document_title: Attachment measures

question_text: who designed the strange situation to measure attachment

text: Attachment measures

text: Measures of attachment in infants[edit]

text: Some methods are based on observation of infants and toddlers either in natural or 'arranged' situations. Other methods, suitable for older children, are based on asking children to complete "attachment story stems," draw a picture of their family, or describe their relationships.

text: Strange Situation Procedure (SSP)[edit]

text: The Strange Situation procedure was formulated to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and children between the age of nine and 18 months. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth, a developmental psychologist[3] Originally it was devised to enable children to be classified into the attachment styles known as secure, anxious-avoidant and anxious-ambivalent. As research accumulated and atypical patterns of attachment became more apparent it was further developed by Main and Solomon in 1986 and 1990 to include the new category of disorganized/disoriented attachment.[4][5]

text: In this procedure the child is observed playing for 20 minutes while caregivers and strangers enter and leave the room, recreating the flow of the familiar and unfamiliar presence in most children's lives. The situation varies in stressfulness and the child's responses are observed. The child experiences the following situations:

text:
Mother (or other familiar caregiver) and baby enter room.
Mother sits quietly on a chair, responding if the infant seeks attention.
A stranger enters, talks to the mother then gradually approaches infant with a toy. The mother leaves the room.
The stranger leaves the infant playing unless he/she is inactive and then tries to interest the infant in toys. If the infant becomes distressed this episode is ended.
Mother enters and waits to see how the infant greets her. The stranger leaves quietly and the mother waits until the baby settles, and then she leaves again.
The infant is alone. This episode is curtailed if the infant appears to be distressed.
The stranger comes back and repeats episode 3.
The mother returns and the stranger goes. Reunion behaviour is noted and then the situation is ended.

tag: ol

text: Two aspects of the child's behaviour are observed:

text:
The amount of exploration (e.g. playing with new toys) the child engages in throughout, and
The child's reactions to the departure and return of its caregiver.

tag: ul

text: Measures of attachment in toddlerhood and early-middle childhood[edit]

text: As the SSP is not suitable beyond 18 months of age, other measures have been developed for older ages groups, which include observational measures (in a controlled or naturalistic environment), representational methods and interview methods. Some are developed for research purposes whereas others have been developed for clinical use. Effective training of evaluators is essential, as some items to be assessed require interpretation reliability (e.g., child is "suddenly aggressive toward mother for no reason").[6]

text: Controlled observational methods[edit]

text: Preschool strange situation[edit]

text: Although originally designed for 1-year-old children, Ainsworth’s strange situation has been adapted to measure the attachment and exploratory behavior of children between the ages of 2-4½ years-old.[7] A fundamental feature of the strange situation is that the situation the child is placed in must elicit stress. If the strange situation fails to stress the child, it cannot serve as an adequate environment for the measurement of attachment.[8] The preschool strange situation features several alterations to facilitate the creation of stress in older children. These modifications include a slightly longer separation, changes in the role and/or gender of the stranger, and changes in the instructions to the caregiver. Some versions of the preschool strange situations omit the stranger altogether, thus leaving the child alone in the room throughout both separations.[9] The coding system used to interpret the attachment style expressed by the child has also been modified. Rather than focusing entirely on the expression of specific behaviors and emotions, the revised coding system assesses ways in which a variety of behaviors, such as talking, are organized to maintain and negotiate proximity and contact. Cassidy, Marvin and the MacArthur Working group published a version of the Strange Situation procedure designed for children within the age group of 3- to 4-years-old. In addition to categorizing a child’s attachment as secure, insecure/avoidant, insecure/ambivalent, and insecure/disorganized, the measure includes a seven-point avoidance scale and nine-point security scale.[8]

text: Main & Cassidy attachment classification system[edit]

text: This system, devised in 1988, analyses the reunion of child and parent after a 1-hour separation. It is aimed at 6-year-olds and classifies their attachment status.[10]

text: Preschool Assessment of Attachment (PAA)[edit]

text: The PAA was devised by P.Crittenden for the purpose of assessing patterns of attachment in 18-month to 5-year-old children. Like the SSP it involves an observation which is then coded. The classifications include all the SSP categories plus patterns that develop during the second year of life. The three basic strategies for negotiating interpersonal relationships are modified to fit preschoolers and the patterns are renamed secure/balanced, or Type B, defended, or Type A and coercive or Type C. It is also intended to be able to distinguish the unendangered from the endangered compulsive and obsessive subpatterns that may have implications for emotional and behavioral development.[11]

text: Marschak Interaction Method (MIM)[edit]

text: The MIM is a structured observation of the interaction between parent and child. The MIM was created by Marianne Marschak in the 1960s at the Yale Child Study Center. Salo & Makela (2006) of Finland have standardized and published a rating scale for the MIM for research purposes. Anne Stewart has developed the MIM Behavior Rating Scale (MIMBRS).[12]

text: Naturalistic observational methods[edit]

text: Attachment Q-set[edit]

text: This method, devised by Waters and Deane in 1985, utilizes Q-Sort methodology. It is based on a set period of observation of children aged 1 – 5 in a number of environments. It consists of nearly 100 items intended to cover the spectrum of attachment related behaviors including secure base and exploratory behaviors, affective response and social cognition.[13] The observer sorts the cards corresponding to the degree to which the child exhibits the item, which is then scored.[14] The overall score for each child will result in a variable ranging from +1.0 (i.e., very secure) to -1.0 (i.e., very insecure).[15] Despite its ability to classify secure attachment, the score derived from the Q-set measure does not classify the type of insecure attachment.[13]

text: Representational (story stem, narrative and picture) methods[edit]

text: This approach uses dolls and narrative to enact a story. The dolls represent family members. The interviewer enacts the beginning of the story and then hands the dolls over for the child to complete it with varying degrees of prompting and encouragement. These techniques are designed to access the child's internal working models of their attachment relationships. Methods include the MacArthur Story Stem Battery (MSSB) and the Attachment Story Completion Test, developed in 1990 for children between the age of 3 to 8 years; the Story Stem Assessment Profile (SSAP) developed in 1990 for children aged 4 – 8; the Attachment Doll Play Assessment developed in 1995 for children age 4.5-11; the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task (MCAST) developed in 2000 for children aged 4.5 - 8.5.

text: Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT)[edit]

text: The Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT) is a semi-projective attachment measure designed by Inge Bretherton and colleagues to assess the internal working model of children between the age of 3 to 9 years old (though it requires modification when used with older children). The measure evaluates a child's attachment style by analyzing how a child resolves a stress inducing story. In a 30-minute recorded interview, five story stems are presented through the use of props, such as small family figures. The stories are designed to access how that child interacts with their primary caregiver in five situations: separation, confrontation, fear, reunion, and pain.[16] The Interviewer prompts the child to complete each story by saying "show me, or tell me what happens next." The information derived from the interview is later coded according to the organization and content of the story completion. Avoidant attachment, for example, can be disclosed by a child refusing to acknowledge the attachment issue presented in the story stem (through claiming that the event did not take place). A child may also avoid addressing attachment by focusing solely on minor details, such as how the protagonist is dressed. Secure attachment, alternately, is indicated when a child provides coherent and constructive resolutions to the stories.[17]

text: Manchester Child Attachment Story Task (MCAST)[edit]

text: The MCAST is a semi-structured doll play 'story stem' methodology, developed by Jonathan Green, Charlie Stanley, Ruth Goldwyn and Vicky Smith,[18][19] to evaluate and understand the internal (mental) representations of their attachment relationship with a specific primary caregiver in children of 4 to 8.5 years. The concepts and procedures used have a basis in the Strange Situation Procedure and Adult Attachment Interview, and involves 4 story stem vignettes involving two dolls representing the caregiver-child dyad of interest and a dolls house, presented with affective arousal to mobilise attachment representations in a way that children of this age range find accessible and engaging. Responses are usually videotaped in order to reliably rate aspects of the child's represented narrative content and behaviour, and the child's own behaviour, to ascertain an attachment classification, with a particular focus on disorganised attachment, as well as providing other supporting ratings. Clinical development of the MCAST started in 1992, validation was published in 2000, and it has been since used in a range of cultural contexts[20] and clinical and at-risk groups.[21] Training is required for its use.

text: Picture response techniques[edit]

text: Like the stem stories, these techniques are designed to access the child's internal working models of attachment relationships. The child is shown attachment related pictures and asked to respond. Methods include the Separation Anxiety Test (SAT) developed in 1972 for children aged between 11 and 17. Revised versions have been produced for 4 - 7-year-olds. The SAT was doctored.

text: Interview methods[edit]

text: Child Attachment Interview (CAI)[edit]

text: This is a semi-structured interview designed by Target et al. (2003) for children aged 7 to 11. It is based on the Adult Attachment Interview, adapted for children by focussing on representations of relationships with parents and attachment related events. Scores are based on both verbal and non-verbal communications.[22]

text: Disturbances of Attachment Interview (DAI)[edit]

text: Disturbances of Attachment Interview developed, by Smyke and Zeanah, (1999), is a semi-structured interview designed to be administered by clinicians to caregivers. This method is designed to pick up not only reactive attachment disorder but also Zeannah et al.'s (1993) suggested new alternative categories of disorders of attachment.[23] It covers 12 items, namely having a discriminated, preferred adult, seeking comfort when distressed, responding to comfort when offered, social and emotional reciprocity, emotional regulation, checking back after venturing away from the care giver, reticence with unfamiliar adults, willingness to go off with relative strangers, self endangering behavior, excessive clinging, vigilance/hypercompliance and role reversal.

