document_title: History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–99)

question_text: who sent the first english settlers to jamestown

question_tokens: who sent the first english settlers to jamestown

text: History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–99)

text: Arrival and First Landing[edit]

text: Virginia Company of London sent an expedition to establish a settlement in the Virginia Colony in December 1606. The expedition consisted of three ships, Susan Constant (sometimes known as Sarah Constant), Godspeed, and Discovery. The Discovery was the smallest ship; the largest ship, the Susan Constant, was captained by Christopher Newport. The ships left Blackwall, now part of London, with 105 men and boys and 39 crew-members.[1][2]

text: By April 6, 1607, Godspeed, Susan Constant and Discovery arrived at the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico, where they stopped for provisions before continuing their journey. In April 1607, the expedition reached the southern edge of the mouth of what is now known as the Chesapeake Bay. After an unusually long journey of more than four months, the 104 men and boys (one passenger of the original 105 died during the journey) arrived at their chosen settlement spot in Virginia.[3] There were no women on the first ships.[4]

text: Arriving at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay in late April, they named the Virginia capes after the sons of their king, the southern Cape Henry, for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the northern Cape Charles, for his younger brother, Charles, Duke of York. On April 26, 1607, upon landing at Cape Henry, Chaplain Robert Hunt offered a prayer, and they set up a cross near the site of the current Cape Henry Memorial. This site came to be known as the "first landing." A party of the men explored the area and had a minor conflict with some Virginia Indians.[5]

text: Exploration, seeking a site[edit]

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text: After the expedition arrived in what is now Virginia, sealed orders from the Virginia Company were opened. These orders named Captain John Smith as a member of the governing Council. Smith had been arrested for mutiny during the voyage and was incarcerated aboard one of the ships. He had been scheduled to be hanged upon arrival, but was freed by Captain Newport after the opening of the orders. The same orders also directed the expedition to seek an inland site for their settlement, which would afford protection from enemy ships.

text: Obedient to their orders, the settlers and crewmembers re-boarded their three ships and proceeded into the Chesapeake Bay. They landed again at what is now called Old Point Comfort in the City of Hampton. In the following days, seeking a suitable location for their settlement, the ships ventured upstream along the James River. Both the James River and the settlement they sought to establish, Jamestown (originally called "James His Towne") were named in honor of King James I.

text: The selection of Jamestown[edit]

text: On May 14, 1607, the colonists chose Jamestown Island for their settlement pretty much because the Virginia Company advised them to select a location that could be easily defended from attacks by other European states that were also establishing New World colonies and were periodically at war with England, notably the Dutch Republic, France, and Spain.

text: The island fit the criteria as it had excellent visibility up and down the James River, and it was far enough inland to minimize the potential of contact and conflict with enemy ships. The water immediately adjacent to the land was deep enough to permit the colonists to anchor their ships, yet have an easy and quick departure if necessary. An additional benefit of the site was that the land was not occupied by the Virginia Indians, most of whom were affiliated with the Powhatan Confederacy. Largely cut off from the mainland, the shallow harbor afforded the earliest settlers docking of their ships. This was its greatest attraction, but it also created a number of challenging problems for the settlers.

text: Construction of the fort[edit]

text: The settlers came ashore and quickly set about constructing their initial fort. Despite the immediate area of Jamestown being uninhabited, the settlers were attacked less than two weeks after their arrival on May 14, by Paspahegh Indians who succeeded in killing one of the settlers and wounding eleven more. Within a month, James Fort covered an acre on Jamestown Island. The wooden palisaded walls formed a triangle around a storehouse, church, and a number of houses. The fort burned down the following year.[6]

text: It soon became apparent why the Virginia Indians did not occupy the site: Jamestown Island, then a peninsula, is a swampy area, and its isolation from the mainland meant that there was limited hunting available, as most game animals required larger foraging areas. The settlers quickly hunted and killed off all the large and smaller game animals that were found on the tiny peninsula. In addition, the low, marshy area was infested with airborne pests, including mosquitoes, which carried malaria, and the brackish water of the tidal James River was not a good source of water. Over 135 settlers died from malaria, and drinking the salinated and contaminated water caused many to suffer from saltwater poisoning, fevers, and dysentery.

text: Original Council, notables of Jamestown in 1607[edit]

text: King James I had outlined the members of the Council to govern the settlement in the sealed orders which left London with the colonists in 1606.[7]

text: Those named for the initial Council were:

text:
Bartholomew Gosnold, Captain of Godspeed
Christopher Newport, Captain of Susan Constant, later of Sea Venture
George Kendall, later executed by capital punishment in Jamestown
John Martin, later founder of Martin's Brandon Plantation
George Percy, twice president of the council
John Ratcliffe, Captain of Discovery, second President of the Council
John Smith, third President of the Council, and author of many books from the period.
Edward Maria Wingfield, first President of the Council at Jamestown

text: The Council received additional members from the First and Second Supply missions brought by Captain Newport. These were:

text:
Matthew Scrivener (First Supply)
Peter Winne (Second Supply)

text: Also notable among the first settlers was:

text: Robert Hunt, chaplain who gave the first Christian prayer at Cape Henry on April 26, 1607, and held open-air services at Jamestown until a church was built there.

text: Many of the settlers who came over on the initial three ships were not well-equipped for the life they found in Jamestown. A number of the original settlers were upper-class gentlemen who were not accustomed to manual labor; the group included very few farmers or skilled laborers.[8] The climate, location, and makeup of the settlement resulted in many settlers dying of disease and starvation.

text: First and Second Supply missions[edit]

text: By June 15, the settlers finished building the triangular James Fort. A week later, Newport sailed back for London on Susan Constant with a load of pyrite ("fools’ gold") and other supposedly precious minerals, leaving behind 104 colonists and Discovery. Newport returned twice from England with additional supplies in the following 18 months, leading what were termed the First and Second Supply missions.

text: First Supply[edit]

text: The "First Supply" arrived on January 2, 1608. It contained insufficient provisions and more than 70 new colonists.[9] Despite original intentions to grow food and trade with the Virginia Indians, the barely surviving colonists became dependent upon supply missions.

text: Second Supply[edit]

text: On October 1, 1608, 70 new settlers arrived aboard the English "Mary and Margaret" with the Second Supply, following a journey of approximately three months. Included in the Second Supply were Thomas Graves, Thomas Forrest, Esq and "Mistress Forrest and Anne Burras her maide." Mistress Forrest and Anne Burras were the first two women known to have come to the Jamestown Colony. Remains unearthed at Jamestown in 1997 may be those of Mistress Forrest.[10]

text: Also included on the Second Supply were the first non-English settlers. The company recruited these as skilled craftsmen and industry specialists: soap-ash, glass, lumber milling (wainscot, clapboard, and ‘deal’ — planks, especially soft wood planks) and naval stores (pitch, turpentine, and tar).[11][12][13][14][15][16] Among these additional settlers were eight "Dutch-men" (consisting of unnamed craftsmen and three who were probably the wood-mill-men — Adam, Franz and Samuel) "Dutch-men" (probably meaning German or German-speakers),[17] Polish and Slovak craftsmen,[11][12][13][14][15][16] who had been hired by the Virginia Company of London's leaders to help develop and manufacture profitable export products. There has been debate about the nationality of the specific craftsmen, and both the Germans and Poles claim the glassmaker for one of their own, but the evidence is insufficient.[18] Ethnicity is further complicated by the fact that the German minority in Royal Prussia lived under Polish control during this period. These workers staged the first recorded strike in Colonial America for the right to vote in the colony's 1619 election.

text: William Volday/Wilhelm Waldi, a Swiss German mineral prospector, was also among those who arrived in 1608. His mission was seeking a silver reservoir that was believed to be within the proximity of Jamestown.[19] Some of the settlers were artisans who built a glass furnace which became the first proto-factory in British North America. Additional craftsmen produced soap, pitch, and wood building supplies. Among all of these were the first made-in-America products to be exported to Europe.[20] However, despite all these efforts, profits from exports were not sufficient to meet the expenses and expectations of the investors back in England, and no silver or gold had been discovered, as earlier hoped.

text: Jamestown under John Smith's leadership[edit]

text: Virginia Company of London's unrealistic expectations[edit]

text: The investors of the Virginia Company of London expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments. With the Second Supply, they expressed their frustrations and made demands upon the leaders of Jamestown in written form.

text: It fell to the third president of the Council to deliver a reply. By this time, Wingfield and Ratcliffe had been replaced by John Smith. Ever bold, Smith delivered what must have been a wake-up call to the investors in London. In what has been termed "Smith's Rude Answer", he composed a letter, writing (in part):

text: Smith did begin his letter with something of an apology, saying "I humbly intreat your Pardons if I offend you with my rude Answer...",[21] although at the time, the word ‘rude’ was acknowledged to mean ‘unfinished’ or ‘rural’, in the same way modern English uses ‘rustic’.

text: There are strong indications that those in London comprehended and embraced Smith's message. Their Third Supply mission was by far the largest and best equipped. They even had a new purpose-built flagship constructed, Sea Venture, placed in the most experienced of hands, Christopher Newport. With a fleet of no fewer than eight ships, the Third Supply, led by Sea Venture, left Plymouth in June, 1609.

text: On the subject of the Virginia Company, it is notable that, throughout its existence, Sir Edwin Sandys, was a leading force. He, of course, also hoped for profits, but also his goals included a permanent colony which would enlarge English territory, relieve the nation's overpopulation, and expand the market for English goods. He is closely identified with a faction of the company led by Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton. Although profits proved elusive for their investors, the visions for the Colony of Sir Edwin Sandys and the Earl of Southampton were eventually accomplished.

text: Smith's role[edit]

text: In the months before becoming president of the colony for a year in September 1608, Captain John Smith did considerable exploration up the Chesapeake Bay and along the various rivers. He is credited by legend with naming Stingray Point (near present-day Deltaville in Middlesex County for an incident there).

text: Smith was always seeking a supply of food for the colonists, and he successfully traded for food with the Nansemonds, who were located along the Nansemond River in the modern-day City of Suffolk, and several other groups. However, while leading one food-gathering expedition in December 1607 (before his term as colony president), this time up the Chickahominy River west of Jamestown, his men were set upon by Powhatan Indians. As his party was being slaughtered around him, Smith strapped his Indian guide in front of him as a shield and escaped with his life but was captured by Opechancanough, the Powhatan chief's half-brother. Smith gave him a compass which pleased the warrior and made him decide to let Smith live.

