document_title: The Walking Dead (video game series)

question_text: the walking dead season 4 telltale games release date

text: The Walking Dead (video game series)

text: Concept[edit]

text: The Walking Dead series is based on the comic series of the same name. The game's events run concurrently to the comic, starting at the onset of a zombie apocalypse, where dead humans have become undead "walkers" that feed on the living which quickly overwhelmed most of the population. As established in the comic and show, this is a result of a virus that all living humans possess that takes over the brain of the body once the person dies, and the only way to stop this is to destroy the brain.

text: The game series initially starts in Georgia, with the whole of the first season and the events of 400 Days content taking place within the state. The second series follows the protagonists as they move north along the United States' eastern seaboard, believing there to be a human encampment in the north as well as the colder temperatures slowing the walkers' speed.

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: The Walking Dead games follow the same point-and-click adventure game approach that other Telltale Games episodic series have followed. Within an episode, the player controls a protagonist as the story progresses through several scenes. Within a scene, the player can move the character to explore the area, examine items, and initiate conversation trees with non-player characters; in these dialogs, the player has the option of selecting a number of options to reply to characters, including the option to stay silent. Other scenes are based on cinematic elements using quick time events in which the player must hit a controller button or a keyboard command as indicated on screen to react to an event. Failure to do so in time can lead to the character's death or other undesirable ending, and the game will restart just prior to these scenes.

text: All choices made by the player in The Walking Dead are tracked by the game, and certain choices ("determinants") will influence later scenes across the episodes and the series to date, when the player continues from the same saved game state. For example, in the first episode of the first season, the player has an option to save one of two non-player characters from a walker attack; the other character is killed, while the surviving character will uniquely impact other aspects of the story. Other times, selection of certain dialog options will influence the attitude of a non-player character towards the protagonist, and can manifest in later scenes as providing additional options for the player to select from.  Telltale Games tracks these decisions, including five main choices made during the course of each episode, allowing players to compare their choices to others.

text: Series overview[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired15April 24, 2012 (2012-04-24)November 20, 2012 (2012-11-20)25December 17, 2013 (2013-12-17)August 26, 2014 (2014-08-26)35December 20, 2016 (2016-12-20)May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)44August 14, 2018Q4 2018400 DaysJuly 2, 2013 (2013-07-02)Michonne3February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)April 26, 2016 (2016-04-26)

text: Season 1 (2012)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release dateMain series
11"A New Day"Sean Vanaman  Jake RodkinSean Vanaman[1]April 24, 2012 (2012-04-24)
22"Starved for Help"Dennis LenartMark Darin[2]Story by: Chuck JordanJune 27, 2012 (2012-06-27)
33"Long Road Ahead"Eric ParsonsSean Vanaman[3]Story by:Sean VanamanJake RodkinHarrison G. PinkAugust 28, 2012 (2012-08-28)
44"Around Every Corner"Nick HermanGary Whitta[4]October 9, 2012 (2012-10-09)
55"No Time Left"Sean VanamanJake RodkinSean AinsworthSean Vanaman[5]November 20, 2012 (2012-11-20)
Downloaded content
––"400 Days"Sean AinsworthSean AinsworthNick BreckonMark DarinSean VanamanGary WhittaJuly 2, 2013 (2013-07-02)

text: At the onset of the zombie apocalypse, Lee Everett rescues young Clementine whose parents had traveled to Savannah prior to the apocalypse. They join with other survivors in Macon, Georgia to protect themselves from the undead, taking shelter in a defensible motel. When their position is overrun by both walkers and scavengers, the group flees and heads towards Savannah hoping to find boats to flee the mainland. Lee promises to reunite Clementine with her parents while teaching her rules of survival in this new world. In Savannah, they find no boats, and a strange man communicating to Clementine via walkie-talkie. When Clementine goes missing, Lee in his panic searching is accidentally bitten by a walker. With his time short, Lee assures the safety of the remaining survivors and goes to rescue Clementine, held by a man who has blamed Lee directly for the death of his family. Lee and Clementine overwhelm the man, and as they escape, they witness Clementine's parents, who have already become walkers. Clementine drags a weakening Lee to a safe location, and Lee, in his final moments of rationality, directs her to find the other survivors, before telling her to kill him or leave him before he fully becomes a walker.

text: 400 Days (2013)[edit]

text: 400 Days is a downloadable special episode. It focuses on five different protagonists and it serves as a bridge between Season 1 and Season 2. In the final scene, the survivors of each story are offered to be taken into a safe camp.

text: Season 2 (2013–14)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date61"All That Remains"Dennis LenartNick Breckon  Andrew GrantDecember 17, 2013 (2013-12-17)[6]
72"A House Divided"Eric ParsonsNick BreckonMarch 4, 2014 (2014-03-04)[7]
83"In Harm's Way"Graham RossPierre ShoretteMay 13, 2014 (2014-05-13)[8]
94"Amid the Ruins"Jason LatinoJ.T. Petty  Eric StirpeJuly 22, 2014 (2014-07-22)[9]
105"No Going Back"Sean Ainsworth  Dennis LenartNick Breckon  Pierre ShoretteAugust 26, 2014 (2014-08-26)[10]

text: More than a year after the first game, Clementine is separated from the other survivors and forced to fend on her own. She meets up with another group that are attempting to flee a man named Carver, who runs the human survivor camp at a strip mall, as alluded to in 400 Days. Clementine learns Carver seeks to capture Rebecca believing her to be carrying his child while she insists it is her husband Alvin's. They come into another group, discovering that Kenny, one of the survivors that Clementine traveled with from the first season and who had lost his wife and son to walkers, has managed to survive. In the midst of a walker attack, they are captured by Carver. Learning that a massive walker horde is approaching the strip mall and will readily overrun it, the group manages to escape with other prisoners, killing Carver in the process after he kills Alvin. During their escape, a woman that Kenny had taken a romantic interest in is bitten by a walker, forcing Clementine to intercede to kill her before she can turn, angering Kenny. As they regroup, Clementine becomes close to Jane, a loner that was part of the prisoners at Carver's camp and who teaches Clementine survival skills. Later, Rebecca dies after giving birth to a child, which they name Alvin Jr. (AJ) As winter sets in, Jane and Kenny become hostile towards each other, and Kenny's distrust of the group leads to a fraction of them fleeing from Kenny, Jane, Clementine, and Alvin Jr.. Jane forces Clementine to see what Kenny has become from witnessing the deaths of his loved ones by faking the death of Alvin Jr., and Clementine is forced to intercede, killing one of them and opting to continue with the other while overseeing to Alvin Jr. herself.

text: Michonne (2016)[edit]

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date1"In Too Deep"Kent MudleMeghan Thornton  Nicole MartinezFebruary 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)[11]
2"Give No Shelter"Sean ManningZack Keller  Andrew HansonMarch 29, 2016 (2016-03-29)[12]
3"What We Deserve"Jason LatinoNicole MartinezErica HarrellDesirée ProctorJoshua RubinApril 26, 2016 (2016-04-26)[13]

text: In June 2015, Telltale announced a three-episode series The Walking Dead: Michonne. The mini-series released on February 23, 2016 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One; February 25, 2016 for iOS and Android; and March 1, 2016 for PC, and serves as a tie-in between the first two The Walking Dead seasons developed by Telltale. The series mostly focuses on Michonne's untold story on what took Michonne away from Rick, Ezekiel, and the rest of Rick Grimes' trusted group and what brought her back.[14] Samira Wiley voiced Michonne in the game. The mini-series was originally scheduled to be released as downloadable content for Season 2.[15] However, in December 2015, Telltale announced that the game would be released as a standalone title that would not require any previous game in the series to play[16]

text: Season 3: A New Frontier (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date111"Ties That Bind - Part One"Jason LatinoBrad KaneNick BreckonAdam Esquenazi DouglasLaura JacqminDan MartinDesiree ProctorPierre ShoretteDecember 20, 2016 (2016-12-20)[17]
122"Ties That Bind - Part Two"Rebekah Gamin ArcovitchBrad KaneNick BreckonMichael ChoungAdam Esquenazi DouglasLaura JacqminDan MartinEvan SkolnickTimothy WilliamsDecember 20, 2016 (2016-12-20)[17]
133"Above the Law"Chris RebbertJames WindelerPatrick Kevin DayAdam Esquenazi DouglasLaura JacqminAdam MillerEvan SkolnickMarch 28, 2017 (2017-03-28)[18]
144"Thicker Than Water"Chris RieserLuke McMullenTheresa CooleyPatrick Kevin DayLaura JacqminAdam MillerApril 25, 2017 (2017-04-25)[19]
155"From the Gallows"Jason PykeAdam Esquenazi DouglasMay 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)[20]

text: The third season of The Walking Dead launched with two episodes on December 20th of 2016.[21] The season plans to tie in all the possible endings from previous seasons without compromising the story to avoid pushing away new players to the series. In an interview with IGN, Kirkman stated that the third season would bring the video game closer to the comic book's time frame. It takes place a few years after the second season, and includes a somewhat older Clementine along with AJ, the infant she rescues at the end of Season 2 who is now a toddler.[22][23][24] Clementine is a playable character along with a new character, Javier.[25] A New Frontier uses the updated Telltale Tool, the same game engine Telltale used for Batman: The Telltale Series.

text: During the 2016 PAX Expo, Telltale revealed the third season will be released in November 2016, with the subtitle "A New Frontier".[26] Telltale later had to delay the first episode's release until December 20, 2016.[27] Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment will publish retail versions of Season 3 as part of a deal with Telltale for Batman that was released in August 2016.[28] The physical edition is expected to release on February 7, 2017, featuring the first episode on disc and download codes to obtain all future episodes of the series.

text: The Walking Dead Collection (2017)[edit]

text: Announced in November 2017, The Walking Dead Collection includes all episodes from the first three seasons, as well as "400 Days" and The Walking Dead: Michonne. The collection was released on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on December 5, 2017.[29] The content of the first two seasons and "400 Days" has been visually improved, reflecting on improvements Telltale has made in their engine since these seasons were first released, including high-definition texture mapping for all survivor characters, improved dynamic lighting, and upgrading the game's graphics to use DirectX 11 over DirectX 9. The older games also use the user interface elements developed for the third season as to provide a consistent interface to the players.[30]

text: The Walking Dead Collection was nominated for the Tappan Zee Bridge Award for Best Remake at the New York Game Awards 2018.[31]

text: Season 4: The Final Season (2018)[edit]

text: Announced during the July 2017 San Diego Comic Con, The Walking Dead: The Final Season, is scheduled to launch as a four-episode series on August 14, 2018 for Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, with a Nintendo Switch version to launch later that year.[32] Clementine will return as the lead character, voiced by Hutchinson, as Telltale found that fans of the series were not pleased with how little interactivity there was with Clementine in A New Frontier. Telltale wanted to have the final season call back to what fans had praised about the first season, and knew they needed to make Clementine the focus. With this direction, Telltale decided to make this the final season for The Walking Dead series so that they can create a satisfactory conclusion to Clementine's story arc.[33] For this purpose, Telltale brought back Gary Whitta, the writer for the first season and "400 Days" content, to help close out Clementine's story.[34][33]

text: The story will follow from A New Frontier with Clementine having rescued AJ from the McCarroll Ranch, with a timeskip a few years ahead, where AJ is now a young boy. With diminishing resources amid the apolycapse, Clementine and AJ find the importance of staying with communities of vital importance, meeting other characters who have little memory of the time before the downfall of society. Clementine starts to teach AJ the essentials of survival as Lee had taught her. Telltale had initially considered writing a version of Clementine that had become more jaded, but found this was far too different from the established version of the character, and reworked her to be more sympathetic.[33][35][36]

text: The final season will use the updated version of the Telltale Tool first introduced in Batman: The Telltale Series, along with improvements in the visual style to approach the style used in The Walking Dead comic.[33] Some scenes will feature "unscripted" zombies who may attack Clementine if the player is not careful, creating new freeform combat sequences, while other parts of the game will continue to use quick-time events as from previous games.[35]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text:
Character

