document_title: List of Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce episodes

question_text: how many episodes girlfriends guide to divorce season 4

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
December 2, 2014 (2014-12-02)
February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)

2
13
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)

3
7
January 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
February 22, 2017 (2017-02-22)

4
6
August 17, 2017 (2017-08-17)[3]
September 21, 2017 (2017-09-21)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Rule No. 23: Never Lie to the Kids"
Adam Brooks
Marti Noxon
December 2, 2014 (2014-12-02)
1.04[4]

Abby McCarthy, a self-help author who writes about marriage and childcare, struggles to hide the truth about her marriage as she continues to spend time with divorced moms Phoebe and Lyla. Taking advantage of the separation, Abby goes out to a club and later hooks up with a younger man. Lyla gets back at her ex-husband Dan after having sex with him. During a book signing, Abby breaks down and declares her book a lie, exposing the truth about her marriage.

2
2
"Rule No. 174: Never Trust Anyone Who Charges By the Hour"
Adam Brooks
Marti Noxon
December 9, 2014 (2014-12-09)
0.84[5]

After her breakdown at the book signing, Abby tries to do damage control. While working out the particulars of the divorce with Jake, such as finding a place for him to live, Abby meets with Delia, a divorce attorney and Lyla's business rival. Phoebe tries to pick an idea for her next business venture, deciding upon infant jewelry. Lyla gets payback on Dan after he has her car impounded with tickets, resulting in him asking for full custody.

3
3
"Rule No. 47: Always Take Advantage of "Me" Time"
Leslie Libman
Liz Kruger & Craig Shapiro
December 16, 2014 (2014-12-16)
0.70[6]

Abby has the weekend to herself and uses it to come up with book ideas. However, after getting drunk and wrecking Lilly's poster, Abby, Phoebe and Lyla go out to find a new poster. Jake finally settles into his new place and has the kids over for the weekend. When the kids get bored, he calls Max for help and has Becca Riley come over to liven the evening. Lyla sends her nanny to story time at her kids school, but gets reprimanded by the principal.

4
4
"Rule No. 426: Fantasyland: A Great Place to Visit"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Paul Adelstein
December 23, 2014 (2014-12-23)
0.77[7]

Abby pursues a relationship with Nate, but has trouble trying to connect with him on a deeper level. At the suggestion of everyone around her, Lyla tries to find methods of de-stressing. She later fights with Phoebe after trying a special massage without warning of what it entails. Max and Ford are honored at the Family Equality Gala, but Max has trouble getting with the program. Phoebe pursues a relationship with a married man as a way of "saving the relationship".
Paul Adelstein does not appear in this episode.

5
5
"Rule No. 21: Leave Childishness to Children"
David Katzenberg
Ed Roe
December 30, 2014 (2014-12-30)
0.87[8]

Abby runs into Will and tries dating him, and begins experiencing some youthfulness as a result. Lyla's mother (Bernadette Peters) visits during the weekend when she has her first dinner with a court-appointed caseworker. Phoebe's relationship with Vika and Merete reaches a new level. Jake has the kids for the weekend, but loses Lilly, who runs out to the same club Abby is at.

6
6
"Rule No 33: When in Doubt, Run Away"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Marti Noxon & Ilene Rosenzweig
January 6, 2015 (2015-01-06)
0.87[9]

Phoebe takes Abby, Lyla and Delia to Vegas to promote her infant jewelry line. After being called out by rising author Cleo Stevens, Abby uses the trip to gain some inspiration. Lyla uses the trip to de-stress following an embarrassing dinner with a social worker. Jake and Becca go on a retreat to a visit a shaman to help Jake make a deeper connection in their relationship. Jake stumbles out of the retreat, high, and goes back home, where he and Abby have sex.

7
7
"Rule No. 67: Don't Kill the Princess"
Daisy Mayer
Janine Nabers
January 13, 2015 (2015-01-13)
0.77[10]

Abby holds Lilly's birthday party at the house. She also sets the boundaries for the party, initially forbidding Becca from coming, but yields when the party turns out to be a bust. The party suffers a complication when the girls get drunk and put vodka-laced tampons on. Delia handles the divorce of a wealthy businessman (Matthew Glave), but soon becomes enamored with him, starting a secret affair. Becca breaks up with Jake after finding out about his and Abby's tryst.

8
8
"Rule No. 17: Ask the Answer Lady"
Brian Dannelly
Ashley Cardiff
January 20, 2015 (2015-01-20)
0.69[11]

Abby's friend Jo (Alanna Ubach) comes to visit during a very hectic time for Abby. She preps for the proposal of her next book while trying to take care of Charlie as Jake takes a directing job for Blood Sisters. Phoebe preps for her baby jewelry launch event while consorting with Ralf's new girlfriend. Delia's affair with Gordon comes to a head when she reaches an impasse on a condition of his divorce with his ex-wife. After experiencing some discourse, Max and Ford try to reconnect on a date.

9
9
"Rule No. 32: F-You, Rob Frumpkis"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Marti Noxon
January 27, 2015 (2015-01-27)
0.91[12]

Abby's pitch leads to an opportunity with Huffington Post in which she goes on ten dates and writes about them, one of them with former flame Will. Looking for a new path in life, Phoebe helps out at a home grown foods farm while eyeing the head farmer, Marco (Brandon Jay McLaren). Delia convinces Courtney to give up Asia in the divorce, but breaks up with Gordon after finding out he slept with Courtney. Jo accompanies Abby on several of her dates, and goes home with one of them, which leads to a fight between her and Abby. Meanwhile, her daughter Zooey flies over to stay with her. Max and Ford settle their issues by reverting to their old arrangement.

10
10
"Rule No. 3: Don't Stand in the Doorway"
Silver Tree
Liz Kruger & Craig Shapiro
February 3, 2015 (2015-02-03)
0.74[13]

Abby's article trends all over Twitter, so much that she is offered a job as senior editor. However, the article also creates problems for Lilly as her name appears on a slut list circulating throughout the school. Delia struggles to let Gordon into her life while Phoebe helps make Marco's business more successful. When Jo tries to settle her financials and send Zooey to school, she finds out that her husband has a second wife.

11
11
"Rule No. 46: Keep the Holidays Low Key"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Ed Roe
February 10, 2015 (2015-02-10)
0.83[14]

Abby hosts a Thanksgiving dinner for her friends and boyfriend, but has to add the kids to the mix when Jake gets sick, and Jake soon after when Charlie begs for him to come. Delia deals with her difficult father while Phoebe invites Marco to the Thanksgiving dinner. Meanwhile, Abby and Jo look through a box found in the backyard containing photos and letters of a former tenant.

12
12
"Rule No. 92: Don't Do the Crime If You Can't Do the Time"
Millicent Shelton
Ilene Rosenzweig
February 17, 2015 (2015-02-17)
0.74[15]

Abby and Jake's divorce is coming to a close, but Abby gets cold feet when Jake starts making strides in his career. After Gordon pulls his business of the law firm, Delia must face her unresolved issues with Gordon to save her job. Phoebe has trouble facing a person from her past while defining the limitations of her relationship with Marco. Jo tries to help Zooey become more social at school while helping out with the school fundraiser.

13
13
"Rule No. 101: Know When It's Time to Move On"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Marti Noxon
February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)
0.79[16]

Abby and Jake finalize the divorce and go out on a divorce signing date to sign it together. Towards the end of the date, Jake proposes that they don't file the papers, expressing that he still loves her. Delia is offered a partner position at the firm, but upon learning the terms of deal, she demands full equity partnership. Meanwhile, Delia reconciles with Gordon but when confronted with the idea of marriage, becomes apprehensive and breaks up with Gordon. Jo holds a divorce party to celebrate Abby's divorce, while going to therapy with her embattled daughter. After blowing up at Kori at school, Phoebe confides in Abby and Marco what Kori did to her when she was younger. Max and Ford continue their arrangement, but soon find out how complicated it is. Becca tells Jake that she is pregnant.

text: Season 2 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

14
1
"Rule No. 58: Avoid the Douchemobile"
Adam Brooks
Marti Noxon
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
0.70[17]

Abby and Jake are secretly hooking up with each other while at the time she has a meeting with an online magazine called SheShe. In her meeting with the people from SheShe, Abby goes on to tell how divorce can be fun but one of the editors Barbara (Retta) who is also divorced disagrees. Delia gets engaged to Gordon. Kori puts out a restraining order against Phoebe after Phoebe attacked her. To retaliate Phoebe wants to make public all she went through with Kori when she was younger. Jo asks Abby if she and Zooey can move in permanently. Becca tells Jake that she has decided to keep the baby and not have an abortion. Will gets mad when he figures out that Abby and Jake are sleeping with each other.

