document_title: List of longest-ruling non-royal national leaders since 1900

question_text: who was the longest serving non-royal world leader who rose to power after 1900

text:
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text: This list details national leaders since 1900 who ruled for 30 years or more, and were not self-described royalty. It also combines all national leader level offices held concurrently or consecutively by each individual.

text:
Rank
Image
Name
Country
Title
Term began
Term ended
Term length

1

Fidel Castro
 Cuba
El Comandante
First Secretary
Prime Minister
President
000000001959-01-08-00008 January 1959 [1]
000000002011-04-19-000019 April 2011 [1]
7004190940000000000♠52 years, 101 days

2

Kim Il-sung
 North Korea
Chairman of the North Korea Bureau of the Communist Party of Korea
Chairman of the Provisional People's Committee
General Secretary
Premier
President [Note 1]
Generalissimo
000000001945-12-17-000017 December 1945
000000001994-07-08-00008 July 1994
7004177350000000000♠48 years, 203 days

3

Chiang Kai-shek
 China
(1912–1949)
 Taiwan
(1949–present)
Chairman of the National Government
Premier
Director-General of the Kuomintang
Generalissimo
President

000000001926-07-09-00009 July 1926 (1st time)
000000001928-01-03-00003 January 1928 (2nd time)
000000001932-03-06-00006 March 1932 (3rd time)

000000001927-08-14-000014 August 1927 (1st time)
000000001931-12-15-000015 December 1931 (2nd time)
000000001975-04-05-00005 April 1975 (3rd time)

48 years, 46 days
(22 years, 265 days in Mainland China)
(7003924700000000000♠25 years, 116 days on Taiwan)[Note 2]

4

Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal
 Mongolian People's Republic
General Secretary
Prime Minister
President
000000001940-04-08-00008 April 1940
000000001984-08-23-000023 August 1984
7004162080000000000♠44 years, 137 days

5

Paul Biya
 Cameroon
Prime Minister
President
000000001975-06-30-000030 June 1975
present
7004156730000000000♠42 years, 332 days

6

Omar Bongo
 Gabon
President
Vice-President
000000001966-11-12-000012 November 1966
000000002009-05-06-00006 May 2009
7004155160000000000♠42 years, 175 days

7

Muammar Gaddafi
 Libyan Arab Republic
 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution
Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council
Secretary General of the General People's Congress
Prime Minister
000000001969-09-01-00001 September 1969
000000002011-10-20-000020 October 2011[Note 3]
7004153890000000000♠42 years, 49 days

8

Enver Hoxha
 Democratic Government of Albania
 People's Republic of Albania
 People's Socialist Republic of Albania
Prime Minister
First Secretary
000000001944-10-24-000024 October 1944
000000001985-04-11-000011 April 1985
7004147790000000000♠40 years, 169 days

9

Mohamed Abdelaziz
 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
General Secretary
President
000000001976-08-30-000030 August 1976
000000002016-05-31-000031 May 2016
7004145190000000000♠39 years, 275 days

10

Francisco Franco
 Spanish State
Generalísimo
Head of State
Caudillo
Prime Minister
000000001936-10-01-00001 October 1936
000000001975-11-20-000020 November 1975
7004142940000000000♠39 years, 50 days

11

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo
 Equatorial Guinea
Chairman of the Supreme Military Council
President
000000001979-08-03-00003 August 1979
present
7004141780000000000♠38 years, 298 days

12

Gnassingbé Eyadéma
 Togo
Chairman of military junta
President
000000001967-01-14-000014 January 1967
000000002005-02-05-00005 February 2005
7004139020000000000♠38 years, 22 days

13

José Eduardo dos Santos
 People's Republic of Angola
 Angola
President and Chairman of the MPLA
State President
000000001979-09-10-000010 September 1979
000000002017-09-26-000026 September 2017[Note 4]
7004138960000000000♠38 years, 16 days

14

Éamon de Valera
 Irish Republic
 Irish Free State
 Ireland
President of Dáil Éireann
President of the Republic
President of the Executive Council
Taoiseach
President

000000001919-04-01-00001 April 1919 (1st time)
000000001932-03-09-00009 March 1932 (2nd time)
000000001951-06-13-000013 June 1951 (3rd time)
000000001957-03-20-000020 March 1957 (4th time)
000000001959-06-25-000025 June 1959 (5th time)

