document_title: Civil rights movement (1896–1954)

question_text: who fought to gain civil rights for minorities in texas

question_tokens: who fought to gain civil rights for minorities in texas

root

text: Civil rights movement (1896–1954)

text: Key events[edit]

text: Segregation[edit]

text: The Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld state-mandated discrimination in public transportation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. As Justice Harlan, the only member of the Court to dissent from the decision, predicted:

tag: p

text: If a state can prescribe, as a rule of civil conduct, that whites and blacks shall not travel as passengers in the same railroad coach, why may it not so regulate the use of the streets of its cities and towns as to compel white citizens to keep on one side of a street, and black citizens to keep on the other? Why may it not, upon like grounds, punish whites and blacks who ride together in street cars or in open vehicles on a public road or street? . . . .

text: The Plessy decision did not address an earlier Supreme Court case, Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886),[2] involving discrimination against Chinese immigrants, that held that a law that is race-neutral on its face, but is administered in a prejudicial manner, is an infringement of the Equal Protection Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. While in the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn state statutes that disenfranchised African Americans, as in Guinn v. United States (1915), with Plessy, it upheld segregation that Southern states enforced in nearly every other sphere of public and private life. The Court soon extended Plessy to uphold segregated schools. In Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908), the Court upheld a Kentucky statute that barred Berea College, a private institution, from teaching both black and white students in an integrated setting. Many states, particularly in the South, took Plessy and Berea as blanket approval for restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, that created second-class status for African Americans.

text: In many cities and towns, African Americans were not allowed to share a taxi with whites or enter a building through the same entrance. They had to drink from separate water fountains, use separate restrooms, attend separate schools, be buried in separate cemeteries and swear on separate Bibles. They were excluded from restaurants and public libraries. Many parks barred them with signs that read "Negroes and dogs not allowed." One municipal zoo listed separate visiting hours.

text: The etiquette of racial segregation was harsher, particularly in the South. African Americans were expected to step aside to let a white person pass, and black men dared not look any white woman in the eye. Black men and women were addressed as "Tom" or "Jane", but rarely as "Mr." or "Miss" or "Mrs," titles then widely in use for adults. Whites referred to black men of any age as "boy" and a black woman as "girl"; both often were called by labels such as "nigger" or "colored."

text: Less formal social segregation in the North began to yield to change. In 1941, however, the United States Naval Academy, based in segregated Maryland, refused to play a lacrosse game against Harvard University because Harvard's team included a black player.

text: Jackie Robinson's Major League Baseball debut, 1947[edit]

text: Jackie Robinson was a sports pioneer of the civil rights movement, best known for becoming the first African American to play professional sports in the major leagues. Robinson debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers of Major League Baseball on April 15, 1947. His first major league game came one year before the US Army was integrated, seven years before Brown v. Board of Education, eight years before Rosa Parks, and before Martin Luther King Jr. was leading the movement.[3]

text: Political opposition[edit]

text: Lily-white movement[edit]

text: Following the Civil War, black leaders made substantial progress in establishing representation in the Republican Party.

text: Among the most prominent was Norris Wright Cuney, the Republican Party chairman in late 19th century Texas. These gains led to substantial discomfort among many white voters, who generally supported the Democrats. During the 1888 Texas Republican Convention, Cuney coined the term lily-white movement to describe efforts by white conservatives to oust blacks from positions of party leadership and incite riots to divide the party.[4] Increasingly organized efforts by this movement gradually eliminated black leaders from the party. The writer Michael Fauntroy contends that the effort was coordinated with Democrats as part of a larger movement toward disenfranchisement of blacks in the South at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century by increasing restrictions in voter registration rules.[5]

text: Following biracial victories by a Populist-Republican slates in several states, by the late 19th century the Democratic Party had regained control of most state legislatures in the South. From 1890 to 1908, they accomplished disenfranchisement of blacks and, in some states, many poor whites. Despite repeated legal challenges and some successes by the NAACP, the Democrats continued to devise new ways to limit black electoral participation, such as white primaries, through the 1960s.

text: Nationally, the Republican Party tried to respond to black interests. Theodore Roosevelt, president 1901–1909, had a mixed record on race relations. He relied extensively on the backstage advice of Booker T. Washington regarding patronage appointments across the South. He publicly invited Washington to dinner at the White House, thereby challenging racist attitudes. On the other hand, he began the system of segregating federal employees; and he cracked down on black soldiers who refused to testify against each other in the Brownsville Affair of 1906.[6] In order to defeat his successor William Howard Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912, Roosevelt pursued a Lily-white policy in the South. This new progressive party of 1912 was supportive of black rights in the North, but excluded all black members in the South.[7]

text: Republicans in Congress repeatedly proposed federal legislation to prohibit lynching, which was always defeated by the Southern block. In 1920 Republicans made opposition to lynching part of their platform at the Republican National Convention. Lynchings, primarily of black men in the South, had increased in the decades around the turn of the 20th century. Leonidas C. Dyer, a white Republican Representative from St. Louis, Missouri, worked with the NAACP to introduce an anti-lynching bill into the House, where he gained strong passage in 1922. His effort was defeated by the Southern Democratic block in the Senate, which filibustered the bill that year, and in 1923 and 1924.

text: Disenfranchisement[edit]

text: Opponents of black civil rights used economic reprisals and frequently violence at the polls in the 1870s and 1880s to discourage blacks from registering to vote or voting. Paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts in Mississippi and the Carolinas, and the White League in Louisiana, practiced open intimidation on behalf of the Democratic Party. By the turn of the 20th century, white Democratic-dominated Southern legislatures disfranchised nearly all age-eligible African-American voters through a combination of statute and constitutional provisions. While requirements applied to all citizens, in practice, they were targeted at blacks and poor whites (and Mexican Americans in Texas), and subjectively administered. The feature "Turnout in Presidential and Midterm Elections" at the following University of Texas website devoted to politics, shows the drastic drop in voting as these provisions took effect in Southern states compared to the rest of the US, and the longevity of the measures.[8]

text: Mississippi passed a new constitution in 1890 that included provisions for poll taxes, literacy tests (which depended on the arbitrary decisions of white registrars), and complicated record keeping to establish residency, which severely reduced the number of blacks who could register. It was litigated before the Supreme Court. In 1898, in Williams v. Mississippi, the Court upheld the state. Other Southern states quickly adopted the "Mississippi plan", and from 1890 to 1908, ten states adopted new constitutions with provisions to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites. States continued to disfranchise these groups for decades, until mid-1960s federal legislation provided for oversight and enforcement of constitutional voting rights.

text: Blacks were most adversely affected, and in many southern states black voter turnout dropped to zero. Poor whites were also disfranchised. In Alabama, for instance, by 1941, 600,000 poor whites had been disfranchised, as well as 520,000 blacks.[9]

text: It was not until the 20th century that litigation by African Americans on such provisions began to meet some success before the Supreme Court. In 1915 in Guinn v. United States, the Court declared Oklahoma's 'grandfather clause' to be unconstitutional. Although the decision affected all states that used the grandfather clause, state legislatures quickly employed new devices to continue disfranchisement. Each provision or statute had to be litigated separately. The NAACP, founded in 1909, litigated against many such provisions.

text: One device which the Democratic Party began to use more widely in Southern states in the early 20th century was the white primary, which served for decades to disfranchise the few blacks who managed to get past barriers of voter registration. Barring blacks from voting in the Democratic Party primaries meant they had no chance to vote in the only competitive contests, as the Republican Party was then weak in the South. White primaries were not struck down by the Supreme Court until Smith v. Allwright in 1944.

text: Criminal law and lynching[edit]

text: In 1880, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U.S. 303 (1880) that African Americans could not be excluded from juries. But, beginning in 1890 with new state constitutions and electoral laws, the South effectively disfranchised blacks in the South, which routinely disqualified them for jury duty which was limited to voters. This left them at the mercy of a white justice system arrayed against them. In some states, particularly Alabama, the state used the criminal justice system to reestablish a form of peonage, through the convict-lease system. The state sentenced black males to years of imprisonment, which they spent working without pay. The state leased prisoners to private employers, such as Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company, a subsidiary of United States Steel Corporation, which paid the state for their labor. Because the state made money, the system created incentives for the jailing of more men, who were disproportionately black. It also created a system in which treatment of prisoners received little oversight.

text: Extrajudicial punishment was more brutal. During the last decade of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century, white vigilante mobs lynched thousands of black males, sometimes with the overt assistance of state officials, mostly within the South. No whites were charged with crimes in any of those murders. Whites were so confident of their immunity from prosecution for lynching that they not only photographed the victims, but made postcards out of the pictures.