15
2
"Rule No. 77: Don't Blow The Bubble"
Brian Dannelly
Carol Barbee
December 8, 2015 (2015-12-08)
0.62[18]

After walking in on Abby and Jake making out, Zooey promises to not tell anyone what she saw. The two continue to keep their relationship a secret from everyone else. One of the SheShe people tell Abby that she is the sexy face of divorce and needs go to events such as fashion shows. Jo prepares for the opening of her vegan bakery, Rize, and has a problem when her chef, Scott uses butter in one of the pastries. The two talk and then she decides to sell both vegan food and non vegan food, and says that if anyone has a problem with it, there are plenty of other vegan restaurants in Los Angeles. Delia meets with a wedding planner, Jo finds a new place to live, and Phoebe and Marco break up.

16
3
"Rule No. 8: Timing Is Everything"
Randy Zisk
Marti Noxon and Lisa Edelstein
December 15, 2015 (2015-12-15)
0.59[19]

Abby goes on a date with a TV doctor, Dr. Harris. Everyone plans for Delia and Gordon's engagement party. Jo decides to take some time off from seeing Abby. Jake tells Becca that he is back together with Abby but he hasn't told her yet about Becca's pregnancy. Delia asks Gordon's mom to help plan the wedding. Abby gets angry at Jake when she finds out that he went a month without telling her about Becca.

17
4
"Rule #65: You Can Go Home Again"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Paul Adelstein
December 22, 2015 (2015-12-22)
0.57[20]

After sending the kids away, Abby and Jake spend the weekend together completely alone at home to evaluate their relationship. When Delia and Gordon go house hunting they find out that they have different tastes and don't want the same things. Jo finds out that Zooey gets along well with her step-mother. Zooey then returns from visiting her father and step-mother in Kentucky. After spending the weekend together Abby and Jake both come to the same agonizing conclusion about their relationship. Even though they still love each other, their insecurities will prevent them from being a couple again.

18
5
"Rule #72: It's Never Too Late to Be a Mean Girl"
Millicent Shelton
Adam Milch
December 29, 2015 (2015-12-29)
0.68[21]

A 1990s-themed prom is thrown for Phoebe to celebrate her getting her GED. Abby goes on a second date with Dr. Harris. Frumpkis comes to Los Angeles to spend time with Zooey. After seeing a totally reformed Rob Frumpkis, Jo discovers that she wants him back.

19
6
"Rule #25: Beware the Second Chance"
J. Miller Tobin
Ilene Rosenzweig
January 5, 2016 (2016-01-05)
0.60[22]

While in New York trying to sell her 'Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce' book to a publisher, Abby runs into Dr. Harris. TMZ has learned about Becca's pregnancy and is going to announce it to the public. Jo finally meets Frumpkis' new wife Charlene, Phoebe takes a class on Gender Studies.

20
7
"Rule #14: No...Means No"
Michael B. Silver
Janine Nabers
January 12, 2016 (2016-01-12)
0.76[23]

Abby gets a visit from her parents George (Barry Bostwick) and Dina (Lesley Ann Warren). Abby and Becca talk. Jo is in risk of losing her bakery because of her custody battle with her ex so she has to prove that she got the bakery through inheritance. Her family also comes to town. Jo and Phoebe try out the dating scene with Jo online dating and Phoebe dating her college professor. Delia is getting cold feet and gets close to her boss, Albert. Jake leaves for Latvia to direct a movie there for a few months.

21
8
"Rule #79: Labels Are For Canned Goods"
Silver Tree
Ashley Cardiff
January 19, 2016 (2016-01-19)
0.65[24]

Abby and Barbara attend SplitCon, a convention for people who are broken up from relationships. Frumpkis ask Jo if Charlene can work at the store and be co-manager since he owns half of the store, much to her chagrin. The two fight on how to run the store. Delia tells her boss that she has to stop seeing him. Someone at the convention gets Abby to have her own line of merchandise. Phoebe's new beau(Niall Matter) introduces her to the LA art scene. Jo catches Charlene fooling around with Scott. Jo tells Frumpkis to leave the store alone until the judge decides who gets it. Abby confess to one of the guys at SheShe that she tried to reconcile with Jake. Someone sends Delia incriminating photos of her affair with Albert.

22
9
"Rule #81: There's No Crying in Porn"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Marti Noxon & Vicki Iovine
January 26, 2016 (2016-01-26)
0.74[25]

Abby runs into Carl, the professional gigolo she met while in Las Vegas, who is currently in L.A. entertaining a client. Jo warns Charlene not to do anything nuts around Zooey or she's going after her. Delia worries about Gordon finding about her affair with Albert. She goes to Albert to talk about it and there she finds out that he is a serial cheater. A baby-shower for Becca is thrown by her friends at Abby's house. Phoebe meets J.D., an extremely shy artist, and is intrigued by both his work and him.

23
10
"Rule #36: If You Can't Stand the Heat, You're Cooked"
Uta Briesewitz
Adam Milch
February 2, 2016 (2016-02-02)
0.69[26]

Abby's editor wants her to finish her book sooner, and to include details about her dates with Dr. Harris. Phoebe introduces J.D. to Ralph, who then helps put on an exhibit and auction for J.D.'s art. The girls question Abby about her taking care of Becca. Abby hosts a party at her house with disastrous results: Dr. Harris arrives, meeting Charlie and finding out that Becca is staying in the guest house, Delia gets embarrassed by Gordon's rude behavior, and Jo and Scott consummate their feelings for each other. Becca goes into labor with Abby at her side. Abby faints when she sees that the baby boy is black.

24
11
"Rule #118: Let Her Eat Cake"
Andy Wolk
Ilene Rozenwwig
February 9, 2016 (2016-02-09)
0.64[27]

Abby has been admitted to the hospital after she passed out. During her checkup the doctor tells her that she doesn't look too good and prescribes her with fluids, to eat a sandwich, and rest. Abby tells the kids that Jake is not the father of Becca's baby. Lily asks if she can still see the baby and maybe babysit for Becca sometime. Things get awkward between Jo and Scott at work so they talk about the night before. J.D. insults Phoebe in front of an art dealer. Delia gets surprised with a bachelorette party. At the party Abby gets drunk, out of control and outs Delia and Albert's affair to everyone. Albert tells Delia to marry him instead but tells him no, they're through.

25
12
"Rule #876: Everything Does Not Happen For a Reason"
Robert Duncan McNeil
Ashley Cardiff & Janine Nabers
February 16, 2016 (2016-02-016)
0.64[28]

Delia's wedding day has arrived, and Abby says she's not going. Abby rushes to finish her book. Zooey tells Jo that Charlene left Frumpkis, and that she is worried about her dad's drinking problem. Jo, Phoebe, and Barbara stop by Abby's to check on her and drag her to the wedding. Before heading to the church, Gordon receives a package for him that has the pictures of Delia and Albert together. Abby's editor says her book is gibberish and wants her to re-write it. Gordon confronts Delia and has her go through the wedding as a punishment. Once the wedding is finished, Gordon leaves Delia once they walk out of the church.

26
13
"Rule #59: Happily Ever After Is An Oxymoron"
Marti Noxon
Marti Noxon
February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)
0.76[29]

After Gordon walked out on Delia after the wedding, they try to make sure that people won't notice that he is missing during the reception. Delia lies and tells everyone that Gordon got sick and can't attend. Abby's editor Kat, reveals to her that Carl released the names of the women he has been with in an article. Abby tells her that she never paid to sleep with him, just paid to talk to him. In the article Carl says a whole bunch of stuff that Abby told him about her personal life. Jake returns from Latvia and visits Becca. Becca asks Jake to take care of the baby so she can rest. J.D. accidentally let it slip to a drunk Frumpkis that Gordon left Delia for what she did to him. Frumpkis then goes to the microphone and blurts out the real reason why Gordon left and that he is not sick. Jake takes the baby to pick up Lily from the reception and hears about Abby and goes to find her. Jake and Abby talk about their lives and Abby tells Jake about Carl. Together they both tell Lily about Carl. Barbra tells Abby that her brand has helped her. J.D. and Phoebe got married the day before. Kat wants Abby to write a tell all or she's finished. Abby refuses to write it and fires Kat. When Jake takes the baby home, they find out that Becca isn't there.

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

27
1
"Rule #43: When One Door Opens, There's An Icy Draft"
Robert Duncan McNeil
Marti Noxon & Emily Fox
January 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
0.44[30]

Jake has been stuck with Becca's baby Christopher for days, he's tired and suggests surrendering the baby at a fire station. Abby intervenes and offers to take care of him so that Jake can rest. Abby is called into work and Delia says she will baby-sit while she is gone. While in her meeting with her boss she is fired by Mitchell who wants "to go in a different direction." He has Barbara write Abby's article. Delia wants to move to New York for a fresh start. Abby discovers she is having hot flashes when she mistakes it for the baby having a fever. Jake is able to get the baby off their hands after getting in touch with Becca who fled to Florida. Abby thinks that Becca isn't ready to be a mother, and suggest that she and Jake raise Christopher because they work well together. Jake insists that neither he or she wants to raise any more kids.

