document_title: Letterkenny (TV series)

question_text: how many episodes are in season 1 of letterkenny

text: Letterkenny (TV series)

text: Series overview[edit]

text: Letterkenny revolves around the antics of the residents of a small rural Canadian community called Letterkenny.

text: Expanding the cast from the web series, the series focuses on Wayne and Katy (created for the TV series), siblings who run a small farm and produce stand, with help from Wayne's two friends: Daryl and "Squirrely" Dan (created for the TV series). It also focuses on a pair of local hockey players (Reily and Jonesy) who are involved in a polyamorous relationship with Katy.

text: Episodes deal with life in a small town, amongst different types of people: the farmers (the "hicks"), the out-of-towners who make up the local hockey team, the town's minister, the local drug addicts (the "skids"), and members of the local First Nation (the "natives"). Often plots revolve around Wayne defending his reputation as "the toughest guy in Letterkenny", the exploits of the local hockey team, and Wayne's attempt to break up his sister's open relationship with two of the members of the team, the various schemes by "the skids" to rip off the residents of both Letterkenny and the reservation, and Wayne's various attempts to find love. In later seasons, the scripts feature wordplay and puns as a running joke to convey the intelligence of the small town characters.

text: Production[edit]

text: Letterkenny is the first original series commissioned by CraveTV,[12] and premiered on that platform on February 7, 2016.[13] The show has its roots in Letterkenny Problems, a short-format web series created by Keeso and released on YouTube in 2013.[14] Letterkenny Problems garnered a Canadian Screen Award nomination for Best Original Fiction Program or Series Created for Digital Media at the 2nd Canadian Screen Awards in 2014.[12] The town of Letterkenny portrayed in the series is fictional, and not based on the actual ghost town in Renfrew County.[15]

text: Tierney and Michael Dowse are also involved in the production of the series.[1] Tierney also has a supporting role as Pastor Glen in the series, whose cast also includes Michelle Mylett, Dylan Playfair, Andrew Herr, Tyler Johnston, Lisa Codrington, Alexander De Jordy, Kaniehtiio Horn and K. Trevor Wilson.[16]

text: The series is filmed in Sudbury, Ontario.[17] A second season was ordered in March 2016,[2] and a third was ordered in August 2016.[18]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text:
Jared Keeso as Wayne, the leader of "the Hicks" and self-proclaimed toughest guy in Letterkenny. Wayne is best friends with Daryl "Darry" and Squirrely Dan. He is overprotective of his sister Katy. Keeso also plays Shoresy, a hockey player friend of Jonesy and Riley whose face never appears on camera.
Nathan Dales as Daryl, Wayne's best friend, whose nickname is "Darry".
K. Trevor Wilson as Squirrely Dan, the storyteller of "the Hicks".
Michelle Mylett as Katy, Wayne's sister
Dylan Playfair as Reilly, a hockey player for the Letterkenny Irish and Jonesy's best friend.
Andrew Herr as Jonesy, a hockey player for the Letterkenny Irish and Reilly's best friend.
Tyler Johnston as Stewart, leader of "the skids".
Alexander De Jordy as Devon, a member of Stewart's crew. (seasons 1–2)
Jacob Tierney as Pastor Glen, a local preacher who is infatuated with Wayne.
Evan Stern as Roald, a member of Stewart's crew.
Lisa Codrington as Gail, bartender at Modeans.
Kaniehtiio Horn as Tanis
Mark Forward as Coach, a hockey coach who gets angry easily
Dan Petronijevic as McMurray
Melanie Scrofano Mrs. McMurray
Kamilla Kowal as Bonnie McMurray
Joel Gagne as Joint Boy
Alex McCooeye as Jim Dickens
Jay Bertin  as Tyson
Kalinka Petrie as Angie, Wayne's ex (seasons 2–4)
Clark Backo as Rosie, Gail's cousin (seasons 2–5)
Boomer Phillips as Boomtown (seasons 2–3)
Sarah Gadon as Gae (seasons 3, 5)
Adrian Holmes as Bradley, Gail and Rosie's cousin (seasons 3–4)
Jay Baruchel as Hard Right Jay (season 5)[19]

text: Guest appearances[edit]

text:
Jay Onrait as himself
Dan O'Toole as himself
Gavin Crawford as a standup comedian
Mark McMorris
Craig McMorris

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally released16February 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)26December 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)SpecialMarch 17, 2017 (2017-03-17)36July 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)SpecialOctober 20, 2017 (2017-10-20)46December 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)SpecialMarch 23, 2018 (2018-03-23)56June 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date11"Ain't No Reason to Get Excited"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyFebruary 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)
A group of small town hicks try to help their friend get over a breakup.
22"Super Soft Birthday"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyFebruary 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)
Wayne tries to maintain his status as the toughest guy in Letterkenny, Katy throws Daryl a birthday party.
33"Fartbook"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyFebruary 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)
Letterkenny becomes enveloped in fart culture when the boys create a fart sharing website.
44"Wingman Wayne"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyFebruary 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)
The hicks hit the bar to pick up women, Jonesy and Reilly get in shape.
55"Rave"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyFebruary 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)
Wayne and Daryl start a pest control business, Stewart cleans himself up to impress Katy. The hockey team plays a road game against the Natives.
66"A Fuss in the Back Bush"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyFebruary 7, 2016 (2016-02-07)
The skids turn Letterkenny into a warzone when they rip off the Natives on a dart deal.

text: Season 2 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date71"A Fuss at the Ag Hall"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
The Hicks attempt to establish order at Ag Hall while Reilly and Jonesy make the jump to Senior Hockey.
82"The Election"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
The Hicks, Skids, and Hockey players participate in a Letterkenny election.
93"Relationships"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
Wayne doubles down on finding love.
104"The Native Flu"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
Reilly and Jonesy have an away game on the Rez.
115"Uncle Eddie's Trust"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
Wayne and Katy inherit some money.  Folks from Letterkenny pitch them on why it should be theirs.
126"Finding Stormy a Stud"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)
Tension rises around Letterkenny while Wayne looks for a stud to breed with his beloved German Shepherd "Stormy".

text: St. Patrick's Day special (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date13"St. Perfect's Day"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyMarch 17, 2017 (2017-03-17)
Sitting around the produce stand recalling the events from the night before at the St. Patrick's Day Party at the Ag Hall.  A Legend is born.

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date141"Sled Shack"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJuly 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)
The Hicks build a sled shack on the sleddin' trail. The Hockey Players, now leading goal scorers, try to motivate the Irish to get a W.
152"Puck Bunny"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJuly 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)
Wayne attempts to lure Up Country Degens to the sled shack but choosing the bait proves problematic.
163"MoDeans 2"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJuly 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)
MoDean's Grand Re-Opening gives Wayne the opportunity to confront Jivin' Pete, who's "no longer a good guy".
174"Les Hiques"Jacob TierneyJonathan TorrensJuly 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)
The Hicks go fishing on the Quebec border and meet their French doppelgangers.
185"The Battle for Bonnie McMurray"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJuly 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)
Bonnie invites the Hicks for a hot tub party and Dan, Daryl and Katy compete for her attention. Wayne and Rosie are #relationshipgoals.
196"Bradley is a Killer"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJuly 1, 2017 (2017-07-01)
Gail's cousin Bradley returns to Letterkenny to be a bouncer at MoDean's. The Hicks love Bradley. Gae and the Skids reach a crossroads.

text: Halloween special (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date20"The Haunting of MoDean's II"Jacob TierneyLynne KammOctober 20, 2017 (2017-10-20)
Wayne and the Hicks help their old pal Gail get to the bottom of a strange brew happening at the local bar.