text: Measures of attachment in adolescents[edit]

text: Attachment Interview for Childhood and Adolescence (AICA)[edit]

text: This is a version of the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) rendered age appropriate for adolescents. The classifications of dismissing, secure, preoccupied and unresolved are the same as under the AAI described below.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Existing measures have not necessarily been developed to a useful level. "Behavioral observation is a natural starting point for assessing attachment disorders because behavioral descriptions... have been central to the development of the concept... despite the fact that observations have figured prominently... no established observational protocol has been established" [24]

text: Also, questionable measures of attachment in school-age children have been presented. For example, a protocol for establishing attachment status was described by Sheperis and his colleagues.[25] Unfortunately, this protocol was validated against another technique, the Randolph Attachment Disorder Questionnaire, that was itself poorly validated and that is based on a nonconventional view of attachment.

text: Reception and development of SSP[edit]

text: Psychiatrist Michael Rutter describe the limitations of the procedure in the following terms;[26]

text: "It is by no means free of limitations (see Lamb, Thompson, Gardener, Charnov & Estes, 1984).[27] To begin with, it is very dependent on brief separations and reunions having the same meaning for all children. This maybe a major constraint when applying the procedure in cultures, such as that in Japan (see Miyake et al.,, 1985),[28] where infants are rarely separated from their mothers in ordinary circumstances. Also, because older children have a cognitive capacity to maintain relationships when the older person is not present, separation may not provide the same stress for them. Modified procedures based on the Strange Situation have been developed for older preschool children (see Belsky et al., 1994; Greenberg et al., 1990)[29][30] but it is much more dubious whether the same approach can be used in middle childhood. Also, despite its manifest strengths, the procedure is based on just 20 minutes of behaviour. It can be scarcely expected to tap all the relevant qualities of a child's attachment relationships. Q-sort procedures based on much longer naturalistic observations in the home, and interviews with the mothers have developed in order to extend the data base (see Vaughn & Waters, 1990).[31] A further constraint is that the coding procedure results in discrete categories rather than continuously distributed dimensions. Not only is this likely to provide boundary problems, but also it is not at all obvious that discrete categories best represent the concepts that are inherent in attachment security. It seems much more likely that infants vary in their degree of security and there is need for a measurement systems that can quantify individual variation".

text: Ecological validity and universality of Strange Situation attachment classification distributions[edit]

text: With respect to the ecological validity of the Strange Situation, a meta-analysis of 2,000 infant-parent dyads, including several from studies with non-Western language and/or cultural bases found the global distribution of attachment categorizations to be A (21%), B (65%), and C (14%) [32] This global distribution was generally consistent with Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) original attachment classification distributions.

text: However, controversy has been raised over a few cultural differences in these rates of 'global' attachment classification distributions. In particular, two studies diverged from the global distributions of attachment classifications noted above. One study was conducted in North Germany [33] in which more avoidant (A) infants were found than global norms would suggest, and the other in Sapporo, Japan [34] where more resistant (C) infants were found. Of these two studies, the Japanese findings have sparked the most controversy as to the meaning of individual differences in attachment behavior as originally identified by Ainsworth et al. (1978).

text: In a recent study conducted in Sapporo, Behrens, et al., 2007.[35] found attachment distributions consistent with global norms using the six-year Main & Cassidy scoring system for attachment classification.[36] In addition to these findings supporting the global distributions of attachment classifications in Sapporo, Behrens et al. also discuss the Japanese concept of amae and its relevance to questions concerning whether the insecure-resistant (C) style of interaction may be engendered in Japanese infants as a result of the cultural practice of amae.

text: Attachment measurement: discrete or continuous?[edit]

text: Regarding the issue of whether the breadth of infant attachment functioning can be captured by a categorical classification scheme, it should be noted that continuous measures of attachment security have been developed which have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties. These have been used either individually or in conjunction with discrete attachment classifications in many published reports [see Richters et al., 1998;[37] Van IJzendoorn et al., 1990).[38]] The original Richter’s et al. (1998) scale is strongly related to secure versus insecure classifications, correctly predicting about 90% of cases.[38] Readers further interested in the categorical versus continuous nature of attachment classifications (and the debate surrounding this issue) should consult the paper by Fraley and Spieker [39] and the rejoinders in the same issue by many prominent attachment researchers including J. Cassidy, A. Sroufe, E. Waters & T. Beauchaine, and M. Cummings.

text: Measures in adults[edit]

text: The three main ways of measuring attachment in adults include the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), the Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (AAP), and self-report questionnaires. The AAI, AAP, and the self-report questionnaires were created with somewhat different aims in mind. Shaver and Fraley note:

text: "If you are a novice in this research area, what is most important for you to know is that self-report measures of romantic attachment and the AAI were initially developed completely independently and for quite different purposes. One asks about a person's feelings and behaviors in the context of romantic or other close relationships; the other is used to make inferences about the defenses associated with an adult's current state of mind regarding childhood relationships with parents. In principle, these might have been substantially associated, but in fact they seem to be only moderately related--at least as currently assessed. One kind of measure receives its construct validity mostly from studies of romantic relationships, the other from prediction of a person's child's behavior in Ainsworth's Strange Situation. Correlations of the two kinds of measures with other variables are likely to differ, although a few studies have found the AAI to be related to marital relationship quality and a few have found self-report romantic attachment measures to be related to parenting." (Shaver & Fraley, 2004) [40]

text: The AAI, the AAP, and the self-report questionnaires offer distinct, but equally valid, perspectives on adult attachment. It's therefore worthwhile to become familiar with each approach.

text: Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)[edit]

text: Developed by Carol George, Nancy Kaplan, and Mary Main in 1984, this is a quasi-clinical semi-structured interview that takes about one hour to administer. It involves about twenty questions and has extensive research validation to support it. A good description can be found in Chapter 25 of Attachment Theory, Research and Clinical Applications (2nd ed.), edited by J. Cassidy and P. R. Shaver, Guilford Press, NY, 2008. The chapter title is "The Adult Attachment Interview: Historical and Current Perspectives," and is written by E. Hesse. The interview taps into adult representation of attachment (i.e. internal working models) by assessing general and specific recollections from their childhood. The interview is coded based on quality of discourse (especially coherence) and content. Categories are designed to predict parental stances on Berkeley infant data.

text: Parental AAI Attachment status includes:

text:
Autonomous: They value attachment relationships, describe them in a balanced way and as influential. Their discourse is coherent, internally consistent, and non-defensive in nature.
Dismissing: They show memory lapses. Minimize negative aspects and deny personal impact on relationships. Their positive descriptions are often contradicted or unsupported. The discourse is defensive.
Preoccupied: Experience continuing preoccupation with their own parents. Incoherent discourse. Have angry or ambivalent representations of the past.
Unresolved/Disorganized: Show trauma resulting from unresolved loss or abuse.

text: Some of the strongest external validation of the measures involves its demonstrated ability to predict interviewees' children's classifications in the Strange Situation. The measure also has been shown to have some overlap with attachment constructs measured by the less time-intensive measures of the peer/romantic attachment tradition (Hazan & Shaver, Bartholomew), as reported by Shaver, P. R., Belsky, J., & Brennan, K. A. (2000).[41] However, there are important differences in what is measured by the AAI—rather than being a measure of romantic attachment, it taps primarily into a person's state of mind regarding their attachment in their family of origin (nuclear family).

text: Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (AAP)[edit]

text: Developed by Carol George and Malcolm West in 1999, this is a free response task that involved telling stories in response to eight picture stimuli (1 warm-up & 7 attachment scenes). A good description can be found in George and West's 1999 paper in the journal Attachment and Human Development. A book describing the measure is forthcoming from Guilford Press in spring 2011.[42]

text: The AAP identifies the same adult attachment groups as the AAI, as described above. In addition to providing adult group classifications, the AAP is also used to code attachment defensive processing patterns, attachment synchrony, and personal agency.

text: The strongest concurrent validation of the measure is the correspondence between AAP and AAI classification agreement. The AAP is demonstrated to be increasingly useful in clinical and neurobiological settings. The AAP is being used to assess attachment in adults and adolescents.

text: Self-report questionnaires[edit]

text: Hazan and Shaver created the first questionnaire to measure attachment in adults. [43] Their questionnaire was designed to classify adults into the three attachment styles identified by Ainsworth. The questionnaire consisted of three sets of statements, each set of statements describing an attachment style:

text:
Secure - I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me.
Avoidant - I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being.
Anxious/Ambivalent - I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away.

text: People participating in their study were asked to choose which set of statements best described their feelings. The chosen set of statements indicated their attachment style. Later versions of this questionnaire presented scales so people could rate how well each set of statements described their feelings.

text: One important advance in the development of attachment questionnaires was the addition of a fourth style of attachment. Bartholomew and Horowitz presented a model that identified four categories or styles of adult attachment. [44] Their model was based on the idea attachment styles reflected people's thoughts about their partners and thought about themselves. Specifically, attachment styles depended on whether or not people judge their partners to be generally accessible and responsive to requests for support, and whether or not people judge themselves to be the kind of individuals towards which others want to respond and lend help. They proposed four categories based on positive or negative thoughts about partners and on positive or negative thoughts about self.

text:
Attachment Theory Four Category Model

Thoughts of Self

Positive
Negative

Thoughts
of
Partner
Positive
Secure

Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy

Preoccupied

Preoccupied with relationships

Negative
Dismissive

Dismissing of intimacy
Strongly independent

Fearful

Fearful of intimacy
Socially avoidant

text: Bartholomew and Horowitz used this model to create the Relationship Questionnaire (RQ-CV). The RQ-CV consisted of four sets of statements, each describing a category or style of attachment:

text:
Secure - It is relatively easy for me to become emotionally close to others. I am comfortable depending on others and having others depend on me. I don't worry about being alone or having others not accept me.
Dismissive - I am comfortable without close emotional relationships. It is very important to me to feel independent and self-sufficient, and I prefer not to depend on others or have others depend on me.
Preoccupied - I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I am uncomfortable being without close relationships, but I sometimes worry that others don't value me as much as I value them.
Fearful - I am somewhat uncomfortable getting close to others. I want emotionally close relationships, but I find it difficult to trust others completely, or to depend on them. I sometimes worry that I will be hurt if I allow myself to become too close to others.