text: Smith was taken before Wahunsunacock, who was commonly referred to as Chief Powhatan, at the Powhatan Confederacy's seat of government at Werowocomoco on the York River. However, 17 years later, in 1624, Smith first related that when the chief decided to execute him, this course of action was stopped by the pleas of Chief Powhatan's young daughter, Pocahontas, who was originally named "Matoaka" but whose nickname meant "Playful Mischief". Many historians today find this account dubious, especially as it was omitted in all his previous versions. Smith returned to Jamestown just in time for the First Supply, in January 1608.

text: In September 1609, Smith was wounded in an accident. He was walking with his gun in the river, and the powder was in a pouch on his belt. His powder bag exploded. In October, he was sent back to England for medical treatment.

text: While back in England, Smith wrote A True Relation and The Proceedings of the English Colony of Virginia about his experiences in Jamestown. These books, whose accuracy has been questioned by some historians due to some extent by Smith's boastful prose, were to generate public interest and new investment for the colony.

text: Pocahontas[edit]

text: Although the life of Chief Powhatan's young daughter, Pocahontas, would be largely tied to the English after legend credits her with saving John Smith's life after his capture by Opechancanough, her contacts with Smith himself were minimal. However, records indicate that she became something of an emissary to the colonists at Jamestown Island. During their first winter, following an almost complete destruction of their fort by a fire in January 1608, Pocahontas brought food and clothing to the colonists. She later negotiated with Smith for the release of Virginia Indians who had been captured by the colonists during a raid to gain English weaponry.

text: During the next several years, the relationship between the Virginia Indians and the colonists became more strained, never more so than during the period of poor crops for both the natives and colonists which became known as the Starving Time in late 1609 and early 1610. Chief Powhatan relocated his principal capital from Werowocomoco, which was relatively close to Jamestown along the north shore of the York River, to a point more inland and secure along the upper reaches of the Chickahominy River.

text: In April 1613, Pocahontas and her husband, Kocoum were residing at Passapatanzy, a village of the Patawomecks, a Powhatan Confederacy tribe which did some trading with Powhatans. They lived in present-day Stafford County on the Potomac River near Fredericksburg, about 65 miles (105 km) from Werowocomoco. She was abducted by Englishmen whose leader was Samuel Argall, and transported about 90 miles (140 km) south to the English settlement at Henricus on the James River. There, Pocahontas converted to Christianity and took the name "Rebecca" under the tutelage of Reverend Alexander Whitaker who had arrived in Jamestown in 1611. She married prominent planter John Rolfe, who had lost his first wife and child in the journey from England several years earlier, which served to greatly improve relations between the Virginia Native Americans and the colonists for several years. However, when she and John Rolfe took their young son Thomas Rolfe on a public relations trip to England to help raise more investment money for the Virginia Company, she became ill and died just as they were leaving to return to Virginia. Her interment was at St George's Church in Gravesend.

text: The Starving Time[edit]

text: What became known as the "Starving Time" in the Virginia Colony occurred during the winter of 1609–10. Only 60 of 500 English colonists survived.[22][23][24]

text: The colonists, the first group of whom had originally arrived at Jamestown on May 14, 1607, had never planned to grow all of their own food. Instead, their plans also depended upon trade with the local Virginia Indians to supply them with enough food between the arrival of periodic supply ships from England, upon which they also relied.

text: This period of extreme hardship for the colonists began in 1609 with a drought which caused their already limited farming activities to produce even fewer crops than usual. Then, there were problems with both of their other sources for food.

text: An unexpected delay occurred during the Virginia Company of London's Third Supply mission from England due to a major hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean. A large portion of the food and supplies had been aboard the new flagship of the Virginia Company, Sea Venture, which became shipwrecked at Bermuda and separated from the other ships, seven of which arrived at the colony with even more new colonists to feed, and few supplies, most of which had been aboard the larger flagship.

text: The impending hardship was further compounded by the loss of their most skillful leader in dealing with the Powhatan Confederacy in trading for food: Captain John Smith. He became injured in August 1609 in a gunpowder accident, and was forced to return to England for medical attention in October 1609. After Smith left, Chief Powhatan severely curtailed trading with the colonists for food. Neither the missing Sea Venture nor any other supply ship arrived as winter set upon the inhabitants of the young colony in late 1609.

text: When the survivors of the shipwreck of the Third Supply mission's flagship Sea Venture finally arrived at Jamestown the following May 23 in two makeshift ships they had constructed while stranded on Bermuda for nine months, they found fewer than 100 colonists still alive, many of whom were sick. Worse yet, the Bermuda survivors had brought few supplies and only a small amount of food with them, expecting to find a thriving colony at Jamestown.

text: Thus, even with the arrival of the two small ships from Bermuda under Captain Christopher Newport, they were faced with abandoning Jamestown and returning to England. On June 7, 1610, both groups of survivors (from Jamestown and Bermuda) boarded ships, and they all set sail down the James River toward the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean.

text: Shortly after they had abandoned Jamestown, they came upon a fleet of three supply ships arriving from England, commanded by a new governor, The 3rd Baron De La Warr. The two groups met on the James River on June 9, 1610 near Mulberry Island (adjacent to present-day Fort Eustis in Newport News).

text: Third supply[edit]

text: With the new supply mission, Lord De La Warr, the new Governor, often known in modern times as "Lord Delaware", brought additional colonists, a doctor, food, and much-needed supplies. He also was of a strong determination that Jamestown and the colony were not to be abandoned. He turned the departing ships around and brought the entire group back to Jamestown. This was certainly not a popular decision at the time with at least some of the group, but Lord Delaware was to prove a new kind of leader for Virginia.

text: Included in those returning to Jamestown was a colonist whose wife and child had died during the shipwreck of the Sea Venture and the time at Bermuda. A businessman, he had with him some seeds for a new strain of tobacco and also some untried marketing ideas. That colonist was John Rolfe. Despite his misfortune to that point, history records that he would change the future of the colony as much as Lord Delaware's timely arrival had.

text: Sea Venture[edit]

text: Sea Venture was the new flagship of the Virginia Company. Leaving England in 1609, and leading this Third Supply to Jamestown as "Vice Admiral" and commanding Sea Venture, Christopher Newport was in charge of a nine-vessel fleet. Aboard the flagship Sea Venture was the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Gates, William Strachey and other notable personages in the early history of English colonization in North America.

text: While at sea, the fleet encountered a strong storm, perhaps a hurricane, which lasted for three days. Sea Venture and one other ship were separated from the seven other vessels of the fleet. Sea Venture was deliberately driven onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent her sinking. The 150 passengers and crew members were all landed safely but the ship was now permanently damaged.[25]

text: Sea Venture's longboat was fitted with a mast and sent to find Virginia but it and its crew were never seen again. The remaining survivors spent nine months on Bermuda building two smaller ships, Deliverance and Patience from Bermuda cedar and materials salvaged from Sea Venture.

text: Leaving two men at Bermuda to maintain England's claim to the archipelago, the remainder sailed to Jamestown, finally arriving on May 23, 1610. They found the Virginia Colony in ruins and practically abandoned. Of 500 settlers who had preceded them to Jamestown, they found fewer than 100 survivors, many of whom were sick or dying. It was decided to abandon the colony and on June 7, everyone was placed aboard the ships to return to England.

text: Renewed interest, Lord De La Warr and more supplies[edit]

text: During the same period that Sea Venture suffered its misfortune and its survivors were struggling in Bermuda to continue on to Virginia, back in England, the publication of Captain John Smith's books of his adventures in Virginia sparked a resurgence in interest in the colony. This helped lead to the dispatch in early 1610 of additional colonists, more supplies, and a new governor, Thomas West, Baron De La Warr.

text: On June 9, 1610, Lord De La Warr and his party arrived on the James River shortly after Deliverance and Patience had abandoned Jamestown. Intercepting them about 10 miles (16 km) downstream from Jamestown near Mulberry Island, the new governor forced the remaining 90 settlers to return, thwarting their plans to abandon the colony. Deliverance and Patience turned back, and all the settlers were landed again at Jamestown.[26]

text: Then, Sir George Somers returned to Bermuda with Patience to obtain more food supplies, but he died on the island that summer. His nephew, Matthew Somers, Captain of Patience, took the ship back to Lyme Regis, England instead of Virginia (leaving a third man behind). The Third Charter of the Virginia Company was then extended far enough across the Atlantic to include Bermuda in 1612. (Although a separate company, the Somers Isles Company, would be spun off to administer Bermuda from 1615, the first two successful English colonies would retain close ties for many more generations, as was demonstrated when Virginian general George Washington called upon the people of Bermuda for aid during the American War of Independence). In 1613, Sir Thomas Dale founded the settlement of Bermuda Hundred on the James River, which, a year later, became the first incorporated town in Virginia.

text: Expansion beyond Jamestown[edit]

text: By 1611, a majority of the colonists who had arrived at the Jamestown settlement had died and its economic value was negligible with no active exports to England and very little internal economic activity. Only financial incentives including a promise of more land to the west from King James I to investors financing the new colony kept the project afloat.

text: First Anglo-Powhatan War[edit]

text: The Anglo-Powhatan Wars were three wars fought between English settlers of the Virginia Colony, and Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy in the early seventeenth century. The First War started in 1610, and ended in a peace settlement in 1614.

text: Tobacco[edit]

text: In 1610, John Rolfe, whose wife and a child had died in Bermuda during passage in the Third Supply to Virginia, was just one of the settlers who had arrived in Jamestown following the shipwreck of Sea Venture. However, his major contribution is that he was the first man to successfully raise export tobacco in the Colony (although the colonists had begun to make glass artifacts to export immediately after their arrival). The native tobacco raised in Virginia prior to that time, Nicotiana rustica, was not to the liking of the Europeans but Rolfe had brought some seed for Nicotiana tabacum with him from Bermuda.

text: Although most people "wouldn't touch" the crop, Rolfe was able to make his fortune farming it, successfully exporting beginning in 1612. Soon almost all other colonists followed suit, as windfall profits in tobacco briefly lent Jamestown something like a gold rush atmosphere. Among others, Rolfe quickly became both a wealthy and prominent man. He married the young Virginia Indian woman Pocahontas on April 24, 1614. They lived first across the river from Jamestown, and later at his Varina Farms plantation near Henricus. Their son, Thomas Rolfe, was born in 1615.

