document_title: List of flag bearers for the United States at the Olympics

question_text: who carried the us flag in the 2018

question_tokens: who carried the us flag in the 2018

text: Firsts[edit]

text: US team manager[1] Matthew Halpin was the first to carry the flag at the 1906 Intercalated Games,[2] though that event is no longer considered by the International Olympic Committee to be part of Olympic history.[3] Ralph Rose became the first competitor to have the honor when he led the team out at the 1908 Summer Games,[2] the first official Olympic Games to feature a parade of nations.[4] The first woman to represent the United States was fencer Janice Romary in 1968, her sixth consecutive Summer Olympics.[5] Taffy Abel was the first person to represent the United States at the Winter Olympics when he was chosen to carry the flag at the inaugural Games in Chamonix in 1924.[2]

text: Irish-born Pat McDonald, one of the "Irish Whales", became the first athlete to be selected as the flag bearer twice when he performed his second duty in 1924.[2][6] In 1956 two other athletes led the U.S. team out for a second time, James Bickford at the Winter Olympics and Norman Armitage at the Summer Games.[2]

text: Selection and reactions[edit]

text: The flag bearers are chosen by a vote of the team captains of each sport.[7]

text: Athletes view their selection of flag bearer as a great honour:

text:
"It's more than a dream. "I keep saying, I'm not sure if this is true or not true. I'm making the team and now I'm the first guy coming to the stadium and the whole world will be watching me carry the flag. There are no words to describe it."

"I feel happy, honored. I'm feeling so blessed to get an opportunity to present the United States of America, to present the United States flag in front of my team."

text: "I'm still shaking. I was incredibly surprised when Brian [Martin] told me, and I'm still trying to process it all. To be the person leading the U.S. team into the opening ceremony is just such a great honor."

text: Flag dipping[edit]

text: Olympic protocol is that the flag bearer dips their flag to the head of state as part of the parade. It has become tradition that the U.S. flag is not dipped, though the origins of this are surrounded by legend and are widely misreported:[9][10]

text: "The motives for the original refusal, the identity of the flag-bearer and the truth behind the quotation and other issues remain much murkier in the historical record than legend-tellers portray ... The evolution of this flag mythology reveals a great deal about the complex strains of early 20th century American nationalism."

text: The parade of nations was introduced at the 1906 Intercalated Games with Matthew Halpin as the U.S. flag bearer. Halpin gladly dipped the flag, noting that when he did so King George I of Greece "staked me to a smile that made me feel like I belonged".[11] The controversy began at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London where flag bearers were expected to dip the flag to Edward VII on two occasions. Research by the International Society of Olympic Historians concluded that the flag bearer was Ralph Rose and that he might not have dipped the flag to the British King on one of those occasions. Martin Sheridan is often attributed with the explanation of this supposed disrespect by stating at the time "This flag dips to no earthly king" but no evidence of this can be found.[11] Modern versions of the story describe how the Stars and Stripes have never been dipped during the parade of nations since 1908 but this is apocryphal. It has been dipped on three occasions since then: 1912, 1924, and 1932.[10]

text: The 1932 winter games were held in Lake Placid and, though head of state President Herbert Hoover would normally have greeted the parade of nations, the duty was passed to New York governor Franklin Roosevelt.[11] This was the last time that the flag was dipped at the Olympics as political forces intervened thereafter. The head of state awaiting the athletes at the 1936 Summer Games was Adolf Hitler, to whom the U.S. refused to lower their flag.[10] The 1940 Olympics were cancelled due to the onset of World War II and, in 1942, the United States Congress introduced the United States Flag Code which stated: "That no disrespect should be given to the flag of the United States of America, the flag should not be dipped to any person or thing."[11][12] However, since the Flag Code is legally unenforceable, it appears to be merely codified tradition.

text: Foreign-born representatives[edit]

text: Several foreign-born athletes have represented the United States at the opening ceremonies. Irishman Pat McDonald was the first in 1920 and he, at the age of 42, became the oldest Olympic track & field champion. Though he did not compete, he also went on to lead the U.S. team at the following Summer Olympics.[6]

text: Rolf Monsen, a multi-discipline Winter sports athlete born in Oslo, Norway, competed as an American in 1928 and 1932. He qualified for the 1936 Games and though an injury prevented him from taking part, he was still chosen to carry the flag.[13]

text: The American team at the 1936 Summer Games were led by Berlin-born, highly regarded gymnast Al Jochim.[2][14]

text: Olga Fikotová was a discus-thrower at the 1956 Summer Olympics and the only athlete to win a gold medal for her home country Czechoslovakia in that year. She began a much-publicised romance with American athlete Harold Connolly, much to the frustration of the Communist authorities. Fikotová was accused of being a traitor and the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee banned her from representing her country again. Now living in the U.S., she would go on to compete for her adopted country in the next four Summer Games. Despite not being able to replicate her success, Fikotová was chosen to lead the American team at the 1972 Games in Munich, West Germany.[15]

text: Lopez Lomong carried the flag at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China and became the fifth flag bearer to be born outside the United States.[2] As a teenager in war-torn Sudan, Lomong was one of several thousand boys brought to America as a refugee in 2001.[7] His selection came during a time when the U.S. and other Western countries had been critical of the Chinese government's close links with Sudan, a country accused of human rights violations and war crimes.[16]

text: Other notes[edit]

text: Godfrey Dewey, son of Melvil Dewey the inventor of Dewey Decimal Classification,[17] was the president of the Lake Placid Organizing Committee and was largely responsible for the successful candidature of Lake Placid for the 1932 Winter Olympics.[18] In addition to his role as the U.S. ski team manager he was chosen as the flag bearer for the 1928 Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland.[19]

text: List of flag bearers[edit]

text: List of flag bearers:[2]

text:
#
Event year
Season
Ceremony
Flag bearer
Sex
State/Country
Sport

62
2018
Winter
Closing
Diggins, JessicaJessica Diggins
F
Minnesota
Cross-country skiing

61
2018
Winter
Opening
Hamlin, ErinErin Hamlin
F
New York
Luge

60
2016
Summer
Closing
Biles, SimoneSimone Biles
F
Texas
Gymnastics

59
2016
Summer
Opening
Phelps, MichaelMichael Phelps
M
Maryland
Swimming

58
2014
Winter
Closing
Chu, JulieJulie Chu
F
Connecticut
Hockey

57
2014
Winter
Opening
Lodwick, ToddTodd Lodwick
M
Colorado
Nordic combined

56
2012
Summer
Closing
Nellum, BryshonBryshon Nellum
M
California
Athletics

55
2012
Summer
Opening
Zagunis, MarielMariel Zagunis
F
Oregon
Fencing

54
2010
Winter
Closing
Demong, BillBill Demong
M
New York
Nordic combined

53
2010
Winter
Opening
Grimmette, MarkMark Grimmette
M
Michigan
Luge

52
2008
Summer
Closing
Lorig, KhatunaKhatuna Lorig
F
Georgia (country)
Archery

51
2008
Summer
Opening
Lomong, LopezLopez Lomong
M
Sudan (now South Sudan)
Athletics

50
2006
Winter
Closing
Cheek, JoeyJoey Cheek
M
North Carolina
Speed skating

49
2006
Winter
Opening
Witty, ChrisChris Witty
F
Wisconsin
Speed skating

48
2004
Summer
Closing
Hamm, MiaMia Hamm
F
Texas
Women's soccer

47
2004
Summer
Opening
Staley, DawnDawn Staley
F
Pennsylvania
Basketball

46
2002
Winter
Closing
Shimer, BrianBrian Shimer
M
Florida
Bobsleigh

45
2002
Winter
Opening
Peterson, AmyAmy Peterson
F
Minnesota
Short track speed skating

44
2000
Summer
Closing
Gardner, RulonRulon Gardner
M
Wyoming
Wrestling

43
2000
Summer
Opening
Meidl, CliffCliff Meidl
M
California
Canoeing

42
1998
Winter
Closing
Granato, CammiCammi Granato
F
Illinois
Hockey

41
1998
Winter
Opening
Flaim, EricEric Flaim
M
Massachusetts
Speed skating

40
1996
Summer
Closing
Matz, MichaelMichael Matz
M
Pennsylvania
Equestrian

39
1996
Summer
Opening
Baumgartner, BruceBruce Baumgartner
M
New Jersey
Wrestling

38
1994
Winter
Closing
Jansen, DanDan Jansen
M
Wisconsin
Speed skating

37
1994
Winter
Opening
Myler, CammyCammy Myler
F
New York
Luge

36
1992
Summer
Closing
Westbrook, PeterPeter Westbrook
M
Missouri
Fencing

35
1992
Summer
Opening
Larrieu Smith, FrancieFrancie Larrieu Smith
F
California
Athletics

34
1992
Winter
Opening
Koch, BillBill Koch
M
Vermont
Cross-country skiing

33
1988
Summer
Opening
Ashford, EvelynEvelyn Ashford
F
Louisiana
Athletics

32
1988
Winter
Opening
Nelson, LyleLyle Nelson
M
Idaho
Biathlon

31
1984
Summer
Opening
Burke, EdEd Burke
M
California
Athletics

30
1984
Winter
Opening
Masley, FrankFrank Masley
M
Delaware
Luge

29
1980
Winter
Opening
Hamilton, ScottScott Hamilton
M
Ohio
Figure skating

28
1976
Summer
Opening
Hall, GaryGary Hall
M
North Carolina
Swimming

27
1976
Winter
Opening
Nelson, CindyCindy Nelson
F
Minnesota
Alpine skiing

26
1972
Summer
Opening
Fikotová, OlgaOlga Fikotová
F
Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic)
Athletics