text: The Ku Klux Klan, which had largely disappeared after a brief violent career in the early years of Reconstruction, reappeared in 1915. It grew mostly in industrializing cities of the South and Midwest that underwent the most rapid growth from 1910 to 1930. Social instability contributed to racial tensions that resulted from severe competition for jobs and housing. People joined KKK groups because they were anxious about their place in American society, as cities were rapidly changed by a combination of industrialization, migration of blacks and whites from the rural South, and waves of increased immigration from mostly rural southern and eastern Europe.[10]

text: Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie Birth of a Nation, which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.[11]

text: Republicans repeatedly introduced bills in the House to make lynching a federal crime, but they were defeated by the Southern block. In 1920 the Republicans made an anti-lynching bill part of their platform and achieved passage in the House by a wide margin. Southern Democrats in the Senate repeatedly filibustered the bill to prevent a vote, and defeated it in the 1922, 1923 and 1924 sessions as they held the rest of the legislative program hostage.

text: Farmers and blue-collar workers[edit]

text: White society also kept blacks in a position of economic subservience or marginality. Most black farmers in the South by the early 20th century worked as sharecroppers or tenant farmers. Relatively few were landowners.

text: Employers and labor unions generally restricted African Americans to the worst paid and least desirable jobs. Because of the lack of steady, well-paid jobs, relatively undistinguished positions, such as those with the Pullman Porter or as hotel doorman, became prestigious positions in black communities in the North. The expansion of railroads meant that they recruited in the South for laborers, and tens of thousands of blacks moved North to work with the Pennsylvania Railroad, for example, during the period of the Great Migration.

text: The golden age of black entrepreneurship[edit]

text: The nadir of race relations was reached in the early 20th century, in terms of political and legal rights. Blacks were increasingly segregated. Cut off from the larger white community, however, black entrepreneurs succeeded in establishing flourishing businesses that catered to a black clientele, including professionals. In urban areas, north and south, the size and income of the black population was growing, providing openings for a wide range of businesses, from barbershops [12] to insurance companies.[13] Undertakers had a special niche in their communities, and often played a political role, as they were widely known and knew many of their constituents.[14]

text: Historian Juliet Walker calls 1900–1930 the "Golden age of black business." [15] According to the National Negro Business League, the number black-owned businesses doubled rapidly, from 20,000 in 1900 to 40,000 in 1914. There were 450 undertakers in 1900, rising to 1000 in this time period. The number of black-owned drugstores rose from 250 to 695. Local retail merchants – most of them quite small – jumped from 10,000 to 25,000.[16][17] One of the most famous entrepreneurs was Madame C.J. Walker (1867–1919), who built a national franchise business called Madame C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company, based on her development of the first successful hair straightening process.[18]

text: Booker T. Washington, who ran the National Negro Business League and was president of the Tuskegee Institute, was the most prominent promoter of black business. He traveled from city to city to sign up local entrepreneurs into the national league.[19][20]

text: Charles Clinton Spaulding (1874–1952), an ally of Washington, was the most prominent black American business leader of his day. Behind the scenes he was an advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s, with the goal of promoting a black political leadership class. He founded North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company, which became America's largest black-owned business, with assets of over $40 million at his death.[21]

text: Although black business flourished in urban areas, it was severely handicapped in the rural South where the great majority of blacks lived. Blacks were farmers who depended on one cash crop, typically cotton or tobacco. They chiefly traded with local white merchants. The primary reason was that the local country stores provided credit, that is the provided supplies the farm and family needed, including tools, seeds, food and clothing, on a credit basis until the bill was paid off at harvest time. Black businessmen had too little access to credit to enter this business.[22][23] Indeed, there were only a small number of wealthy blacks; overwhelmingly they were real estate speculators in the fast-growing cities, typified by Robert Church in Memphis.[24][25]

text: Division of Negro Affairs in the Department of Commerce[edit]

text: Minority entrepreneurship entered the national agenda in 1927 when Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover set up a Division of Negro Affairs to provide advice, and disseminate information to both white and black businessmen on how to reach the black consumer. Entrepreneurship was not on the New Deal agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt. However, when he turned to war preparation in 1940, he used this agency to help black business secure defense contracts. Black businesses had not been oriented toward manufacturing, and generally were too small to secure any major contracts. President Eisenhower disbanded the agency in 1953.[26]

text: Executive Orders for non-discriminatory hiring by defense contractors[edit]

text: President Roosevelt issued two Executive Orders directing defense contractors to hire, promote and fire without regard for racial discrimination. In areas such as West Coast shipyards and other industries, blacks began to gain more of the skilled and higher-paying jobs and supervisory positions.

text: Church growth[edit]

text: This period saw the maturing of independent black churches, whose leaders were usually also strong community leaders. Blacks had left white churches and the Southern Baptist Convention to set up their own churches free of white supervision immediately during and after the American Civil War. With the help of northern associations, they quickly began to set up state conventions and, by 1895, joined several associations into the black National Baptist Convention, the first of that denomination among blacks. In addition, independent black denominations, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church and AME Zion Church, had made hundreds of thousands of converts in the South, founding AME churches across the region. The churches were centers of community activity, especially organizing for education.

text: Educational growth[edit]

text: Continuing to see education as the primary route of advancement and critical for the race, many talented blacks went into teaching, which had high respect as a profession. Segregated schools for blacks were underfunded in the South and ran on shortened schedules in rural areas. Despite segregation, in Washington, DC by contrast, as Federal employees, black and white teachers were paid on the same scale. Outstanding black teachers in the North received advanced degrees and taught in highly regarded schools, which trained the next generation of leaders in cities such as Chicago, Washington, and New York, whose black populations had increased in the 20th century due to the Great Migration.

text: Education was one of the major achievements of the black community in the 19th century. Blacks in Reconstruction governments had supported the establishment of public education in every Southern state. Despite the difficulties, with the enormous eagerness of freedmen for education, by 1900 the African-American community had trained and put to work 30,000 African-American teachers in the South. In addition, a majority of the black population had achieved literacy.[27] Not all the teachers had a full 4-year college degree in those years, but the shorter terms of normal schools were part of the system of teacher training in both the North and the South to serve the many new communities across the frontier. African-American teachers got many children and adults started on education.

text: Northern alliances had helped fund normal schools and colleges to teach African-American teachers, as well as create other professional classes. The American Missionary Association, supported largely by the Congregational and Presbyterian churches, had helped fund and staff numerous private schools and colleges in the South, who collaborated with black communities to train generations of teachers and other leaders. Major 20th-century industrialists, such as George Eastman of Rochester, New York, acted as philanthropists and made substantial donations to black educational institutions such as Tuskegee Institute.

text: In 1862, the US Congress passed the Morrill Act, which established federal funding of a land grant college in each state, but 17 states refused to admit black students to their land grant colleges. In response, Congress enacted the second Morrill Act of 1890, which required states that excluded blacks from their existing land grant colleges to open separate institutions and to equitably divide the funds between the schools. The colleges founded in response to the second Morill Act became today's public historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and, together with the private HBCUs and the unsegregated colleges in the North and West, provided higher educational opportunities to African Americans. Federally funded extension agents from the land grant colleges spread knowledge about scientific agriculture and home economics to rural communities with agents from the HBCUs focusing on black farmers and families.

text: In the 19th century, blacks formed fraternal organizations across the South and the North, including an increasing number of women's clubs. They created and supported institutions that increased education, health and welfare for black communities. After the turn of the 20th century, black men and women also began to found their own college fraternities and sororities to create additional networks for lifelong service and collaboration.[28] These were part of the new organizations that strengthened independent community life under segregation.

text: Tuskegee took the lead in spreading industrial education to Africa, typically in cooperation with church missionary efforts.[29]

text: The Black church[edit]

text: As the center of community life, Black churches were integral leaders and organizers in the civil rights movement. Their history as a focal point for the Black community and as a link between the Black and White worlds made them natural for this purpose. Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. was but one of many notable Black ministers involved in the movement. Ralph David Abernathy, Bernard Lee, Fred Shuttlesworth, and C.T. Vivian are among the many notable minister-activists.[30] They were especially important during the later years of the movement in the 1950s and 1960s.

text: The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACP[edit]

text: At the turn of the 20th century, Booker T. Washington was regarded, particularly by the white community, as the foremost spokesman for African Americans in the US. Washington, who led the Tuskegee Institute, preached a message of self-reliance. He urged blacks to concentrate on improving their economic position rather than demanding social equality until they had proved that they "deserved" it. Publicly, he accepted the continuation of Jim Crow and segregation in the short term, but privately helped to fund national court cases that challenged the laws.

