach.[3] The pancreas is about 15 cm (6 in) long.[4]

tag: p

text: Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into the head of pancreas, the neck of pancreas, the body of pancreas, and the tail of pancreas.[2] The head is surrounded by the duodenum in its concavity. The head surrounds two blood vessels, the superior mesenteric artery and vein. From the back of the head emerges a small uncinate process which extends to the back of the superior mesenteric vein and ends at the superior mesenteric artery.[5] The neck is about 2.5 cm long and lies between the head and the body, and in front of the superior mesenteric artery and vein. Its front upper surface supports the pylorus (the base) of the stomach. The neck arises from the left upper part of the front of the head. It is directed at first, upward and forward, and then upward and to the left to join the body; it is somewhat flattened from above downward and backward. On the right it is grooved by the gastroduodenal artery. The body is the largest part of the pancreas and lies behind the pylorus, at the same level as the transpyloric plane.[6] The tail ends by abutting the spleen.

text: The pancreas is a secretory structure with an internal hormonal role (endocrine) and an external digestive role (exocrine). The endocrine part is composed of hormonal tissue distributed along the pancreas in discrete units called islets of Langerhans.[2] Islets of Langerhans have a well-established structure and form density routes through the exocrine tissue.[2] The exocrine part has two main ducts, the main pancreatic duct, and the accessory pancreatic duct. These drain enzymes through the ampulla of Vater into the duodenum.[7]

text: Margins[edit]

text: The upper margin of the pancreas is blunt and flat to the right; narrow and sharp to the left, near the tail.

text: It begins on the right in the omental tuber, and is in relation with the celiac artery, from which the hepatic artery courses to the right just above the gland, while the splenic artery runs toward the left in a groove along this border.

text: The lower margin of the pancreas separates the posterior from the inferior surface; the superior mesenteric vessels emerge under its right extremity.

text: The frontal margin of the pancreas separates the anterior from the inferior surface of the pancreas, and along this border the two layers of the transverse mesocolon diverge from one another; one passing upward over the frontal surface, the other backward over the inferior surface.

text: Surfaces[edit]

text: The inferior surface of the pancreas is narrow on the right but broader on the left, and is covered by peritoneum; it lies upon the duodenojejunal flexure and on some coils of the jejunum; its left extremity rests on the splenic flexure of the colon.

text: The anterior surface of the pancreas faces the front of the abdomen. Most of the right half of this surface is in contact with the transverse colon, with only areolar tissue intervening.

text: From its upper part it joins to the neck of the pancreas at a well-marked prominence, the omental tuber which abuts the lesser omentum. Its right edge is marked by a groove for the gastroduodenal artery.

text: The lower part of the right half, below the transverse colon, is covered by peritoneum continuous with the inferior layer of the transverse mesocolon, and is in contact with the coils of the small intestine.

text: The superior mesenteric artery passes down in front of the left half across the uncinate process; the superior mesenteric vein runs upward on the right side of the artery and, behind the neck, joins with the lienal vein to form the portal vein.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The pancreas receives blood from branches of both the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery. The splenic artery runs along the top margin of the pancreas, and supplies the neck, body and tail of the pancreas through its pancreatic branches, the largest of which is called the greater pancreatic artery. The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries run along the anterior and posterior surfaces of the head of the pancreas at its border with the duodenum. These supply the head of the pancreas.[5]

text: The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein; the head drains into the superior mesenteric and portal veins.[5]

text: Histology[edit]

text: The pancreas contains tissue with an endocrine and exocrine role, and this division is also visible when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope.[2][7]

text: The tissues with an endocrine role can be seen under staining as lightly-stained clusters of cells, called pancreatic islets (also called islets of Langerhans).[2][7]

text: Darker-staining cells form clusters called acini, which are arranged in lobes separated by a thin fibrous barrier. The secretory cells of each acinus surround a small intercalated duct. Because of their secretory function, these cells have many small granules of zymogens that are visible. The intercalated ducts drain into larger ducts within the lobule, and finally interlobular ducts. The ducts are lined by a single layer of columnar epithelium. With increasing diameter, several layers of columnar cells may be seen.[7]

text: Variation[edit]

text: The size of the pancreas varies considerably.[3] Several anatomical variations exist, relating to the embryological development of the two pancreatic buds. The pancreas develops from these buds on either side of the duodenum. The ventral bud eventually rotates to lie next to the dorsal bud, eventually fusing. If the two buds each having a duct, do not fuse, a pancreas may exist with two separate ducts, a condition known as a pancreas divisum. This condition has no physiologic consequence.[8] If the ventral bud does not fully rotate, an annular pancreas may exist. This is where sections of the pancreas completely encircle the duodenum, and may even lead to duodenal atresia.[5]

text: An accessory pancreatic duct may exist if the main duct of pancreas does not regress.[9]

text: Development[edit]

text: As part of embryonic development the pancreas forms from the embryonic foregut and is therefore of endodermal origin. Pancreatic development begins with the formation of a ventral and a dorsal pancreatic bud. Each structure communicates with the foregut through a duct. The dorsal pancreatic bud forms the head, neck, body, and tail, whereas the ventral pancreatic bud forms the uncinate process.[9]

text: Differential rotation and fusion of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds results in the formation of the definitive pancreas.[10] As the duodenum rotates to the right, it carries with it the ventral pancreatic bud and common bile duct. Upon reaching its final destination, the ventral pancreatic bud fuses with the much larger dorsal pancreatic bud. At this point of fusion, the main ducts of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse, forming the main pancreatic duct. The duct of the dorsal bud regresses, leaving the main pancreatic duct.[9]

text: Differentiation of cells of the pancreas proceeds through two different pathways, corresponding to the dual endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas. In progenitor cells of the exocrine pancreas, important molecules that induce differentiation include follistatin, fibroblast growth factors, and activation of the Notch receptor system.[10] Development of the exocrine acini progresses through three successive stages. These are the predifferentiated, protodifferentiated, and differentiated stages, which correspond to undetectable, low, and high levels of digestive enzyme activity, respectively.