000000001922-01-09-00009 January 1922 (1st time)
000000001948-02-18-000018 February 1948 (2nd time)
000000001954-06-02-00002 June 1954 (3rd time)
000000001959-06-23-000023 June 1959 (4th time)
000000001973-06-24-000024 June 1973 (5th time)

37 years, 347 days

15

Robert Mugabe
 Zimbabwe
Prime Minister
Party President and First Secretary
State President
000000001980-04-18-000018 April 1980
000000002017-11-21-000021 November 2017
7004137310000000000♠37 years, 217 days

16

Ali Khamenei
 Iran
President
Supreme Leader
000000001981-10-13-000013 October 1981
present
7004133760000000000♠36 years, 227 days

17

Josip Broz Tito
 Democratic Federal Yugoslavia
 Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia
 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
General Secretary/President of the Presidency of the Central Committee
Prime Minister
President
Marshal
000000001943-11-29-000029 November 1943
000000001980-05-04-00004 May 1980
7004133060000000000♠36 years, 157 days

18

António de Oliveira Salazar
 Second Portuguese Republic
President of the Council of Ministers
000000001932-07-05-00005 July 1932
000000001968-09-25-000025 September 1968
7004132310000000000♠36 years, 82 days

19

Todor Zhivkov
 People's Republic of Bulgaria
General Secretary
Prime Minister
Chairman of the State Council
000000001954-03-04-00004 March 1954
000000001989-11-17-000017 November 1989
7004130420000000000♠35 years, 258 days

20

Alfredo Stroessner
 Paraguay
President
000000001954-05-04-00004 May 1954
000000001989-02-03-00003 February 1989
7004126940000000000♠34 years, 275 days

21

Félix Houphouët-Boigny
 Côte d'Ivoire
Prime Minister
President
000000001959-05-01-00001 May 1959
000000001993-12-07-00007 December 1993
7004126390000000000♠34 years, 220 days

22

Nursultan Nazarbayev
 Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
 Kazakhstan
Chairman of the Kazakh SSR Council of Ministers
First Secretary of the Kazakh SSR Communist Party
Chairman of the Kazakh SSR Supreme Soviet/President of the Kazakh SSR
President
000000001984-03-22-000022 March 1984[Note 5]
present
7004124850000000000♠34 years, 67 days
(7003966000000000000♠26 years, 163 days after independence)

23

Denis Sassou Nguesso
 People's Republic of the Congo
 Republic of the Congo
President of the Central Committee
State President

000000001979-02-08-00008 February 1979 (1st time)
000000001997-10-25-000025 October 1997 (2nd time)

000000001992-08-31-000031 August 1992 (1st time)
present (2nd time)

7004124730000000000♠34 years, 55 days

24

Ali Abdullah Saleh
 North Yemen
 Yemen
President of North Yemen
President
000000001978-06-24-000024 June 1978
000000002012-02-25-000025 February 2012
7004122750000000000♠33 years, 222 days[Note 6]
(7003794900000000000♠21 years, 279 days after unification)

25

Hun Sen
 People's Republic of Kampuchea
 State of Cambodia
 Cambodia
Prime Minister
000000001984-12-31-000031 December 1984
present
7004122010000000000♠33 years, 148 days

26

Yoweri Museveni
 Uganda
President
000000001986-01-26-000026 January 1986
present
7004118100000000000♠32 years, 122 days

27

Dawda Jawara
 The Gambia
Prime Minister
President
000000001962-06-12-000012 June 1962
000000001994-07-22-000022 July 1994
7004117280000000000♠32 years, 40 days

28

Phạm Văn Đồng
 North Vietnam
 Vietnam
Prime Minister
000000001955-09-20-000020 September 1955
000000001987-06-18-000018 June 1987
7004115940000000000♠31 years, 271 days

29

János Kádár
 Hungarian People's Republic
General Secretary
Prime Minister
000000001956-10-25-000025 October 1956
000000001988-05-27-000027 May 1988
7004115370000000000♠31 years, 215 days

30

Habib Bourguiba
 Tunisia
Prime Minister
President
000000001956-04-11-000011 April 1956
000000001987-11-07-00007 November 1987
7004115320000000000♠31 years, 210 days

31

Lee Kuan Yew
 Singapore
Prime Minister
000000001959-06-05-00005 June 1959
000000001990-11-28-000028 November 1990
7004114990000000000♠31 years, 176 days
(as Prime Minister)
(7004189780000000000♠51 years, 350 days as a Member
of the Cabinet)[Note 7]

