document_title: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

question_text: where did the freedom march end and begin

question_tokens: where did the freedom march end and begin

text: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

text: Background[edit]

text: Although African Americans had been legally freed from slavery, elevated to the status of citizens and the men given full voting rights at the end of the American Civil War, many continued to face social, economic, and political repression over the years and into the 1960s. In the early 1960s, a system of legal discrimination, known as Jim Crow laws, were pervasive in the American South, ensuring that Black Americans remained oppressed. They also experienced discrimination from businesses and governments, and in some places were prevented from voting through intimidation and violence.[12] Twenty-one states prohibited interracial marriage.[13]

text: The impetus for a march on Washington developed over a long period of time, and earlier efforts to organize such a demonstration included the March on Washington Movement of the 1940s. A. Philip Randolph—the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, president of the Negro American Labor Council,[6] and vice president of the AFL-CIO—was a key instigator in 1941. With Bayard Rustin, Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington,[4] in protest of discriminatory hiring by U.S. military contractors and demanding an Executive Order.[14] Faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25.[15] The order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry.[16] Randolph called off the March.[17]

text: Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off (despite criticism from Rustin).[18] Their Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17, 1957, featured key leaders including Adam Clayton Powell, Martin Luther King Jr., and Roy Wilkins. Mahalia Jackson performed.[19]

text: The 1963 march was an important part of the rapidly expanding Civil Rights Movement, which involved demonstrations and nonviolent direct action across the United States.[20] 1963 also marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln. Members of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference put aside their differences and came together for the march. Many whites and blacks also came together in the urgency for change in the nation.

text: Violent confrontations broke out in the South: in Cambridge, Maryland; Pine Bluff, Arkansas; Goldsboro, North Carolina; Somerville, Tennessee; Saint Augustine, Florida; and across Mississippi. Most of these incidents involved white people retaliating against nonviolent demonstrators.[21] Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted. Some called for a complete shutdown of the city through civil disobedience. Others argued that the movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nation's capital.[22] There was a widespread perception that the Kennedy administration had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedy's race policy as "tokenism".[23]

text: On May 24, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy invited African-American novelist James Baldwin, along with a large group of cultural leaders, to a meeting in New York to discuss race relations. However, the meeting became antagonistic, as black delegates felt that Kennedy did not have a full understanding of the race problem in the nation. The public failure of the meeting, which came to be known as the Baldwin–Kennedy meeting, underscored the divide between the needs of Black America and the understanding of Washington politicians. However, the meeting also provoked the Kennedy administration to take action on the civil rights for African-Americans.[24] On June 11, 1963, President John F. Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio, announcing that he would begin to push for civil rights legislation—the law which eventually became the Civil Rights Act of 1964. That night, Mississippi activist Medgar Evers was murdered in his own driveway, further escalating national tension around the issue of racial inequality.[25]

text: Planning and organization[edit]

text: A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin began planning the march in December 1961. They envisioned two days of protest, including sit-ins and lobbying followed by a mass rally at the Lincoln Memorial. They wanted to focus on joblessness and to call for a public works program that would employ blacks. In early 1963 they called publicly for "a massive March on Washington for jobs".[26] They received help from Amalgamated Clothing Workers unionist Stanley Aronowitz, who gathered support from radical organizers who could be trusted not to report their plans to the Kennedy administration. The unionists offered tentative support for a march that would be focused on jobs.[27]

text: On May 15, 1963, without securing the cooperation of the NAACP or the Urban League, Randolph announced an "October Emancipation March on Washington for Jobs".[28] He reached out to union leaders, winning the support of the UAW's Walter Reuther, but not of AFL–CIO president George Meany.[29] Randolph and Rustin intended to focus the March on economic inequality, stating in their original plan that "integration in the fields of education, housing, transportation and public accommodations will be of limited extent and duration so long as fundamental economic inequality along racial lines persists."[30] As they negotiated with other leaders, they expanded their stated objectives to "Jobs and Freedom" to acknowledge the agenda of groups that focused more on civil rights.[31]

text: In June 1963, leaders from several different organizations formed the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, an umbrella group which would coordinate funds and messaging.[32][33] This coalition of leaders, who became known as the "Big Six", included: Randolph who was chosen as the titular head of the march, James Farmer, president of the Congress of Racial Equality; John Lewis, chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; Martin Luther King Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference;[6] Roy Wilkins, president of the NAACP;[6] and Whitney Young, president of the National Urban League. King in particular had become well known for his role in the Birmingham campaign and for his Letter from Birmingham Jail.[34] Wilkins and Young initially objected to Rustin as a leader for the march, because he was a homosexual, a former Communist, and a draft resistor.[29] They eventually accepted Rustin as deputy organizer, on the condition that Randolph act as lead organizer and manage any political fallout.[35]

text: About two months before the march, the Big Six broadened their organizing coalition by bringing on board four white men who supported their efforts: Walter Reuther, president of the United Automobile Workers; Eugene Carson Blake, former president of the National Council of Churches; Mathew Ahmann, executive director of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice; and Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress. Together, the Big Six plus four became known as the "Big Ten."[36][37] John Lewis later recalled, "Somehow, some way, we worked well together. The six of us, plus the four. We became like brothers."[37]

text: On June 22, the organizers met with President Kennedy, who warned against creating "an atmosphere of intimidation" by bringing a large crowd to Washington. The civil rights activists insisted on holding the march. Wilkins pushed for the organizers to rule out civil disobedience and described this proposal as the "perfect compromise". King and Young agreed. Leaders from CORE and SNCC, who wanted to conduct direct actions against the Department of Justice, endorsed the protest before they were informed that civil disobedience would not be allowed. Finalized plans for the March were announced in a press conference on July 2.[38] President Kennedy spoke favorably of the March on July 17, saying that organizers planned a peaceful assembly and had cooperated with the Washington, D.C., police.[39]

text: Mobilization and logistics were administered by Rustin, a civil rights veteran and organizer of the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, the first of the Freedom Rides to test the Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. Rustin was a long-time associate of both Randolph and Dr. King. With Randolph concentrating on building the march's political coalition, Rustin built and led the team of two hundred activists and organizers who publicized the march and recruited the marchers, coordinated the buses and trains, provided the marshals, and set up and administered all of the logistic details of a mass march in the nation's capital.[40] During the days leading up to the march, these 200 volunteers used the ballroom of Washington DC radio station WUST as their operations headquarters.[41]

text: The march was not universally supported among civil rights activists. Some, including Rustin (who assembled 4,000 volunteer marshals from New York), were concerned that it might turn violent, which could undermine pending legislation and damage the international image of the movement.[42] The march was condemned by Malcolm X, spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, who termed it the "farce on Washington".[43]

text: March organizers themselves disagreed over the purpose of the march. The NAACP and Urban League saw it as a gesture of support for a civil rights bill that had been introduced by the Kennedy Administration. Randolph, King, and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) saw it as a way of raising both civil rights and economic issues to national attention beyond the Kennedy bill. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) saw it as a way of challenging and condemning the Kennedy administration's inaction and lack of support for civil rights for African Americans.[4]

text: Despite their disagreements, the group came together on a set of goals:

text:
Passage of meaningful civil rights legislation;
Immediate elimination of school segregation;
A program of public works, including job training, for the unemployed;
A Federal law prohibiting discrimination in public or private hiring;
A $2-an-hour minimum wage nationwide (equivalent to $16 in 2017);
Withholding Federal funds from programs that tolerate discrimination;
Enforcement of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution by reducing congressional representation from States that disenfranchise citizens;
A broadened Fair Labor Standards Act to currently excluded employment areas;
Authority for the Attorney General to institute injunctive suits when constitutional rights are violated.[44]

tag: ul

text: Although in years past, Randolph had supported "Negro only" marches, partly to reduce the impression that the civil rights movement was dominated by white communists, organizers in 1963 agreed that whites and blacks marching side by side would create a more powerful image.[45]

text: The Kennedy Administration cooperated with the organizers in planning the March, and one member of the Justice Department was assigned as a full-time liaison.[46] Chicago and New York City (as well as some corporations) agreed to designate August 28 as "Freedom Day" and give workers the day off.[47]

text: To avoid being perceived as radical, organizers rejected support from Communist groups. However, some politicians claimed that the March was Communist-inspired, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) produced numerous reports suggesting the same.[48][49] In the days before August 28, the FBI called celebrity backers to inform them of the organizers' communist connections and advising them to withdraw their support.[50] When William C. Sullivan produced a lengthy report on August 23 suggesting that Communists had failed to appreciably infiltrate the civil rights movement, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover rejected its contents.[51] Strom Thurmond launched a prominent public attack on the March as Communist, and singled out Rustin in particular as a Communist and a gay man.[52]

text: Organizers worked out of a building at West 130th St. and Lenox in Harlem.[53] They promoted the march by selling buttons, featuring two hands shaking, the words "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom", a union bug, and the date August 28, 1963. By August 2, they had distributed 42,000 of the buttons. Their goal was a crowd of at least 100,000 people.[47]

text: As the march was being planned, activists across the country received bomb threats at their homes and in their offices. The Los Angeles Times received a message saying its headquarters would be bombed unless it printed a message calling the president a "Nigger Lover". Five airplanes were grounded on the morning of August 28 due to bomb threats. A man in Kansas City telephoned the FBI to say he would put a hole between King's eyes; the FBI did not respond. Roy Wilkins was threatened with assassination if he did not leave the country.[54]

text: Convergence[edit]

text: Thousands traveled by road, rail, and air to Washington D.C. on Wednesday, August 28. Marchers from Boston traveled overnight and arrived in Washington at 7am after an eight-hour trip, but others took much longer bus rides from places like Milwaukee, Little Rock, and St. Louis. Organizers persuaded New York's MTA to run extra subway trains after midnight on August 28, and the New York City bus terminal was busy throughout the night with peak crowds.[55] A total of 450 buses left New York City from Harlem. Maryland police reported that "by 8:00 a.m., 100 buses an hour were streaming through the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel."[56] The United Automobile Workers financed bus transportation for 5,000 of its rank-and-file members, providing the largest single contingent from any organization.[57]

text: One reporter, Fred Powledge, accompanied African-Americans who boarded six buses in Birmingham, Alabama, for the 750-mile trip to Washington. The New York Times carried his report:

text: The 260 demonstrators, of all ages, carried picnic baskets, water jugs, Bibles and a major weapon - their willingness to march, sing and pray in protest against discrimination. They gathered early this morning [August 27] in Birmingham's Kelly Ingram Park, where state troopers once [four months previous in May] used fire hoses and dog to put down their demonstrations. It was peaceful in the Birmingham park as the marchers waited for the buses. The police, now part of a moderate city power structure, directed traffic around the square and did not interfere with the gathering... An old man commented on the 20-hour ride, which was bound to be less than comfortable: "You forget we Negroes have been riding buses all our lives. We don't have the money to fly in airplanes."