25
1972
Winter
Opening
Holum, DianneDianne Holum
F
Illinois
Speed skating

24
1968
Summer
Opening
Romary, JaniceJanice Romary
F
California
Fencing

23
1968
Winter
Opening
McDermott, TerryTerry McDermott
M
Michigan
Speed skating

22
1964
Summer
Opening
O'Brien, ParryParry O'Brien
M
California
Athletics

21
1964
Winter
Opening
Disney, BillBill Disney
M
Kansas
Speed skating

20
1960
Summer
Opening
Johnson, RaferRafer Johnson
M
Texas
Athletics

19
1960
Winter
Opening
McDermott, DonDon McDermott
M
New York
Speed skating

18
1956
Summer
Opening
Armitage, NormanNorman Armitage
M
New York
Fencing

17
1956
Winter
Opening
Bickford, JamesJames Bickford
M
New York
Bobsleigh

16
1952
Summer
Opening
Armitage, NormanNorman Armitage
M
New York
Fencing

15
1952
Winter
Opening
Bickford, JamesJames Bickford
M
New York
Bobsleigh

14
1948
Summer
Opening
Craig, RalphRalph Craig
M
Michigan
Athletics

13
1948
Winter
Opening
Heaton, JackJack Heaton
M
Connecticut
Skeleton

12
1936
Summer
Opening
Jochim, AlAl Jochim
M
Germany
Gymnastics

11
1936
Winter
Opening
Monsen, RolfRolf Monsen
M
Norway
Cross-country skiing

10
1932
Summer
Opening
Taylor, MorganMorgan Taylor
M
Iowa
Athletics

9
1932
Winter
Opening
Fiske, BillyBilly Fiske
M
Illinois
Bobsleigh

8
1928
Summer
Opening
Houser, BudBud Houser
M
Missouri
Athletics

7
1928
Winter
Opening
Dewey, GodfreyGodfrey Dewey
M
Florida
President of Lake Placid Organizing Committee

6
1924
Summer
Opening
McDonald, PatPat McDonald
M
Ireland
Athletics

5
1924
Winter
Opening
Abel, TaffyTaffy Abel
M
Michigan
Hockey

4
1920
Summer
Opening
McDonald, PatPat McDonald
M
Ireland
Athletics

3
1912
Summer
Opening
Bonhag, GeorgeGeorge Bonhag
M
Massachusetts
Athletics

2
1908
Summer
Opening
Rose, RalphRalph Rose
M
California
Athletics & tug of war

1
1906
Summer
Opening
Halpin, MatthewMatthew Halpin
M
New York
Team manager


document_title: United Kingdom weather records

question_text: what's the hottest it gets in england

question_tokens: what 's the hottest it gets in england

root

text: United Kingdom weather records

text: Records[edit]

text: As of July 2010, the records as recorded by the Met Office were:[1]

tag: p

text: Highest temperature[edit]

text:
°C
°F
Location
Date

Highest (England)
38.5°C[1]
101.3 F
Faversham, Kent
10 August 2003

Highest (Wales)
35.2°C
95.4°F
Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire
2 August 1990

Highest (Scotland)
32.9°C
91.2°F
Greycrook, Scottish Borders
9 August 2003

Highest (Northern Ireland)
30.8°C
87.4°F
Knockarevan, County Fermanagh
30 June 1976

Shaw's Bridge, Belfast, County Antrim
12 July 1983

tag: table

text: Lowest temperature[edit]

text:
°C
°F
Location
Date

Lowest (Scotland)
-27.2°C[1]
-17.0°F
Braemar, Aberdeenshire
11 February 1895 and 10 January 1982

Altnaharra, Sutherland
30 December 1995

Lowest (England)
-26.1°C[1]
-15.0°F
Newport, Shropshire
11 January 1982

Lowest (Wales)
-23.3°C
-9.9°F
Rhayader, Powys
21 January 1940

Lowest (Northern Ireland)
-18.7°C
-1.6°F
Castlederg, County Tyrone
24 December 2010

text: Rainfall[edit]

text:
Duration
Level
Location
Date

Highest 5-min total
Approx. 32 mm[1]
Preston, Lancashire
10 August 1893

Highest 30-min total
80 mm
Eskdalemuir, Dumfries and Galloway[2]
26 June 1953

Highest 60-min total
92 mm[1]
Maidenhead, Berkshire
12 July 1901

Highest 90-min total
117 mm[1]
Dunsop Valley, Lancashire
8 August 1967

Highest 120-min total
155 mm[1][3]
Hewenden Reservoir, West Yorkshire
11 June 1956

Highest 155-min total
169 mm[1]
Hampstead, London
14 August 1975

Highest 180-min total
178 mm[1]
Horncastle, Lincolnshire
7 October 1960

Highest 24-hour total (1800-1800)
341.4 mm[1]
Honister Pass, Cumbria
5 December 2015

Highest 24-hour total (0900-0900)
279 mm[1]
Martinstown, Dorset
18 July 1955

Highest 48-hour total (0900-0900)
405 mm
Thirlmere, Cumbria
4 to 5 December 2015

Highest 72-hour total (0900-0900)
456.4 mm
Seathwaite, Cumbria
17 to 19 November 2009

Highest 96-hour total (0900-0900)
495 mm
Seathwaite, Cumbria
16 to 19 November 2009

Highest Monthly Total
1396.4 mm
Crib Goch, Snowdon
1 to 31 December 2015

text: Sunshine[edit]

text:
Duration
Location
Date

Highest monthly total (England)[4]
383.9 hours
Eastbourne, Sussex
July 1911

Highest monthly total (Northern Ireland)[4]
298 hours
Mount Stewart, County Down
June 1940

Highest monthly total (Scotland)[4]
329.1 hours
Tiree, Argyll & Bute
May 1975

Highest monthly total (Wales)[4]
354.3 hours
Dale Fort, Pembrokeshire
July 1955

text: Wind speed[edit]

text:
Ground Level
Wind Speed
Location
Date

mph
km/h
knots

Low level
142
228
123[1]
Fraserburgh, Aberdeenshire
13 February 1989

High level
173
278
150[1]
Cairn Gorm
20 March 1986

text: Shetland holds the unofficial British record for wind speed, which in 1962 was recorded at 177 mph (285 km/h) at RAF Saxa Vord.[5]

text: Atmospheric Pressure[edit]


document_title: Perfect competition

question_text: who sets the price in a competitive market

text: Perfect competition

text: Idealizing conditions of perfect competition[edit]

text: There is a set of market conditions which are assumed to prevail in the discussion of what perfect competition might be if it were theoretically possible to ever obtain such perfect market conditions. These conditions include:[3]

text:
A large number of buyers and sellers – A large number of consumers with the willingness and ability to buy the product at a certain price, and a large number of producers with the willingness and ability to supply the product at a certain price.
Perfect information – All consumers and producers know all prices of products and utilities each person would get from owning each product.
Homogeneous products – The products are perfect substitutes for each other, (i.e., the qualities and characteristics of a market good or service do not vary between different suppliers).
Well defined property rights – These determine what may be sold, as well as what rights are conferred on the buyer.
No barriers to entry or exit
Every participant is a price taker – No participant with market power to set prices
Perfect factor mobility – In the long run factors of production are perfectly mobile, allowing free long term adjustments to changing market conditions.
Profit maximization of sellers – Firms sell where the most profit is generated, where marginal costs meet marginal revenue.
Rational buyers: Buyers make all trades that increase their economic utility and make no trades that do not increase their utility.
No externalities – Costs or benefits of an activity do not affect third parties. This criteria also excludes any government intervention.
Zero transaction costs – Buyers and sellers do not incur costs in making an exchange of goods in a perfectly competitive market.
Non-increasing returns to scale and no network effects – The lack of economies of scale or network effects ensures that there will always be a sufficient number of firms in the industry.
Anti-competitive regulation - It is assumed that a market of perfect competition shall provide the regulations and protections implicit in the control of and elimination of anti-competitive activity in the market place.

tag: ul

text: Normal profit[edit]

text: In a perfect market the sellers operate at zero economic surplus: sellers make a level of return on investment known as normal profits.

text: Normal profit is a component of (implicit) costs and not a component of business profit at all. It represents the opportunity cost, as the time that the owner spends running the firm could be spent on running a different firm. The enterprise component of normal profit is thus the profit that a business owner considers necessary to make running the business worth her or his while i.e. it is comparable to the next best amount the entrepreneur could earn doing another job.[4] Particularly if enterprise is not included as a factor of production, it can also be viewed a return to capital for investors including the entrepreneur, equivalent to the return the capital owner could have expected (in a safe investment), plus compensation for risk.[5] In other words, the cost of normal profit varies both within and across industries; it is commensurate with the riskiness associated with each type of investment, as per the risk-return spectrum.

text: Only normal profits arise in circumstances of perfect competition when long run economic equilibrium is reached; there is no incentive for firms to either enter or leave the industry.[6]

text: In competitive and contestable markets[edit]

text: Economic profit does not occur in perfect competition in long run equilibrium; if it did, there would be an incentive for new firms to enter the industry, aided by a lack of barriers to entry until there was no longer any economic profit.[5] As new firms enter the industry, they increase the supply of the product available in the market, and these new firms are forced to charge a lower price to entice consumers to buy the additional supply these new firms are supplying as the firms all compete for customers (See "Persistence" in the Monopoly Profit discussion).[7][8][9][10] Incumbent firms within the industry face losing their existing customers to the new firms entering the industry, and are therefore forced to lower their prices to match the lower prices set by the new firms. New firms will continue to enter the industry until the price of the product is lowered to the point that it is the same as the average cost of producing the product, and all of the economic profit disappears.[7][8] When this happens, economic agents outside of the industry find no advantage to forming new firms that enter into the industry, the supply of the product stops increasing, and the price charged for the product stabilizes, settling into an equilibrium.[7][8][9]

text: The same is likewise true of the long run equilibria of monopolistically competitive industries and, more generally, any market which is held to be contestable. Normally, a firm that introduces a differentiated product can initially secure a temporary market power for a short while (See "Persistence" in Monopoly Profit). At this stage, the initial price the consumer must pay for the product is high, and the demand for, as well as the availability of the product in the market, will be limited. In the long run, however, when the profitability of the product is well established, and because there are few barriers to entry,[7][8][9] the number of firms that produce this product will increase until the available supply of the product eventually becomes relatively large, the price of the product shrinks down to the level of the average cost of producing the product. When this finally occurs, all monopoly profit associated with producing and selling the product disappears, and the initial monopoly turns into a competitive industry.[7][8][9] In the case of contestable markets, the cycle is often ended with the departure of the former "hit and run" entrants to the market, returning the industry to its previous state, just with a lower price and no economic profit for the incumbent firms.

text: Profit can, however, occur in competitive and contestable markets in the short run, as firms jostle for market position. Once risk is accounted for, long-lasting economic profit in a competitive market is thus viewed as the result of constant cost-cutting and performance improvement ahead of industry competitors, allowing costs to be below the market-set price.