Season One(2012)

Season Two(2013/14)

A New Frontier(2016/17)

The Final Season(2018)

Clementine

Melissa Hutchison

Lee Everett

Dave Fennoy

Kenny

Gavin Hammon

Katjaa

Cissy Jones

Kenny "Duck" Jr

Max Kaufman

Lilly

Nicki Rapp

Larry

Terry McGovern

Carley

Nicole Vigil

Doug

Sam Joan

Glenn Rhee

Nick Herman

Mark

Mark Middleton

Ben Paul

Trevor Hoffman

Chuck

Roger L. Jackson

Omid

Owen Thomas

Christa

Mara Junot

Molly

Erin Ashe

Vernon

Butch Engle

Luke

Scott Porter

Nick

Brian Bremer

Pete

Brian Sommer

Carlos

Kid Beyond

Sarah

Louis MacKintosh

Alvin

Dorian Lockett

Rebecca

Shay Moore

William Carver

Michael Madsen

Bonnie

Erin Yvette

Sarita

Julia Farmer

Walter

Kiff Vanden Heuvel

Matthew

Wylie Herman

Jane

Christine Lakin

Mike

Dan White

Arvo

Michael Ark

Javier "Javi" Garcia

Jeff Schine

Kate Garcia

Shelley Shenoy

David Garcia

Alex Hernandez

Gabriel Garcia

Raymond Ochoa

Mariana Garcia

Vale de la Maza

Tripp

Troy Hall

Eleanor

Kelley Crowder

Conrad

William Christopher Stephens

Francine

Valerie Arem

Paul "Jesus" Monroe

Brandon Keener

Max/Rufus

Sean Lynch

Badger

Jon Curry

Lonnie

Charles Halford

Ava

Ally Johnson

Joan

Jayne Taini

Clinton Barnes

Andrew Heyl

Paul Lingard

Yuri Lowenthal

text: The Walking Dead video game series introduces new characters developed by Telltale for the games. Season One is based around Lee Everett (voiced by Dave Fennoy), a Georgia college professor who had been charged with murder, and was in the midst of being sent to prison at the start of the walker outbreak. Lee escapes and encounters young Clementine (voiced by Melissa Hutchison), hiding in her treehouse after her babysitter had turned and her parents not yet back from vacation. Lee becomes a protective figure to her to help reunite her with her parents. Within Season Two taking place about a year later, Clementine is now the central character, struggling to find a place in several survivor groups.

text: Other major characters include Kenny, a fisherman who has suffered numerous losses of family and loved ones and has become emotionally unstable, Luke, a former entrepreneur who carries himself logically than emotionally, Jane, a young lone-wolf woman that teaches Clementine the values of self-preservation that a person's life comes first than anybody else, Carver, a principle antagonist of Season Two that seeks out the group of survivors that Clementine has joined believing one carries his child, and A.J., the newborn infant that Carver seeks who Clementine takes care of after his mother succumbs to the elements. The fate of several characters are determinant based on the actions that the player has taken in previous episodes, or otherwise unresolved within the narrative of the games. As the game takes place within the comic's universe, there have been some character crossovers with the series; Hershel Greene, Shawn Greene and Glenn Rhee, three characters from the comic series, have appeared briefly in Season One. Michonne, a prominent comic character, is featured as the playable-character in the Michonne mini-series. It was also confirmed in a trailer that Jesus would make some appearance in The New Frontier.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Sales[edit]

text: According to Telltale, the combined games in the series have sold over 50 million episodes worldwide by July 2017.[36]

text: Season 1 and 400 Days[edit]

text: The Walking Dead has received critical acclaim, with reviewers giving praise for the harsh emotional tone, the characters, story and the resemblance to the original comic book, although criticizing the graphical glitches. The game received over 80 Game of the Year awards and many other awards.

text: "Episode 1 – A New Day" received positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic calculated scores of 85.14%[37] and 84/100,[38] respectively, for the PlayStation 3 version, 83.87%[39] and 79/100[40] for the Xbox 360 version, and 83.38%[41] and 82/100[42] for the PC version. The game received various accolades including the IGN "Editors' Choice", PC Gamer "Editors' Choice", Xbox Editors' Choice Award, and the PlayStation Gold Award.

text: "Episode 2 – Starved for Help" received positive reviews. GameRankings and Metacritic calculated scores of 86.53%[43] and 84/100,[44] respectively, for the PC version, 86.26%[45] and 84/100[46] for the Xbox 360 version, and 85.90%[47] and 84/100[48] for the PlayStation 3 version. The game won the GameSpy E3 2012 award for "Best Adventure Game".[49]

text: "Episode 3 – Long Road Ahead" received positive reviews. GameRankings and Metacritic calculated scores of 88.47%[50] and 88/100,[51] respectively, for the Xbox 360 version, 86.11%[52] and 87/100[53] for the PlayStation 3 version, and 85.41%[54] and 85/100[55] for the PC version. IGN's Greg Miller gave the game a 9 out of 10, saying "It's a disturbing, depressing and entertaining entry in a journey that's been nothing short of excellent so far."[56] GameSpot gave the game an 8.5, saying "The Walking Dead has passed the midway point of its series of five episodes with every indication that the game will keep getting better right through to its inevitably depressing and unsettling conclusion."[57] MTV also gave it a positive review, saying "Telltale has created a series of wrenching, emotional decisions in the middle of a collection of not-too-hard puzzles in a visually-impressive adaptation of the Robert Kirkman comic series (with some nods to the TV show)."[58]

text: "Episode 4 – Around Every Corner" received positive reviews, but to a lesser extent than the previous episodes. GameRankings and Metacritic calculated scores of 84.00%[59] and 80/100,[60] respectively, for the PC version, 82.50%[61] and 82/100[62] the Xbox 360 version, and 78.94%[63] and 81/100[64] for the PlayStation 3 version.

text: "Episode 5 – No Time Left" received critical acclaim. GameRankings and Metacritic calculated scores of 94.75%[65] and 89/100,[66] respectively, for the PC version, 88.15%[67] and 89/100[68] for the Xbox 360 version, and 87.75%[69] and 88/100[70] for the PlayStation 3 version.

text: 400 Days received positive reviews. GameRankings and Metacritic calculated scores of 78.20%[71] and 78/100,[72] respectively,  for the PlayStation 3 version, 78.00%[73] and 78/100[74] for the PC version, and 76.88%[75] and 80/100[76] for the Xbox 360 version.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: The Walking Dead: Season Two overall received generally positive reviews from critics earning praise for its atmosphere, tension, and Clementine's newly appointed role as the protagonist, but earned criticism for its lack of hubs and certain aspects of its storytelling.

text: Episode 1 – All That Remains received positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 81.29%[77] and 82/100,[78] the PC version 78.76%[79] and 78/100[80] and the Xbox 360 version 77.50%[81] and 80/100.[82] Matt Liebl from GameZone gave the episode an 8.5/10, stating that it "...is just a taste of what's to come -- a mere setup for the horror that awaits us in the final four episodes."[83]

text: Episode 2 - A House Divided received positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 87.29%[84] and 82/100,[85] the PC version 81.39%[86] and 81/100[87] and the Xbox 360 version 79.44%[88] and 80/100.[89] Mitch Dyer from IGN gave the episode a 9.5/10, saying it is one of the best episodes Telltale Games has ever made.[90]

text: Episode 3 - In Harm's Way received positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 82.43%[91] and 80/100,[92] the Xbox 360 version 82.25%[93] and 82/100[94] and the PC version 82.22%[95] and 81/100.[96]

text: Episode 4 - Amid the Ruins received mixed to positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 79.22%[97] and 78/100,[98] the PC version 78.58%[99] and 78/100[100] and the Xbox 360 version 72.00%[101] and 71/100.[102]

text:
Episode 5 – No Going Back received positive reviews,
higher than its predecessor. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 81.67%[103] and 87/100,[104] the PC version 79.19%[105] and 78/100[106] and the Xbox 360 version 77.00%[107] and 84/100.[108] Mitch Dyer of IGN gave the episode a 9.5/10 saying that the finale is "an impressive and intelligent episode, and among Telltale Games' finest stories."[109]

text: Michonne[edit]

text: The Walking Dead: Michonne received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics earning praise for its action sequences, atmosphere, and the character development of Michonne, but earned criticism for its story, side characters, short episode lengths, and graphical glitches.

text: Season 3: A New Frontier[edit]

text: The Walking Dead: A New Frontier received favorable reviews  from critics with particular praise directed at the game's updated graphics, new cast of characters, action sequences, and overall new direction. However, the short episode lengths and the treatment of the Season 2 endings were both subjects of criticism and Clementine's shift to a supporting character was met with a mixed response.


document_title: Medical research

question_text: who pays for most of the scientific research done in the us

root

text: Medical research

text: Phases of medical research[edit]

text: Basic medical research[edit]

text: Areas tackled in the most fundamental parts of medical research include cellular and molecular biology, medical genetics, immunology, neuroscience, and psychology. Researchers, mainly in universities or government-funded research institutes, aim to establish an understanding of the cellular, molecular and physiological mechanisms underpinning human health and disease.[2]

tag: p

text: Since many organisms share a common evolutionary history with humans and hence common features and systems, the basic end of medical research these days shades into basic biology.

text: Preclinical research[edit]

text: Pre-clinical research covers research that prepares the ground for clinical research with patients. Typically the work requires no ethical approval (though work with animals does), is supervised by scientists rather than medical doctors, and is carried out in a university or company rather than a hospital.

text: Clinical research[edit]

text: Clinical research is carried out with patients. It is generally supervised by doctors in a medical setting such as a hospital and requires ethical approval.

text: Funding[edit]

text:
Biomedical research and development expenditures classified by country in 2012 in billions of U.S. dollars:[3]

Country
Total
Public
Industry

United States
119.3
48.9
70.4

Canada
5.3
3.3
2.0

Europe
81.8
28.1
53.6

Asia-Oceania
62.0
19.3
42.7

Total
268.4

tag: table

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2017)

text: Research funding in many countries derives from research bodies and private organizations which distribute money for equipment and salaries. In the United Kingdom, funding bodies such as the Medical Research Council derive their assets from UK tax payers, and distribute this to institutions in a competitive manner. The Wellcome Trust is the UK's largest non-governmental source of funds for biomedical research and provides over £600 million per year in grants to scientists and funds for research centres.[4]

text: In the United States, the most recent data from 2003[5] suggest that about 94 billion dollars were provided for biomedical research in the United States. The National Institutes of Health and pharmaceutical companies collectively contribute 26.4 billion dollars and 27.0 billion dollars, respectively, which constitute 28% and 29% of the total, respectively. Other significant contributors include biotechnology companies (17.9 billion dollars, 19% of total), medical device companies (9.2 billion dollars, 10% of total), other federal sources, and state and local governments. Foundations and charities, led by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, contributed about 3% of the funding.