text: John Marshall Kilimanjaro, a demonstrator traveling from Greensboro, North Carolina, said:[58]

text: Contrary to the mythology, the early moments of the March—getting there—was no picnic. People were afraid. We didn't know what we would meet. There was no precedent. Sitting across from me was a black preacher with a white collar. He was an AME preacher. We talked. Every now and then, people on the bus sang 'Oh Freedom' and 'We Shall Overcome,' but for the most part there wasn't a whole bunch of singing. We were secretly praying that nothing violent happened.

text: Other bus rides featured racial tension, as black activists criticized liberal white participants as fair-weather friends.[59]

text: Hazel Mangle Rivers, who had paid $8 for her ticket—"one-tenth of her husband's weekly salary"—was quoted in the August 29 New York Times. Rivers stated that she was impressed by Washington's civility: "The people are lots better up here than they are down South. They treat you much nicer. Why, when I was out there at the march a white man stepped on my foot, and he said, "Excuse me," and I said "Certainly!" That's the first time that has ever happened to me. I believe that was the first time a white person has ever really been nice to me."[44]

text: Some participants who arrived early held an all-night vigil outside the Department of Justice, claiming it had unfairly targeted civil rights activists and that it had been too lenient on white supremacists who attacked them.[60]

text: Security preparations[edit]

text: The Washington, D.C., police forces were mobilized to full capacity for the march, including reserve officers and deputized firefighters. A total of 5,900 police officers were on duty.[61] The government mustered 2,000 men from the National Guard, and brought in 3,000 outside soldiers to join the 1,000 already stationed in the area.[62] These additional soldiers were flown in on helicopters from bases in Virginia and North Carolina. The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs.[63] All of the forces involved were prepared to implement a coordinated conflict strategy named "Operation Steep Hill".[64]

text: For the first time since Prohibition, liquor sales were banned in Washington D.C.[65] Hospitals stockpiled blood plasma and cancelled elective surgeries.[66] Major League Baseball cancelled two games between the Minnesota Twins and the last place Washington Senators even though the venue, D.C. Stadium, was nearly four miles from the Lincoln Memorial rally site.[63]

text: Rustin and Walter Fauntroy negotiated some security issues with the government, gaining approval for private marshals with the understanding that these would not be able to act against outside agitators. The FBI and Justice Department refused to provide preventive guards for buses traveling through the South to reach D.C.[67] William Johnson recruited more than 1,000 police officers to serve on this force.[68] Julius Hobson, an FBI informant who served on the March's security force, told the team to be on the lookout for FBI infiltrators who might act as agents provocateurs.[69] Jerry Bruno, President Kennedy's advance man, was positioned to cut the power to the public address system in the event of any incendiary rally speech.[63]

text: Venue and sound system[edit]

text: The organizers originally planned to hold the march outside of the Capitol Building.[70] However, Reuther persuaded them to move the march to the Lincoln Memorial.[70] He believed the Lincoln Memorial would be less threatening to Congress and the occasion would be appropriate underneath the gaze of Abraham Lincoln's statute.[70] The committee, notably Rustin, agreed to move the site on the condition that Reuther pay for a $19,000 sound system so that everyone on the National Mall could hear the speakers and musicians.[70]

text: Rustin pushed hard for an expensive sound system, maintaining "We cannot maintain order where people cannot hear." The system was obtained and set up at the Lincoln Memorial, but was sabotaged on the day before the March. Its operators were unable to repair it. Fauntroy contacted Attorney General Robert Kennedy and his civil rights liaison Burke Marshall, demanding that the government fix the system. Fauntroy reportedly told them: "We have a couple hundred thousand people coming. Do you want a fight here tomorrow after all we've done?" The system was successfully rebuilt overnight by the U.S. Army Signal Corps.[71]

text: The March[edit]

text: The march commanded national attention by preempting regularly scheduled television programs. As the first ceremony of such magnitude ever initiated and dominated by African Americans, the march also was the first to have its nature wholly misperceived in advance. Dominant expectations ran from paternal apprehension to dread. On Meet the Press, reporters grilled Roy Wilkins and Martin Luther King about widespread foreboding that "it would be impossible to bring more than 100,000 militant Negroes into Washington without incidents and possibly rioting." Life magazine declared that the capital was suffering "its worst case of invasion jitters since the First Battle of Bull Run." The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs and the jails shifted inmates to other prisons to make room for those arrested in mass arrests; the city banned all sales of alcoholic beverages; hospitals made room for riot casualties by postponing elective surgery. With nearly 1,700 extra correspondents supplementing the Washington press corps, the march drew a media assembly larger than the Kennedy inauguration two years earlier.[44] Students from the University of California came together as black power organizations and emphasized on the importance of African American freedom struggle. The march included black political parties and William Worthy who was one of many who lead college students during the freedom struggle era.[72]

text: On August 28, more than 2,000 buses, 21 chartered trains, 10 chartered airliners, and uncounted cars converged on Washington.[73] All regularly scheduled planes, trains, and buses were also filled to capacity.[44]

text: Although Randolph and Rustin had originally planned to fill the streets of Washington, D.C., the final route of the March covered only half of the National Mall.[46] The march began at the Washington Monument and was scheduled to progress to the Lincoln Memorial with a program of music and speakers. Demonstrators were met at the monument by speakers and musicians. Women leaders were asked to march down Independence Avenue, while the male leaders marched on Pennsylvania Avenue with the media.[74]

text: The march failed to start on time because its leaders were meeting with members of Congress. To the leaders' surprise, the assembled group began to march from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial without them. The leaders met the March at Constitution Avenue, where they linked arms at the head of a crowd in order to be photographed 'leading the march'.[75]

text: Marchers were not supposed to create their own signs, though this rule was not completely enforced by marshals. Most of the demonstrators did carry pre-made signs, available in piles at the Washington Monument.[76] The UAW provided thousands of signs that, among other things, read: "There Is No Halfway House on the Road to Freedom,"[77] "Equal Rights and Jobs NOW,"[78] "UAW Supports Freedom March,"[79] "in Freedom we are Born, in Freedom we must Live,"[80] and "Before we'll be a Slave, we'll be Buried in our Grave."[81]

text: About 50 members of the American Nazi Party staged a counter-protest and were quickly dispersed by police.[82] The rest of Washington was quiet during the March. Most non-participating workers stayed home. Jailers allowed inmates to watch the March on TV.[83]

text: Speakers[edit]

text:
External audio

 March on Washington, 15 hours of radio coverage, 8/28/1963, Educational Radio Network[84]

 Dr. King's speech begins at 1:30, 8/28/1963, Educational Radio Network[85]

text: Representatives from each of the sponsoring organizations addressed the crowd from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial. Speakers (dubbed "The Big Ten") included The Big Six; three religious leaders (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish); and labor leader Walter Reuther. None of the official speeches were by women; Josephine Baker gave a speech during the preliminary offerings, but women's presence in the official program was limited to a "tribute" led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke (see "excluded speakers" below.)

text: Floyd McKissick read James Farmer's speech because Farmer had been arrested during a protest in Louisiana; Farmer had written that the protests would not stop "until the dogs stop biting us in the South and the rats stop biting us in the North."[86]

text: The actual order of the speakers was as follows: 1. A. Philip Randolph – March Director, 2. Walter Reuther – UAW, AFL-CIO, 3. Roy Wilkins – NAACP, 4. John Lewis – SNCC, 5. Daisy Bates – Little Rock, Arkansas, 6. Dr. Eugene Carson Blake – United Presbyterian Church and the National Council of Churches, 7. Floyd McKissick –CORE, 8. Whitney Young – National Urban League, 9. Several smaller speeches, including Rabbi Joachim Prinz – American Jewish Congress, Mathew Ahmann – National Catholic Conference, Josephine Baker – actress, and 10. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. – SCLC. Then closing remarks by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, March Organizers, leading with The Pledge and list of demands.[87]

text: Official program[edit]

text: Marian Anderson was scheduled to lead the National Anthem but was unable to arrive on time; Camilla Williams performed in her place. Following an invocation by Archbishop Patrick O'Boyle, the opening remarks were given by march director A. Philip Randolph, followed by Eugene Carson Blake. A tribute to "Negro Women Fighters for Freedom" was then led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke briefly in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight.[88][89][90] The tribute introduced Daisy Bates, Diane Nash, Prince E. Lee, Rosa Parks, and Gloria Richardson. The following speakers were SNCC chairman John Lewis, labor leader Walter Reuther and CORE chairman Floyd McKissick (substituting for arrested CORE director James Farmer). The Eva Jessye Choir then sang, and Rabbi Uri Miller (president of the Synagogue Council of America) offered a prayer, followed by National Urban League director Whitney Young, NCCIJ director Mathew Ahmann, and NAACP leader Roy Wilkins. After a performance by singer Mahalia Jackson, American Jewish Congress president Joachim Prinz spoke, followed by SCLC president Martin Luther King Jr. Rustin then read the march's official demands for the crowd's approval, and Randolph led the crowd in a pledge to continue working for the march's goals. The program was closed with a benediction by Morehouse College president Benjamin Mays.

text: Although one of the officially stated purposes of the march was to support the civil rights bill introduced by the Kennedy Administration, several of the speakers criticized the proposed law as insufficient. Two government agents stood by in a position to cut power to the microphone if necessary.[91]

text: Roy Wilkins[edit]

text: Roy Wilkins announced that W. E. B. Du Bois had died in Ghana the previous night; the crowd observed a moment of silence in his memory.[92] Wilkins had initially refused to announce the news because he despised Du Bois as a Communist—but then insisted on making the announcement when he realized that Randolph would make it if he didn't.[93] Wilkins said: "Regardless of the fact that in his later years Dr. Du Bois chose another path, it is incontrovertible that at the dawn of the twentieth century his was the voice that was calling you to gather here today in this cause. If you want to read something that applies to 1963 go back and get a volume of The Souls of Black Folk by Du Bois, published in 1903."[94]

text: John Lewis[edit]

text: John Lewis of SNCC was the youngest speaker at the event.[95] His speech—which a number of SNCC activists had helped write—took the Administration to task for how little it had done to protect southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South.[43][96] Deleted from his original speech at the insistence of more conservative and pro-Kennedy leaders[4][97] were phrases such as:

text: In good conscience, we cannot support wholeheartedly the administration's civil rights bill, for it is too little and too late. ...

text: I want to know, which side is the federal government on?...

text: The revolution is a serious one. Mr. Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it into the courts. Listen, Mr. Kennedy. Listen, Mr. Congressman. Listen, fellow citizens. The black masses are on the march for jobs and freedom, and we must say to the politicians that there won't be a "cooling-off" period.

text: ...We will march through the South, through the heart of Dixie, the way Sherman did. We shall pursue our own scorched earth policy and burn Jim Crow to the ground—nonviolently...