text: In uncompetitive markets[edit]

text: Economic profit is, however, much more prevalent in uncompetitive markets such as in a perfect monopoly or oligopoly situation. In these scenarios, individual firms have some element of market power: Though monopolists are constrained by consumer demand, they are not price takers, but instead either price-setters or quantity setters. This allows the firm to set a price which is higher than that which would be found in a similar but more competitive industry, allowing them economic profit in both the long and short run.[7][8]

text: The existence of economic profits depends on the prevalence of barriers to entry: these stop other firms from entering into the industry and sapping away profits,[10] like they would in a more competitive market. In cases where barriers are present, but more than one firm, firms can collude to limit production, thereby restricting supply in order to ensure the price of the product remains high enough to ensure all of the firms in the industry achieve an economic profit.[7][10][11]

text: However, some economists, for instance Steve Keen, a professor at the University of Western Sydney, argue that even an infinitesimal amount of market power can allow a firm to produce a profit and that the absence of economic profit in an industry, or even merely that some production occurs at a loss, in and of itself constitutes a barrier to entry.

text: In a single-goods case, a positive economic profit happens when the firm's average cost is less than the price of the product or service at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity of output multiplied by the difference between the average cost and the price.

text: Government intervention[edit]

text: Often, governments will try to intervene in uncompetitive markets to make them more competitive. Antitrust (US) or competition (elsewhere) laws were created to prevent powerful firms from using their economic power to artificially create the barriers to entry they need to protect their economic profits.[8][9][10] This includes the use of predatory pricing toward smaller competitors.[7][10][11] For example, in the United States, Microsoft Corporation was initially convicted of breaking Anti-Trust Law and engaging in anti-competitive behavior in order to form one such barrier in United States v. Microsoft; after a successful appeal on technical grounds, Microsoft agreed to a settlement with the Department of Justice in which they were faced with stringent oversight procedures and explicit requirements[12] designed to prevent this predatory behaviour. With lower barriers, new firms can enter the market again, making the long run equilibrium much more like that of a competitive industry, with no economic profit for firms.

text: If a government feels it is impractical to have a competitive market – such as in the case of a natural monopoly – it will sometimes try to regulate the existing uncompetitive market by controlling the price firms charge for their product.[8][9] For example, the old AT&T (regulated) monopoly, which existed before the courts ordered its breakup, had to get government approval to raise its prices. The government examined the monopoly's costs, and determined whether or not the monopoly should be able raise its price and if the government felt that the cost did not justify a higher price, it rejected the monopoly's application for a higher price. Although a regulated firm will not have an economic profit as large as it would in an unregulated situation, it can still make profits well above a competitive firm in a truly competitive market.[9]

text: Results[edit]

text: In a perfectly competitive market, the demand curve facing a firm is perfectly elastic.

text: As mentioned above, the perfect competition model, if interpreted as applying also to short-period or very-short-period behaviour, is approximated only by markets of homogeneous products produced and purchased by very many sellers and buyers, usually organized markets for agricultural products or raw materials. In real-world markets, assumptions such as perfect information cannot be verified and are only approximated in organized double-auction markets where most agents wait and observe the behaviour of prices before deciding to exchange (but in the long-period interpretation perfect information is not necessary, the analysis only aims at determining the average around which market prices gravitate, and for gravitation to operate one does not need perfect information).

text: In the absence of externalities and public goods, perfectly competitive equilibria are Pareto-efficient, i.e. no improvement in the utility of a consumer is possible without a worsening of the utility of some other consumer. This is called the First Theorem of Welfare Economics. The basic reason is that no productive factor with a non-zero marginal product is left unutilized, and the units of each factor are so allocated as to yield the same indirect marginal utility in all uses, a basic efficiency condition (if this indirect marginal utility were higher in one use than in other ones, a Pareto improvement could be achieved by transferring a small amount of the factor to the use where it yields a higher marginal utility).

text: A simple proof assuming differentiable utility functions and production functions is the following. Let wj be the 'price' (the rental) of a certain factor j, let MPj1 and MPj2 be its marginal product in the production of goods 1 and 2, and let p1 and p2 be these goods' prices. In equilibrium these prices must equal the respective marginal costs MC1 and MC2; remember that marginal cost equals factor 'price' divided by factor marginal productivity (because increasing the production of good by one very small unit through an increase of the employment of factor j requires increasing the factor employment by 1/MPji and thus increasing the cost by wj/MPji, and through the condition of cost minimization that marginal products must be proportional to factor 'prices' it can be shown that the cost increase is the same if the output increase is obtained by optimally varying all factors). Optimal factor employment by a price-taking firm requires equality of factor rental and factor marginal revenue product, wj=piMPji, so we obtain p1=MC1=wj/MPj1, p2=MCj2=wj/MPj2.

text: Now choose any consumer purchasing both goods, and measure his utility in such units that in equilibrium his marginal utility of money (the increase in utility due to the last unit of money spent on each good), MU1/p1=MU2/p2, is 1. Then p1=MU1, p2=MU2. The indirect marginal utility of the factor is the increase in the utility of our consumer achieved by an increase in the employment of the factor by one (very small) unit; this increase in utility through allocating the small increase in factor utilization to good 1 is MPj1MU1=MPj1p1=wj, and through allocating it to good 2 it is MPj2MU2=MPj2p2=wj again. With our choice of units the marginal utility of the amount of the factor consumed directly by the optimizing consumer is again w, so the amount supplied of the factor too satisfies the condition of optimal allocation.

text: Monopoly violates this optimal allocation condition, because in a monopolized industry market price is above marginal cost, and this means that factors are underutilized in the monopolized industry, they have a higher indirect marginal utility than in their uses in competitive industries. Of course this theorem is considered irrelevant by economists who do not believe that general equilibrium theory correctly predicts the functioning of market economies; but it is given great importance by neoclassical economists and it is the theoretical reason given by them for combating monopolies and for antitrust legislation.

text: Profit[edit]

text: In contrast to a monopoly or oligopoly, in perfect competition it is impossible for a firm to earn economic profit in the long run, which is to say that a firm cannot make any more money than is necessary to cover its economic costs. In order not to misinterpret this zero-long-run-profits thesis, it must be remembered that the term 'profit' is used in different ways:

text:
Neoclassical theory defines profit as what is left of revenue after all costs have been subtracted; including normal interest on capital plus the normal excess over it required to cover risk, and normal salary for managerial activity. This means that profit is calculated after the actors are compensated for their opportunity costs.[13]
Classical economists on the contrary define profit as what is left after subtracting costs except interest and risk coverage. Thus, the classical approach does not account for opportunity costs.[13]

text: Thus, if one leaves aside risk coverage for simplicity, the neoclassical zero-long-run-profit thesis would be re-expressed in classical parlance as profits coinciding with interest in the long period (i.e. the rate of profit tending to coincide with the rate of interest). Profits in the classical meaning do not necessarily disappear in the long period but tend to normal profit. With this terminology, if a firm is earning abnormal profit in the short term, this will act as a trigger for other firms to enter the market. As other firms enter the market, the market supply curve will shift out, causing prices to fall. Existing firms will react to this lower price by adjusting their capital stock downward.[14] This adjustment will cause their marginal cost to shift to the left causing the market supply curve to shift inward.[14] However, the net effect of entry by new firms and adjustment by existing firms will be to shift the supply curve outward.[14] The market price will be driven down until all firms are earning normal profit only.[15]

text: It is important to note that perfect competition is a sufficient condition for allocative and productive efficiency, but it is not a necessary condition. Laboratory experiments in which participants have significant price setting power and little or no information about their counterparts consistently produce efficient results given the proper trading institutions.[16]

text: The shutdown point[edit]

text: In the short run, a firm operating at a loss [R < TC (revenue less than total cost) or P < ATC (price less than unit cost)] must decide whether to continue to operate or temporarily shutdown.[17] The shutdown rule states "in the short run a firm should continue to operate if price exceeds average variable costs."[18] Restated, the rule is that for a firm to continue producing in the short run it must earn sufficient revenue to cover its variable costs.[19] The rationale for the rule is straightforward. By shutting down a firm avoids all variable costs.[20] However, the firm must still pay fixed costs.[21] Because fixed cost must be paid regardless of whether a firm operates they should not be considered in deciding whether to produce or shutdown. Thus in determining whether to shut down a firm should compare total revenue to total variable costs (VC) rather than total costs (FC + VC). If the revenue the firm is receiving is greater than its total variable cost (R > VC) then the firm is covering all variable cost plus there is additional revenue ("contribution"), which can be applied to fixed costs. (The size of the fixed costs is irrelevant as it is a sunk cost. The same consideration is used whether fixed costs are one dollar or one million dollars.) On the other hand, if VC > R then the firm is not even covering its production costs and it should immediately shut down. The rule is conventionally stated in terms of price (average revenue) and average variable costs. The rules are equivalent (If you divide both sides of inequality TR > TVC by Q gives P > AVC). If the firm decides to operate, the firm will continue to produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs because these conditions insure not only profit maximization (loss minimization) but also maximum contribution.

text: Another way to state the rule is that a firm should compare the profits from operating to those realized if it shutdown and select the option that produces the greater profit.[22][23] A firm that is shutdown is generating zero revenue and incurring no variable costs. However, the firm still has to pay fixed cost. So the firm's profit equals fixed costs or −FC.[24] An operating firm is generating revenue, incurring variable costs and paying fixed costs. The operating firm's profit is R − VC − FC. The firm should continue to operate if R − VC − FC ≥ −FC, which simplified is R ≥ VC.[25][26] The difference between revenue, R, and variable costs, VC, is the contribution to fixed costs and any contribution is better than none. Thus, if R ≥ VC then firm should operate. If R < VC the firm should shut down.