28
2
"Rule #137: Move Your Car"
Brian Dannelly
Adam Milch & Vince Calandra
January 18, 2017 (2017-01-18)
0.37[31]

Since Abby no longer has a job she doesn't know what to do now. Barbara is having a hard time writing Abby's article, she doesn't quite get the criticism of the article, plus her writing style is the opposite of what SheShe is looking for. Charlie starts playing baseball and Abby becomes one of those crazy baseball moms when Charlie gets benched. Scott's sex addiction gets the best of Jo and she breaks up with him. After a talk with Barbara she goes to make up with him but it's too late when she arrives to his empty trailer and sees that he's gone. Delia is ready to fight when she realizes that Albert tricked her into taking a clingy client. Phoebe is having some financial troubles due to her no longer getting alimony payments from Ralph. She wants to make things work with J.D., and has to sacrifice no longer buying the luxurious things she's accustom to.

29
3
"Rule #188: Mind Your Side of the Plate"
Michael B. Silver
Lisa Edelstein
January 25, 2017 (2017-01-25)
0.40[32]

Abby and Barbara spend the night out on the town where Barbara gets ideas for her column. The two get into it when Abby attacks her about her weight, Barbara answers right back and calls her a skinny bitch. They eventually apologize for their behavior. Abby fantasies about Charlie's baseball coach, Mike Brady when she's writing her book. Phoebe and JD takes her kids camping, Jo deals with Scott's departure.

30
4
"Rule #225: What Happens in Bakersfield Stays in Bakersfield"
Steven Tsuchida
Ilene Rosenzweig
February 1, 2017 (2017-02-01)
0.40[33]

Charlie's baseball team travels to Bakersfield for a tournament and Abby tries to make friends with the other moms. Delia, Jo and Phoebe head to Palm Springs where Delia runs into Gordon. All the baseball moms get carried away with heckling the umpire. Abby takes it too far, making the ump angry which later leads to Mike being thrown out from the game for his dispute with the ump. He blames Abby for it. Later that night the two end up fondling in the hotel's laundry room but he stops before things go any further because he doesn't want to go over the line. Jo has Frumpkis watch the store while she's gone and spies on him via a video surveillance app. He "broke" out of rehab which concerns her. While talking to her on the phone he sees the camera in the corner of the store and chastises her for spying on him. Gordon agrees to have breakfast with Delia but it doesn't happen since she gets arrested for a CUI (Cycling Under the Influence). Gordon bails her out, they talk where he says that he still loves her but he will never trust her again. He also doesn't want to see her again.

31
5
"Rule #99: Cook Naked"
Kat Coiro
Janine Nabers
February 8, 2017 (2017-02-08)
0.42[34]

Abby hosts a party for Charlie's baseball team as a way to spend time with Mike. With everybody outside, the two use the laundry room to be naughty, but Linda accidentally walks in on them. Barbara looks to get her kitchen remolded, and Phoebe introduces her to someone (Malcolm-Jamal Warner) to give her ideas, although Barbara is unimpressed with his slick style and high-end catalog of appliances. Phoebe continues to spend hours on end with Gemma. Zooey finds new strength in being assertive in a way to be noticeable to Ethan. However, all that comes crashing down after finding her dad collapsed at home with an empty liquor bottle by his side. Frumpkis is taken to the hospital, where he admits the true extent of his alcoholism to Jo, who tells him that he has to get clean for real this time.

32
6
"Rule #218: There's No Crying in Baseball"
Andy Wolk
Matthew Shire
February 15, 2017 (2017-02-15)
0.28[35]

Abby is processing that Mike is still living with his ex. She also tries to make it through Charlie's last baseball game of the season without creating any conflict. Lily and Zooey fight over Ethan which leads to Zooey bullying Lily. Standing up for their daughters, Abby and Jo end up fighting with themselves. Barbara steps in to up break up the fights. Phoebe worries about the art direction J.D. is going in after seeing the painting he painted for Gemma. When Jo tells Zooey that her behavior was not acceptable, Zooey quickly tells her mom that she learned that behavior from her. Delia's new client isn't helping her get her former reputation back at the firm. Mike comes over to tell Abby that he now has his own place, and with this they go up to her bedroom to have sex.

33
7
"Rule #91: Run Toward What Scares You"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Adam Milch & Emily Fox
February 22, 2017 (2017-02-22)
0.29[36]

text: Season 4 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

34
1
"Rule #776: The Cat is Always on the Roof"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Emily Fox
August 17, 2017 (2017-08-17)
0.37[37]

35
2
"Rule #10: Just Survive"
Scott Williams
Ilene Rosenzweig
August 24, 2017 (2017-08-24)
0.36[38]

36
3
"Rule #706: Let Them Eat Cupcakes"
Tanya Wexler
Janine Nabers & Emmylou Diaz
August 31, 2017 (2017-08-31)
0.37[39]

37
4
"Rule #49: Let It Shine"
Terrell Clegg
Matthew Shire
September 7, 2017 (2017-09-07)
0.42[40]

38
5
"Rule #930: Plan for New Plans"
Jude Weng
Matthew Scott Hunter
September 14, 2017 (2017-09-14)
0.42[41]

39
6
"Rule #155: Go with the Magician"
Jonathan Frakes
Adam Milch
September 21, 2017 (2017-09-21)
0.32[42]


document_title: List of Canadian Football League records (team)

question_text: record for most points in a cfl game

question_tokens: record for most points in a cfl game

root

text: Streaks[edit]

text: Longest Winning Streak, overall

tag: p

text:
Calgary Stampeders 22 (Aug 25, 1948 to Oct 22, 1949)
Edmonton Eskimos 14 (Oct 16, 1954 to Oct 1, 1955)
BC Lions 14 (Oct 17, 2004 to Sep 24, 2005)
Calgary Stampeders 14 (Jul 21, 2016 to Oct 21, 2016)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 12 (Aug 3, 2001 to Oct 26, 2001)

tag: ul

text: Longest Winning Streak, home

text:
Calgary Stampeders 27 (Sep 20, 1992 to Aug 18, 1995)
Montreal Alouettes 20 (Nov 8, 1953 to Nov 3, 1956)
Edmonton Eskimos 17 (Oct 4, 1954 to Oct 1, 1956)
Toronto Argonauts 17 (Jul 17, 1996 to Jul 9, 1998)
Calgary Stampeders 17 (Oct 31, 2015 to Sept 29, 2017)

text: Longest Winning Streak, away

text:
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 20 (Aug 11, 1960 to Sep 24, 1962)
Calgary Stampeders 13 (Sep 3, 1948 to Aug 26, 1950)
Saskatchewan Roughriders 9 (Sep 10, 1969 to Sep 12, 1970)
Ottawa Rough Riders 8 (Nov 6, 1948 to Sep 23, 1950)
BC Lions 8 (Sept 28, 1984, to Sept 20, 1985)
BC Lions 8 (Oct 4, 1998, to Sept 12, 1999)
Calgary Stampeders 8 (Nov 5, 1994 to Oct 9, 1995)

text: Longest Winning Streak, in one regular season

text:
Calgary Stampeders 14 (2016)
Calgary Stampeders 12 (1948)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 11 (2001)
BC Lions 11 (2005)
Calgary Stampeders 11 (2017)

text: Longest Winning Streak, to start regular season

text:
Calgary Stampeders 12 (1948)
BC Lions 11 (2005)
Edmonton Eskimos 10 (1955)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 10 (1960)

text: Longest Winning Streak, to end regular season

text:
Calgary Stampeders 12 (1948)
Hamilton Tiger-Cats 10 (1972)
Edmonton Eskimos 8 (1982, 2015)

text: Most Consecutive Seasons, .500 or better

text:
Edmonton Eskimos 14 (1984 to 1997)
Calgary Stampeders 12 (1989 to 2000)
Edmonton Eskimos 11 (1972 to 1982)
Toronto Argonauts 11 (1933 to 1947)

text: Longest Losing Streak, overall

text:
Ottawa Senators/Rough Riders 25 (Nov 10, 1928 to Oct 7, 1933)
Hamilton Wildcats 16 (Oct 17, 1948 to Nov 5, 1949)
Shreveport Pirates 14 (Jul 6, 1994 to Oct 8, 1994)
BC Lions 13 (Oct 19, 1957 to Oct 6, 1958)
Edmonton Eskimos 13 (Sep 21, 1963 to Sep 4, 1964)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 13 (Aug 18, 1964 to Jul 30, 1965)
Ottawa Rough Riders 13 (Jul 19, 1987 to Oct 30, 1987)
Hamilton Tiger-Cats 13 (Oct 27, 2002 to Sep 6, 2003)