text: Lewis' speech was distributed to fellow organizers the evening before the march, garnering resistance from Reuther, O'Boye, and others who thought it was too divisive and militant.[98] O'Boyle objected most strenuously to a part of the speech that called for immediate action and disavowed "patience." The government and moderate organizers could not countenance Lewis' explicit opposition to Kennedy's civil rights bill. That night, O'Boyle and other members of the Catholic delegation began preparing a statement announcing their withdrawal from the March. Reuther convinced them to wait and called Rustin; Rustin informed Lewis at 2 A.M. on the day of the march that his speech was unacceptable to key coalition members. (Rustin also reportedly contacted Tom Kahn, mistakenly believing that Kahn had edited the speech and inserted the line about Sherman's March to the Sea. Rustin asked, "How could you do this? Do you know what Sherman did?) But Lewis did not want to change the speech. Other members of SNCC, including Stokely Carmichael, were also adamant that the speech not be censored.[99] The dispute continued until minutes before talks were scheduled to begin. Under threat of public denouncement by the religious leaders, and under pressure from the rest of his coalition, Lewis agreed to omit the 'inflammatory' passages.[100] Many activists from SNCC, CORE, and even SCLC were angry at what they considered censorship of his speech.[101] In the end, Lewis added a qualified endorsement of Kennedy's civil rights legislation, saying: "It is true that we support the administration's Civil Rights Bill. We support it with great reservation, however."[31] Even after toning down his speech, Lewis called for activists to "get in and stay in the streets of every city, every village and hamlet of this nation until true freedom comes".[102]

text: Martin Luther King Jr.[edit]

text: The speech given by SCLC president King, who spoke last, became known as the "I Have a Dream" speech, which was carried live by TV stations and subsequently considered the most impressive moment of the march.[103] In it, King called for an end to racism in the United States. It invoked the Declaration of Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the United States Constitution. At the end of the speech, Mahalia Jackson shouted from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin!", and King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme of "I have a dream".[104][105] Over time it has been hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, added to the National Recording Registry and memorialized by the National Park Service with an inscription on the spot where King stood to deliver the speech.

text: Randolph and Rustin[edit]

text: A. Philip Randolph spoke first, promising: "we shall return again and again to Washington in ever growing numbers until total freedom is ours."[106] Randolph also closed the event along with Bayard Rustin. Rustin followed King's speech by slowly reading the list of demands.[107] The two concluded by urging attendees to take various actions in support of the struggle.[108]

text: Walter Reuther[edit]

text: Walter Reuther urged Americans to pressure their politicians to act to address racial injustices. He said,

text: American democracy is on trial in the eyes of the world… We cannot successfully preach democracy in the world unless we first practice democracy at home. American democracy will lack the moral credentials and be both unequal to and unworthy of leading the forces of freedom against the forces of tyranny unless we take bold, affirmative, adequate steps to bridge the moral gap between American democracy's noble promises and its ugly practices in the field of civil rights.[109]

text: According to Irving Bluestone, who was standing near the platform while Reuther delivered his remarks, he overheard two black women talking. One asked, "Who is that white man?" The other replied, "Don't you know him? That's the white Martin Luther King."[110]

text: Excluded speakers[edit]

text: Author James Baldwin was prevented from speaking at the March on the grounds that his comments would be too inflammatory.[111] Baldwin later commented on the irony of the "terrifying and profound" requests that he prevent the March from happening:[112]

text: In my view, by that time, there was, on the one hand, nothing to prevent—the March had already been co-opted—and, on the other, no way of stopping the people from descending on Washington. What struck me most horribly was that virtually no one in power (including some blacks or Negroes who were somewhere next door to power) was able, even remotely, to accept the depth, the dimension, of the passion and the faith of the people.

text: Despite the protests of organizer Anna Arnold Hedgeman, no women gave a speech at the March. Male organizers attributed this omission to the "difficulty of finding a single woman to speak without causing serious problems vis-à-vis other women and women's groups".[113] Hedgeman read a statement at an August 16 meeting, charging:

text: In light of the role of Negro women in the struggle for freedom and especially in light of the extra burden they have carried because of the castration of our Negro men in this culture, it is incredible that no woman should appear as a speaker at the historic March on Washington Meeting at the Lincoln Memorial. . .

text: The assembled group agreed that Myrlie Evers, the new widow of Medgar Evers, could speak during the "Tribute to Women". However, Mrs. Evers was unavailable.[114][115] Daisy Bates spoke briefly (less than 200 words) in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight.[88][89][90][104] Earlier, Josephine Baker had addressed the crowd before the official program began.[90][104] Although Gloria Richardson was on the program and had been asked to give a two-minute speech, when she arrived at the stage her chair with her name on it had been removed, and the event marshal took her microphone away after she said "hello".[74] Richardson, along with Rosa Parks and Lena Horne, was escorted away from the podium before Martin Luther King Jr. spoke.[74]

text: Early plans for the March would have included an "Unemployed Worker" as one of the speakers. This position was eliminated, furthering criticism of the March's middle-class bias.[116]

text: Singers[edit]

text: Gospel legend Mahalia Jackson sang "How I Got Over", and Marian Anderson sang "He's Got the Whole World in His Hands". This was not Marian Anderson's first appearance at the Lincoln Memorial. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused permission for Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in Constitution Hall. With the aid of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and her husband Franklin D. Roosevelt, Anderson performed a critically acclaimed open-air concert on Easter Sunday, 1939, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.

text: Joan Baez led the crowds in several verses of "We Shall Overcome" and "Oh Freedom". Musician Bob Dylan performed "When the Ship Comes In", for which he was joined by Baez. Dylan also performed "Only a Pawn in Their Game", a provocative and not completely popular choice because it asserted that Byron de la Beckwith, as a poor white man, was not personally or primarily to blame for the murder of Medgar Evers.[117]

text: Peter, Paul and Mary sang "If I Had a Hammer" and Dylan's "Blowin' in the Wind". Odetta sang "I'm On My Way".[44]

text: Some participants, including Dick Gregory criticized the choice of mostly white performers and the lack of group participation in the singing.[118] Dylan himself said he felt uncomfortable as a white man serving as a public image for the Civil Rights Movement. After the March on Washington, he performed at few other immediately politicized events.[119]

text: Meeting with President Kennedy[edit]

text: After the March, the speakers travelled to the White House for a brief discussion of proposed civil rights legislation with President Kennedy.[120] Kennedy had watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. According to biographer Thomas C. Reeves, Kennedy "felt that he would be booed at the March, and also didn't want to meet with organizers before the March because he didn't want a list of demands. He arranged a 5 P.M. meeting at the White House with the 10 leaders on the 28th."[121] The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest" and Kennedy felt it was a victory for him as well—bolstering the chances for his civil rights bill.[122]

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: Media attention gave the march national exposure, carrying the organizers' speeches and offering their own commentary. In his section The March on Washington and Television News, William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last Presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers".[123] The major networks broadcast some of the March live, though they interspersed footage of interviews with politicians. Subsequent broadcasts focused heavily on the "I have a dream" portion of King's speech.[124]

text: The Voice of America translated the speeches and rebroadcast them in 36 languages. The United States Information Agency organized a press conference for the benefit of foreign journalists, and also created a documentary film of the event for distribution to embassies abroad.[46] Commented Michael Thelwell of SNCC: "So it happened that Negro students from the South, some of whom still had unhealed bruises from the electric cattle prods which Southern police used to break up demonstrations, were recorded for the screens of the world portraying 'American Democracy at Work.'"[125]

text: Responses and memories[edit]

text: Organizers[edit]

text: Although the mass media generally declared the March successful because of its high turnout, organizers were not confident that it would create change. Randolph and Rustin abandoned their belief in the effectiveness of marching on Washington. King maintained faith that action in Washington could work, but determined that future marchers would need to call greater attention to economic injustice. In 1967–1968, he organized a Poor People's Campaign to occupy the National Mall with a shantytown.[126]

text: Critics[edit]

text: Black nationalist Malcolm X, in his Message to the Grass Roots speech, criticized the march, describing it as "a picnic" and "a circus". He said the civil rights leaders had diluted the original purpose of the march, which had been to show the strength and anger of black people, by allowing white people and organizations to help plan and participate in the march.[127] One SNCC staffer commented during the march, "He's denouncing us as clowns, but he's right there with the clown show."[128] But the membership of SNCC, increasingly frustrated with the tactics of the NAACP and other moderate groups, gradually embraced Malcolm X's position.[126]

text: Segregationists including William Jennings Bryan Dorn criticized the government for cooperating with the civil rights activists.[129] Senator Olin D. Johnston rejected an invitation to attend, writing: "You are committing the worst possible mistake in promoting this March. You should know that criminal, fanatical, and communistic elements, as well as crackpots, will move in to take every advantage of this mob. You certainly will have no influence on any member of Congress, including myself."[130]

text: Participants[edit]

text: Many participants said they felt the March was a historic and life-changing experience. Nan Grogan Orrock, a student at Mary Washington College, said: "You couldn't help but get swept up in the feeling of the March. It was an incredible experience of this mass of humanity with one mind moving down the street. It was like being part of a glacier. You could feel the sense of collective will and effort in the air."[131] SNCC organizer Bob Zellner reported that the event "provided dramatic proof that the sometimes quiet and always dangerous work we did in the Deep South had had a profound national impact. The spectacle of a quarter of a million supporters and activists gave me an assurance that the work I was in the process of dedicating my life to was worth doing."[132]

text: Richard Brown, then a white graduate student at Harvard University, recalls that the March fostered direct actions for economic progress: "Henry Armstrong and I compared notes. I realized the Congress of Racial Equality might help black employment in Boston by urging businesses to hire contractors like Armstrong. He agreed to help start a list of reliable contractors that CORE could promote. It was a modest effort — but it moved in the right direction."[133]

text: Other participants, more sympathetic to Malcolm X and the black nationalists, expressed ambivalence. One marcher from New York explained:[134]

text: It's like St. Patrick's Day. I came out of respect for what my people are doing, not because I believe it will do any good. I thought it would do some good in the beginning. But when the march started to get all the official approval from Mastah Kennedy, Mastah Wagner, Mastah Spellman, and they started setting limits on how we had to march peacefully, I knew that the march was going to be a mockery, that they were giving us something again.

text: Marcher Beverly Alston thought that the day had its greatest impact within the movement: "Culturally, there has been tremendous progress over the past forty years. Black awareness and self-determination has soared. Politically, I just don't think we've made enough progress."[135] Fifteen-year-old Ericka Jenkins from Washington said:[136]

text:
I saw people laughing and listening and standing very close to one another, almost in an embrace. Children of every size, pregnant women, elderly people who seemed tired but happy to be there, clothing that made me know that they struggled to make it day to day, made me know they worked in farms or offices or even nearby for the government. I didn't see teenagers alone; I saw groups of teenagers with teachers.
White people [were] standing in wonder. Their eyes were open, they were listening. Openness and nothing on guard—I saw that in everybody. I was so happy to see that in the white people that they could listen and take in and respect and believe in the words of a black person. I had never seen anything like that.