text: A decision to shut down means that the firm is temporarily suspending production. It does not mean that the firm is going out of business (exiting the industry).[27] If market conditions improve, and prices increase, the firm can resume production. Shutting down is a short-run decision. A firm that has shut down is not producing. The firm still retains its capital assets; however, the firm cannot leave the industry or avoid its fixed costs in the short run. Exit is a long-term decision. A firm that has exited an industry has avoided all commitments and freed all capital for use in more profitable enterprises.[28]

text: However, a firm cannot continue to incur losses indefinitely. In the long run, the firm will have to earn sufficient revenue to cover all its expenses and must decide whether to continue in business or to leave the industry and pursue profits elsewhere. The long-run decision is based on the relationship of the price and long-run average costs. If P ≥ AC then the firm will not exit the industry. If P < AC, then the firm will exit the industry. These comparisons will be made after the firm has made the necessary and feasible long-term adjustments. In the long run a firm operates where marginal revenue equals long-run marginal costs.[29]

text: Short-run supply curve[edit]

text: The short run supply curve for a perfectly competitive firm is the marginal cost (MC) curve at and above the shutdown point. Portions of the marginal cost curve below the shut down point are not part of the SR supply curve because the firm is not producing in that range. Technically the SR supply curve is a discontinuous function composed of the segment of the MC curve at and above minimum of the average variable cost curve and a segment that runs with the vertical axis from the origin to but not including a point "parallel" to minimum average variable costs.[30]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Though there is no actual perfectly competitive market in the real world, a number of approximations exist:

text: An example is that of a large action of identical goods with all potential buyers and sellers present. By design, a stock exchange resembles this, not as a complete description (for no markets may satisfy all requirements of the model) but as an approximation. The flaw in considering the stock exchange as an example of Perfect Competition is the fact that large institutional investors (e.g. investment banks) may solely influence the market price. This, of course, violates the condition that "no one seller can influence market price".

text: Horse betting is also quite a close approximation. When placing bets, consumers can just look down the line to see who is offering the best odds, and so no one bookie can offer worse odds than those being offered by the market as a whole, since consumers will just go to another bookie. This makes the bookies price-takers. Furthermore, the product on offer is very homogeneous, with the only differences between individual bets being the pay-off and the horse. Of course, there are not an infinite amount of bookies, and some barriers to entry exist, such as a license and the capital required to set up.

text: Free software works along lines that approximate perfect competition as well. Anyone is free to enter and leave the market at no cost. All code is freely accessible and modifiable, and individuals are free to behave independently. Free software may be bought or sold at whatever price that the market may allow.

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: The use of the assumption of perfect competition as the foundation of price theory for product markets is often criticized as representing all agents as passive, thus removing the active attempts to increase one's welfare or profits by price undercutting, product design, advertising, innovation, activities that – the critics argue – characterize most industries and markets. These criticisms point to the frequent lack of realism of the assumptions of product homogeneity and impossibility to differentiate it, but apart from this the accusation of passivity appears correct only for short-period or very-short-period analyses, in long-period analyses the inability of price to diverge from the natural or long-period price is due to active reactions of entry or exit.

text: Some economists have a different kind of criticism concerning perfect competition model. They are not criticizing the price taker assumption because it makes economic agents too "passive", but because it then raises the question of who sets the prices. Indeed, if everyone is price taker, there is the need for a benevolent planner who gives and sets the prices, in other word, there is a need for a "price maker". Therefore, it makes the perfect competition model appropriate not to describe a decentralize "market" economy but a centralized one. This in turn means that such kind of model has more to do with communism than capitalism.[31]

text: Another frequent criticism is that it is often not true that in the short run differences between supply and demand cause changes in price; especially in manufacturing, the more common behaviour is alteration of production without nearly any alteration of price.[32]

text: The critics of the assumption of perfect competition in product markets seldom question the basic neoclassical view of the working of market economies for this reason. The Austrian School insists strongly on this criticism, and yet the neoclassical view of the working of market economies as fundamentally efficient, reflecting consumer choices and assigning to each agent his contribution to social welfare, is esteemed to be fundamentally correct.[33] Some non-neoclassical schools, like Post-Keynesians, reject the neoclassical approach to value and distribution, but not because of their rejection of perfect competition as a reasonable approximation to the working of most product markets; the reasons for rejection of the neoclassical 'vision' are different views of the determinants of income distribution and of aggregated demand.[34]

text: In particular, the rejection of perfect competition does not generally entail the rejection of free competition as characterizing most product markets; indeed it has been argued[35] that competition is stronger nowadays than in 19th century capitalism, owing to the increasing capacity of big conglomerate firms to enter any industry: therefore the classical idea of a tendency toward a uniform rate of return on investment in all industries owing to free entry is even more valid today; and the reason why General Motors, Exxon or Nestlé do not enter the computers or pharmaceutical industries is not insurmountable barriers to entry but rather that the rate of return in the latter industries is already sufficiently in line with the average rate of return elsewhere as not to justify entry. On this few economists, it would seem, would disagree, even among the neoclassical ones. Thus when the issue is normal, or long-period, product prices, differences on the validity of the perfect competition assumption do not appear to imply important differences on the existence or not of a tendency of rates of return toward uniformity as long as entry is possible, and what is found fundamentally lacking in the perfect competition model is the absence of marketing expenses and innovation as causes of costs that do enter normal average cost.

text: The issue is different with respect to factor markets. Here the acceptance or denial of perfect competition in labour markets does make a big difference to the view of the working of market economies. One must distinguish neoclassical from non-neoclassical economists. For the former, absence of perfect competition in labour markets, e.g. due to the existence of trade unions, impedes the smooth working of competition, which if left free to operate would cause a decrease of wages as long as there were unemployment, and would finally ensure the full employment of labour: labour unemployment is due to absence of perfect competition in labour markets. Most non-neoclassical economists deny that a full flexibility of wages would ensure the full employment of labour and find a stickiness of wages an indispensable component of a market economy, without which the economy would lack the regularity and persistence indispensable to its smooth working. This was, for example, John Maynard Keynes's opinion.

text: Particularly radical is the view of the Sraffian school on this issue: the labour demand curve cannot be determined hence a level of wages ensuring the equality between supply and demand for labour does not exist, and economics should resume the viewpoint of the classical economists, according to whom competition in labour markets does not and cannot mean indefinite price flexibility as long as supply and demand are unequal, it only means a tendency to equality of wages for similar work, but the level of wages is necessarily determined by complex sociopolitical elements; custom, feelings of justice, informal allegiances to classes, as well as overt coalitions such as trade unions, far from being impediments to a smooth working of labour markets that would be able to determine wages even without these elements, are on the contrary indispensable because without them there would be no way to determine wages.[36]

text: Equilibrium in perfect competition[edit]

text: Equilibrium in perfect competition is the point where market demands will be equal to market supply. A firm's price will be determined at this point. In the short run, equilibrium will be affected by demand. In the long run, both demand and supply of a product will affect the equilibrium in perfect competition. A firm will receive only normal profit in the long run at the equilibrium point.[37]


document_title: Labor Day

question_text: where was the first labor day celebration held

text: Labor Day

text: History[edit]

text: Beginning in the late 19th century, as the trade union and labor movements grew, different groups of trade unionists chose a variety of days on which to celebrate labor. In the United States, a September holiday called Labor Day was first proposed in the 1880s. An early history of the holiday dates the event's origins to a General Assembly of the Knights of Labor convened in New York City in September 1882.[2] In conjunction with this clandestine Knights assembly, a public parade of various labor organizations was held on September 5 under the auspices of the Central Labor Union (CLU) of New York.[2] Secretary of the CLU Matthew Maguire is credited for first proposing that a national Labor Day holiday subsequently be held on the first Monday of each September in the aftermath of this successful public demonstration.[3]

text: An alternative thesis is maintained that Peter J. McGuire of the American Federation of Labor put forward the first proposal in May 1882,[1] after witnessing the annual labour festival held in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.[4]

text: There was disagreement among labor unions at this time about when a holiday celebrating workers should be. Many advocated for May 1. However, President Cleveland was concerned that a labor holiday on May 1 would be a commemoration of the Haymarket Affair of May 1886,[5] as it eventually was under the name International Workers' Day.[6][7] In 1887, he publicly supported the September Labor Day holiday.[5][better source needed]

text: In 1887 Oregon became the first state of the United States to make Labor Day an official public holiday. By the time it became an official federal holiday in 1894, thirty U.S. states officially celebrated Labor Day.[1]

text: Following the deaths of workers at the hands of United States Army and United States Marshals Service during the Pullman Strike of 1894 in Chicago, the United States Congress unanimously voted to approve legislation to make Labor Day a national holiday and President Grover Cleveland signed it into law six days after the end of the strike.[8] Cleveland supported the creation of the national holiday in an attempt to shore up support among trade unions following the Pullman Strike.[9] The date of May 1 (an ancient European holiday known as May Day) was an alternative date, celebrated then (and now) as International Workers' Day, but President Cleveland was concerned that observance of Labor Day on May 1 would encourage Haymarket-style protests and would strengthen socialist and anarchist movements that, though distinct from one another, had rallied to commemorate the Haymarket Affair on International Workers' Day.[9][10]

text: All U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and the United States territories have made Labor Day a statutory holiday.

text: Celebrations[edit]

text: The form for the celebration of Labor Day was outlined in the first proposal for the holiday: A street parade to exhibit to the public "the strength and esprit de corps of the trade and labor organizations",[3] followed by a festival for the workers and their friends and families. This became the pattern for Labor Day celebrations. Speeches by prominent men and women were introduced later, as more emphasis was placed upon the civil significance of the holiday. Still later, by a resolution of the American Federation of Labor convention of 1909, the Sunday preceding Labor Day was adopted as Labor Sunday and dedicated to the spiritual and educational aspects of the Labor movement.[3]

text: Unofficial end of summer[edit]

text: Labor Day is called the "unofficial end of summer"[11] because it marks the end of the cultural summer season. Many take their two-week vacations during the two weeks ending Labor Day weekend.[citation needed] Many fall activities, such as school and sports begin about this time.

text: In the United States, many school districts resume classes around the Labor Day holiday weekend (see First day of school). Most begin the week before, making Labor Day weekend the first three-day weekend of the school calendar, while others return the Tuesday following Labor Day, allowing families one final getaway before the school year begins. Many districts across the Midwest are opting to begin school after Labor Day.[12]

text: In the U.S. state of Virginia, the amusement park industry has successfully lobbied for legislation requiring most school districts in the state to have their first day of school after Labor Day, in order to give families another weekend to visit amusement parks in the state. The relevant statute has been nicknamed the "Kings Dominion law" after one such park.[13]

text: In Minnesota the State Fair ends on Labor Day. Under state law public schools normally do not begin until after the holiday. Allowing time for school children to show 4-H projects at the Fair has been given as one reason for this timing.[14]

text: In U.S. sports, Labor Day weekend marks the beginning of many fall sports. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) teams usually play their first games that weekend and the National Football League (NFL) traditionally play their kickoff game the Thursday following Labor Day. The Southern 500 NASCAR auto race has been held on Labor Day weekend at Darlington Raceway in Darlington, South Carolina from 1950 to 2003 and since 2015. At Indianapolis Raceway Park, the National Hot Rod Association hold their finals of the NHRA U.S. Nationals drag race that weekend. Labor Day is the middle point between weeks one and two of the U.S. Open Tennis Championships held in Flushing Meadows, New York.