text: Governor Dale, Dale's Code[edit]

text: In 1611, the Virginia Company of London sent Sir Thomas Dale to act as deputy-governor or as high marshall for the Virginia Colony under the authority of Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (Lord Delaware). He arrived at Jamestown on May 19 with three ships, additional men, cattle, and provisions. Finding the conditions unhealthy and greatly in need of improvement, he immediately called for a meeting of the Jamestown Council, and established crews to rebuild Jamestown.

text: He served as Governor for 3 months in 1611, and again for a two-year period between 1614 and 1616. It was during his administration that the first code of laws of Virginia, nominally in force from 1611 to 1619, was effectively tested. This code, entitled "Articles, Lawes, and Orders Divine, Politique, and Martiall" (popularly known as Dale's Code), was notable for its pitiless severity, and seems to have been prepared in large part by Dale himself.

text: Henricus[edit]

text: Seeking a better site than Jamestown with the thought of possibly relocating the capital, Thomas Dale sailed up the James River (also named after King James) to the area now known as Chesterfield County. He was apparently impressed with the possibilities of the general area where the Appomattox River joins the James River, until then occupied by the Appomattoc Indians, and there are published references to the name "New Bermudas" although it apparently was never formalized. (Far from the mainland of North America, the archipelago of Bermuda had been established as part of the Virginia Colony in 1612 following the shipwreck of Sea Venture in 1609).

text: A short distance further up the James, in 1611, he began the construction of a progressive development at Henricus on and about what was later known as Farrars Island. Henricus was envisioned as possible replacement capital for Jamestown, though it was eventually destroyed during the Indian Massacre of 1622, during which a third of the colonists were killed.

text: An investor relations trip to England[edit]

text: In 1616, Governor Dale joined John Rolfe and Pocahontas and their young son Thomas as they left their Varina Farms plantation for a public relations mission to England, where Pocahontas was received and treated as a form of visiting royalty by Queen Anne. This stimulated more interest in investments in the Virginia Company, the desired effect. However, as the couple prepared to return to Virginia, Pocahontas died of an illness at Gravesend on March 17, 1617, where she was buried. John Rolfe returned to Virginia alone once again, leaving their son Thomas Rolfe, then a small child, in England to obtain an education.

text: Once back in Virginia, Rolfe married Jane Pierce and continued to improve the quality of his tobacco with the result that by the time of his death in 1622, the Colony was thriving as a producer of tobacco.

text: Orphaned by the age of 8, young Thomas later returned to Virginia, and settled across the James River not far from his parents’ farm at Varina, where he married Jane Poythress and they had one daughter, Jane Rolfe, who was born in 1650. Many of the First Families of Virginia trace their lineage through Thomas Rolfe to both Pocahontas and John Rolfe, joining English and Virginia Indian heritage.

text: Changing social and political order[edit]

text: Virginia's population grew rapidly from 1618 until 1622, rising from a few hundred to nearly 1,400 people. Wheat was also grown in Virginia starting in 1618.

text: 1619: First democratic assembly[edit]

text: On June 30, 1619 Slovak and Polish artisans conducted the first labor strike (first "in American history"[27][28]) for democratic rights ("No Vote, No Work")[27][29] in Jamestown.[29][30][31] The British Crown overturned the legislation in the Virginia House of Burgesses in its first meeting[32] and granted the workers equal voting rights on July 21, 1619.[33] Afterwards, the labor strike was ended and the artisans resumed their work.[30][31][34][35] The House of Burgesses, the first legislature of elected representatives in America, met in the Jamestown Church. One of their first laws was to set a minimum price for the sale of tobacco and set forth plans for the creation of the first ironworks of the colony. This legislative group was the predecessor of the modern Virginia General Assembly.

text: 1619: First Africans[edit]

text: In August 1619 "20 and odd Blacks" arrived on the Dutch Man-of-War ship at Jamestown colony. This is the earliest record of Black people in colonial America [36] These colonists were freemen and indentured servants.[37][38][39] At this time the slave trade between Africa and the English colonies had not yet been established.

text: Records from 1623 and 1624 listed the African inhabitants of the colony as servants, not slaves. In the case of William Tucker, the first Black person born in the colonies, freedom was his bright right.[40] He was son of "Antony and Isabell", a married couple from Angola who worked as indentured servants for Captain William Tucker whom he was named after. Yet, court records show that at least one African had been declared a slave by 1640; John Punch. He was an indentured servant who ran away along with two White indentured servants and he was sentenced by the governing council to lifelong servitude. This action is what officially marked the institution of slavery in Jamestown and the future United States.

text: 1620: More craftsmen from Germany and Italy arrive[edit]

text: By 1620, more German settlers from Hamburg, Germany, who were recruited by the Virginia Company set up and operated one of the first sawmills in the region.[41] Among the Germans were several other skilled craftsmen carpenters, and pitch/tar/soap-ash makers, who produced some of the colony's first exports of these products. The Italians included a team of glass makers.[42]

text: 1621: Arrival of marriageable women[edit]

text: During 1621 fifty-seven unmarried women sailed to Virginia under the auspices of the Virginia Company, who paid for their transport and provided them with a small bundle of clothing and other goods to take with them. A colonist who married one of the women would be responsible for repaying the Virginia Company for his wife's transport and provisions. The women traveled on three ships, The Marmaduke, The Warwick, and The Tyger.

text: Many of the women were not "maids" but widows. Some others were children, for example Priscilla, the eight-year-old daughter of Joanne Palmer, who travelled with her mother and her new stepfather, Thomas Palmer, on The Tyger. Some were women who were traveling with family or relatives: Ursula Clawson, "kinswoman" of ancient planter Richard Pace, traveled with Pace and his wife on the Marmaduke. Ann Jackson also came on the Marmaduke, in the company of her brother John Jackson, both of them bound for Martin's Hundred. Ann Jackson was one of the women taken captive by the Powhatans during the Indian Massacre of 1622. She was not returned until 1630. The Council ordered that she should be sent back to England on the first available ship, perhaps because she was suffering from the consequences of her long captivity.[43]

text: Some of the women sent to Virginia did marry. But most disappeared from the records—perhaps killed in the massacre, perhaps' dead from other causes, perhaps returned to England. In other words, they shared the fate of most of their fellow colonists.[44]

text: Indian Massacre of 1622[edit]

text: The relations with the Natives took a turn for the worse after the death of Pocahontas in England and the return of John Rolfe and other colonial leaders in May 1617. Disease, poor harvests and the growing demand for tobacco lands caused hostilities to escalate.

text: After Wahunsunacock's death in 1618, his younger brother, Opitchapam, briefly became chief. However, he was soon succeeded by his own younger brother, Opechancanough. Opechancanough was not interested in attempting peaceful coexistence with the English settlers. Instead, he was determined to eradicate the colonists from what he considered to be Indian lands.

text: Chief Opechancanough organized and led a well-coordinated series of surprise attacks on multiple English settlements along both sides of a 50-mile (80 km) long stretch of the James River which took place early on the morning of March 22, 1622. This event came to be known as the Indian Massacre of 1622, and resulted in the deaths of 347 colonists (including men, women, and children) and the abduction of many others. Some say that this massacre was revenge. The Massacre caught most of the Virginia Colony by surprise and virtually wiped out several entire communities, including Henricus and Wolstenholme Town at Martin's Hundred.

text: However, Jamestown was spared from destruction due to a Virginia Indian boy named Chanco who, after learning of the planned attacks from his brother, gave warning to colonist Richard Pace, with whom he lived. Pace, after securing himself and his neighbors on the south side of the James River, took a canoe across river to warn Jamestown, which narrowly escaped destruction, although there was no time to warn the other settlements. Apparently, Opechancanough subsequently was unaware of Chanco's actions, as the young man continued to serve as his courier for some time after.

text: A letter by Richard Frethorne, written in 1623, reports, "we live in fear of the enemy every hour."[45]

text: As a result, another war between the two powers lasted from 1622 to 1632.

text: Royal Colony[edit]

text: Some historians have noted that, as the settlers of the Virginia Colony were allowed some representative government, and they prospered, King James I was reluctant to lose either power or future financial potential. In any case, in 1624, the Virginia Company lost its charter and Virginia became a crown colony.

text: In 1634, the English Crown created eight shires (i.e. counties) in the colony of Virginia which had a total population of approximately 5,000 inhabitants. James City Shire was established and included Jamestown. Around 1642-43, the name of the James City Shire was changed to James City County.

text: New Town and palisade[edit]

text: The original Jamestown fort seems to have existed into the middle of the 1620s, but as Jamestown grew into a "New Town" to the east, written references to the original fort disappear. By 1634, a palisade (stockade) was completed across the Virginia Peninsula, which was about 6 miles (9.7 km) wide at that point between Queen's Creek which fed into the York River and Archer's Hope Creek, (since renamed College Creek) which fed into the James River. The new palisade provided some security from attacks by the Virginia Indians for colonists farming and fishing lower on the Peninsula from that point.

text: Third Anglo-Powhatan War[edit]

text: On April 18, 1644, Opechancanough again tried to force the colonists to abandon the region with another series of coordinated attacks, killing almost 500 colonists. However, this was a much less devastating portion of the growing population than had been the case in the 1622 attacks. Furthermore, the forces of Royal Governor of Virginia William Berkeley captured the old warrior in 1646,[46] variously thought to be between 90 and 100 years old. In October, while a prisoner, Opechancanough was killed by a soldier (shot in the back) assigned to guard him. Opechancanough was succeeded as Weroance (Chief) by Nectowance and then by Totopotomoi and later by his daughter Cockacoeske.

text: In 1646, the first treaties were signed between the Virginia Indians and the English. The treaties set up reservations, some of the oldest in America, for the surviving Powhatan. It also set up tribute payments for the Virginia Indians to be made yearly to the English.[47]

text: That war resulted in a boundary being defined between the Indians and English lands that could only be crossed for official business with a special pass. This situation would last until 1677 and the Treaty of Middle Plantation, which established Indian reservations following Bacon's Rebellion.

text: Governor Berkeley, Bacon's Rebellion[edit]

text: The capital moves from Jamestown to high ground[edit]

text: On October 20, 1698, the statehouse (capitol building) in Jamestown burned for the fourth time. Once again removing itself to a familiar alternate location, the legislature met at Middle Plantation, this time in the new College Building at the College of William and Mary, which had begun meeting there in temporary quarters in 1694.