text: Tests demonstrated the four attachment styles were distinct in how they related to other kinds of psychological variables. Adults indeed appeared to have four styles of attachment instead of three attachment styles.

text: David Schmitt, together with a large number of colleagues, validated the attachment questionnaire created by Bartholomew and Horowitz in 62 cultures. [45] The distinction of thoughts about self and thoughts about partners proved valid in nearly all cultures. However, the way these two kinds of thoughts interacted to form attachment styles varied somewhat across cultures. The four attachment styles had somewhat different meanings across cultures.

text: A second important advance in attachment questionnaires was the use of independent items to assess attachment. Instead of asking people to choose between three or four sets of statements, people rated how strongly they agreed with dozens of individual statements. The ratings for the individual statements were combined to provide an attachment score. Investigators have created several questionnaires using this strategy to measure adult attachment.

text: Two popular questionnaires of this type are the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) questionnaire and the Experiences in Close Relationships - Revised (ECR-R) questionnaire. The ECR was created by Brennan, Clark, and Shaver in 1998. [46] The ECR-R was created by Fraley, Waller, and Brennan in 2000. [47]

text: Analysis of the ECR and ECR-R reveal that the questionnaire items can be grouped into two dimensions of attachment. One group of questionnaire items deal with how anxious a person is about their relationship. These items serve as a scale for anxiety. The remaining items deal with how avoidant a person is in their relationship. These items serve as a scale for avoidance. Many researchers now use scores from the anxiety and avoidance scales to perform statistical analyses and test hypotheses.

text: Scores on the anxiety and avoidance scales can still be used to classify people into the four adult attachment styles. [46] [48] [49] The four styles of attachment defined in Bartholomew and Horowitz's model were based on thoughts about self and thoughts about partners. The anxiety scale in the ECR and ECR-R reflect thoughts about self. Attachment anxiety relates to beliefs about self-worth and whether or not one will be accepted or rejected by others. The avoidance scale in the ECR and ECR-R relates to thoughts about partners. Attachment avoidance relates to beliefs about taking risks in approaching or avoiding other people. Combinations of anxiety and avoidance can thus be used to define the four attachment styles. The secure style of attachment is characterized by low anxiety and low avoidance; the preoccupied style of attachment is characterized by high anxiety and low avoidance; the dismissive avoidant style of attachment is characterized by low anxiety and high avoidance; and the fearful avoidant style of attachment is characterized by high anxiety and high avoidance.


document_title: Statue of Unity

question_text: the sandhu bat island on which the statue of unity is to be built is located on which river

root

text: Statue of Unity

text: Outreach[edit]

text: The project was first announced on 7 October 2010.[8] Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Rashtriya Ekta Trust (SVPRET), a special purpose vehicle was established by the Gujarat government for construction of the statue.[5] The iron needed for the statue and other structures was to be collected from farmers of villages all around India in a form of donation of their used farming instruments.[9] SVPRET set up 36 offices across India to collect these iron instruments[5] wherein over 500,000 Indian farmers are expected to donate.[10] The drive was named the 'Statue of Unity movement'.[11][12] There was to be three-month-long nationwide campaign to collect iron pieces from six lakh villages to build the statue.[12] During this period, over 5000 metric tonnes of iron were collected.[13] Although it was initially announced that the iron collected will be used for the main statue, it later emerged that the collected iron will not be used in construction of the actual statue and will instead be used for some other part of the project.[14]

tag: p

text: The Statue of Unity Movement was organized a Suraaj ( good governance in Hindi) petition wherein people wrote about their ideas for the good governance. The Suraaj Petition was signed by an estimated 20 million people, which was the world's largest petition signed.[11] A marathon entitled Run For Unity was held on 15 December 2013 in several places throughout India.[15] The marathon had a large turnout and sign-ups before the event reported thousands of registrations.[11][16][17][18]

text: Project[edit]

text: The monument statue of Vallabhbhai Patel is being constructed facing the Narmada Dam, 3.2 km away on the river island called Sadhu Bet. The total height of the statue from its base will be 240 metre consisting base level of 58 metre and statue of 182 metre. It is being constructed with steel framing, reinforced cement concrete and bronze coating.[1] The statue will need 75000 cubic metres of concrete, 5700 metric tonne steel structure, 18500 tonne reinforced steel rods, 22500 tonne bronze sheets for construction.[7] In the first phase, a bridge connecting the memorial to the main land, a memorial, visitor centre buildings, a memorial garden, a hotel, a convention centre, an amusement park, research centres and institutes is being constructed.

text: The Statue of Unity is being designed as a naturalistic and historically accurate representation of Sardar Patel, wearing characteristic garments, in a walking stance. Some highlights of this project:

text:
Bronze cladding on the Statue.
Fast elevators to reduce transit time for visitors.
The three-level base of the Statue - exhibit floor, mezzanine and roof - will contain a Memorial Garden and a large continuous museum/exhibition hall, comprising exhibits that focus on the life and contributions of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
The observation deck, situated at a height of around 500 ft from river bed, will accommodate up to 200 people at a time. It will provide visitors a panoramic view, enabling them to see the beautiful Satpura and Vindhyachal mountain ranges, the 212 km long Sardar Sarovar Reservoir, and the 12 km long Garudeshwar Reservoir.
Access to the Statue via a 5 km boat ride.
A large modern canopied public plaza, overlooking the Narmada River and the Statue, comprising food stalls, ornate gift shops, retail kiosks and other amenities, that will provide visitors a well-rounded tourist experience.[4]

text: Finance[edit]

text: The monument is being built on a PPP model, with most of the money raised by Gujarat Government.[19] The Government of Gujarat has allotted Rs 100 crore for the project in the budget for 2012-13[20] and Rs 500 crore in 2014-15.[21] In the 2014-15 Union Budget announced on 10 July 2014, ₹2 billion (US$31 million) have been allocated for the construction of the statue.[22][23][24]

text: Construction[edit]

text: A consortium of Turner Construction (project manager[25] of Burj Khalifa), Michael Graves and Associates and Meinhardt Group, is supervising the project. It will take 56 months to complete the project; 15 months for planning, 40 months for construction and two months for handing over by the consortium.[4] The total cost of the project was estimated to be about ₹2,063 crore (US$320 million) by the government.[20] The tender bids for the first phase were invited in October 2013 and were closed in November 2013.[26]

text: The then Chief Minister of Gujarat Narendra Modi, (currently Prime Minister of India) laid the foundation stone of statue on 31 October 2013, the 138th birth anniversary of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.[8][27] He along with L. K. Advani announced to the public that after completion of the project, it will be the tallest statue of the world.[8][19][28]

text: Indian infrastructure company Larsen & Toubro won the contract on 27 October 2014 for its lowest bid of ₹2,989 crore (US$470 million) for the design, construction and maintenance.[6][7] They commenced the construction on 31 October 2014 and is expected to complete it by 2018. In the first phase of ₹2,989 crore (US$470 million) project, Rs 1347 crore are for the main statue, Rs 235 crore for exhibition hall and convention centre, Rs 83 crore for the bridge connecting the memorial to the main land and Rs 657 crore for the maintenance of the structure for 15 years after its completion.[6][7] Accenture provides digital media outreach programme.

text: The monument is designed by Ram V. Sutar.[29][30]

text: The statue has so far been erected up to the knees — 59 meters tall, at 117 m above sea level — out of a planned 182 m, to match the number of assembly constituencies in Gujarat. Close to 2,400 workers are at work on day and night shifts. The core wall, the RCC spine of the statue — on which steel frames will be affixed to hold the bronze cladding together - is being constructed.[31]

text: Issues[edit]

text: Most local people have opposed land acquisition for tourism infrastructure development around the statue. They also proved that, Sadhu bet was originally called Varata Bawa Tekri, named after a local deity and so it was a site of religious importance.[27]

text: Environmental activists wrote a letter to central government that this project started implementation without environmental clearance from the ministry.[32]

text: People of Kevadia, Kothi, Waghodia, Limbdi, Navagam and Gora villages opposed the construction of the statue demanding back land rights of formerly acquired 927 acres of land for dam and the formation of Garudeshwar taluka. They also opposed formation of Kevadia Area Development Authority (KADA) and the construction of Garudeshwar weir-cum-causeway project. Government of Gujarat accepted their demands.[33]

text: When ₹2 billion (US$31 million) was allocated for the statue in the 2014-15 Union budget, several people and the political parties criticised the expenditure for the statue over other priorities like women's safety, education and agricultural schemes.[34][35][36][37] L&T has contracted with TQ Art Foundry; subsidiary of the Jiangxi Toqine Company based in Nanchang, China; for the bronze cladding of the statue. It was criticised by Indian National Congress, the opposition party in Gujarat Legislative Assembly.[38]


document_title: List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union

question_text: what number was new york to join the union

text: List of U.S. states[edit]

text:
State
Date
(admitted or ratified)
Formed from

1
 Delaware
000000001787-12-07-0000December 7, 1787[8]
(ratified)
Colony of Delaware[b]

2
 Pennsylvania
000000001787-12-12-0000December 12, 1787[10]
(ratified)
Proprietary Province of Pennsylvania

3
 New Jersey
000000001787-12-18-0000December 18, 1787[11]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of New Jersey