text: Longest Losing Streak, home

text:
Ottawa Rough Riders 14 (Jul 19, 1987 to Oct 22, 1988)
Ottawa Rough Riders 12 (Oct 13, 1928 to Nov 5, 1932)
Toronto Argonauts 10 (Aug 15, 1908 to Aug 28, 1909)
Saskatchewan Roughriders 9 (Aug 25, 1952 to Sep 7, 1953)

text: Longest Losing Streak, away

text:
Montreal Alouettes 22 (Oct 5, 1980 to Oct 9, 1983)
Toronto Argonauts 18 (Jul 9, 1992 to Nov 7, 1993)
Ottawa Rough Riders 18 (Oct 1, 1994 to Aug 24, 1996)
Ottawa Rough Riders 15 (Aug 27, 1988 to Oct 15, 1989)

text: Longest Losing Streak, to start regular season

text:
Shreveport Pirates 14 (Jul 6, 1994 to Oct 8, 1994)
Hamilton Wildcats 12 (Sep 3, 1949 to Nov 5, 1949)
Saskatchewan Roughriders 12 (Jul 11, 1979 to Oct 7, 1979)
Hamilton Tiger-Cats 12 (Jun 20, 2003 to Sep 6, 2003)

text: Longest Losing Streak, to end regular season

text:
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 13 (Aug 18, 1964 to Nov 1, 1964)
Hamilton Wildcats 12 (Sep 3, 1949 to Nov 5, 1949)

text: Most Consecutive Seasons, .500 or less

text:
Ottawa Rough Riders 17 (1980 to 1996)
BC Lions 12 (1965 to 1976)
Calgary Stampeders 12 (1950 to 1961)
Toronto Argonauts 8 (1974 to 1981)

text: Standings[edit]

text: Most Wins, season

text:
Edmonton Eskimos 16 (1989)
Calgary Stampeders 15 (1993, 1994, 1995, 2014, 2016)
Baltimore Stallions 15 (1995)
Toronto Argonauts 15 (1996, 1997)
Montreal Alouettes 15 (2009)

text: Highest Winning Percentage (Minimum 12 game season)

text:
Calgary Stampeders 1.000 (12-0-0) (1948)
Calgary Stampeders .929 (13-1-0) (1949)
Ottawa Rough Riders .917 (11-1-0) (1949)
Edmonton Eskimos .906 (14-1-1) (1981)
Edmonton Eskimos .889 (16-2-0) (1989)

text: Most Losses, season

text:
Hamilton Tiger-Cats 17 (2003)
Ottawa Rough Riders 16 (1988)
Hamilton Tiger-Cats 16 (1997)
Ottawa Redblacks 16 (2014)

text: Scoring[edit]

text: Most Points For

text:
Calgary Stampeders 698 (1994)
Toronto Argonauts 689 (1990)
Edmonton Eskimos 671 (1991)
BC Lions 661 (1991)
Toronto Argonauts 660 (1997)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 651 (1994)

text: Most Points Allowed

text:
Saskatchewan Roughriders 710 (1991)
Ottawa Rough Riders 685 (1995)
BC Lions 667 (1992)
Shreveport Pirates 662 (1994)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 653 (1995)
Ottawa Rough Riders 647 (1994)

text: Fewest Points Allowed (Minimum 12 game season)

text:
Calgary Stampeders 61 (1948)
Calgary Stampeders 77 (1949)
Saskatchewan Roughriders 102 (1949)
Ottawa Rough Riders 103 (1947)
Edmonton Eskimos 117 (1955)
Montreal Alouettes 118 (1946)

text: Fewest Points Allowed (Minimum 18 game season)

text:
Toronto Argonauts 302 (1989)
Montreal Alouettes 324 (2009)
Toronto Argonauts 326 (1988)
Toronto Argonauts 327 (1997)
Toronto Argonauts 336 (2007)

text: Most Points Scored, one team, one game

text:
Montreal Alouettes vs Hamilton 82 (Oct 20, 1956)
Toronto Argonauts vs Calgary 70 (Sep 20, 1990)
Toronto Argonauts vs BC 68 (Sep 1, 1990)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers vs Hamilton 68 (Oct 19, 1991)

text: Largest Victory Margin

text:
Montreal Alouettes 82 vs Hamilton 14 (+68) (Oct 20, 1956)
Edmonton Eskimos 63 vs Ottawa 3 (+60) (Aug 27, 1995)
Calgary Stampeders 60 vs Hamilton 1 (+59) (Jul 29, 2017)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 58 vs Montreal 2 (+56) (Aug 18, 1982)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 56 vs Saskatchewan 0 (+56) (Jul 5, 1986)
Winnipeg Blue Bombers 61 vs Saskatchewan 8 (+53) (Aug 29, 1959)


document_title: Guillotine

question_text: when was the guillotine last used in america

text: Guillotine

text: Precursors[edit]

text: The use of beheading machines in Europe long predates such use during the French revolution in 1792. An early example of the principle is found in the High History of the Holy Grail, dated to about 1210. Although the device is imaginary, its function is clear.[4] The text says:

text: Within these three openings are the hallows set for them. And behold what I would do to them if their three heads were therein ... She setteth her hand toward the openings and draweth forth a pin that was fastened into the wall, and a cutting blade of steel droppeth down, of steel sharper than any razor, and closeth up the three openings. "Even thus will I cut off their heads when they shall set them into those three openings thinking to adore the hallows that are beyond."[4]

text: The Halifax Gibbet was a wooden structure consisting of two wooden uprights, capped by a horizontal beam, of a total height of 4.5 metres (15 ft). The blade was an axe head weighing 3.5 kg (7.7 lb), attached to the bottom of a massive wooden block that slid up and down in grooves in the uprights. This device was mounted on a large square platform 1.25 metres (4 ft) high. It is not known when the Halifax Gibbet was first used; the first recorded execution in Halifax dates from 1280, but that execution may have been by sword, axe, or gibbet. The machine remained in use until Oliver Cromwell forbade capital punishment for petty theft. It was used for the last time, for the execution of two criminals on a single day, on 30 April 1650.

text: Holinshed's Chronicles of 1577 included a picture of "The execution of Murcod Ballagh near Merton in Ireland in 1307" showing a similar execution machine, suggesting its early use in Ireland.[5]

text: The Maiden was constructed in 1564 for the Provost and Magistrates of Edinburgh, and it was in use from April 1565 to 1710. One of those executed was James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, in 1581, and a 1644 publication began circulating the legend that Morton himself had commissioned the Maiden after he had seen the Halifax Gibbet.[6] The Maiden was readily dismantled for storage and transport, and it is now on display in the National Museum of Scotland.

text: France[edit]

text: Invention[edit]

text: Antoine Louis, together with German engineer Tobias Schmidt, built a prototype for the guillotine. Schmidt recommended using an angled blade as opposed to a round one.[7]

text: Introduction in France[edit]

text: On 10 October 1789, physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin proposed to the National Assembly that capital punishment should always take the form of decapitation "by means of a simple mechanism."[8]

text: Sensing the growing discontent, Louis XVI banned the use of the breaking wheel.[9] In 1791, as the French Revolution progressed, the National Assembly researched a new method to be used on all condemned people regardless of class, consistent with the idea that the purpose of capital punishment was simply to end life rather than to inflict pain.[9]

text: A committee was formed under Antoine Louis, physician to the King and Secretary to the Academy of Surgery.[9] Guillotin was also on the committee. The group was influenced by the Italian Mannaia (or Mannaja: which had been used ever since Roman times), the Scottish Maiden and the Halifax Gibbet, which was fitted with an axe head weighing 7 pounds 12 ounces (3.5 kg).[10] While these prior instruments usually crushed the neck or used blunt force to take off a head, devices also usually used a crescent blade and a lunette (a hinged two part yoke to immobilize the victim's neck).[9]

text: Laquiante, an officer of the Strasbourg criminal court,[11] designed a beheading machine and employed Tobias Schmidt, a German engineer and harpsichord maker, to construct a prototype.[12] Antoine Louis is also credited with the design of the prototype. The memoirs of the official executioner claim that King Louis XVI (an amateur locksmith) recommended that an oblique blade be used instead of a crescent blade, lest the blade not fit all necks (ironically, the king's own was offered up discreetly as an example).[13] The first execution by guillotine was performed on highwayman Nicolas Jacques Pelletier[14] on 25 April 1792.[15][16][17] He was executed in front of what is now the city hall of Paris (Place de l'hôtel de ville). All citizens deemed guilty of a crime punishable by death were from then on executed there, until the scaffold was moved on 21 August to the Place du Carrousel.

text: The machine was successful because it was considered a humane form of execution, contrasting with the methods used in pre-revolutionary Ancien Régime. In France, before the invention of the guillotine, members of the nobility were beheaded with a sword or an axe, which often took two or more blows to kill the condemned. (The condemned or their families would sometimes pay the executioner to ensure that the blade was sharp, to achieve a quick and relatively painless death.) Commoners were usually hanged, which could take many minutes. In the early phase of the French Revolution, the slogan À la lanterne (in English: To the Lamp Post!, String Them Up! or Hang Them!) had become a symbol of popular justice in revolutionary France. The revolutionary radicals hanged officials and aristocrats from street lanterns. Other more gruesome methods of execution were also used, such as the wheel or burning at the stake.