text: The multi-potent pancreatic progenitor cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the pancreatic cells: acinar cells, endocrine cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6-1. Under the influence of neurogenin-3 and ISL1, but in the absence of notch receptor signaling, these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the direction of a Pax gene, forms α- and γ- cells, which produce glucagon and pancreatic polypeptides, respectively. The second line, influenced by Pax-6, produces beta cells (β-) and delta cells (δ-), which secrete insulin and somatostatin, respectively.[2]

text: Insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of fetal development.[10]

text: Function[edit]

text: The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion of substances (collectively pancreatic juice) which help digestion.[2] Classically, these are divided into an "endocrine" role, relating to the secretion of insulin and other substances within pancreatic islets and helping control blood sugar levels and metabolism within the body, and an "exocrine" role, relating to the secretion of enzymes involved in digesting substances from outside of the body.

text: Sugar control and metabolism[edit]

text: Approximately 3 million cell clusters called pancreatic islets are present in the pancreas.[2] Within these islets are four main types of cells which are involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels.[2] Each type of cell secretes a different type of hormone: α alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood), β beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), δ delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells) and PP cells, or γ (gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide.[2][11] These act to control blood glucose through secreting glucagon to increase the levels of glucose, and insulin to decrease it.

text: The islets are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of islet cells, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, either by cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition. The islets function independently from the digestive role played by the majority of pancreatic cells.[12]

text: Activity of the cells in the islets is affected by the autonomic nervous system:

text: Digestion[edit]

text: The pancreas plays a vital role in the digestive system. It secretes fluid that contains enzymes into the duodenum. These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates (usually starch), proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the "exocrine" role of the pancreas. Cells are arranged clusters called acini. Secretions into the middle of the acinus accumulate in intralobular ducts that drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum.

text: The cells are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive form called (termed zymogens or proenzymes). When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are cleaved, creating a cascade of activating enzymes: enteropeptidase activates the proenzyme trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen, as well as chymotrypsinogen to its active form chymotrypsin.

text: The pancreas secretes substances which help in the digestion of starch and other carbohydrates, proteins and fats.[14] Proteases, the enzymes involved in the digestion of proteins, include trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. The enzyme involved in the digestion of fats is lipase. Amylase, also secreted by the pancreas, breaks down starch (amylum) and other carbohydrates. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase.

text: Secretion of these proenzymes is via the hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin and secretin, which are secreted by cells in the stomach and duodenum in response to distension and/or food.

text: Gene and protein expression[edit]

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and about 50% of these genes are expressed in the normal pancreas.[15][16] Less than 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the pancreas. Similar to the salivary glands, most of the pancreas specific genes encode for secreted proteins. Corresponding pancreas specific proteins are either expressed in the exocrine cellular compartment and have functions related to digestion of food uptake such as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.[17]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: A perforation of the pancreas, which may lead to the secretion of digestive enzymes such as lipase and amylase into the abdominal cavity as well as subsequent pancreatic self-digestion and digestion and damage to organs within the abdomen, generally requires prompt and experienced medical intervention.

text: It is possible for one to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood glucose concentration and pancreatic enzyme supplements to aid digestion.[18]

text: Inflammation[edit]

text: Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is most often associated with recurrent gallstones or chronic alcohol use, although a variety of other causes, including measles, mumps, some medications, the congenital condition alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency and even some scorpion stings, may cause pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is likely to cause intense pain in the central abdomen, that often radiates to the back, and may be associated with jaundice. In addition, due to causing problems with fat digestion and bilirubin excretion, pancreatitis often presents with pale stools and dark urine.[19]

text: In pancreatitis, enzymes of the exocrine pancreas damage the structure and tissue of the pancreas. Detection of some of these enzymes, such as amylase and lipase in the blood, along with symptoms and findings on X-ray, are often used to indicate that a person has pancreatitis. A person with pancreatitis is also at risk of shock. Pancreatitis is often managed medically with analgesics, removal of gallstones or treatment of other causes, and monitoring to ensure a patient does not develop shock.[19]

text: Cancer[edit]

text: Pancreatic cancers, particularly the most common type, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, remain very difficult to treat, and are mostly diagnosed only at a stage that is too late for surgery, which is the only curative treatment. Pancreatic cancer is rare in those younger than 40, and the median age of diagnosis is 71.[20] Risk factors include smoking, obesity, diabetes, and certain rare genetic conditions including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer among others.[21] About 25% of cases are attributable to tobacco smoking,[22] while 5-10% of cases are linked to inherited genes.[20]