text: While meeting there, a group of five students from the College submitted a well-presented and logical proposal to the legislators outlining a plan and good reasons to move the capital permanently to Middle Plantation.

text: Despite the periodic need to relocate the legislature from Jamestown due to contingencies such as fires, (usually to Middle Plantation), throughout the seventeenth century, Virginians had been reluctant to permanently move the capital from its "ancient and accustomed place." After all, Jamestown had always been Virginia's capital. It had a state house (except when it periodically burned) and a church, and it offered easy access to ships that came up the James River bringing goods from England and taking on tobacco bound for market.[48] However, Jamestown's status had been in some decline. In 1662, Jamestown's status as mandatory port of entry for Virginia had been ended.

text: The students argued that the change to the high ground at Middle Plantation would escape the dreaded malaria and mosquitoes that had always plagued the swampy, low-lying Jamestown site. The students pointed out that, while not located immediately upon a river, Middle Plantation offered nearby access to not one, but two rivers, via two deep water (6-7' depth) creeks, Queen's Creek leading to the York River, and College Creek (formerly known as Archer's Hope) which led to the James River. Other advocates of the move included the Reverend Dr. James Blair and the Governor, Sir Francis Nicholson.

text: Several prominent individuals like John Page, Thomas Ludwell, Philip Ludwell, and Otho Thorpe had built fine brick homes and created a substantial town at Middle Plantation. And, there was of course, the new College of William and Mary with its fine new brick building.

text: The proposal to move the capital of Virginia to higher ground (about 12 miles (20 km) away) at Middle Plantation was received favorably by the House of Burgesses. In 1699, the capital of the Virginia Colony was officially relocated there. Soon, the town was renamed Williamsburg, in honor of King William III. Thus, the first phase of Jamestown's history ended.

text: Later History[edit]

text: By the 1750s the land was owned and heavily cultivated, primarily by the Travis and Ambler families. A military post was located on the island during the Revolutionary War and American and British prisoners were exchanged there. During the U.S. Civil War the island was occupied by Confederate soldiers who built an earth fort near the church as part of the defense system to block the Union advance up the river to Richmond. Little further attention was paid to Virginia until preservation was undertaken in the twenty first century.


document_title: List of Major League Baseball progressive single-season home run leaders

question_text: who holds the mlb single season homerun record

root

text: Single-season records[edit]

text:
Batter
Team
Age
Year
HR
Reign
Record breaker

George Hall
Philadelphia Athletics
27
1876
5
3 years
—

Charley Jones
Boston Red Caps
29
1879
9
4 years
6th on July 31 off George Bradley

Harry Stovey
Philadelphia Athletics
27
1883
14
1 year
10th on August 1 off Jack Neagle

Ned Williamson
Chicago White Stockings
27
1884
27
35 years
15th on July 9 off Ed Bagley

Babe Ruth
Boston Red Sox
24
1919
29
1 year
28th on September 24 off Bob Shawkey

Babe Ruth
New York Yankees
25
1920
54
1 year
30th on July 19 off Dickie Kerr

Babe Ruth
New York Yankees
26
1921
59
6 years
55th on September 15 off Bill Bayne

Babe Ruth
New York Yankees
32
1927
60
34 years
60th on September 30 off Tom Zachary

Roger Maris
New York Yankees
27
1961
61
37 years
61st on October 1 off Tracy Stallard

Mark McGwire
St. Louis Cardinals
35
1998
70
3 years
62nd on September 8 off Steve Trachsel

Barry Bonds
San Francisco Giants
36
2001
73
17 years
71st on October 5 off Chan Ho Park

text: Sammy Sosa hit his 66th home run on September 25, 1998, breaking McGwire's then standing record of 65 home runs. McGwire tied that record less than an hour later and then hit two home runs on each of the next two days to achieve his 70 home run record.[1]

tag: ul

text: Progression[edit]

text: Summarized from The Baseball Encyclopedia for older information, and from various news stories for newer information:

tag: p

text: Home runs per game[edit]

text: Number of home runs in the season divided by number of games in schedule (not games played)

text:
Average
Name

0.451
Barry Bonds

0.430
Mark McGwire

0.390
Babe Ruth (1)

0.383
Babe Ruth (2)

0.377
Roger Maris

0.350
Babe Ruth (3)

0.240
Ned Williamson

0.200
Babe Ruth (4)

0.140
Harry Stovey

0.100
Charley Jones

0.070
George Hall


document_title: Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil

question_text: what is the story of midnight in the garden of good and evil

text: Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil

text: The book[edit]

text: Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil is atmospherically Deep South coastal (Savannah, Georgia, Beaufort, South Carolina) and Southern Gothic in tone, depicting a wide range of eccentric personalities in and around the city of Savannah, Georgia.

text: The story, unsettling and real, broke down the idea of the quintessential phenomenon of a true American city—only to reveal its quirks: its man walking an invisible dog; its voice of the drag queen; a high-society man in its elite community—all that somehow, unravels a murder mystery. Virtually seeming like a novel and reading like a tale, the non-fictional story is about the real-life events surrounding the murder.

text: The central narrative concerns the killing of Danny Hansford, a local male prostitute (characterized as "a good time not yet had by all") by an important Savannah socialite, respected antiques dealer Jim Williams. This results in four murder trials, with the fourth ending in acquittal after the judge finally agreed to a change of venue to move the case away from the Savannah jury pool. The book describes Williams' version of the killing, which is that it was in "self-defense"—the result of Hansford, who is prone to fits of rage, shooting at Williams with a gun that is on display, and Williams shooting back in self-defense—and not murder, pre-meditated or otherwise by Williams. The death occurred in Williams' home 'Mercer House'.

text: The book highlights many other notable Savannah residents, as well, including The Lady Chablis, a transgender woman and local drag queen and entertainer. Chablis provides both a Greek chorus of sorts as well as a light-hearted contrast to the more serious action.

text: Real life events[edit]

text: The book's plot is based on real-life events that occurred in the 1980s and is classified as non-fiction. Because it reads like a novel (and rearranges the sequence of true events in time), it is sometimes referred to as a "non-fiction novel" or "faction", a subgenre popularized by Truman Capote and Norman Mailer.[citation needed]

text: Title[edit]

text: The title alludes to the voodoo notion of "midnight", the period between the time for good magic (11 pm to midnight) and the time for evil magic (midnight to 1 am), and "the garden of good and evil", which refers principally to the cemetery in Beaufort, South Carolina, where Dr. Buzzard, the husband of Minerva, the voodoo priestess who figures in the story, is buried. It is over his grave that Minerva performed the incantations to ensure a more successful result in the retrial for the case of Jim Williams.

text: Cover[edit]

text: The famous Bird Girl statue, originally designed both as art and as a birdseed holder, was originally located at Savannah's historic Bonaventure Cemetery. A Savannah photographer, Jack Leigh, was commissioned to take a photograph for the cover of the book. The cover image became immediately iconic, with author John Berendt calling it "one of the strongest covers I've ever seen", and the statue became a popular stop for tourists. Due to rising concerns about the integrity of the statue and the cemetery's privacy, Bird Girl was relocated in 1997 for display in Telfair Museums in Savannah. In late 2014, the statue was moved to a dedicated space in the Telfair Museums' Jepson Center for the Arts on West York Street, in Savannah.[4] Both Hugh W. Mercer and Johnny Mercer are buried in Bonaventure Cemetery.

text: Awards[edit]

text: The book won the 1995 Boeke Prize and was one of the finalists for the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for nonfiction.[5]


document_title: Rules of cribbage

question_text: who plays next after a go in cribbage

question_tokens: who plays next after a go in cribbage

text: Rules of cribbage

text: The deal[edit]

text: Cribbage uses a standard 52-card deck of cards. The jokers are removed; the suits are equal in status. The players cut for first deal, with the player cutting the lowest card (the ace counts as one, and is the lowest card) dealing first. If the cutters tie, the cards are re-shuffled and re-cut. The dealer shuffles, offers the deck to the player on his or her right to cut (required in tournament play), and deals cards singly to each player, starting with the player on the dealer's left. During the deal, if any card is exposed by the dealer or found face-up in the deck, cards must be redealt.[1]

text: Cards must be dealt so that each player ends up with four cards after the crib is formed, and the crib should also have four cards. For two players, each is dealt six cards (though some play with five cards dealt to each player and two to the crib). For three or four players, each is dealt five cards. In the case of three players, a single card is dealt face down in front of the dealer to start the crib.

text:
# of Players
# cards dealt to each player
# cards dealt to crib
# cards discarded by each player to crib

2 (standard)
6
0
2

2 (alternate)
5
2
1

3
5
1
1

4
5
0
1

text: The crib[edit]

text: Once the cards have been dealt, each player chooses four cards to retain, discarding the other one or two face-down to form the "crib" that will be used later by the dealer.[2] At this point, each player's hand and the crib will contain exactly four cards.

text: Example cribs[edit]

text: Two players[edit]

text:
Player
Cards dealt
Discarded
Hand

Alice
(dealer)

Bob

Crib

text: Three players[edit]

text:
Player
Cards dealt
Discarded
Hand

Claire
(dealer)

Davis

Eve

Crib

text: The starter[edit]

text: The player on the dealer's left cuts the undealt portion of the deck (leaving at least 4 cards), and the dealer reveals the top card, called the "starter" or the "cut", placing it on top of the deck face up. (It is illegal to peek at any other cards in the deck during this process.)[3] If this card is a Jack, the dealer scores two points for "his heels", also known as "his nibs", or simply "nibs". The game can end on a cut of a Jack for the dealer.

text: The play[edit]

text: The play (often called pegging) starts with the player on the dealer's left and continues clockwise. Each player lays one card in turn onto the table so that it is visible, stating the cumulative value of the cards played. (For example, the first player lays a 4 and says "four", the next lays a 7 and says "eleven", and so on). Face cards are worth ten; Aces are worth one. Play must not exceed 31, so a player who cannot lay a card without bringing the total above 31 passes by saying "Go". The other players continue to lay cards in turn without exceeding 31 until no cards can be played. The last player to lay a card scores two points if 31 is reached exactly ("31 for two"); otherwise one point is scored, e.g., "29 for one", or "30 for one", etc. The one-point score is known as "One for the go",[4] or simply the "Go". The count is then reset to zero and play resumes, starting with the player to the left of the last card played. Players with cards remaining repeat this process until all players' cards have been played.