text: Season 4 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date211"Never Work a Day in Your Life"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
It's Gail's birthday but in an effort to forget Rosie, Wayne is non-stop chorin'.
222"A Fuss at the Golf Course"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
The Hicks and McMurrays defend the majestic Canada Goose at the local golf course. The turf war for the Dollar Store continues.
233"Way to a Man's Heart"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
Tanis recruits the Hicks, who recruit the Hockey Players, to help with a feud on the Rez.
244"Letterkenny Talent Show"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
Letterkenny locals put their special skills on display with their own talent show.
255"The Letterkenny Leave"Jacob TierneyJesse McKeownDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
The Hicks attend a hot tub party at the McMurray's. The Hockey Players decide to do whatever it takes to get gains.
266"Great Day for Thunder Bay"Jacob TierneyJonathan TorrensDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)
The Bay Brothers, James and Hudson, return home for Hay and all of Letterkenny wants to be the one to throw them a party.

text: Easter special (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date27"Super Hard Easter"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyMarch 23, 2018 (2018-03-23)
It's Easter and it's Daryl's turn to hide the eggs. Glen and his unlikely sidekicks put on a Passion Play.

text: Season 5 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date281"We Don't Fight at Weddings"Jacob TierneyTrevor Risk & Jared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJune 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)
The Hicks, Skids, and Hockey Players attend a Letterkenny wedding.
292"The Ol' College Try"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJune 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)
Wayne tries on a new relationship. The Skids get deeper into the Dark Web. The Hockey Players meet their new team.
303"Hard Right Jay"Jacob TierneyJesse McKeownJune 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)
An out-of-towner causes a ruckus in Letterkenny.
314"Letterkenny Spelling Bee"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJune 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)
Competition heats up at Letterkenny's Adult Spelling Bee.
325"Back to Back to Back"Jacob TierneyJared Keeso & Jacob TierneyJune 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)
The Hockey Players try to win their first championship and Stewart is visited by some old friends.
336"Bock et Biche"Jacob TierneyJonathan TorrensJune 29, 2018 (2018-06-29)
The Hicks and Hockey Players travel to Quebec for Anik's pre-wedding party.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: John Doyle of The Globe and Mail called the series "refreshing and intoxicating", and "funny, mad, droll, childish, and spiky."  Focusing on the show's characteristic use of often thick Ontario dialect, he wrote that "Not since Trailer Park Boys launched have we heard the flavourful, salty Canadian vernacular used with such aplomb and abandon"; but also that "Almost all the conversations are raw comedy and utterly plausible as small-town guy talk, not just in Canada but in villages and parishes wherever the grass grows."[14]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: CraveTV has stated that Letterkenny's debut was the biggest debut of any series on their platform since it launched in 2014, and that as of March 10, 2016, nearly one in three subscribers have watched the series.[2]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
Ref.

2nd Canadian Screen Awards
Best Original Fiction Program or Series Created for Digital Media
Letterkenny Problems
Nominated
[12]

2016 Canadian Comedy Awards
Best TV Show
Letterkenny
Nominated
[20]

5th Canadian Screen Awards
Best Comedy Series
Mark Montefiore, Patrick O'Sullivan, Jared Keeso, Jacob Tierney
Won
[21]

Best Direction in a Comedy Program or Series
Jacob Tierney ("Super Soft Birthday")
Won

Best Writing in a Comedy Program or Series
Jacob Tierney and Jared Keeso ("Super Soft Birthday")
Won

Best Performance by an Actor in a Continuing Leading Comedic Role
Jared Keeso
Nominated

Best Achievement in Casting
Jenny Lewis and Sara Kay ("Rave")
Nominated

Best Performance by an Actor in a Featured Supporting Role or Guest Role in a Comedic Series
Nathan Dales
Nominated

Best Picture Editing in a Comedy Program or Series
Erin Deck ("Super Soft Birthday")
Nominated

Duncan Christie ("Ain't No Reason To Get Excited")
Nominated

2017 WGC Screenwriting Awards
Best Script From a Rookie Series
Jared Keeso & Jacob Tierney ("Ain't No Reason to Get Excited")
Nominated
[22]

Best TV Comedy
Jared Keeso & Jacob Tierney ("Super Soft Birthday")
Won

6th Canadian Screen Awards
Best Comedy Series
Mark Montefiore, Patrick O'Sullivan, Jared Keeso, Jacob Tierney
Nominated
[23]

Best Direction in a Comedy Program or Series
Jacob Tierney ("The Election")
Won

Best Writing in a Comedy Program or Series
Jacob Tierney and Jared Keeso ("Relationships")
Won

Best Performance by an Actor in a Continuing Leading Comedic Role
Jared Keeso
Nominated

Best Performance by an Actor in a Featured Supporting Role or Guest Role in a Comedic Series
K. Trevor Wilson
Nominated

Best Photography in a Comedic Series
Jim Westenbrink ("Relationships")
Nominated

Best Picture Editing in a Comedic Series
Christopher Minns ("The Election")
Nominated

Best Sound in a Fiction Series
Rick Penn, Jamie Sulek, Devin Doucette, Kieran Sherry, Rob Ainsley, Clive Turner ("Relationships")
Nominated

Best Casting
Jenny Lewis, Sara Kay
Nominated


document_title: History of tobacco

question_text: who is usually credited for the popularization of tobacco in england

root

text: History of tobacco

text: Early history[edit]

text: Tobacco was first discovered by the native people of Mesoamerica and South America and later introduced to Europe and the rest of the world.

tag: p

text: Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas by the time European settlers arrived and took the practice to Europe, where it became popular. Eastern North American tribes have historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, as well as smoking it in pipe ceremonies, whether for sacred ceremonies or those to seal a treaty or agreement.[1][2] Tobacco is considered a gift from the Creator, and tobacco smoke is seen as carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the spirits.[3]

text: In addition to its use in spiritual ceremonies, tobacco is also used in ethnobotany for medical treatment of physical conditions. As a pain killer it has been used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a poultice. Some indigenous peoples in California have used tobacco as one ingredient in smoking mixtures for treating colds; usually it is mixed with the leaves of the small desert sage, Salvia dorrii, or the root of Indian balsam or cough root, Leptotaenia multifida (the addition of which was thought to be particularly good for asthma and tuberculosis).[4] In addition to its traditional medicinal uses, tobacco was also used as a form of currency between Native Americans and Colonists from the 1620s on.[5]

text: Religious use of tobacco is still common among many indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas. Among the Cree and Ojibwe of Canada and the north-central United States, it is offered to the Creator, with prayers, and is used in sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, and is presented as a gift. A gift of tobacco is traditional when asking an Ojibwe elder a question of a spiritual nature.

text: European usage[edit]

text: Of the four plants of the Americas that spread to the rest of the world in the Columbian Exchange—potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco—the last is the only one used in every country. Greek and Roman accounts exist of smoking hemp seeds, and a Spanish poem c. 1276 mentions the energetic effects of lavender smoke, but tobacco was completely unfamiliar to Europeans before the discovery of the New World.[6] Las Casas vividly described how the first scouts sent by Columbus into the interior of Cuba found

text: men with half-burned wood in their hands and certain herbs to take their smokes, which are some dry herbs put in a certain leaf, also dry, like those the boys make on the day of the Passover of the Holy Ghost; and having lighted one part of it, by the other they suck, absorb, or receive that smoke inside with the breath, by which they become benumbed and almost drunk, and so it is said they do not feel fatigue. These, muskets as we will call them, they call tabacos. I knew Spaniards on this island of Española who were accustomed to take it, and being reprimanded for it, by telling them it was a vice, they replied they were unable to cease using it. I do not know what relish or benefit they found in it.[7]

text: Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1528, and by 1533, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. Jean Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the "sacred herb" because of its valuable medicinal properties.[7]

text: Nicot sent leaves and seeds to Francis I and his mother Catherine of Medici, with instructions to use tobacco as snuff. The king's recurring headaches (perhaps sinus trouble) were reportedly "marvellously cured" by snuff. French cultivation of herbe de la Reine (the queen's herb) began in 1560. By 1570 botanists referred to tobacco as Nicotiana, although André Thevet claimed that he, not Nicot, had introduced tobacco to France; historians believe that this is unlikely to be true, but Thevet was the first Frenchman to write about it.[6]

text: Swiss doctor Conrad Gesner in 1563 reported that chewing or smoking a tobacco leaf "has a wonderful power of producing a kind of peaceful drunkenness".[6] In 1571, Spanish doctor Nicolas Monardes wrote a book about the history of medicinal plants of the new world. In this he claimed that tobacco could cure 36 health problems,[8] and reported that the plant was first brought to Spain for its flowers, but "Now we use it to a greater extent for the sake of its virtues than for its beauty".[6]

text: John Hawkins was the first to bring tobacco seeds to England. William Harrison's English Chronology mentions tobacco smoking in the country as of 1573,[6] before Sir Walter Raleigh brought the first "Virginia" tobacco to Europe from the Roanoke Colony, referring to it as tobah as early as 1578.[citation needed] In 1595 Anthony Chute published Tabaco, which repeated earlier arguments about the benefits of the plant and emphasised the health-giving properties of pipe-smoking.