text: There are several types of pancreatic cancer, involving both the endocrine and exocrine tissue. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma, which affects the exocrine part of the pancreas, is by far the most common form. The many types of pancreatic endocrine tumors are all uncommon or rare, and have varied outlooks. However the incidence of these cancers has been rising sharply; it is not clear to what extent this reflects increased detection, especially through medical imaging, of tumors that would be very slow to develop. Insulinomas (largely benign) and gastrinomas are the most common types.[23] In the United States pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause of deaths due to cancer.[24] The disease occurs more often in the developed world, which had 68% of new cases in 2012.[25] Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has poor outcomes with the average percentage alive for at least one and five years after diagnosis being 25% and 5% respectively.[25][26] In localized disease where the cancer is small (< 2 cm) the number alive at five years is approximately 20%.[27] For those with neuroendocrine cancers the number alive after five years is much better at 65%, varying considerably with type.[25]

text: A solid pseudopapillary tumour is a low-grade malignant tumour of the pancreas of papillary architecture that typically afflicts young women.[28]

text: Diabetes Mellitus[edit]

text: Type 1 diabetes[edit]

text: Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas. Insulin is needed to keep blood sugar levels within optimal ranges, and its lack can lead to high blood sugar. As an untreated chronic condition, diabetic neuropathy can result. Type 1 diabetes can develop at any age but is most often diagnosed before adulthood. For people living with type 1 diabetes, insulin injections are critical for survival.[29]

text: An experimental procedure to treat type 1 diabetes is the transplantation of pancreatic islet cells from a donor into the patient's liver so that the cells can produce the deficient insulin.[30]

text: Type 2 diabetes[edit]

text: Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common form of diabetes. The causes for high blood sugar in this form of diabetes usually are a combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, with both genetic and environmental factors playing an important role in the development of the disease. The management of type 2 diabetes relies on a series of changes in diet and physical activity with the purpose of reducing blood sugar levels to normal ranges and increasing insulin sensitivity.[29] Biguanides such as metformin are also used as part of the treatment along with insulin therapy.[31]

text: History[edit]

text: The pancreas was first identified by Herophilus (335–280 BC), a Greek anatomist and surgeon.[32] A few hundred years later, Rufus of Ephesus, another Greek anatomist, gave the pancreas its name. Etymologically, the term "pancreas", a modern Latin adaptation of Greek πάγκρεας,[33] [πᾶν ("all", "whole"), and κρέας ("flesh")],[34] originally means sweetbread,[35] although literally meaning all-flesh, presumably because of its fleshy consistency. It was only in 1889 when Oskar Minkowski discovered that removing the pancreas from a dog caused it to become diabetic (insulin was later discovered by Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best in 1921).

text: The organ is mentioned prominently in the 1992 film Encino Man. Pauly Shore's character Stoney often refers to the organ in unrelated contexts, perhaps demonstrating a fundamental misunderstanding of what the pancreas does.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrates, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including humans), these fuse in the adult, but there are several exceptions. Even when a single pancreas is present, two or three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or equivalent part of the foregut). Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.[36]

text: In teleosts, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen. In a few teleost species, the endocrine tissue has fused to form a distinct gland within the abdominal cavity, but otherwise it is distributed among the exocrine components. The most primitive arrangement, however, appears to be that of lampreys and lungfish, in which pancreatic tissue is found as a number of discrete nodules within the wall of the gut itself, with the exocrine portions being little different from other glandular structures of the intestine.[36]

text: Cuisine[edit]

text: The pancreas of calf (ris de veau) and lamb (ris d'agneau), and, less commonly, of beef and pork, are used as food under the culinary name of sweetbread.[37]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
The duodenum and pancreas

Pancreas of a human embryo at end of sixth week

Dog pancreas magnified 100 times

The pancreas and its surrounding structures

Duodenum and pancreas. Deep dissection.

tag: ul


document_title: List of Major League Baseball stolen base records

question_text: who has the most stolen bases in a season

text: Top 10 career stolen bases by league[edit]

text:
American League Player
SB

National League Player
SB

Rickey Henderson
1270[4]

Lou Brock
938[5]

Ty Cobb
892[6]

Billy Hamilton
782[7]

Eddie Collins
745[8]

Max Carey
738[9]

Willie Wilson
660[10]

Honus Wagner
722[11]

Bert Campaneris
649[12]

Joe Morgan
681[13]

Luis Aparicio
506[14]

Vince Coleman
660[15]

Paul Molitor
504[16]

Tim Raines
635[17]

Kenny Lofton
502[18]

Dummy Hoy
567[19]

Clyde Milan
495[20]

Maury Wills
586[21]

Ichiro Suzuki
487[22]

Ozzie Smith
580[23]

tag: table

text: 100 stolen bases, one season[edit]

text: The pre-modern single-season mark for stolen bases is 138 by Hugh Nicol in 1887. In the modern era, Ty Cobb set a single-season mark of 96 stolen bases in 1915[24] that lasted until it was broken by Maury Wills with 104 in 1962. A new modern mark was set by Lou Brock with 118 in 1974, and again by Rickey Henderson with 130 in 1982. Henderson and Vince Coleman are the only players to record three 100-steal seasons in the modern era. Coleman is the only player to do it three seasons in a row, much less in the first three season of his career, as well as the only player to record 100 steals as a rookie.