text: In addition to scoring one or two points for the last card, players score points according to the following rules:

text:
fifteen-twos

two points for a cumulative total of exactly fifteen ("fifteen two")

runs

three points for completing a run of three cards, regardless of the order in which they are laid (a 6, then a 4, then a 5 is a run of three even though they were not laid in order)
four points for completing a run of four
five points for completing a run of five
six points for completing a run of six
seven points for completing the run of seven; e.g. playing 2, 4, 6, A, 3, 5 and 7

pairs

two points for laying a card of the same rank as the previous card, thus completing a pair
six points for laying a third card of the same rank (a "pair royal" or "trips")
twelve points for laying a fourth card of the same rank (a "double pair royal" or "quad")

text: If a card completes more than one scoring combination, then all combinations are scored. For example, if the first three cards played are 5s, the third one scores eight points: two for making 15, and six for a pair royal. Card combinations cannot span a reset; once the total reaches 31 (or a Go has been scored) and counting has restarted at zero, cards already played cannot contribute to runs or pairs.

text: Players choose when to lay each card in order to maximise their score according to the scheme shown below. The first player to reach 121 wins the game.

text: Example plays[edit]

text: Two players[edit]

text:
Alice
(dealer)

Bob

text:
Player
Card
Cumulative
Score
Announced

Bob

10

"ten"

Alice

15
2 points (fifteen exactly)
"fifteen for two"

Bob

22

"twenty-two"

Alice

28
3 points (run: 5, 6, 7)
"twenty-eight for three"

Bob

"go"

Alice

30
1 point
"thirty for one"

Bob

6

"six"

Alice

10

"ten"

Bob

14
3 points (pair, last card)
"fourteen for three"

text: Three players[edit]

text:
Claire
(dealer)

David

Eve

text:
Player
Card
Cumulative
Score
Announced

David

7

"seven"

Eve

14
2 points (pair)
"fourteen for two"

Claire

21
6 points (three-of-a-kind)
"twenty-one for six"

David

26

"twenty-six"

Eve

31
4 points (pair, 31 exactly)
"thirty-one for four"

Claire

8

"eight"

David

18

"eighteen"

Eve

28
2 points (pair)
"twenty-eight for two"

Claire

"go"

David

"go"

Eve

31
2 points (31 exactly)
"thirty-one for two"

Claire

10

"ten"

David

14

"fourteen"

Claire

23
1 point (last card)
"twenty-three for one"

text: The show[edit]

text: Once the play is complete, each player in turn receives points based on the content of their hand. Starting with the player on the dealer's left, players spread out their cards on the playing surface and calculate their score based on these four cards and the starter card:

text:
fifteen-twos

two points for each separate combination of two or more cards totalling exactly fifteen

runs

three points for a run of three consecutive cards (regardless of suit)
four points for completing a run of four
five points for completing a run of five

pairs

two points for a pair of cards of a kind
six points for three cards of a kind (known as a "pair royal", comprising three distinct pairs)
twelve points for four cards of a kind (a "double pair royal", comprising six distinct pairs)

flush

four points for a flush, where all four cards in the hand are of the same suit, with an additional point if the starter card is also of that suit.
one point for holding the Jack of the same suit as the starter card ("one for his nob"[5] or "... his nobs"[6])

text: Common combinations are often scored as a group. For example, a run of three cards with an additional card matching one of the three in value, e.g., 2-2-3-4, is termed a "double run", and scores eight according to the above rules, three for each of the runs and two for the pair. Even more valuable are "triple runs" (three three-card straights including a three-of-a-kind, e.g., 2-2-2-3-4, that score fifteen) and "double-double runs" (four three-card straights including pairs, e.g., 2-3-3-4-4, that score sixteen). Combined runs may also include fifteen-twos. A 24 hand, the largest commonly seen, comprises a double-double run and four fifteen-twos. Two examples are 4-4-5-5-6 and 6-7-7-8-8.

text: The dealer scores his hand last and then turns the cards in the crib face up. These cards, in conjunction with the starter card, are scored by the dealer as an additional hand. The rules for scoring the crib are the same as scoring a hand, with the exception of the flush; a four-card flush in the crib is scored only if it is the same suit as the starter card (for a total of five points).

text: The highest possible score for a hand is 29 points: a starter card of a 5, and a hand of 5, 5, 5, J with the Jack being the same suit as the starter card. The score might be announced thus:

text:
Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight, [four J-5 combinations]
fifteen ten, fifteen twelve, fifteen fourteen, fifteen sixteen, [four 5-5-5 combinations]
twelve for pairs [four 5s] is twenty-eight,
and nobs makes twenty-nine.

text: Scores between 0 and 29 are all possible, with the exception of 19, 25, 26 and 27.[7] Players may colloquially refer to a blank hand (one scoring no points) as a "nineteen hand".

text: Example scores[edit]

text: Two players[edit]

text:
Starter
card

Alice
(dealer)

Bob

Crib

text:
Player
Cards
Score
Announced

Bob

2
"fifteen two"

2
"fifteen four"

4
"four for a run"

1
"and one for his nob"

Total
9

Alice

2
"fifteen two"

2
"fifteen four"

8
"and eight for a double run"

Total
12

Alice
(crib)

2
"fifteen two"

2
"fifteen four"

2
"and two for a pair"

Total
6

text: Three players[edit]

text:
Starter
card

Claire
(dealer)

David

Eve

Crib

text:
Player
Cards
Score
Announced

David

2
"fifteen two"

2
"fifteen four"

3
"and three for a run"

Total
7

Eve

2
"fifteen two"

2
"fifteen four"

2
"fifteen six"

2
"and two for a pair"

Total
8

Claire

2
"fifteen two"

3
"and three for a run"

Total
5

Claire
(crib)

2
"fifteen two"

3
"and three for a run"

Total
5

text: The end[edit]

text: After the dealer has scored the crib, all cards are collected and the deal passes to the player on the dealer's left. The next round starts with the deal.

text: Although the rules of cribbage do not require it (except in tournament play), the traditional method of keeping score is to use a cribbage board. This is a flat board, usually made of wood, with separate series of holes that record each player's score. It is usually arranged in five hole sections for easier scoring. Players each have two pegs that mark their current and previous scores, and all scoring is done by moving the back peg ahead of the front peg.

text: When a player reaches the target score for the game (usually 121), the game ends with that player the winner.

text: Match[edit]

text: A match (much like tennis) consists of more than one game, often an odd number (3 games, 5 games, 7 games etc.). The match points are scored on the cribbage board using the holes reserved for match points. On a spiral board, these are often at the bottom of the board in a line with 5 or 7 holes. On a traditional board, they are often placed in the middle of the board or at the top/bottom.

text: Two player game[edit]

text: In a two player game of cribbage a player scores one match point for each game won. Their opponent will begin the next game as first dealer. If a player skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent scores 91 points) then that player scores one extra match point for that game (two match points in total). If a player double skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent reaches 61), then they score two extra match points for the game (four match points in total). If a player triple skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent reaches 31 points), they automatically win the match regardless of how many match points are needed to win. Double and triple skunks are not included in the official rules of cribbage play and are optional. There are several different formats for scoring match points.

text:
Match point scoring

Scoring Variation
Points for a normal win
Points for skunking opponent
Points for double skunking opponent
Points for triple skunking opponent

Official Tournament rules
2 points
3 points
no extra points
no extra points

Variation of Tournament rules
2 points
3 points
4 points
no extra points

Free play rules
1 point
2 points
4 points
no extra points

Free play rules with triple skunk
1 points
2 points
4 points
Automatic win of match

text: Three player game[edit]

text: Winner takes all[edit]

text: When playing a three player match in a winner takes all format, the winner scores two match points (just like in two-way cribbage) for each game won. If he/she skunks just the third opponent, they score an additional match point (3 total) with second place receiving one point. If he/she double skunks both opponents, he/she still scores three match points but second place would not receive any points at all.

text: Continued play[edit]

text: In continued play format, the winner of the match earns two match points for three player cribbage and four match points for five player cribbage (plus applicable match points if the player has skunked/double skunked their opponents). The remaining players play until there is a second winner, who scores one match point for three player cribbage and two match points for five player cribbage (with no extra points for skunking opponents). In five player cribbage, the remaining three players play until there is a third winner, who scores one match point (with no extra points for skunking opponents).

text: Variations[edit]

text:
Three players: Five cards are dealt to each player and one card directly to the crib, and each player then discards one card to the crib, as shown in the examples above. Three players can score individually, with the winner the first to reach 121, or in a "two against one" team format, where the two-player team must score 121 to win before the lone player reaches 61. Another variation of the "two against one" team format, is that prior to the cut, the lone player picks up the crib, examines all 8 cards, and then discards 4 cards to the crib. Both the team and lone player need to reach 121 to win.
Four players: Five cards are dealt to each player, each of whom discards one to the crib. The players can play as individuals or as two sets of partners.
Five-card cribbage (called the "old game"): Each of two players is dealt five cards, two of which are discarded into the crib. The crib thus consists of four cards but each hand only three. The non-dealer is given a three-point start and play is to 61.
Five players: Five cards are dealt to each player except the dealer, who has only four cards. The four non-dealers each discard one card to the crib.
Muggins: This is a scoring variant in which a player who fails to count all the points to which he is entitled in the play or the show loses the unclaimed points to an opponent who calls "muggins" or "cut throat".
Lowball (or "Loser's Crib"): This is a misère variant in which the normal rules apply but the aim is to avoid scoring. The loser is the first to 121.
Jokers: Jokers are fully wild, with their rank and suit decided only at the moment of play. The choice of card may even replicate a card already in play, allowing for 5 of a kind (20 points), 6 of a kind (30 points), etc. When a joker is cut as the starter, the dealer scores 2 for heels and each player may choose a different rank and suit for the joker when hands are scored.
Toss Fives: This is a variant in which players must discard any 5s they may have into the crib (even an opponent's crib).
Auction Cribbage:[8] In Auction Cribbage, any player may bid for the points in the box after the cards are dealt. Bidding continues in turn until no further bids are offered; the winning bidder then immediately deducts that number of points from their hand; the crib is scored at the usual time and its points awarded to the winning bidder for that round. If no bid is placed, the dealer retains the crib.
Null point penalty:[citation needed] When a player scores zero points during "the show", their opponent scores one point. This applies to both players hands as well as in the crib.
Back 10 (Backup Ten): The hand and the crib must contain points. If either hand does not, the owner of the hand must go back ten points.[9]


document_title: German keyboard layout

question_text: where is the @ on a german keyboard

question_tokens: where is the @ on a german keyboard

text: German keyboard layout

text: General information[edit]

text: The characters ², ³, {, [, ], }, \, @, |, µ, ~ (and, since the late 1990s, €) are accessed by holding the AltGr key and tapping the other key. The Alt key on the left will not access these additional characters. Alternatively Ctrl+Alt and pressing the respective key also produce the alternative characters on some operating systems.