text: In fashion, Labor Day is (or was) considered the last day when it is acceptable to wear white[15] or seersucker.[16][17]

text: The "unofficial beginning of summer" in the U.S. is Memorial Day at the end of May.

text: Labor Day sales[edit]

text: To take advantage of large numbers of potential customers with time to shop, Labor Day has become an important weekend for discounts and allowances by many retailers in the United States, especially for back-to-school sales. Some retailers claim it is one of the largest sale dates of the year, second only to the Christmas season's Black Friday.[18]

text: Dates[edit]

text:
Year
Labor Day

1900
1928
1956
1984
2012
2040
2068
2096
September 3

1901
1929
1957
1985
2013
2041
2069
2097
September 2

1902
1930
1958
1986
2014
2042
2070
2098
September 1

1903
1931
1959
1987
2015
2043
2071
2099
September 7

1904
1932
1960
1988
2016
2044
2072
[nb 1]
September 5

1905
1933
1961
1989
2017
2045
2073

September 4

1906
1934
1962
1990
2018
2046
2074

September 3

1907
1935
1963
1991
2019
2047
2075

September 2

1908
1936
1964
1992
2020
2048
2076

September 7

1909
1937
1965
1993
2021
2049
2077

September 6

1910
1938
1966
1994
2022
2050
2078

September 5

1911
1939
1967
1995
2023
2051
2079

September 4

1912
1940
1968
1996
2024
2052
2080

September 2

1913
1941
1969
1997
2025
2053
2081

September 1

1914
1942
1970
1998
2026
2054
2082

September 7

1915
1943
1971
1999
2027
2055
2083

September 6

1916
1944
1972
2000
2028
2056
2084

September 4

1917
1945
1973
2001
2029
2057
2085

September 3

1918
1946
1974
2002
2030
2058
2086

September 2

1919
1947
1975
2003
2031
2059
2087

September 1

1920
1948
1976
2004
2032
2060
2088
2100
September 6

1921
1949
1977
2005
2033
2061
2089
2101
September 5

1922
1950
1978
2006
2034
2062
2090
2102
September 4

1923
1951
1979
2007
2035
2063
2091
2103
September 3

1924
1952
1980
2008
2036
2064
2092
2104
September 1

1925
1953
1981
2009
2037
2065
2093
2105
September 7

1926
1954
1982
2010
2038
2066
2094
2106
September 6

1927
1955
1983
2011
2039
2067
2095
2107
September 5


document_title: Friday the 13th (2009 film)

question_text: who played jason in friday the 13th 2009

text: Friday the 13th (2009 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: On June 13, 1980, a young Jason Voorhees (Caleb Guss) watches as his mother Pamela (Nana Visitor) is beheaded by a camp counselor (Stephanie Rhodes), who was trying to escape Mrs. Voorhees's murder spree around Camp Crystal Lake. Almost thirty years later, a group of friends—Wade (Jonathan Sadowski), Richie (Ben Feldman), Mike (Nick Mennell), Whitney (Amanda Righetti) and Amanda (America Olivo)—arrive at Crystal Lake on a camping trip to search for marijuana growing in the woods. That night, an adult Jason (Derek Mears), kills everyone except Whitney, whom he captures since she resembles his mother at a young age.

text: Six weeks later, Trent (Travis Van Winkle), his girlfriend Bree (Julianna Guill), and friends Chelsea (Willa Ford), Jenna (Danielle Panabaker), Chewie (Aaron Yoo), Nolan (Ryan Hansen), and Lawrence (Arlen Escarpeta) arrive at Trent's summer cabin on the shore of Crystal Lake. Meanwhile, Whitney's brother Clay Miller (Jared Padalecki) arrives at the lake to search for her. Clay visits Trent's cabin, and Jenna agrees to help him search for Whitney. As they search, Jason kills Chelsea and Nolan while they are wakeboarding on the lake. Clay and Jenna search the old Crystal Lake campgrounds where they see Jason hauling a body into the abandoned camp house.

text: Jenna and Clay run to warn the others about Jason, who arrives and disconnects the cabin's electricity. Jason kills Chewie and Lawrence outside the cabin and sneaks inside and kills Bree. Trent, Clay, and Jenna escape the cabin, but Trent is killed when he reaches the main road. Jason chases Clay and Jenna back to the campgrounds, where Clay discovers Jason's lair and finds his sister chained to a wall. Clay frees Whitney, and all three try to escape as Jason arrives. They find an exit, but Jenna is killed before she can escape. Jason corners Clay and Whitney; Whitney confuses Jason by pretending to be Pamela, then stabs him in the chest with his own machete. Clay dumps Jason's "corpse" into the lake, but before Clay and Whitney leave, Jason bursts through the wooden dock and grabs Whitney.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: New Line Cinema's Toby Emmerich approached Platinum Dunes producers Michael Bay, Brad Fuller and Andrew Form about remaking Friday the 13th in the same way they restarted The Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise. They agreed and spent over a year obtaining the film rights from Paramount Pictures, New Line and Crystal Lake Entertainment—the latter run by Friday the 13th creator Sean S. Cunningham.[8] Paramount executives gave Platinum Dunes producers a license to use anything from the original films, including the title. Paramount was given the rights to distribute the film internationally and New Line retained U.S. distribution rights.[9] Fuller and Form said they did not want to make Friday the 13th Part 11 or 12, but wanted to rework the mythology. They liked elements from the first four films—such as plot points and ways particular characters are killed—and planned to use these in their remake, which they did with Paramount's approval.[6] Fuller said, "I think there are moments we want to address, like how does the hockey mask happen. It’ll happen differently in our movie than in the third one. Where is Jason from, why do these killings happen, and what is Crystal Lake?"[6] The producers initially expressed an interest in using Tommy Jarvis, a recurring character who first appeared in Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter, but the idea was scrapped.[10]

text: Though the producers decided that Friday the 13th would not be an origin story, they said that they wanted to work out a logical origin story for Jason that would provide a sense of history as the film progressed.[10] Form and Fuller explained that the audience gets to see how Jason attains his famous hockey mask, and is given a reason for why he puts it on. Jason would transition from wearing a bag over his head—similar to the one seen in Friday the 13th Part 2—to finding and wearing his hockey mask, whereas in Friday the 13th Part III he obtains the mask off-screen and comes out of a barn already wearing it.[11]

text: Unlike both horror remakes, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003) and The Amityville Horror (2005)—which were also produced by Bay, Form, and Fuller—it was decided that Friday the 13th would not be a period piece. Form and Fuller said the film was not strictly a remake so there was no reason they could not set the story in the 2000s.[6] In October 2007, Damian Shannon and Mark Swift, the writers of Freddy vs. Jason, were hired to write a script for Friday the 13th.[12] Jonathan Liebesman was in negotiations to direct the film, but scheduling conflicts meant he was unavailable and Fuller and Form chose Marcus Nispel.[6] Nispel was apprehensive about taking the job, mainly because he would be taking over another film franchise, but Fuller eventually persuaded him to direct the project.[8] Principal photography began on April 21, 2008, in Austin, Texas, and finished on June 13, 2008.[13]

text: Casting[edit]

text:
Actor

Character

Padalecki, JaredJared Padalecki
as
Miller, ClayClay Miller

Panabaker, DanielleDanielle Panabaker
as
, JennaJenna

Righetti, AmandaAmanda Righetti
as
Miller, WhitneyWhitney Miller

Van Winkle, TravisTravis Van Winkle
as
, TrentTrent

Mears, DerekDerek Mears
as
Voorhees, JasonJason Voorhees

Guill, JuliannaJulianna Guill
as
, BreeBree

Yoo, AaronAaron Yoo
as
, ChewieChewie

Hansen, RyanRyan Hansen
as
, NolanNolan

Escarpeta, ArlenArlen Escarpeta
as
, LawrenceLawrence

Ford, WillaWilla Ford
as
, ChelseaChelsea

text: Stuntman Derek Mears was hired to portray Jason Voorhees at the recommendation of special make-up effects supervisor Scott Stoddard.[8][14] Before the producers contacted him, Mears had already heard about the production of a new Friday the 13th and had decided to start physical training so he could pursue the role. He was unaware that Stoddard and other industry professionals were suggesting him to the producers.[15] The studio worried that Mears' pleasant demeanor might affect his ability to portray a menacing character, but Mears assured them he was suitable for the role.[8] According to Mears, "They were like, 'You're really nice ... are you going to be able to switch over, right?' I was like, 'I cage fight..and I've got a lot of dad issues. So yeah.'".[8] Mears said he related to "Jason the victim" when he was growing up, and he wanted to portray Jason as a victim in the film. To Mears, Jason represents people who were bullied in high school—specifically those with physical deformities—for being outcasts. Jason is unusual because he exacts his revenge on those trying to take over his territory at Crystal Lake.[16]

text: When Mears went to audition for the role, he was asked, "Why do we need an actor as opposed to just a guy in a mask?" Mears said portraying Jason is similar to Greek Mask Work, in which the mask and the actor are separate entities, and depending on the scene, there will be various combinations of mask and actor in the performance. Mears said the energy from the actor's thoughts will be picked up by the camera. He compared his experience behind the camera to a stock car race: he is the driver and the effects team is his pit crew. As he performs, the effects team subtly suggest ways he can give the character more life on camera.[17]

text: Amanda Righetti had not read the script when she was offered the role of Whitney Miller. She wanted to be part of the Friday the 13th franchise from the start. Righetti said she wanted to act in the film after she read the script.[8] Jared Padalecki describes Clay Miller as a real hero because he sets out "to do the right thing" when his sister goes missing, and goes about it as a "lone wolf" who wants to take on the responsibility alone.[18] Adjustments were made to the filming schedule to accommodate Aaron Yoo, who portrays Chewie. Yoo had his appendix removed shortly before filming began, and could not film his scenes immediately. As soon as Yoo was ready for filming, Nispel immediately hung him upside down from some rafters, exposing the staples over his surgical wound for the character's post-death shot.[19]

text: Fuller and Form said the casting process for Friday the 13th was more difficult than that for The Texas Chainsaw Massacre because thirteen young actors were involved in Friday the 13th, as opposed to five in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre. The pair continually recast roles to find which actors worked best together. This recasting process lasted until the start of filming. Hostel: Part II's Richard Burgi, who was cast as Sheriff Bracke, did not sign his contract until twelve hours before he was due to start filming his scenes.[6]

text: Writing[edit]

text: When Shannon and Swift began writing the script for Friday the 13th, they imposed some rules based on their experiences of writing Freddy vs. Jason on themselves. They wanted their teenage characters to "sound normal". Shannon and Swift said they did not want the characters to know Jason's name or to become what they considered "the Scooby-Doo cliché where it's a bunch of kids trying to figure something out".[20] The writers also wanted to distance themselves from self-referential slasher films such as Scream and to give the film a gritty, more 1980s feel that had been lost in recent films. They wanted to create a quick, loose Jason. The writing team decided to create a version of Jason "who was actually in the woods surviving off the land", and whose killings are presented as a way of defending his territory rather than randomly murdering whoever came along.[21]

text:
"We felt it was important to go back to the basics and put Jason back in the woods again."