32

Mobutu Sese Seko
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Zaire
President
000000001965-11-24-000024 November 1965
000000001997-05-16-000016 May 1997
7004114960000000000♠31 years, 173 days

33

Hastings Kamuzu Banda
 Malaŵi
Prime Minister
President
000000001963-02-01-00001 February 1963
000000001994-05-21-000021 May 1994
7004114320000000000♠31 years, 109 days

34

Rafael Trujillo
 Dominican Republic
President
Generalísimo
000000001930-03-03-00003 March 1930
000000001961-05-30-000030 May 1961
7004114110000000000♠31 years, 88 days

35

Suharto
 Indonesia
President
000000001967-03-12-000012 March 1967
000000001998-05-21-000021 May 1998
7004113930000000000♠31 years, 70 days

36

Urho Kekkonen
 Finland
Prime Minister
President

000000001950-03-17-000017 March 1950 (1st time)
000000001954-10-20-000020 October 1954 (2nd time)

000000001953-11-17-000017 November 1953 (1st time)
000000001982-01-27-000027 January 1982 (2nd time)

30 years, 342 days

37

Joseph Stalin
 Soviet Union
General Secretary
Premier
Marshal
000000001922-04-03-00003 April 1922
000000001953-03-05-00005 March 1953
7004112940000000000♠30 years, 336 days

38

Porfirio Díaz
 Mexico
President

000000001876-11-28-000028 November 1876 (1st time)
000000001877-02-17-000017 February 1877 (2nd time)
000000001884-12-01-00001 December 1884 (3rd time)

000000001876-12-06-00006 December 1876 (1st time)
000000001880-12-01-00001 December 1880 (2nd time)
000000001911-05-25-000025 May 1911 (3rd time)

30 years, 106 days

39

Abdou Diouf
 Senegal
Prime Minister
President
000000001970-02-26-000026 February 1970
000000002000-04-01-00001 April 2000
7004109920000000000♠30 years, 35 days

40

Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
 Maldives
President
000000001978-11-11-000011 November 1978
000000002008-11-11-000011 November 2008
7004109580000000000♠30 years, 0 days


document_title: War (U2 album)

question_text: who is on the cover of u2 war

question_tokens: who is on the cover of u2 war

root

text: War (U2 album)

text: Recording[edit]

text: In August 1982, Bono and Ali honeymooned in Jamaica. It has been noted that it was not a typical honeymoon, as Bono reportedly worked on the lyrics for the upcoming album. The lyrics to "New Year's Day" had its origins in a love song Bono wrote for his wife,[5] but the song was reshaped and inspired by the Polish Solidarity movement.[6] The band began recording the album in September 1982 at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin with producer Steve Lillywhite, their third consecutive record at the studio with the producer.[7]

tag: p

text: The album's opener, "Sunday Bloody Sunday", an ardent protest song, stems from a guitar riff and lyric written by the Edge in 1982. Following an argument with his girlfriend, and a period of doubt in his own song-writing abilities, the Edge – "feeling depressed... channeled [his] fear and frustration and self-loathing into a piece of music."[8] Early versions of the song opened with the line, "Don't talk to me about the rights of the IRA, UDA".[8] After Bono had reworked the lyrics, the band recorded the song. The opening drum pattern soon developed into the song's hook. A local violinist, Steve Wickham, approached the Edge one morning at a bus stop and asked if U2 had any need for a violin on their next album. In the studio for only half a day, Wickham's electric violin became the final instrumental contribution to the song.[8]

text: During the sessions for "Sunday Bloody Sunday", Lillywhite encouraged drummer Larry Mullen, Jr. to use a click track, but Mullen was firmly against the idea. A chance meeting with Andy Newmark (of Sly & the Family Stone) – a drummer who used a click track religiously – changed Mullen's mind.[8] Mullen used the click track to stay in time for other songs on the album.[9] Mullen said of the album in a 1983 interview, "I think the drumming has always been pretty simple, I don't think it needs to be flashy. For War I use a click track, something I haven't used before, it's a way of keeping time in my headphones. When I listened to the music in time with the click track I knew I had to bring it down to the real basics. Hopefully for the next LP it will be more complicated, I'll move on. I think of it as a musical progression for myself because I learned a lot recording this album, just about my own style and that's what I wanted to do. I think there is a definite style on War where there isn't on the previous albums."[9]