text: The accent keys ^, ', ' are dead keys: press and release an accent key, then press a letter key to produce accented characters (ô, á, ù, etc.; the current DIN 2137-1:2012-06 extends this for e.g. ń, ś etc.). If the entered combination is not encoded in Unicode by a single code point (precomposed character), most current implementations cause the display of a free-standing (spacing) version of the accent followed by the unaccented base letter. For users with insufficient typing skills this behaviour (which is explicitly not compliant with the current DIN 2137-1:2012-06) leads to mistype a spacing accent instead of an apostrophe (e.g., it´s instead of correctly it's).[1]

text: Note that the semicolon and colon are accessed by using the ⇧ Shift key.

text: The "T1" layout lacks some important characters like the German-style quotation marks („” and ‚‘). As a consequence, these are seldom used in internet communication and usually replaced by " and '.

text: The "T2" layout newly defined in DIN 2137-1:2012-06 was designed to overcome such restrictions, but firstly to enable typing of other languages written in the Latin script. Therefore, it contains several additional diacritical marks and punctuation characters, including the full set of German, English, and French-style quotation marks in addition to the typographic apostrophe, the prime, the double prime, and the ʻokina.

text: The image shows characters to be entered using AltGr in the lower left corner of each key depiction (characters not contained in the "T1" layout are marked red). Diacritical marks are marked by a flat rectangle which also indicates the position of the diacritical mark relative to the base letter.

text: The characters shown at the right border of a keytop are accessed by first pressing a dead key sequence of AltGr plus the × multiplication sign. This X-like symbol may be thought of as an "extra" dead key or "extra" accent type, used to access "miscellaneous" letters that do not have a specific accent type like diaeresis or circumflex. Symbols on the right border shown in green have both upper-case and lower-case forms; the corresponding capital letter is available by pressing the Shift key simultaneously wit the symbol key. For instance, to type the lower-case æ ligature, hold the AltGr key and type ×, then release both keys and type the (unshifted) A key. To type the upper-case Æ ligature, hold the AltGr key and type ×, then release both keys, hold Shift and type the (shifted) A key. An active Caps Lock can be used instead of the Shift key to obtain the Æ ligature and similar letters.

text: In addition, DIN 2137-1:2012-06 defines a layout "T3", which is a superset of "T2" incorporating the whole "secondary group" as defined in ISO/IEC 9995-3:2010. Thus, it enables to write several minority languages (e.g. Sami) and transliterations, but is more difficult to comprehend than the "T2" layout, and therefore not expected to be accepted by a broad audience beyond experts who need this functionality.

text: Key labels[edit]

text: Contrary to many other languages, German keyboards are usually not labeled in English (in fact, DIN 2137-1:2012-06 requires either the symbol according to ISO/IEC 9995-7 or the German abbreviation is to be used, with "Esc" as an exception). The abbreviations used on German keyboards are:

text:
German label
English equivalent

Steuerung (Strg)
Control (Ctrl)

Alternate Graphic (Alt Gr)
Alt Gr key

Einfügen (Einfg)
Insert (Ins)

Entfernen (Entf)
Delete (Del)

Bild auf/Bild nach oben (Bild↑)
Page up (PgUp)

Bild ab/Bild nach unten (Bild↓)
Page down (PgDn)

Position eins (Pos1)
Home ("Position one")

Ende (Ende)
End (end)

Drucken / Systemabfrage (Druck/S-Abf)
Print screen/SysRq

Rollen
Scroll lock ("to roll")

Pause/Unterbrechen (Pause/Untbr)
Pause/Break

text: On some keyboards – including the original IBM PC/AT (and later) German keyboards – the asterisk (*) key on the numeric keypad is instead labeled with the multiplication sign (×), and the divide-key is labeled with the division sign (÷) instead of slash (/). However, those keys still generate the asterisk and slash characters, not the multiplication and division signs.

text: Caps lock[edit]

text: The behaviour of ⇪ Caps Lock according to former editions of the DIN 2137 standard is inherited from mechanical typewriters: Pressing it once shifts all keys including numbers and special characters until the ⇪ Caps Lock key is pressed again. Holding ⇧ Shift while ⇪ Caps Lock is active unshifts all keys. Both ⇧ Shift and ⇪ Caps Lock lack any textual labels. The ⇪ Caps Lock key is simply labeled with a large down-arrow (on newer designs pointing to an uppercase A letter) and ⇧ Shift is labeled with a large up-arrow. The current DIN 2137-1:2012-06 simply requests the presence of a "capitals lock" key (which is the name used in the ISO/IEC 9995 series), without any description of its function.

text: In IT, an alternative behaviour is often preferred, usually described as "IBM", which is the same as ⇪ Caps Lock on English keyboards – only letters are shifted, and hitting ⇪ Caps Lock again releases it.

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2017)


document_title: List of heads of state of Spain

question_text: who is the head of state of spain

question_tokens: who is the head of state of spain

text: List of heads of state of Spain

text: Kingdom of Spain (1516–1873)[edit]

text: House of Habsburg (1516–1700)[edit]

text: Under Charles I, the two thrones of Castile and Aragon were finally united under one monarch.

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

1

Charles I (Emperor Charles V)
Carlos I, el César Carlos
February 24, 1500 – September 21, 1558 (aged 58)
March 14, 1516 – January 16, 1556

Holy Roman Emperor; King of Germany and Italy
King of Spain, Sicily and Sardinia
King of Naples and Jerusalem
Archduke of Austria
Duke of Burgundy (Titular), Lord of the Netherlands

son of Joanna of Castile, grandson of Isabella I and Ferdinand II

2

Philip II, the Prudent
Felipe II, el Prudente
May 21, 1527 – September 13, 1598 (aged 71)
January 16, 1556 – September 13, 1598

King of Spain, Sicily and Sardinia
King of Naples and Jerusalem
King of Portugal
King of England and Ireland (jure uxoris)
Duke of Burgundy (Titular), Lord of the Netherlands
Duke of Milan

son of Charles I

3

Philip III, the Pious
Felipe III, el Piadoso
April 14, 1578 – March 31, 1621 (aged 42)
September 13, 1598 – March 31, 1621

King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
Duke of Milan

son of Philip II

4

Philip IV, the Great, the Planet King
Felipe IV, el Grande, el Rey Planeta
April 8, 1605 – September 17, 1665 (aged 60)
March 31, 1621 – September 17, 1665

King of Spain, Portugal (until 1640), Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
Duke of Milan
Sovereign of the Netherlands and Count Palatine of Burgundy

son of Philip III

5

Charles II, the Bewitched
Carlos II, el Hechizado
November 6, 1661 – November 1, 1700 (aged 38)
September 17, 1665 – November 1, 1700

King of Spain, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
Duke of Milan
Sovereign of the Netherlands and Count Palatine of Burgundy

son of Philip IV

text: Disputed claimant

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

6

Archduke Charles of Austria,
as Charles III
Archiduque Carlos, (Carlos III)
October 1, 1685 – October 20, 1740 (aged 55)
September 12, 1703 – July 2, 1715

King of Spain, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
Duke of Milan
Sovereign of the Netherlands

great-grandson of Philip III

text: In the year 1700 Charles II died. Charles' will named the 16-year-old Philip, the grandson of Charles' sister Maria Theresa of Spain and King Louis XIV of France, as his successor to the whole Spanish Empire.[1] Upon any possible refusal of the undivided Spanish possessions, the Crown of Spain would be offered next to Philip's younger brother Charles, duc de Berry, or, next, to Archduke Charles of Austria.[1]

text: Archduke Charles of Austria had a legal right to the Spanish throne due to the fact that Charles's father, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, was the son of Charles' aunt Maria Anna of Austria, but Philip still had the better claim because Philip's grandfather, King Louis XIV of France, was the son of Charles' aunt Anne of Austria, the older of the sisters of Philip IV. However, Philip IV had stipulated in his will the succession should pass to the Austrian Habsburg line, and the Austrian branch also claimed that Maria Theresa of Spain, Philip's grandmother, had renounced the Spanish throne for herself and her descendants as part of her marriage contract. This was countered by the French claim that it was on the basis of a dowry that had never been paid.[2]

text: Thus, the war broke out and Archduke Charles was proclaimed king of Spain, as Charles III, opposite to Philip V.[3] Charles renounced his claims to the Spanish throne in the Treaty of Rastatt of 1714, but was allowed the continued use of the styles of a Spanish monarch for his lifetime. Philip ascended the Spanish throne but forever renounced his claim to the throne of France for himself and his descendants.[4]

text: House of Bourbon (1700–1808)[edit]

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

6

Philip V, the Spirited
Felipe V, el Animoso
December 19, 1683 – July 9, 1746 (aged 62)
November 16, 1700 – January 14, 1724
(abdicated in favor of his son)
King of Spain
great-grandson of Philip IV

7

Louis I, the Beloved, the Liberal
Luis I, el Bien Amado, el Liberal
August 25, 1707 – August 31, 1724 (aged 17)
January 14, 1724 – August 31, 1724
(ruled only 7 months before his death)
King of Spain
son of Philip V

8

Philip V, the Spirited
Felipe V, el Animoso
December 19, 1683 – July 9, 1746 (aged 62)
September 6, 1724 – July 9, 1746
(reinstated on death of his son)
King of Spain
father of Louis I

9

Ferdinand VI, the Learned, the Just
Fernando VI, el Prudente, el Justo
September 23, 1713 – August 10, 1759 (aged 45)
July 9, 1746 – August 10, 1759
King of Spain
son of Philip V

10

Charles III, the Enlightened, the King-Mayor
Carlos III, el Político
January 20, 1716 – December 14, 1788 (aged 72)
August 10, 1759 – December 14, 1788
King of Spain
son of Philip V

11

Charles IV, the Hunter
Carlos IV, el Cazador
November 11, 1748 – January 20, 1819 (aged 70)
December 14, 1788 – March 19, 1808
King of Spain
son of Charles III

12

Ferdinand VII, the Desired, the Felon King
Fernando VII, el Deseado, el Rey Felón
October 14, 1784 – September 29, 1833 (aged 48)
March 19, 1808 – May 6, 1808
King of Spain
son of Charles IV

text: House of Bonaparte (1808–1813)[edit]

text: The only monarch from this dynasty was Joseph I, imposed by his brother Napoleon I of France after Charles IV and Ferdinand VII had abdicated. The title used by Joseph was King of the Spains and the Indias, by divine grace and the Constitution of the State . He was also later given all of the titles of the previous kings. A government in opposition to the French was formed in Cádiz on 25 September 1808, which continued to recognize the imprisoned Ferdinand VII as king. This government was diplomatically recognized as the legitimate Spanish government by Britain and other countries at war with France.