4
 Georgia
000000001788-01-02-0000January 2, 1788[8]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of Georgia

5
 Connecticut
000000001788-01-09-0000January 9, 1788[12]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of Connecticut

6
 Massachusetts
000000001788-02-06-0000February 6, 1788[8]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of Massachusetts Bay

7
 Maryland
000000001788-04-28-0000April 28, 1788[8]
(ratified)
Proprietary Province of Maryland

8
 South Carolina
000000001788-05-23-0000May 23, 1788[8]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of South Carolina

9
 New Hampshire
000000001788-06-21-0000June 21, 1788[8]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of New Hampshire

10
 Virginia
000000001788-06-25-0000June 25, 1788[8]
(ratified)
Crown Colony and Dominion of Virginia

11
 New York
000000001788-07-26-0000July 26, 1788[13]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of New York

12
 North Carolina
000000001789-11-21-0000November 21, 1789[14]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of North Carolina

13
 Rhode Island
000000001790-05-29-0000May 29, 1790[8]
(ratified)
Crown Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

14
 Vermont
000000001791-03-04-0000March 4, 1791[15]
(admitted)
Vermont !Vermont Republic[c]

15
 Kentucky
000000001792-06-01-0000June 1, 1792[16]
(admitted)
Virginia (nine counties in its District of Kentucky[d])

16
 Tennessee
000000001796-06-01-0000June 1, 1796[18]
(admitted)
Southwest Territory

17
 Ohio
000000001803-03-01-0000March 1, 1803[19][e]
(admitted)
Northwest Territory (part)

18
 Louisiana
000000001812-04-30-0000April 30, 1812[21]
(admitted)
Orleans !Territory of Orleans

19
 Indiana
000000001816-12-11-0000December 11, 1816
(admitted)
Indiana Territory

20
 Mississippi
000000001817-12-10-0000December 10, 1817[22]
(admitted)
Mississippi Territory

21
 Illinois
000000001818-12-03-0000December 3, 1818[23]
(admitted)
Illinois Territory (part)

22
 Alabama
000000001819-12-14-0000December 14, 1819[24]
(admitted)
Alabama Territory

23
 Maine
000000001820-03-15-0000March 15, 1820[25]
(admitted)
Massachusetts (District of Maine[f])

24
 Missouri
000000001821-08-10-0000August 10, 1821[26]
(admitted)
Missouri Territory (part)

25
 Arkansas
000000001836-06-15-0000June 15, 1836[27]
(admitted)
Arkansas Territory

26
 Michigan
000000001837-01-26-0000January 26, 1837[28]
(admitted)
Michigan Territory

27
 Florida
000000001845-03-03-0000March 3, 1845
(admitted)
Florida Territory

28
 Texas
000000001845-12-29-0000December 29, 1845
(admitted)
Texas !Republic of Texas

29
 Iowa
000000001846-12-28-0000December 28, 1846
(admitted)
Iowa Territory (part)

30
 Wisconsin
000000001848-05-29-0000May 29, 1848[29]
(admitted)
Wisconsin Territory (part)

31
 California
000000001850-09-09-0000September 9, 1850[30]
(admitted)
Unorganized !unorganized territory (part)

32
 Minnesota
000000001858-05-11-0000May 11, 1858[31]
(admitted)
Minnesota Territory (part)

33
 Oregon
000000001859-02-14-0000February 14, 1859
(admitted)
Oregon Territory (part)

34
 Kansas
000000001861-01-29-0000January 29, 1861[32]
(admitted)
Kansas Territory (part)

35
 West Virginia
000000001863-06-20-0000June 20, 1863[33]
(admitted)
Virginia (50 Trans-Allegheny region counties[g])

36
 Nevada
000000001864-10-31-0000October 31, 1864
(admitted)
Nevada Territory

37
 Nebraska
000000001867-03-01-0000March 1, 1867
(admitted)
Nebraska Territory

38
 Colorado
000000001876-08-01-0000August 1, 1876[36]
(admitted)
Colorado Territory

39[h]
  North Dakota
000000001889-11-02-0000November 2, 1889[38][i]
(admitted)
Dakota Territory (part)

40
 South Dakota
000000001889-11-02-0000November 2, 1889[38][i]
(admitted)
Dakota Territory (part)

41
 Montana
000000001889-11-08-0000November 8, 1889[39]
(admitted)
Montana Territory

42
 Washington
000000001889-11-11-0000November 11, 1889[40]
(admitted)
Washington Territory

43
 Idaho
000000001890-07-03-0000July 3, 1890
(admitted)
Idaho Territory

44
 Wyoming
000000001890-07-10-0000July 10, 1890
(admitted)
Wyoming Territory

45
 Utah
000000001896-01-04-0000January 4, 1896[41]
(admitted)
Utah Territory

46
 Oklahoma
000000001907-11-16-0000November 16, 1907[42]
(admitted)
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory

47
 New Mexico
000000001912-01-06-0000January 6, 1912
(admitted)
New Mexico Territory

48
 Arizona
000000001912-02-14-0000February 14, 1912
(admitted)
Arizona Territory

49
 Alaska
000000001959-01-03-0000January 3, 1959
(admitted)
Alaska !Territory of Alaska

50
 Hawaii
000000001959-08-21-0000August 21, 1959
(admitted)
Hawaii !Territory of Hawaii

tag: table

text: Articles of Confederation ratification dates[edit]

text: The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.[43]

text:
State
Date

13 !1
 Virginia
000000001777-12-16-0000December 16, 1777

12 !2
 South Carolina
000000001778-02-05-0000February 5, 1778

08 !3
 New York
000000001778-02-06-0000February 6, 1778

11 !4
 Rhode Island
000000001778-02-09-0000February 9, 1778

01 !5
 Connecticut
000000001778-02-12-0000February 12, 1778

03 !6
 Georgia
000000001778-02-26-0000February 26, 1778

06 !7
 New Hampshire
000000001778-03-04-0000March 4, 1778

10 !8
 Pennsylvania
000000001778-03-05-0000March 5, 1778

05 !9
 Massachusetts
000000001778-03-10-0000March 10, 1778

09 !10
 North Carolina
000000001778-04-05-0000April 5, 1778

07 !11
 New Jersey
000000001778-11-19-0000November 19, 1778

02 !12
 Delaware
000000001779-02-01-0000February 1, 1779

04 !13
 Maryland
000000001781-02-02-0000February 2, 1781


document_title: Sansa Stark

question_text: who does sansa stark marry in game of thrones

text: Sansa Stark

text: Character and appearances[edit]

text: Sansa Stark is the second child and elder daughter of Eddard Stark and Catelyn Stark. She was born and raised in Winterfell, until leaving with her father and sister at the beginning of the series. She has a younger sister Arya Stark, two younger brothers Rickon Stark and Bran Stark, as well as an older brother Robb Stark, and an older illegitimate half-brother, Jon Snow [5] who later turned out to be her paternal cousin.

text: Raised as a lady, Sansa is traditionally feminine. Sansa's interests are music, poetry, and singing. She strives to become like the heroines of romantic tales by attempting to find a prince, knight, or gentleman to fall in love with. For a companion animal, she owned a direwolf named Lady. However, Lady was killed in place of Arya's direwolf, Nymeria, in the first installment.

text: Sansa has been described as tall, slim, womanly, and beautiful, destined to be a lady or a queen. She has blue eyes and thick auburn hair that she inherits from her mother. She has her hair dyed dark brown later on while in the Vale, disguising as Alayne Stone- the bastard daughter of Petyr Baelish. Sansa is 11 years old in A Game of Thrones and nearly 14 in A Feast for Crows. Arguably the most naive of the Stark children at the start of the series, Sansa often finds herself used as a pawn in the machinations of the other characters. However, as the story progresses, she matures and becomes more of a player of the game rather than a pawn for other characters.

text: Storylines[edit]

text: A Game of Thrones[edit]

text: Sansa Stark begins the novel by being betrothed to Crown Prince Joffrey Baratheon, believing Joffrey to be a gallant prince. While Joffrey and Sansa are walking through the woods, Joffrey notices Arya sparring with the butchers boy, Mycah. A fight breaks out and Joffrey is attacked by Nymeria (Arya's Direwolf) after Joffrey threatens to hurt Arya. Sansa lies to King Robert about the circumstances of the fight in order to protect both Joffrey and her sister Arya. Since Arya ran off with her wolf to save it, Sansa's wolf is killed instead, estranging the Stark daughters.

text: During the Tourney of the Hand to honour her father Lord Eddard Stark, Sansa Stark is enchanted by the knights performing in the event. At the request of mother, Queen Cersei Lannister, Joffrey spends a portion of the tourney with Sansa, but near the end he commands his guard Sandor Clegane, better known as The Hound, to take her back to her quarters. The Hound tells Sansa the little known story of his burned face and why he dislikes knights, in turn she comforts him.

text: After Eddard discovers the truth of Joffrey's paternity, he tells Sansa that they will be heading back to Winterfell. Sansa is devastated and wishes to stay in King's Landing, so she runs off to inform Queen Cersei of her father's plans, unwittingly providing Cersei with the information needed to arrest her father. After Robert dies, Sansa begs Joffrey to show mercy on her father and he agrees to allow Ned to live if Ned will swear an oath of loyalty. After promising Sansa that he will be merciful, Joffrey betrays his word and has her father executed in front of her. Sansa is now effectively a hostage in King's Landing and finally sees Joffrey's true nature after he forces her to look at the tarred head of her now deceased father.

text: A Clash of Kings[edit]

text: Sansa is a hostage in King's Landing, and has learned to be outwardly loyal to King Joffrey to avoid severe physical abuse.