text: W. E. B. Du Bois and others in the black community rejected Washington's apology for segregation. One of his close associates, William Monroe Trotter, was arrested after challenging Washington when he came to deliver a speech in Boston in 1905. Later that year Du Bois and Trotter convened a meeting of black activists on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls. They issued a manifesto calling for universal manhood suffrage, elimination of all forms of racial segregation and extension of education—not limited to the vocational education that Washington emphasized—on a nondiscriminatory basis. The Niagara Movement was actively opposed by Washington, and had effectively collapsed due to internal divisions by 1908.[31]

text: Du Bois joined with other black leaders and white activists, such as Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling, Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's grandfather clause that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).[32]

text: Segregation in the federal civil service began under President Theodore Roosevelt, and continued under President Taft. President Wilson allowed his cabinet to escalate the process, ignoring complaints by the NAACP.[33] The NAACP lobbied for commissioning of African Americans as officers in World War I. It was arranged for Du Bois to receive an Army commission, but he failed his physical. In 1915 the NAACP organized public education and protests in cities across the nation against D.W. Griffith's film Birth of a Nation, a film that glamorized the Ku Klux Klan. Boston and a few other cities refused to allow the film to open.

text: The American Jewish community and the civil rights movement[edit]

text: Many from the American Jewish community tacitly or actively supported the civil rights movement. Several of the co-founders of the NAACP were Jewish. In the latter part of the 20th century, many of its white members and leading activists came from within the Jewish community.

text: Jewish philanthropists actively supported the NAACP and various civil rights group, and schools for African Americans. The Jewish philanthropist Julius Rosenwald supported the construction of thousands of primary and secondary schools for black youth in the rural South; the public school system was segregated and black facilities were historically underfunded. In partnership with Booker T. Washington and Tuskegee University, Rosenwald created a matching fund which provided seed money for building. Tuskegee Institute architects created model school plans. Black communities essentially taxed themselves twice to raise funds for such schools, which required community matching funds. Often most of the residents in rural areas were blacks. Public funds were committed for the schools, and blacks raised additional funds by community events, donating land and labor, and sometimes by members' getting second mortgages on their homes. Hoping to encourage collaboration, Rosenwald required the white school systems to support the schools by approving them. At one time some forty percent of rural southern blacks were learning at Rosenwald elementary schools; nearly 5,000 were built in total.[34]

text: Rosenwald also contributed to HBCUs such as Howard, Dillard and Fisk universities.

text: The PBS television show From Swastika to Jim Crow discussed Jewish involvement in the civil rights movement. It recounted that Jewish scholars fleeing from or surviving the Holocaust of World War II came to teach at many Southern schools, where they reached out to black students:

text: Thus, in the 1930s and 1940s when Jewish refugee professors arrived at Southern Black Colleges, there was a history of overt empathy between Blacks and Jews, and the possibility of truly effective collaboration. Professor Ernst Borinski organized dinners at which Blacks and Whites would have to sit next to each other—a simple yet revolutionary act. Black students empathized with the cruelty these scholars had endured in Europe and trusted them more than other Whites. In fact, often Black students—as well as members of the Southern White community—saw these refugees as "some kind of colored folk."[35]

text: After World War II particularly, the American Jewish Committee, American Jewish Congress, and Anti-Defamation League (ADL) became active in promoting civil rights.

text: "The New Negro"[edit]

text: The experience of fighting in World War I along with exposure to different racial attitudes in Europe influenced the black veterans by creating a widespread demand for the freedoms and equality for which they had fought. Those veterans found conditions at home as bad as ever. Some were assaulted even while wearing their uniforms in public.[36] This generation responded with a far more militant spirit than the generation before, urging blacks to fight back when whites attacked them. A. Philip Randolph introduced the term the "New Negro" in 1917; it became the catchphrase to describe the new spirit of militancy and impatience of the post-war era.

text: A group known as the African Blood Brotherhood, a socialist group with a large number of Caribbean émigrés in its leadership, organized around 1920 to demand the same sort of self-determination for black Americans that the Wilson administration was promising to Eastern European peoples at the Versailles conference in the aftermath of World War I. The leaders of the Brotherhood, many of whom joined the Communist Party in the years to come, were also inspired by the anti-imperialist program of the new Soviet Union.

text: In addition, during the Great Migration, hundreds of thousands of African Americans moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities starting before World War I and through 1940. Another wave of migration during and after World War II led many to West Coast cities, as well as more in the North and Midwest. They were both fleeing violence and segregation and seeking jobs, as manpower shortages in war industries promised steady work. Continued depressed conditions in the farm economy of the South in the 1920s made the north look more appealing. Those expanding northern communities confronted familiar problems—racism, poverty, police abuse and official hostility—but these were in a new setting, where the men could vote (and women, too, after 1920), and possibilities for political action were far broader than in the South.

text: Marcus Garvey and the UNIA[edit]

text: Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association made great strides in organizing in these new communities in the North, and among the internationalist-minded "New Negro" movement in the early 1920s. Garvey's program pointed in the opposite direction from mainstream civil rights organizations such as the NAACP; instead of striving for integration into white-dominated society, Garvey's program of Pan Africanism has become known as Garveyism. It encourages economic independence within the system of racial segregation in the United States, an African Orthodox Church with a black Jesus and black Virgin Mother that offered an alternative to the white Jesus of the black church, and a campaign that urged African Americans to "return to Africa", if not physically, at least in spirit. Garvey attracted thousands of supporters, both in the United States and in the African diaspora in the Caribbean, and claimed eleven million members for the UNIA, which was broadly popular in Northern black communities.

text: Garvey's movement was a contradictory mix of defeatism, accommodation and separatism: he married themes of self-reliance that Booker T. Washington could have endorsed and the "gospel of success" so popular in white America in the 1920s with a rejection of colonialism worldwide and rejection of racial inferiority.[37] The movement at first attracted many of the foreign-born radicals also associated with the Socialist and Communist parties, but drove many of them away when Garvey began to suspect them of challenging his control.

text: The movement collapsed nearly as quickly as it blossomed, as the federal government convicted Garvey for mail fraud in 1922 in connection with the movement's financially troubled "Black Star Line". The government commuted Garvey's sentence and deported Garvey to his native Jamaica in 1927. While the movement floundered without him, it inspired other self-help and separatist movements that followed, including Father Divine and the Nation of Islam.

text: The Labor movement and civil rights[edit]

text: The labor movement, with some exceptions, had historically excluded African Americans. While the radical labor organizers who led organizing drives among packinghouse workers in Chicago and Kansas City during World War I and the steel industry in 1919 made determined efforts to appeal to black workers, they were not able to overcome the widespread distrust of the labor movement among black workers in the North. With the ultimate defeat of both of those organizing drives, the black community and the labor movement largely returned to their traditional mutual mistrust.

text: Left-wing political activists in the labor movement made some progress in the 1920s and 1930s, however, in bridging that gap. A. Phillip Randolph, a long-time member of the Socialist Party of America, took the leadership of the fledgling Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters at its founding in 1925. Randolph and the union faced opposition not only from the Pullman Company, but from the press and churches within the black community, many of whom were the beneficiaries of financial support from the company. The union eventually won over many of its critics in the black community by wedding its organizing program with the larger goal of black empowerment. The union won recognition from the Pullman Company in 1935 after a ten-year campaign, and a union contract in 1937.

text: The BSCP became the only black-led union within the American Federation of Labor in 1935. Randolph chose to remain within the AFL when the Congress of Industrial Organizations split from it. The CIO was much more committed to organizing African-American workers and made strenuous efforts to persuade the BSCP to join it, but Randolph believed more could be done to advance black workers' rights, particularly in the railway industry, by remaining in the AFL, to which the other railway brotherhoods belonged. Randolph remained the voice for black workers within the labor movement, raising demands for elimination of Jim Crow unions within the AFL at every opportunity. BSCP members such as Edgar Nixon played a significant role in the civil rights struggles of the following decades.

text: Many of the CIO unions, in particular the Packinghouse Workers, the United Auto Workers and the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers made advocacy of civil rights part of their organizing strategy and bargaining priorities: they gained improvements for workers in meatpacking in Chicago and Omaha, and in the steel and related industries throughout the Midwest. The Transport Workers Union of America, which had strong ties with the Communist Party at the time, entered into coalitions with Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., the NAACP and the National Negro Congress to attack employment discrimination in public transit in New York City in the early 1940s.

