document_title: Somewhere in Time (film)

question_text: where did they film the movie somewhere in time

text: Somewhere in Time (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: On May 19, 1972, college theatre student Richard Collier (Christopher Reeve) is celebrating the debut of a play he has written. During the celebration, he is approached by an elderly woman (Susan French) who places a pocket watch in his hand and pleads, "Come back to me." Richard does not recognize the woman, who returns to her own residence and dies soon afterward.

text: Eight years later, Richard is a successful playwright living in Chicago, but has recently broken up with his girlfriend and is struggling with writer's block. Feeling stressed from writing his play, he decides to take a break and travels out of state to the Grand Hotel. While looking at a display in the hotel's museum, Richard becomes enthralled by a photograph of a beautiful woman. With the assistance of Arthur Biehl (Bill Erwin), an elderly bellhop who has been at the hotel since 1910, Richard discovers that the woman is Elise McKenna (Jane Seymour), a famous early 20th century stage actress. Upon digging deeper, Richard learns that she was the aged woman who gave him the pocket watch eight years earlier. Traveling to the home of Laura Roberts (Teresa Wright), McKenna's former housekeeper and companion, he discovers a music box Elise had made, in the shape of the Grand Hotel, that plays his favorite melody. He also discovers among her effects a book on time travel written by his old college professor, Dr. Gerard Finney (George Voskovec). Learning that McKenna read the book several times, Richard becomes obsessed with the idea of traveling back to 1912 and meeting Elise McKenna, with whom he has fallen in love.

text: Visiting Dr. Finney, Richard learns that the professor believes that he very briefly time traveled once to 1571 through the power of self-suggestion. To accomplish this feat of self-hypnosis, Finney tells Richard, one must remove from sight all things that are related to the current time and trick the mind into believing that one is in the past. He also warns that such a process would leave one very weak, perhaps dangerously so. Richard buys an early 20th-century suit and some vintage money; he cuts his hair in a time-appropriate style. Dressing in the suit, he removes all modern objects from his hotel room and attempts to will himself into the year 1912 using tape-recorded suggestions, only to fail for lack of real conviction. Later, while searching the hotel's attic, Richard finds an old guest book from 1912 with his signature in it and realizes that he will eventually succeed.

text: Richard again hypnotizes himself, this time with the tape recorder hidden under the bed. He allows his absolute faith in his eventual success to become the trigger for the journey back through time. He drifts off to sleep and awakens on June 27, 1912 to the sound of whinnying horses. Richard looks all over the hotel for Elise, even meeting Arthur Biehl as a little boy, but he has no luck finding her. Finally, he stumbles upon Elise walking by a tree near the lake. She seems to swoon slightly at the sight of him, but suddenly asks him "Is it you?" McKenna's manager, William Fawcett Robinson (Christopher Plummer), abruptly intervenes and sends Richard away. Richard stubbornly continues to pursue Elise until she agrees to accompany him on a stroll through the surrounding idyllic landscape. It is during their boat ride that Richard hums the theme from the 18th variation of opus 43, and Elise says that it's lovely but she never heard it before. (It was written 22 years into the future. In 1980 Richard had learned that it was her favorite piece of music and he hears her recording of it.) Richard ultimately asks why Elise wondered aloud "Is it you". She replies that Robinson somehow knows that she will meet a man one day who will change her life forever. Richard shows Elise the same pocket watch, which she will eventually give him in 1972, but he does not reveal its origin, merely offering that it was a gift.

text: Richard accepts Elise's invitation to her play, where she recites an impromptu monologue dedicated to him. During intermission, he finds her posing formally for a photograph. Upon spotting Richard, Elise breaks into a radiant smile, the camera capturing the image which Richard first saw 68 years later.  Afterward, Richard receives an urgent message from Robinson requesting a meeting. Robinson tries to get Richard to leave Elise, saying it is for her own good.  When Richard professes his love for her, Robinson has him tied up and locked in the stables so he will miss the departure of the theatre company to Denver, and thus Elise, that same night. Later, Robinson tells Elise that Richard has left her and is not the one, but she does not believe him. She says that she loves Richard.