text: At the celebration for Joffrey's name day, she saves the life of Ser Dontos Hollard after he shows up late and heavily inebriated. She begs Joffrey to spare his life and in turn wins Dontos' apparent loyalty. Later Ser Dontos reveals a plan to her to help her escape from King's Landing. Sansa is routinely beaten by Joffrey's guards. After her brother has won a battle against Joffrey's maternal family, she is publicly beaten and has her clothes torn. Tyrion Lannister intervenes on the abuse on her behalf, and Sandor Clegane, also called the Hound, gives her his cloak to cover herself. Later, Sandor Clegane saves Sansa from a riot in King's Landing.

text: During the Battle of Blackwater Bay, all of the highborn ladies in King's Landing stay in the Red Keep with Queen Cersei who drunkenly mocks and berates Sansa. After Cersei learns that they are losing the battle, she flees and Sansa comforts the remaining women before going to her quarters. Once there she finds Sandor Clegane there who offers to take her away with him during the Battle of the Blackwater, although Sansa refuses. Before he vanishes from King's Landing, she gives him a song, and he gives her his cloak a second time. When Sansa awakens, the battle is over. House Lannister has won the battle, her betrothal to Joffrey is called off so he can marry Margaery Tyrell instead. Joffrey informs Sansa that he can still use her when he is married and to expect a nightly visitor for a long while.

text: A Storm of Swords[edit]

text: In the third book, Sansa is invited by Margaery to dine with her and her grandmother Olenna Redwyne. The two women seek to learn the true nature of Joffrey Baratheon after he and Margaery have become betrothed. In turn, Olenna suggests that Sansa should marry Willas Tyrell, brother to Margaery and grandson to Olenna. Sansa reveals the marriage plan to Ser Dontos who warns her of the Tyrells, however Sansa develops a close friendship with Margaery and is excited about becoming a part of her family when she marries Willas. However, when Tywin learns of the marriage plot he schemes to have Sansa's brother Robb Stark killed, knowing that would leave Sansa to inherit Winterfell and the North. He then commands his son Tyrion Lannister to marry Sansa. Tyrion is initially opposed to the marriage, but is eventually enticed by the prospect of becoming Lord of Winterfell, and so agrees to marry her.

text: Sansa is shocked one morning when she is being fitted for a gown that she is to marry Tyrion that day. Joffrey taunts Sansa and acts on behalf of her father to give her away during the ceremony to add further insult. Sansa ignores Tyrion and refuses to bend as he attempts to put his cloak around her, an important marriage custom in Westeros. In turn, Joffrey commands Ser Dontos to act as a stool so that Tyrion can cloak his bride in spite of his short stature. Later Sansa dances with many lords who attempt to offer words of comfort, however when it is her turn to dance with Joffrey, he threatens to rape her after her marriage. Tyrion intervenes and states his desire to castrate Joffrey. After the wedding ceremony, Tyrion chooses not to consummate the marriage due to Sansa's lack of desire in him. It is not long before many in King's Landing come to know that the marriage was never consummated.

text: It is not long after Sansa's marriage that Joffrey and Margaery are wed and afterwards there is a grand feast. At Joffrey's wedding, Joffrey is poisoned, and Cersei orders both Tyrion and Sansa to be arrested. As Joffrey begins to choke to death, Sansa manages to flee during the chaos. Once in her room, she gathers her belongings and notices that one of the amethysts from her hairnet, a gift from Ser Dontos, is missing. Sansa immediately realizes that the prince had been poisoned and starts to doubt Ser Dontos' rescue plan. Understanding that she will be implicated in the murder of Joffrey, she chooses to flee King's Landing with the knight anyway. Ser Dontos is later killed by Petyr Baelish, who reveals that he is the mastermind behind nearly all of the intrigues in the capital. He reveals that he was the one who sent Dontos to her and that Olenna took the amethyst from her hairnet.

text: Baelish smuggles Sansa to safety in the Vale of Arryn, where she poses as his bastard daughter Alayne Stone. She is taken to her Aunt Lysa Arryn, now married to Baelish. Lysa declares that Sansa must marry her sickly boy Robert, heir to the Vale. Petyr Baelish and Lysa are wed, however Lysa becomes jealous when she witnesses Littlefinger kissing her niece. Lysa later attempts to murder Sansa, but she is saved once again by Baelish, who kills Lysa.

text: A Feast for Crows[edit]

text: After Lysa's death, Sansa becomes mistress of the Eyrie and continues to pretend to be Baelish's illegitimate daughter, Alayne Stone. Baelish successfully pacifies the lords of the Vale, who suspected Baelish's hand in Lysa's death. Afterwards, Baelish reveals to Sansa his plans to eventually marry her to the heir to the Vale, Harrold Hardyng, and his long range plans to reveal her true identity and reclaim the North. Sansa acts as a mother figure to Robert Arryn, caring for him after the death of his mother Lysa, and is shown to have grown in intelligence since the start of the series - she is able to figure out some of Baelish's plans, and does not trust him as she once did with Joffrey.

text: Family tree of House Stark[edit]

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Descendants of Rickard Stark

Rickard[a]

Lyarra[b]

Brandon[a]

Catelyn
Tully[c]

Eddard[a]

Lyanna[a][d]

Benjen[a]

Robb[c]

Jeyne
Westerling[e]

Sansa[c]

Tyrion
Lannister[f]

Arya[c]

Brandon[c]

Rickon[c]

Jon
Snow[c][d]

Notes:

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin, George R. R. (1996). "Chapter 4: Eddard". A Game of Thrones. pp. 36–45. ISBN 978-0-553-89784-5.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R.; García Jr., Elio M.; Antonsson, Linda (2014). "Appendix: Stark Lineage". The World of Ice & Fire. ISBN 978-0-553-80544-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Martin. "Appendix: House Stark". A Game of Thrones. pp. 785–786.
^ Jump up to: a b In the TV series Game of Thrones, Jon is the son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 14: Catelyn". A Storm of Swords. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 28: Sansa". A Storm of Swords. pp. 382–393. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.

text: TV adaptation[edit]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: First season[edit]

text: Sansa is first seen with Arya at Winterfell during their embroidery lesson with Septa Mordane. Following the arrival of Robert Baratheon and his escort at Winterfell, he insists to Ned that Joffrey and Sansa should be married in order to join their houses. Sansa, who is desperate to leave Winterfell begs Catelyn to make Ned agree to the engagement. Following Sansa, Ned, and Arya's departure from Winterfell, Joffrey is injured by Arya's direwolf Nymeria, after he attacks the butcher's boy (Arya's friend), and Arya. Sansa, who was a witness to this claims to Robert and Cersei that she did not know what happened. As retribution for Joffrey's injury, Cersei convinces Robert to have Sansa's direwolf, Lady, slaughtered in place of the missing Nymeria. After arriving at Kings Landing, Sansa attends the Hands Tourney where Petyr 'Littlefinger' Baelish tells Sansa and Arya the story behind how Sandor 'The Hound' Clegane's face was burned. As time passes, Sansa begins to wear her hair like a southerner, and becomes rude towards Mordane, while also expressing fears that she will fail to give Joffrey a male heir. Following Ned's initial resignation as hand of the king, Sansa is devastated to hear she has to return to Winterfell, in which she likens Joffrey to a lion, and that he was nothing like Robert Baratheon. This statement from Sansa inspires Ned to investigate the Baratheon family line, prompting him to realise that Cersei's children were bastards fathered by Jaime Lannister, not Robert Baratheon. Following Robert's death, and Ned's arrest for declaring Joffrey was not the true king, The entire Stark household in Kings Landing, with the exception of Sansa and Arya, are executed. Cersei persuades Sansa to write to Robb and Catelyn Stark imploring them to swear fealty to Joffrey. At court, Sansa pleads to Joffrey to show Ned mercy, in which he agrees on the condition Ned swears loyalty to Joffrey. Sansa is present at the Great Sept of Baelor, where she is initially confident Ned will be saved. However, Sansa is horrified when Joffrey orders Ned's execution, and begs someone to intervene, before fainting as Ned is beheaded. Sansa, grieving the death of her father, is forced by Joffrey to look upon the spiked heads of both Ned and Septa Mordane. Sansa begs Joffrey to let her return home, but he informs Sansa that they are still to be married, and that she will stay and obey. Joffrey also tells Sansa that he will give her Robb's head once he is defeated, in which she retorts that Robb will give her Joffrey's head instead. While on the boardwalk, Sansa moves to push Joffrey to his death, but is stopped by Sandor Clegane, who warns her she will continue to be abused.