text: The CIO was particularly vocal in calling for elimination of racial discrimination by defense industries during World War II; they were also forced to combat racism within their own membership, putting down strikes by white workers who refused to work with black co-workers. While many of these "hate strikes" were short-lived: a wildcat strike launched in Philadelphia in 1944 when the federal government ordered the private transit company to desegregate its workforce lasted two weeks and was ended only when the Roosevelt administration sent troops to guard the system and arrested the strike's ringleaders.

text: Randolph and the BSCP took the battle against employment discrimination even further, threatening a March on Washington in 1942 if the government did not take steps to outlaw racial discrimination by defense contractors. Randolph limited the March on Washington Movement to black organizations to maintain black leadership; he endured harsh criticism from others on the left for his insistence on black workers' rights in the middle of a war. Randolph only dropped the plan to march after winning substantial concessions from the Roosevelt administration.

text: The Left and civil rights[edit]

text: See The Communist Party and African-Americans.

text: The Scottsboro Boys[edit]

text: In 1931, the NAACP and the Communist Party USA also organized support for the "Scottsboro Boys", nine black men arrested after a fight with some white men also riding the rails, then convicted and sentenced to death for allegedly raping two white women dressed in men's clothes later found on the same train. The NAACP and the CP fought over the control of those cases and the strategy to be pursued; the CP and its arm the International Labor Defense largely prevailed. The ILD's legal campaign produced two significant Supreme Court decisions (Powell v. Alabama and Norris v. Alabama) extending the rights of defendants; its political campaign saved all the defendants from the death sentence and ultimately led to freedom for most of them.

text: The Scottsboro defense was only one of the ILD's many cases in the South; for a period in the early and mid-1930s, the ILD was the most active defender of blacks' civil rights, and the Communist Party attracted many members among activist African Americans. Its campaigns for black defendants' rights did much to focus national attention on the extreme conditions which black defendants faced in the criminal justice system throughout the South.

text: The NAACP[edit]

text: The NAACP operated primarily at the local level, providing as forum that brought black religious, professional and business elites in most large cities. Baltimore was a pioneer in battling for issues that dominated the agendas of the post-World War II civil rights and Black Power movements. Baltimore activists were protest pioneers during the 1930s and 1940s. They organized in the city city to fight against housing discrimination, school segregation, prison conditions, and police brutality.[38]

text: The NAACP devoted much of its energy between the first and second world wars to mobilizing a crusade against the lynching of blacks.[39] It investigated the serious race riots in numerous major industrial cities throughout the United States in what was called the "Red Summer of 1919," catalyzed by postwar economic and social tensions. These were white on black attacks, but that summer, blacks began to fight back, in Chicago and other cities.

text: The organization sent Walter F. White, who later became its general secretary, to Phillips County, Arkansas in October 1919 to investigate the Elaine Race Riot. In that year, it was unusual for being a rural riot: more than 200 black tenant farmers were killed for trying to organize a union. They were murdered by roving white vigilantes and federal troops after a deputy sheriff's attack on a union meeting of sharecroppers left one white man dead. The NAACP organized the appeals for twelve men sentenced to death a month later, based on their testimony having been obtained by beating and electric shocks. The groundbreaking United States Supreme Court decision in Moore v. Dempsey, 261 U.S. 86 (1923), significantly expanded the Federal courts' oversight of the states' criminal justice systems in the years to come.[40]

text: The NAACP worked for more than a decade seeking federal anti-lynching legislation.[41] Its offices in New York City regularly displayed a black flag out the window - stating "A Man Was Lynched Yesterday" - to mark each outrage. Efforts to pass an anti-lynching law foundered on the power of the Solid South; Southern Democrats in the Senate controlled power in Congress. For instance, while Republicans achieved passage in the House of an anti-lynching law in 1922, Southern Democratic senators filibustered the bill in the Senate and defeated it in the 1922, 1923 and 1924 legislative sessions. Because positions were awarded by seniority and the South was a one-party region, its Democratic congressmen controlled important chairmanships in both houses of Congress. The South defeated all anti-lynching legislative bills.

text: The NAACP led the successful fight, in alliance with the American Federation of Labor, to prevent the nomination of John Johnston Parker to the Supreme Court. They opposed him because of his opposition to black suffrage and his anti-labor rulings. This alliance and lobbying campaign were important for the NAACP, both in demonstrating the NAACP's ability to mobilize widespread opposition to racism and as a first step toward building political alliances with the labor movement.

text: Elbert Williams of Brownsville, Tennessee, is believed to be the first NAACP member lynched for his civil rights activities, killed on June 20, 1940.[42][43] He had been part of an NAACP effort in 1940 to register black voters in his city for that year's presidential election. Whites targeted other NAACP members, threatening them, and ran several families out of town who feared for their safety.[42] In 2015 the Tennessee Historical Commission approved a marker commemorating Elbert Williams in Brownsville.[43]

text: After World War II, African-American veterans returning to the South were spurred by their sacrifices and experiences to renew demands for the protection and exercise of their constitutional rights as citizens in US society. One serviceman reportedly said,

text: I spent four years in the Army to free a bunch of Dutchmen and Frenchmen, and I'm hanged if I'm going to let the Alabama version of the Germans kick me around when I get home. No sirree-bob! I went into the Army a nigger; I'm comin' out a man.[44]

text: From 1940 to 1946, the NAACP's membership grew from 50,000 to 450,000.[44]

text: The NAACP's legal department, headed by Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall, undertook a litigation campaign spanning several decades to bring about the reversal of the "separate but equal" doctrine established in the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Instead of appealing to the legislative or executive branches of government, they focused on challenges through the courts. They knew that Congress was dominated by Southern segregationists, while the Presidency could not afford to lose the Southern vote.[44] The NAACP's first cases did not challenge the principle directly, but sought instead to establish factually that the state's segregated facilities in transportation, public education and parks, for instance, were not equal. These were typically underfunded, with outdated textbooks and facilities. Such cases helped lay the foundation for the ultimate reversal of the doctrine in Plessy v. Ferguson.

text: Marshall believed that the time had come to do away with "separate but equal". The NAACP issued a directive stating that their goal was now "obtaining education on a nonsegregated basis and that no relief other than that will be acceptable." The first case that Marshall argued on this basis was Briggs v. Elliott, but the NAACP also filed challenges to segregated education in other states. In Topeka, Kansas, the local NAACP branch determined that Oliver Brown would be a good candidate for filing a lawsuit; he was an assistant pastor and the father of three girls. The NAACP instructed him to apply to enroll his daughters at a local white school; after the expected rejection, Brown v. Board of Education was filed. Later, this and several other cases made their way to the Supreme Court, where they were consolidated under the title of Brown. The decision to name the case after one originating in Kansas was apparently made "so that the whole question would not smack of being a purely southern one."[44]

text: Some in the NAACP thought Marshall was moving too quickly. They feared that the Southern judge, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, who would almost certainly oppose overruling Plessy, could destroy their case. One historian stated: "There was a sense that if you do this and you lose, you're going to enshrine Plessy for a generation." A government lawyer involved in the case agreed that it was "a mistake to push for the overruling of segregation per se so long as Vinson was chief justice—it was too early." In December 1952, the Supreme Court heard the case, but could not come to a decision. Unusually, they pushed the case back by a year, to allow the lawyers involved to research the intention of the framers who drafted the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. In September 1953, Vinson died due to a heart attack. Justice Felix Frankfurter said: "This is the first indication I have ever had that there is a God." Vinson was succeeded as chief justice by Earl Warren, who was known for his moderate views on civil rights.[45]

text: After the case was reheard in December, Warren set about persuading his colleagues to reach a unanimous decision overruling Plessy. Five of the other eight judges were firmly on his side. He persuaded another two by saying that the decision would not touch greatly on the original question of Plessy's legality, focusing instead on the principle of equality. Justice Stanley Reed was swayed after Warren suggested that a Southerner's lone dissent on this issue could be more dangerous and incendiary than the court's unanimous decision.[citation needed] In May 1954, Warren announced the Court's decision, which he wrote. It said that "segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race" was unconstitutional because it deprived "the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities" and thus equal protection under the law.[citation needed]

text: Numerous Southern leaders and their constituents strongly resisted the ruling; the Governor of Virginia, Thomas B. Stanley, insisted he would "use every legal means at my command to continue segregated schools in Virginia," and some school districts closed down rather than integrate. One survey suggested that 13% of Florida policemen were willing to enforce the decision in Brown.