text: The importation of tobacco into England was not without resistance and controversy. Stuart King James I wrote a famous polemic titled A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, in which the king denounced tobacco use as "[a] custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomelesse."[9] That year, an English statute was enacted that placed a heavy protective tariff on tobacco imports. The duty rose from 2p per pound to 6s 10p, an increase of 4,000%, but English demand remained strong despite the high price; Barnabee Rych reported that 7,000 stores in London sold tobacco and calculated that at least 319,375 pound sterling were spent on tobacco annually. Because the Virginia and Bermuda colonies' economies were affected by the high duty, James in 1624 instead created a royal monopoly. No tobacco could be imported except from Virginia, and a royal license that cost 15 pounds per year was required to sell it. To help the colonies Charles II banned tobacco cultivation in England, but allowed herb gardens because doctors said it had medicinal purposes.[6]

text: Tobacco was introduced elsewhere in continental Europe more easily. Iberia exported "ropes" of dry leaves in baskets to the Netherlands and southern Germany; for a while tobacco was in Spanish called canaster after the word for basket, canastro, and influenced the German Knaster. In Italy, Prospero Santacroce in 1561 and Nicolo Torbabuoni in 1570 introduced it to gardens after seeing the plant on diplomatic missions. Cardinal Crescenzio introduced smoking to the country in about 1610 after learning about it in England. The Roman Catholic Church did not condemn tobacco as James I did, but Pope Urban VIII threatened excommunication to anyone smoking in a church.[6]

text: In Russia, tobacco use was banned in 1634 except for foreigners in Moscow. Peter the Great—who in England had learned of smoking and the royal monopoly—became the monarch in 1689, however. Revoking all bans, he licensed an English company to import 1.5 million pounds of tobacco per year, the monarchy receiving 28,000 pound sterling annually.[6]

text: The Japanese were introduced to tobacco by Portuguese sailors from 1542.

text: Tobacco first arrived in the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century,[10] where it attracted the attention of doctors[11] and became a commonly prescribed medicine for many ailments. Although tobacco was initially prescribed as medicine, further study led to claims that smoking caused dizziness, fatigue, dulling of the senses, and a foul taste/odour in the mouth.[12]

text: Sultan Murad IV banned smoking in the Ottoman Empire in 1633. When the ban was lifted by his successor, Ibrahim the Mad, it was instead taxed. In 1682, Damascene jurist Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi declared: "Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam ... People of all kinds have used it and devoted themselves to it ... I have even seen young children of about five years applying themselves to it." In 1750, a Damascene townsmen observed "a number of women greater than the men, sitting along the bank of the Barada River. They were eating and drinking, and drinking coffee and smoking tobacco just as the men were doing."[13]

text: Although Nicotiana suaveolens is native to Australia,[6] tobacco smoking first reached that continent shores when it was introduced to northern-dwelling Indigenous communities by visiting Indonesian fishermen in the early 18th century. British patterns of tobacco use were transported to Australia along with the new settlers in 1788; and in the years following colonisation, British smoking behaviour was rapidly adopted by Indigenous people as well. By the early 19th century tobacco was an essential commodity routinely issued to servants, prisoners and ticket-of-leave men (conditionally released convicts) as an inducement to work, or conversely, withheld as a means of punishment.[14]

text: Economic history in the American colonies[edit]

text: In the Eastern United States, gold and silver are scarce, which made it harder for colonists to trade with Native Americans. The cultivation of tobacco in the Chesapeake area was essential to solving this problem. Without silver and gold to trade to the Chesapeake tribes, colonists traded tobacco for essential natural resources. This started in the 1620s.[15] Tobacco was also used as a currency in the colonies, used for paying fines, taxes, and even marriage licenses.[16]

text: The increasing demand for tobacco in Europe fueled the slave trade. In the colonies land was at a premium because tobacco required lots of land to cultivate. This created a problem for the institutionalized practice of indentured servitude.[citation needed] Indentured servants were promised land of various amounts in their contracts.  This land became harder to part with due to tobacco.

text: The uncultivated Virginia soil was reportedly too rich for traditional European crops, especially cereals like barley. Tobacco "broke down the fields and made food crops more productive" by depleting the soil of nutrients.[15]

text: With the profitability of the land rapidly increasing, it no longer was economically viable to bring in indentured servants because they were promised physical benefits at the end of their tenure. What the plantation owners wanted was workers who could legally not be paid and would be able to work long hours in the hot sun.[citation needed] Their conclusion was to turn to another institutionalized practice: slavery. The demand and profitability of tobacco led to the shift in the colonies to a slave based labor force. Tobacco is a labor-intensive crop, requiring lots of work for its cultivation, harvest, and curing. These tasks were carried out during the colonial period by slaves.

text: Tobacco's impact on early American history[edit]

text: The cultivation of Tobacco in America led to many changes. During the 1700s tobacco was a very lucrative crop due to its high demand in Europe. The climate of the Chesapeake area in America lent itself very nicely to the cultivation of tobacco. The high European demand for tobacco led to a rise in the value of tobacco. The rise of value of tobacco accelerated the economic growth in America. The cultivation of tobacco as a cash crop in America marks the shift from a subsistence economy to an agrarian economy. Tobacco’s desirability and value led to it being used as a currency in colonies. Tobacco was also backed by the gold standard which meant that there was an established conversion rate from tobacco to gold.

text: The increasing role of tobacco as a cash crop led to a shift in the labor force that would shape American life and politics up through the Civil war. In order to keep up with demand tobacco plantation owners had to abandon the traditional practice of indentured servitude in the Americas. In order to pursue maximum profits, the plantation owners turned to slavery to supply them with the cheap, fungible labor that they needed to keep up with increasing production.[citation needed]

text: Early cultivation of tobacco[edit]

text: In the first few years of tobacco cultivation in the colonies, the plants were simply covered with hay and left in the field to cure or "sweat." This method was abandoned after 1618, when regulations prohibited the use of valuable potential animal food for such purposes. It was also abandoned because a better method of curing tobacco had been developed. In this new method the wilted leaves were hung on lines or sticks, at first outside on fence rails. Tobacco barns for housing the crop were in use by the 1620s.[17]

text: During the curing period, which lasted about four to six weeks, the color of the tobacco changed from a greenish yellow to a light tan. Mold was an immense danger during this time. Once again, a planter relied on his experience to know when the tobacco was ready to be removed from the sticks on which it hung, a process known as "striking."[17]

text: At last, when the tobacco was ready, and preferably during a period of damp weather, workers struck the tobacco and laid the leaves on the floor of the tobacco barn to sweat for somewhere between a week or two. Logs could be used to press the tobacco and increase its temperature, but with that there came a danger. The heat might become too intense and mold spoil the crop.[17]