text:
Player
SB[25]
Team
Season

Hugh Nicol
138
Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA)
1887

Rickey Henderson
130
Oakland Athletics
1982

Arlie Latham
129
St. Louis Cardinals (AA)
1887

Lou Brock
118
St. Louis Cardinals
1974

Charles Comiskey
117
St. Louis Cardinals (AA)
1887

John Montgomery Ward
111
New York Giants
1887

Billy Hamilton
111
Philadelphia Phillies
1891

Vince Coleman
110
St. Louis Cardinals
1985 (r)

Arlie Latham
109
St. Louis Cardinals (AA)
1888

Vince Coleman
109
St. Louis Cardinals
1987

Rickey Henderson
108
Oakland Athletics
1983

Vince Coleman
107
St. Louis Cardinals
1986

Maury Wills
104
Los Angeles Dodgers
1962

Hugh Nicol
103
Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA)
1888

Jim Fogarty
102
Philadelphia Phillies
1887

Billy Hamilton
102
Philadelphia Phillies
1890

Rickey Henderson
100
Oakland Athletics
1980

text: 5 stolen bases, one game[edit]

text: Under the pre-modern rule, George Gore stole 7 bases in a game in 1881, a mark that was tied by "Sliding Billy" Hamilton in 1894. In the modern era, Eddie Collins stole 6 bases in a game on two occasions, both in September 1912, a mark that stood alone for nearly eight decades before being tied by Otis Nixon (1991), Eric Young (1996), and Carl Crawford (2009).

text:
Player
SB[26]
Team
Date
Opponent

George Gore
7
Chicago White Stockings
June 25, 1881
Providence Grays

Billy Hamilton
7
Philadelphia Phillies
August 31, 1894
Washington Senators

Eddie Collins
6
Philadelphia Athletics
September 11, 1912
Detroit Tigers

Eddie Collins
6
Philadelphia Athletics
September 22, 1912
St. Louis Browns

Otis Nixon
6
Atlanta Braves
June 16, 1991
Montreal Expos

Eric Young
6
Colorado Rockies
June 30, 1996
Los Angeles Dodgers

Carl Crawford
6
Tampa Bay Rays
3 May 2009
Boston Red Sox

Dan McGann
5
New York Giants
27 May 1904
Brooklyn Superbas

Clyde Milan
5
Washington Senators
June 14, 1912
Cleveland Indians

Johnny Neun
5
Detroit Tigers
July 9, 1927 1
New York Yankees

Amos Otis
5
Kansas City Royals
September 7, 1971
Milwaukee Brewers

Davey Lopes
5
Los Angeles Dodgers
August 24, 1974
St. Louis Cardinals

Bert Campaneris
5
Oakland Athletics
24 May 1976
Minnesota Twins

Lonnie Smith
5
St. Louis Cardinals
September 4, 1982
San Francisco Giants

Alan Wiggins
5
San Diego Padres
17 May 1984
Montreal Expos

Tony Gwynn
5
San Diego Padres
September 20, 1986
Houston Astros

Rickey Henderson
5
Oakland Athletics
July 29, 1989
Seattle Mariners

Alex Cole
5
Cleveland Indians
August 1, 1990
Kansas City Royals

Alex Cole
5
Cleveland Indians
3 May 1992
California Angels

Damian Jackson
5
San Diego Padres
June 28, 1999
Colorado Rockies

Eric Young
5
Chicago Cubs
14 May 2000
Montreal Expos

Kenny Lofton
5
Cleveland Indians
September 3, 2000
Baltimore Orioles

Scarborough Green
5
Texas Rangers
September 28, 2000
Seattle Mariners

Ryan Freel
5
Cincinnati Reds
July 27, 2005
Los Angeles Dodgers

Willy Taveras
5
Colorado Rockies
June 14, 2008
Chicago White Sox

Dexter Fowler
5
Colorado Rockies
April 27, 2009
San Diego Padres

Jacoby Ellsbury
5
Boston Red Sox
May 30, 2013
Philadelphia Phillies

Billy Hamilton
5
Cincinnati Reds
June 14, 2015
Chicago Cubs

text: 35 consecutive stolen bases[edit]

text: Max Carey established a mark in 1922 of 31 consecutive stolen bases without being caught,[27] which stood until it was broken by Davey Lopes' streak of 38 in 1975. Lopes' mark was in turn surpassed by Vince Coleman with 50 consecutive stolen bases in 1988.

text:
Player
SB[28]
Team
Start
Ended

Vince Coleman
50
St. Louis Cardinals
September 16, 1988
July 26, 1989

Ichiro Suzuki
45
Seattle Mariners
April 29, 2006
16 May 2007

Tim Raines
40
Chicago White Sox
July 23, 1993
September 1, 1995

Jimmy Rollins
39
Philadelphia Phillies
September 1, 2007
July 26, 2008

Davey Lopes
38[27][29][30]
Los Angeles Dodgers
June 6, 1975
August 24, 1975

Stan Javier
37
Oak Athletics–SF Giants
May 31, 1995
June 27, 1996

Tim Raines
36
Montreal Expos
September 23, 1983
July 6, 1984

Paul Molitor
36
Toronto Blue Jays
August 22, 1993
October 1, 1995

Davey Lopes
35
Oak Athletics-Chi Cubs
July 11, 1983
May 18, 1985

Brady Anderson
35
Baltimore Orioles
May 14, 1994
July 2, 1995

Jimmy Rollins
35
Philadelphia Phillies
May 9, 2001
August 25, 2001

text: Three or more seasons with 70 stolen bases[edit]

text: Under pre-modern rules, "Sliding Billy" Hamilton amassed six separate seasons of 70-plus stolen bases over his career. In the modern era, Ty Cobb established a mark of three such seasons that stood (though tied by Lou Brock and Omar Moreno) until it was broken by Tim Raines in 1984. In 1986, Raines reached six seasons of 70-plus steals, all consecutive (a record), but Rickey Henderson notched his seventh such season in 1989.