text: Some people discussed racism becoming less explicit after the March. Reverend Abraham Woods of Birmingham commented: "Everything has changed. And when you look at it, nothing has changed. Racism is under the surface, and an incident that could scratch it, can bring it out."[137]

text: Effects and legacy[edit]

text: The symbolism of the March has been contested since before it even took place. In the years following the March, movement radicals increasingly subscribed to Malcolm X's narrative of the March as a co-optation by the white establishment. Liberals and conservatives tended to embrace the March, but focused mostly on King's "I Have a Dream" speech and the legislative successes of 1964 and 1965.[31]

text: The mass media identified King's speech as a highlight of the event and focused on this oration to the exclusion of other aspects. For several decades, King took center stage in narratives about the March. More recently, historians and commentators have acknowledged the role played by Bayard Rustin in organizing the event.[138]

text: Political effects[edit]

text: Soon after the speakers ended their meetings with Congress to go join the March, both houses passed legislation to create a dispute arbitration board for striking railroad workers.[139]

text: The March is credited with propelling the U.S. government into action on civil rights, creating political momentum for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.[23]

text: The cooperation of a Democratic administration with the issue of civil rights marked a pivotal moment in voter alignment within the U.S. The Democratic Party gave up the Solid South—its undivided support since Reconstruction among the segregated Southern states—and went on to capture a high proportion of votes from blacks from the Republicans.[23][140]

text: Anniversary marches[edit]

text: The 1963 March also spurred anniversary marches that occur every five years, with the 20th and 25th being some of the most well known. The 25th Anniversary theme was "We Still have a Dream...Jobs*Peace*Freedom."[141]

text: At the 2013 anniversary march, President Barack Obama conferred a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom on Bayard Rustin and 15 others.[31][138]

text: Postal stamp[edit]

text: For the 50th Anniversary, the United States Postal Service released a forever stamp that commemorates the 1963 March on Washington. The stamp shows marchers near the Washington Monument with signs calling for equal rights and jobs for all.[142]

text: Issues[edit]

text: In 2013, the Economic Policy Institute launched a series of reports around the theme of "The Unfinished March". These reports analyze the goals of the original march and assess how much progress has been made.[143][144] They echo the message of Randolph and Rustin that civil rights cannot transform people's quality of life unless accompanied by economic justice. They contend that many of the March's primary goals—including housing, integrated education, and widespread employment at living wages—have not been accomplished. They further argued that although legal advances were made, black people still live in concentrated areas of poverty ("ghettoes"), where they receive inferior education and suffer from widespread unemployment.[145]

text: Dedrick Muhammad of the NAACP writes that racial inequality of income and homeownership have increased since 1963 and worsened during the recent Great Recession.[146]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Sidney Poitier, Harry Belafonte and Charlton Heston

Actor Ossie Davis

Dr. Ralph Bunche

Major League Baseball player, Jackie Robinson

text:
Four young marchers singing

Charlton Heston, James Baldwin, Marlon Brando, and Harry Belafonte

Food service crew

text:
Sammy Davis Jr., with Roy Wilkins, Executive Secretary of NAACP

Vocalists Peter, Paul, and Mary

National Basketball Association player, Bill Russell


document_title: Tennis Court Oath

question_text: in 1789 the 1st 2nd and 3rd estates of france met on a tennis court and swore an oath known as the

root

text: Tennis Court Oath

text: On 20 June 1789, the members of the French Estates-General for the Third Estate, who had begun to call themselves the National Assembly, took the Tennis Court Oath (French: Serment du Jeu de Paume), vowing "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established". It was a pivotal event in the French Revolution.

tag: p

text: The Estates-General had been called to address the country's fiscal and agricultural crisis, but immediately after convening in May 1789, they had become bogged down in issues of representation—particularly, whether they would vote by head (which would increase the power of the Third Estate, as they outnumbered the other two estates hugely) or by order.

text: On 17 June, the Third Estate, led by the comte de Mirabeau, began to call themselves the National Assembly.[1] On the morning of 20 June, the deputies were shocked to discover that the chamber door was locked and guarded by soldiers. Immediately fearing the worst and anxious that a royal attack by King Louis XVI was imminent, the deputies congregated in a nearby indoor Jeu de paume court in the Saint-Louis district of the city of Versailles, near the Palace of Versailles.

text: There, 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate took a collective oath "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established".[2] The only person who did not join was Joseph Martin-Dauch from Castelnaudary, who would only execute decisions made by the king.[3]

text: Background[edit]

text: Before the Revolution, French society—aside from royalty—was divided into three Estates. The First Estate comprised the clergy; the Second Estate was the nobility. The entire rest of France—some 97% of the population—was the Third Estate, which ranged from very wealthy city merchants to impoverished rural farmers. The three estates met from time to time in the Estates General, a legislative assembly.[4]

text: Although the Third Estate was the overwhelming majority of the French population, the makeup of the Estates General was such that the Third Estate comprised a bare majority of the delegates.[citation needed] A simple majority was sufficient—as long as the delegates' votes were cast altogether. The First and Second Estates preferred to divide the vote in some way. A proposal might need to receive approval from each Estate, or there might be two "houses" of the Estates General (one for the first two Estates, and one for the Third), and a bill would need to be passed by both houses. Either way, the First and Second Estates could exercise veto power over proposals enjoying widespread support among the Third Estate, but not the others, such as reforms that threatened the privileges of the nobility and clergy.[clarification needed]

text: Significance[edit]

text: This oath would come to have major significance in the revolution as the Third Estate would constantly continue to protest to have more representation.[5] Some historians have argued that, given political tensions in France at that time, the deputies' fears, even if wrong, were reasonable and that the importance of the oath goes above and beyond its context.[6]

text: The oath was both a revolutionary act, and an assertion that political authority derived from the people and their representatives rather than from the monarch himself. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly in order to give the illusion that he controlled the National Assembly.[1] This oath would prove vital to the Third Estate as a step of protest that would eventually lead to more power in the Estates General, and every governing body thereafter.[7]

text: The Oath signified for the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI, and the National Assembly's refusal to back down forced the king to make concessions. It was foreshadowed by, and drew considerably from, the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, especially the preamble. The Oath also inspired a wide variety of revolutionary activity in the months afterwards, ranging from rioting across the French countryside to renewed calls for a written French constitution. Likewise, it reinforced the Assembly's strength and forced the King to formally request that voting occur based on head, not power.[citation needed] The Tennis Court Oath, which was taken in June 1789, preceded the 4 August 1789 abolition of feudalism and the 26 August 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.


document_title: Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)

question_text: what does the area under the curve show

question_tokens: what does the area under the curve show

text: Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)

text: Interpretation and usefulness of AUC values[edit]

text: The AUC (from zero to infinity) represents the total drug exposure over time. Assuming linear pharmacodynamics with elimination rate constant K, one can show that AUC is proportional to the total amount of drug absorbed by the body. The proportionality constant is 1/K.

text: This is useful when trying to determine whether two formulations of the same dose (for example a capsule and a tablet) release the same dose of drug to the body. Another use is in the therapeutic drug monitoring of drugs with a narrow therapeutic index. For example, gentamicin is an antibiotic that can be nephrotoxic (kidney damaging) and ototoxic (hearing damaging); measurement of gentamicin trough concentrations in a patient's plasma and calculation of the AUC is used to guide the dosage of this drug.

text: AUC becomes useful for knowing the average concentration over a time interval, AUC/t. Also, AUC is referenced when talking about elimination. The amount eliminated by the body (mass) = clearance (volume/time) * AUC (mass*time/volume).

text: AUC and bioavailability[edit]

text: In pharmacokinetics, bioavailability generally refers to the fraction of drug absorbed systemically, and is thus available to produce a biological effect. This is often measured by quantifying the "AUC". In order to determine the respective AUCs, the serum concentration vs. time plots are typically gathered using C-14 labeled drugs and AMS (accelerated mass spectroscopy).[1]

text: Bioavailability can be measured in terms of "absolute bioavailablity" or "relative bioavailablity".

text: Absolute bioavailability[edit]

text: Absolute bioavailablity refers to the bioavailability of drug when administered via a non-intravenous (non-IV) dosage form (i.e. oral tablet, suppository, subcutaneous, etc.) compared with the bioavailability of the same drug administered intravenously (IV). This is done by comparing the AUC of the non-intravenous dosage form with the AUC for the drug administered intravenously. This fraction is normalized by multiplying by each dosage form's respective dose.[2]

text:
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{\displaystyle F_{abs}=\left({\frac {AUC_{non-IV}}{AUC_{IV}}}\ \right)\times \left({\frac {Dose_{IV}}{Dose_{non-IV}}}\ \right)}

text: Relative bioavailability[edit]

text: Relative bioavailability compares the bioavailability between two different dosage forms. Again, the relative AUCs are used to make this comparison and relative doses are used to normalize the calculation.

text:
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{\displaystyle F_{rel}=\left({\frac {AUC_{dosageA}}{AUC_{dosageB}}}\ \right)\times \left({\frac {Dose_{B}}{Dose_{A}}}\ \right)}


document_title: List of cities in the Americas by year of foundation

question_text: what’s the oldest city in the americas

question_tokens: what 's the oldest city in the americas

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: This is a list of cities in the Americas (South, Central and North) by founding year and present-day country.

text:
Year
City
State, province, dept., etc.
Country
Notes

7500 BC
Tlapacoya
Ixtapaluca
Mexico

4000 BC
Puerto Hormiga Culture
Cartagena
Colombia

3710 BC
Aspero
Norte Chico
Peru

2627 BC
Caral
Norte Chico
Peru

1500 BC
Kaminaljuyu
Guatemala city
Guatemala

800 BC
Cuicuilco
Mexico City
Mexico

700 BC
Ticul
Yucatán
Mexico

500 BC
Cholula
Puebla
Mexico

300 BC
Teotihuacan
México
Mexico
In the Valley of Mexico

200
Mitla
Oaxaca
Mexico

200
Acanceh
Yucatan
Mexico

500
Cuenca
Azuay
Ecuador

524
Ejutla
Oaxaca
Mexico
[1]

550
Izamal
Yucatan
Mexico

600
Cahokia
Illinois
United States

713
Tula
Hidalgo
Mexico

1001
L'Anse aux Meadows
Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada
Oldest known European (Norse) settlement in the Americas. Possibly founded by Leif Erikson, as part of Vinland, in 1001 AD.

1000
Acoma Pueblo and Taos Pueblo
New Mexico
United States

1050
Motul
Yucatán
Mexico

1050
Pachuca
Hidalgo
Mexico

1100
Cusco
Cusco Province
Peru

1100
Oraibi
Arizona
United States (Hopi Reservation)
[2]

1168
Ecatepec
Estado de Mexico
Mexico

1259
Chimaulhuacan
Mexico State
Mexico

1313
Xalapa
Veracruz
Mexico

1325
Tenochtitlan
Mexico City
Mexico
Largest pre-Columbian city in the Americas, later called Mexico City.

1450
Zuni Pueblo
New Mexico
United States
[3]

1470
Iximche
Chimaltenango
Guatemala

1492
La Navidad
Nord-Est
Haiti
First European settlement in the New World during the Age of Discovery.

1493
La Isabela
Puerto Plata
Dominican Republic

1497
St. Jonh's
Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada
Oldest European established settlement in the Americas (but not continuously inhabited, until the early 16th century). Discovered by John Cabot (although some historical claims disputed).