text: In Australia, in 2000/01 (the most recent data available), about $1.7B was spent on biomedical research,[6] with just under half ($800M, 47%) sourced from the Commonwealth government (all sources). About $540M came from business investments/funding and a further $220M from private or not-for-profit organisations (totalling 44%). The balance was from state and local governments. Since then there has been a significant in government funding through the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), whose expenditure on research was nearly A$700 million in 2008–09.[7]

text: The enactment of orphan drug legislation in some countries has increased funding available to develop drugs meant to treat rare conditions, resulting in breakthroughs that previously were uneconomical to pursue.

text: Government-funded biomedical research[edit]

text: Since the establishment of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the mid-1940s, the main source of U.S. Federal support of biomedical research, investment priorities and levels of funding have fluctuated. From 1995 to 2010, NIH support of biomedical research increased from 11 billion to 27 billion [8] Despite the jump in federal spending, advancements measured by citations to publications and the number of drugs passed by the FDA along with other measures of scientific achievement remained stagnant over the same time span.[9] Financial projections indicate federal spending will remain constant in the near future.[9]

text: US federal funding trends[edit]

text: The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the agency that is responsible for management of the lion's share of federal funding of biomedical research.[8] Over the past century there were two notable periods of NIH support. From 1995 to 1996 funding increased from $8.877 billion to $9.366 billion,[10] years which represented the start of what is considered the "doubling period" of rapid NIH support.[8] The second notable period started in 1997 and ended in 2010, a period where the NIH moved to organize research spending for engagement with the scientific community.[10] In 1997 Applications were added and in 2000 Awards had been added.[10] These changes were coupled with increasing support; funding rose from $13 billion in 1997 to approximately $27 billion in 2010.[10] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 should also be noted in this history of NIH funding of biomedical research as it committed further funds in the midst of the great recession.[10]

text: Estimating Long-Term Economic Returns of NIH Funding on Output in the Biosciences published in August, 2012 describes the latest trends of NIH organization. In recent years, the NIH has started to publish medical research trials Success Rates per dollar spent, an initiative which illustrates that research efficiency is viewed as a significant issue both by the public and policy makers.[10]

text: Privately (industry) funded biomedical research[edit]

text: Since 1980 the share of biomedical research funding from industry sources has grown from 32% to 62%,[11] which has resulted in the development of numerous life-saving medical advances. The relationship between industry and government-funded research in the US has seen great movement over the years. The 1980 Bayh Dole Act was passed by Congress to foster a more constructive relationship between the collaboration of government and industry funded biomedical research. The Bayh Doyle Act gave private corporations the option of applying for government funded grants for biomedical research which in turn allowed the private corporations to license the technology.[12] Both government and industry research funding increased rapidly from between the years of 1994–2003; industry saw a compound average annual growth rate of 8.1% a year and slowed only slightly to a compound average annual growth rate of 5.8% from 2003 to 2008.[13]

text: The funding from industry for pharmaceutical research, a large part of all industry funded research, has slowed since 1994 due to multiple perceptions, lower approval rates from the FDA, increased costs with clinical trials due to more stringent regulation and longer anticipation for return on investment. A 2004 study showed that to bring a drug to market, drug development requires an average of 12–15 years and can reach costs up to $1.7 billion.[12]

text: The influence of funding on research and the management of conflicts of interests[edit]

text: "Conflict of interest" in the field of medical research has been defined as "a set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning a primary interest (such as a patients welfare or the validity of research) tends to be unduly influenced by a secondary interest (such as financial gain)."[14]

text: In the early 1900s private companies such as the Carbolic Smoke Ball Company,[15] Mrs. Winlow's Soothing Syrup[16] among other snake medicine remedies were solicited around the world and were the cause of many deaths due to misinformation. Information was not readily available to consumers nor was it required of the pharmaceutical producers to inform their customers of the ingredients that they were consuming. Samuel Hopkins Adams was an investigator to uncover the wide corruption and falsehoods that existed within the American pharmaceutical industry. He is quoted saying: "Gullible America will spend this year some seventy-five millions of dollars in the purchase of patent medicines. In consideration of this sum it will swallow huge quantities of alcohol, an appalling amount of opiates and narcotics, a wide assortment of varied drugs ranging from powerful and dangerous heart depressants to insidious liver stimulants; and far in excess of all other ingredients, undiluted fraud."[15]

text: Regulation on industry funded biomedical research has seen great changes since Samuel Hopkins Adams declaration. In 1906 congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906.[16] In 1912 Congress passed the Shirley Amendment to prohibit the wide dissemination of false information on pharmaceuticals.[16] The Food and Drug Administration was formally created in 1930 under the McNarey Mapes Amendment to oversee the regulation of Food and Drugs in the United States.[16] In 1962 the Kefauver-Harris Amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act made it so that before a drug was marketed in the United States the FDA must first approve that the drug was safe.[16] The Kefauver-Harris amendments also mandated that more stringent clinical trials must be performed before a drug is brought to the market.[15] The Kefauver-Harris amendments were met with opposition from industry due to the requirement of lengthier clinical trial periods that would lessen the period of time in which the investor is able to see return on their money. In the pharmaceutical industry patents are typically granted for a 20-year period of time, and most patent applications are submitted during the early stages of the product development.[15] According to Ariel Katz on average after a patent application is submitted it takes an additional 8 years before the FDA approves a drug for marketing.[15] As such this would leave a company with only 12 years to market the drug to see a return on their investments. After a sharp decline of new drugs entering the US market following the 1962 Kefauver-Harris amendments economist Sam Petlzman concluded that cost of loss of innovation was greater than the savings recognized by consumers no longer purchasing ineffective drugs.[15] In 1984 the Hatch-Waxman Act or the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 was passed by congress.[16] The Hatch-Waxman Act was passed with the idea that giving brand manufacturers the ability to extend their patent by an additional 5 years would create greater incentives for innovation and private sector funding for investment.[17]

text: The relationship that exists with industry funded biomedical research is that of which industry is the financier for academic institutions which in turn employ scientific investigators to conduct research. A fear that exists wherein a project is funded by industry is that firms might negate informing the public of negative effects to better promote their product.[15] A list of studies show that public fear of the conflicts of interest that exist when biomedical research is funded by industry can be considered valid after a 2003 publication of "Scope and Impact of Financial Conflicts of Interest in Biomedical Research" in The Journal of American Association of Medicine. This publication included 37 different studies that met specific criteria to determine whether or not an academic institution or scientific investigator funded by industry had engaged in behavior that could be deduced to be a conflict of interest in the field of biomedical research. Survey results from one study concluded that 43% of scientific investigators employed by a participating academic institution had received research related gifts and discretionary funds from industry sponsors.[11] Another participating institution surveyed showed that 7.6% of investigators were financially tied to research sponsors, including paid speaking engagements (34%), consulting arrangements (33%), advisory board positions (32%) and equity (14%).[11] A 1994 study concluded that 58% out of 210 life science companies indicated that investigators were required to withhold information pertaining to their research as to extend the life of the interested companies' patents.[11] Rules and regulations regarding conflict of interest disclosures are being studied by experts in the biomedical research field to eliminate conflicts of interest that could possibly affect the outcomes of biomedical research.

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest narrative describing a medical trial is found in the Book of Daniel, which says that Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar ordered youths of royal blood to eat only red meat and wine for three years, while another group of youths ate only beans and water.[18] The experiment was intended to determine if a diet of vegetables and water was healthier than a diet of wine and red meat. At the experiment endpoint, the trial accomplished its prerogative: the youths who ate only beans and water were noticeably healthier.[18] Scientific curiosity to understand health outcomes from varying treatments has been present for centuries, but it was not until the mid-19th century when an organizational platform was created to support and regulate this curiosity. In 1945, Vannevar Bush said that biomedical scientific research was "the pacemaker of technological progress", an idea which contributed to the initiative to found the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1948, a historical benchmark that marked the beginning of a near century substantial investment in biomedical research.[19] The NIH provides more financial support for medical research that any other agency in the world to date and claims responsibility for numerous innovations that have improved global health.[19] The historical funding of biomedical research has undergone many changes over the past century. Innovations such as the polio vaccine, antibiotics and antipsychotic agents, developed in the early years of the NIH lead to social and political support of the agency. Political initiatives in the early 1990s lead to a doubling of NIH funding, spurring an era of great scientific progress.[20] There have been dramatic changes in the era since the turn of the 21st century to date; roughly around the start of the century, the cost of trials dramatically increased while the rate scientific discoveries did not keep pace.[20]

text: Biomedical research spending increased substantially faster than GDP growth over the past decade in the US, between the years of 2003 and 2007 spending increased 14% per year, while GDP growth increased 1% over the same period (both measures adjusted for inflation).[21] Industry, not-for-profit entities, state and federal funding spending combined accounted for an increase in funding from $75.5 billion in 2003 to $101.1 billion in 2007.[21] Due to the immediacy of federal financing priorities and stagnant corporate spending during the recession, biomedical research spending decreased 2% in real terms in 2008.[21] Despite an overall increase of investment in biomedical research, there has been stagnation, and in some areas a marked decline in the number of drug and device approvals over the same time period.[21]

text: Today, industry sponsored research accounts for 58% of expenditures, NIH for 27% of expenditures, state governments for 5% of expenditures, non NIH-federal sources for 5% of expenditures and not-for-profit entities accounted for 4% of support.[21] Federally funded biomedical research expenditures increased nominally, 0.7% (adjusted for inflation), from 2003 to 2007.[21] Previous reports showed a stark contrast in federal investment, from 1994 to 2003, federal funding increased 100% (adjusted for inflation).[21]

text: The NIH manages the lions-share, over 85%, of federal biomedical research expenditures.[21] NIH support for biomedical research decreased from $31.8 billion in 2003, to $29.0 billion in 2007, a 25% decline (in real terms adjusted for inflation), while non-NIH federal funding allowed for the maintenance of government financial support levels through the era (the 0.7% four-year increase). Spending from industry-initiated research increased 25% (adjusted for inflation) over the same time period of time, from 2003 to 2007, an increase from $40 billion in 2003, to $58.6 billion in 2007.[21] Industry sourced expenditures from 1994 to 2003 showed industry sponsored research funding increased 8.1%, a stark contrast to 25% increase in recent years.[21]

text: Of industry sponsored research, pharmaceutical firm spending was the greatest contributor from all industry sponsored biomedical research spending, but only increased 15% (adjusted for inflation) from 2003 to 2007, while device and biotechnology firms accounted for the majority of the spending.[21] The stock performance, a measure that can be an indication of future firm growth or technological direction, has substantially increased for both predominantly medical device and biotechnology producers.[21] Contributing factors to this growth are thought to be less rigorous FDA approval requirements for devices as opposed to drugs, lower cost of trials, lower pricing and profitability of products and predictable influence of new technology due to a limited number of competitors.[21] Another visible shift during the era was a shift in focus to late stage research trials; formerly dispersed, since 1994 an increasingly large portion of industry-sponsored research was late phase trials rather than early-experimental phases now accounting for the majority of industry sponsored research.[21] This shift is attributable to a lower risk investment and a shorter development to market schedule.[21] The low risk preference is also reflected in the trend of large pharmaceutical firms acquiring smaller companies that hold patents to newly developed drug or device discoveries which have not yet passed federal regulation (large companies are mitigating their risk by purchasing technology created by smaller companies in early-phase high-risk studies).[21] Medical research support from Universities increased from $22 billion in 2003 to $27.7 billion in 2007, a 7.8% increase (adjusted for inflation).[21] In 2007 the most heavily funded institutions received 20% of HIN medical research funding, and the top 50 institutions received 58% of NIH medical research funding, the percent of funding allocated to the largest institutions is a trend which has increased only slightly over data from 1994.[21] Relative to federal and private funding, health policy and service research accounted for a nominal amount of sponsored research; health policy and service research was funded $1.8 billion in 2003, which increased to $2.2 billion in 2008.[21]