text:
Player
Seasons
Seasons and teams

Rickey Henderson[4]
7
1980, 82–83 (Oakland Athletics), 1985–86, 88 (New York Yankees), 1989 (NY Yankees-Oak Athletics)

Billy Hamilton[7]
6
1889 (Kansas City Blues (AA)), 1890–91, 94–95 (Philadelphia Phillies), 1896 (Boston Beaneaters)

Tim Raines[17]
6
1981–86 (Montreal Expos)

Vince Coleman[15]
5
1985–88, 90 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Tom Brown[31]
3
1890–91 (Boston Reds (PL-AA)), 1892 (Louisville Colonels)

Harry Stovey[32]
3
1887–88 (Philadelphia Athletics (AA)), 1890 (Boston Reds (PL))

Ty Cobb[6]
3
1909, 11, 15 (Detroit Tigers)

Lou Brock[5]
3
1966, 73–74 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Omar Moreno[33]
3
1978–80 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

text: Ten or more seasons with 40 stolen bases[edit]

text: In 1924, Eddie Collins tied Billy Hamilton's pre-modern mark of ten seasons with 40-plus stolen bases. A year later, Max Carey also tied the record. The record was broken by Lou Brock in 1974. Brock eventually recorded a thirteenth 40-steal season, but was in turn surpassed by Rickey Henderson in 1993. Henderson eventually stole 40 bases in sixteen separate seasons.

text:
Player
Seasons
Seasons and teams

Rickey Henderson[4]
16
1980–84, 90–92, 98 (Oakland Athletics), 1985–88 (New York Yankees), 1989 (NY Yankees-Oak Athletics), 1993 (Oak Athletics-Tor Blue Jays), 1997 (SD Padres–Ana Angels)

Lou Brock[5]
13
1964 (Chi Cubs–StL Cardinals), 1965–76 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Tim Raines[17]
11
1981–87, 89–90 (Montreal Expos), 1991–92 (Chicago White Sox)

Billy Hamilton[7]
10
1889 (Kansas City Blues (AA)), 1890–95 (Philadelphia Phillies), 1896–98 (Boston Beaneaters)

Eddie Collins[8]
10
1909–10, 12–14 (Philadelphia Athletics), 1915–17, 23–24 (Chicago White Sox)

Max Carey[9]
10
1912–13, 16–18, 20, 22–25 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

text: Eight or more consecutive seasons with 40 stolen bases[edit]

text:
Player
Seasons
Seasons and teams

Rickey Henderson[4]
14
1980–84, 90–92 (Oakland Athletics), 1985–88 (New York Yankees), 1989 (NY Yankees-Oak Athletics), 1993 (Oak Athletics-Tor Blue Jays)

Lou Brock[5]
13
1964 (Chi Cubs–StL Cardinals), 1965–76 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Billy Hamilton[7]
10
1889 (Kansas City Blues (AA)), 1890–95 (Philadelphia Phillies), 1896–98 (Boston Beaneaters)

Joe Morgan[13]
9
1969–71 (Houston Astros), 1972–77 (Cincinnati Reds)

Honus Wagner[11]
8
1901–08 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

Otis Nixon[34]
8
1990 (Montreal Expos), 1991–93 (Atlanta Braves), 1994 (Boston Red Sox), 1995 (Texas Rangers), 1996 (Toronto Blue Jays), 1997 (Tor Blue Jays-LA Dodgers)

Juan Pierre[35]
8
2001–02 (Colorado Rockies), 2003–05 (Florida Marlins), 2006 (Chicago Cubs), 2007–08 (Los Angeles Dodgers)

text: Fifteen or more seasons with 20 stolen bases[edit]

text:
Player
Titles[36]
Years and teams

Rickey Henderson[4]
20
1979–84, 89–93, 94–95, 98 (Oakland Athletics), 1985–88 (New York Yankees), 1989 (NY Yankees-Oak Athletics), 1993 (Toronto Blue Jays), 1996–97, 2001 (San Diego Padres), 1997 (SD Padres-Anaheim Angels), 1999 (New York Mets), 2000 (NY Mets-Sea Mariners)

Honus Wagner[11]
18
1898–99 (Louisville Colonels), 1900–15 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

George Davis[37]
17
1890–92 (Cleveland Spiders), 1893–1901 (New York Giants), 1902, 1904–06, 08 (Chicago White Sox)

Ty Cobb[6]
17
1906–19, 21, 24 (Detroit Tigers), 1927 (Philadelphia Athletics)

Lou Brock[5]
16
1963 (Chicago Cubs), 1964 (Chi Cubs-Stl Cardinals), 1965–77, 79 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Ozzie Smith[23]
16
1978–81 (San Diego Padres), 1982–93 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Eddie Collins[8]
15
1909–14 (Philadelphia Athletics), 1915–20, 22–24 (Chicago White Sox)

Max Carey[9]
15
1911–18, 20–25 (Pittsburgh Pirates), 1927 (Brooklyn Robins)