text: Some 19 Senators and 77 members of the House of Representatives, including the entire congressional delegations of the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Virginia, signed "The Southern Manifesto", all but two of the signatories were Southern Democrats: Republicans Joel Broyhill and Richard Poff of Virginia also promised to resist the decision by "lawful means." By the fall of 1955, Cheryl Brown started first grade at an integrated school in Topeka—the first step on the long road to eventual equality for African Americans.[46]

text: Regional Council of Negro Leadership[edit]

text: On December 28, 1951, T.R.M. Howard, an entrepreneur, surgeon, fraternal leader and planter in Mississippi, founded the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL) together with other key blacks in the state. At first the RCNL, which was based in the all-black town of Mound Bayou, did not directly challenge "separate but equal" policy, but worked to guarantee the "equal." It often identified inadequate schools as the primary factor responsible for the black exodus to the North. It called for equal school terms for both races, as black schools were historically underfunded. From the beginning, the RCNL also pledged an "all-out fight for unrestricted voting rights."[47]

text: The RCNL's most famous member was Medgar Evers. Fresh from graduation at Alcorn State University in 1952, he moved to Mound Bayou to sell insurance for Howard. Evers soon became the RCNL's program director and helped to organize a boycott of service stations that failed to provide restrooms for blacks. As part of this campaign, the RCNL distributed an estimated 20,000 bumper stickers with the slogan "Don't Buy Gas Where You Can't Use the Rest Room." Beginning in 1953, it directly challenged "separate but equal" and demanded integration of schools.[48]

text: The RCNL's annual meetings in Mound Bayou between 1952 and 1955 attracted crowds of 10,000 or more. They featured speeches by Rep. William L. Dawson of Chicago, Rep. Charles Diggs of Michigan, Alderman Archibald Carey, Jr. of Chicago, and NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall. Each of these events, in the words of Myrlie Evers, later Myrlie Evers-Williams, the wife of Medgar, constituted "a huge all-day camp meeting: a combination of pep rally, old-time revival, and Sunday church picnic." The conferences also included panels and workshops on voting rights, business ownership, and other issues. Attendance was a life-transforming experience for many future civil black leaders who became prominent in the 1960s, such as Fannie Lou Hamer, Amzie Moore, Aaron Henry and George W. Lee.

text: On November 27, 1955, Rosa Parks attended one of these speeches at Dexter Avenue Church in Montgomery. The host for this event was a then relatively unknown Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. Parks later said that she was thinking of Till when she refused to give up her seat four days later.[49]

text: Foreign pressure[edit]

text: Its treatment of African Americans compromised the United States' role as a would-be world leader and champion of democracy. The world challenge from Communism – not to be confused with the actions of the U.S. Communist Party in support of ending discrimination – forced

text: democracies of the West... to divest themselves of antiquated racial attitudes and practices in order to prevent further mergers of anti-imperialist revolutions and Communist revolutions. Incidents in the United States involving Negro discrimination...are given a much bigger play in the neutralist Asian press than they are in America itself.

text: In addition, the victory over Nazis and Fascists in World War II did much to lay the groundwork for the civil rights movement.[50]


document_title: Dry ice

question_text: dry ice (solid co2) is which type of solid

question_tokens: dry ice ( solid co2 ) is which type of solid

text: Dry ice

text: Properties[edit]

text: Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO2), a molecule consisting of a single carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. Dry ice is colorless, non-flammable, with a sour zesty odor, and can lower the pH of a solution when dissolved in water, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3).[1]

text: At pressures below 5.13 atm and temperatures below −56.4 °C (−69.5 °F) (the triple point), CO2 changes from a solid to a gas with no intervening liquid form, through a process called sublimation.[note 1] The opposite process is called deposition, where CO2 changes from the gas to solid phase (dry ice). At atmospheric pressure, sublimation/deposition occurs at −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) or 194.65 K.

text: The density of dry ice varies, but usually ranges between about 1.4 and 1.6 g/cm3 (87 and 100 lb/cu ft).[2] The low temperature and direct sublimation to a gas makes dry ice an effective coolant, since it is colder than water ice and leaves no residue as it changes state.[3] Its enthalpy of sublimation is 571 kJ/kg (25.2 kJ/mol).

text: Dry ice is non-polar, with a dipole moment of zero, so attractive intermolecular van der Waals forces operate.[4] The composition results in low thermal and electrical conductivity.[5]

text: History[edit]

text: It is generally accepted that dry ice was first observed in 1835 by French inventor Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier (1790–1844), who published the first account of the substance.[6][7] In his experiments, it was noted that when opening the lid of a large cylinder containing liquid carbon dioxide, most of the liquid carbon dioxide quickly evaporated. This left only solid dry ice in the container. In 1924, Thomas B. Slate applied for a US patent to sell dry ice commercially. Subsequently, he became the first to make dry ice successful as an industry.[8] In 1925, this solid form of CO2 was trademarked by the DryIce Corporation of America as "Dry ice", thus leading to its common name.[9] That same year the DryIce Co. sold the substance commercially for the first time; marketing it for refrigerating purposes.[8]

text: The alternative name "Cardice" is a registered trademark of Air Liquide UK Ltd.[10] It is sometimes written as "card ice".[11]

text: Manufacture[edit]

text: Dry ice is easily manufactured.[12][13] First, gases with a high concentration of carbon dioxide are produced. Such gases can be a byproduct of another process, such as producing ammonia from nitrogen and natural gas, oil refinery activities or large-scale fermentation.[13] Second, the carbon dioxide-rich gas is pressurized and refrigerated until it liquefies. Next, the pressure is reduced. When this occurs some liquid carbon dioxide vaporizes, causing a rapid lowering of temperature of the remaining liquid. As a result, the extreme cold causes the liquid to solidify into a snow-like consistency. Finally, the snow-like solid carbon dioxide is compressed into small pellets or larger blocks of dry ice.[14][15]

text: A teaching laboratory demonstration for the production of dry ice is to use a 15 lb aluminum carbon dioxide fire extinguisher with a porous fabric collecting bag over the nozzle. The Joule-Thomson expansion of the gas lowers the temperature enough to produce an approximate 50/50 mixture of CO2 gas and dry ice snow also called dust that is collected in the bag. This is an inefficient process, and unsuitable for even lab-scale production. The expansion is inefficient, fire extinguishers are an expensive way to buy carbon dioxide, especially when a signed and dated fire extinguisher certification is required.

text: Dry ice is typically produced in three standard forms: large blocks, cylindrical small (5/8 or 1/2 inch diameter) pellets and cylindrical tiny (1/8 inch diameter), high surface to volume pellets that float on oil or water and do not stick to skin because of their high radii of curvature. Tiny dry ice pellets are used primarily for ice blasting, quick freezing, fire fighting, oil solidifying and have been found to be safe for experimentation by middle school students wearing appropriate Personal Protective Equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. A standard block weighing approximately 30 kg[citation needed] covered in a taped paper wrapping is most common. These are commonly used in shipping, because they sublime relatively slowly due to a low ratio of surface area to volume. Pellets are around 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter and can be bagged easily. This form is suited to small scale use, for example at grocery stores and laboratories where it is stored in a thickly insulated chest.[16]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Commercial[edit]

text: The most common use of dry ice is to preserve food,[1] using non-cyclic refrigeration.

text: It is frequently used to package items that must remain cold or frozen, such as ice cream or biological samples, without the use of mechanical cooling.

text: Dry ice can be used to flash-freeze food[17] or laboratory biological samples,[18] carbonate beverages,[17] make ice cream,[19] solidify oil spills[20] and stop ice sculptures and ice walls from melting.

text: Dry ice can be used to arrest and prevent insect activity in closed containers of grains and grain products, as it displaces oxygen, but does not alter the taste or quality of foods. For the same reason, it can prevent or retard food oils and fats from becoming rancid.

text: When dry ice is placed in water, sublimation is accelerated, and low-sinking, dense clouds of smoke-like fog are created. This is used in fog machines, at theaters, haunted house attractions, and nightclubs for dramatic effects. Unlike most artificial fog machines, in which fog rises like smoke, fog from dry ice hovers near the ground.[15] Dry ice is useful in theater productions that require dense fog effects.[21] The fog originates from the bulk water into which the dry ice is placed, and not from atmospheric water vapor (as is commonly assumed).[22]

text: It is occasionally used to freeze and remove warts.[23] However, liquid nitrogen performs better in this role, since it is colder so requires less time to act, and less pressure.[24] Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.[24]

text: Plumbers use equipment that forces pressurised liquid CO2 into a jacket around a pipe. The dry ice formed causes the water to freeze, forming an ice plug, allowing them to perform repairs without turning off the water mains. This technique can be used on pipes up to 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter.[25]

text: Dry ice can be used as bait to trap mosquitoes, bedbugs, and other insects, due to their attraction to carbon dioxide.[26]

text: It can be used to exterminate rodents. This is done by dropping pellets into rodent tunnels in the ground and then sealing off the entrance, thus suffocating the animals as the dry ice sublimates.[27]

text: Tiny dry ice pellets can be used to fight fire by both cooling fuel and suffocating the fire by excluding oxygen.[28]

text: The extreme temperature of dry ice can cause viscoelastic materials to change to glass phase. Thus it is useful for removing many types of pressure sensitive adhesives.