text: Three of the tracks featured backing vocals by the Coconuts, of Kid Creole and the Coconuts. In the words of Steve Lillywhite, "they just happened to be in Dublin on tour, so we hung out with them and they came in and sang on 'Surrender'. So it was sort of random – this serious Irish rock band having the Coconuts on their album."[10]

text: The studio version of "40" was recorded during the final hours of the recording sessions in November 1982. Bassist Adam Clayton had already left the studio, and the three remaining band members decided they did not have a good song to end the album.[11] Bono, the Edge, and Mullen Jr. quickly recorded the song with the Edge playing both the guitar and bass parts. Bono called the song "40" as he based the lyrics on Psalm 40. In live versions of the song, the Edge and Clayton switch roles, as Clayton plays guitar and Edge plays the bass.

text: Composition[edit]

text: The sound of War is arguably harsher than that of the band's other albums. A major reason for this is that the Edge uses far less delay and echo than in previous and subsequent works.[12]

text:
"Sunday Bloody Sunday" (1983)

The opening 28 seconds of "Sunday Bloody Sunday," featuring the martial drumbeat, raw guitar, and bleak lyrics.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

tag: table

text: War opens with the protest song "Sunday Bloody Sunday". The song describes the horror felt by an observer of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, specifically Bloody Sunday (1972). Already a departure from the themes of innocence and spirituality displayed on the group's first two albums, "Sunday Bloody Sunday" introduces the album with a startling, military-esque drum beat by Larry Mullen, Jr., a fuming solo by the Edge that segues into staccato bursts reminiscent of machine gun fire, and pointed lyrical couplets such as: "And today the millions cry / We eat and drink while tomorrow they die." The album as a whole is more direct than the ambient October. Bono said in 1983,

text:
“
A lot of the songs on our last album were quite abstract, but War is intentionally more direct, more specific. But you can still take the title on a lot of different levels. We're not only interested in the physical aspects of war. The emotional effects are just as important, 'the trenches dug within our hearts'. People have become numb to violence. Watching the television, it's hard to tell the difference between fact and fiction. One minute you see something being shot on The Professionals, and the next you see someone falling through a window after being shot on the news. One is fiction and one is real life, but we're becoming so used to the fiction that we become numb to the real thing. War could be the story of a broken home, a family at war.[1]
”

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" is considered to be among the greatest political protest songs,[13] and has remained a staple of U2's live concerts for 25 years.[14]

text: "Seconds" is a song about nuclear proliferation, and the possibility that Armageddon could occur by an accident.[5] The track contains a sample from the 1982 documentary Soldier Girls.[15] The Edge sings the first two stanzas, making it one of the rare occasions on which he sings lead vocals.[5]

text: In continuing the political motif of the album, "New Year's Day" is about the Polish solidarity movement.[5] In 2004, Rolling Stone placed it as the 435th greatest song of all time.[16] The song remains a staple of the band's live set, and is their third most frequently performed song behind "I Will Follow" and "Pride (In the Name of Love)".[17]

text: "Like a Song…" was intended as a message to those who believed that the band was too worthy, sincere, and not "punk" enough.[5] Bono speculated that the song's punk attitude would have made more sense in the 1950s and 1960s, as opposed to the "dressing up" of the genre in the early 1980s.[5] "Like a Song…" was only played live once.[18]

text: "Drowning Man" is the fifth track on the album. Its sound is a departure from the other tracks in War as it is a quiet, atmospheric song heavily influenced by the work of the Comsat Angels.[citation needed] It was never performed live, although there are also unconfirmed reports that it was performed at a concert in 1983.[19]

text: Other songs concern topics such as prostitution ("Red Light") and love ("Two Hearts Beat as One").

text: Release[edit]

text: The album was first released on 28 February 1983. The original cassette release contains the entire album on each side.