1498
Santo Domingo
Distrito Nacional
Dominican Republic
Capital of the Dominican Republic. Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in the Americas. Founded in 1498, by Bartholomew Columbus.

1502
Santa Cruz del Seibo
El Seibo
Dominican Republic

1504
Azua de Compostela
Azua
Dominican Republic

1504
Santiago de los Caballeros
Santiago
Dominican Republic

1505
Cotuí
Sánchez Ramírez
Dominican Republic

1506
Salvaleón de Higüey
La Altagracia
Dominican Republic

1508
Bonao
Monseñor Nouel
Dominican Republic

1508
Caparra
Puerto Rico
United States
First city founded by Europeans, although not continuously inhabited, in the United States. Abandoned in 1521 with the removal of the capital to San Juan.

1510
Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien
Urabá
Colombia
First city founded by Europeans on the continent of South America.

1510
Nombre de Dios
Colon
Panama
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Panama.

1511
Baracoa
Guantánamo
Cuba
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Cuba, former capital of Cuba.

1513
Bayamo
Granma
Cuba

1514
Sancti Spiritus
Santi Spiritus
Cuba

1514
Trinidad
Santi Spiritus
Cuba

1515
Santiago
Santiago
After Baracoa and before Havana, Santiago was the second capital of Cuba.
Cuba

1519
Havana
Havana
Cuba

1519
La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, (Veracruz)
Veracruz
Mexico
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Mexico.

1519
Panama City
Panamá
Panama
First European established city on the Pacific Coast of the Americas. Founded in 1519, at the present day ruins of Panama Viejo, it was sacked by the Welsh pirate Henry Morgan in 1671, and resettled to nearby Casco Viejo, in 1673.

1520
Hato Mayor del Rey
Hato Mayor
Dominican Republic

1515
Cumaná
Sucre
Venezuela
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Venezuela.

1521
San Juan
Puerto Rico
United States
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Puerto Rico, and in the United States. Oldest continuously inhabited state or territorial capital in the United States.

1524
Granada
Granada
Nicaragua
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Nicaragua.

1524
Tecpán Guatemala
Chimaltenango
Guatemala
First capital of Guatemala and oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Guatemala.

1524
Trujillo
Colón
Honduras
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Honduras.

1525
Santa Marta
Magdalena
Colombia
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Colombia.

1525
Acapulco
Guerrero
Mexico
[4]

1525
San Salvador
San Salvador
El Salvador
Founded in 1525, rebuilt and changed locations twice afterwards (1528 and 1545) and oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in El Salvador.

1526
Acámbaro
Guanajuato
Mexico

1526
Chimaltenango
Chimaltenango
Guatemala

1528
San Cristóbal de las Casas
Chiapas
Mexico
Originally called Villa Real de Chiapa.

1528
Camagüey
Camagüey Province
Cuba
Founded in 1515 the northern coast of Camagüey as "Puerto del Príncipe", but moved in 1528 to present location.

1529
Maracaibo
Zulia
Venezuela

1530
San Blas
Nayarit
Mexico
By Nuño Beltrán [5]

1531
Puebla
Puebla
Mexico
by Fr. Toribio de Benavente ("Motolinía") on 16 April [6]

1532
Oaxaca
Oaxaca
Mexico

1532
Piura
Piura
Peru

1532
São Vicente
São Paulo
Brazil
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Brazil, oldest Portuguese established settlement in the New World.

1532
Tepic
Nayarit
Mexico
As capital of Nueva Galicia [7]

1533
Cananéia
São Paulo
Brazil
Second Oldest City in Brazil

1533
Cartagena de Indias
Bolívar
Colombia

1534
Otavalo
Imbabura
Ecuador

1534
Quito
Pichincha
Ecuador
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Ecuador.

1534
Spanish Town
Saint Catherine
Jamaica
Founded by the Spanish as Santiago de la Vega or St. Jago de la Vega. Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Jamaica.

1534
Trujillo
La Libertad
Peru
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Peru.

1535
Lima
Lima
Peru

1535
Igarassu
Pernambuco
Brazil
Site of first European settlement in Brazil, the feitoria of Igarassu, in 1516.[1]

1535
Olinda
Pernambuco
Brazil
One of the best-preserved colonial cities in Brazil.[2]

1535
Vila Velha
Espírito Santo
Brazil

1535
Paria
Oruro
Bolivia
First Spanish settlement in Bolivia

1536
Santiago de Cali
Valle del Cauca
Colombia

1536
Popayán
Cauca
Colombia

1536
San Pedro Sula
Cortés
Honduras

1536
Tupiza
Potosí
Bolivia

1537
Asunción

Paraguay
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Paraguay.

1537
Recife
Pernambuco
Brazil
Capital of the state of Pernambuco. It is the oldest city among Brazil's current state capitals.[3]

1538
Bogotá
Cundinamarca
Colombia

1538
Guayaquil
Guayas
Ecuador

1538
Iguape
São Paulo
Brazil

1538
Sucre
Chuquisaca
Bolivia
Originally called Ciudad de la Plata de la Nueva Toledo and the oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Bolivia.

1539
Tunja
Boyacá
Colombia

1539
Vélez
Santander
Colombia

1539
Pasto
Nariño
Colombia

1540
Arequipa
Arequipa
Peru

1540
Ayacucho
Ayacucho
Peru

1540
Campeche
Campeche
Mexico

1540
Yuriria
Guanajuato
Mexico

1540
Mompox
Bolivar
Colombia

1540
Campeche
Campeche
Mexico
Founded on the site of Mayan village Kimpech.

1541
Huánuco
Huánuco
Peru

1541
Moquegua
Moquegua
Peru

1541
Santiago
Santiago
Chile
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Chile.

1541
Santafé de Antioquia
Antioquia
Colombia

1542
Guadalajara
Jalisco
Mexico

1542
Genaro Codina
Zacatecas
Mexico
[4]

1542
San Miguel de Allende
Guanajuato
Mexico

1542
Mérida
Yucatan
Mexico
Built on the site of Mayan city T'ho.

1542
San Luis de la Paz
Guanajuato
Mexico

1543
Antigua Guatemala
Sacatepéquez
Guatemala

1543
Cobán
Alta Verapaz
Guatemala

1543
Santa Cruz Verapaz
Alta Verapaz
Guatemala

1545
Potosí
Potosí
Bolivia

1545
San Juan de los Remedios
Villa Clara Province
Cuba
Remedios has the most uncertain foundation date in Cuba, 1545 has been accepted because it is when the village erected its town hall, but its origin has been studied and documented back to 1513.

1545
Riohacha
La Guajira
Colombia

1546
Santos
São Paulo
Brazil

1546
Neyba
Bahoruco
Dominican Republic

1546
Tepezalá
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[5]

1548
Asientos
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[6]

1548
La Paz
La Paz
Bolivia

1548
Pánuco
Zacatecas
Mexico
[7]

1548
Zacatecas
Zacatecas
Mexico
[8]

1549
Salvador
Bahia
Brazil

1550
Concepción
Concepción
Chile

1550
Valledupar
Cesar
Colombia

1550
Ibagué
Tolima
Colombia

1551
Vitória
Espírito Santo
Brazil

1551
Mocoa
Putumayo

1552
Sonsonate
Sonsonate
El Salvador

1553
Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero
Argentina
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Argentina.

1553
São Bernardo do Campo
São Paulo
Brazil

1554
Embu
São Paulo
Brazil

1554
São Paulo
São Paulo
Brazil

1555
Saín Alto
Zacatecas
Mexico
[9]

1556
Chalchihuites
Zacatecas
Mexico
[10]

1557
Cuenca (Santa Ana de los Cuatro Rios de Cuenca)
Azuay
Ecuador

1557
Santo Amaro
Bahia
Brazil

1558
Mérida
Mérida
Venezuela

1558
Londres
Catamarca
Argentina
Second oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Argentina, though refunded and relocated several times.

1560
Mogi das Cruzes
São Paulo
Brazil

1560
Ipojuca
Pernambuco
Brazil

1561
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz
Bolivia

1561
Mendoza
Mendoza
Argentin
[11]

1561
San Cristobal
Táchira
Venezuela

1561
Itanhaém
São Paulo
Brasil

1562
San Juan
San Juan
Argentina

1562
Río Grande
Zacatecas
Mexico
[12]

1562
Susticacán
Zacatecas
Mexico
[13]

1563
Cartago
Cartago
Costa Rica
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Costa Rica.

1564
São Mateus
Espírito Santo
Brazil

1565
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil

1565
Saint Augustine
Florida
United States
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in the continental United States. Preceded by Puerto Rican colonies, Pensacola, Florida, which was destroyed in 1559, and Fort Caroline, destroyed in 1565.

1565
Tucumán
Tucumán
Argentina

1567
Caracas
Capital District
Venezuela

1568
Mazapil
Zacatecas
Mexico
[14]

1568
Goiana
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1685; cidade in 1840.[15]

1568
Valaparaíso
Zacatecas
Mexico
[16]

1569
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
El Salvador
Built over Mayan city of Sihuatehuacán.

1570
Jerez
Zacatecas
Mexico
[17]

1570
Sombrerete
Zacatecas
Mexico
[18]

1571
Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Bolivia

1572
Huancavelica
Huancavelica
Peru

1573
San German
Puerto Rico
United States
Second oldest European settlement in Puerto Rico[19]

1573
Córdoba
Córdoba
Argentina

1573
Santa Fé
Santa Fé
Argentina

1573
Buga
Valle del Cauca
Colombia

1574
Huaraz
Ancash
Peru

1574
Tarija
Tarija Department
Bolivia

1575
Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[20]

1576
León
Guanajuato
Mexico

1577
Juayúa
Sonsonate
El Salvador

1578
Fort-Liberté
Nord-Est
Haiti
Originally called Bayaha by the Spanish. Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Haiti.