text: Industrial[edit]

text: Dry ice can be used for loosening asphalt floor tiles or car sound deadening material making it easy to prise off,[29] as well as freezing water in valveless pipes to enable repair.[30]

text: One of the largest mechanical uses of dry ice is blast cleaning. Dry ice pellets are shot from a nozzle with compressed air, combining the power of the speed of the pellets with the action of the sublimation. This can remove residues from industrial equipment. Examples of materials removed include ink, glue, oil, paint, mold and rubber. Dry ice blasting can replace sandblasting, steam blasting, water blasting or solvent blasting. The primary environmental residue of dry ice blasting is the sublimed CO2, thus making it a useful technique where residues from other blasting techniques are undesirable.[31] Recently, blast cleaning has been introduced as a method of removing smoke damage from structures after fires.

text: Dry ice is also useful for the de-gassing of flammable vapours from storage tanks — the sublimation of dry ice pellets inside an emptied and vented tank causes an outrush of CO2 that carries with it the flammable vapours.[32]

text: The removal and fitting of cylinder liners in large engines requires the use of dry ice to chill and thus shrink the liner so that it freely slides into the engine block. When the liner then warms up, it expands, and the resulting interference fit holds it tightly in place. Similar procedures may be used in fabricating mechanical assemblies with a high resultant strength, replacing the need for pins, keys or welds.[33]

text: Dry-ice blasting, a form of carbon dioxide cleaning, is used in a number of industrial applications.

text: It is also useful as a cutting fluid.

text: Scientific[edit]

text: In laboratories, a slurry of dry ice in an organic solvent is a useful freezing mixture for cold chemical reactions and for condensing solvents in rotary evaporators.[34] Dry ice/acetone forms a cold bath of −78 °C, which can be used for instance to prevent thermal runaway in a Swern oxidation.

text: The process of altering cloud precipitation can be done with the use of dry ice.[35] It was widely used in experiments in the US in the 1950s and early 60s before it was replaced by silver iodide.[35] Dry ice has the advantage of being relatively cheap and completely non-toxic.[35] Its main drawback is the need to be delivered directly into the supercooled region of clouds being seeded.[35]

text: Dry ice bombs[edit]

text: A "dry ice bomb" is a balloon-like device using dry ice in a sealed container such as a plastic bottle. Water is usually added to accelerate the sublimation of the dry ice. As the dry ice sublimes, pressure increases, causing the bottle to burst causing a loud noise that can be avoided when a #3 rubber stopper replaces the screw on cap to make a water rocket with a two-liter bottle.

text: The dry ice bomb device was featured on MythBusters, episode 57 Mentos and Soda, which first aired on August 9, 2006.[36] It was also featured in an episode of Time Warp, as well as in an episode of Archer.

text: Extraterrestrial occurrence[edit]

text: Following the Mars flyby of the Mariner 4 spacecraft in 1966, scientists concluded that Mars' polar caps consist entirely of dry ice.[37] However, findings made in 2003 by researchers at the California Institute of Technology have shown that Mars' polar caps are almost completely made of water ice, and that dry ice only forms a thin surface layer that thickens and thins seasonally.[37][38] A phenomenon named dry ice storms was proposed to occur over the polar regions of Mars. They are comparable to Earth's thunderstorms, with crystalline CO2 taking the place of water in the clouds.[39]

text: In 2012, the European Space Agency's Venus Express probe detected a cold layer in the atmosphere of Venus where temperatures are close to the triple point of carbon dioxide and it is possible that flakes of dry ice precipitate.[40]

text: Safety[edit]

text: Prolonged exposure to dry ice can cause severe skin damage through frostbite, and the fog produced may also hinder attempts to withdraw from contact in a safe manner. Because it sublimes into large quantities of carbon dioxide gas, which could pose a danger of hypercapnia, dry ice should only be exposed to open air in a well-ventilated environment.[29] For this reason, dry ice is assigned the S-phrase S9 in the context of laboratory safety. Industrial dry ice may contain contaminants that make it unsafe for direct contact with foodstuffs.[41] Tiny dry ice pellets used in dry ice blast cleaning do not contain oily residues.

text: Although dry ice is not classified as a dangerous substance by the European Union,[42] or as a hazardous material by the United States Department of Transportation for ground transportation, when shipped by air or water, it is regulated as a dangerous good and IATA packing instruction 954 (IATA PI 954) requires that it be labeled specially, including a diamond-shaped black-and white label, UN 1845. Also, arrangements must be in place to ensure adequate ventilation so that pressure build-up does not rupture the packaging.[43] The Federal Aviation Administration in the US allows airline passengers to carry up to 2.5 kg per person either as checked baggage or carry-on baggage, when used to refrigerate perishables.[44]


document_title: My Hero Academia: Two Heroes

question_text: boku no hero academia movie blu ray release date

text: My Hero Academia: Two Heroes

text: Plot[edit]

text: All Might is invited to a summer trip at "I-Island", a man-made island where the top scientists of the world reside and perform research on Quirks, superpowers that 80% of the world's population has. He takes Izuku Midoriya as his guest and reminds him not to reveal to his good friend, former partner, and top scientist Professor David Shield the secret about their shared Quirk: One for All. After they arrive, they are greeted by Melissa Shield, David's daughter and a student of the island's academy hoping to be a scientist just like her father.

text: After a reunion with David, All Might becomes tired due to injuries sustained in the past from his battle with the villain All for One and transforms back into his depowered form. By running tests, David realizes that All Might's Quirk is nearly depleted. Meanwhile, Melissa shows Midoriya around the island, and they run into Yaoyorozu, who had been invited to the island and has brought Uraraka and Jirō as her guests. The students later run into Iida, Todoroki, Bakugō, and Kirishima, with the former three having been invited too and Kirishima being brought by Bakugō. Mineta and Kaminari are also revealed to be on the island working as waiters. After spending the day enjoying the island's various events, Melissa invites Mineta and Kaminari to join them at a formal party that everyone else was invited to.

text: Before the party, Melissa reveals to Midoriya that she is Quirkless like, unbeknownst to her, he once was. She also realizes his Quirk is similar to All Might's, and gives him a gauntlet she had designed that allows him to not get hurt when using his powers at 100%.

text: Meanwhile, Wolfram, a mysterious villain who secretly arrived on the island prior, takes control of the island's security system during the party and threatens to kill its residents. He also restrains all of the pro-heroes attending, including All Might, and takes David and his assistant Sam hostage in order to break into the island's vault. As they were running late, Midoriya, Melissa, Iida, Todoroki, Yaoyorozu, Uraraka, Jirō, Mineta, and Kaminari are not restrained alongside the pro-heroes at the party and, in order to take back control of the security system, decide to access it by reaching the 200th floor of the building the party is hosted at. At the same time, Bakugō and Kirishima become lost on their way to the party and begin wandering the building without realizing the security breach.

text: After the students reach the 80th floor, Wolfram and his team become aware of their plan and attempt to apprehend them. While hiding in a plant room, the group attempts to escape from two of the villains until Bakugō and Kirishima accidentally cross paths with them and engage in battle. Todoroki helps the others escape to a higher floor and joins Bakugō and Kirishima in their fight. Mineta uses his Quirk to climb up the tower and lower a ladder to allow the others to climb up with him. Wolfram's men send an army of sentry robots after both groups of students, which incapacitate Kaminari. Iida, Yaoyorozu, Jirō, and Mineta defend against the robots while Midoriya, Uraraka, and Melissa make their way to the top of the tower.

text: Attempting to reach the very top, Uraraka uses her Quirk to float Midoriya and Melissa closer to the security room. Just as Uraraka is about to be attacked by more robots, Bakugō, Todoroki, and Kirishima arrive to save her. The four of them fight the robots as Midoriya and Melissa fight their way to the very top.

text: At the top of the tower, they discover David and Sam in the vault as they unlock a suitcase. It is revealed that David and Sam orchestrated the night's events with actors in order to steal back their greatest invention - a headset that maximizes the power of a person's Quirk. I-Island's top men decided that it was too dangerous, took their invention and research away, and locked it up so it wouldn't end up in the wrong hands. Deciding that All Might needed it to remain a hero and keep the world safe, David decided to get his invention back. Wolfram arrives, restrains Midoriya, and reveals that he is a true villain and not an actor. Sam then betrays David and gives Wolfram the suitcase, revealing that he worked with Wolfram to make sure he could sell the invention to other villains and achieve fame and fortune. However, Wolfram shoots Sam after getting the suitcase, and David jumps in the way of another bullet in order to save Sam's life.