text: Second season[edit]

text: As the war of the five kings progresses, Sansa's position in Kings Landing becomes more perilous. On Joffrey's name day celebration, Sansa saves an inebriated Ser Dontos Hollard from execution, convincing Joffrey to instead make Dontos his fool. While at the celebration, Tyrion offers his condolences for Ned's death, in which Sansa insists her family are all traitors and that she is loyal to Joffrey. Later on, when her eldest brother Robb wins a battle against the Lannisters, Sansa is publicly beaten and humiliated in front of the court by Joffrey and Ser Meryn (on Joffrey's orders), as payment for her brother's crimes. Tyrion Lannister enters the court and rescues Sansa. Despite being a dwarf, Tyrion takes pity on Sansa's situation, and offers to have the engagement called off. Sansa maintains her facade that she is loyal to Joffrey, which impresses Tyrion to the point of believing Sansa might just survive Kings Landing. Tyrion has his lover, Shae, positioned as Sansa's handmaiden. Sansa and Shae form a friendship, in which Sansa is able to vent about her hatred of the Lannisters without fear of being revealed. Sansa is present when the royal family bids farewell to Joffrey's sister, Myrcella, on her departure to Dorne to form an alliance between the Lannisters and the Martells. While returning to the Red Keep, a riot breaks out in the streets of Kings Landing, amidst which Sansa finds herself caught in the fray. Three peasant men chase Sansa and attempt to rape her, before she is rescued and returned to the castle by Sandor Clegane. The following morning, Sansa has a nightmare of the incident, and wakes up in a bloodstained bed. Sansa had flowered, which meant she could bear Joffrey children. Sansa and Shae attempt to conceal this, which involved Shae threatening to kill a witness handmaiden if she told anyone. However, Sandor Clegane sees the blood, and both Cersei and Joffrey are informed. Cersei invites Sansa to her chambers to share some of her wisdom and experience as a wife and a mother. Cersei reminisces that her husband Robert was not interested in her giving childbirth. Cersei explains to Sansa that while Sansa may never love Joffrey (and vice versa), she will love his children. Cersei warns Sansa that the more people she loves, the weaker she will be. Therefore, Sansa should only love her children, as it is the only love she has no choice in. Before the battle of the Blackwater, Joffrey forces Sansa to kiss the blade of his sword, while bragging he will kill Stannis himself. Sansa implicitly taunts Joffrey by remarking he must be battling in the vanguard (which of course he would not be). Joffrey responds to this by insisting Sansa will kiss the blade again with Stannis' blood on it. During the battle, Sansa takes refuge with Cersei, Shae and the other women and children of Kings Landing. A drunk Cersei openly torments Sansa and the women. She does this by explaining that if the city falls, they will all be raped and have bastards in their bellies come morning. Cersei continues her taunting by also telling Sansa that tears are not the only weapons women have; the greatest weapon they own are between their legs. Following Cersei's departure from the refuge with Tommen, Sansa leaves to hide in her bedchamber, where she finds Sandor Clegane. Sandor, about to leave Kings Landing, offers to take Sansa home. Sansa declines, insisting Stannis would not harm her. After the battle is won by the Lannister-Tyrell forces, Loras Tyrell asks Joffrey to take his sister, Margaery, as his bride. Joffrey accepts the proposal, which annuls his marriage with Sansa. Sansa, while pretending to be devastated, is secretly delighted she no longer has to marry Joffrey. However Petyr Baelish warns that while Sansa is no longer engaged, Joffrey would have greater reign to abuse Sansa, especially now she is a woman. Petyr assures Sansa he will help get her home, in which Sansa once again displays a facade, asserting Kings Landing is her home. Petyr advises Sansa that everyone in Kings Landing is a liar, and that they are much more cunning at it than her.

text: Third season[edit]

text: With her engagement to Joffrey annulled, Sansa does not have to worry about spending the rest of her life with him, but is with lesser protection from tormentors. Petyr Baelish, an old friend of her mother's with a reputation for being sadistic and cunning, tells her that he can smuggle her out of the city, but she is reluctant. Sansa finds a friend in Loras Tyrell, who is kind to her and whom she hopes will ask for her hand. His sister, Joffrey's new fiance, Margaery, is also kind to her and takes her to dine with her grandmother, Olenna Tyrell, who asks her for her opinion of Joffrey. Sansa reveals Joffrey's true, cruel personality, but Margaery and Lady Olenna merely pass it by as a trivial matter, saying there is nothing to be done to change a man's character, especially a king's. Sansa's affection for Loras grows, unaware that Loras is gay and, while he likes her and enjoys spending time with her, can never love her. Margaery proposes the idea that Loras will marry Sansa, meaning Sansa can leave King's Landing, which she is overjoyed at. But when this is reported to the Lannisters, they fear that the Tyrells will pose an even greater threat with a member of House Stark as one of their allies, and quickly end the idea of the engagement, betrothing Loras to Cersei and engaging Sansa to Tyrion, which both Sansa and Shae are against. However, the day of the wedding, Tyrion promises not to harm her and, as she prepares to consummate the marriage, Tyrion realizes how unhappy she is and tells her that she doesn't have to consummate it unless she wants to. When Sansa asks Tyrion what would happen if she never wants him in her bed he quips "And so my watch begins." She and Tyrion do form somewhat of a friendly relationship, as he is kind to her and treats her well, and she soon realizes there are worse Lannisters to be wed to. However, their cordial relationship suffers a crushing blow when Sansa receives news of Robb and Catelyn's death at the Red Wedding, an event orchestrated by Tywin Lannister, Tyrion's father.

text: Fourth season[edit]

text: Sansa, still distraught over the death of Robb and Catelyn, is approached by Dontos Hollard, a former knight whom Sansa had convinced Joffrey to make his fool instead of executing him. Dontos gives her a necklace, claiming it was his mother's. However, the necklace turns out to be a fake; one of the gems contains poison, which Lady Olenna Tyrell uses to poison Joffrey at his wedding to Margaery Tyrell. In the commotion, Sansa is taken by Dontos, to Baelish's boat in Blackwater Bay. Baelish smuggles Sansa from King's Landing after both revealing the nature of the necklace and having Dontos killed by crossbow.

text: Lord Baelish, with Sansa posing as his Bastard daughter Alayne Stone, pass through the Blood Gates to the Eyrie and to the keep of Lysa Arryn. Lysa initially invites them with open arms, revealing she knows exactly who her niece is, and they are welcome to be housed. It is soon revealed however, Lysa mistrusts the relationship between Sansa and Baelish accusing Baelish of violating Sansa and accusing him of never loving her. Later in the keep, Sansa strikes Lysa's son Robin and Baelish appears. Baelish then proclaims his undying love for her deceased mother, Catelyn and he shares a kiss with a stunned Sansa, with Lysa watching from above. Sansa is immediately summoned to Lysa's throne room, where she believes she had been summoned for striking her son. Lysa reveals she had observed the kiss, and though defending herself and Baelish's actions against her, Lysa holds her to the Moon Door, a trap door that leads hundreds of feet down into the mountains below. Baelish intervenes before she gets the chance to execute Sansa and pushes Lysa to her death instead as he proclaimed his love for her sister. Then Baelish later claimed to the lords of the Vale that she committed suicide. Sansa is called to give testimony, and although she reveals her true identity, she supports Baelish's story. She then joins Baelish and her cousin Robin Arryn on a tour of the Vale.

text: Fifth season[edit]

text: Baelish brokers a marriage between Sansa and Ramsay Bolton, now the heir to the North after the death of Robb Stark. Though reluctant to marry Ramsay, as his father Roose had personally murdered Robb, Baelish persuades her by claiming that the marriage will give her the opportunity to avenge her family. On the way to Winterfell, they encounter Brienne of Tarth, who had sworn to Catelyn Stark to take Sansa to safety and tries to convince Sansa to come with her; Baelish has her chased off by his men, but Brienne follows Sansa to Winterfell regardless. Though initially charming, Ramsay's sadistic nature becomes apparent when Sansa discovers that he has captured and enslaved Ned's former ward Theon Greyjoy, who had supposedly killed Sansa's brothers Bran and Rickon, and forced him to assume the identity of his serving man, Reek. After Ramsay rapes Sansa on their wedding night, Sansa asks Reek to signal to Brienne for help. Reek, wishing to spare Sansa Bolton's wrath, instead tells Ramsay, and he proceeds to flay the maid who had told Sansa of the signal and forces Sansa to look at her corpse. Furious, Sansa confronts Reek, who admits that he had failed to capture Bran and Rickon and killed two farm boys in their place. While the Boltons prepare to battle Stannis Baratheon's advancing forces, Sansa signals to Brienne, unaware that she has left to kill Stannis. When help does not come, Sansa attempts to return to her room but is caught by Ramsay's paramour Myranda, who threatens to mutilate Sansa. Finally snapping, Theon throws Myranda to her death, just as the Bolton forces return. Fearful of Ramsay's reaction, the two jump from Winterfell's battlements into the snow.

text: Sixth season[edit]

text: Sansa and Theon are captured by Bolton soldiers in the forest outside Winterfell, but Brienne and her squire Podrick Payne arrive in time to rescue them and kill the Bolton soldiers. This time, Sansa accepts Brienne's loyalty. While Theon returns to the Iron Islands, Sansa, Brienne, and Podrick journey on to Castle Black, where her half-brother Jon Snow has just resigned as Lord Commander of the Night's Watch. Sansa tries to persuade Jon to help her drive the Boltons out of Winterfell; although Jon initially refuses, he changes his mind after Ramsay sends a letter to Jon in which he gloats that he holds Rickon Stark captive and threatens to kill the Starks and the Wildlings Jon has let through the Wall if Sansa is not returned. Before Jon and Sansa leave Castle Black, Baelish arranges a meeting with Sansa in Mole's Town. He insists that he was unaware of Ramsay's nature and offers the support of the Knights of the Vale, also mentioning that her great-uncle Brynden "Blackfish" Tully has captured Riverrun from House Frey. Sansa sends Baelish away, declaring that she never wants to see him again, but sends Brienne to the Riverlands to convince the Blackfish to aid the Starks.

text: Although Jon and Sansa are only able to win over a handful of Northern lords, Jon insists that they must march on Winterfell, despite Sansa's objections. Sansa sends a letter to Baelish asking for his aid, and the Vale forces arrive at Winterfell in time to defeat the Boltons. Ramsay is captured and imprisoned with his hounds, and Sansa watches with satisfaction as they devour him alive. In the aftermath of the battle, she and Jon share a moment where Sansa apologizes for not telling Jon about Baelish and the Knights of the Vale. Jon forgives her but asks that they trust each other completely from now on. Sansa and Jon then share a happy smile when Sansa tells him that Winter is finally here. While in the godswood Baelish confesses his ambition to rule Westeros with Sansa at his side, but Sansa rebuffs his advances. Sansa also ignores Baelish's attempts to drive a wedge between her and Jon, but is surprised when the Northmen and Valemen declare Jon the new King in the North. Despite this she smiles at him happy that he has been praised. But she stops smiling when she notices Littlefinger glaring sinisterly at her and Jon.