1578
Tegucigalpa
Francisco Morazán
Honduras

1579
Coamo
Puerto Rico
United States
Third oldest European settlement in Puerto Rico. In the same area where the Taínos had had their village of Guayama. Coamo became officially a town in 1616, and given the title of villa by Spanish Royal Decree in 1778.[21]

1580
Buenos Aires

Argentina

1580
Santana de Parnaíba
São Paulo
Brasil

1580
Santo Domingo Xenacoj
Sacatepéquez
Guatemala

1582
Salta
Salta
Argentina

1584
Roanoke
North Carolina
United States

1585
João Pessoa
Paraíba
Brazil

1587
Concepción del Oro
Zacatecas
Mexico
[22]

1588
Corrientes
Corrientes
Argentina

1590
São Cristóvão
Sergipe
Brazil
First capital of Sergipe. Formerly known as Sergipe d'El Rei

1591
Jiménez del Teul
Zacatecas
Mexico
[23]

1591
Juan Aldama
Zacatecas
Mexico
[24]

1591
Paudalho
Pernambuco
Brazil

1591
La Rioja
La Rioja
Argentina
[25]

1593
San Salvador de Jujuy
Jujuy
Argentina

1594
Pinos
Zacatecas
Mexico
[26]

1594
San Luis
San Luis
Argentina

1596
Monterrey
Nuevo León
Mexico

1596
Villahermosa
Tabasco
Mexico
Originally called Villa Felipe II.

1597
Portobelo
Colón
Panama

1598
Parras
Coahuila
Mexico

1599
Natal
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1599
Tadoussac
Quebec
Canada
Oldest continuously inhabited French established settlement in the Americas, oldest European established settlement in Quebec.

1600
Facatativá
Cundinamarca
Colombia

1600
Zipaquirá
Cundinamarca
Colombia

1602
David
Chiriquí Province
Panama

1603
Salamanca
Guanajuato
Mexico

1604
Port Royal
Nova Scotia
Canada
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Nova Scotia.

1606
Bayaguana
Monte Plata
Dominican Republic

1606
Ibarra
Imbabura
Ecuador

1606
Oruro
Oruro
Bolivia

1607
Jamestown
Virginia
United States
First permanent English established settlement in the Americas.

1608
Quebec City
Quebec
Canada

1609
Fortaleza
Ceará
Brazil

1610
Kecoughtan
Virginia
United States

1524
León
León
Nicaragua
Original location (now known as the ruins of Leon Viejo) on the south-western shore of Lago Managua founded in 1524, but destroyed by earthquakes, and resettled 20 miles west, in 1610, to its present-day location at Leon.

1610
Santa Fe
New Mexico
United States
Oldest continuously inhabited state or territorial capital in the continental United States. [8]

1610
Harbour Grace
Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada

1611
Marechal Deodoro
Alagoas
Brazil

1612
São Luís
Maranhão
Brazil
Capital of Maranhão.

1612
St. George's

Bermuda
Oldest continuously inhabited English established settlement in the Americas.

1612
Neiva
Huila
Colombia

1613
Penedo
Alagoas
Brazil

1613
Hopewell
Virginia
United States
Oldest continuously inhabited English settlement in North America. Founded in 1613 as Bermuda City by Thomas Dale.

1614
Albany, New York
New York
United States
Oldest US settlement north of Virginia and second oldest state or territorial capital in the continental United States, incorporated 1686

1614
Sirinhaém
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1627; cidade in 1892.[27]

1615
Cabo Frio
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil

1615
Taos
New Mexico
United States

1615
Ipiales
Nariño
Colombia

1616
Belém
Pará
Brazil
Capital of Pará.

1616
Medellín
Antioquia
Colombia
Founded by Francisco de Herrera y Campuzano

1616
Arecibo
Puerto Rico
United States

1617
Jersey City, New Jersey
New Jersey
United States
Pavonia, New Netherland

1618
Cabo de Santo Agostinho
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1811; cidade in 1877.

1620
Ojocaliente
Zacatecas
Mexico
[28]

1620
Plymouth
Massachusetts
United States

1622
Bucaramanga
Santander
Colombia

1623
Dover
New Hampshire
United States

1623
Gloucester
Massachusetts
United States

1624
Old Road
Saint Christopher
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Oldest continuously inhabited British established settlement in the Caribbean, First successful 'non-Spanish' established settlement in the Caribbean.

1624
Villa Soriano
Soriano
Uruguay
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Uruguay.

1625
New Amsterdam
New York
United States
Now New York City.

1625
Quincy
Massachusetts
United States

1626
Salem
Massachusetts
United States

1626
Vitória de Santo Antão
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1811; cidade in 1843.[29]

1627
Basseterre
Saint Christopher
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Oldest continuously inhabited French established settlement in the Caribbean.

1628
Bridgetown
Saint Michael
Barbados
Second oldest continuously inhabited English established settlement in the Caribbean.

1630
Boston
Massachusetts
United States

1630
Paramaribo
Paramaribo
Suriname
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Suriname.

1630
Speightstown
Saint Peter
Barbados

1631
Biddeford
Maine
United States

1631
Hidalgo del Parral
Chihuahua
Mexico

1631
Saint John
New Brunswick
Canada

1632
Batopilas
Chihuahua
Mexico

1632
Williamsburg
Virginia
United States

1632
St. John's
Antigua
Antigua and Barbuda

1634
Green Bay
Wisconsin
United States
Oldest continuously inhabited French established settlement in the United States.

1634
St. Mary's City
Maryland
United States

1634
Trois-Rivières
Quebec
Canada

1634
Willemstad
Curaçao
Netherlands
Oldest continuously inhabited Dutch established settlement in the Caribbean.

1635
Concord
Massachusetts
United States

1635
Old Saybrook
Connecticut
United States
Original Dutch settlement called Kievits Hoek.

1636
Springfield
Massachusetts
United States

1636
Providence
Rhode Island
United States

1637
Hartford
Connecticut
United States

[9]

1638
Belize City
Belize
Belize
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Belize. Original Mayan city called Holzuz.

1638
Fort-de-France

Martinique
Originally called Fort Saint Louis.

1638
New Haven
Connecticut
United States

[10]

1638
Wilmington
Delaware
United States
Grew from Fort Christina, part of the New Sweden colony. Oldest continuously inhabited Swedish established settlement in the Americas.

1638
Cambridge
Massachusetts
United States

1639
Rincón de Romos
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[30]

1639 (prior to)
St. Marks
Florida
United States
[11]

1639
Barnstable
Massachusetts
United States
Second-oldest municipality and only city on Cape Cod

1639
Bridgeport
Connecticut
United States

1639
Newport
Rhode Island
United States

1640
Tumaco
Nariño
Colombia

1642
Montreal
Quebec
Canada

1642
Lexington
Massachusetts
United States
[12]

1642
Warwick
Rhode Island
United States

1643
Basse-Terre
Guadeloupe
France
Territorial capital.

1643
Dolores Hidalgo
Guanajuato
Mexico

1644
Salvatierra
Guanajuato
Mexico

1646
New London
Connecticut
United States

1648
Alcântara
Maranhão
Brazil
[31]

1648
Paranaguá
Paraná
Brazil

1649
Annapolis
Maryland
United States

1650
Castries
Castries
Saint Lucia

1650
Saint George's
Saint George
Grenada

1651
Norwalk
Connecticut
United States

1654
Vieux Fort
Vieux Fort
Saint Lucia

1659
Ciudad Juárez
Chihuahua
Mexico

1659
El Paso
Texas
United States

1660
Charlestown
Nevis
St Kitts & Nevis

1660
Placentia
Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada
French Capital until 1713, originally called Plaisance

1660
Rye
New York
United States

1664
Cayenne
French Guiana
France
Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in French Guiana.

1664
Quibdó
Chocó
Colombia

1665
Port-de-Paix
Nord-Ouest
Haiti

1666
Codrington
Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda

1666
Newark
New Jersey
United States

1667
Paraty
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil

1668
Sault Ste. Marie
Michigan
United States
[13], oldest city in Michigan.

1670
Boqueirão
Paraíba
Brazil
[32]

1670
Cap-Haïtien
Nord
Haiti
Originally called "Cap-Français"

1670
Charleston
South Carolina
United States

1672
Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas
U.S. Virgin Islands
United States
Oldest permanent European settlement in Saint Thomas island.[33] Oldest continuously inhabited Danish established settlement in the Americas.

1673
Kingston
Ontario
Canada
Grew from Fort Frontenac.

1673
San José de Gracia
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[34]

1673
Worcester
Massachusetts
United States

1674
Cachoeira
Bahia
Brazil

1674
Waterbury
Connecticut
United States

1677
Crosswicks
New Jersey
United States
Quaker settlement. Continuously inhabited since founding.

1680
South Orange
New Jersey
United States
Grew from Newark (later Orange).

1680
Colonia del Sacramento
Colonia
Uruguay

1681
Cockburn Town

Turks and Caicos Islands

1682
Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
United States

1682
Norfolk
Virginia
United States

1682
São Borja
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1683
Dover
Delaware
United States

1685
Escada
Pernambuco
Brazil

1686
Trinidad
Beni Department
Bolivia

1687
New Britain
Connecticut
United States

1687
São Luiz Gonzaga
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1687
São Miguel das Missões
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1687
São Nicolau
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1689
Marigot

Saint Martin

1689
San Gil
Santander
Colombia

1690
Port of Spain
Trinidad
Trinidad and Tobago

1690
São Lourenço das Missões
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1690
Santa Rosa de Viterbo
Boyacá
Colombia

1692
Villanueva
Zacatecas
Mexico
[35]

1693
Bom Jesus da Lapa
Bahia
Brazil

1693
Burlington
New Jersey
United States

1693
Curitiba
Paraná
Brazil

1693
Kingston
St Andrew
Jamaica

1695
Nassau
New Providence
Bahamas

1695
Saint-Marc
Artibonite
Haiti

1696
Assú
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil
Declared vila in 1766; cidade in 1845.[36]

1696
Rimouski
Quebec
Canada

1698
Ambato
Tungurahua
Ecuador

1698
Pensacola
Florida
United States
Known for being the first European settlement in North America.

1699
Biloxi
Mississippi
United States

1699
Baton Rouge
Louisiana
United States

1700
Barreiras
Bahia
Brazil

1701
Detroit
Michigan
United States

1701
São João del Rei
Minas Gerais
Brazil

1702
Jesús María
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[37]

1702
Mobile
Alabama
United States

1703
Kaskaskia
Illinois
United States

1705
Bath
North Carolina
United States

1706
Albuquerque
New Mexico
United States

1706
Santo Ângelo
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1709
Chihuahua
Chihuahua
Mexico

1710
Chatham
New Jersey
United States
On land purchased in 1680.

1710
New Bern
North Carolina
United States
Birthplace of Pepsi [38]

1711
Beaufort
South Carolina
United States

1711
Ouro Preto
Minas Gerais
Brazil

1714
Natchitoches
Louisiana
United States
Oldest settlement in the Louisiana Purchase

1714
Antonina
Paraná
Brazil

1714
Laguna
Santa Catarina
Brazil

1714
Serro
Minas Gerais
Brazil

1715 (prior to)
Kekionga
Indiana
United States
Capital of the Miami tribe.