text: Stagnant rates of investment from the US government over the past decade, may be in part attributable to challenges that plague the field. To date only two-thirds of published drug trial findings have results that can be re-produced,[22] which raises concerns from a US regulatory standpoint where great investment has been made in research ethics and standards, yet trial results remain inconsistent. Federal agencies have called upon greater regulation to address these problems; a spokesman from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, an agency of the NIH, stated that there is "widespread poor reporting of experimental design in articles and grant applications, that animal research should follow a core set of research parameters, and that a concerted effort by all stakeholders is needed to disseminate best reporting practices and put them into practice".[22]

text: Transparency laws[edit]

text: Two laws which are both still in effect, one passed in 2006 and the other in 2010, were instrumental in defining funding reporting standards for biomedical research, and defining for the first time reporting regulations that were previously not required. The 2006 Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act mandates that all entities receiving over $25,000 in federal funds must report annual spending reports, including disclosure of executive salaries.[23] The 2010 amendment to the act mandates that progress reports be submitted along with financial reporting.[23] Data from the federal mandate is managed and made publicly available on usaspending.gov.[23] Aside from the main source, usaspending.gov, other reporting mechanisms exist: Data specifically on biomedical research funding from federal sources is made publicly available by the National Health Expenditure Accounts (NHEA), data on health services research, approximately 0.1% of federal funding on biomedical research, is available through the Coalition of Health Services Research, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, and the Veterans Health Administration.[21]

text: Currently there are not any funding reporting requirements for industry sponsored research, but there has been voluntary movement toward this goal.[24] In 2014, major pharmaceutical stakeholders such as Roche and Johnson and Johnson have made financial information publicly available and Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), the most prominent professional association for biomedical research companies, has recently begun to provide limited public funding reports.[24]

text: Regulations and guidelines[edit]

text: Medical research is very highly regulated. National regulatory authorities are appointed in almost every country worldwide to oversee and monitor medical research, such as for the development and distribution of new drugs. In the US the Food and Drug Administration oversees new drug development, in Europe the European Medicines Agency (see also EudraLex), and in Japan the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan). The World Medical Association develops the ethical standards for the medical profession, involved in medical research. The most fundamental of them is the Declaration of Helsinki. The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) works on the creation of rules and guidelines for the development of new medication, such as the guidelines for Good Clinical Practice (GCP). All ideas of regulation are based on a country's ethical standards code. This is why treatment of a particular disease in one country may not be allowed, but is in another.

text: Flaws and vulnerabilities[edit]

text: A major flaw and vulnerability in biomedical research appears to be the hypercompetition for the resources and positions that are required to conduct science. The competition seems to suppress the creativity, cooperation, risk-taking, and original thinking required to make fundamental discoveries. Other consequences of today's highly pressured environment for research appear to be a substantial number of research publications whose results cannot be replicated, and perverse incentives in research funding that encourage grantee institutions to grow without making sufficient investments in their own faculty and facilities.[25][26][27][28][29] Other risky trends include a decline in the share of key research grants going to younger scientists, as well as a steady rise in the age at which investigators receive their first funding.[30]

text: Fields of research[edit]

text: Fields of biomedical research include:

text:
Aging
Behavioral health
Biomaterials
Biology

Cellular biology
Molecular biology

Cancer
Diabetes
Endocrinology
Epigenetics
Epidemiology
Genetics
Immunology
Nanomaterials
Neuroendocrinology
Neuroscience
Pharmacology
Preventive medicine
Psychopharmacology
Public Health
Tissue Engineering
Virology

tag: ul


document_title: Where the Heart Is (2000 film)

question_text: who plays forney in where the heart is

question_tokens: who plays forney in where the heart is

text: Where the Heart Is (2000 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: At seventeen years old and seven months pregnant, Novalee Nation (Natalie Portman) sets off on a road trip from Tennessee to California with her boyfriend, Willy Jack Pickens (Dylan Bruno) in an old, broken down 1963 Plymouth.

text: While driving through Sequoyah, Oklahoma, Novalee notices her shoes have fallen through the hole in the floor of the car while she was napping. She asks Willy Jack to stop at the local Walmart so that she can go to the bathroom and buy new shoes. When Novalee reaches out for her change at the checkout, the amount of $5.55 sends her into a panic as we learned early on that she believes that the number 5 is a bad omen. She runs barefoot outside to discover that Willy Jack has abandoned her and left only her new Polaroid camera behind.

text: Having no where else to go, she walks back inside and meets Thelma "Sister" Husband (Stockard Channing), a woman who runs the Welcome Wagon in town and gives her a buckeye tree. Novalee also meets a photographer named Moses Whitecotton (Keith David) who advises her to give her baby a strong name. Later that evening, Novalee feeling sick, runs into the bathroom again to vomit. When she comes out of the bathroom, she discovers the store has closed. She soon figures out how to live undetected in the Walmart, spending the days walking around the town and sneaking back into the store to stay the night.

text: Meanwhile, Willy Jack is arrested and accused of fraternizing with an attractive stranger he has no idea is actually 14 years old and stealing money and cigarettes from a convenience store. He is sentenced to serve time where he composes a country song entitled "Beat of the Heart."

text: Novalee manages to live at the store for several weeks. She visits the library and meets Forney Hull (James Frain) who looks after his librarian alcoholic sister Mary Elizabeth (Margaret Hoard). After finding the info on how to tend to a buckeye tree, Novalee visits Sister Husband where she urges Novalee to plant the buckeye tree in her yard.

text: Birth contractions wake Novalee during a thunderstorm. Her water breaks and she goes into labor. As she collapses, she notices that she is in aisle 5 and because of her superstition, she struggles to pull herself to the next aisle. Forney (who has been following her and saw her go into the store at closing time) smashes through a plate-glass window and helps deliver her baby.

text: The next morning, Novalee wakes up in the local hospital to find she is a media celebrity for giving birth in a Walmart. She is befriended by her nurse, Lexie Coop (Ashley Judd). After Lexie tells her the baby still doesn't have a name, Novalee declares she will name her daughter Americus.

text: Lexie reveals to Novalee that she is a single woman with four children by three different men and tells an astonished Novalee that Lexie's children are all named after snack foods: Brownie, Praline, Cherry and Baby Ruth.

text: While Novalee and Lexi are reading letters that have been sent supporting her, Novalee's mother, Mama Lil (Sally Field), who abandoned her as a child, sees her on television and appears at the hospital. Her mother, claiming the women can pool their money and get an apartment together, takes the $500 that Novalee received as a gift from the President of Walmart. Novalee also tells Mama Lil that Walmart has offered her a job in any of the Walmart stores across the country.

text: Mama Lil, tucking Novalee's $500 into her bra, promises to pick up Novalee and Americus the next morning. Much to her dismay and disgust, realizing Mama Lil has abandoned her again, Novalee sits rejected at the hospital with no where to go. Sister Husband arrives and offers to let Novalee and the baby live with her.

text: Novalee, feeling she has a family for the first time in her life, enjoys living at Sister Husband's. While thanking him for delivering her baby, Novalee becomes friends with Forney who lives at the library with his sister.

text: One night, while Novalee and Forney are shopping for Christmas trees, Forney remarks that Americus is 5 months old that day. Novalee is alarmed at the realization and hurries home to check Americus.

text: Upon arriving, she finds the police at her home and learns Americus has been kidnapped. Novalee remembers that in the hospital she received a card from Midnight, Mississippi saying her baby was an "abomination under God," because she was born out of wedlock. The police quickly apprehend a vehicle with Mississippi plates and Americus is found safe in a nativity scene outside a church.

text: Upon being released from prison and making it to Nashville, Tennessee, Willy Jack becomes a one-hit-wonder with the song he wrote in jail. He teams with the grizzled and cranky music agent, Ruth Meyers (Joan Cusack), who cleans him up and gives him the stage name "Billy Shadow."

text: Three years later, Novalee begins a career as a photographer with the help of Moses. When a tornado blows through Sequoyah, Sister Husband is killed, and their home is destroyed. In memory of Sister, Novalee shoots a picture of Americus and the still-standing buckeye tree amidst the damage from the storm. After the funeral, one of Sister Husband's friends from Alcoholics Anonymous informs Novalee that she is the beneficiary of Sister's estate, totaling around $40,000. Novalee builds a new home for herself and Americus on Sister's land.

text: In Las Vegas, Willy Jack attempts to branch out his career and, behind Ruth Meyers's back, starts shopping around for another agent. He meets with a well-known agent named Johnny DeSoto (Richard Nance) to discuss dumping Ruth. DeSoto warns a cocky Willy Jack that Ruth is a great ally but can also be a powerful enemy. At the same time, Novalee is also in Las Vegas to accept an award in a photo contest she has won. Novalee and Willy Jack just miss meeting each other.

text: Ruth Meyers, who has gotten in his hotel room, informs Willy Jack that his old cellmate, Tommy Reynolds, is suing him claiming he is the true writer of Beat of a Heart, now a major radio hit. Willy Jack tells her that he wrote the song and asks Ruth what to do. Ruth tells Willy Jack that he should ask Johnny DeSoto to help him (having somehow found out about his talk with him), and terminates her connections with Willy Jack. Novalee returns to Sequoyah after the awards event without realizing how close she came to seeing Willy Jack.

text: One day, Novalee receives a garbled and panicked call from Brownie, Lexie's oldest child. She rushes over to find Lexie bruised and battered with her kids crouched beside her. We learn that Lexie's new love interest started to molest her two eldest children and nearly beat her to death as she attempted to protect them. Lexie's injuries hinder her nursing job and she and her children have to move in with Novalee and Americus. Lexie breaks down feeling guilty and angry. She tearfully tells Novalee that she ignored her kid's dislike for her boyfriend, now realizing her kids saw he was evil, but all Lexie saw was his new Buick (referring to his material wealth). Lexie asks Novalee what is she supposed to say when her kids ask why this happened to them. Novalee comforts her providing Lexie with an answer from Novalee's own life experiences.

text: Mary Elizabeth later passes away and when Forney does not appear at the funeral, Novalee finds him in a hotel and comforts him. They act on their feelings they have denied for so long and spend the night together. Forney confesses his feelings for her. Novalee confides in Lexie but tells her she is confused about her own feelings for Forney.

text: Novalee learns that Lexie is seeing someone new. Lexie is embarrassed to admit "Ernie" is an exterminator and does not have quite the physical attributes she's gone for in the past. Lexie eventually falls in love with Ernie (Bob Coonrod) after learning he gave his ex-wife his restored 1967 Chevy Camaro in exchange for custody of his step-daughter whom he adopted as his own. They get married, and Lexie tells Novalee that she's pregnant.

text: After Forney returns from his sister's burial on the east coast, Novalee feels deeply that she is not good enough for him, knowing he has a chance of going back to school. Knowing his life would be a dead end staying with her in Sequoyah, she struggles through lying to him saying she does not love him. Novalee feels she would be preventing Forney from living the life he is intended to live and becoming successful. Heartbroken and rejected by Novalee, Forney returns to school in Maine.

text: Severely depressed at his ruined career following the lawsuit, Willy Jack becomes an alcoholic and starts popping pills while driving with a woman across country. He wanders off drunk and collapses on a railroad track where he is unable to move as a train approaches.