text: Richard wakes the next morning and manages to free himself. He runs to Elise's room, 117, and finds that her party has left. Despondent, he goes onto the hotel's porch. Suddenly, he hears Elise calling his name and sees her running towards him. They return to his room, 416, and make love. The next morning they agree to marry. Elise tells him that the first thing she will do for him is buy him a new suit, as the one he has been wearing is about 15 years out of date. Richard begins to show her how practical the suit is because of its many pockets. He is alarmed when he reaches into one and finds a Lincoln penny with a mint date of 1979. Seeing an item from his real present wrenches him out of his hypnotically induced time trip, and Richard feels himself rushing forward in time. Elise screams his name in horror as he is pulled inexorably out of 1912.

text: Richard awakens back in 1980, in the same room, 416, where he and Elise passionately made love in 1912. He is drenched in sweat and very weak, apparently exhausted from his trip through time and back. He scrambles desperately back to his own room, 313, which he had previously cleared of 1980 furniture and objects, and tries to hypnotize himself again, without success. Heartbroken, after wandering the hotel property and sitting interminably at the places where he spent time with Elise, he eventually retires to his room. He remains there unmoving for days until discovered by Arthur and the hotel manager, who send for a doctor and paramedics. Richard takes a final breath, suddenly smiles, and sees himself drifting above his body. Having presumably died of a broken heart, he is drawn to a light shining through the nearby window, where he is reunited with Elise, who had died eight years prior on the very night she gave him the pocket watch.

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Role

Christopher Reeve
Richard Collier

Jane Seymour
Elise McKenna

Christopher Plummer
William Fawcett Robinson

Teresa Wright
Laura Roberts

Bill Erwin
Arthur Biehl

Susan French
Older Elise

George Voskovec
Dr. Gerard Finney

Eddra Gale
Genevieve

Tim Kazurinsky
Photographer, in 1912

Bruce Jarchow
Bones, in 1912

Patricia McGuire
Maid, in 1912

text: Richard Matheson, who wrote the original novel and screenplay, appears in a cameo role as a 1912 hotel guest. He is astonished by Richard's having cut himself shaving with a straight razor.

text: A then-unknown William H. Macy has a bit role as a critic in the 1972 scene before Elise hands the watch to Richard. George Wendt is credited as a student during this same scene, but his appearance was omitted from the final cut of the film. Richard Matheson's daughter, Ali, is similarly credited as a student.

text: Many Mackinac Island residents were cast as extras.

text: Production notes[edit]

text:
The movie was filmed on location at the Grand Hotel and the Mission Point Fine Arts building of the former Mackinac College (now Mission Point Resort), both located on Mackinac Island, Michigan. Additional scenes were filmed in Chicago, Illinois.
Bringing cars onto the island for use in the film required special permission from the City of Mackinac Island. Motorized vehicles, other than emergency vehicles and snowmobiles in the winter, are prohibited on the Island. With very few exceptions, transportation is limited to horse and buggy or bicycle.
Director Jeannot Szwarc had a slight problem directing the scenes between Plummer and Reeve in that whenever he said "Chris," both men would respond with "Yes?" Szwarc resolved this by addressing Plummer as "Mr. Plummer" and addressing Reeve as "Bigfoot".
The final scene between Christopher Reeve and Jane Seymour before Reeve's character is thrown back into his own time was difficult for Reeve to shoot as he had just learned that his girlfriend and companion, Gae Exton, was pregnant with his first son Matthew. For much of that day his attention was understandably elsewhere. Reeve says on the bonus material of the 2000 DVD, "The day we shot the picnic scene on the floor I found out, and the world found out, that I was about to be a father for the first time."
In the film, Reeve's character consults with a Dr. Finney (played by George Voskovec), a time travel theorist. This is a deliberate nod to author Jack Finney, whose novel Time and Again, published five years before the 1975 Richard Matheson novel Bid Time Return, on which this film is based, features an almost identical theory on the mechanics of time travel.
Elise McKenna was a fictional actress. Collier is filmed in the library searching and looking through an old theater album, which has photos of historic stage actresses. The three little girls are Blanche Ring and her sisters. A child holding a doll is actress Rose Stahl. A faded picture of a woman in nun's habit is Ethel Barrymore in a 1928 play, The Kingdom of God. (Barrymore's head is left out of the frame as she would be readily recognizable by alert fans of old films.)[2]
Elise McKenna's character was loosely based upon the life of theatre actress Maude Adams, who was born Maude Ewing Adams Kiskadden in Salt Lake City, Utah on November 11, 1872. She died in Tannersville, New York on July 17, 1953. Her manager, Charles Frohman (the basis for the William Fawcett Robinson character) was very protective of her. He died on the RMS Lusitania on May 7, 1915 when it was torpedoed by a German submarine during World War I.[3]