text: Packaging and title[edit]

text: The album was titled War for several reasons; in 1982, Bono said, "War seemed to be the motif for 1982," adding that "Everywhere you looked, from the Falklands to the Middle East and South Africa, there was war. By calling the album War we're giving people a slap in the face and at the same time getting away from the cosy image a lot of people have of U2."[1] The Edge said that "It's a heavy title. It's blunt. It's not something that's safe, so it could backfire. It's the sort of subject matter that people can really take a dislike to. But we wanted to take a more dangerous course, fly a bit closer to the wind, so I think the title is appropriate."[1] The boy on the cover is Peter Rowen (brother of Bono's friend, Guggi). He also appears on the covers of Boy, Three, The Best of 1980–1990, Early Demos and many singles. Bono described the reasoning behind the cover: "Instead of putting tanks and guns on the cover, we've put a child's face. War can also be a mental thing, an emotional thing between loves. It doesn't have to be a physical thing."[1]

text: Singles[edit]

text: In January 1983 (1983-01), "New Year's Day" was released internationally as the album's lead single. The single reached the top ten in the UK, and was the first release by the band to chart on the Billboard Hot 100. In March 1983, "Two Hearts Beat as One" and "Sunday Bloody Sunday" were released as singles in different regions. "Two Hearts Beat as One", a single in the US, UK, and Australia, reached number 18 on the UK Singles Chart; "Sunday Bloody Sunday", released in Germany and the Netherlands, reached number 3 on the Netherlands' charts. "40" was not released as a commercial single, but rather as a promotional single in Germany.

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[20]

The Austin Chronicle
[21]

The A.V. Club
A−[22]

Chicago Tribune
[23]

Entertainment Weekly
B+[24]

Pitchfork
8.9/10[25]

Rolling Stone
[2]

The Rolling Stone Album Guide
[26]

Select
5/5[27]

The Village Voice
B+[28]

text: Upon its release, several reviews were negative in the United Kingdom. Gavin Martin of NME made a parallel between 1980's Boy and War, stating that "where Boy shone and flowed War is dull and static, and where Boy propelled lucid pellets of fire and imagination War cranks out blank liberal awareness"; he felt that after the single "New Year's Day", which he considered as "their finest single since "I Will Follow", War "declines quite dramatically", ultimately calling the album "another example of rock music's impotence and decay".[29] Sounds shared a similar point of view, recognising that the two singles were "by far the strongest tracks" on War, but that "for the remainder, they are a (dejected sounding) mixture of the incomplete, the experimental (in the simplest sense) and the plain sub-standard."[30]

text: By contrast, in the United States, Rolling Stone published a favourable review, with critic J. D. Considine stating: "Generally, the album's musical strengths are largely the product of well-honed arrangements and carefully balanced dynamics. Even as the Edge spins increasingly sophisticated guitar lines, he maintains the minimalist bluntness that sparked Boy. And while bassist Adam Clayton and drummer Larry Mullen Jr. have swung to more dance-oriented rhythms, their songs hurtle along with the sort of brusque purposefulness more frequently associated with punk." Considine added: "the songs here stand up against anything on the Clash's London Calling in terms of sheer impact, and the fact that U2 can sweep the listener up in the same sort of enthusiastic romanticism that fuels the band's grand gestures is an impressive feat. For once, not having all the answers seems a bonus."[2] Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote that "the deadly European virus that's always tainted this band turns out to be their characteristic melodic device", adding that "The Edge becomes a tuneful guitarist by the simple expedient of not soloing, and if Bono has too many Gregorian moments his conviction still carries the music."[28] Philip Smith of the New Zealand Herald commended the band's maturing sound and labeled the album "a classic". He concluded his review, "So U2 have set out to make a big statement on a subject close to the Irishmen's hearts – and they have succeeded."[31]

text: War was a commercial success, becoming U2's first number-one album in the UK and supplanting Michael Jackson's Thriller at the top of the charts. The album placed sixth on The Village Voice's 1983 year-end Pazz & Jop critics' poll.[32] In 1989, War was ranked number 40 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 100 Greatest Albums of the '80s".[33] In 2012, the album was ranked number 223 on Rolling Stone's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time",[4] as well as being listed at number 94 on Slant Magazine's "Best Albums of the 1980s."[34]

text: War Tour[edit]