Willie Wilson[10]
15
1978–90 (Kansas City Royals), 1991–92 (Oakland Athletics)

text: League leader in stolen bases, 5 or more seasons[edit]

text:
Player
Titles[38]
Years and teams

Rickey Henderson
12
1980–84, 90–91, 98 (Oakland Athletics), 1985–86, 88 (New York Yankees), 1989 (NY Yankees-Oak Athletics)

Max Carey
10
1913, 15–18, 20, 22–25 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

Luis Aparicio
9
1956–62 (Chicago White Sox), 1963–64 (Baltimore Orioles)

Lou Brock
8
1966–69, 71–74 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Ty Cobb
6
1907, 09, 11, 15–17 (Detroit Tigers)

George Case
6
1939–43, 46 (Washington Senators)

Maury Wills
6
1960–65 (Los Angeles Dodgers)

Bert Campaneris
6
1965–68, 70, 72 (Oakland Athletics)

Vince Coleman
6
1985–90 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Billy Hamilton
5
1889 (Kansas City Blues (AA)), 1890–91, 94–95 (Philadelphia Phillies)

Honus Wagner
5
1901–02, 04, 07–08 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

Kenny Lofton
5
1992–96 (Cleveland Indians)

text: League leader in stolen bases, 4 or more consecutive seasons[edit]

text:
Player
Titles[38]
Years and teams

Luis Aparicio
9
1956–62 (Chicago White Sox), 1963–64 (Baltimore Orioles)

Rickey Henderson
7
1980–84 (Oakland Athletics), 1985–86 (New York Yankees)

Maury Wills
6
1960–65 (Los Angeles Dodgers)

Vince Coleman
6
1985–90 (St. Louis Cardinals)

George Case
5
1939–43 (Washington Senators)

Kenny Lofton
5
1992–96 (Cleveland Indians)

Bob Bescher
4
1909–12 (Cincinnati Reds)

Max Carey
4
1915–18 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

Max Carey
4
1922–25 (Pittsburgh Pirates)

Willie Mays
4
1956–59 (San Francisco Giants)

Bert Campaneris
4
1965–68 (KC-Oak Athletics)

Lou Brock
4
1966–69 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Lou Brock
4
1971–74 (St. Louis Cardinals)

Tim Raines
4
1981–84 (Montreal Expos)

Rickey Henderson
4
1988 (New York Yankees), 1989 (NY Yankees-Oak Athletics), 1990–91 (Oakland Athletics)

text: League leader in stolen bases, two leagues[edit]

text:
Player
League, team and year[38]

Harry Stovey
AA: Philadelphia Athletics (1886), PL: Boston Reds (1890)

Tom Brown
AA: Boston Reds (1891), NL: Louisville Colonels (1893)

Billy Hamilton
AA: Kansas City Blues (AA) (1889), NL: Philadelphia Phillies (1890–91, 94–95)

Ron LeFlore
AL: Detroit Tigers (1978), NL: Montreal Expos (1980)

Juan Pierre
NL: Colorado Rockies (2001), Florida Marlins (2003), AL: Chicago White Sox (2010)

text: League leader in stolen bases, three different teams[edit]

text:
Player
Teams and year[38]

Juan Pierre
Colorado Rockies (2001), Florida Marlins (2003), Chicago White Sox (2010)

text: Eighty percent stolen base percentage, career[edit]

text: Those marked in bold have at least 600 career stolen base attempts. Of those, Joe Morgan (in 1984) was the first to retire with a career stolen base percentage of at least 80%. His mark was successively surpassed by Davey Lopes (retired 1987), Willie Wilson, (retired 1994) and Tim Raines (retired 2002).

text:
Player
SB
Attempts
SB%[39]

Chase Utley
127
143
88.8%

Carlos Beltrán
289
328
88.1%

Tim Raines
808
954
84.7%

Eric Davis
349
415
84.1%

Willie Wilson
668
802
83.3%

Barry Larkin
379
456
83.11%

Tony Womack
363
437
83.07%

Jimmy Rollins
343
413
83.05%

Davey Lopes
557
671
83.01%

Carl Crawford
409
499
82.0%

Julio Cruz
343
421
81.5%

Ichiro Suzuki
508
624
81.4%

Joe Morgan
689
851
80.96%

Vince Coleman
752
929
80.95%

Rickey Henderson
1406
1741
80.8%

Alex Rodriguez
301
373
80.7%

Roberto Alomar
474
588
80.6%

José Reyes
500
621
80.5%

text: Ninety-five percent stolen base percentage, season, 30+ stolen bases[edit]

text: see notes2 3

text:
Player
SB%[40]
SB
Attempts
Team
Season

Brady Anderson
96.9%
31
32
Baltimore Orioles
1994

Carlos Beltrán
96.9%
31
32
Kansas City Royals
2001

Max Carey
96.2%
51
53
Pittsburgh Pirates
1922

Ichiro Suzuki
95.74%
45
47
Seattle Mariners
2006

text: 350 stolen bases by a team in one season[edit]

text:
SB[41]
Team
Season

581
St. Louis Cardinals (AA)
1887

527
Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA)
1887

469
Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA)
1888

468
St. Louis Cardinals (AA)
1888

462
Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA)
1889

415
New York Giants
1887

409
Brooklyn Grays (AA)
1887

409
Brooklyn Grooms
1892

389
Brooklyn Bridegrooms (AA)
1889

382
Chicago White Stockings
1887

373
Boston Beaneaters
1887

355
Philadelphia Phillies
1887

350
Cincinnati Reds
1896

text: 290 stolen bases by a team in one season, 1901 or later[edit]