text: The guillotine was thus perceived to deliver an immediate death without risk of suffocation. Furthermore, having only one method of civil execution was seen as an expression of equality among citizens. The guillotine was then the only civil legal execution method in France until the abolition of the death penalty in 1981,[18] apart from certain crimes against the security of the state, or for the death sentences passed by military courts,[19] which entailed execution by firing squad.[20]

text: For a period of time after its invention, the guillotine was called a louisette. However, it was later named after Guillotin who had proposed that a less painful method of execution should be found in place of the breaking wheel, though he opposed the death penalty.

text: Reign of Terror[edit]

text: From June 1793 to July 1794 (the Reign of Terror) thousands were guillotined, beginning with Collenot d'Angremont of the National Guard in 1792. Former King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed in 1793. At this time, executions in Paris were carried out in the Place de la Revolution (former Place Louis XV and current Place de la Concorde); the guillotine stood in the corner near the Hôtel Crillon where the statue of Brest can be found today. For a time, executions by guillotine were a popular form of entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators, with vendors selling programs listing the names of the condemned. But more than popular entertainment alone, during the Reign of Terror, the guillotine symbolized revolutionary ideals: equality in death equivalent to equality before the law, open and demonstrable revolutionary justice, and the destruction of privilege under the Ancien Régime which included separate forms of execution for the nobility.[21] As such, the guillotine was considered a positive force for progress by the Parisian sans-culottes, the popular public face of lower-class patriotic radicalism in the French Revolution.[22]

text: Retirement[edit]

text: After the French Revolution, executions began again in the city center. On 4 February 1832, the guillotine was moved behind the church of Saint Jacques, just before being moved again, to the Grande Roquette prison, on 29 November 1851.

text: On 6 August 1909, the guillotine was used on the junction of the Boulevard Arago and the Rue de la Santé, behind the La Santé Prison.

text: The last public guillotining in France was of Eugen Weidmann, who was convicted of six murders. He was beheaded on 17 June 1939 outside the prison Saint-Pierre, rue Georges Clemenceau 5 at Versailles, which is now the Palais de Justice. A number of problems with that execution (inappropriate behavior by spectators, incorrect assembly of the apparatus, and the fact that it was secretly filmed) caused the French government to order that future executions be conducted in private in the prison courtyard.[citation needed]

text: The guillotine remained the official method of execution in France until the death penalty was abolished in 1981.[3] The final three guillotinings in France before its abolition were those of child-murderers Christian Ranucci on 28 July 1976 in Marseille and Jérôme Carrein on 23 June 1977 in Douai, and torturer-murderer Hamida Djandoubi on 10 September 1977 in Marseille.

text: In the late 1840s the Tussaud brothers Joseph and Francis, gathering relics for Madame Tussauds wax museum, visited the aged Henry-Clément Sanson, grandson of the executioner Charles Henri Sanson, from whom they obtained parts, the knife and lunette, of one of the original guillotines used during the Reign of Terror. The executioner had "pawned his guillotine, and got into woeful trouble for alleged trafficking in municipal property".[23]

text: Elsewhere[edit]

text: A number of countries, primarily in Europe, continued to employ this method of execution into the 19th and 20th centuries.

text: In Antwerp (Belgium), the last person to be beheaded was Francis Kol. Convicted of robbery and murder, he received his punishment on 8 May 1856. During the period from 19 March 1798, until 30 March 1856, there were 19 beheadings in Antwerp.[24]

text: In Germany, where the guillotine is known as the Fallbeil ("falling axe"), it was used in various German states from the 17th century onwards,[citation needed] becoming the preferred method of execution in Napoleonic times in many parts of Germany. The guillotine and the firing squad were the legal methods of execution during the era of the German Empire (1871–1918) and the Weimar Republic (1919–1933).

text: The original German guillotines resembled the French Berger 1872 model, but they eventually evolved into more specialized machines largely built of metal with a much heavier blade enabling shorter uprights to be used. Accompanied by a more efficient blade recovery system and the eventual removal of the tilting board (or bascule) this allowed a quicker turn-around time between executions, those deemed likely to struggle were backed up from behind a curtain in order to shield their view of the device. Additionally, the blade was covered by a metal screen in order to hide it from sight.

text: The guillotine was used in Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945 to execute 16,500 prisoners, including 10,000 executions between 1944–1945 alone.[25] One of these Nazi executions was that of Sophie Scholl, who was convicted of high treason after distributing anti-Nazi pamphlets at the University of Munich with her brother Hans, and other members of the German student resistance group, the White Rose.[26] The guillotine was used for the last time in West Germany in 1949 (in the execution of Richard Schuh)[27] and it was last used in East Germany in 1966 (in the execution of Horst Fischer).[28] The guillotine was used in East Germany by the Stasi between 1950 and 1966 for secret executions.[29] In Switzerland it was used for the last time by the canton of Obwalden in the execution of murderer Hans Vollenweider in 1940.

text: The guillotine was also introduced into Greece in 1834, along with the firing squad, as a method of execution. It was last used in Greece in 1913.

text: In Sweden, where beheading became the mandatory method of execution in 1866, the guillotine replaced manual beheading in 1903 and it was used only once, in the execution of murderer Alfred Ander in 1910 at Långholmen Prison, Stockholm. He was also the last person to be executed in Sweden before capital punishment was abolished in that country in 1921. Swedish child killer Hilda Nilsson was scheduled to be executed by guillotine in 1917. She evaded that fate when her death sentence was commuted to life in prison. She hanged herself in prison before the pardon was communicated to her.[30][31]

text: In South Vietnam, after the Diệm regime enacted the 10/59 Decree in 1959, mobile special military courts were dispatched to the countryside in order to intimidate the rural population and they used guillotines which had belonged to the former French colonial power in order to carry out death sentences on the spot.[32] One such guillotine is still on show at the War Remnants Museum in Ho Chi Minh City.[33]

text: The only recorded use of the guillotine in North America took place on the French island of St. Pierre in 1889, of Basque-born assassin Carlos Zuzuarregui, with a guillotine brought in from Guadeloupe.[34] In the Caribbean, it was used more routinely in Guadeloupe and Martinique, the last time in Fort-de-France in 1965.[35]

text: In 1996 in the US, Georgia State Representative Doug Teper[36] unsuccessfully sponsored a bill to replace that state's electric chair with the guillotine.[37]

text: In recent years, a number of individuals have committed suicide by means of a guillotine which they had constructed themselves.[38][39][40][41]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: From its first use, there has been debate as to whether the guillotine always provided a swift death as Guillotin had hoped. With previous methods of execution intended to be painful, there was little concern about the level of suffering that they inflicted. Because the guillotine was invented specifically to be humane, the issue of pain and suffering was seriously considered.

text: Living heads[edit]

text: The question of consciousness following decapitation remained a topic of discussion during the guillotine's use.

text: The following report was written by Dr. Beaurieux, who experimented with the head of a condemned prisoner by the name of Henri Languille, on 28 June 1905:

text: Here, then, is what I was able to note immediately after the decapitation: the eyelids and lips of the guillotined man worked in irregularly rhythmic contractions for about five or six seconds. This phenomenon has been remarked by all those finding themselves in the same conditions as myself for observing what happens after the severing of the neck ...

text: I waited for several seconds. The spasmodic movements ceased. [...] It was then that I called in a strong, sharp voice: "Languille!" I saw the eyelids slowly lift up, without any spasmodic contractions – I insist advisedly on this peculiarity – but with an even movement, quite distinct and normal, such as happens in everyday life, with people awakened or torn from their thoughts.

text: Next Languille's eyes very definitely fixed themselves on mine and the pupils focused themselves. I was not, then, dealing with the sort of vague dull look without any expression, that can be observed any day in dying people to whom one speaks: I was dealing with undeniably living eyes which were looking at me. After several seconds, the eyelids closed again [...].