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

13

Joseph I, the Intruder, Bottle Joe
José I, Pepe Botella
January 7, 1768 – July 28, 1844 (aged 76)
June 6, 1808 – December 11, 1813

King of Spain
King of Naples and Sicily and the Indies
Comte de Survilliers

no relationship, appointee and elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte

text: House of Bourbon (1813–1868; first restoration)[edit]

text: Charles IV's eldest son was restored to the throne. Again the title used was king of Castile, Leon, Aragon,… by divine grace.

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

14

Ferdinand VII, the Desired, the Felon King
Fernando VII, el Deseado, el Rey Felón
October 14, 1784 – September 29, 1833 (aged 48)
December 11, 1813 – September 29, 1833 (restored to power by Napoleon)
King of Spain
son of Charles IV

15

Isabella II, the One with the Sad Destinies
Isabel II, la de los Tristes Destinos
October 10, 1830 – April 10, 1904 (aged 73)
September 29, 1833 – September 30, 1868
Queen of Spain
daughter of Ferdinand VII

text: House of Savoy (1870–1873)[edit]

text: After the Spanish Revolution of 1868 deposed Isabella II, there was established a provisional government and a regency headed by Francisco Serrano y Domínguez, who acted as Head of State, from October 8, 1868 until December 4, 1870 while it was requested a new monarch. Amadeo I was elected as king and the new title used was King of Spain, by divine grace and will of nation.

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

16

Amadeo I, the Gentleman King, "King Macaroni"
Amadeo I, el Rey Caballero
May 30, 1845 – January 18, 1890 (aged 44)
December 4, 1870 – February 11, 1873
King of Spain
descendant of Philip II (through his grandson Thomas Francis) and of Charles III (through his son Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and his daughter Maria Luisa)

text: First Spanish Republic (1873–1874)[edit]

text: The First Spanish Republic started with the abdication as King of Spain on February 10, 1873 of Amadeo I, following the Hidalgo Affair, when he had been required by the radical government to sign a decree against the artillery officers. The next day, February 11, the republic was declared by a parliamentary majority made up of radicals, republicans and democrats. It lasted twenty-three months.

text: Presidents of the Executive Power[edit]

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
(Birth–Death)
Term of Office
Political Party

1

Estanislao Figueras
(1819–1882)
February 12, 1873
June 11, 1873
Federal Democratic Republican Party

2

Francesc Pi i Margall
(1824–1901)
June 11, 1873
July 18, 1873
Federal Democratic Republican Party

3

Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso
(1838–1908)
July 18, 1873
September 7, 1873
Federal Democratic Republican Party

4

Emilio Castelar y Ripoll
(1832–1899)
September 7, 1873
January 3, 1874
Federal Democratic Republican Party

5

Francisco Serrano
1st Duke of la Torre
(1810–1885)
January 3, 1874
December 30, 1874
Conservative faction

text: Kingdom of Spain (1874–1931)[edit]

text: House of Bourbon (1874–1931; second restoration)[edit]

text: Isabella II's eldest son was restored to the throne. Constitutional king of Spain. Between the death of Alfonso XII and the birth of Alfonso XIII, there was a period of seven months where the pregnant Queen Maria Christina served as Head of State with the title of Regent for her daughter Maria de las Mercedes, who was declared to be "Queen in Name" until the gender of her baby sibling was known.

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

17

Alfonso XII, the Peacemaker
Alfonso XII, el Pacificador
November 28, 1857 – November 25, 1885 (aged 27)
December 30, 1874 – November 25, 1885
Constitutional King of Spain
son of Isabella II

18

Alfonso XIII, the African
Alfonso XIII, el Africano
May 17, 1886 – February 28, 1941 (aged 54)
May 17, 1886 – April 14, 1931
Constitutional King of Spain
son of Alfonso XII

text: Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939)[edit]

text: The Second Spanish Republic was the system of government in Spain between April 14, 1931 when Alfonso XIII left the country following a period of social unrest after the collapse of General Primo de Rivera's dictatorship a year earlier, and April 1, 1939 when the last of the Republican (republicanos) forces surrendered to the Nationalist (nacionales) forces led by Francisco Franco, at the end of the Spanish Civil War.

text: Presidents of the Republic[edit]

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
(Birth–Death)
Term of Office
Political Party

1

Niceto Alcalá-Zamora
(1877–1949)
December 10, 1931
April 7, 1936
Liberal Republican Right

Diego Martínez Barrio
(1883–1962)
Interim
April 7, 1936
May 10, 1936
Republican Union
Popular Front coalition

2

Manuel Azaña
(1880–1940)
May 10, 1936
March 3, 1939
Republican Left
Popular Front coalition

Segismundo Casado
(1893–1968)
Interim
March 4, 1939
March 13, 1939
Republican Army
National Defence Council

José Miaja
(1878–1958)
Interim
March 13, 1939
March 27, 1939
Republican Army
National Defence Council

text: Spanish Republican government in exile (1939–1977)[edit]

text: Presidents in exile

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
(Birth–Death)
Term of Office
Political Party

Diego Martínez Barrio
(1883–1962)
Interim
April 4, 1939
May 11, 1940
Republican Union

Álvaro de Albornoz y Liminiana
(1879–1954)
Interim
May 11, 1940
August 17, 1945
Independent

1

Diego Martínez Barrio
(1883–1962)
August 17, 1945
January 1, 1962
Republican Union

2

Luis Jiménez de Asúa
(1889–1970)
January 1, 1962
November 16, 1970
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party

3

José Maldonado González
(1900–1985)
November 16, 1970
July 1, 1977
Republican Left

text: Francoist Spain (1936–1975)[edit]

text: On October 1, 1936 General Francisco Franco was proclaimed Head of State (Caudillo) in parts of Spain controlled by Nationalist (nacionales) forces after Spanish Civil War broke out. After the end of war on April 1, 1939 General Franco took control of the whole of Spain. In 1947, Franco proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy, but did not allow the pretender, Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona, to take the throne. In 1969, Franco declared that Juan Carlos, styled as the Prince of Spain, the Count of Barcelona's son, would be his successor. After Franco's death in 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded him as the King of Spain.

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
(Birth–Death)
Term of Office
Political Party

Head of State (Caudillo)

1

Francisco Franco
(1892–1975)
October 1, 1936
November 20, 1975
No party
(Links to military and
National Movement)

President of the Regency

2

Alejandro Rodríguez de Valcárcel
(1917–1976)
November 20, 1975
November 22, 1975
National Movement

text: Kingdom of Spain (1975–present)[edit]

text: House of Bourbon (1975–present; third restoration)[edit]

text: Alfonso XIII's claim descended (due to his two eldest sons' renunciations) to his third son, Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, who was passed over in favour of his eldest son, whose title became King of Spain. The Count of Barcelona renounced his claims in favour of his son in 1977, two years after Franco's death and Juan Carlos's accession.

text: Juan Carlos abdicated in favor of his son Felipe VI, who became King on 19 June 2014, with Felipe's older daughter Infanta Leonor next in succession.[5]

text:
No.
Portrait
Coat of arms
Name
Life
Reign
Titles
Claim

19

Juan Carlos I
(1938-01-05) January 5, 1938 (age 79)
November 22, 1975 – June 19, 2014
King of Spain
Grandson of Alfonso XIII, through his third son, Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

20

Felipe VI
(1968-01-30) January 30, 1968 (age 49)
June 19, 2014 – present
King of Spain
Son of Juan Carlos I


document_title: I Want You (She's So Heavy)

question_text: who plays lead guitar on i want you she's so heavy

question_tokens: who plays lead guitar on i want you she 's so heavy

text: I Want You (She's So Heavy)

text: Composition[edit]

text:
The song begins in 6
8 time, with an arpeggio guitar theme in D minor, progressing through E7(♭9) and B♭7 before cadencing on an A augmented chord. In this chord sequence, the F note is a drone. The bass and lead guitar ascend and descend with a riff derived from the D minor scale. As the last chord fades, a verse begins in 4
4 time, based on the A and D blues scales, with Lennon singing "I want you / I want you so bad . . ." The two blues verses alternate, before the reappearance of the E7(♭9) chord, and McCartney playing a notably aggressive bass riff. This would function, throughout the song, as a transition to the main theme. The main theme repeats with Lennon singing "She's so heavy", with a long sustain on the last word. The second set of verses are rendered instrumentally with lead guitar. Another repeat of the "She's So Heavy" theme (this time featuring harmonies) is followed by Lennon singing a livelier repeat of the "I Want You" verse. During the next E7(♭9) transition, Lennon lets loose a primal scream of "Yeah", until his voice breaks. The song's coda consists of a three-minute repetition of the "She's So Heavy" theme, with the arpeggios double tracked, intensifying with "white noise" fading in as the theme continues; this consists of multi-tracked guitars from Lennon and Harrison, Moog white-noise from Lennon, and drums and bass from Starr and McCartney respectively until an abrupt ending.[6]

text: Josh Hart and Damien Fanelli, writing for Guitar World, placed the song 34th in their list of the 50 Heaviest Songs Before Black Sabbath, and called the song a "bluesy rocker" that "might have inadvertently started doom metal."[7] Similarly, Jo Kendall of Classic Rock magazine commented that the song pre-dated "Black Sabbath's creation of doom rock by several months" and noted the "Santana-like Latin blues section" in the song.[8]

text: Recording[edit]