text: Seventh season[edit]

text: Jon travels to Dragonstone to negotiate with Daenerys Targaryen for her support against the White Walkers, leaving Sansa as regent in his absence. Soon after, Bran and Arya return to Winterfell. Littlefinger seeks to drive a wedge between Sansa and Arya by letting Arya find Sansa's letter to Robb asking him to bend the knee to Joffrey, causing Arya to angrily confront Sansa. Sansa sneaks into Arya' quarters and comes across the "faces" Arya has taken from the various people she has killed on her travels; Arya catches Sansa and tells Sansa of her ability to assume people's identities with the faces while menacing Sansa with a dagger, before abruptly handing Sansa the dagger and leaving.

text: Sansa receives an invitation to King's Landing, where Jon intends to present Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms) with proof of the White Walkers' existence. Refusing to return to King's Landing, she sends Brienne as her representative.

text: Reception[edit]

text: As her storyline has progressed, Sansa has received critical acclaim for the development of her character and her emergence from a naive young girl to a strong young woman. Rolling Stone ranked Sansa as No. 4 on a list of the "Top 40 Game of Thrones Characters", saying that Sansa is "often overlooked in favor of her killer kid sister", but that her "quiet, innate political shrewedness and emotional strength have enabled her to survive", and calling her "the show's best-kept secret".[6] In a ranking of the 48 best Game of Thrones characters listed in the main credits in the first five seasons on the website The Wrap, Sansa was ranked at No. 4, ahead of the more popular Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Tyrion Lannister, saying that "Sansa has been kind of great in Season 6, turning into the sort of badass we always hoped but never thought she actually could become".[7]

text: In an article published on Mic.com, Julianne Ross says that "the elder Stark daughter is often cited as one of the most reviled characters on Game of Thrones", while also saying that "not coincidentally, Sansa Stark is also one of the most classically feminine characters on the show." Ross criticized the heavy hatred for Sansa, particularly in contrast to "her universally (and rightly) adored tomboy little sister Arya", stating that Sansa "arguably gets a disproportionate amount of fan hate because she doesn't fit the narrow 'strong female character' mold we're used to rooting for." [8] Blogger Rhiannon Thomas of Feminist Fiction wrote in 2012 that "the focus on this sort of female character - the oft-cited 'strong female character' - seems to suggest that femininity is still bad, and that women can only be strong by adopting stereotypically male roles and attitudes". Thomas went on to say that "in an abusive situation that would break so many people, Sansa survives" and that she has a "woman's courage" that "keeps her alive and in the game where characters like Arya would not last five minutes".[9]

text: In an article published on MTV.com by Crystal Bell titled "Sansa Stark is the Only Game of Thrones Hero Worth Rooting For",[10] Bell writes: "Sansa is the most relatable character in George R.R. Martin's canon. She's often despised for having no agency, but the way I see it, Sansa is hated for being a woman. Unlike Brienne, Arya, Cersei, and Margaery -- models of the "strong female character" archetype—Sansa's passivity denotes weakness. She doesn't have cool swordplay skills like her sister Arya; she isn’t a smart seductress like Margaery Tyrell or a fierce queen like Cersei. She is the epitome of femininity on Game of Thrones, and therefore, she is dismissed." Bell went on to say: "However, Sansa's greatest strength as a character has been her unwavering resilience. She was tortured and humiliated for seasons by the unhinged man-boys around her. She's been the subject of everyday sexism and misogyny since day one. And yet, she survives, even as armor-clad heroes fall before her. She is the show's survivor. She continuously endures the pain and humiliation of being a woman in Westeros. Just because Sansa doesn't wield a sword as fiercely as Arya and Brienne, or command a horde of dragons like Daenerys Targaryen, doesn't make her any less of a hero."

text: Sansa received particular acclaim in Season 6 of the show, during which she began her quest to retake her family home and exact revenge on those who wronged her. In an interview with The New York Times, actress Sophie Turner said that "she's [Sansa] no longer a pawn in anyone's game; she's no longer a prisoner...she's the one taking charge and doing her own thing, which is very exciting".[11] Megan Garber of The Atlantic praised the show's decision to have Sansa be the one orchestrating Ramsay's death in Battle of the Bastards, saying that "In the end, it was Sansa and her abuser, alone again in a darkened chamber; in the end though, it was Sansa making the decisions about who would be the victim." [12] On the scene, Turner said: "It's amazing. It's Sansa's first kill and it's such a strong moment for her because all her life she's been affected by these men who have just done such terrible things to her...."[13]

text: Following the penultimate Season 6 episode, Bennett Madison of Vanity Fair wrote "When Sansa icily reminds her dopey brother that 'No one can protect you', it's because she's always been on her own. As far back as King's Landing, Sansa's between quietly protecting herself, working on her stitchery while taking cool measure of everything going on around her, learning how to game the system, and slithering through situations that would have gotten the best of the show's more flashy or impulsive characters. In 'Battle of the Bastards', she got to show a little flash of her own; by being defiantly, gloriously correct in her convictions, by saving the day with her foresight and savvy, and by feeding Ramsay to the dogs." [14] Turner later told Time magazine about how gratifying it was to watch Sansa's development during Season 6 and defended the show on its cruel treatment of women: "In my opinion, Game of Thrones is not sexist, and its accurate to medieval time. The show puts social boundaries on the women, and they break out of these boundaries."[15]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In the episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken", Sansa's rape was the main subject of controversy for the season's deviations from the books. The majority of professional criticism concerned the decision to have Ramsay rape Sansa on their wedding night, with most critics describing the scene as gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. "This grim scene was difficult for the show to justify," said Charlotte Runcie of The Daily Telegraph.[16] Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair added, "this rape scene undercuts all the agency that’s been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. [...] I’d never advocate that Game of Thrones (or any work of fiction) shy away from edgy plots out of fear of pushback or controversy. But edgy plots should always accomplish something above pure titillation or shock value and what, exactly, was accomplished here?"[17] Christopher Orr wrote in The Atlantic, "I continue to be astonished that showrunners Benioff and Weiss still apparently believe that their tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and—especially—sexual violence of George R.R. Martin’s source material is a strength rather than the defining weakness of their adaptation."[18] Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club wrote, "The issue with the show returning to rape as a trope is not simply because there have been thinkpieces speaking out against it, and is not solely driven by the rational concerns lying at the heart of those thinkpieces. It’s also that the show has lost my faith as a viewer."[19] Writers from Vanity Fair, The Mary Sue and The Daily Beast all disapproved of the decision to use Sansa's victimization as a motivating agent for Theon, saying that the scene undermined Sansa's character development: "Was it really important to make that scene about Theon's pain?" wrote Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair.[17][20][21]

text: Other critics responded positively to the scene. Sean T. Collins of Rolling Stone wrote: "[B]y involving a multidimensional main character instead of one introduced primarily to suffer, the series has a chance to grant this story the gravity and seriousness it deserves.[22] Sarah Hughes of The Guardian wrote: "I have repeatedly made clear that I’m not a fan of rape as a plot device – but the story of Ramsay and Sansa’s wedding was more than that. [...] The writers are walking a very fine line here. They handled it well tonight, telling a gothic tale of innocence sacrificed".[23] Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post wrote that the scene "managed to maintain a fine balance, employing a dignity and care for the experiences of victims that Game of Thrones has not always demonstrated."[24]

text: Some critics questioned why this scene in particular should generate outrage when similar scenes have not. Sara Stewart of the New York Post pointed out that the rape and sexual abuse of both female and male characters is typical for Game of Thrones: "Why are we suddenly so outraged about the rape of Sansa Stark, when this show has served up a steady diet of sexual assault and violence against women since its first season began?"[25] Cathy Young of Reason magazine, writing in Time noted what she calls a lack of complaint in response to the sexual mistreatment of male characters in earlier seasons, specifically the literal emasculation of Theon Greyjoy and the sexual assault of Gendry.[26]

text: Criticism of the scene has not extended to the quality of the acting. Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair wrote, "And if we can say one positive thing about that scene it's that Allen nailed his performance. Theon's horror mirrored our own and the camera—focusing on his reaction—let our minds fill in the blanks."[17] Sophie Turner defended the scene as an artistic challenge for herself as an actor, saying, "When I read that scene, I kinda loved it. I love the way Ramsay had Theon watching. It was all so messed up. It's also so daunting for me to do it. [...] I think it's going to be the most challenging season for me so far, just because it's so emotional for her. It's not just crying all the time, like seasons 2 or 3, it's super messed up."[27] Iwan Rheon (Ramsay Bolton) agreed, referring to Turner's performances this season as "absolutely amazing."[28]

text: Some viewers, including U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill, announced that they would stop watching the show because of this scene.[28][29] According to Business Insider, this scene and increased use of streaming services are likely reasons why ratings dropped from 6.2 million viewers for this episode to 5.4 million for the next episode, "The Gift."[30]

text: Recognition and awards[edit]

text: Sophie Turner has received several award nominations for her portrayal of Sansa. For her performance in the series she earned the Glamour Award for Best UK TV Actress in 2016 and 2017,[31][32] and an EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2016.[33] Other nominations include the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series by a Supporting Young Actress in 2012,[34] and the EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2015.[35]


document_title: Rust

question_text: the reaction of iron metal with oxygen to form iron (iii) oxide

question_tokens: the reaction of iron metal with oxygen to form iron ( iii ) oxide

text: Rust

text: Chemical reactions

text: Rust is another name for iron oxide,[3] which occurs when iron or an alloy that contains iron, like steel, is exposed to oxygen and moisture for a long period of time. Over time, the oxygen combines with the metal at an atomic level, forming a new compound called an oxide and weakening the bonds of the metal itself. Although some people refer to rust generally as "oxidation", that term is much more general; although rust forms when iron undergoes oxidation, not all oxidation forms rust. Only iron or alloys that contain iron can rust, but other metals can corrode in similar ways.