text: In support of the album, the band began touring on 1 December 1982. The first month of shows, referred to as the "Pre-War Tour", preceded the album's release and the bulk of the tour, and was meant to showcase and test the new songs in a live setting.[35][36] The War Tour proper began on 26 February 1983 and lasted until 30 November of that year. In total, the band played 110 gigs in Europe, the US, and Japan to promote War.[37] Over the course of the tour, the band began to play progressively larger venues, moving from clubs to halls to arenas.[38] Bono attempted to engage the growing audiences with theatrical, often dangerous antics, climbing scaffoldings and lighting rigs and jumping into the audience.[39] The sight of Bono waving a white flag during performances of "Sunday Bloody Sunday" became the tour's iconic image.[40] The band played several dates at large European and American music festivals,[41] including a performance at the US Festival on Memorial Day weekend for an audience of 125,000 people.[42] The group's 5 June 1983 concert at Red Rocks Amphitheatre on a rain-soaked evening was singled out by Rolling Stone as one "50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll".[43] The show was recorded for the concert video Live at Red Rocks and was one of several concerts from the tour captured on their live album Under a Blood Red Sky.[44] Both releases received extensive play on the radio and MTV, expanding the band's audience and showcasing their prowess as a live act.[43] During the tour, the group established a new tradition by closing concerts with "40", during which the Edge and Clayton would switch instruments and the band members would leave the stage one-by-one as the crowd continued to sing the refrain "How long to sing this song?".[45][46] The War Tour was U2's first profitable tour, grossing about $2 million.[47]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All tracks written by U2.

text:
Side one

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Sunday Bloody Sunday"
4:38

2.
"Seconds"
3:09

3.
"New Year's Day"
5:38

4.
"Like a Song…"
4:48

5.
"Drowning Man"
4:12

text:
Side two

No.
Title
Length

6.
"The Refugee" (produced by Bill Whelan)
3:40

7.
"Two Hearts Beat as One"
4:00

8.
"Red Light"
3:46

9.
"Surrender"
5:34

10.
"40"
2:36

Total length:
42:03

text: In 1993, Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab remastered the album and released it as a special gold CD. This edition has slightly different running times: most notably, "Seconds" runs 3:22, adding 11.5 seconds in the break section (beginning at approx. 2:03), while "Like a Song…" runs 5:00, extending the playout section (beginning at approx. 4:45).

text: 2008 remastered edition[edit]

text: Following the remastered re-release of The Joshua Tree in 2007, it was rumoured that the band would also remaster and re-release War, along with the albums Boy, and October.[48] This was confirmed by U2.com on 9 April 2008 (2008-04-09).[49] The remastered album was released on 21 July 2008 (2008-07-21) in the UK, with the US version following it the next day. It was released in three different formats:[49]

text:
Standard format: A single CD with re-mastered audio and restored packaging. Includes a 16-page booklet featuring previously unseen photos, full lyrics and new liner notes by Niall Stokes. The 10-tracks match the previous release of the album.
Deluxe format: A standard CD (as above) and a bonus CD. Bonus CD includes b-sides, live tracks and rarities. Also includes a 32-page booklet with previously unseen photos, full lyrics, new liner notes by Niall Stokes, and explanatory notes on the bonus material by the Edge.
Vinyl format: A single album re-mastered version on 180 gram vinyl with restored packaging.

tag: ol

text: Bonus CD[edit]

text: All tracks written by U2.

text:
No.
Title
Original release
Length

1.
"Endless Deep"
"Sunday Bloody Sunday" and "Two Hearts Beat as One" singles
2:58

2.
"Angels Too Tied to the Ground"
Previously unreleased outtake from "War" sessions
3:34

3.
"New Year's Day" (7" single edit)
"New Year's Day" single
3:56

4.
"New Year's Day" (USA remix)
"Two Hearts Beat as One" single
4:31

5.
"New Year's Day" (Ferry Corsten extended vocal mix)
Previously unreleased
9:42

6.
"New Year's Day" (Ferry Corsten vocal radio mix)
Previously unreleased
4:37

7.
"Two Hearts Beat as One" (Long mix)
"Two Hearts Beat as One" promotional single
5:56

8.
"Two Hearts Beat as One" (USA remix)
"Two Hearts Beat as One" single
4:24

9.
"Two Hearts Beat as One" (Club version)
"Two Hearts Beat as One" single
5:43

10.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
"New Year's Day" single
3:24

11.
"I Threw a Brick Through a Window / A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter -- 4 July 1982)
"New Year's Day" single
6:58