text: It was at that point that I called out again and, once more, without any spasm, slowly, the eyelids lifted and undeniably living eyes fixed themselves on mine with perhaps even more penetration than the first time. Then there was a further closing of the eyelids, but now less complete. I attempted the effect of a third call; there was no further movement – and the eyes took on the glazed look which they have in the dead.[42][43]

text: Names for the guillotine[edit]

text: During the span of its usage, the French guillotine has gone by many names, some of which include these:

text:
La Monte-à-regret (The Regretful Climb)[44][45]
Le Rasoir National (The National Razor)[45]
Le Vasistas or La Lucarne (The Fanlight)[45][46]
La Veuve (The Widow)[45]
Le Moulin à Silence (The Silence Mill)[45]
Louisette or Louison (from the name of prototype designer Antoine Louis)[45]
Madame La Guillotine[47]
Mirabelle (from the name of Mirabeau)[45]
La Bécane (The Machine)[45]
Le Massicot (The Cutter)[46]
La Cravate à Capet (Capet's Necktie, Capet being Louis XVI)[46]
La Raccourcisseuse Patriotique (The Patriotic Shortener)[46]
La demi-lune (The Half-Moon)[46]
Les Bois de Justice (Woods of Justice)[46]
La Bascule à Charlot (Charlot's Rocking-chair)[46]
Le Prix Goncourt des Assassins (The Goncourt Prize for Murderers)[46]


document_title: Golf course

question_text: part of golf course where grass is kept short

text: Golf course

text: Design[edit]

text: Although a specialty within landscape design or landscape architecture, golf course architecture is considered a separate field of study. Some golf course architects become celebrities in their own right, such as Robert Trent Jones, Jr.; others are professional golfers of high standing and demonstrated appreciation for golf course composition, such as Jack Nicklaus. The field is partially represented by the American Society of Golf Course Architects, the European Institute of Golf Course Architects, and the Society of Australian Golf Course Architects, though many of the finest golf course architects in the world choose not to become members of any such group, as associations of architects are not government-sanctioned licensing bodies, but private groups. While golf courses often follow the original landscape, some modification is unavoidable. This is increasingly the case as new courses are more likely to be sited on less optimal land. Bunkers and sand traps are almost always artificial, although other hazards may be natural.

text: The layout of a fairway follows certain traditional principles, such as the number of holes (nine and 18 being most common), their par values, and the number of holes of each par value per course. It is also preferable to arrange greens to be close to the tee box of the next playable hole, to minimize travel distance while playing a round, and to vary the mix of shorter and longer holes. Combined with the need to package all the fairways within what is frequently a compact square or rectangular plot of land, the fairways of a course tend to form an oppositional tiling pattern. In complex areas, two holes may share the same tee box, fairway, or even green. It is also common for separate tee-off points to be positioned for men, women, and amateurs, each one respectively lying closer to the green. Eighteen-hole courses are traditionally broken down into a "front 9" (holes 1–9) and a "back 9" (holes 10–18). On older courses (especially links courses, like the Old Course at St. Andrews), the holes may be laid out in one long loop, beginning and ending at the clubhouse, and thus the front 9 is referred to on the scorecard as "out" (heading out away from clubhouse) and the back 9 as "in" (heading back in toward the clubhouse). More recent courses (and especially inland courses) tend to be designed with the front 9 and the back 9 each constituting a separate loop beginning and ending at the clubhouse. This is partly for the convenience of the players and the club, as then it is easier to play just a 9-hole round, if preferred, or stop at the clubhouse for a snack between the front 9 and the back 9.

text: A successful design is as visually pleasing as it is playable. With golf being a form of outdoor recreation, the strong designer is an adept student of natural landscaping who understands the aesthetic cohesion of vegetation, water bodies, paths, grasses, stonework, and woodwork, among other elements.

text: Par[edit]

text: Most golf courses have only par-3, −4, and −5 holes, though some courses include par-6 holes. (The Ananti CC and the Satsuki golf course in Sano, Japan are the only courses with par 7 holes.)[2] Typical distances for the various holes from standard tees are as follows.

text: Men

text:
Par 3 – 250 yards (230 m) and below
Par 4 – 251–450 yards (230–411 m)
Par 5 – 451–690 yards (412–631 m)

text: Women

text:
Par 3 – 210 yards (190 m) and below
Par 4 – 211–400 yards (193–366 m)
Par 5 – 401–575 yards (367–526 m)

text: Harder or easier courses may have longer- or shorter-distance holes, respectively. Terrain can also be a factor, so that a long downhill hole might be rated par 4, but a shorter uphill or severely treacherous hole might be rated par 5. Tournament players will usually play from a longer-distance tee box (the Championship or Tournament tee) that is behind the standard men's tee, which increases the typical distance of each par; a par-3 hole can be up to 290 yards (270 m), and longer par-4 holes can measure up to 520 yards (480 m), which can also be accomplished by converting a par-5 hole into a long par-4 hole for tournament players. This compensates for the generally longer distance pro players can put on tee and fairway shots as compared to the average "bogey golfer".

text: Parts[edit]

text: Teeing area[edit]

text: The game of golf is played in what is called a "round". This consists of playing a set number of holes in an order predetermined by the course. When playing on an 18-hole course, each hole is played once; whereas, on a nine-hole course each hole can be played twice to complete a round. To begin a hole, players start by striking the ball off a tee. Playing the ball off a tee can only be used on the first shot of every hole although it is not required to use a tee on the first shot. Tees are a small wooden or plastic peg used to hold the ball up, so that when hit by the club the ball travels as far as possible.

text: The first section of every hole consists of the teeing ground, or tee-box. There is typically more than one available box where a player places his ball, each one a different distance from the hole (and possibly with a different angle of approach to the green or fairway) to provide differing difficulty. The teeing ground is generally as level as feasible, with closely mown grass very similar to that of a putting green, and most are slightly raised from the surrounding fairway.

text: Each tee box has two markers showing the bounds of the legal tee area. The teeing area spans the distance between the markers, and extends two-club lengths behind the markers. A golfer may play the ball standing outside the teeing area, but the ball itself must be placed and struck from within the area.[3] A golfer may place his ball directly on the surface of the teeing ground (called hitting it "off the deck"), or the ball may be supported by a manufactured tee (limited to a height of four inches), or by any natural substance, such as a mound of sand placed on the teeing surface

text: The tee markers are often color-coded for easy identification of the tee box; the order of colors, their names where appropriate, and the distance of each tee to the hole is provided on the scorecard and/or on signs identifying each hole. Most U.S. courses have four tee boxes:[4]

text:
Red – Closest to the hole and often placed to minimize the influence of major hazards like water; typically used by ladies of all ages, juniors (up to age 12), and novice players of any age/gender.
Gold- Next farthest, typically used by teenage boys, low-handicap ladies, and senior or high-handicap men.
White – Farther still, typically used by low-to-average-handicap men and low-handicap teenage boys.
Black or Blue – The farthest tee from the hole and with the most exposure to any major hazards; typically used only during tournaments or by zero-handicap ("scratch") male players.

text: There may be additional tees available, depending on the course, and they may be labeled or colored differently depending on the club and its normal patronage. A club catering to senior players, for instance, may offer an additional tee further forward of the ladies' tee, labeled for "senior ladies". A municipal course may label a similarly placed tee the "junior" or "novice" tees. Silver and gold may be used to denote senior ladies' and men's tees, with the regular men's tee being white and the tournament tee being blue.

text: In casual play, the tee a player hits from is usually their prerogative (there is no rule prohibiting a man from hitting off the closest tee box, nor any prohibiting a woman from using the tournament tee), but players will generally gravitate toward the traditional tee for their gender and/or age, as this will provide the best results given a player's nominal drive distance. Groups are often encouraged to compromise on one tee box, as this speeds the group's play. In tournaments, golfers generally tee off from the box one level further from the "normal" box for their class (men use the tournament tee, ladies use the senior or men's tee, and juniors use the ladies' tee).

text: Fairway and rough[edit]

text: After the first shot from the tee ("teeing off"), the player whose ball is farthest from the green hits the ball – from where it came to rest, known as its "lie". When the ball is in play and not out of bounds or in a hazard you must play the ball as it lies.[5] The area between the tee box and the putting green where the grass is cut even and short is called the fairway. The area between the fairway and the out-of-bounds markers, and also between a mowed apron surrounding the green and out of bounds, is the rough; the grass there is cut higher and is often of a coarser strain than on the fairways, making roughs disadvantageous areas from which to hit. On par-3 holes, the player is expected to be able to drive the ball to the green on the first shot from the tee box. On holes longer than par 3, players are expected to require at least one additional shot to reach their greens.

text: While many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing ground to the green, a hole may bend either to the left or to the right. This is called a "dogleg", in reference to the similarity to a dog's ankle. The hole is called a "dogleg left" if the hole angles leftwards, and a "dogleg right" if the hole angles rightwards. A hole's direction may bend twice, which is called a "double dogleg".

text: Just as there are good-quality grasses for putting greens, there are good-quality grasses for the fairway and rough. The quality of grass influences the roll of the ball as well as the ability of the player to "take a divot" (effectively, the ability to hit down into the ball, hitting the ball first, then hitting the turf and removing a portion of it as the club continues its arc). Fairways on prestigious tours, like the PGA Tour, are cut low. Mowing heights influence the play of the course. For example, the grass heights at U.S. Open events are alternated from one hole to the next in order to make the course more difficult. One example of this is the infamous roughs at U.S. Opens, which are often 3 to 5 inches high, depending on how close to the fairway or green the section of grass will be. This makes it difficult for a player to recover after a bad shot.