Mark Swift on conceptualizing a new Friday the 13th film.[21]

tag: div

text: The writers did not want to spend a lot of time covering Jason's childhood experiences, which they felt would remove the sense of mystery from the character. They tried to write scenes that would add verisimilitude, like the audience finding a deer carcass lying on the ground as they follow Jason through his underground tunnels. Fuller told the writers they would have to do without it because it would cost $100,000. Because of budget constraints, certain character deaths and the ending of the film were also scaled back from what Shannon and Swift originally envisioned.[20]

text: The writers had written a scene in which Willa Ford's character Chelsea is stranded on the lake for hours after she sees Jason standing on the shore.[21] Eventually, the girl would tire and drown. Shannon and Swift felt this was something they had not seen in slasher films, but later decided to make the death quicker and more visceral.[20] A similar incident occurred with Danielle Panabaker's character Jenna. Panabaker said Jenna was scripted to survive longer than she did in the final version of the film; Jenna was supposed to escape Jason's lair and recite a "cute line" about a second date with Clay before an elaborate fight sequence that ends in her death.[22] The writers wanted to strike a balance between finding new and interesting ways to kill characters and paying homage to popular death scenes that appeared in previous installments of the series. To accomplish this, Shannon and Swift included the presence of a wheelchair and a sweater in Jason's tunnels; the character Mark (Tom McBride) was a paraplegic who was killed by Jason in Friday the 13th Part 2 and Mrs. Voorhees wore the sweater in the original version of Friday the 13th.[20]

text: The writers altered Jason's character. Mears describes him as a combination of John Rambo, Tarzan, and the Abominable Snowman from Looney Tunes. To Mears, Jason is similar to Rambo because the audience sees him setting up the other characters to fall into his traps. Like Rambo, he is calculating because he feels he has been wronged and he is fighting back; he is supposed to be more sympathetic in this film.[17] However, Fuller and Form said they learned from their experience with The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning not to make Jason too sympathetic to the audience. They decided against an origin story because they did not want to focus on Jason's tormented childhood because the producers felt that would "demystify" the character in an unhelpful manner. Fuller said, "We do not want him to be sympathetic. Jason is not a comedic character, he is not sympathetic. He's a killing machine. Plain and simple."[6]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: The producers used Asylum Visual Effects to create digital effects for Friday the 13th. Although director Marcus Nispel is a proponent of practical effects, Asylum had to digitally create some shots to protect the actors and to allow the director to achieve a specific look. Visual effects supervisor Mitchell Drain assigned ten crew members to work on the visual effects; they first analyzed the script in pre-production to decide which shots would need digital effects. Asylum worked on 25 shots for the film.[23]

text: One of the first scenes Asylum was given was the scene depicting the death of Amanda, in which Jason ties her into her sleeping bag and hangs her over a campfire. The risk to the actor and the surrounding woodland was deemed too great to physically perform the scene. Asylum created a composite of two shots to show Amanda burning to death in her sleeping bag. Instead of creating a computer generated (CGI) model of the campfire, a real campfire was filmed. Asylum compositor John Stewart blended that footage with shots of the hanging sleeping bag into a single shot. Stewart digitally altered the flames to keep continuity between frames.[24] Another composite shot is used in the scene in which Chelsea is hit by a speedboat. Because the scene would be too dangerous for even a stuntperson to perform, Asylum digitally combined footage of Willa Ford reacting to an imaginary boat that runs over her with shots of the actual boat to create the effect.[25]

text: Asylum also enhanced some of Jason's signature machete kills. In several scenes, the company used a computer-generated machete because Nispel wanted to show multiple characters' deaths in one shot instead of cutting from the acts of murder to the aftermath of their deaths. In one scene, Jason kills Richie by slamming a machete into his head. Instead of using a real machete with a fake head, Nispel had Feldman act dead as Mears pulled a handle—with only a portion of the blade attached—away from Feldman's head. Then, Asylum digitally created the rest of the machete blade to complete the effect.[24] For this scene, Asylum adjusted the actor's facial expressions to create a "post mortem" look. The special effects team digitally drooped half of the actor's face to appear as though the nerves had been severed by Jason's machete.[25]

text: Asylum digitally created weapons for various scenes. In the scene in which Nolan is killed suddenly by a shot in the head from Jason's arrow, Asylum created the arrow in post-production. Another scene involved Jason hurling a hatchet at Lawrence as he runs away, striking him in the back. The shot of a hatchet flying through the air—in one instance appearing in the same frame as the actor—would be too difficult to achieve practically. Asylum rendered a complete 3D model of the hatchet then inserted the model into the frames leading up to the frame in which it hits the character in the back. One of the final images added by Asylum was for Trent's death scene. Here, Asylum digitally created a metal spike that bursts through Trent's chest as Jason slams him onto the back of a tow truck.[25]

text: Creating Jason[edit]

text: Effects artist Scott Stoddard described his look for Jason's face as a combination of Carl Fullerton's design for Friday the 13th Part 2 and Tom Savini's design for Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter. Stoddard's vision of Jason included hair loss, skin rashes, and the traditional deformities in his face. Stoddard tried to craft Jason's look so it would allow more human side of the character to be seen.[8] Mears was required to wear full body make-up from the chest upwards while performing as Jason. The actor wore a chest plate with fake skin that would adjust to his muscle movements. He wore a hump on his back to give the impression that Jason had scoliosis. A prosthetic eye was glued to Mears' face to show realistic eye movements.[17] Stoddard initially spent three-and-a-half hours applying the make-up to Mears' head and torso.[8] He was eventually able to reduce the required time to just over an hour for scenes in which Mears wore the hockey mask. For scenes in which Jason's face is revealed, it took approximately four hours to apply the make-up.[26]

text: For Jason's wardrobe, Mears was given a pair of combat boots and a "high-priced t-shirt" that allowed the special effects make-up to be seen through holes in the shirt. The jacket Jason wears in the film was created by combining a hunting jacket and a military jacket. Mears wanted to use the hunting jacket, but the creative team liked the way the military jacket billowed as he was making his "kill movements." The top of the hunting jacket was removed and placed over the top of the military jacket. Mears called it a "giant Frankenstein jacket." He describes Jason as leaner in this film because the character does not eat much. A leaner Jason was deemed more functional and allowed more emphasis to be placed on the hump on his back.[17] Stoddard was inspired by the third and fourth films when designing Jason's hockey mask. Using an original mold, Stoddard made six new versions of the mask. He said, "Because I didn't want to take something that already existed. There were things I thought were great, but there were things I wanted to change a bit. Make it custom, but keep all the fundamental designs. Especially the markings on the forehead and cheeks. Age them down a bit. Break them up."[8]

text: Music[edit]

text: Form and Fuller recognized the iconic status of the music used in the first four Friday the 13th films. For their 2009 film, they immediately had the studio attain the licensing rights to the music, which was composed and originally performed by Harry Manfredini. They did not plan to use the score in its entirety, but they used Steve Jablonsky to compose a score that was reminiscent of Manfredini's and created the atmosphere for the 2009 film.[6][27] Nispel contacted Jablonsky to score Friday the 13th after having worked with him on the remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre. Nispel told Jablonsky he wanted him to create something that Nispel could "whistle when [he] left the theater", but was subtle enough that it would not immediately register while watching the film. Nispel said, "I don't believe that, when you watch a Friday the 13th film, you want to feel like John Williams is sitting next to you with the London Symphony Orchestra".[28]

text: Release[edit]

text: On Friday, February 13, 2009,[7] Friday the 13th was released in 3,105 theaters in North America.[1] The 2009 film was given the widest release of any Friday the 13th film, including the crossover film with A Nightmare on Elm Street. It was released in nearly three times as many theaters as the original 1980 film and exceeded Freddy vs. Jason by 91 theaters.[29] Friday the 13th was also released in 2,100 theaters in 28 markets outside North America.[30] The film was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Apple TV on June 16, 2009.[31] The DVD and Blu-ray releases contain the theatrical release and an extended cut of the film.[32]

text: Box office[edit]

text: On its opening day, Friday the 13th grossed $19,293,446,[1] and immediately exceeded the individual box office grosses for Jason Takes Manhattan (1989), Jason Goes to Hell (1993), and Jason X (2002), which earned $14,343,976, $15,935,068, and $13,121,555, respectively.[29] From February 14–16, Friday the 13th earned an additional $24,292,003, making its four-day President's Day weekend total $43,585,449.[1] By the end of its three-day opening weekend, it was already the second highest grossing film in the series, having earned $40,570,365,[29] slightly exceeding The Grudge (2004) for the best 3-day weekend opening of any horror film.[33] When comparing the 2009 film's opening weekend to that of its 1980 counterpart in adjusted 2009 US dollars,[34] the original Friday the 13th film earned $17,251,975. Although the 2009 film made more money, when factoring in the number of theaters each film was released in, the 1980 film earned an average of $15,683 per theater, compared to the 2009 film's average of $13,066.[29][35]