text:
SB[41]
Team
Season

347
New York Giants
1911

341
Oakland Athletics
1976

319
New York Giants
1912

314
St. Louis Cardinals
1985

310
Cincinnati Reds
1910

296
New York Giants
1913

291
New York Giants
1905

290
Cincinnati Reds
1911


document_title: Polar bear plunge

question_text: where did the polar bear dip originate in canada

text: Polar bear plunge

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, "Polar Bear Swims", "plunges" or "dips" are a New Year's Day tradition in numerous communities across the country.[1][2][3][4] Vancouver, BC's annual Polar Bear Swim Club has been active since 1920 and typically has 1,000 to 2,000 registered participants, with a record 2,128 plunging into English Bay in 2000. Registration is not enforced and the actual number of swimmers may be significantly higher. Estimates of the number of observers are typically up to 10,000.[5][6][7] Suburban White Rock, BC's was founded in 1958, and other suburbs including North Vancouver, Surrey, Delta and Langley also hold swims.[8][9][10]

text: Other locations include Bowen Island, BC,[11] Edmonton, AB,[citation needed] Calgary, AB,[citation needed] Ottawa, ON,[citation needed] Oakville, ON,[12] Toronto, ON,[13] Perth, ON,[14] Clarington, ON,[15] Sarnia, ON,[16] Montreal, QC,[citation needed] North Hatley, QC,[citation needed] Halifax, NS,[citation needed] Prince Edward Island,[citation needed], Ness Lake north of Prince George, BC and St. John's, NL.[citation needed] In Yellowknife, NWT, the "Freezin for a Reason" plunge is held in March after the spring thaw.[citation needed]

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: Every New Year's Day around 10,000 people dive collectively into the icy cold sea water at Scheveningen, a Dutch beach resort town, since 1960. In 89 locations on beaches and in lakes all over the country, each year around 30,000 people participate in this "Nieuwjaarsduik" (English: New Year's dive), with a record 36,000 participants on January 1, 2012. Since 1998, Unox, a Unilever food brand often associated with winter, adopted the Nieuwjaarsduik and ever since it is tradition to wear Unox branded winter caps and gloves.[17][18]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: Polar plunges (the local name) are held at various beaches in New Zealand, usually on the weekend closest to the shortest day in late June. Among other places, polar plunges are led at Papamoa Beach (Tauranga),[19] Saint Clair Beach (Dunedin),[20] and Castlecliff (Wanganui).[21]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: An annual "Loony Dook" takes place in South Queensferry, Scotland, on New Year's Day. Several thousand attend the event with over one thousand taking the plunge.[22] Participants regularly dress up for the occasion and will usually parade through the local town acting like "loonies" proceeding the "dook". Aside from the regular enthusiasts, most are still inebriated from New Year's Eve celebrations and have more than likely lost a bet.

text: Another, smaller plunge occurs on Christmas Day at Blackroot Pool in Sutton Park, Birmingham, England.[23] Often, participants aim to raise money for charity.

text: In the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, an annual swim is held on Boxing Day.[24]

text: United States[edit]

text:
Plunges are now held across the United States.  Annual events are held in Seattle (since 1993), Evergreen, Colorado[25]
New York's Coney Island Polar Bear Club,[2][26] Lake George, NY,[27][28]
Boston (since 1904),[29] Milwaukee's Bradford Beach (since 1916),[30] New Hampshire,[31] and New Jersey.[32] Some, such as Minnesota's,[33] are held to raise proceeds for the Special Olympics. Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth College also organizes an annual "Polar Plunge for Health Equity" into Occom Pond.[31]

text: The Polar Bear Plunge event in Maryland, the largest polar bear plunge in the United States, held annually at Sandy Point State Park, raises funds for the Special Olympics.[34] Sponsored by the Maryland State Police, in 2007, Plungapalooza raised $2.2 million and had 7,400 participants.[35] In 2008, an estimated 12,000 people participated.[36]

text: Every Super Bowl Sunday, Long Beach, New York hosts one of the largest in the US. Since 1998 thousands of people have flocked to the beaches of Long Beach to jump into the ocean on Super Bowl Sunday.  All proceeds are donated to the Make-A-Wish Foundation.[37]

text: From February to March each year, Polar Plunges are held in numerous locations throughout the state of Illinois.  Donations and proceeds raised for the Special Olympics.[38]

text: South Korea[edit]

text: An annual Polar Bear Swimming Contest takes place annually at the Haeundae Beach in Busan, South Korea.[39][40]

text: Midsummer polar plunge (Antarctica)[edit]

text: A polar plunge is also held every midsummer in Antarctica – a rite of passage for scientists and visitors to New Zealand's Scott Base. It is held in late December.[41]


document_title: Roth 401(k)

question_text: what is the max contribution for roth 401k

text: Roth 401(k)

text: Traditional 401(k) and Roth IRA plans[edit]

text: In a traditional 401(k) plan, introduced by Congress in 1978, employees contribute pre-tax earnings to their retirement plan, also called "elective deferrals". That is, an employee's elective deferral funds are set aside by the employer in a special account where the funds are allowed to be invested in various options made available in the plan. The IRS sets a limit on the amount of funds deferred in this way, and includes a "catch up" provision intended to allow older workers to save for their approaching retirement. These limits are adjusted each year to reflect changes in the cost of living due to inflation. For tax-year 2015, this limit is $18,000 for those under age 50, and $24,000 for those 50 and over.[2]

text: Employers may also add funds to the account by contributing matching funds on a fractional formula basis (e.g., matching funds might be added at the rate of 50% of employees' elective deferrals), or on a set percentage basis. Funds within the 401(k) account grow on a tax deferred basis. When the account owner reaches the age of 59½, he or she may begin to receive "qualified distributions" from the funds in the account; these distributions are then taxed at ordinary income tax rates. Exceptions exist to allow distribution of funds before 59½, such as "substantially equal periodic payments", disability, and separation from service after the age of 55, as outlined under IRS Code section 72(t).