text: Before Wolfram can kill Melissa, Midoriya breaks free in order to fight him. Wolfram uses his Quirk to control metal to hold off Midoriya and escapes to the rooftop, having kidnapped David so he can make more copies of the invention. Midoriya races to the roof and attempts to stop Wolfram from taking off in a helicopter with David, but fails and falls from the helicopter. Melissa also takes back control of the security system, freeing the pro heroes and disabling the robots. All Might, now freed, races to the roof and stops the helicopter from taking off.

text: Wolfram, in a last attempt, uses the invention to amplify his power and starts to overcome an already tired All Might, creating a giant body made up of metal parts and debris that traps David inside it. He overpowers All Might further with multiple Quirks and reveals that he is in league with All for One, who gave Wolfram additional Quirks and helped fuel David's fall from grace in an attempt to demoralize All Might. The rest of the students soon arrive on the roof to help All Might, and Midoriya and All Might work together to finish the fight. The two throw a final punch together that is ultimately strong enough to defeat Wolfram and free David. As the sun rises, David and All Might reflect on how Melissa and Midoriya are the next generation of heroes and how the world will be in good hands even after All Might's Quirk is gone.

text: During the credits, scenes are shown of the students and All Might enjoying a barbecue on the island after their victory with the rest of the students from their class Class 1-A, who were also on I-Island when the events of the film happened. Melissa also visits David, who is now in the hospital recovering while the police watch over him.

text: Voice cast[edit]

text:
Character

Japanese Voice Actor

English Voice Actor

Izuku Midoriya

Daiki Yamashita

Justin Briner

All Might

Kenta Miyake

Christopher R. Sabat

Katsuki Bakugō

Nobuhiko Okamoto

Clifford Chapin

Ochako Uraraka

Ayane Sakura

Luci Christian

Tenya Iida

Kaito Ishikawa

J. Michael Tatum

Shōto Todoroki

Yūki Kaji

David Matranga

Momo Yaoyorozu

Marina Inoue

Colleen Clinkenbeard

Eijiro Kirishima

Toshiki Masuda

Justin Cook

Minoru Mineta

Ryō Hirohashi

Brina Palencia

Kyōka Jirō

Kei Shindō

Trina Nishimura

Denki Kaminari

Tasuku Hatanaka

Kyle Phillips

David Shield

Katsuhisa NamaseRyōhei Kimura (young)[1]

Ray Chase[2]

Melissa Shield

Mirai Shida

Erica Mendez[2]

Wolfram

Rikiya Koyama

Keith Silverstein[2]

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: On December 11, 2017, Weekly Shōnen Jump announced that Kōhei Horikoshi's My Hero Academia manga would be inspiring an anime film in the third quarter of 2018.[3]  Horikoshi is supervising the film, and is credited for the original work and character designs.[4]  Kenji Nagasaki is returning to direct the film at studio Bones based on a script written by Yōsuke Kuroda.  Yoshihiko Umakoshi provides the character designs for the film, and Yuki Hayashi is composing the music.[4]  The film is distributed in Japan by Toho.[4]  The film's title and release date were revealed during a stage presentation at AnimeJapan on March 25, 2018.[5] On April 10, 2018, it was announced that Mirai Shida would be joining the cast as Melissa Shield and Katsuhisa Namase would play David Shield, both original characters.[6][7]  On June 11, 2018, Weekly Shōnen Jump announced that Rikiya Koyama had been cast as the film's villain, Wolfram.[8] Masaki Suda performs the film's theme song "Long Hope Philia" (ロングホープ・フィリア), which was written and composed by Hiromu Akita of amazarashi.[9]

text: Release[edit]

text: Funimation and Toho premiered the film at Anime Expo in Los Angeles on July 5, 2018,[7], and it was later released in Japan on August 3 of that year.[5]  The first one million audience members to see the movie will receive a volume 0 book containing a special manga by Horikoshi titled "No.0 ALL MIGHT: RISING", as well as character profiles and a "secret dialogue" between Horikoshi and Eiichiro Oda.[10][11] Viz Media later published volume 0 digitally in English under the title "All Might Rising" on September 19, 2018.[12]

text:
My Hero Academia: Two Heroes has been licensed by Funimation,[7] who premiered the English dub in Los Angeles on September 15, 2018,[13] and a wider theatrical release in 400 theaters in the United States and Canada from September 25 through October 2, 2018.[14] The film premiered in Australia at Madman Anime Festival Melbourne on September 15, 2018,[15] with a wider release on September 27, 2018 in Australia, and October 17, 2018 in New Zealand.[16] The film premiered in the United Kingdom at Scotland Loves Anime in Glasgow on October 13, 2018,[17] with Manga Entertainment providing a wider theatrical release in both the UK and Ireland on December 4, 2018.[18] The film was also distributed to theaters in Singapore and Indonesia through ODEX, with limited showings on October 6th and October 13th, 2018 respectively; wide releases started on October 11th and October 17th, 2018 in Singapore and Indonesia respectively. [19]
The film was licensed by Pioneer Films in the Philippines, with an initial fan screening occurring on October 16th, 2018 and three additional advance screenings on the 20th, following a delayed wider release, originally slated for the 17th.[20] Viz Media Europe acquired the rights to the film for release in regions that speak French, German, and Italian in Europe. [21]

text: Home media[edit]

text: My Hero Academia: Two Heroes will be released on Blu-ray and DVD on February 13, 2019 in Japan by Toho Pictures.[22] The release will be offered in standard editions, as well as a "Plus Ultra" limited edition.[23]

text: Reception[edit]

text: During the opening weekend, My Hero Academia: Two Heroes ranked 4th at the Japanese box office, grossing ¥500 million ($4.49 million) in three days.[24] The film later dropped to 7th in its second weekend,[25] and later fell below the top 10 in its third weekend.[26] The film sold its one millionth ticket during its fourth week.[27] In the Japanese market, the film grossed a total of ¥1.5 billion ($13.46 million).[28]

text: In North America, the film was a success, ranking third in the market at its highest despite its limited release. The film outperformed other films in the top 10, earning US$1,400 per screen more than other films, and grossed $5,754,556 in box office revenue during its theatrical run.[29][30] The film also grossed $159,398 in Australia.[31] In total, the film grossed $19,373,954 in Japan, North America and Australia.

text: Other media[edit]

text: A one-shot spin-off manga of My Hero Academia, focusing on one of the film's original characters, Melissa Shield, was published in 2018's 35th issue of Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine on July 30, 2018.  The manga is illustrated by Yōkō Akiyama.[1]


document_title: List of Houston Rockets seasons

question_text: when was the last time the rockets went to the finals

text: List of Houston Rockets seasons

text: Table key[edit]

text:
AMVP
All-Star Game Most Valuable Player

COY
Coach of the Year

DPOY
Defensive Player of the Year

EOY
Executive of the Year

Finish
Final position in league or division standings

FMVP
Finals Most Valuable Player

GB
Games behind first-place team in division[a]

L
Number of regular-season losses

JWKC
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship

MVP
Most Valuable Player

ROY
Rookie of the Year

W
Number of regular-season wins

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Note: Statistics are correct as of the 2017–18 season.

text:
NBA Champions(1968–present)

Conference Champions(1971–present)

Division Champions(1971–present)

Playoff Berth(1968–present)

text:
Season

League

Conference

Finish

Division

Finish

Wins

Losses

Win%

GB

Playoffs

Awards

San Diego Rockets

1967–68

NBA

—

—

Western

6th

15

67

.183

41

—

1968–69

NBA

—

—

Western

4th

37

45

.461

18

Lost Division Semifinals (Hawks) 4–2[4]

—

1969–70

NBA

—

—

Western

7th

27

55

.329

21

—

1970–71

NBA

Western

7th

Pacific[b]

3rd

40

42

.488

8

—

Houston Rockets

1971–72

NBA

Western

7th

Pacific

4th

34

48

.415

35

—

1972–73

NBA

Eastern

5th

Central

3rd

33

49

.402

19

—

1973–74

NBA

Eastern

6th

Central

3rd

32

50

.390

15

—

1974–75

NBA

Eastern

4th

Central

2nd

41

41

.500

19

Won First Round (Knicks) 2–1Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–1[7]