text: Friday the 13th saw a significant drop in attendance in its second weekend at the box office. On its second Friday, the film earned $2,802,977—a decrease of 85.5% from its opening Friday.[1] By the end of its second weekend, the film had earned $7,942,472—a decrease of 80.4% from the previous weekend.[36] As a result, the film went from first place to sixth in the weekend box office chart.[37] By its third weekend, Friday the 13th had left the top ten, earning $3,689,156—a 53.6% decrease from its second weekend.[38] By the end of its box office run, Friday the 13th earned an estimated $65 million at the United States box office,[3] but failed to regain a top ten spot after its third weekend.[39]

text: As of July 2014[update],the 2009 film is the fifth-highest earning President's Day weekend with $45,033,454.[40] It is the eighth-highest grossing weekend in the month of February,[41] and the eighth- highest-grossing weekend for the winter season—the period from the first day after the New Year weekend until the first Thursday of March.[42] Friday the 13th finished as the fourth-highest grossing film of any February with $59.8 million, just behind Taken with $84.3 million, He's Just Not That into You with $77.2 million, and Madea Goes to Jail, with $60.9 million.[43]

text: Friday the 13th was the fifteenth-highest grossing R-rated film of 2009.[44] Because of the significant decrease in box office revenues in its second weekend, the film had the sixth-largest second-weekend drop.[45] It is the seventh-largest drop for a film that opened as the top-earning film in the United States.[46] With its $65 million revenue at the North American box office, Friday the 13th is the highest-grossing film among the recent slasher remakes, which comprise When a Stranger Calls (2006), Black Christmas (2006), Halloween (2007), Prom Night (2008), and My Bloody Valentine 3D (2009).[47] The film is ranked seventh-highest earning of all horror remakes,[48] and is the seventh-highest earning slasher film in unadjusted dollars.[49]

text: In addition to its North American box office gross, Friday the 13th earned over $9.5 million in foreign markets on its opening weekend.[50] The film's biggest markets were the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germany. Friday the 13th took in approximately $1.7 million in both the United Kingdom and Russia, an estimated $1.1 million in Spain, and $1 million in both Italy and Germany. According to Paramount, this was the largest opening outside North America of any of the Friday the 13th films.[30] The film finished its North American box office run with $65,002,019; coupled with its earnings of $27,688,218 outside North America, the film has accumulated $92,670,237 worldwide.[2][3] The film earned $10,344,904 in domestic video sales.[2]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Based on 166 reviews collected by review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Friday the 13th has a 25% approval rating from critics with an average score of 4.2 out of 10. The consensus reads: "Though technically well-constructed, Friday the 13th is a series rehash that features little to distinguish it from its predecessors."[51] Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, calculated an average score of 34 based on 29 reviews.[52] CinemaScore polls reported that average grade cinemagoers gave the film a "B-" on a scale of A+ to F.[53] Exit polls showed that 51% of the audience was male and 59% were at least 25 years old.[54]

text: Alonso Duralde wrote that the film should please slasher fans, but that it added nothing new to the genre or the franchise and would not appeal to people who did not like slasher films. Duralde criticized the film for adding a black and an Asian character in an attempt to "update the movie for the new millennium". He also said the prospect of another Friday the 13th—crafted by the film's "sequel-friendly" ending—did not leave him with a feeling of dread.[57] Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic said the film accepts the "ridiculousness" of what it is trying to accomplish—mainly the "death and dismemberment" of "party-hungry kids", and that audiences would enjoy it if they also recognized that. Although Goodykoontz acknowledges the unique touches the film brings to certain characters' deaths, he was unimpressed with the acting and said Padalecki's presence gave the film a "less-good episode of Supernatural" vibe.[58]

text: The Washington Post's Dan Zak wrote that the film fails to provide laughs, scares, suspense, or gore. Zak also said it fails to provide the exhibition of nudity expected of horror films that cannot deliver on the previously listed criteria.[59] Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times said Nispel captured the despair he created with his Texas Chainsaw Massacre remake. Olsen also said the film failed to provide the "giddiness", "teenage lust", and "rambunctiousness" that made the previous Friday the 13th films work.[60] Wesley Morris said Friday the 13th did have humor; he said the characters continually act the clichéd role of would-be-victim, making it hard to fear for their safety. In his opinion, the 2009 film lacked the "psycho-social" aspect—a mother killing out of revenge for her son's death—crafted by its 1980 predecessor, and ultimately the film is "more hilarious than terrifying".[61]

text: The New York Post's Kyle Smith said Nispel made no attempt to create a movie beyond blood and guts, and even those attempts were "forgettable". Smith said that apart from Clay and Trent, the rest of the cast were merely "faces in the crowd" with no attempt to give them any sort of backstory.[62] USA Today's Claudia Puig said that the film keeps to the same formula as its predecessors, with a story that adds little to nothing to the franchise. She also said Padalecki and Panabaker filled their lead roles well, and that Aaron Yoo's comic relief made him one of the most likable characters on screen.[55] Rob Nelson of Variety also praised Panabaker and Yoo's performances.[55]

text: In contrast to the film's detractors, The New York Times's Nathan Lee said Friday the 13th managed to "reboot the concept" of the original films with style. Lee said the film takes pleasure in killing off each of its characters, that there is a desire among cinemagoers for this type of material, and that Friday the 13th satisfies that desire.[5] Adam Graham from The Detroit News said the film is the most effective and scary film in the Friday the 13th series; he praised its choice of allowing Jason to run after his victims—as opposed to slowly walking behind them, as became prominent in later sequels—because it made him more menacing. Graham also said the film does not "soften" Jason's scariness by providing a sympathetic backstory.[63] Entertainment Weekly's Clark Collis said director Nispel made a competent film that performs better as a whole than the previously released remakes of Prom Night (2008) and My Bloody Valentine 3D (2009), although it does provide a few too many unbelievable character moments.[64]

text: Jason Anderson of the Toronto Star said the film added freshness to the standard formula of the previous films by focusing on the chasing and killing aspects instead of lingering on the prolonged suffering of victims like the Saw films.[65] IGN's Chris Carle said Aaron Yoo stole the film with his comic timing and with his "memorable death". Carle said Derek Mears' portrayal of Jason adds more to the character than being simply a stuntman; Mears's subtle movements, athleticism, and physicality created an imposing image of Jason.[56]


document_title: Chronology of computation of π

question_text: what is the highest number of decimal places for pi ever found

text: Chronology of computation of π

text: Before 1400[edit]

text:
Date
Who
Description/Computation method used
Value of pi
Decimal places
(world records
in bold)

2000? BCЕ

4 × (8 / 9)2
3.16045...
1

2000? BCЕ
Ancient Babylonians[1]
3 + 1 / 8
3.125
1

1800? BCE or before
Ancient Indians (Bharatiya) शतपथ ब्राह्मण SB 7.1.1.18 [2]
"स चतस्रः प्राचीरुपदधाति | द्वे पश्चात्तिरश्च्यौ द्वे पुरस्तात्तद्याश्चतस्रः
प्राचीरुपदधाति स आत्मा तद्यत्ताश्चतस्रो भवन्ति चतुर्विधो ह्ययमात्माथ ये पश्चात्ते सक्थ्यौ ये पुरस्तात्तौ बाहू यत्र वा आत्मा तदेव शिरः
sa catasraḥ prācīrupadadhāti | dve paścāttiraścyau dve purastāttadyāścatasraḥ prācīrupadadhāti sa ātmā tadyattāścatasro bhavanti caturvidho hyayamātmātha ye paścātte sakthyau ye purastāttau bāhū yatra vā ātmā tadeva śiraḥ
He puts on (the circular site) four (bricks) running eastwards 1; two behind running crosswise (from south to north), and two (such) in front. Now the four which he puts on running eastwards are the body; and as to there being four of these, it is because this body (of ours) consists, of four parts 2. The two at the back then are the thighs; and the two in front the arms; and where the body is that (includes) the head."[3]

25/8 = 3.125

1200? BCЕ
China[1]

3
0

800? BCЕ
Sulbasutras [4]
[5][6]

(6 / (2 + √2))2
3.088311 …
0

550? BCЕ
Bible (1 Kings 7:23)[1]
"...a molten sea, ten cubits from the one brim to the other: it was round all about,... a line of thirty cubits did compass it round about"
3
0

434 BCE
Anaxagoras attempted to square the circle[7]
compass and straightedge
Anaxagoras didn't offer any solution
0

c. 250 BCE
Archimedes[1]
223 / 71 < π < 22 / 7
3.140845... < π < 3.142857...
2

15 BCE
Vitruvius[5]
25 / 8
3.125
1

5
Liu Xin[5]
the exact method is unknown
3.1457
2

130
Zhang Heng (Book of the Later Han)[1]
√10 = 3.162277...
730/232
3.146551...
2

150
Ptolemy[1]
377 / 120
3.141666...
3

250
Wang Fan[1]
142 / 45
3.155555...
1

263
Liu Hui[1]
3.141024 < π < 3.142074
3927 / 1250
3.14159
5

400
He Chengtian[5]
111035 / 35329
3.142885...
2

480
Zu Chongzhi[1]
3.1415926 < π < 3.1415927
Zu's ratio 355 / 113
3.1415926
7

499
Aryabhata[1]
62832 / 20000
3.1416
3

640
Brahmagupta[1]
√10
3.162277...
1

800
Al Khwarizmi[1]

3.1416
3

1150
Bhāskara II[5]
3927 / 1250 and 754 / 240
3.1416
3

1220
Fibonacci[1]

3.141818
3

1320
Zhao Youqin[5]

3.1415926
7

text: From 1400 onwards[edit]

text:
Date
Who
Note
Decimal places
(world records in bold)

All records from 1400 onwards are given as the number of correct decimal places.

1400
Madhava of Sangamagrama
Discovered the infinite power series expansion of π,
now known as the Leibniz formula for pi[8]
10

1424
Jamshīd al-Kāshī[9]

16

1573
Valentinus Otho
355/113
6

1579
François Viète[10]

9

1593
Adriaan van Roomen[11]

15

1596
Ludolph van Ceulen

20

1615
32

1621
Willebrord Snell (Snellius)
Pupil of Van Ceulen
35

1630
Christoph Grienberger[12][13]

38

1665
Isaac Newton[1]

16

1681
Takakazu Seki[14]

11
16

1699
Abraham Sharp[1]
Calculated pi to 72 digits, but not all were correct
71

1706
John Machin[1]

100

1706
William Jones
Introduced the Greek letter 'π'

1719
Thomas Fantet de Lagny[1]
Calculated 127 decimal places, but not all were correct
112

1722
Toshikiyo Kamata

24

1722
Katahiro Takebe

41

1739
Yoshisuke Matsunaga

51

1748
Leonhard Euler
Used the Greek letter 'π' in his book Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum and assured its popularity.