text: Under a Roth IRA, first enacted in 1998, individuals, whether employees or self-employed, voluntarily contribute post-tax funds to an individual retirement arrangement (IRA). In contrast to the 401(k) plan, the Roth plan requires post-tax contributions, but allows for tax free growth and distribution, provided the contributions have been invested for at least 5 years and the account owner has reached age 59½. Roth IRA contribution limits are significantly lower than 401(k) contribution limits. For tax-years 2016 and 2017, individuals may contribute no more than $5,500 per year to a Roth IRA if under age 50, and $6,500 if age 50 or older.[3] Additionally, Roth IRA contribution limits are reduced for taxpayers with a Modified Adjusted Gross Income (modified AGI) greater than $117,000 ($184,000 for married filing jointly), phasing out entirely for individuals with a modified AGI of $132,000 ($194,000 for married filing jointly), for 2016. See 401(k) versus IRA matrix that compares various types of IRAs with various types of 401(k)s.

text: 401(k) plans[edit]

text: The Roth 401(k) combines some of the most advantageous aspects of both the 401(k) and the Roth IRA. Under the Roth 401(k), employees may contribute funds on a post-tax elective deferral basis, in addition to or instead of pre-tax elective deferrals under their traditional 401(k) plans. An employee's combined elective deferrals whether to a traditional 401(k), a Roth 401(k), or both cannot exceed the IRS limits for deferral of the traditional 401(k). Employers' matching funds are not included in the elective deferral cap but are considered for the maximum section 415 limit, which is $53,000 for 2015 and 2016, or $59,000 for those age 50 and older.[4] The higher section 415 limit also applies to after tax contributions, which, depending on the specific 401(k), might be convertible into a Roth 401(k) later.[5]

text: Employers are permitted to make matching contributions on employees' designated Roth contributions. However, employers' contributions cannot receive the Roth tax treatment. The matching contributions made on account of designated Roth contributions must be allocated to a pre-tax account, just as matching contributions are on traditional, pre-tax elective contributions. (Pub 4530)

text: In general, the difference between a Roth 401(k) and a traditional 401(k) is that income contributed to the Roth version is taxable in the year it is earned, but income contributed to the traditional version is taxable in the year in which it is distributed from the account. Furthermore, earnings on the traditional version are taxable income in the year they are distributed, but earnings on the Roth version are never taxable.

text: There are restrictions on the nontaxability of Roth earnings: typically, the distribution must be made at least 5 years after the first Roth contribution and after the recipient is age 59½.

text: A Roth 401(k) plan is probably most advantageous to those who might otherwise choose a Roth IRA, such as younger workers who are currently taxed in a lower tax bracket but expect to be taxed in a higher bracket upon reaching retirement age. Higher-income workers may prefer a traditional 401(k) plan because they are currently taxed in a higher tax bracket but would expect to be taxed at a lower rate in retirement; also, those near the Roth IRA income limits may prefer a traditional 401(k) since its pre-tax contributions lowers Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI) and thus increases eligibility for various other tax incentives (Roth IRA contributions, the Child Tax Credit, medical expense deduction, etc.). Another consideration for those currently in higher tax brackets is the future of income tax rates in the US: if income tax rates increase, current taxation would be desirable for a wider group). The Roth 401(k) offers the advantage of tax free distribution but is not constrained by the same income limitations. For example, in tax year 2013, normal Roth IRA contributions are limited to $5,500 ($6,500 if age 50 or older); up to $17,500 could be contributed to a Roth 401(k) account if no other elective deferrals were taken for the tax year, such as traditional 401(k) deferrals.

text: Adoption of Roth 401(k) plans has been relatively slow, partly because they require additional administrative recordkeeping and payroll processing.[6] However some larger firms have now adopted Roth 401(k) plans, which is expected to spur their adoption by other firms including smaller ones.[7]

text: Additional considerations[edit]

text:
Roth 401(k) contributions are irrevocable; once money is invested into a Roth 401(k) account, it cannot be moved to a regular 401(k) account.
Employees can roll their Roth 401(k) contributions over to a Roth IRA account upon termination of employment.
It is the employer's decision whether to provide access to the Roth 401(k) in addition to the traditional 401(k). Many employers find that the added administrative burden outweighs the benefits of the Roth 401(k).[citation needed]
The Roth 401(k) program was originally set up to sunset after 2010 along, with the rest of EGTRRA 2001. The Pension Protection Act of 2006 extended it.
Unlike Roth IRAs, owners of Roth 401(k) accounts (designated Roth accounts) must begin distributions at age 70½, as with IRA and other retirement plans. (Pub 4530)