—

1975–76

NBA

Eastern

6th

Central

3rd

40

42

.488

9

—

1976–77

NBA

Eastern

2nd

Central

1st

49

33

.598

—

Won Conference Semifinals (Bullets) 4–2Lost Conference Finals (76ers) 4–2[8]

Tom Nissalke (COY)Ray Patterson (EOY)

1977–78

NBA

Eastern

9th

Central

6th

28

54

.341

24

—

1978–79

NBA

Eastern

4th

Central

2nd

47

35

.573

1

Lost First Round (Hawks) 2–0[9]

Calvin Murphy (JWKC)Moses Malone (MVP)

1979–80

NBA

Eastern

4th

Central

2nd

41

41

.500

9

Won First Round (Spurs) 2–1Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–0[10]

—

1980–81

NBA

Western

6th

Midwest

3rd[c]

40

42

.488

12

Won First Round (Lakers) 2–1Won Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–3Won Conference Finals (Kings) 4–1Lost NBA Finals (Celtics) 4–2[12]

—

1981–82

NBA

Western

6th

Midwest

3rd[d]

46

36

.561

2

Lost First Round (SuperSonics) 2–1[14]

Moses Malone(MVP)

1982–83

NBA

Western

12th

Midwest

6th

14

68

.171

39

—

1983–84

NBA

Western

12th

Midwest

6th

29

53

.354

16

Ralph Sampson(ROY)

1984–85

NBA

Western

3rd

Midwest

2nd

48

34

.585

4

Lost First Round (Jazz) 3–2[15]

Ralph Sampson(AMVP)

1985–86

NBA

Western

2nd

Midwest

1st

51

31

.622

—

Won First Round (Kings) 3–0Won Conference Semifinals (Nuggets) 4–2Won Conference Finals (Lakers) 4–1Lost NBA Finals (Celtics) 4–2[16]

—

1986–87

NBA

Western

6th

Midwest

3rd

42

40

.512

13

Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 3–1Lost Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–2[17]

—

1987–88

NBA

Western

6th

Midwest

4th

46

36

.561

8

Lost First Round (Mavericks) 3–1[18]

—

1988–89

NBA

Western

5th

Midwest

2nd

45

37

.549

6

Lost First Round (SuperSonics) 3–1[19]

—

1989–90

NBA

Western

8th

Midwest

5th

41

41

.500

15

Lost First Round (Lakers) 3–1[20]

—

1990–91

NBA

Western

6th

Midwest

3rd

52

30

.634

3

Lost First Round (Lakers) 3–0[21]

Don Chaney(COY)

1991–92

NBA

Western

9th

Midwest

3rd

42

40

.512

13

—

1992–93

NBA

Western

2nd

Midwest

1st

55

27

.671

—

Won First Round (Clippers) 3–2Lost Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–3[22]

Hakeem Olajuwon(DPOY)

1993–94

NBA

Western

2nd

Midwest

1st

58

24

.707

—

Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 3–1Won Conference Semifinals (Suns) 4–3Won Conference Finals (Jazz) 4–1Won NBA Finals (Knicks) 4–3[23]

Hakeem Olajuwon(MVP, FMVP, DPOY)

1994–95

NBA

Western

6th

Midwest

3rd

47

35

.573

15

Won First Round (Jazz) 3–2Won Conference Semifinals (Suns) 4–3Won Conference Finals (Spurs) 4–2Won NBA Finals (Magic) 4–0[24]

Hakeem Olajuwon(FMVP)

1995–96

NBA

Western

5th

Midwest

3rd

48

34

.585

11

Won First Round (Lakers) 3–1Lost Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–0[25]

—

1996–97

NBA

Western

3rd

Midwest

2nd

57

25

.695

7

Won First Round (Timberwolves) 3–0Won Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–3Lost Conference Finals (Jazz) 4–2[26]

—

1997–98

NBA

Western

8th

Midwest

4th

41

41

.500

21

Lost First Round (Jazz) 3–2[27]

—

1998–99[e]

NBA

Western

5th

Midwest

3rd

31

19

.620

6

Lost First Round (Lakers) 3–1[29]

—

1999–2000

NBA

Western

11th

Midwest

6th

34

48

.415

21

Steve Francis[f](ROY)

2000–01

NBA

Western

9th

Midwest

5th

45

37

.549

13

—

2001–02

NBA

Western

11th

Midwest

5th

28

54

.341

30

—

2002–03

NBA

Western

9th

Midwest

5th

43

39

.524

17

—

2003–04

NBA

Western

7th

Midwest

5th

45

37

.549

13

Lost First Round (Lakers) 4–1[31]

—

2004–05

NBA

Western

5th

Southwest

3rd

51

31

.622

8

Lost First Round (Mavericks) 4–3[32]

—

2005–06

NBA

Western

12th

Southwest

5th

34

48

.415

29

—

2006–07

NBA

Western

5th

Southwest

3rd

52

30

.634

15

Lost First Round (Jazz) 4–3[33]

—

2007–08

NBA

Western

5th

Southwest

3rd

55

27

.671

1

Lost First Round (Jazz) 4–2[34]

—

2008–09

NBA

Western

5th

Southwest

2nd

53

29

.646

1

Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 4–2Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 4–3

Dikembe Mutombo(JWKC)

2009–10

NBA

Western

9th

Southwest

3rd

42

40

.512

13

Aaron Brooks(MIP)

2010–11

NBA

Western

9th

Southwest

5th

43

39

.524

18

—

2011–12[g]

NBA

Western

9th

Southwest

4th

34

32

.515

16

—

2012–13

NBA

Western

8th

Southwest

3rd

45

37

.549

15

Lost First Round (Thunder) 4–2

—

2013–14

NBA

Western

4th

Southwest

2nd

54

28

.659

8

Lost First Round (Trail Blazers) 4–2

—

2014–15

NBA

Western

2nd

Southwest

1st

56

26

.683

—

Won First Round (Mavericks) 4–1Won Conference Semifinals (Clippers) 4–3 Lost Conference Finals (Warriors) 4–1

—

2015–16

NBA

Western

8th

Southwest

4th

41

41

.500

26

Lost First Round (Warriors) 4–1

—

2016–17

NBA

Western

3rd

Southwest

2nd

55

27

.671

6

Won First Round (Thunder) 4–1 Lost Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–2

Mike D'Antoni (COY)Eric Gordon (SMOY)

2017–18

NBA

Western

1st

Southwest

1st

65

17

.793

—

Won First Round (Timberwolves) 4–1 Won Conference Semifinals (Jazz) 4–1 Lost Conference Finals (Warriors) 4–3

James Harden (MVP)Daryl Morey (EOY)

Total (51 seasons)
2,172
1,962
.525

2 NBA Championships

text: All-time records[edit]

text:
Statistic

Wins

Losses

Win%

San Diego Rockets regular season record (1968–1971)

119

209

.363

Houston Rockets regular season record (1971–present)

2,053

1,753

.539

All-time regular season record (1968–2018)

2,172

1,962

.525

San Diego Rockets post-season record (1969)

2

4

.333

Houston Rockets post-season record (1975–present)

145

148

.495

All-time post-season record (1969–2018)

147

152

.492

All-time regular and post-season record

2,319

2,114

.523

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The formula is as followed:

G
a
m
e
s

b
e
h
i
n
d

=

(

T
e
a
m

A
′

s

w
i
n
s

−

T
e
a
m

B
′

s

w
i
n
s

)
+
(

T
e
a
m

B
′

s

l
o
s
s
e
s

−

T
e
a
m

A
′

s

l
o
s
s
e
s

)

2

{\displaystyle \mathrm {Games} \ \mathrm {behind} ={\frac {(\mathrm {TeamA's} \ \mathrm {wins} -\mathrm {TeamB's} \ \mathrm {wins} )+(\mathrm {TeamB's} \ \mathrm {losses} -\mathrm {TeamA's} \ \mathrm {losses} )}{\mathrm {2} }}}

Jump up ^ The Western Division was renamed to the Western Conference and split into the Midwest and Pacific divisions.[5][6]

Jump up ^ Though the Rockets had the same record as the Kansas City Kings in the Midwest Division, the Rockets lost the tiebreaker and finished third.[11]

Jump up ^ Though the Rockets had the same record as the Denver Nuggets in the Midwest Division, the Rockets lost the tiebreaker and finished third.[13]

Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until February 5, 1999, and all 29 teams played a shortened 50-game regular season schedule.[28]

Jump up ^ Francis shared Rookie of the Year honors with Elton Brand of the Chicago Bulls.[30]

Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until December 25, 2011 and all 30 teams played a shortened 66 game regular season schedule.[35]

tag: ol