text: Differences from the novel[edit]

text: In the novel, Richard travels from 1971 to 1896 rather than from 1980 to 1912. The setting is the Hotel del Coronado in California, rather than the Grand Hotel in Michigan. The book has Richard knowing that he is dying of a brain tumor, and it ultimately raises the possibility that the whole time-traveling experience was merely a series of hallucinations brought on by the tumor. The scene where the old woman hands Richard a pocket watch (which he had given to her in the past) does not appear in the book. Thus, the ontological paradox generated by this event (that the watch was never made, but simply exists eternally between 1912 and 1980) is absent. In the book, there are two psychics, not William Fawcett Robinson, who anticipate Richard's appearance, and Richard's death is brought about by his tumor, not by heartbreak.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Although the film was well received during its previews, it was derided by critics upon release and underperformed at the box office. In 2009, in an interview with WGN America, Jane Seymour stated that "[i]t was just a little movie... The Blues Brothers came out the same week and it was a $4 million budget, so Universal didn't really support it. There was also an actors' strike, so Chris [Reeve] and I weren't allowed to publicize it. And they barely put it out because I don't think anyone really believed in it."[4]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 59% of 17 film critics have given the film a positive review; the rating average is 5.7 out of 10.[5] Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 29 based on 7 reviews, signifying "Generally unfavorable reviews".[6] After cable TV broadcast and home video rentals, the film went on to become a cult classic.[7]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Somewhere in Time has received several awards, including Saturn Awards for Best Costume, Best Music, and Best Fantasy Film. The film was also nominated for the Academy Award for Costume Design (Jean-Pierre Dorleac).[8]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated[9]
2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated[10]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The original musical score for the film was composed and conducted by John Barry, who was suggested by Jane Seymour, a personal friend of his. Until then the producers were thinking of having a score based on The 18th variation of Sergei Rachmaninoff's "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini" which is used in the film several times. In lieu of a fee, Barry took a percentage of the royalties on the soundtrack, which went on to become his best-selling film score.[citation needed]

text: The film was not a success at the box office and a very limited run above promotional copies of the album was pressed with very limited circulation. Universal Pictures used "Somewhere in Time" as a test bed for soundtrack sales and did not expect it to do well at all. It was cable television the following spring where the film garnered a huge fan audience and interest in the music was tremendous. So many requests were made at record stores across the country that Universal pressed 500,000 more copies and the soundtrack now into several pressings still sells well on cd. The music became one of the most requested at weddings for a decade after the film's release.

text: Barry wrote the score at a very creative and prolific time in his career scoring the music for films such as Raise the Titanic, High Road to China and the highly acclaimed Body Heat all within an 18-month period yet the score for Somewhere in Time is considered to be among the best of his career.

text: The music from the film is often credited for much of its success by invoking a deeply emotional pull for the viewers. Barry's score pushes the emotion of the story to a level rarely seen. In the years since the film's release, the music has become as famous as the film, if not more so, with many hearing it and then seeking the film on video.

text: The music has been released on two albums, neither of which are from the original sessions from the film itself. Like most soundtracks of the time, the album was a series of re-recordings with highlights of the score recorded to fit onto two sides of an LP. The original release from MCA has nine tracks.

text:
Somewhere in Time (2:58)
The Old Woman (2:49)
The Journey Back in Time (4:22)
A Day Together (6:02)
Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (composed by Rachmaninov) (2:57)
Is He the One? (3:10)
The Man of My Dreams (1:35)
Return to the Present (4:04)
Theme from "Somewhere in Time" (3:20)

tag: ol

text: A later release of the score was released on the Varese Sarabande label. It was recorded in 1998 by the Royal Scottish Orchestra conducted by John Debney.