text: On Americus's 5th birthday, Novalee picks up a newspaper and sees an article about Willy Jack having lost his legs some months before and recently being robbed of his wheelchair. Novalee visits Willy Jack in the hospital and he reveals to her that he lied to her on their last day together when he said he couldn't feel the baby's heart. He confesses his whole life would've been different if he'd been able to undo this one lie. Novalee, realizing he is now a pathetically changed man, is able to finally forgive and let go of Willy Jack.

text: Novalee realizes that her lies are similar mistakes with Forney. She drives Willy Jack home to Tennessee and then continues to Maine to find Forney at a college. Novalee tells him she really does love him and they return to Oklahoma and marry. The final scene is of their wedding, which takes place in a Walmart.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Natalie Portman as Novalee Nation
Ashley Judd as Lexie Coop
Stockard Channing as Thelma "Sister" Husband
Joan Cusack as Ruth Meyers
James Frain as Forney Hull
Dylan Bruno as Willy Jack Pickens
Keith David as Moses Whitecotton
Richard Andrew Jones as Mr. Sprock
Sally Field as Mama Lil
Angee Hughes as Religious woman
Margaret Hoard as Mary Elizabeth Hull
Mackenzie Fitzgerald as Americus Nation
David Alvarado as Tommy Reynolds
Richard Nance as Johnny DeSotto
Bob Coonrod as Ernie
Cody Linley as Brownie Coop
Adrian Garza as Young Brownie (uncredited)

text: Differences between novel and film[edit]

text:
Novalee finds the number 5 unlucky in the movie, and the number 7 unlucky in the novel.
Sister Husband has brown hair in the movie, and blue hair in the novel.
In the novel, Lexie marries Leon Yoder.
In the film, Forney returns to school. In the novel, Forney instead travels for some time before settling in Chicago.
Novalee's marriage to Forney only occurs in the film.
In the novel, Lexie is obese. She is constantly trying new fad diets and weight loss schemes. This aspect of her character is removed from the film version.
In the novel, Benny Goodluck gives Novalee a buckeye tree for good luck. In the film, the buckeye tree was given to Novalee by Sister Husband.
In the novel, Moses has a wife named Certain whom Novalee also becomes close with. She is entirely omitted from the film, as is Benny Goodluck.

text: Music[edit]

text: Original music for the film was produced by Mason Daring. A soundtrack of the original music was released by RCA Records, as well as a music compilation soundtrack featuring songs used in the film by artists such as Emmylou Harris, Lyle Lovett, Martina McBride, and John Hiatt.

text: The song "That's the Beat of a Heart" was performed by The Warren Brothers and Sara Evans. A music video was made for the song, which is included as a bonus extra on the DVD release, and features a number of scenes from the film.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received mostly negative reviews. Metacritic gives it a score of 30% based on reviews from 28 critics.[1] Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 35% approval rating, based on reviews from 97 critics, with the sites consensus stating that the film's "poor script and messy plot undermines the decent cast."[2]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened in theaters in the United States on April 28, 2000. Where the Heart Is accumulated (USD)$8,292,939 in its opening weekend, opening at number 4.

text: The film went on to make $33,772,838 at the North American box office, and an additional $7,090,880 internationally for a worldwide total of $40,863,718.[3]


document_title: 'Til Death Do Us Part (film)

question_text: till death do us part movie box office

question_tokens: till death do us part movie box office

text: 'Til Death Do Us Part (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Newlyweds Michael (Stephen Bishop) and Madison Roland (Annie Ilonzeh) have a seemingly perfect marriage until controlling Michael begins to abuse Madison after the death of their child. With the help of her best friend Chelsea (Robinne Lee), Madison flees. After adopting a new identity, she meets and falls in love with widow Alex Stone (Taye Diggs). As Madison rebuilds her life, Michael discovers her whereabouts and seeks to abusively dominate her once again.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Taye Diggs as Alex Stone, Madison's new lover
Annie Ilonzeh as Madison Roland, the abused wife seeking to rebuild her life
Stephen Bishop as Michael Roland, the abusive husband
Malik Yoba as Rob
Robinne Lee as Chelsea, Madison's best-friend

text: Release[edit]

text: In North America, 'Til Death Do Us Part was released on September 29, 2017 alongside Flatliners and American Made, as well as the wide expansion of Battle of the Sexes, and was projected to gross around $4 million in its opening weekend.[3] It ended up underperforming, opening to just $1.5 million and finishing 9th at the box office.[4]


document_title: Symbol (chemistry)

question_text: what does the symbol h stand for in chemistry

text: Symbol (chemistry)

text: Symbols for chemical elements[edit]

text:
[hide]List of chemical elements

Z[I]
Symbol
Element
Origin of name[1][2]
Group
Period
Atomic weight[3][4] (u (±))
Density (g/cm3)
Melt (K) [5]
Boil (K)
C[I] (J/g · K)
χ[I]
Abundance in Earth's crust[II] (mg/kg)

1
H
Hydrogen
composed of the Greek elements hydro- and -gen meaning 'water-forming'
1
1
001 !1.008[III][IV][V][VI]
0.00008988
0014 !14.01
20.28
14.304
2.20
1400

2
He
Helium
the Greek helios, 'sun'
18
1
004 !4.002602(2)[III][V]
0.0001785
0.1 !—[VII]
4.22
5.193
–
0.008

3
Li
Lithium
the Greek lithos, 'stone'
1
2
007 !6.94[III][IV][V][VIII][VI]
0.534
0454 !453.69
1560
3.582
0.98
20

4
Be
Beryllium
beryl, a mineral
2
2
009 !9.0121831(5)
1.85
1560 !1560
2742
1.825
1.57
2.8

5
B
Boron
borax, a mineral
13
2
011 !10.81[III][IV][V][VI]
2.34
2349 !2349
4200
1.026
2.04
10

6
C
Carbon
the Latin carbo, 'coal'
14
2
012 !12.011[III][V][VI]
2.267
3800 !3800
4300
0.709
2.55
200

7
N
Nitrogen
the Greek nitron and '-gen' meaning 'niter-forming'
15
2
014 !14.007[III][V][VI]
0.0012506
0063 !63.15
77.36
1.04
3.04
19

8
O
Oxygen
from the Greek oxy-, both 'sharp' and 'acid', and -gen, meaning 'acid-forming'
16
2
016 !15.999[III][V][VI]
0.001429
0054 !54.36
90.20
0.918
3.44
461000

9
F
Fluorine
the Latin fluere, 'to flow'
17
2
019 !18.998403163(6)
0.001696
0053.5 !53.53
85.03
0.824
3.98
585

10
Ne
Neon
the Greek neos, meaning 'new'
18
2
020 !20.1797(6)[III][IV]
0.0008999
0024.56 !24.56
27.07
1.03
–
0.005

11
Na
Sodium
the English word soda (natrium in Latin)
1
3
023 !22.98976928(2)
0.971
0371 !370.87
1156
1.228
0.93
23600

12
Mg
Magnesium
Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece
2
3
024 !24.305[VI]
1.738
0923 !923
1363
1.023
1.31
23300

13
Al
Aluminium
from alumina, a compound (originally aluminum)
13
3
027 !26.9815385(7)
2.698
0933.5 !933.47
2792
0.897
1.61
82300

14
Si
Silicon
from the Latin silex, 'flint' (originally silicium)
14
3
028 !28.085[V][VI]
2.3296
1687 !1687
3538
0.705
1.9
282000

15
P
Phosphorus
the Greek phoosphoros, 'carrying light'
15
3
031 !30.973761998(5)
1.82
0317.3 !317.30
550
0.769
2.19
1050

16
S
Sulfur
the Latin sulphur, 'fire and brimstone'
16
3
032 !32.06[III][V][VI]
2.067
0388.4 !388.36
717.87
0.71
2.58
350

17
Cl
Chlorine
the Greek chloros, 'greenish yellow'
17
3
035 !35.45[III][IV][V][VI]
0.003214
0171.6 !171.6
239.11
0.479
3.16
145

18
Ar
Argon
the Greek argos, 'idle'
18
3
040 !39.948(1)[III][V]
0.0017837
0083.8 !83.80
87.30
0.52
–
3.5

19
K
Potassium
New Latin potassa, 'potash' (kalium in Latin)
1
4
039 !39.0983(1)
0.862
0336.5 !336.53
1032
0.757
0.82
20900

20
Ca
Calcium
the Latin calx, 'lime'
2
4
041 !40.078(4)[III]
1.54
1115 !1115
1757
0.647
1
41500

21
Sc
Scandium
Scandia, the Latin name for Scandinavia
3
4
045 !44.955908(5)
2.989
1814 !1814
3109
0.568
1.36
22

22
Ti
Titanium
Titans, the sons of the Earth goddess of Greek mythology
4
4
048 !47.867(1)
4.54
1941 !1941
3560
0.523
1.54
5650

23
V
Vanadium
Vanadis, an Old Norse name for the Scandinavian goddess Freyja
5
4
051 !50.9415(1)
6.11
2183 !2183
3680
0.489
1.63
120

24
Cr
Chromium
the Greek chroma, 'color'
6
4
052 !51.9961(6)
7.15
2180 !2180
2944
0.449
1.66
102

25
Mn
Manganese
corrupted from magnesia negra, see Magnesium
7
4
055 !54.938044(3)
7.44
1519 !1519
2334
0.479
1.55
950

26
Fe
Iron
English word (ferrum in Latin)
8
4
056 !55.845(2)
7.874
1811 !1811
3134
0.449
1.83
56300

27
Co
Cobalt
the German word Kobold, 'goblin'
9
4
059 !58.933194(4)
8.86
1768 !1768
3200
0.421
1.88
25

28
Ni
Nickel
from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology , Nickel
10
4
058 !58.6934(4)
8.912
1728 !1728
3186
0.444
1.91
84

29
Cu
Copper
English word (Latin cuprum)
11
4
064 !63.546(3)[V]
8.96
1357.77
2835
0.385
1.9
60

30
Zn
Zinc
German word Zinke (prong, tooth)
12
4
065 !65.38(2)
7.134
0693 !692.88
1180
0.388
1.65
70

31
Ga
Gallium
Gallia, the Latin name for France
13
4
070 !69.723(1)
5.907
0302.9 !302.9146
2673
0.371
1.81
19

32
Ge
Germanium
Germania, the Latin name for Germany
14
4
073 !72.630(8)
5.323
1211.40
3106
0.32
2.01
1.5

33
As
Arsenic
English word (Latin arsenicum)
15
4
075 !74.921595(6)
5.776
1090 !1090 [IX]
887
0.329
2.18
1.8

34
Se
Selenium
the Greek selene, 'moon'
16
4
079 !78.971(8)[V]
4.809
0453 !453
958
0.321
2.55
0.05

35
Br
Bromine
the Greek bromos, 'stench'
17
4
080 !79.904[VI]
3.122
0265.8 !265.8
332.0
0.474
2.96
2.4

36
Kr
Krypton
the Greek kryptos, 'hidden'
18
4
084 !83.798(2)[III][IV]
0.003733
0115.8 !115.79
119.93
0.248
3
.0001 !1×10−4

37
Rb
Rubidium
the Latin rubidus, 'deep red'
1
5
085 !85.4678(3)[III]
1.532
0312.5 !312.46
961
0.363
0.82
90

38
Sr
Strontium
Strontian, a small town in Scotland
2
5
087 !87.62(1)[III][V]
2.64
1050
1655
0.301
0.95
370

39
Y
Yttrium
Ytterby, Sweden
3
5
089 !88.90584(2)
4.469
1799
3609
0.298
1.22
33

40
Zr
Zirconium
Persian Zargun, 'gold-colored'; German Zirkoon, 'jargoon'
4
5
091 !91.224(2)[III]
6.506
2128
4682
0.278
1.33
165