text: After sweating, the next step was sorting. Ideally, all the tobacco should be in a condition described by cropmasters as "in case". This meant that the tobacco had absorbed just the right amount of moisture; it could be stretched like leather, and was glossy and moist. If tobacco were too damp, it would rot in transit; if too dry, it would crumble and be unsalable.[17]

text: In the early years at Jamestown the settlers paid little heed to quality control, this attitude soon changed due to both the market and to regulations. Over time, the settlers began to separate the tobacco into sections of equal quality. The leaves were then tied together in Hands, bunches of five to fourteen. The Hands were returned to platforms to sweat. When they were once again "in case", the inspection of the crop could take place and the final processing for export begin.[17]

text: Early on, the preparation of tobacco for shipping was very simple. The tobacco leaves were twisted and rolled, then spun into rope, which was wound into balls weighing as much as a hundred pounds ( 45.3 kilograms ). These balls were protected in canvas or barrels, which would then be shipped to Britain. Although the export of bulk tobacco was not outlawed until 1730, a large barrel called a "hogshead" soon became the favored container throughout the colonial period. Even though its capacity varied slightly, governed by the regulations of the day, the average weight of the tobacco stored in a hogshead barrel was about a thousand pounds ( 453.6 kilograms ).[17]

text: These barrels were transported in a variety of ways to the ships on which they would be carried to England. At first, captains of merchant vessels simply traveled from one plantation dock to the next, loading up with barrels of tobacco as they moved along the river. Other ways included employing northern smugglers to ferry tobacco to England.

text: Plantations in the American South[edit]

text: In 1609, English colonist John Rolfe arrived at Jamestown, Virginia, and became the first settler to successfully raise tobacco (commonly referred to at that time as "brown gold")[18] for commercial use.  Tobacco was used as currency by the Virginia settlers for years, and Rolfe was able to make his fortune in farming it for export at Varina Farms Plantation.

text: When he left for England with his wife Pocahontas, a daughter of Chief Powhatan, he had become wealthy. Returning to Jamestown, following Pocahontas' death in England, Rolfe continued in his efforts to improve the quality of commercial tobacco, and, by 1620, 40,000 pounds (18,000 kg) of tobacco were shipped to England.  By the time John Rolfe died in 1622, Jamestown was thriving as a producer of tobacco, and its population had topped 4,000. Tobacco led to the importation of the colony's first black slaves in 1619.

text: Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, tobacco continued to be the cash crop of the Virginia Colony, as well as The Carolinas. Large tobacco warehouses filled the areas near the wharves of new, thriving towns such as Dumfries on the Potomac, Richmond and Manchester at the Fall Line (head of navigation) on the James, and Petersburg on the Appomattox.

text: There were also tobacco plantations in Tennessee, like Wessyngton in Cedar Hill, Tennessee.[19]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: A historian of the American South in the late 1860s reported on typical usage in the region where it was grown:[20]

text: The chewing of tobacco was well-nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offence to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for clean living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante-room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven-tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped" in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets.

text: Until 1883, tobacco excise tax accounted for one third of internal revenue collected by the United States government.  Internal Revenue Service data for 1879-80 show total tobacco tax receipts of $38.9 million, out of total receipts of $116.8 million.[21] Following the American Civil War, the tobacco industry struggled as it attempted to adapt. Not only did the labor force change from slavery to sharecropping, but a change in demand also occurred. As in Europe, there was a desire for not only snuff, pipes and cigars, but cigarettes as well.

text: With a change in demand and a change in labor force, James Bonsack, an avid craftsman, in 1881 created a machine that revolutionized cigarette production.  The machine chopped the tobacco, then dropped a certain amount of the tobacco into a long tube of paper, which the machine would then roll and push out the end where it would be sliced by the machine into individual cigarettes.  This machine operated at thirteen times the speed of a human cigarette roller.[22]

text: This caused an enormous growth in the tobacco industry that lasted well into the 20th century, until the scientific revelations discovering health consequences of smoking[23] and tobacco companies' usage of chemical additives was revealed.

text: In the United States, The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (Tobacco Control Act) became law in 2009. It gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of tobacco products to protect public health.[24]

text: Health concerns[edit]

text: Nazi Germany saw the first modern anti-smoking campaign,[25] the National Socialist government condemning tobacco use,[26] funding research against it,[27] levying increasing sin taxes on it,[28] and in 1941 tobacco was banned in various public places as a health hazard.

text: In the UK and the USA, an increase in lung cancer rates was being picked up by the 1930s, but the cause for this increase remained debated and unclear.[29]

text: A true breakthrough came in 1948, when the British physiologist Richard Doll published the first major studies that proved that smoking could cause serious health damage.[30][31] In 1950, he published research in the British Medical Journal that showed a close link between smoking and lung cancer.[32] Four years later, in 1954 the British Doctors Study, a study of some 40 thousand doctors over 20 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related.[33] The British Doctors Study lasted till 2001, with result published every ten years and final results published in 2004 by Doll and Richard Peto.[34] Much early research was also done by Dr. Ochsner. Reader's Digest magazine for many years published frequent anti-smoking articles.

text: In 1964 the United States Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer, which confirmed its suggestions 20 years later in the 1980s.

text: Partial controls and regulatory measures eventually followed in much of the developed world, including partial advertising bans, minimum age of sale requirements, and basic health warnings on tobacco packaging. However, smoking prevalence and associated ill health continued to rise in the developed world in the first three decades following Richard Doll's discovery, with governments sometimes reluctant to curtail a habit seen as popular as a result - and increasingly organised disinformation efforts by the tobacco industry and their proxies (covered in more detail below). Realisation dawned gradually that the health effects of smoking and tobacco use were susceptible only to a multi-pronged policy response which combined positive health messages with medical assistance to cease tobacco use and effective marketing restrictions, as initially indicated in a 1962 overview by the British Royal College of Physicians[35] and the 1964 report of the U.S. Surgeon General.

text: In the 1950s tobacco companies engaged in a cigarette advertising war surrounding the tar content in cigarettes that came to be known as the tar derby. The companies repositioned their brands to emphasize low tar content, filter technology and nicotine levels.  The period ended in 1959 after the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Chairman and several cigarette company presidents agreed to discontinue usage of tar or nicotine levels in advertisements.[36]

text: In order to reduce the potential burden of disease, the World Health Organization(WHO) successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003.[37] The Convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco.

text: In science[edit]

text: The tobacco smoke enema was the principal medical method to resuscitate victims of drowning in the 18th century.[citation needed]

text: As a lucrative crop, tobacco has been the subject of a great deal of biological and genetic research. The economic impact of Tobacco Mosaic disease was the impetus that led to the isolation of Tobacco mosaic virus, the first virus to be identified;[38] the fortunate coincidence that it is one of the simplest viruses and can self-assemble from purified nucleic acid and protein led, in turn, to the rapid advancement of the field of virology. The 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Wendell Meredith Stanley for his 1935 work crystallizing the virus and showing that it remains active.