text:
Somewhere in Time (3:37)
Old Woman (1:00)
Grand Hotel (1:22)
1912 (1:42)
Thanks (1:20)
June 27 (1:32)
Room 417 (1:04)
The Attic (4:07)
Near the Lake (2:14)
Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini (composed by Rachmaninov) (3:06)
Is He the One? (0:56)
A Day Together (2:31)
Rowing (1:29)
The Man of My Dreams (1:22)
Razor (1:12)
Total Dismay (4:07)
Coin (0:28)
Whimper (3:20)
Somewhere in Time (end credits) (4:55)

text: There has yet to be a release of the original scoring session music though bootlegs circulate on the internet.[11][12]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Despite reviews calling the film "horrible" and a "superficial tear-jerker", the International Network of Somewhere In Time Enthusiasts (I.N.S.I.T.E.), an official fan club, was formed in 1990 and continues to meet regularly.[13][14] During the month of October, the Grand Hotel hosts a Somewhere in Time Weekend that the club uses for an annual convention for such events as a big-screen showing of the film, panel discussions with some of the film's celebrities and crew, and a costume ball of members dressed in Edwardian attire.[15] Adding to the film's legacy is a Ken Davenport produced Broadway theatrical adaption of the story in the works with assistance from Matheson on the story book.[16][17]


document_title: Prayer warrior

question_text: where did the term prayer warriors come from

root

text: Prayer warrior

text: Prayer warrior is a term used by many evangelical and other Christians to refer to anyone who is committed to praying for others.

tag: p

text: Within the context of Dominion theology, prayer warriors see themselves as engaged in spiritual warfare against satanic forces.[1]

text: Prayer warriors may pray for individuals, or for entire states or regions. One recent development has been prayer undertaken by groups of people flying over the areas for which they wish to undertake intercession.[2]

text: During the Iraq War, one aspect of the debate over U.S. involvement was a "prayer battle," with one side praying in support of the policies of the Bush Administration and the other taking an anti-war stance. Alabama Governor Bob Riley urged his constituents to act as prayer warriors, and Georgia Governor Sonny Perdue designated a three-day prayer weekend that he cast as a spiritual battle.[3] Although most "prayer warriors for peace" were identified as Christians, Muslims in the U.S. and Indonesia were also said to have taken part.[4]

text: Sarah Palin, the Vice-Presidential candidate for the Republican Party in the 2008 U.S. presidential elections, regularly acknowledges the support of prayer warriors in her speeches and interviews, and has spoken of them as offering a "prayer shield."[5] As a candidate, she thanked prayer warriors for their support[6] and spoke of divine intervention in the election as a result.[7]


document_title: List of bowlers who have taken 300 or more wickets in Test cricket

question_text: who has the most wickets in cricket history

text: Key[edit]

text:
Mat – Number of matches played
Inn – Number of innings bowled
Balls – Balls bowled in career
Runs – Runs conceded in career
Wkt – Wickets taken in career
Ave – Average runs per wicket

Econ – Runs conceded per over
SR – Number of balls bowled per wicket taken
BBI – Best bowling in innings
BBM – Best bowling in match
5wI – Five or more wickets in an innings
10wI – Ten or more wickets in a match
Period – Cricketing career of the player

tag: table

text: Bowlers with 300 or more Test wickets[edit]

text: The list is initially arranged by the most number of wickets taken by a bowler. To sort this table by any statistic, click on the applicable header box beside (not on) the column title.

tag: ul

text:
Key

^
Inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame

†
Denotes player who is still active

text:
Bowlers who have taken 300 or more wickets in Test cricket[6]

No.
Bowler
Team
Mat.
Inn.
Balls
Runs
Wkt
Ave.
Econ.
SR.
BBI
BBM
5wl
10wl
Period
Ref(s)

1
Muralitharan, MuttiahMuttiah Muralitharan^
 Sri Lanka
133 !133
230 !230
44039 !44,039
18180 !18,180
800 !800
2272 !22.72
0247 !2.47
0550 !55.0
09149 !9/51
16080 !16/220
067 !67
022 !22
1992–2010
[1][12]