41
Nb
Niobium
Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus from Greek mythology
5
5
093 !92.90637(2)
8.57
2750
5017
0.265
1.6
20

42
Mo
Molybdenum
the Greek molybdos meaning 'lead'
6
5
096 !95.95(1)[III]
10.22
2896
4912
0.251
2.16
1.2

43
Tc
Technetium
the Greek tekhnètos meaning 'artificial'
7
5
098 ![98][X]
11.5
2430
4538
–
1.9
.000000003 !~ 3×10−9[XI]

44
Ru
Ruthenium
Ruthenia, the New Latin name for Russia
8
5
101.07(2)[III]
12.37
2607
4423
0.238
2.2
0.001

45
Rh
Rhodium
the Greek rhodos, meaning 'rose coloured'
9
5
102.90550(2)
12.41
2237
3968
0.243
2.28
0.001

46
Pd
Palladium
the then recently discovered asteroid Pallas, considered a planet at the time
10
5
106.42(1)[III]
12.02
1828.05
3236
0.244
2.2
0.015

47
Ag
Silver
English word (argentum in Latin)
11
5
107.8682(2)[III]
10.501
1234.93
2435
0.235
1.93
0.075

48
Cd
Cadmium
the New Latin cadmia, from King Kadmos
12
5
112.414(4)[III]
8.69
0594.22 !594.22
1040
0.232
1.69
0.159

49
In
Indium
indigo
13
5
114.818(1)
7.31
0429.75 !429.75
2345
0.233
1.78
0.25

50
Sn
Tin
English word (stannum in Latin)
14
5
118.710(7)[III]
7.287
0505.08 !505.08
2875
0.228
1.96
2.3

51
Sb
Antimony
uncertain: perhaps from the Greek anti, 'against', and monos, 'alone', or the Old French antimoine, 'Monk's bane' (stibium in Latin)
15
5
121.760(1)[III]
6.685
0903.78 !903.78
1860
0.207
2.05
0.2

52
Te
Tellurium
Latin tellus, 'earth'
16
5
127.60(3)[III]
6.232
0722.66 !722.66
1261
0.202
2.1
0.001

53
I
Iodine
French iode (after the Greek ioeides, 'violet')
17
5
126.90447(3)
4.93
0386.85 !386.85
457.4
0.214
2.66
0.45

54
Xe
Xenon
the Greek xenos, 'strange'
18
5
131.293(6)[III][IV]
0.005887
0161.4 !161.4
165.03
0.158
2.6
.00003 !3×10−5

55
Cs
Caesium
the Latin caesius, 'sky blue'
1
6
132.90545196(6)
1.873
0301.59 !301.59
944
0.242
0.79
3

56
Ba
Barium
the Greek barys, 'heavy'
2
6
137.327(7)
3.594
1000
2170
0.204
0.89
425

57
La
Lanthanum
the Greek lanthanein, 'to lie hidden'
3
6
138.90547(7)[III]
6.145
1193
3737
0.195
1.1
39

58
Ce
Cerium
the then recently discovered asteroid Ceres, considered a planet at the time

6
140.116(1)[III]
6.77
1068
3716
0.192
1.12
66.5

59
Pr
Praseodymium
the Greek praseios didymos meaning 'green twin'

6
140.90766(2)
6.773
1208
3793
0.193
1.13
9.2

60
Nd
Neodymium
the Greek neos didymos meaning 'new twin'

6
144.242(3)[III]
7.007
1297
3347
0.19
1.14
41.5

61
Pm
Promethium
Prometheus of Greek mythology who stole fire from the Gods and gave it to humans

6
145 ![145][X]
7.26
1315
3273
–
1.13
.0000000000000000002 !2×10−19[XI]

62
Sm
Samarium
Samarskite, the name of the mineral from which it was first isolated

6
150.36(2)[III]
7.52
1345
2067
0.197
1.17
7.05

63
Eu
Europium
Europe

6
151.964(1)[III]
5.243
1099
1802
0.182
1.2
2

64
Gd
Gadolinium
Johan Gadolin, chemist, physicist and mineralogist

6
157.25(3)[III]
7.895
1585
3546
0.236
1.2
6.2

65
Tb
Terbium
Ytterby, Sweden

6
158.92535(2)
8.229
1629
3503
0.182
1.2
1.2

66
Dy
Dysprosium
the Greek dysprositos, 'hard to get'

6
162.500(1)[III]
8.55
1680
2840
0.17
1.22
5.2

67
Ho
Holmium
Holmia, the New Latin name for Stockholm

6
164.93033(2)
8.795
1734
2993
0.165
1.23
1.3

68
Er
Erbium
Ytterby, Sweden

6
167.259(3)[III]
9.066
1802
3141
0.168
1.24
3.5

69
Tm
Thulium
Thule, the ancient name for Scandinavia

6
168.93422(2)
9.321
1818
2223
0.16
1.25
0.52

70
Yb
Ytterbium
Ytterby, Sweden

6
173.045(10)[III]
6.965
1097
1469
0.155
1.1
3.2

71
Lu
Lutetium
Lutetia, the Latin name for Paris

6
174.9668(1)[III]
9.84
1925
3675
0.154
1.27
0.8

72
Hf
Hafnium
Hafnia, the New Latin name for Copenhagen
4
6
178.49(2)
13.31
2506
4876
0.144
1.3
3

73
Ta
Tantalum
King Tantalus, father of Niobe from Greek mythology
5
6
180.94788(2)
16.654
3290
5731
0.14
1.5
2

74
W
Tungsten
the Swedish tung sten, 'heavy stone' (W is wolfram, the old name of the tungsten mineral wolframite)
6
6
183.84(1)
19.25
3695
5828
0.132
2.36
1.3

75
Re
Rhenium
Rhenus, the Latin name for the river Rhine
7
6
186.207(1)
21.02
3459
5869
0.137
1.9
.0007 !7×10−4

76
Os
Osmium
the Greek osmè, meaning 'smell'
8
6
190.23(3)[III]
22.61
3306
5285
0.13
2.2
0.002

77
Ir
Iridium
Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow
9
6
192.217(3)
22.56
2719
4701
0.131
2.2
0.001

78
Pt
Platinum
the Spanish platina, meaning 'little silver'
10
6
195.084(9)
21.46
2041.4
4098
0.133
2.28
0.005

79
Au
Gold
English word (aurum in Latin)
11
6
196.966569(5)
19.282
1337.33
3129
0.129
2.54
0.004

80
Hg
Mercury
the New Latin name mercurius, named after the Roman god (Hg from former name hydrargyrum, from Greek hydr-, 'water', and argyros, 'silver')
12
6
200.592(3)
13.5336
0234.43 !234.43
629.88
0.14
2
0.085

81
Tl
Thallium
the Greek thallos, 'green twig'
13
6
204.38[VI]
11.85
0577 !577
1746
0.129
1.62
0.85

82
Pb
Lead
English word (plumbum in Latin)
14
6
207.2(1)[III][V]
11.342
0600.61 !600.61
2022
0.129
1.87
14

83
Bi
Bismuth
Uncertain, possibly Arabic or German
15
6
208.98040(1)[X]
9.807
0544.7 !544.7
1837
0.122
2.02
0.009

84
Po
Polonium
Named after the home country of Marie Curie (Polonia, Latin for Poland), who is also the discoverer of Radium
16
6
209 ![209][X]
9.32
0527 !527
1235
–
2.0
.0000000002 !2×10−10[XI]

85
At
Astatine
the Greek astatos, 'unstable'
17
6
210 ![210][X]
7
0575 !575
610
–
2.2
0.000000000000000000003 !3×10−20[XI]

86
Rn
Radon
From radium, as it was first detected as an emission from radium during radioactive decay
18
6
222 ![222][X]
0.00973
0202 !202
211.3
0.094
2.2
.0000000000004 !4×10−13[XI]

87
Fr
Francium
Francia, the New Latin name for France
1
7
223 ![223][X]
1.87
0300 !300
950
–
0.7
0.000000000000000001 !~ 1×10−18[XI]

88
Ra
Radium
the Latin radius, 'ray'
2
7
223 ![226][X]
5.5
0973 !973
2010
0.094
0.9
.0000009 !9×10−7[XI]

89
Ac
Actinium
the Greek aktis, 'ray'
3
7
227 ![227][X]
10.07
1323
3471
0.12
1.1
.00000000055 !5.5×10−10[XI]

90
Th
Thorium
Thor, the Scandinavian god of thunder

7
232.0377(4)[X][III]
11.72
2115
5061
0.113
1.3
9.6

91
Pa
Protactinium
the Greek protos, 'first', and actinium, which is produced through the radioactive decay of protactinium

7
231.03588(2)[X]
15.37
1841
4300
–
1.5
.0000014 !1.4×10−6[XI]

92
U
Uranium
Uranus, the seventh planet in the Solar System

7
238.02891(3)[X]
18.95
1405.3
4404
0.116
1.38
2.7

93
Np
Neptunium
Neptune, the eighth planet in the Solar System

7
237 ![237][X]
20.45
0917 !917
4273
–
1.36
0.000000000003 !≤ 3×10−12[XI]

94
Pu
Plutonium
Pluto, a dwarf planet in the Solar System (then considered the ninth planet)

7
244 ![244][X]
19.84
0912.5 !912.5
3501
–
1.28
0.00000000003 !≤ 3×10−11[XI]

95
Am
Americium
The Americas, as the element was first synthesized on the continent, by analogy with europium

7
243 ![243][X]
13.69
1449
2880
–
1.13
0 !0[XII]

96
Cm
Curium
Pierre Curie, a physicist, and Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist, named after great scientists by analogy with gadolinium

7
247 ![247][X]
13.51
1613
3383
–
1.28
0 !0[XII]

97
Bk
Berkelium
Berkeley, California, where the element was first synthesized, by analogy with terbium

7
247 ![247][X]
14.79
1259
2900
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

98
Cf
Californium
California, where the element was first synthesized

7
251 ![251][X]
15.1
1173
1743 !(1743)[XIII]
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

99
Es
Einsteinium
Albert Einstein, physicist

7
252 ![252][X]
8.84
1133
1269 !(1269)[XIII]
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

100
Fm
Fermium
Enrico Fermi, physicist

7
257 ![257][X]
9.7 !(9.7)[XIII]
1125 !(1125)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

101
Md
Mendelevium
Dmitri Mendeleev, chemist and inventor

7
258 ![258][X]
10.3 !(10.3)[XIII]
1100 !(1100)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

102
No
Nobelium
Alfred Nobel, chemist, engineer, innovator, and armaments manufacturer

7
259 ![259][X]
9.9 !(9.9)[XIII]
1100 !(1100)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

103
Lr
Lawrencium
Ernest O. Lawrence, physicist

7
266 ![266][X]
15.6 !(15.6)[XIII]
1900 !(1900)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

104
Rf
Rutherfordium
Ernest Rutherford, chemist and physicist
4
7
267 ![267][X]
23.2 !(23.2)[XIII]
2400 !(2400)[XIII]
5800 !(5800)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

105
Db
Dubnium
Dubna, Russia
5
7
268 ![268][X]
29.3 !(29.3)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

106
Sg
Seaborgium
Glenn T. Seaborg, scientist
6
7
269 ![269][X]
35.0 !(35.0)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