1761
Johann Heinrich Lambert
Proved that π is irrational

1775
Euler
Pointed out the possibility that π might be transcendental

1789
Jurij Vega
Calculated 143 decimal places, but not all were correct
126

1794
Jurij Vega[1]
Calculated 140 decimal places, but not all were correct
136

1794
Adrien-Marie Legendre
Showed that π² (and hence π) is irrational, and mentioned the possibility that π might be transcendental.

Late 18th century
Anonymous manuscript
Turns up at Radcliffe Library, in Oxford, England, discovered by F. X. von Zach, giving the value of pi to 154 digits, 152 of which were correct
152

1824
William Rutherford[1]
Calculated 208 decimal places, but not all were correct
152

1844
Zacharias Dase and Strassnitzky[1]
Calculated 205 decimal places, but not all were correct
200

1847
Thomas Clausen[1]
Calculated 250 decimal places, but not all were correct
248

1853
Lehmann[1]

261

1853
Rutherford[1]

440

1874
William Shanks[1]
Took 15 years to calculate 707 decimal places, but not all were correct (the error was found by D. F. Ferguson in 1946)
527

1882
Ferdinand von Lindemann
Proved that π is transcendental (the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem)

1897
The U.S. state of Indiana
Came close to legislating the value 3.2 (among others) for π. House Bill No. 246 passed unanimously. The bill stalled in the state Senate due to a suggestion of possible commercial motives involving publication of a textbook.[15]
1

1910
Srinivasa Ramanujan
Found several rapidly converging infinite series of π, which can compute 8 decimal places of π with each term in the series. Since the 1980s, his series have become the basis for the fastest algorithms currently used by Yasumasa Kanada and the Chudnovsky brothers to compute π.

1946
D. F. Ferguson
Desk calculator
620

1947
Ivan Niven
Gave a very elementary proof that π is irrational

January 1947
D. F. Ferguson
Desk calculator
710

September 1947
D. F. Ferguson
Desk calculator
808

1949
D. F. Ferguson and John Wrench
Desk calculator
1,120

text: The age of electronic computers (from 1949 onwards)[edit]

text:
Date
Who
Implementation
Time
Decimal places
(world records in bold)

All records from 1949 onwards were calculated with electronic computers.

1949
John Wrench, and L. R. Smith
Were the first to use an electronic computer (the ENIAC) to calculate π (also attributed to Reitwiesner et al.) [16]
70 hours
2,037

1953
Kurt Mahler
Showed that π is not a Liouville number

1954
S. C. Nicholson & J. Jeenel
Using the NORC [17]
13 minutes
3,093

1957
George E. Felton
Ferranti Pegasus computer (London), calculated 10,021 digits, but not all were correct [18]

7,480

January 1958
Francois Genuys
IBM 704 [19]
1.7 hours
10,000

May 1958
George E. Felton
Pegasus computer (London)
33 hours
10,021

1959
Francois Genuys
IBM 704 (Paris)[20]
4.3 hours
16,167

1961
Daniel Shanks and John Wrench
IBM 7090 (New York)[21]
8.7 hours
100,265

1961
J.M. Gerard
IBM 7090 (London)
39 minutes
20,000

1966
Jean Guilloud and J. Filliatre
IBM 7030 (Paris)
28 hours[not in citation given]
250,000

1967
Jean Guilloud and M. Dichampt
CDC 6600 (Paris)
28 hours
500,000

1973
Jean Guilloud and Martin Bouyer
CDC 7600
23.3 hours
1,001,250

1981
Kazunori Miyoshi and Yasumasa Kanada
FACOM M-200

2,000,036

1981
Jean Guilloud
Not known

2,000,050

1982
Yoshiaki Tamura
MELCOM 900II

2,097,144

1982
Yoshiaki Tamura and Yasumasa Kanada
HITAC M-280H
2.9 hours
4,194,288

1982
Yoshiaki Tamura and Yasumasa Kanada
HITAC M-280H

8,388,576

1983
Yasumasa Kanada, Sayaka Yoshino and Yoshiaki Tamura
HITAC M-280H

16,777,206

October 1983
Yasunori Ushiro and Yasumasa Kanada
HITAC S-810/20

10,013,395

October 1985
Bill Gosper
Symbolics 3670

17,526,200

January 1986
David H. Bailey
CRAY-2

29,360,111

September 1986
Yasumasa Kanada, Yoshiaki Tamura
HITAC S-810/20

33,554,414

October 1986
Yasumasa Kanada, Yoshiaki Tamura
HITAC S-810/20

67,108,839

January 1987
Yasumasa Kanada, Yoshiaki Tamura, Yoshinobu Kubo and others
NEC SX-2

134,214,700

January 1988
Yasumasa Kanada and Yoshiaki Tamura
HITAC S-820/80

201,326,551

May 1989
Gregory V. Chudnovsky & David V. Chudnovsky
CRAY-2 & IBM 3090/VF

480,000,000

June 1989
Gregory V. Chudnovsky & David V. Chudnovsky
IBM 3090

535,339,270

July 1989
Yasumasa Kanada and Yoshiaki Tamura
HITAC S-820/80

536,870,898

August 1989
Gregory V. Chudnovsky & David V. Chudnovsky
IBM 3090

1,011,196,691

19 November 1989
Yasumasa Kanada and Yoshiaki Tamura
HITAC S-820/80

1,073,740,799

August 1991
Gregory V. Chudnovsky & David V. Chudnovsky
Homemade parallel computer (details unknown, not verified) [22]

2,260,000,000

18 May 1994
Gregory V. Chudnovsky & David V. Chudnovsky
New homemade parallel computer (details unknown, not verified)

4,044,000,000

26 June 1995
Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi
HITAC S-3800/480 (dual CPU) [23]

3,221,220,000

1995
Simon Plouffe
Finds a formula that allows the nth hexadecimal digit of pi to be calculated without calculating the preceding digits.

28 August 1995
Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi
HITAC S-3800/480 (dual CPU) [24]

4,294,960,000

11 October 1995
Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi
HITAC S-3800/480 (dual CPU) [25]

6,442,450,000

6 July 1997
Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi
HITACHI SR2201 (1024 CPU) [26]

51,539,600,000

5 April 1999
Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi
HITACHI SR8000 (64 of 128 nodes) [27]

68,719,470,000

20 September 1999
Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi
HITACHI SR8000/MPP (128 nodes) [28]

206,158,430,000

24 November 2002
Yasumasa Kanada & 9 man team
HITACHI SR8000/MPP (64 nodes), Department of Information Science at the University of Tokyo in Tokyo, Japan [29]
600 hours
1,241,100,000,000

29 April 2009
Daisuke Takahashi et al.
T2K Open Supercomputer (640 nodes), single node speed is 147.2 gigaflops, computer memory is 13.5 terabytes, Gauss–Legendre algorithm, Center for Computational Sciences at the University of Tsukuba in Tsukuba, Japan[30]
29.09 hours
2,576,980,377,524

text:
Date
Who
Implementation
Time
Decimal places
(world records in bold)

All records from Dec 2009 onwards are calculated and verified on servers and/or home computers with commercially available parts.

31 December 2009
Fabrice Bellard

Core i7 CPU at 2.93 GHz
6 GiB (1) of RAM
7.5 TB of disk storage using five 1.5 TB hard disks (Seagate Barracuda 7200.11 model)
64 bit Red Hat Fedora 10 distribution
Computation of the binary digits: 103 days
Verification of the binary digits: 13 days
Conversion to base 10: 12 days
Verification of the conversion: 3 days
Verification of the binary digits used a network of 9 Desktop PCs during 34 hours, Chudnovsky algorithm, see [31] for Bellard's homepage.[32]

131 days
2,699,999,990,000

2 August 2010
Shigeru Kondo[33]

using y-cruncher[34] by Alexander Yee
the Chudnovsky algorithm was used for main computation
verification used the Bellard & Plouffe formulas on different computers, both computed 32 hexadecimal digits ending with the 4,152,410,118,610th.
with 2 x Intel Xeon X5680 @ 3.33 GHz – (12 physical cores, 24 hyperthreaded)
96 GB DDR3 @ 1066 MHz – (12 × 8 GB – 6 channels) – Samsung (M393B1K70BH1)
1 TB SATA II (Boot drive) – Hitachi (HDS721010CLA332), 3 × 2 TB SATA II (Store Pi Output) – Seagate (ST32000542AS) 16 x 2 TB SATA II (Computation) – Seagate (ST32000641AS)
Windows Server 2008 R2 Enterprise x64
Computation of binary digits: 80 days
Conversion to base 10: 8.2 days
Verification of the conversion: 45.6 hours
Verification of the binary digits: 64 hours (primary), 66 hours (secondary)
Verification of the binary digits were done simultaneously on two separate computers during the main computation.[35]

90 days
5,000,000,000,000

17 October 2011
Shigeru Kondo[36]

using y-cruncher by Alexander Yee
Verification: 1.86 days and 4.94 days

371 days
10,000,000,000,050

28 December 2013
Shigeru Kondo[37]

using y-cruncher by Alexander Yee
with 2 x Intel Xeon E5-2690 @ 2.9 GHz – (16 physical cores, 32 hyperthreaded)
128 GB DDR3 @ 1600 MHz – 8 x 16 GB – 8 channels
Windows Server 2012 x64
Verification: 46 hours

94 days
12,100,000,000,050

8 October 2014
Sandon Nash Van Ness "houkouonchi"[38]

using y-cruncher by Alexander Yee
with 2 x Xeon E5-4650L @ 2.6 GHz
192 GB DDR3 @ 1333 MHz
24 x 4 TB + 30 x 3 TB
Verification: 182 hours

208 days
13,300,000,000,000

11 November 2016
Peter Trueb[39][40]

using y-cruncher by Alexander Yee
with 4 x Xeon E7-8890 v3 @ 2.50 GHz (72 cores, 144 threads)
1.25 TB DDR4
20 x 6 TB
Verification: 28 hours[41]

105 days
22,459,157,718,361[42]