text: Variants of grass used for fairways and roughs include bent grass, Tifway 419 Bermuda grass,[6] rye grass, Kentucky bluegrass, and Zoysiagrass. As in putting-green grass types, not every grass type works equally well in all climate types.

text: Greens[edit]

text: The putting green, or simply the green, is an area of very closely trimmed grass on relatively even, smooth ground surrounding the hole, allowing players to make precision strokes on it. To "putt" is to play a stroke on this surface, usually with the eponymous "putter" club, which has very low loft so that the ball rolls smoothly along the ground, and hopefully into the cup. The shape and topology of the green can vary almost without limit, but for practical purposes the green is usually flatter than other areas of the course, though gentle slopes and undulations can add extra challenge to players who must account for these variations in their putting line. The green typically does not include any fully enclosed hazards such as sand or water; however, these hazards can be – and often are – placed adjacent to the green, and depending on the shape of the green and surrounding hazards, and the location of the hole (which often changes from day to day to promote even wear of the turf of the green), there may not be a direct putting line from a point on the green to the cup.

text: Golfers use a method known as "reading" the green to enhance their chances of making a putt. Reading a green involves determining the speed, grain, incline, decline and tilt of the green on the line of the putt. Most putts are not struck directly at the hole, instead they must be struck to take into account the characteristics of the green to arrive at the hole at the proper angle and speed. The best players will read the green by walking around the green and studying the characteristics of the green before addressing the ball. Reading the green and putting are considered by many golfers to be the most difficult part of the game.

text: The green is typically surrounded by slightly higher grass, cut at a height between that of the green and fairway, and then by the fairway and/or rough. This longer grass surrounding the green is known as the fringe and is designed to slow and stop balls rolling along the green from an approach shot or errant putt, preventing them from exiting the green. Though putting strokes can be made on it, the higher grass can interfere with the path of the ball, so players often choose to use a lofted club such as an iron to make a "chip shot" or a "bump and run", where the ball carries in the air for a few yards and then rolls along the green like a normal putt.

text: The grass of the putting green (more commonly just "green") is cut very short so that a ball can roll for a long distance. The most common types of greens for cold winter, but warmer summer regions (i.e., not extremely warm, as in the Southern and Southwestern United States) are bent grass greens. A green may consist of a thin carpet so that bad weather is not allowed to become a serious factor in maintaining the course. These are considered the best greens because they may be cut to an extremely low height, and because they may be grown from seed. Bent grass does not have grain, which makes it superior as a putting surface. However, bent grass may become infested with poa annua, a costly and time-consuming weed. Augusta National is one of many golf courses to use this type of green. The original design of Augusta National did not include bent grass greens, but in the 1980s the controversial decision was made to convert the greens from Bermuda to bent grass. This has affected the speed and playing of Augusta National.[citation needed] Many other golf courses subsequently made the decision to change from Bermuda to bent grass when they observed increased business at courses that had already changed over.[citation needed][7] Another type of grass common for greens is TifDwarf Hybrid Bermuda (other variants exist, but TifDwarf is one of the most common), or simply Bermuda grass. Bermuda is more common in regions that have very warm summers and mild winters, such as the Southern and Southwestern United States. Red Bridge Golf Course was the first course in North Carolina to utilize a special Bermuda called Mini Verde. A green is generally established from sod which has had the soil washed off of it (to avoid soil compatibility problems) and which is then laid tightly over the green, then rolled and topdressed with fine sand. Another common and more economical approach for establishing a putting green is to introduce hybrid Bermuda spriggs (the stolon of the grass which are raked out at the sod farm), which are laid out on the green. The best greens are always established vegetatively[clarification needed] and never from seed.

text: Two downside factors of Bermuda greens are cost of maintenance, and also the existence of grain (the growth direction of the blades of grass), which affects the ball's roll and which is called "the grain of the green." The slope or break of the green also affects the roll of the ball. The hole, or cup, is always found within the green and must have a diameter of 108 millimeters (4.25 in) and a depth of at least 10 centimeters (3.94 in). Its position on the green is not fixed and typically is changed daily by a greenskeeper in order to prevent excessive localized wear and damage to the turf. A new hole will be cut by a device that removes a plug of the turf from the ground, and the reinforced cup is then moved, before the old hole is filled in with the plug cut from the new hole and levelled. The hole has a flag on a metal pole positioned in it so that it may be seen from a distance, but not necessarily from the tee. This location marker is officially called the "flagstick" but is also commonly referred to as the "pin.".

text: Putting greens are not all of the same quality. The finest-quality greens are well-kept so that a ball will roll smoothly over the closely mowed grass. Excess water can be removed from a putting green using a machine called a water hog. Golfers describe a green as fast if a light stroke on the ball makes it roll a long distance; conversely, on a slow green a stronger stroke is necessary to roll the ball the same distance. The exact speed of a green can be determined with a stimp meter. By collecting sample measurements, golf courses can be compared in terms of average green speed. It is, however, illegal by the Rules of Golf to test the speed of a green while playing by rolling a ball on it, or by feeling or rubbing the green.

text: Hazards[edit]

text: Holes often include hazards, which are special areas that have additional rules for play, and are generally of two types: (1) water hazards, such as ponds, lakes, and rivers; and (2) bunkers, or sand traps.

text: Special rules apply to playing a ball that falls in a hazard. For example, a player may not touch the ground or water with their club before playing the ball, not even for a practice swing. A ball in any hazard may be played as it lies without penalty. If it cannot be played from the hazard, the ball may be hit from another location, generally with a penalty of one stroke. The Rules of Golf specify exactly the point from which the ball may be played outside a hazard. Bunkers are small to medium areas, usually lower than the fairway but of varying topography, that are filled with sand and generally incorporate a raised lip or barrier. It is more difficult to play the ball from sand than from grass, as the ball may embed itself into the sand, and the loose nature of the sand and more severe sloping of many bunkers make taking one's stance more difficult. As in any hazard, a ball in a bunker must be played without touching the sand with the club except during the stroke, and loose impediments (leaves, stones, twigs) must not be moved before making the stroke.

text: Courses may also have other design features which the skilled player will avoid; there are earth bunkers (pits or depressions in the ground that are not filled with sand but require a lofted shot to escape), high grass and other dense vegetation, trees or shrubs, ravines and other rocky areas, steep inclines, etc.; while disadvantageous to play from, these are typically not considered "hazards" unless specifically designated so by the course (a ravine or creekbed may be termed a "water hazard" even if completely dry)

text: Driving range[edit]

text: Often, a golf course will include among its facilities a practice range or driving range, usually with practice greens, bunkers, and driving areas. Markers showing distances are usually included on a practice range for the golfer's information. Driving ranges are also commonly found as separate facilities, unattached to a golf course, where players may simply hit balls into the range for practice or enjoyment.

text: There may even be a practice course (often shorter and easier to play than a full-scale course), where players may measure the distance they can obtain with a specific club, or in order to improve their swing technique. Practice courses often consist of old holes of a previous design that are kept and maintained for practice purposes or as substitute holes if one or more holes become unplayable; a 21-hole golf course, for instance, will have three additional holes that can be used for practice or as substitutes for a flooded or otherwise damaged hole.

text: Types[edit]

text: Links[edit]

text: Links is a Scottish term, from the Old English word hlinc : "rising ground, ridge", describing coastal sand dunes and sometimes similar areas inland.[8] It is on links land near the towns of central eastern Scotland that golf has been played since the 15th century.[9]

text: The shallow top soil and sandy subsoil made links land unsuitable for the cultivation of crops or for urban development and was of low economic value. The links were often treated as common land by the residents of the nearby towns and were used by them for recreation, animal grazing and other activities such as laundering clothes.

text: The closely grazed turf and naturally good drainage of the links was ideal for golf, and areas of longer grass, heather, low growing bushes and exposed sand provided the hazards that are familiar on modern courses. Although early links courses were often close to the sea it was rarely used as a hazard, perhaps due to the instability of the dunes closest to the water and the high cost of hand-made golf balls precluding anything that could result in their irrecoverable loss. The land is naturally treeless and this combined with their coastal location makes wind and weather an important factor in links golf.

text: Traditional links courses are often arranged with holes in pairs along the coastline; players would play "out" from the town through a series of holes to the furthest point of the course, and then would return "in" along the second set of holes.[9] The holes may share fairways and sometimes greens (such as at St Andrews to economize on land use, but in modern times this is rare due to the potential for injury from balls coming the other way.

text: Famous links courses include the Old Course at St. Andrews, often described as the "Home of Golf", and Musselburgh Links, which is generally regarded as the first recorded golf course. The Open Championship, the oldest of golf’s major championships, is always played on a links course.[10] Links and links-style golf courses have been developed throughout the world, reproducing the broken, treeless terrain with deep bunkers of their Scottish prototypes.

text: Executive[edit]

text: An executive course or short course is a course with a total par significantly less than that of a typical 18-hole course. Two main types exist:

text:
A "9-hole course", typically the type referred to as an "executive course", has only 9 holes instead of 18, but with the otherwise normal mix of par-3, par-4 and par-5 holes (typically producing a par score of between 34 and 36), and the course can be played through once for a short game, or twice for a full round.
A "par-3" course has either 9 or 18 holes, and the distance of each hole is a par 3 rating (typically 240 yards or less from the "men's" tee), with no par-4 or par-5 holes mandating shots through the green (though, occasionally, a "par-3" course may feature a par-4 or even a par-5 hole). As a result, the total par for 18 holes of a par-3 course would be 54 instead of a typical 68–72. Some par-3 courses still require the use of a wood on some tee shots, and thus a "complete" set of clubs is used.