document_title: 800 Words

question_text: when is season 3 of 800 words coming out

text: 800 Words

text: Production[edit]

text: The series was first announced on 29 October 2014 with the Channel Seven 2015 highlights.[6] The CEO of South Pacific Pictures, Kelly Martin said "Seven loved the scripts from the start and we're thrilled to have this project underway. It enables South Pacific Pictures to broaden our horizons and it'll open up some great opportunities for our local actors and crew."[7] Of the series' tone, the Program Chief of Seven, Tim Ross stated, "If you think this show has a bit of the same feel and vibe as Packed to the Rafters, you're dead right — and we make no apologies for that."[8] Filming for the series began on 2 March 2015.[9]

text: Plot[edit]

text: Erik Thomson plays George Turner, a recent widower who quits his job as a popular 800 word columnist for a top selling Sydney newspaper. Over the internet he buys a house on an impulse in a fictional New Zealand remote seaside town called Weld. He then has to break the news to his two teenage kids, Shay and Arlo (Melina Vidler and Benson Jack Anthony), who just lost their mother, and now face an even more uncertain future. But the colourful and inquisitive locals ensure Turner’s dream of a fresh start does not go exactly to plan.[9]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Erik Thomson as George Turner[9]
Melina Vidler as Shay Turner[9]
Benson Jack Anthony as Arlo Turner[9]
Rick Donald as Woody; an Australian expat builder who moved to Weld for the surf.[9]
Bridie Carter as Jan; George's former boss and editor in Sydney[9]
Emma Leonard as Tracey; an Australian expat and Shay and Arlo's form teacher at Weld High School. (Teacher Spice)[9]
Michelle Langstone as Fiona; the owner-operator of the Weld Boat Club and a volunteer ambulance driver. (Busy Spice)[10]
Anna Jullienne as Katie; a part-Maori artist and owner of the Weld arts and crafts gallery. (Arty Spice)[10]
Cian Elyse White as Hannah; a surfer who works part-time at the Weld Boat Club and the local surf shop. (Surfy Spice)[10]

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Jonathan Brugh as Monty McNamara; a real estate agent who sold George his new home in Weld and a volunteer firefighter.[11][12]
Peter Elliott as Bill "Big Mac" McNamara, the financial king-pin of Weld and father to Bill Jr, Monty and Robbie.[11]
Paul Glover as Bill McNamara, Jr.
Manon Blackman as Lindsay McNamara, Bill Jr.'s daughter.[11][12]
Olivia Tennet as Siouxsie; Monty's daughter and secretary.[11]
John Leigh as Constable Tom; Weld's local police officer and photographer.[11]
Alex Tarrant as Ike, one of Zac's children[9]
Reon Bell as Billy, Katie and Zac's son[11]
Rob Williams as Zac; Katie's ex-partner and father to Ike, Hannah, and Billy.
Renee Lyons as Brenda.
Jesse Griffin as Sean.
Tandi Wright as Laura Turner; deceased wife of George and mother to Shay and Arlo.
Jackie van Beek as Gloria; production manager of the local newspaper, News of the Weld (Season 2)
Millen Baird as Robert "Robbie" McNamara; Fiona's ex. (Season 2)
Ditch Davey as Terry Turner; George's younger brother who is a chef. (Season 2)
Jamaica Vaughan as Emma; Fiona's niece and summer love interest of Arlo (Season 2)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
8
15 September 2015 (2015-09-15)
3 November 2015 (2015-11-03)

2
16
8
23 August 2016 (2016-08-23)
4 October 2016 (2016-10-04)

8
31 January 2017 (2017-01-31)
21 March 2017 (2017-03-21)

3
8[5]
12 September 2017 (2017-09-12)[4]
TBA

tag: table

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Aus. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Episode 1"
Pino Amenta
James Griffin
15 September 2015 (2015-09-15)
1.22[13]

Following the death of this wife, column writer George Turner breaks the news to his two teenaged children that they will be moving from Sydney to Weld, New Zealand. They arrive in the small coastal town to a half-finished home, nosy neighbors and run-away sculptures.

2
2
"Episode 2"
Pino Amenta
Maxine Fleming and James Griffin
22 September 2015 (2015-09-22)
1.19[14]

Having written a column in the previous episode that referred to Weld as a "dead-end" town, George faces the full wrath of the locals. This causes friction for everyone, including Shay and Arlo, who struggle to fit in at school.

3
3
"Episode 3"
Mike Smith
James Griffin
29 September 2015 (2015-09-29)
1.17[15]

After refusing to reveal the cause of his wife's death, rumors run wild in Weld about George, and his concerns about the school bus driver exacerbate things. He traces the lies back to their source while Shay makes new connections with a local.

4
4
"Episode 4"
Mike Smith
Maxine Fleming and James Griffin
6 October 2015 (2015-10-06)
1.06[16]

George considers the women of Weld and whether he is ready for romance after the death of his wife. He and Arlo learn more about the salacious history of Weld, while Shay's anxiety about her family affects her new relationship.

5
5
"Episode 5"
Mike Smith
Tim Balme
13 October 2015 (2015-10-13)
1.08[17]

The late Laura Turner's birthday approaches and her husband and children disagree on how to mark the day. George relives unpleasant memories from his childhood time in Weld, and Shay fights to protect a local camp ground from development.

6
6
"Episode 6"
Mike Smith
Natalie Medlock and James Griffin
20 October 2015 (2015-10-20)
1.02[18]

Truths are revealed when George and Arlo play detective on two fronts: the case of the missing statue head and Shay's love life.

7
7
"Episode 7"
Pino Amenta
Maxine Fleming and James Griffin
27 October 2015 (2015-10-27)
1.03[19]

Shay faces the legal and emotional consequences of her actions alone, despite offers of help from George and everyone else in town. George realizes his own limitations as a parent and writes an unusually personal column, leading Shay to a life-changing decision.

8
8
"Episode 8"
Pino Amenta
James Griffin
3 November 2015 (2015-11-03)
1.15[20]

Efforts to save the campground heat up. Jan arrives in town and helps George deal with the fallout from Shay's departure, with unexpected results.

text: Season 2 (2016-2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Aus. viewers
(millions)

Part 1

9
1
"Episode 1"
Mike Smith
Tim Balme and James Griffin
23 August 2016 (2016-08-23)
0.88[21]

While the rest of the town prepares for Guy Fawkes Night, George and Arlo enact a plan to get Shay back to Weld. Jan, Lindsay and Shay all make decisions about where they really belong.

10
2
"Episode 2"
Mike Smith
Tim Balme
30 August 2016 (2016-08-30)
0.74[22]

The limits of friendship are tested when Woody produces an invoice for George. Despite his best efforts, George finds himself employed several times over.

11
3
"Episode 3"
Michael Hurst
Maxine Fleming
6 September 2016 (2016-09-06)
0.79[23]

The discovery of a crash site reveals truths to Lindsay about her family and to George about pitfalls to avoid when you're the editor of a small town paper.

12
4
"Episode 4"
Michael Hurst
Kate McDermott
13 September 2016 (2016-09-13)
0.62[24]

When the George's dream Weld house comes up for sale, he considers another move. Shay's boyfriend from Sydney makes an unexpected appearance, much to everyone's chagrin.

13
5
"Episode 5"
Murray Keane
Sarah-Kate Lynch and James Griffin
20 September 2016 (2016-09-20)
0.59[25]

George and Katie find the post-date rumor mill more difficult to navigate than the date itself. The campground development takes an unexpected turn.

14
6
"Episode 6"
Murray Keane
James Griffin
27 September 2016 (2016-09-27)
0.70[26]

An accident lands Woody in the hospital and sends George on a crusade against the summer people. Shay, Tracey and Arlo make new strides in their love lives.

15
7
"Episode 7"
Mike Smith
James Griffin
4 October 2016 (2016-10-04)
0.80[27]

As the one-year anniversary of Laura's death approaches, her parents arrive in Weld and a fight about what to do with her ashes erupts. Fiona get surprising news.

16
8
"Episode 8"
Mike Smith
Kate McDermott
4 October 2016 (2016-10-04)
0.73[27]

A game of cricket marks the end of some relationships in Weld, and the beginning of others.

Part 2

17
9
"Episode 9"
Michael Hurst
Kate McDermott
31 January 2017 (2017-01-31)
0.80[28]

While Fiona tries to end her marriage, George deals with the consequences of their public kiss around town. Meanwhile, Jan finds it more difficult to keep her secret.

18
10
"Episode 10"
Michael Hurst
Michael Beran & James Griffin
7 February 2017 (2017-02-07)
0.74[29]

George and Fiona throw a dinner party for the couples of Weld, which turns into an ever escalating comedy of errors. Arlo takes on new responsibilities at the restaurant.