text: Lennon wrote the song about his love for Yoko Ono[4] The song was rehearsed several times during the Get Back/Let It Be sessions; the basic track and Lennon's guide vocal (which is used in the master) were recorded at Trident Studios on 22 February 1969, shortly after filming for the film ended. Lennon played the lead guitar, as George Harrison stated:

text: It's very heavy. John plays lead guitar and sings the same as he plays. It's really basically a bit like a blues. The riff that he sings and plays is really a very basic blues-type thing. But again, it's very original sort of John-type song.[9]

text: Lennon and Harrison overdubbed multi-tracked heavy guitars on 18 April 1969. Billy Preston's keyboards and Ringo Starr's congas were added on 20 April 1969. "I Want You" received the "She's So Heavy" vocals on 11 August, and thus the title became "I Want You (She's So Heavy)".[10] "'She's So Heavy' was about Yoko," Lennon told Rolling Stone. "When you're drowning, you don't say, 'I would be incredibly pleased if someone would have the foresight to notice me drowning and come and help me.' You just scream."[4]

text: Three takes from 22 February were edited into a master (second generation), which was overdubbed, mixed down on 18 April (third generation), and overdubbed on 18 April, 20 April, 8 August and 11 August. Different overdubs were made to the second generation tape on 8 August. The mix is the third generation for 4:37 and then the second generation tape, which has white noise produced by the Moog synthesizer played by Lennon and additional drums added on 8 August. The final overdub session for "I Want You (She's So Heavy)", which included the final mixing and editing, was the last time all four Beatles worked in the studio together.[11][12]

text: The final master lasted 8:04, but Lennon decided on a surprise ending. During the final edit with the guitars, drums and white noise climaxing endlessly, he told recording engineer Geoff Emerick to "cut it right there" at the 7:44 mark, bringing the song (and Side 1 of Abbey Road) to an abrupt end. On Love, the three-minute stretch of repeated guitar chords that ends the song intercuts with elements of "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" and "Helter Skelter", while retaining the abrupt cut to silence at the end.[13][14]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
John Lennon – lead and harmony vocals, multi-tracked lead guitar, Moog synthesizer
Paul McCartney – harmony vocals, bass
George Harrison – harmony vocals, multi-tracked lead guitar
Ringo Starr – drums, congas, wind machine[4]
Billy Preston – Hammond organ

text: Covers[edit]

text: Numerous bands and solo artists have covered "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" in the studio and live, in particular the following:

text:
Performer
Album
Year
Comment

Alvin Lee
Nineteen Ninety-Four
1994
Accompanied by George Harrison on slide guitar

Beatallica
Sgt. Hetfield's Motorbreath Pub Band
2007
Merged with Metallica's "The Call of Ktulu" to create "Ktulu (He's So Heavy)"

Bee Gees
–
1978
Performance for the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band movie, with Peter Frampton, Frankie Howerd, Dianne Steiberg and Stargard

Blackmail
Science Fiction
1999
Usage of part of the lyrics ("I want you so bad") and part of the tune for the song "3.000.000 Years From Here"[original research?]

Booker T. and the MGs
McLemore Avenue
1969
Album cover also mimicks the Abbey Road album cover

Budka Suflera
-
1978
-

Coroner
Mental Vortex
1991

Earth to Andy
Simple Machine
1998
As hidden track at the end of the album that features a "talking guitar" effect

Eddie Hazel
Game, Dames and Guitar Thangs
1977
Founding lead guitarist for Parliament-Funkadelic. Eddie Hazel's solo debut album

Eric Gales Band
Picture of a Thousand Faces
1993

The Flaming Lips
-
2011
15-minute performance of the song at NYE Freakout in Oklahoma City, in honour of the special guest performance by The Plastic Ono Band

George Benson
The Other Side of Abbey Road
1970

George Lynch
Furious George
2004
Cover album

Groove Collective
-
1996
Single, which charted in the US

Halestorm
ReAniMate: The CoVeRs eP
2011

Incubus (band)
-
2013
Covered a small snippet of the song multiple times, usually to close their performances during the 2013 and 2014 tour

Joe Anderson, Dana Fuchs and T.V. Carpio
-
2007
Performance by cast members for Julie Taymor's film Across the Universe'

John Legend
Live in Philadelphia
2008

The Last Shadow Puppets
-
2008
Performance during the BBC Electric Proms[16] Regularly performed as part of their setlist.

Ministry
Cover Up
2008
track only on Japanese issue of the album

Noir Désir
Dies Irae
1994
Live album; the title means The Day of Wrath (Lat.)

Robyn Hitchcock
CD: Various Artists – Abbey Road Now!
2009
Album of covers of songs from Abbey Road

Sarah Vaughan
Songs of the Beatles
1981
Omits any "She's So Heavy" vocals

Soda Stereo
-
1990–91
Covered song in several live performances during that time

Soulive
Rubber Soulive
2010
Beatles cover album

Soundgarden
-
1994-97
Covered the song multiple times, usually to close their performances in their Superunknown and Down on the Upside tours.

Steel Train
1969
2004
Cover album

Thrice
-
2010
Released as download track for their label Vagrant Records[17]

Transatlantic
All of the above
2000
Live album, cover appears as last segment of the closing medley

Type O Negative
World Coming Down
1999
As part of a medley with "Day Tripper" and "If I Needed Someone"

Phillips, Grier & Flinner
Looking Back
2002
Instrumental version, with David Grier on acoustic guitar, Todd Phillips (musician) on acoustic bass, and Matt Flinner on mandolin

Umphrey's McGee
The London Session
2015
Recorded at Abbey Road studios in London

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Moon, Tom (2008). 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die. p. 62. the most convincing exploration of blues and progressive rock the Beatles ever attempted, "I Want You (She's So Heavy)"
Jump up ^ Perone, James E. (2012). The Album: A Guide to Pop Music's Most Provocative, Influential, and Important Creations. Praeger. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-313-37907-9.
Jump up ^ Sander, Ellen (25 October 1969). "The Beatles: "Abbey Road"". Saturday Review. Vol. 52. p. 69. ISSN 0036-4983.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "59 – 'I Want You (She's So Heavy)' -". 100 Greatest Beatles Songs. Rolling Stone. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
Jump up ^ The Beatles. J Lennon, P McCartney, G Harrison… – John Lennon – books.google.com
Jump up ^ "Alan W. Pollack's Notes on "I Want You (She's So Heavy)"". Icce.rug.nl. Retrieved 2016-07-27.
Jump up ^ "The 50 Heaviest Songs Before Black Sabbath: #40-31". guitarworld.com.
Jump up ^ Classic Rock Magazine, September 2014
Jump up ^ "George Harrison interview with Ritchie Yorke, September, 1969". Ottawa Beatles Site. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Voice Leading and Harmony as Expressive Devices in the Early Music of the Beatles:'She Loves You'W Everett – College Music Symposium, 1992 – JSTOR
Jump up ^ "Mixing, editing: I Want You (She’s So Heavy)". beatlesbible.com.
Jump up ^ "The Final Days of The Beatles". Mental Floss.
Jump up ^ Willman, Chris (26 December 2006). "peace". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Beatles: LOVE". Yahoo!. 20 November 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
Jump up ^ MacDonald 2005, p. 342.
Jump up ^ "Last Shadow Puppets cover The Beatles in Liverpool". NME. 25 October 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Competition to win Thrice songs for download". Vagrant Records. Retrieved 6 January 2012.

tag: ol


document_title: Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'Be

question_text: who sang fings ain't what they used to be

question_tokens: who sang fings ai n 't what they used to be

text: Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'Be

text: Production background[edit]

text: Norman initially wrote the piece as a play (with no music), but after Joan Littlewood read it, she asked Bart to write the music and lyrics. It was first performed by Theatre Workshop, produced and directed by Littlewood in February 1959 at their home, the Theatre Royal Stratford East. It subsequently played at the Garrick Theatre in London's West End, starting on 11 February 1960. It ran for 886 performances.[1] The cast featured Maurice Kaufmann, Wallas Eaton, Miriam Karlin, Barbara Windsor, Toni Palmer, Bryan Pringle, Ray Ausin, Tom Chatto, Paddy Joyce, Edward Caddick, Yootha Joyce, George Sewell, Michael O'Brien, Rick Morgan, Louis Adams, Neville Munroe, Mary Davies, Mary Sheen, Barbara Cording, Donald Wilson, James Dark and Tamba Allen.[1]

text: It was a Cockney comedy and the dialogue is in the Cockney dialect with much rhyming slang and thieves' cant. Some audiences found it difficult to understand, and a list of more than a dozen phrases with standard English translations was supplied in the programme.

text: The characters in the play were a selection of the low-life of London; a collection of gamblers, spivs, prostitutes, teddy boys and girls and some not-too-honest police. The title song, "Fings ain't wot they used t'be", was memorable and was recorded by Max Bygraves,[2] albeit with heavily bowdlerised lyrics. An original cast recording was made, and has recently been re-released on Hallmark Records (710032).

text: Reviews were mixed: "A few reviewers praised the production on the whole but found the script too thin, while others found it entertaining but not as good as the company's previous productions."[3] The play won the Evening Standard Award for best musical (1960).[4]

text: Musical score[edit]

text: The original score and band parts for Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'be were lost sometime after its initial run. The only score which is now available comprises previously published song-copy versions of some of the musical numbers along with hand written material for the remaining songs. There are no band parts and "Meatface" is not present in any form.

text: Whilst the show was playing at the Garrick Theatre, record producer Norman Newell collected British film, television, singing and stage stars to release a all star recording of the show. Tony Osborne provided musical direction with John Barry and His Orchestra providing backing on two songs with Adam Faith. The cast included the author Lionel Bart himself, Alfie Bass, Adam Faith, Harry Fowler, Joan Heal, Sidney James, Alfred Marks, Marion Ryan, Tony Tanner, and the Williams Singers. The finale with the entire company also had vocals with "several celebrities present at the session" (according to the liner notes), including Glen Mason, Sean Connery, John Burgess, Pip Wedge, Jimmy Henney, Stella Tanner and from the Garrick Theatre original cast, Miriam Karlin. The album was released in 1960 on the HMV label (CLP 1358).

text: In September 2012 Steve Hill was asked to be Musical Director for a production of the show at Guildford School of Acting. As part of the pre-production work he re-created the complete score for the original line up (Alto Sax, Tenor Sax, Trombone, Guitar, Piano, Double Bass and Drums). The only change was that the keys of some of Miriam Karlin's songs were raised so that they would fit a more usual female range.