107
Bh
Bohrium
Niels Bohr, physicist
7
7
270 ![270][X]
37.1 !(37.1)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

108
Hs
Hassium
Hesse, Germany, where the element was first synthesized
8
7
277 ![277][X]
40.7 !(40.7)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

109
Mt
Meitnerium
Lise Meitner, physicist
9
7
278 ![278][X]
37.4 !(37.4)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

110
Ds
Darmstadtium
Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first synthesized
10
7
281 ![281][X]
34.8 !(34.8)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

111
Rg
Roentgenium
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, physicist
11
7
282 ![282][X]
28.7 !(28.7)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

112
Cn
Copernicium
Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomer
12
7
285 ![285][X]
23.7 !(23.7)[XIII]
–
357 !~357[XIV]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

113
Nh
Nihonium
the Japanese name for Japan, Nihon, where the element was first synthesized
13
7
286 ![286][X]
16 !(16)[XIII]
0700 !(700)[XIII]
1400 !(1400)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

114
Fl
Flerovium
Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, part of JINR where the element was synthesized; itself named for Georgy Flyorov, physicist
14
7
289 ![289][X]
14 !(14)[XIII]
–
210 !~210
–
–
0 !0[XII]

115
Mc
Moscovium
Moscow Oblast, Russia, where the element was first synthesized
15
7
290 ![290][X]
13.5 !(13.5)[XIII]
0700 !(700)[XIII]
1400 !(1400)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

116
Lv
Livermorium
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (in Livermore, California) which collaborated with JINR on its synthesis
16
7
293 ![293][X]
12.9 !(12.9)[XIII]
0709 !(709)[XIII]
1085 !(1085)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

117
Ts
Tennessine
Tennessee, United States
17
7
294 ![294][X]
7.2 !(7.2)[XIII]
0723 !(723)[XIII]
0883 !(883)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

118
Og
Oganesson
Yuri Oganessian, physicist
18
7
294 ![294][X]
5.0 !(5.0)[XIII][XV]
–
350 !(350)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

[show]
Notes

^ Jump up to: a b c Z is the standard symbol for atomic number; C is the standard symbol for heat capacity; and χ is the standard symbol for electronegativity on the Pauling scale.
Jump up ^ Unless otherwise indicated, elements are primordial – they occur naturally, and not through decay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l The value listed is the conventional atomic-weight value suitable for trade and commerce. The actual value may differ depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. Since 2009, IUPAC provides the standard atomic-weight values for these elements using the interval notation. The corresponding standard atomic weights are:

Hydrogen: [1.00784, 1.00811]
Lithium: [6.938, 6.997]
Boron: [10.806, 10.821]
Carbon: [12.0096, 12.0116]
Nitrogen: [14.00643, 14.00728]
Oxygen: [15.99903, 15.99977]
Magnesium: [24.304, 24.307]
Silicon: [28.084, 28.086]
Sulfur: [32.059, 32.076]
Chlorine: [35.446, 35.457]
Bromine: [79.901, 79.907]
Thallium: [204.382, 204.385]

Jump up ^ This element does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. Helium can only solidify at pressures above 25 atmospheres, which corresponds to a melting point of absolute zero.
Jump up ^ The atomic weight of commercial lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
Jump up ^ This element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, four such elements, bismuth, thorium, protactinium, and uranium, have characteristic terrestrial isotopic compositions, and thus their standard atomic weights are given.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k This element is transient – it occurs only through decay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x This element is synthetic – the transuranic elements 95 and above do not occur naturally, but they can all be produced artificially.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj The value has not been precisely measured, usually because of the element's short half-life; the value given in parentheses is a prediction.
Jump up ^ With error bars: 357+112
−108 K.
Jump up ^ This predicted value is for liquid oganesson, not gaseous oganesson.

text:
Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Unknown
chemical
properties

Alkali metal
Alkaline earth metal
Lanthanide
Actinide
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
Polyatomic nonmetal
Diatomic nonmetal
Noble gas

text: Antimatter atoms are denoted by a bar above the symbol for their matter counterpart, so e.g. H is the symbol for antihydrogen.

text: Symbols and names not currently used[edit]

text: The following is a list of symbols and names formerly used or suggested for elements, including symbols for placeholder names and names given by discredited claimants for discovery.

text:
Chemical symbol
Name
Atomic number
Origin of symbol
Why not used
Refs

A
Argon
18
A used for Argon until 1957. Current symbol is Ar.
[nb 2]
[6]

Ab
Alabamine
85
Discredited claim to discovery of astatine.
[nb 3]
[7]

Ad
Aldebaranium
70
Former name for ytterbium.
[nb 3]

Am
Alabamium
85
Discredited claim to discovery of astatine. The symbol is now used for americium.
[nb 3]
[7]

An
Athenium
99
Proposed name for einsteinium.
[nb 4]

Ao
Ausonium
93
Discredited claim to discovery of neptunium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Az
Azote
7
Former name for nitrogen.
[nb 2]

Bo
Boron
5
Current symbol is B.
[nb 2]

Bv
Brevium
91
Former name for protactinium.
[nb 2]

Bz
Berzelium

Baskerville wrongly believed berzelium to be a new element. Was actually thorium.
[nb 4]
[8]

Cb
Columbium
41
Former name for niobium.
[nb 2]
[7][8]

Ch
Chromium
24
Current symbol is Cr.
[nb 2]

Cl
Columbium
41
Former name for niobium. The symbol is now used for chlorine.
[nb 2]

Cn
Carolinium

Baskerville wrongly believed carolinium to be a new element. Was actually thorium. The symbol is now used for copernicium.

[8]

Cp
Cassiopeium
71
Former name for lutetium.
[nb 2]

Cp
Copernicium
112
Current symbol is Cn.
[nb 2]

Ct
Celtium
72
Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium.
[nb 3]

Ct
Centurium
100
Proposed name for fermium.
[nb 4]

D
Didymium

Mixture of the elements praseodymium and neodymium. Mosander wrongly believed didymium to be an element.

[9]

Da
Davyum
43
Discredited claim to discovery of technetium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Db
Dubnium
104
Proposed name for rutherfordium. The symbol and name were instead used for element 105.
[nb 2][nb 4]
[7]

Di
Didymium

Mixture of the elements praseodymium and neodymium. Mosander wrongly believed didymium to be an element.

[9]

Ds
Dysprosium
66
Current symbol is Dy. The symbol is now used for darmstadtium.
[nb 2]

E
Einsteinium
99
Current symbol is Es.
[nb 2]

E
Erbium
68
Current symbol is Er.
[nb 2]

Ea
Ekaaluminium
31
Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, gallium closely matched the prediction.
[nb 4][nb 5]

Eb
Ekaboron
21
Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, scandium closely matched the prediction.
[nb 4][nb 5]
[7]

El
Ekaaluminium
31
Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, gallium closely matched the prediction.
[nb 4][nb 5]
[7]

Em
Ekamanganese
43
Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, technetium closely matched the prediction.
[nb 4][nb 5]
[7]

Em
Emanation
86
Also called "radium emanation", the name was originally given by Friedrich Ernst Dorn in 1900. In 1923, this element officially became radon (the name given at one time to 222Rn, an isotope identified in the decay chain of radium).
[nb 2]
[7]

Em
Emanium
89
Alternate name formerly proposed for actinium.
[nb 4]

Es
Ekasilicon
32
Name given by Mendeleev to an as of then undiscovered element. When discovered, germanium closely matched the prediction. The symbol is now used for einsteinium.
[nb 4][nb 5]
[7]

Es
Esperium
94
Discredited claim to discovery of plutonium. The symbol is now used for einsteinium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Fa
Francium
87
Current symbol is Fr.
[nb 2]

Fl
Florentium
61
Discredited claim to discovery of promethium. The symbol is now used for flerovium.
[nb 3]

Fl
Fluorine
9
Current symbol is F. The symbol is now used for flerovium.
[nb 2]

Fr
Florentium
61
Discredited claim to discovery of promethium. The symbol is now used for francium.
[nb 3]
[7]

G
Glucinium
4
Former name for beryllium.
[nb 2]

Gl
Glucinium
4
Former name for beryllium.
[nb 2]
[7]

Ha
Hahnium
105
Proposed name for dubnium.
[nb 4]

Hn
Hahnium
108
Proposed name for hassium.
[nb 4]
[7]

Hv
Helvetium
85
Discredited claim to discovery of astatine.
[nb 3]
[8]

Hy
Mercury
80
Hy from the Greek hydrargyrum for "liquid silver". Current symbol is Hg.
[nb 2]
[6]

I
Iridium
77
Current symbol is Ir. The symbol is now used for iodine.
[nb 2]

Il
Illinium
61
Discredited claim to discovery of promethium.
[nb 3]
[7]

J
Jodium
53
Former name for iodine.
[nb 2]

Jg
Jargonium
72
Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Jl
Joliotium
105
Proposed name for dubnium.
[nb 4]
[7]

Ka
Potassium
19
Current symbol is K.
[nb 2]

Ku
Kurchatovium
104
Proposed name for rutherfordium.
[nb 4]
[7]

L
Lithium
3
Current symbol is Li.
[nb 2]

Lw
Lawrencium
103
Current symbol is Lr.
[nb 2]

M
Muriaticum
17
Former name for chlorine.
[nb 2]

Ma
Manganese
25
Current symbol is Mn.
[nb 2]

Ma
Masurium
43
Disputed claim to discovery of technetium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Md
Mendelevium
97
Proposed name for berkelium. The symbol and name were later used for element 101.
[nb 2][nb 4]

Ml
Moldavium
87
Discredited claim to discovery of francium.
[nb 3]
[8]

Ms
Magnesium
12
Current symbol is Mg.
[nb 2]

Ms
Masrium
88
Discredited claim of discovery of radium.
[nb 3]

Ms
Masurium
43
Disputed claim to discovery of technetium.
[nb 3]

Mv
Mendelevium
101
Current symbol is Md.
[nb 2]

Ng
Norwegium
72
Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium.
[nb 3]

No
Norium
72
Discredited claim to discovery of hafnium. The symbol is now used for nobelium.
[nb 3]

Np
Nipponium
43
Discredited claim to discovery of technetium. The symbol is now used for neptunium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Ns
Nielsbohrium
105
Proposed name for dubnium.
[nb 4]
[7]

Ns
Nielsbohrium
107
Proposed name for bohrium.
[nb 4]
[7]

Nt
Niton
86
Former name for radon.
[nb 2]
[7]

Ny
Neoytterbium
70
Former name for ytterbium.
[nb 2]

P
Lead
82
Current symbol is Pb. The symbol is now used for phosphorus.
[nb 2]

Pa
Palladium
46
Current symbol is Pd. The symbol is now used for protactinium.
[nb 2]

Pe
Pelopium
41
Former name for niobium.
[nb 2]

Pl
Palladium
46
Current symbol is Pd.
[nb 2]

Po
Potassium
19
Current symbol is K. The symbol is now used for polonium.
[nb 2]

R
Rhodium
45
Current symbol is Rh.
[nb 2]

Rd
Radium
88
Current symbol is Ra.
[nb 2]

Rf
Rutherfordium
106
Proposed name for seaborgium. The symbol and name were instead used for element 104.
[nb 2][nb 4]
[7]

Ro
Rhodium
45
Current symbol is Rh.
[nb 2]

Sa
Samarium
62
Current symbol is Sm.
[nb 2]
[7]

So
Sodium
11
Current symbol is Na.
[nb 2]

St
Antimony
51
Current symbol is Sb.
[nb 2]

St
Tin
50
Current symbol is Sn.
[nb 2]