19
11
"Episode 11"
Caroline Bell-Booth
Sarah-Kate Lynch & Kate McDermott
14 February 2017 (2017-02-14)
0.65[30]

Arlo makes a surprising decision about his academic future, and Shay wonders what she will do with her own, while George worries about them both. Fiona wonders where she fits into the Turner family.

20
12
"Episode 12"
Caroline Bell-Booth
Tim Balme
21 February 2017 (2017-02-21)
0.72[31]

George and Fiona have a weekend away; while Shay's mural and Arlo's attempt at a quiet night with Emma go up in flames. Jan's secret comes out, and it is more complicated than anyone could have imagined.

21
13
"Episode 13"
Michael Hurst
James Griffin
28 February 2017 (2017-02-28)
0.64[32]

Fiona and George struggle to find time to process Jan's news. Shay and Arlo's relationships suffer in the face of art fraud and distance. An unexpected Turner arrives in Weld.

22
14
"Episode 14"
Michael Hurst
Sarah-Kate Lynch
7 March 2017 (2017-03-07)
0.59[33]

Terry charms Arlo and all of Weld with his plans for a new restaurant, and George has trouble convincing them his brother is not as trustworthy as he seems.

23
15
"Episode 15"
Mike Smith
Michael Beran & James Griffin
14 March 2017 (2017-03-14)
0.59[34]

George works on an article about Terry's restaurant, and the changes that he sees in Weld since it opened. Katie has second thoughts about the art deception, and Shay has a decision to make.

24
16
"Episode 16"
Mike Smith
James Griffin
21 March 2017 (2017-03-21)
0.68[35]

George tries desperately to clean up Terry's mess in Weld, while finally coming to understand his brother. Shay deals with the consequences of her own actions.

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Aus. viewers
(millions)

25
1
"Episode 1"
Mike Smith
Tim Balme
12 September 2017 (2017-09-12)
0.70[36]

Weld mounts operation search and rescue for Ike, Zac and Steve. George contemplates possible fatherhood while comforting Shay. Jan goes into labour but there are more than paternity complications.

26
2
"Episode 2"
TBA
TBA
19 September 2017 (2017-09-19)
TBD

27
3
"Episode 3"
TBA
TBA
26 September 2017 (2017-09-26)
TBD

28
4
"Episode 4"
TBA
TBA
3 October 2017 (2017-10-03)
TBD

29
5
"Episode 5"
TBA
TBA
10 October 2017 (2017-10-10)
TBD

30
6
"Episode 6"
TBA
TBA
17 October 2017 (2017-10-17)
TBD

31
7
"Episode 7"
TBA
TBA
TBA
TBD

32
8
"Episode 8"
TBA
TBA
TBA
TBD

text: Release[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The series premiered in Australia on 15 September 2015 on the Seven Network[37] and premiered in New Zealand on 5 November 2015 on TV One.[38] In the United States, the series premiered on Acorn TV in 2016[39] and PBS in March 2017. The series premiered in Finland on YLE TV1 in June 2017.[40]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Season one[41] along with part one[42] and two[43] of season two are available on iTunes in Australia.

text:
Title
Set details
DVD release dates
Special features

Region 1[44]
Region 2[45]
Region 4

Australia[46]
New Zealand[47]

800 Words

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

13 December 2016 (2016-12-13)
31 December 2017 (2017-12-31)
4 November 2015 (2015-11-04)
18 December 2015 (2015-12-18)

Behind-the-Scenes Featurette

800 Words – Season 2 Volume 1

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

18 April 2017 (2017-04-18)
N/A
12 October 2016 (2016-10-12)
N/A

Behind-the-Scenes Featurette

800 Words – Season 2 Volume 2

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

22 August 2017 (2017-08-22)
N/A
5 April 2017 (2017-04-05)
N/A

Behind-the-Scenes Featurettes: Melina's Tour of Weld; Interview with Eriki Thomson

800 Words – Season 2

Discs: 4
Episodes: 16

N/A
TBA
N/A
11 May 2017 (2017-05-11)

text: Compilations[edit]

text:
Title
Set details
DVD release dates
Special features

Region 4

Australia[48]

800 Words – Complete Seasons 1&2

Discs: 6
Episodes: 24

5 April 2017 (2017-04-05)

Romance and Women of Weld
Melina's Tour of Weld
Interview with Erik Thomson

text: Viewership[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Overnight ratings
Consolidated ratings
Total
viewers
Ref(s)

Viewers
Rank
Viewers
Rank

1
Episode 1
15 September 2015
1,219,000
2
131,000
1
1,350,000
[13][49]

2
Episode 2
22 September 2015
1,192,000
1
217,000
1
1,409,000
[14][50]

3
Episode 3
29 September 2015
1,170,000
1
233,000
1
1,403,000
[15][51]

4
Episode 4
6 October 2015
1,055,000
2
254,000
1
1,309,000
[16][52]

5
Episode 5
13 October 2015
1,082,000
1
225,000
1
1,307,000
[17][53]

6
Episode 6
20 October 2015
1,019,000
2
235,000
1
1,254,000
[18][54]

7
Episode 7
27 October 2015
1,027,000
3
219,000
1
1,246,000
[19][55]

8
Episode 8
3 November 2015
1,151,000
6
165,000
4
1,316,000
[20][56]

text: Season 2 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Overnight ratings
Consolidated ratings
Total
viewers
Ref(s)

Viewers
Rank
Viewers
Rank

1
Episode 1
23 August 2016
877,000
7
164,000
4
1,041,000
[21][57]

2
Episode 2
30 August 2016
742,000
11
209,000
6
951,000
[22][58]

3
Episode 3
6 September 2016
793,000
11
238,000
3
1,031,000
[23][59]

4
Episode 4
13 September 2016
618,000
14
228,000
8
846,000
[24][60]

5
Episode 5
20 September 2016
592,000
14
221,000
9
813,000
[25][61]

6
Episode 6
27 September 2016
695,000
12
175,000
7
870,000
[26][62]

7
Episode 7
4 October 2016
800,000
9
192,000
4
992,000
[27][63]

8
Episode 8
4 October 2016
728,000
10
169,000
8
897,000
[27][63]

9
Episode 9
31 January 2017
797,000
9
211,000
4
1,008,000
[28][64]

10
Episode 10
7 February 2017
737,000
10
198,000
7
935,000
[29][65]

11
Episode 11
14 February 2017
647,000
12
207,000
7
854,000
[30][66]

12
Episode 12
21 February 2017
718,000
11
176,000
7
894,000
[31][67]

13
Episode 13
28 February 2017
639,000
11
207,000
8
846,000
[32][68]

14
Episode 14
7 March 2017
594,000
13
225,000
7
819,000
[33][69]

15
Episode 15
14 March 2017
591,000
12
210,000
9
801,000
[34][70]

16
Episode 16
21 March 2017
681,000
11
212,000
7
893,000
[35][71]

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Overnight ratings
Consolidated ratings
Total
viewers
Ref(s)

Viewers
Rank
Viewers
Rank

1
Episode 1
12 September 2017
696,000
10
N/A
N/A
696,000
[36]


document_title: Spleen

question_text: where is the spleen situated in the human body

text: Spleen

text: Structure[edit]

text: The spleen, in healthy adult humans, is approximately 7 centimetres (2.8 in) to 14 centimetres (5.5 in)  in length. It usually weighs between 150 grams (5.3 oz)[9] and 200 grams (7.1 oz).[10] An easy way to remember the anatomy of the spleen is the 1×3×5×7×9×11 rule. The spleen is 1 by 3 by 5 inches (3 by 8 by 13 cm), weighs approximately 7 oz (200 g), and lies between the 9th and 11th ribs on the left hand side.