12.
"Fire" (Live from Werchter -- 4 July 1982)
"New Year's Day" single
3:46

Total length:
59:28

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Bono – lead vocals, guitar
The Edge – guitar, piano, lap steel guitar, backing vocals, lead vocals on "Seconds", bass guitar on "40"
Adam Clayton – bass guitar (except "40")
Larry Mullen, Jr. – drums and percussion

tag: ul

text: Additional personnel

text:
Kenny Fradley – trumpet on "Red Light"
Steve Wickham – electric violin on "Sunday Bloody Sunday" and "Drowning Man"
The Coconuts: Cheryl Poirier, Adriana Kaegi, Taryn Hagey, Jessica Felton – backing vocals on "Like a Song…", "Red Light", and "Surrender"

text: Charts and certifications[edit]

text:
Album

Country
Peak
position
Certification
Sales

Brazil

Gold[50]
100,000+[50]

Belgium

Platinum[51]

Canada
4[52]
3× Platinum[53]
300,000+[53]

France

Platinum[54]

Germany

Gold[55]

Netherlands

Gold[56]

Switzerland

Gold[57]

United Kingdom
1[58]
2× Platinum[59]
600,000+[59]

United States
12[60]
4× Platinum[61]
4,000,000+[62]

Songs

Song
Peak (1983)

IRE
[63]
CAN
[64]
NL
[65]
UK
[66]
US Hot 100
[60]
US Main Rock
[60]

"New Year's Day"
2
41
4
10
53
2

"Sunday Bloody Sunday"
—
—
3
—
—
7

"Two Hearts Beat As One"
2
—
—
18
—
12

"Surrender"
—
—
—
—
—
27

"—" denotes a release that did not chart.


document_title: Magma chamber

question_text: where is the lava stored in a volcano

question_tokens: where is the lava stored in a volcano

text: Magma chamber

text:
A magma chamber is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth. The molten rock, or magma, in such a chamber is under great pressure, and, given enough time, that pressure can gradually fracture the rock around it, creating a way for the magma to move upward. If it finds its way to the surface, then the result will be a volcanic eruption; consequently, many volcanoes are situated over magma chambers.
These chambers are hard to detect deep within the Earth, and therefore most of those known are close to the surface, commonly between 1 km and 10 km down.

text: Dynamics of magma chambers[edit]

text: Magma rises through cracks from beneath and across the crust because it is less dense than the surrounding rock.  When the magma cannot find a path upwards it pools into a magma chamber. These chambers are commonly built up over time,[1][2] by successive horizontal[3] or vertical[4] magma injections. Influx of new magma causes reaction of pre-existing crystals[5] and the pressure in the chamber to increase.

text: The residing magma starts to cool, with the higher melting point components such as olivine crystallizing out of the solution, particularly near to the cooler walls of the chamber, and forming a denser conglomerate of minerals which sinks (cumulative rock). Upon cooling, new mineral phases saturate and the rock type changes (e.g. fractional crystallization), typically forming (1) gabbro, diorite, tonalite and granite or (2) gabbro, diorite, syenite and granite. If magma resides in a chamber for a long period, then it can become stratified  with lower density components rising to the top and denser materials sinking. Rocks accumulate in layers, forming a layered intrusion.[6] Any subsequent eruption may produce distinctly layered deposits; for example, the deposits from the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius include a thick layer of white pumice from the upper portion of the magma chamber overlaid with a similar layer of grey pumice produced from material erupted later from lower in the chamber.

text: Another effect of the cooling of the chamber is that the solidifying crystals will release the gas (primarily steam) previously dissolved when they were liquid, causing the pressure in the chamber to rise, possibly sufficiently to produce an eruption. Additionally, the removal of the lower melting point components will tend to make the magma more viscous (by increasing the concentration of silicates).  Thus, stratification of a magma chamber may result in an increase in the amount of gas within the magma near the top of the chamber, and also make this magma more viscous, potentially leading to a more explosive eruption than would be the case had the chamber not become stratified.

text: If the magma is not vented to the surface in a volcanic eruption, it will slowly cool and crystallize at depth to form an intrusive igneous body, one, for example, composed of granite or gabbro (see also pluton).

text: Often, a volcano may have a deep magma chamber many kilometers down, which supplies a shallower chamber near the summit.  The location of magma chambers can be mapped using seismology: seismic waves from earthquakes move more slowly through liquid rock than solid, allowing measurements to pinpoint the regions of slow movement which identify magma chambers.[7]

text: As a volcano erupts, surrounding rock will collapse into the emptying chamber. If the chamber's size is reduced considerably, the resulting depression at the surface can form a caldera.