Tn
Tungsten
74
Current symbol is W.
[nb 2]

Tr
Terbium
65
Current symbol is Tb.
[nb 2]

Tu
Thulium
69
Current symbol is Tm.
[nb 2]

Tu
Tungsten
74
Current symbol is W.
[nb 2]

Unb
Unnilbium
102
Temporary name given to nobelium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Une
Unnilennium
109
Temporary name given to meitnerium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Unh
Unnilhexium
106
Temporary name given to seaborgium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uno
Unniloctium
108
Temporary name given to hassium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Unp
Unnilpentium
105
Temporary name given to dubnium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Unq
Unnilquadium
104
Temporary name given to rutherfordium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uns
Unnilseptium
107
Temporary name given to bohrium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Unt
Unniltrium
103
Temporary name given to lawrencium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Unu
Unnilunium
101
Temporary name given to mendelevium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uub
Ununbium
112
Temporary name given to copernicium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uuh
Ununhexium
116
Temporary name given to livermorium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uun
Ununnilium
110
Temporary name given to darmstadtium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uuo
Ununoctium
118
Temporary name given to oganesson until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uup
Ununpentium
115
Temporary name given to moscovium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uuq
Ununquadium
114
Temporary name given to flerovium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uus
Ununseptium
117
Temporary name given to tennessine until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uut
Ununtrium
113
Temporary name given to nihonium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Uuu
Unununium
111
Temporary name given to roentgenium until it was permanently named by IUPAC.
[nb 5]

Ur
Uranium
92
Current symbol is U.
[nb 2]

Vi
Virginium
87
Discredited claim to discovery of francium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Vm
Virginium
87
Discredited claim to discovery of francium.
[nb 3]
[7]

Va
Vanadium
23
Current symbol is V.
[nb 2]

Wo
Tungsten
74
Current symbol is W.
[nb 2]

X
Xenon
54
Current symbol is Xe.
[nb 2]

Yt
Yttrium
39
Current symbol is Y.
[nb 2]
[7]

text: Pictographic symbols[edit]

text: The following is a list of pictographic symbols employed to symbolize elements known since ancient times (for example to the alchemists). Not included in this list are symbolic representations of substances previously called elements (such as certain rare earth mineral blends and the classical elements fire and water of ancient philosophy) which are known today to be multi-atomic. Also not included are symbolic representations currently used for elements in other languages such as the Chinese characters for elements. Modern alphabetic notation was introduced in 1814 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius.

text:
Chemical symbol
Original name
Modern name
Atomic number
Origin of symbol

☉
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
1
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

⬤
Carbon
Carbon
6
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

⦶
Azote
Nitrogen
7
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

◯
Oxygen
Oxygen
8
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

⦷
Soda
Sodium
11
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

⊛
Magnesium
Magnesium
12
Alchemical symbol.

Sulfur
Sulfur
16
Alchemical symbol.

Pallas
Sulfur
16
Alchemical symbol.

🜍
Sulfur
Sulfur
16
Alchemical symbol.

ⴲ
Sulfur
Sulfur
16
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

♂
Mars
Iron
26
Alchemical symbol.

Ⓘ
Iron
Iron
26
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

Stellae Fixae
Copper
29
Pre–16th-century alchemical symbol.

♀
Venus
Copper
29
Alchemical symbol.

Copper
Copper
29
Alchemical symbol.

Ⓒ
Copper
Copper
29
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

Ⓩ
Zinc
Zinc
30
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

Arsenic
Arsenic
33
Alchemical symbol.

🜺
Arsenic
Arsenic
33
Alchemical symbol.

☽
Luna
Silver
47
Alchemical symbol.

🜛
Silver
Silver
47
Alchemical symbol.

Ⓢ
Silver
Silver
47
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

♃
Iupiter
Tin
50
Alchemical symbol.

♁
Antimony
Antimony
51
Alchemical symbol.

☉☾
Platinum
Platinum
78
Alchemical symbol.

⛢
Uranus
Platinum
78
Alchemical symbol.

☼
Sol
Gold
79
Alchemical symbol from the 16th century.

☉
Sol
Gold
79
Alchemical symbol from 1700 through 1783.

🜚
Gold
Gold
79
Alchemical symbol.

♓
Pisces
Mercury
80
Pre–16th-century alchemical symbol.

♆
Neptunus
Mercury
80
Alchemical symbol from the 17th century.

☿
Mercurius
Mercury
80
Alchemical symbol from 1700 through 1783.

♄
Saturnus
Lead
82
Alchemical symbol circa 1783.

Ⓛ
Lead
Lead
82
Daltonian symbol circa 1808.

♉
Taurus
Bismuth
83
Alchemical symbol.

text: Symbols for named isotopes[edit]

text: The following is a list of isotopes of elements given in the previous tables which have been designated unique symbols. By this it is meant that a comprehensive list of current systematic symbols (in the uAtom form) are not included in the list and can instead be found in the Isotope index chart. The symbols for the named isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium (D) and tritium (T) are still in use today. Heavy water and other deuterated solvents are commonly used in chemistry, and it is convenient to use a single character rather than a symbol with a subscript in these cases. The practice also continues with tritium compounds. When the name of the solvent is given, a lowercase d is sometimes used. For example, d6-benzene and C6D6 can be used instead of [2H6]C6H6.[10]

text: The symbols for isotopes of elements other than hydrogen are no longer in use within the scientific community. Many of these symbols were designated during the early years of radiochemistry, and several isotopes (namely those in the actinium decay family, the radium decay family, and the thorium decay family) bear placeholder names using the early naming system devised by Ernest Rutherford.[11]

text:
Chemical symbol
Name
Atomic number
Origin of symbol

Ac
Actinium
89
From the Greek aktinos. Name restricted at one time to 227Ac, an isotope of actinium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 89.

AcA
Actinium A
84
From actinium and A. Placeholder name given at one time to 215Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of actinium.

AcB
Actinium B
82
From actinium and B. Placeholder name given at one time to 211Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of actinium.

AcC
Actinium C
83
From actinium and C. Placeholder name given at one time to 211Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of actinium.

AcC'
Actinium C'
84
From actinium and C'. Placeholder name given at one time to 211Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of actinium.

AcC"
Actinium C"
81
From actinium and C". Placeholder name given at one time to 207Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of actinium.

AcK
Actinium K
87
Name given at one time to 223Fr, an isotope of francium identified in the decay chain of actinium.

AcU
Actino-uranium
92
Name given at one time to 235U, an isotope of uranium.

AcX
Actinium X
88
Name given at one time to 223Ra, an isotope of radium identified in the decay chain of actinium.

An
Actinon
86
From actinium and emanation. Name given at one time to 219Rn, an isotope of radon identified in the decay chain of actinium.

D
Deuterium
1
From the Greek deuteros. Name given to 2H.

Io
Ionium
90
Name given to 230Th, an isotope of thorium identified in the decay chain of uranium.

MsTh1
Mesothorium 1
88
Name given at one time to 228Ra, an isotope of radium.

MsTh2
Mesothorium 2
89
Name given at one time to 228Ac, an isotope of actinium.

Pa
Protactinium
91
From the Greek protos and actinium. Name restricted at one time to 231Pa, an isotope of protactinium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 91.

Ra
Radium
88
From the Latin radius. Name restricted at one time to 226Ra, an isotope of radium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 88.

RaA
Radium A
84
From radium and A. Placeholder name given at one time to 218Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaB
Radium B
82
From radium and B. Placeholder name given at one time to 214Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaC
Radium C
83
From radium and C. Placeholder name given at one time to 214Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaC'
Radium C'
84
From radium and C'. Placeholder name given at one time to 214Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaC"
Radium C"
81
From radium and C". Placeholder name given at one time to 210Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaD
Radium D
82
From radium and D. Placeholder name given at one time to 210Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaE
Radium E
83
From radium and E. Placeholder name given at one time to 210Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaE"
Radium E"
81
From radium and E". Placeholder name given at one time to 206Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of radium.

RaF
Radium F
84
From radium and F. Placeholder name given at one time to 210Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of radium.

RdAc
Radioactinium
90
Name given at one time to 227Th, an isotope of thorium.

RdTh
Radiothorium
90
Name given at one time to 228Th, an isotope of thorium.

Rn
Radon
86
From radium and emanation. Name restricted at one time to 222Rn, an isotope of radon identified in the decay chain of radium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 86 in 1923.

T
Tritium
1
From the Greek tritos. Name given to 3H.

Th
Thorium
90
After Thor. Name restricted at one time to 232Th, an isotope of thorium. This named isotope later became the official name for element 90.

ThA
Thorium A
84
From thorium and A. Placeholder name given at one time to 216Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of thorium.

ThB
Thorium B
82
From thorium and B. Placeholder name given at one time to 212Pb, an isotope of lead identified in the decay chain of thorium.

ThC
Thorium C
83
From thorium and C. Placeholder name given at one time to 212Bi, an isotope of bismuth identified in the decay chain of thorium.

ThC'
Thorium C'
84
From thorium and C'. Placeholder name given at one time to 212Po, an isotope of polonium identified in the decay chain of thorium.

ThC"
Thorium C"
81
From thorium and C". Placeholder name given at one time to 208Tl, an isotope of thallium identified in the decay chain of thorium.

ThX
Thorium X
88
Name given at one time to 224Ra, an isotope of radium identified in the decay chain of thorium.

Tn
Thoron
86
From thorium and emanation. Name given at one time to 220Rn, an isotope of radon identified in the decay chain of thorium.

UI
Uranium I
92
Name given at one time to 238U, an isotope of uranium.

UII
Uranium II
92
Name given at one time to 234U, an isotope of uranium.

UX1
Uranium X1
90
Name given at one time to 234Th, an isotope of thorium identified in the decay chain of uranium.

UX2
Uranium X2
91
Name given at one time to 234mPa, an isotope of protactinium identified in the decay chain of uranium.

UY
Uranium Y
90
Name given at one time to 231Th, an isotope of thorium identified in the decay chain of uranium.

UZ
Uranium Z
91
Name given at one time to 234Pa, an isotope of protactinium identified in the decay chain of uranium.

text: Other symbols[edit]

text: General:

text:
An: any actinide
E: any element or electrophile
L: any ligand
Ln: any lanthanide
M: any metal
Mm: mischmetall (occasionally used)[12]
Ng: any noble gas (Rg is sometimes used, but that is also used for the element roentgenium: see above)
Nu: any nucleophile
R: any unspecified radical (moiety) not important to the discussion
St: steel (occasionally used)
X: any halogen

text: From organic chemistry:

text:
Ac: acetyl – (also used for the element actinium: see above)
Ad: adamantyl
Ar: aryl – (also used for the element argon: see above)
Bn: benzyl
Bu: butyl
Bz: benzoyl
Cp: cyclopentadienyl
Cy: cyclohexyl
Et: ethyl
i-Pr, iPr, Pri: isopropyl
Me: methyl
Mes: mesityl (2,3,6-trimethylphenyl)
Ms: mesyl (methylsulfonyl)
Np: neopentyl – (also used for the element neptunium: see above)
Ph: phenyl
Pr: propyl – (also used for the element praseodymium: see above)
s-Bu: sec-butyl
R: In organic chemistry contexts, an unspecified "R" is often understood to be an alkyl group
t-Bu: tert-butyl
Tf: triflyl (trifluoromethanesulfonyl)
Tr: trityl (triphenylmethyl)
Ts (occasionally Tos): tosyl (para toluenesulfonyl) – (also used for the element tennessine: see above)

text: Exotic atoms:

text:
Mu: muonium
Pn: protonium
Ps: positronium