text: The spleen is underneath the left diaphragm, and has a smooth, convex surface that faces the diaphragm. It is underneath the ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs. The other side of the spleen is divided by a ridge into two regions: an anterior gastric portion, and a posterior renal portion. The gastric surface is directed forward, upward, and toward the middle, is broad and concave, and is in contact with the posterior wall of the stomach. Below this it is in contact with the tail of the pancreas. The renal surface is directed medialward and downward. It is somewhat flattened, considerably narrower than the gastric surface, and is in relation with the upper part of the anterior surface of the left kidney and occasionally with the left adrenal gland.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: Near the middle of the spleen is a long fissure, the hilum, which is the point of attachment for the gastrosplenic ligament and the point of insertion for the splenic artery and splenic vein. There are other openings present for lymphatic vessels and nerves.

text: Like the thymus, the spleen possesses only efferent lymphatic vessels. The spleen is part of the lymphatic system. Both the short gastric arteries and the splenic artery supply it with blood.[11]

text: The germinal centers are supplied by arterioles called penicilliary radicles.[12]

text: Development[edit]

text: The spleen is unique in respect to its development within the gut. While most of the gut organs are endodermally derived (with the exception of the neural-crest derived adrenal gland), the spleen is derived from mesenchymal tissue.[13] Specifically, the spleen forms within, and from, the dorsal mesentery. However, it still shares the same blood supply—the celiac trunk—as the foregut organs.

text: Function[edit]

text: Pulp[edit]

text:
Area
Function
Composition

red pulp
Mechanical filtration of red blood cells. In mice: Reserve of monocytes[4]

"sinuses" (or "sinusoids"), which are filled with blood
"splenic cords" of reticular fibers
"marginal zone" bordering on white pulp

white pulp
Active immune response through humoral and cell-mediated pathways.
Composed of nodules, called Malpighian corpuscles. These are composed of:
"lymphoid follicles" (or "follicles"), rich in B-lymphocytes
"periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths" (PALS), rich in T-lymphocytes

text: Other[edit]

text: Other functions of the spleen are less prominent, especially in the healthy adult:

text:
Production of opsonins, properdin, and tuftsin.
Creation of red blood cells. While the bone marrow is the primary site of hematopoiesis in the adult, the spleen has important hematopoietic functions up until the fifth month of gestation. After birth, erythropoietic functions cease, except in some hematologic disorders. As a major lymphoid organ and a central player in the reticuloendothelial system, the spleen retains the ability to produce lymphocytes and, as such, remains a hematopoietic organ.
Storage of red blood cells, lymphocytes and other formed elements. In horses, roughly 30% of the red blood cells are stored there. The red blood cells can be released when needed.[14] In humans, up to a cup (240 ml) of red blood cells can be held in the spleen and released in cases of hypovolemia[15] and hypoxia.[16]  It can store platelets in case of an emergency and also clears old platelets from the circulation. Up to a quarter of lymphocytes can be stored in the spleen at any one time.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Enlarged spleen[edit]

text: Disorders include splenomegaly, where the spleen is enlarged for various reasons, such as cancer, specifically blood-based leukemias.

text: Rupture of spleen[edit]

text: Traumas, such as a road traffic collision, can cause rupture of the spleen, which is a situation requiring immediate medical attention.

text: Spleen deflation[edit]

text: Human spleens have been noted to decrease in volume up to 40% when subjected to stimuli from strenuous exercise or hypoxic gas inhalation.[17]

text: Decreased function[edit]

text: Asplenia refers to a non-functioning spleen, which may be congenital, damaged by trauma, or caused by disease such as sickle cell anaemia. Hyposplenia refers to a partially functioning spleen. These conditions may cause[5] a modest increase in circulating white blood cells and platelets, a diminished response to some vaccines, and an increased susceptibility to infection. In particular, there is an increased risk of sepsis from polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria. Encapsulated bacteria inhibit binding of complement or prevent complement assembled on the capsule from interacting with macrophage receptors. Phagocytosis needs natural antibodies, which are immunoglobulins that facilitate phagocytosis either directly or by complement deposition on the capsule. They are produced by IgM memory B cells (a subtype of B cells) in the marginal zone of the spleen.[18][19]

text: A splenectomy (removal of the spleen) also causes asplenia and results in a greatly diminished frequency of memory B cells.[20] A 28-year follow-up of 740 World War II veterans whose spleens were removed on the battlefield showed a significant increase in the usual death rate from pneumonia (6 rather than the expected 1.3) and an increase in the death rate from ischemic heart disease (41 rather than the expected 30), but not from other conditions.[21]

text: Accessory spleen[edit]

text: An accessory spleen is a small splenic nodule extra to the spleen usually formed in early embryogenesis. Accessory spleens are found in approximately 10 percent of the population[22] and are typically around  1 centimeter in diameter. Splenosis is a condition where displaced pieces of splenic tissue (often following trauma or splenectomy) autotransplant in the abdominal cavity as accessory spleens.[23]

text: Polysplenia is a congenital disease manifested by multiple small accessory spleens,[24] rather than a single, full-sized, normal spleen.  Polysplenia sometimes occurs alone, but it is often accompanied by other developmental abnormalities such as  intestinal malrotation or biliary atresia, or cardiac abnormalities, such as dextrocardia. These accessory spleens are non-functional.

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: The word spleen comes from the Ancient Greek σπλήν (splḗn), and is the idiomatic equivalent of the heart in English, i.e. to be good-spleened (εὔσπλαγχνος, eúsplankhnos) means to be good-hearted or compassionate.[25]

text: In English the word spleen was customary during the period of the 18th century. Authors like Richard Blackmore or George Cheyne employed it to characterise the hypochondriacal and hysterical affections.[26][27] William Shakespeare, in Julius Caesar uses the spleen to describe Cassius' irritable nature.

text:
Must I observe you? must I stand and crouch
Under your testy humour? By the gods
You shall digest the venom of your spleen,
Though it do split you; for, from this day forth,
I'll use you for my mirth, yea, for my laughter,
When you are waspish.[28]

text: In French, "splénétique" refers to a state of pensive sadness or melancholy. It has been popularized by the poet Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) but was already used before in particular to the Romantic literature (19th century). The French word for the organ is "rate".

text: The connection between spleen (the organ) and melancholy (the temperament) comes from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks. One of the humours (body fluid) was the black bile, secreted by the spleen organ and associated with melancholy. In contrast, the Talmud (tractate Berachoth 61b) refers to the spleen as the organ of laughter while possibly suggesting a link with the humoral view of the organ. In eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England, women in bad humor were said to be afflicted by the spleen, or the vapours of the spleen. In modern English, "to vent one's spleen" means to vent one's anger, e.g. by shouting, and can be applied to both males and females. Similarly, the English term "splenetic" is used to describe a person in a foul mood.

text: The spleen also plays an important role in Traditional Chinese Medicine and is the Yin part of the Earth element paired with its Yang counterpart the Stomach.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: In cartilaginous and ray-finned fish, it consists primarily of red pulp and is normally somewhat elongated, as it lies inside the serosal lining of the intestine. In many amphibians, especially frogs, it has the more rounded form and there is often a greater quantity of white pulp.[29]

text: In reptiles, birds, and mammals, white pulp is always relatively plentiful, and in birds and mammals the spleen is typically rounded, but it adjusts its shape somewhat to the arrangement of the surrounding organs.  In most vertebrates, the spleen continues to produce red blood cells throughout life; only in mammals this function is lost in middle-aged adults. Many mammals have tiny spleen-like structures known as haemal nodes throughout the body that are presumed to have the same function as the spleen.[29] The spleens of aquatic mammals differ in some ways from those of fully land-dwelling mammals; in general they are bluish in colour. In cetaceans and manatees they tend to be quite small, but in deep diving pinnipeds, they can be quite massive, due to their function of storing red blood cells.