1716
Natchez
Mississippi
United States
Dates to the founding of Fort Rosalie by the French.[14]

1717
Brejo do Cruz
Paraíba
Brazil
[39]

1717
Zacatecas
Zacatecas
Mexico
[40]

1717
Westborough
Massachusetts
United States
One Hundredth Town in Massachusetts

1718
New Orleans
Louisiana
United States

1718
Rio de Contas
Bahia
Brazil

1718
San Antonio
Texas
United States

1718
Tiradentes
Minas Gerais
Brazil

1719
Trenton
New Jersey
United States

1721
Cortazar
Guanajuato
Mexico

1722
Edenton
North Carolina
United States

1723
Guaynabo
Puerto Rico
United States
Declared pueblo in 1723; municipio in 1768.[41]

1724
Brattleboro
Vermont
United States
Grew out of Fort Dummer.

1725
Concord
New Hampshire
United States

1726
Florianópolis
Santa Catarina
Brazil

1726
Montevideo
Montevideo
Uruguay

1727
Cuiabá
Mato Grosso
Brazil

1727
Goiás
Goiás
Brazil

1727
Pirenópolis
Goiás
Brazil
[42]

1728
Fredericksburg
Virginia
United States

1728
Inhambupe
Bahia
Brazil

1728
Nuuk

Greenland
Norse colony was originally called Godthab. Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Greenland.

1729
Baltimore
Maryland
United States

1730
Roseau
Saint George
Dominica

1732
Fredericton
New Brunswick
Canada
Originally called Ste. Anne's Point.

1732
Vincennes
Indiana
United States

1733
Morretes
Paraná
Brazil

1733
Pau dos Ferros
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil
[43]

1733
Richmond
Virginia
United States
[15]

1733
Savannah
Georgia
United States

1733
Cúcuta
Norte de Santander
Colombia

1736
Augusta
Georgia
United States

1737
Rio Grande
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1738
Fort Rouge
Manitoba
Canada
Now Winnipeg, Manitoba.

1738
San José
San José
Costa Rica

1740
Santa Rosalía de Camargo
Chihuahua
Mexico

1740
Portalegre
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1740
San Felipe de Puerto Plata
Puerto Plata
Dominican Republic

1741
Viamão
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1743
Canguaretama
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil
Declared vila in 1858; cidade in 1885.

1748
Caicó
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil
Declared vila in 1788; cidade in 1868.

1749
Alexandria
Virginia
United States

1749
San Ignacio de Velasco
Santa Cruz Department
Bolivia

1749
Port-au-Prince
Ouest
Haiti

1749
Halifax
Nova Scotia
Canada

1749
Windsor
Ontario
Canada
Oldest continually-inhabited settlement in Canada west of Montreal

1751
Manchester
New Hampshire
United States
Former American textile capital - Named after Manchester, England

1752
Buíque
Pernambuco
Brazil

1752
Patos
Paraíba
Brazil
Declared vila in 1832; cidade in 1903.

1752
Tubac
Arizona
United States

1754
Augusta
Maine
United States

1755
Charlotte
North Carolina
United States

1756
Salto
Salto
Uruguay

1756
Santa Bárbara de Samaná
Samaná
Dominican Republic

1756
Yauco
Puerto Rico
United States
[44]

1757
Estância
Sergipe
Brazil

1758
Pittsburgh
Pennsylvania
United States

1758
Macapá
Amapá
Brazil

1760
Arês
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1760
Sabana de la Mar
Hato Mayor
Dominican Republic

1761
Sacaba
Cochabamba Department
Bolivia

1762
Kingstown
St Vincent
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1762
Parnaíba
Piauí
Brazil
[45]

1762
Shepherdstown
West Virginia
United States
Originally known as Mecklenburg.

1762
Allentown
Pennsylvania
United States
Incorporated as Northamptontown.

1762
Baía da Traição
Paraíba
Brazil
[46]

1763
Burlington
Vermont
United States

1763
Pánfilo Natera
Zacatecas
Mexico
[47]

1763
Ellsworth
Maine
United States

1763
Philipsburg
Sint Maarten
Netherlands

1763
St. Louis
Missouri
United States

1764
Charlottetown
Prince Edward Island
Canada

1764
Pointe-à-Pitre
Grand Terre
Guadeloupe

1765
Port Elizabeth
Grenadines
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1765
Portsmouth
Saint John
Dominica

1767
Ceará-Mirim
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1767
Araioses
Maranhão
Brazil
[48]

1769
Elizabethton
Tennessee
United States

1769
Falmouth
Trelawny
Jamaica

1769
San Diego
California
United States
Grew from Presidio of San Diego

1769
Lapa
Paraná
Brazil

1770
Monterey
California
United States
Grew from Presidio of Monterey. Original capital of California [16]

1770
Araxá
Minas Gerais
Brazil

1771
Calvillo
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[49]

1772
Porto Alegre
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1775
Tucson
Arizona
United States

1774
Castro
Paraná
Brazil

1775
Lexington
Kentucky
United States

1775
Boonesborough
Kentucky
United States
Grew from Fort Boonesborough, built by pioneer Daniel Boone.
-

1775
São Lourenço da Mata
Pernambuco
Brazil
District status in 1775; village status in 1884; municipality status in 1890

1776
San Francisco
California
United States

1776
Sincelejo
Sucre
Colombia

1777
San Jose
California
United States
Originally known as El Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe, the first town in the Spanish colony of Nueva California, which later became Alta California.

1777
Montería
Cordoba
Colombia

1778
Corumbá
Mato Grosso do Sul
Brazil

1778
Louisville
Kentucky
United States
Grew from Fort Nelson, established by explorer George Rogers Clark.

1778
San Francisco de Macorís
Duarte
Dominican Republic

1779
Jonesborough
Tennessee
United States
Later organized as the lost State of Franklin with Jonesborough as capital 1784.[50]

1779
Nashville
Tennessee
United States
Grew from Fort Nashborough

1780
Codó
Maranhão
Brazil
Declared vila in 1833; cidade in 1896.[51]

1780
Las Matas de Farfán
San Juan
Dominican Republic

1780
Arauca
Arauca
Colombia

1781
Montpelier
Vermont
United States

1781
Los Angeles
California
United States

1782
Catu
Bahia
Brazil

1782
Georgetown
Demerara-Mahaica
Guyana
Originally called La Nouvelle Ville.

1783
Vitória da Conquista
Bahia
Brazil

1784
San Fernando
Trinidad
Trinidad and Tobago

1785
Harrisburg
Pennsylvania
United States

1785
North Battleford
Saskatchewan
Canada
1785 fur trading post. 1877 Battleford is capital of the North West Territories. North Battleford incorporated as a city (population 5000+) 1913.[52]

1785
Asheville
North Carolina
United States

1785
Gustavia

Saint Barthélemy

1785
Huntington
West Virginia
United States

1785
Sydney
Nova Scotia
Canada

1786
Columbia
South Carolina
United States

1786
Escada
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1854; cidade in 1873.[53]

1786
Florissant
Missouri
United States
Originally known as St. Ferdinand.

1786
Frankfort
Kentucky
United States

1786
Portland
Maine
United States

1787
Boa Ventura
Paraíba
Brazil
[54]

1788
Marietta
Ohio
United States

1788
Cincinnati
Ohio
United States

1788
Charleston
West Virginia
United States
Grew from Fort Lee. [17]

1788
Mercedes
Soriano
Uruguay

1789
Buffalo
New York
United States

1789
Itambé
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1867; cidade in 1879.[55]

1790
Hamilton

Bermuda

1790
Washington
District of Columbia
United States

1791
Jacksonville
Florida
United States
Known as "Cowford".

1791
Knoxville
Tennessee
United States

1791
Bangor
Maine
United States

1792
Raleigh
North Carolina
United States

1793
Sherbrooke
Quebec
Canada

1793
Toronto
Ontario
Canada

1794
Fort Wayne
Indiana
United States

1795
Edmonton
Alberta
Canada
Grew from Fort Edmonton.

1795
Erie
Pennsylvania
United States
Grew from the French Fort Presque Isle.

1795
Maryville
Tennessee
United States
Grew from the American Fort Craig.

1796
Cleveland
Ohio
United States

1796
Oranjestad
Aruba
Netherlands

1797
Chaguanas
Trinidad
Trinidad and Tobago

1797
Franklinton
Ohio
United States
Eventually absorbed by Columbus, Ohio.

1799
Araruama
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil

1800
Hull
Quebec
Canada
Formerly known as Wrightville.

1800
Sonsón
Antioquia
Colombia

1802
Chapadinha
Maranhão
Brazil
[56]

1802
Santa Cruz de Barahona
Barahona
Dominican Republic

1803
Chicago
Illinois
United States
Grew from Fort Dearborn.

1805
Huntsville
Alabama
United States

1807
Hot Springs
Arkansas
United States

1809
Água Preta
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1846; cidade in 1895.[57]

1810
Guarapuava
Paraná
Brazil

1810
Manchester
New Hampshire
United States

1810
Pilão Arcado
Bahia
Brazil

1810
San Bernardino
California
United States

1811
Garanhuns
Pernambuco
Brazil

1811
Astoria
Oregon
United States

1812
Columbus
Ohio
United States

1812
Pelotas
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil
Declared vila in 1832; cidade in 1835.[58]

1813
Capela
Sergipe
Brazil

1813
Chisec
Alta Verapaz
Guatemala

1813
Barranquilla
Atlántico
Colombia

1815
Areia
Paraíba
Brazil
[59]

1815
Hamilton
Ontario
Canada

1816
Alagoinhas
Bahia
Brazil

1816
Chattanooga
Tennessee
United States
Originally named Ross's Landing.

1816
Saginaw
Michigan
United States

1816
Savaneta
Aruba
Netherlands

1817
Fort Smith
Arkansas
United States

1818
Itaguaí
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil

1819
Montgomery
Alabama
United States
Near the site of the earlier French Fort Toulouse.

1819
Springfield
Illinois
United States

1819
Managua
Managua
Nicaragua

1819
Memphis
Tennessee
United States
Near the site of the earlier French Fort Prudhomme.

1819
Palmeira
Paraná
Brazil

1819
Tuscaloosa
Alabama
United States
Former state capital, grew from former Native American settlements beginning in 1580. [18]

1820
Cotegipe
Bahia
Brazil

1821
Little Rock
Arkansas
United States

1821
Indianapolis
Indiana
United States

1821
Jefferson City
Missouri
United States

1821
Decatur
Alabama
United States

1822
Ponta Grossa
Paraná
Brazil

1822
Jackson
Mississippi
United States

1823
Tampa
Florida
United States
Grew from earlier military post Fort Brooke.

1824
Vancouver
Washington
United States

1824
Tallahassee
Florida
United States

1825
Vicksburg
Mississippi
United States

1825
Grand Rapids
Michigan
United States

1825
Syracuse
New York
United States
incorporated as village; received city charter in 1847

1826
Ipiranga
Paraná
Brazil

1826
London
Ontario
Canada

1827
Fort Leavenworth
Kansas
United States

1827
St. Andrews
Florida
United States
Now part of Panama City

1831
Greenville
South Carolina
United States

1831
Piracanjuba
Goiás
Brazil
[60]

1832
Goianinha
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1828
Key West
Florida
United States

1832
Touros
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1833
Bananeiras
Paraíba
Brazil
[61]

1833
Juazeiro
Bahia
Brazil

1833
Kitchener
Ontario
Canada
Originally called Berlin.

1833
Milwaukee
Wisconsin
United States

1833
Nazaré da Mata
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1833; cidade in 1850.[62]

1833
Rio Formoso
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1833; cidade in 1850.[63]

1833
Vassouras
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil

1835
Austin
Texas
United States

1835
Barra do Corda
Maranhão
Brazil
[64]

1835
Curupuru
Maranhão
Brazil
Declared vila in 1841; cidade in 1920.[65]

1836
Davenport
Iowa
United States

1836
Oshawa
Ontario
Canada

1836
Shreveport
Louisiana
United States

1836
Madison
Wisconsin
United States

1836
Tulsa
Oklahoma
United States
The Lochapoka named their new settlement "Tulasi," meaning "old town"

1837
Glória do Goitá
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1877; cidade in 1884.[66]

1837
Lansing
Michigan
United States

1837
Houston
Texas
United States

1838
Divina Pastora
Sergipe
Brazil

1838
Kansas City
Missouri
United States

1838
St Paul
Minnesota
United States

1839
Santa Rita
Paraíba
Brazil
Declared vila in 1890; cidade in 1924.

1840
Summerside
Prince Edward Island
Canada

1840
Villavicencio
Meta
Colombia

1841
Cedar Rapids
Iowa
United States

1841
Dallas
Texas
United States

1842
Piatã
Bahia
Brazil

1842
Salem
Oregon
United States

1843
Atlanta
Georgia
United States
Originally known as Terminus, later renamed Marthasville. Acquired the name Atlanta in 1847.