A common standardized type of par-3 course is the "Pitch and Putt" course, where each of the 9 or 18 holes has a distance from tee to cup of less than 100 yards, with an overall 18-hole course distance no more than 1,200 yards (so each hole averages 67 yards). This allows the course to be played without a full set of clubs; typically only wedges are needed, possibly a 9-iron for the longest holes, along with a putter, to play the course. The rules for formal Pitch and Putt competitions mandate a three-club limit, consisting of two irons and one putter.

text: These types of courses provide a faster pace of play than a standard course, and get their name from their target patronage of business executives who would play the course on a long lunch or as part of a meeting. They are also popular with young professionals, because during the normal golf season, the course can usually be played in the time between the end of the work day and sundown.

text: The popularity of the 9-hole course has waned in recent decades; a full 18-hole course still allows for the player to play only the "front nine" or "back nine" as a shorter game, while attracting more golfers seeking to play a traditional full round of 18 distinct holes. Many older executive courses have been upgraded "in-place" to 18 holes and a traditional par score, or the original course was sold for other development and new land was acquired and built into an 18-hole course. By contrast, par-3 courses, especially Pitch and Putt, are rising in popularity as a compromise between the long play time and high skill levels required of a traditional 18-hole course, and the artificial nature and single-minded putting focus of miniature golf. Pitch and Putt, specifically its governing association the IPPA, has received financial support and logo rights from the R&A.

text: In 2014, the PGA Tour held a Champions Tour event on a nine-hole par-3 course, the Big Cedar Lodge Legends of Golf in Ridgedale, Missouri, with four (regular division) or three (over-65 division) rounds played over the par-3 course, and one round played on a nearby regulation 18-hole course with par of 71.

text: Pitch and putt[edit]

text: Pitch and putt is an amateur sport, similar to golf and is also known as chip and putt. The maximum hole length for international competitions is 90 metres (100 yd) with a maximum total course length of 1,200 metres (1,310 yd). Players may only use three clubs; one of which must be a putter. The game is played from raised artificial teeing surfaces using a tee and it has its own handicap system.[11]

text: Ownership and management[edit]

text: There are three main categories of ownership and management of a golf course: private, commercial, and municipal.[12]

text: Private[edit]

text: A private course is owned and managed by a golf club on behalf of its members, on a non-profit basis. Many of the courses opened during the golf booms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are of this type.[13] Some courses, such as Augusta National, are highly exclusive and will only allow visitors to play at the invitation of and alongside a member of the club. Others allow visitors at certain times but may insist on advance booking and proof of golfing competency.

text: Commercial[edit]

text: A commercial course is owned and managed by a commercial organisation and is operated for profit. They may be constructed to provide a core or supplementary attraction for visitors to a hotel or commercial resort, as the centrepiece to a real estate development, as an exclusive Country Club, or as a "Pay and Play" course open to the general public. Notable examples include Pinehurst in the USA and Gleneagles in Scotland.

text: Municipal[edit]

text: A municipal course is owned and managed by a local government body for the benefit of residents and visitors. Some of the historic Scottish golf courses, including St Andrews and Carnoustie fall into this category along with Bethpage in the USA and many others of less renown. It is increasingly common for the management of municipal courses to be contracted out to commercial or other organisations or the course to be sold or shut down completely.[14]

text: Associated clubs[edit]

text: Many commercial and municipal establishments have associated golf clubs, who arrange competitions for their members on the courses and may provide clubhouse facilities. In the UK particularly, some older private members clubs have an associated "Artisan" club, originally established to provide low-cost golf with limited playing rights in exchange for unpaid work on the course.[13] These associated clubs may be totally independent organisations from the course management, or may have various degrees of formal or informal links.

text: Environmental impact[edit]

text: Environmental concerns over the use of land for golf courses have grown since the 1960s. Specific issues include the amount of water required for irrigation and the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers in maintenance, as well as the destruction of wetlands and other environmentally important areas during construction. The United Nations estimates that, worldwide, golf courses consume about 2.5 billion gallons/9.5 billion litres of water per day. Many golf courses are now irrigated with non-potable water and rainwater. In 1988, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency prohibited the use of Diazinon on golf courses and sod farms because of its negative impact on bird species.

text: Environmental concerns, along concerns with cost and human health, have led to research into more environmentally sound practices and turf grasses. Golf course superintendents are often trained in the uses of these practices and grasses. This has led to significant reduction in the amount of both water and chemicals on courses. Golf course turf is an excellent filter for water and has been used in communities to cleanse grey water, such as incorporating them into bioswales.

text: The use of natural creeks and ponds is generally desirable when designing a golf course for their aesthetics and the increase in playing difficulty. However, such areas also typically include wetlands within the flood plain that are unsuitable for golfing and are often filled in and raised to remain dry. In arid areas, dry creek beds can be marked as "water hazards", but the importation of non-native grasses and other plant life can have a detrimental effect on native landscapes, often requiring non-native soil and large quantities of water and fertilizer to maintain the course. In these areas, course builders are often prohibited from growing and maintaining non-native grass on areas of the course other than the fairway, or even on the fairway itself, in which case only greens are allowed to have grass.

text: In the U.S., land administered by the Army Corps of Engineers, such as those bordering levees and lakes, is often desirable for building courses, due to the scenic natural views and the unsuitability of the land for other purposes due to it lying in a planned flood plain. In these cases, the course designer must work with the Corps of Engineers to plan a course layout that protects environmentally sensitive areas, provides for a means of quick escape in case of flooding, and does not invite players to hit into or toward controlled structures such as levees or dams.

text: Some environmentalists and other activists continue to lobby against the building of new golf courses, claiming they may impede corridors for migrating animals and damage sanctuaries for birds and other wildlife, though some courses have become havens for native and non-native creatures.[citation needed]

text: A result of modern equipment is that today's players can hit the ball much farther than previously. As a result, because of demand from course customers who possess this enhanced equipment, and also out of an expressed concern for safety, golf course architects have had to lengthen and widen golf courses. Where a 7,000-yard course used to be a great rarity, courses measuring 7,500-yards are now not uncommon, and courses of 8,000-yards are being contemplated. All this has led to a ten-percent increase in the acreage required to build a typical course. At the same time, water restrictions established by communities have forced courses to limit the amount of maintained turf grass. While most modern 18-hole golf courses occupy as much as 60 hectares (150 acres) of land, the average course has 30 hectares (74 acres) of maintained turf.[15]

text: Golf courses can be built on sandy areas along coasts, on abandoned farms, among strip mines and quarries, and in deserts and forests. Many Western countries have instituted environmental restrictions on where and how courses are allowed to be built.[16][17]

text: In some parts of the world, attempts to build courses and resorts have led to protests, vandalism, and violence. Populists perceive golf as an elitist activity, and thus golf courses become a target for popular opposition. Resisting golf tourism and golf's expansion has become an objective of some land-reform movements, especially in the Philippines and Indonesia.

text: In the Bahamas, opposition to golf developments has become a national issue. Residents of Great Guana Cay and Bimini, for example, are engaged in legal and political opposition to golf developments on their islands, for fear the golf courses will destroy the nutrient-poor balance on which their coral reef and mangrove systems depend.

text: In Saudi Arabia and elsewhere in arid regions, golf courses have been constructed on nothing more than oil-covered sand. Players may use a roller on the "greens" to smooth the intended path before putting. A course in Coober Pedy, Australia, consists of nine holes dug into mounds of sand, diesel fuel, and oil, with no grass appearing anywhere on the course. Players carry a small piece of astroturf from which they tee the ball. Other Australian golf courses in locations where water is scarce or water conservation is a priority sometimes feature "scrapes" in place of greens. These are made of fine dirt which requires raking between uses but does not require watering.[citation needed] In New Zealand, it is not uncommon for rural courses to have greens fenced off and sheep grazing the fairways. At the 125-year-old Royal Colombo Golf Club in Sri Lanka, steam trains from the Kelani Valley railway run through the course at the 6th hole.[citation needed]