text: The only vertebrates lacking a spleen are the lampreys and hagfishes (the Cyclostomata). Even in these animals, there is a diffuse layer of haematopoeitic tissue within the gut wall, which has a similar structure to red pulp and is presumed to be homologous with the spleen of higher vertebrates.[29]

text: In mice the spleen stores half the body's monocytes so that upon injury, they can migrate to the injured tissue and transform into dendritic cells and macrophages and so assist wound healing.[4]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Transverse section of the spleen, showing the trabecular tissue and the splenic vein and its tributaries

Back of lumbar region, showing surface markings for kidneys, ureters, and spleen

Side of thorax, showing surface markings for bones, lungs (purple), pleura (blue), and spleen (green)

Spleen


document_title: Wonders of the World

question_text: who chose the 7 wonders of the ancient world

text: Wonders of the World

text: Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

text: The historian Herodotus (484 – ca. 425 BC) and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305–240 BC), at the Museum of Alexandria, made early lists of seven wonders. Their writings have not survived, except as references.

text: The classic seven wonders were:

text:
Colossus of Rhodes
Great Pyramid of Giza
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Lighthouse of Alexandria
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

text: The only ancient world wonder that still exists is the Great Pyramid of Giza.

text: Lists from other eras

text: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, some writers wrote their own lists with names such as Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Medieval Mind, and Architectural Wonders of the Middle Ages. However, it is unlikely that these lists originated in the Middle Ages, because the word "medieval" was not invented until the Enlightenment-era, and the concept of a Middle Age did not become popular until the 16th century. Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as "later list[s]",[2] suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages.

text: Many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages but were well known.[3][4]

text: Typically representative are:[2][3][5][6]

text:
Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa
Colosseum
Great Wall of China
Hagia Sophia
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Porcelain Tower of Nanjing
Stonehenge

text: Other sites sometimes included on such lists:

text:
Cairo Citadel[7]
Cluny Abbey[8]
Ely Cathedral[9]
Taj Mahal[10]

text: Recent lists

text: Following in the tradition of the classical list, modern people and organisations have made their own lists of wonderful things ancient and modern. Some of the most notable lists are presented below.

text: American Society of Civil Engineers

text: In 1994, the American Society of Civil Engineers compiled a list of Seven Wonders of the Modern World, paying tribute to the "greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century".[11][12]

text:
Wonder
Date started
Date finished
Location
Significance

Channel Tunnel
December 1, 1987
May 6, 1994
Strait of Dover, between the United Kingdom and France
The longest undersea portion of any tunnel in the world.

CN Tower
February 6, 1973
June 26, 1976
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Tallest freestanding structure in the world 1976–2007.

Empire State Building
January 22, 1930
May 1, 1931
New York City, New York, U.S.
Tallest structure in the world 1931–1967. First building with 100+ stories.

Golden Gate Bridge
January 5, 1933
May 27, 1937
Golden Gate Strait, north of San Francisco, California, U.S.
The longest suspension bridge main span in the world from 1937 to 1964.

Itaipu Dam
January 1970
May 5, 1984
Paraná River, between Brazil and Paraguay
The largest operating hydroelectric facility in the world in terms of annual energy generation.

Delta and Zuiderzee Works
1920
May 10, 1997
Zeeland and South Holland, Netherlands
The largest hydraulic engineering project undertaken by the Netherlands during the twentieth century.

Panama Canal
January 1, 1880
January 7, 1914
Isthmus of Panama
One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken.

text: USA Today's New Seven Wonders

text: In November 2006 the American national newspaper USA Today and the American television show Good Morning America revealed a new list of New Seven Wonders as chosen by six judges.[13] An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24, 2006 from viewer feedback.[14]

text:
Number
Wonder
Location

1
Potala Palace
Lhasa, Tibet, China

2
Old City of Jerusalem
Jerusalem[n 1]

3
Polar ice caps
Polar regions

4
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
Hawaii, United States

5
Internet
Earth

6
Mayan ruins
Yucatán Peninsula, México

7
Great Migration of Serengeti and Masai Mara
Tanzania and Kenya

8
Grand Canyon (viewer-chosen eighth wonder)
Arizona, United States

text: Seven Natural Wonders of the World

text: Similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. One of the many existing lists was compiled by CNN:[15]

text:
Aurora
Grand Canyon
Great Barrier Reef
Harbor of Rio de Janeiro
Mount Everest
Parícutin volcano
Victoria Falls

text: New7Wonders of the World

text: In 2001 an initiative was started by the Swiss corporation New7Wonders Foundation to choose the New7Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments.[16] Twenty-one finalists were announced January 1, 2006.[17] Egyptians were not happy that the only surviving original wonder, the Great Pyramid of Giza, would have to compete with the likes of the Statue of Liberty, the Sydney Opera House, and other landmarks, calling the project absurd. In response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate.[18] The results were announced on July 7, 2007, in Lisbon, Portugal:[19]

text:
Wonder
Date of construction
Location

Great Wall of China
Since 7th century BC[20]
 China

Petra
c. 100 BC
 Jordan

Christ the Redeemer
Opened October 12, 1931
 Brazil

Machu Picchu
c. AD 1450
 Peru

Chichen Itza
c. AD 600
 Mexico

Colosseum
Completed AD 80
 Italy

Taj Mahal
Completed c. AD 1648
 India

Great Pyramid of Giza (honorary candidate)
Completed c. 2560 BC
 Egypt

text: New7Wonders of Nature

text: New7Wonders of Nature (2007–11), a contemporary effort to create a list of seven natural wonders chosen through a global poll, was organized by the same group as the New7Wonders of the World campaign.

text:
Iguazu Falls
Hạ Long Bay
Jeju Island
Puerto Princesa Underground River
Table Mountain
Komodo
Amazon rainforest

text: New7Wonders Cities

text: New7Wonders Cities is the third global vote organized by New7Wonders.

text:
Durban, South Africa
Vigan, The Philippines
Havana, Cuba
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Beirut, Lebanon
Doha, Qatar
La Paz, Bolivia

text: Seven Wonders of the Underwater World

text: The Seven Underwater Wonders of the World was a list drawn up by CEDAM International, an American-based non-profit group for divers, dedicated to ocean preservation and research.

text: In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of marine scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark, to pick underwater areas which they considered to be worthy of protection. The results were announced at The National Aquarium in Washington DC by actor Lloyd Bridges, star of TV's Sea Hunt:[21]

text:
Palau
Belize Barrier Reef
Great Barrier Reef
Deep-Sea Vents
Galápagos Islands
Lake Baikal
Northern Red Sea

text: Seven Wonders of the Industrial World

text: British author Deborah Cadbury wrote Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a book telling the stories of seven great feats of engineering of the 19th and early 20th centuries.[22] In 2003, the BBC aired a seven-part docudrama exploring the same feats, with Cadbury as a producer. Each episode dramatised the construction of one of the following industrial wonders:[23]

text:
SS Great Eastern
Bell Rock Lighthouse
Brooklyn Bridge
London sewerage system
First Transcontinental Railroad
Panama Canal
Hoover Dam

tag: ol

text: Seven Wonders of the World film

text: Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in which Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Greek Wonders of the World list.

text: Seven Wonders of the Solar System

text: In a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the "Seven Wonders of the Solar System". This article was later made into a video.[24]

text:
Enceladus, a moon of Saturn
The Great red spot of Jupiter
The Asteroid belt
The surface of the Sun
The Oceans of Earth
The Rings of Saturn
Olympus Mons on Mars

text: Other lists of wonders of the world

text: Numerous other authors and organisations have composed lists of the wonders of the world. For example:

text: British biographer, science writer, and novelist Ronald W. Clark published a book of man-made and natural wonders titled Wonders of the World, which lists 52 wonders, one for each week of the year.[25]

text: Travel writer Howard Hillman published two books on the subject, one with 10 man-made wonders,[26] and one with 10 natural wonders.[27]