1843
Des Moines
Iowa
United States

1843
Stanley
East Falkland
Falkland Islands

1843
Uruguaiana
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil
Declared vila in 1846; cidade in 1874.[67]

1843
Victoria
British Columbia
Canada

1844
Lençóis
Bahia
Brazil

1845
Araruna
Paraíba
Brazil
[68]

1845
Portland
Oregon
United States

1847
Alagoa Grande
Paraíba
Brazil
Declared vila in 1865; cidade in 1908.

1847
Salt Lake City
Utah
United States
Originally known as Great Salt Lake City.

1848
Caruaru
Pernambuco
Brazil
First municipality in the [Agreste] region of Pernambuco state, Brazil.[69]

1848
Rio Verde
Goiás
Brazil
[70]

1848
Sacramento
California
United States

1849
Provo
Utah
United States

1849
Manizales
Caldas
Colombia

1850
Bytown
Ontario
Canada
Now Ottawa, Ontario.

1851
San Luis
Colorado
United States

1851
Seattle
Washington
United States

1851
Jericó
Antioquia
Colombia

1852
Mossoró
Rio Grande do Norte
Brazil

1852
São José dos Pinhais
Paraná
Brazil

1852
Colón
Colón
Panama

1853
Olympia
Washington
United States

1854
Omaha
Nebraska
United States

1854
Anajatuba
Maranhão
Brazil
[71]

1854
Topeka
Kansas
United States

1855
Aracaju
Sergipe
Brazil

1856
Lincoln
Nebraska
United States
Originally called Lancaster.

1856
O'Fallon
Missouri
United States

1856
Sioux Falls
South Dakota
United States

1857
Boquim
Sergipe
Brazil

1858
Carson City
Nevada
United States

1858
Denver
Colorado
United States

1859
Yankton
South Dakota
United States

1860
Chico
California
United States

1863
Boise
Idaho
United States

1863
Wichita
Kansas
United States

1864
Casper
Wyoming
United States
Originally called Platte Bridge Station.

1864
Helena
Montana
United States

1864
Salinas
California
United States
[19]

1866
Prince Albert
Saskatchewan
Canada
Settled by Rev. James Nisbet. Incorporated as city (population 5000+) October 8, 1904[72]

1867
Cheyenne
Wyoming
United States

1867
Gameleira
Pernambuco
Brazil

1867
Minneapolis
Minnesota
United States

1868
Colinas
Maranhão
Brazil
Declared vila in 1870; cidade in 1891.[73]

1868
Phoenix
Arizona
United States

1870
Afogados da Ingazeira
Pernambuco
Brazil

1870
Campo Largo
Paraná
Brazil

1870
Puerto Limon
Limon
Costa Rica

1871
Águas Belas
Pernambuco
Brazil

1871
Alto Parnaíba
Maranhão
Brazil
[74]

1871
Birmingham
Alabama
United States

1871
Colorado Springs
Colorado
United States

1871
Fargo
North Dakota
United States

1871
Imbituva
Paraná
Brazil

1871
São João do Triunfo
Paraná
Brazil

1872
Anniston
Alabama
United States

1872
Bismarck
North Dakota
United States

1872
Tibagi
Paraná
Brazil

1873
Jaboatão dos Guararapes
Pernambuco
Brazil
First settlement in 1593; village status in 1873; city status in 1884

1873
Timbaúba
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1879; cidade in 1884.[75]

1875
Orlando
Florida
United States

1875
Calgary
Alberta
Canada
Grew from Fort Calgary

1875
Humboldt
Saskatchewan
Canada
Incorporated as a city (population 5000+) November 7, 2000[76]

1876
Boa Vista
Paraíba
Brazil
[77]

1876
Cajapió
Maranhão
Brazil
[78]

1876
Rapid City
South Dakota
United States

1877
Billings
Montana
United States

1877
Jaquimeyes
Barahona
Dominican Republic

1878
Coeur d'Alene
Idaho
United States

1878
Colombo
Paraná
Brazil

1879
Vicência
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1891; cidade in 1928.[79]

1880
Pierre
South Dakota
United States

1881
Juneau
Alaska
United States

1881
Moose Jaw
Saskatchewan
Canada
Incorporated as a city (population 5000+) November 1903.[80]

1882
Brandon
Manitoba
Canada

1882
Mao
Valverde
Dominican Republic

1882
Restauración
Dajabón
Dominican Republic

1882
Yorkton
Saskatchewan
Canada
The York Farmers’ Colonization Company Limited settlement May 12, 1882. City (population 5000+) incorporated February 1, 1928.[81]

1882
Swift Current
Saskatchewan
Canada
Canadian Pacific Railway arrival December 10, 1882. City (population 5000+) incorporated January 15, 1914.[82]

1882
Regina
Saskatchewan
Canada
Settlement first named Pile O' Bones, and renamed Regina. Capital city of SK. Incorporated as a city (population 5000+) June 19, 1903[83]

1882
Rio Branco
Acre
Brazil

1883
Saskatoon
Saskatchewan
Canada
Temperance Colony founded at Nutana. Riversdale, Nutana, and Saskatoon incorporated as a city (population 5000+) in 1906.[84]

1884
Melfort
Saskatchewan
Canada
Stoney Creek Settlement began in 1884. Incorporated as a city (population 5000+) on July 1, 1907.[85]

1886
Vancouver
British Columbia
Canada

1887
Gulfport
Mississippi
United States
[20]

1888
Virginia Beach
Virginia
United States
Grew from Seatack community.

1889
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma
United States

1889
Whiting
Indiana
United States

1890
Ijuí
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1892
Aliança
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared vila in 1909; cidade in 1928.[86]

1892
Catende
Pernambuco
Brazil
Created in 1892 as a district of Palmares. Autonomous municipality in 1909.

1892
Estevan
Saskatchewan
Canada
CPR arrives 1893. Incorporated as city (population 5000+) March 1, 1957[87]

1892
Guayaramerín
Beni
Bolivia

1892
Restauración
Dajabón
Dominican Republic

1892
Vernon
British Columbia
Canada

1893
Araripina
Pernambuco
Brazil
Created in 1893 as a district of Ouricuri. Autonomous municipality in 1928.

1893
Catuípe
Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil

1894
Riberalta
Beni
Bolivia

1895
Traverse City
Michigan
United States

1896
Condado
Pernambuco
Brazil
Declared cidade in 1958.[88]

1896
Inhumas
Goiás
Brazil
[89]

1896
Miami
Florida
United States

1896
Santa Catalina la Tinta
Alta Verapaz
Guatemala

1897
Jequié
Bahia
Brazil

1897
Nelson
British Columbia
Canada

1898
Weyburn
Saskatchewan
Canada
Signal Hill settlement. Weyburn incorporated as a city (population 5000+) 1913.[90]

1898
Chetumal
Quintana Roo
Mexico
Originally called Payo Obispo.

1899
Porto Acre
Acre
Brazil

1900
Afrânio
Pernambuco
Brazil
Created in 1900 as a district of Petrolina. Autonomous municipality in 1963.

1902
Florencia
Caquetá
Colombia

1903
Lloydminster
Saskatchewan
Canada
Brittania colony settled by Rev. Exton Lloyd and Rev. Isaac Barr. Incorporated as a city (population 5000+) in 1958.[91]

1904
Cruzeiro do Sul
Acre
Brazil

1904
Grytviken

South Georgia

1904
Sena Madureira
Acre
Brazil

1904
Xapuri
Acre
Brazil

1906
Cobija
Pando
Bolivia

1906
Feijó
Acre
Brazil

1907
Melville
Saskatchewan
Canada
Incorporated as a city (population 5000+) August 1, 1960[92]

1907
Tarauacá
Acre
Brazil

1908
São Mateus do Sul
Paraná
Brazil

1909
Estreito
Maranhão
Brazil
[93]

1910
Brasiléia
Acre
Brazil

1910
Kindersley
Saskatchewan
Canada

1910
Porto Walter
Acre
Brazil

1910
Villazón
Potosí
Bolivia

1911
Las Vegas
Nevada
United States

1914
Anchorage
Alaska
United States

1915
Yopal
Casanare
Colombia

1928
Leticia
Amazonas
Colombia

1929
Pabellón de Arteaga
Aguascalientes
Mexico
[94]

1930
Puerto Carreño
Vichada
Colombia

1931
Loreto
Zacatecas
Mexico
[95]

1935
Yellowknife
Northwest Territories
Canada

1935
Mitú
Vaupés
Colombia

1938
San José del Guaviare
Guaviare
Colombia

1942
Iqaluit
Nunavut
Canada
Originally called Frobisher Bay.

1955
Freeport
Grand Bahama
Bahamas

1957
Ciudad del Este
Alto Paraná
Paraguay
Originally called Puerto Flor de Lis.

1957
Rankin Inlet
Nunavut
Canada

1960
Brasília
Distrito Federal
Brazil
Created in 1960 as the national capital.

1970
Belmopan
Cayo
Belize

1970
Linden
Upper Demerara-Berbice
Guyana
City formed by combining the towns of Christianburg, MacKenzie, and Wismar.

1970
Cancún
Quintana Roo
Mexico

1974
Inírida
Guainía
Colombia

1989
Palmas
Tocantins
Brazil
Was founded 1 year after the creation of the State of Tocantins. It's the newest and smallest Brazilian capital city.