text: The main catalyst for the rusting process is water. Iron or steel structures might appear to be solid, but water molecules can penetrate the microscopic pits and cracks in any exposed metal. The hydrogen atoms present in water molecules can combine with other elements to form acids, which will eventually cause more metal to be exposed. If chloride ions are present, as is the case with saltwater, the corrosion is likely to occur more quickly. Meanwhile, the oxygen atoms combine with metallic atoms to form the destructive oxide compound. As the atoms combine, they weaken the metal, making the structure brittle and crumbly.

text: Oxidation of iron

text: When impure (cast) iron is in contact with water, oxygen, other strong oxidants, or acids, it rusts. If salt is present, for example in seawater or salt spray, the iron tends to rust more quickly, as a result of electrochemical reactions. Iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, a passivation layer, protects the bulk iron from further oxidation. The conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water.

text: Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water. Under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous oxides, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal. As they form and flake off from the surface, fresh iron is exposed, and the corrosion process continues until either all of the iron is consumed or all of the oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, or sulfur dioxide in the system are removed or consumed.[4]

text: When iron rusts, the oxides take up more volume than the original metal; this expansion can generate enormous forces, damaging structures made with iron. See economic effect for more details.

text: Associated reactions

text: The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons from iron to oxygen.[5] The iron is the reducing agent (gives up electrons) while the oxygen is the oxidising agent (gains electrons). The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt on the corrosion of automobiles. The key reaction is the reduction of oxygen:

text: Because it forms hydroxide ions, this process is strongly affected by the presence of acid. Indeed, the corrosion of most metals by oxygen is accelerated at low pH. Providing the electrons for the above reaction is the oxidation of iron that may be described as follows:

text: The following redox reaction also occurs in the presence of water and is crucial to the formation of rust:

text: In addition, the following multistep acid–base reactions affect the course of rust formation:

text: as do the following dehydration equilibria:

text: From the above equations, it is also seen that the corrosion products are dictated by the availability of water and oxygen. With limited dissolved oxygen, iron(II)-containing materials are favoured, including FeO and black lodestone or magnetite (Fe3O4). High oxygen concentrations favour ferric materials with the nominal formulae Fe(OH)3−xO x⁄2. The nature of rust changes with time, reflecting the slow rates of the reactions of solids.

text: Furthermore, these complex processes are affected by the presence of other ions, such as Ca2+, which serve as electrolytes which accelerate rust formation, or combine with the hydroxides and oxides of iron to precipitate a variety of Ca, Fe, O, OH species.

text: Onset of rusting can also be detected in laboratory with the use of ferroxyl indicator solution. The solution detects both Fe2+ ions and hydroxyl ions. Formation of Fe2+ ions and hydroxyl ions are indicated by blue and pink patches respectively.

text: Prevention

text: Because of the widespread use and importance of iron and steel products, the prevention or slowing of rust is the basis of major economic activities in a number of specialized technologies. A brief overview of methods is presented here; for detailed coverage, see the cross-referenced articles.

text: Rust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior metallic iron beneath a rust layer continues to corrode. Rust prevention thus requires coatings that preclude rust formation.

text: Rust-resistant alloys

text: Stainless steel forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide. Similar passivation behavior occurs with magnesium, titanium, zinc, zinc oxides, aluminium, polyaniline, and other electroactive conductive polymers.[citation needed]

text: Special "weathering steel" alloys such as Cor-Ten rust at a much slower rate than normal, because the rust adheres to the surface of the metal in a protective layer. Designs using this material must include measures that avoid worst-case exposures, since the material still continues to rust slowly even under near-ideal conditions.[citation needed]

text: Galvanization

text: Galvanization consists of an application on the object to be protected of a layer of metallic zinc by either hot-dip galvanizing or electroplating. Zinc is traditionally used because it is cheap, adheres well to steel, and provides cathodic protection to the steel surface in case of damage of the zinc layer. In more corrosive environments (such as salt water), cadmium plating is preferred. Galvanization often fails at seams, holes, and joints where there are gaps in the coating. In these cases, the coating still provides some partial cathodic protection to iron, by acting as a galvanic anode and corroding itself instead of the underlying protected metal. The protective zinc layer is consumed by this action, and thus galvanization provides protection only for a limited period of time.

text: More modern coatings add aluminium to the coating as zinc-alume; aluminium will migrate to cover scratches and thus provide protection for a longer period. These approaches rely on the aluminium and zinc oxides reprotecting a once-scratched surface, rather than oxidizing as a sacrificial anode as in traditional galvanized coatings. In some cases, such as very aggressive environments or long design life, both zinc and a coating are applied to provide enhanced corrosion protection.

text: Typical galvanization of steel products which are to subject to normal day to day weathering in an outside environment consists of a hot dipped 85 µm zinc coating. Under normal weather conditions, this will deteriorate at a rate of 1 µm per year, giving approximately 85 years of protection.[citation needed]

text: Cathodic protection

text: Cathodic protection is a technique used to inhibit corrosion on buried or immersed structures by supplying an electrical charge that suppresses the electrochemical reaction. If correctly applied, corrosion can be stopped completely. In its simplest form, it is achieved by attaching a sacrificial anode, thereby making the iron or steel the cathode in the cell formed. The sacrificial anode must be made from something with a more negative electrode potential than the iron or steel, commonly zinc, aluminium, or magnesium. The sacrificial anode will eventually corrode away, ceasing its protective action unless it is replaced in a timely manner.

text: Cathodic protection can also be provided by using a special-purpose electrical device to appropriately induce an electric charge.[6]

text: Coatings and painting

text: Rust formation can be controlled with coatings, such as paint, lacquer, or varnish that isolate the iron from the environment. Large structures with enclosed box sections, such as ships and modern automobiles, often have a wax-based product (technically a "slushing oil") injected into these sections. Such treatments usually also contain rust inhibitors. Covering steel with concrete can provide some protection to steel because of the alkaline pH environment at the steel–concrete interface. However rusting of steel in concrete can still be a problem, as expanding rust can fracture or slowly "explode" concrete from within.[citation needed]

text: As a closely related example, iron bars were used to reinforce stonework of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, but caused extensive damage by rusting, swelling, and shattering the marble components of the building.[citation needed]

text: When only temporary protection is needed for storage or transport, a thin layer of oil, grease, or a special mixture such as Cosmoline can be applied to an iron surface. Such treatments are extensively used when "mothballing" a steel ship, automobile, or other equipment for long-term storage.

text: Special antiseize lubricant mixtures are available, and are applied to metallic threads and other precision machined surfaces to protect them from rust. These compounds usually contain grease mixed with copper, zinc, or aluminium powder, and other proprietary ingredients.[citation needed]

text: Bluing

text: [7]Bluing is a technique that can provide limited resistance to rusting for small steel items, such as firearms; for it to be successful, a water-displacing oil is rubbed onto the blued steel and other steel.

text: Inhibitors

text: Corrosion inhibitors, such as gas-phase or volatile inhibitors, can be used to prevent corrosion inside sealed systems. They are not effective when air circulation disperses them, and brings in fresh oxygen and moisture.

text: Humidity control

text: Rust can be avoided by controlling the moisture in the atmosphere. An example of this is the use of silica gel packets to control humidity in equipment shipped by sea.

text: Treatment

text: Rust removal from small iron or steel objects by electrolysis can be done in a home workshop using simple materials such as a plastic bucket, tap water, lengths of rebar, washing soda, baling wire, and a battery charger.[8]

text: Rust may be treated with commercial products known as rust converter which contain tannic acid which combines with rust.

text: Economic effect

text: Rust is associated with degradation of iron-based tools and structures. As rust has a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its buildup can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent parts — a phenomenon sometimes known as "rust packing". It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus river bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support.

text: Rust was an important factor in the Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a steel suspension bridge collapsed in less than a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers on the bridge at the time. The Kinzua Bridge in Pennsylvania was blown down by a tornado in 2003, largely because the central base bolts holding the structure to the ground had rusted away, leaving the bridge anchored by gravity alone.

text: Reinforced concrete is also vulnerable to rust damage. Internal pressure caused by expanding corrosion of concrete-covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall, creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of reinforced concrete bridges and buildings.

text:
Structural failures caused by rust

The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side

The Kinzua Bridge after it collapsed

text: Cultural symbolism

text: Rust is a commonly used metaphor for slow decay due to neglect, since it gradually converts robust iron and steel metal into a soft crumbling powder. A wide section of the industrialized American Midwest and American Northeast, once dominated by steel foundries, the automotive industry, and other manufacturers, has experienced harsh economic cutbacks that have caused the region to be dubbed the "Rust Belt".

text: In music, literature, and art, rust is associated with images of faded glory, neglect, decay, and ruin.

text: Gallery

text:
Rusted struts of the 70-year-old Nandu River Iron Bridge

Concentric rust patterns breaking through a painted surface

A leaking water pump caused severe corrosion of this engine block

A Rusted Bolivian train

A severely rusted lock

A rusted but otherwise intact Pineapple grenade that was previously buried in the ground near Opheusden, Netherlands