2
Warne, ShaneShane Warne^
 Australia
145 !145
273 !273
40705 !40,705
17995 !17,995
708 !708
2541 !25.41
0265 !2.65
0574 !57.4
08129 !8/71
12172 !12/128
037 !37
010 !10
1992–2007
[13][14]

3
Kumble, AnilAnil Kumble^
 India
132 !132
236 !236
40850 !40,850
18355 !18,355
619 !619
2965 !29.65
0269 !2.69
0659 !65.9
10126 !10/74
14151 !14/149
035 !35
008 !8
1990–2008
[15][16]

4
McGrath, GlennGlenn McGrath^
 Australia
124 !124
243 !243
29248 !29,248
12186 !12,186
563 !563
2164 !21.64
0249 !2.49
0519 !51.9
08176 !8/24
10273 !10/27
029 !29
003 !3
1993–2007
[17][18]

5
Anderson, JamesJames Anderson
 England
136 !136
253 !253
30074 !30,074
14533 !14,533
535 !535
2736 !27.36
0289 !2.89
0566 !56.6
07162 !7/42
11229 !11/71
025 !25
003 !3
2003–present
[19]

6
Walsh, CourtneyCourtney Walsh^
 West Indies
132 !132
242 !242
30019 !30,019
12688 !12,688
519 !519
2444 !24.44
0253 !2.53
0577 !57.8
07163 !7/37
13245 !13/55
022 !22
003 !3
1984–2001
[20][21]

7
Dev, KapilKapil Dev^
 India
131 !131
227 !227
27740 !27,740
12867 !12,867
434 !434
2964 !29.64
0278 !2.78
0639 !63.9
09117 !9/83
11154 !11/146
023 !23
002 !2
1978–1994
[22]

8
Hadlee, RichardRichard Hadlee^
 New Zealand
086 !86
150 !150
21918 !21,918
09611 !9,611
431 !431
2229 !22.29
0263 !2.63
0508 !50.8
09146 !9/52
15177 !15/123
036 !36
009 !9
1973–1990
[23]

9
Pollock, ShaunShaun Pollock
 South Africa
108 !108
202 !202
24353 !24,353
09733 !9,733
421 !421
2311 !23.11
0239 !2.39
0578 !57.8
07113 !7/87
10153 !10/147
016 !16
001 !1
1995–2008
[24]

10
Steyn, DaleDale Steyn
 South Africa
085 !85
156 !156
17286 !17,286
09303 !9,303
419 !419
2230 !22.30
0322 !3.22
0414 !41.4
07149 !7/51
11240 !11/60
026 !26
005 !5
2004–present
[25][26]

11
Singh, HarbhajanHarbhajan Singh
 India
103 !103
190 !190
28580 !28,580
13537 !13,537
417 !417
3246 !32.46
0284 !2.84
0685 !68.5
08116 !8/84
15083 !15/217
025 !25
005 !5
1998–present
[27]

12
Herath, RanganaRangana Herath
 Sri Lanka
089 !89
162 !162
24920 !24,920
11694 !11,694
415 !415
2817 !28.17
0281 !2.81
0600 !60.0
09127 !9/127
14184 !14/184
033 !33
009 !9
1999–present
[28][29]

13
Akram, WasimWasim Akram^
 Pakistan
104 !104
181 !181
22627 !22,627
09779 !9,779
414 !414
2362 !23.62
0259 !2.59
0546 !54.6
07071 !7/119
11190 !11/110
025 !25
005 !5
1985–2002
[30][31]

14
Broad, StuartStuart Broad
 England
116 !116
211 !211
24016 !24,016
11910 !11,910
410 !410
2904 !29.04
0297 !2.97
0585 !58.5
08185 !8/15
11179 !11/121
016 !16
002 !2
2007–present
[32]

15
Ambrose, CurtlyCurtly Ambrose^
 West Indies
098 !98
179 !179
22103 !22,103
08501 !8,501
405 !405
2099 !20.99
0230 !2.30
0545 !54.5
08155 !8/45
11216 !11/84
022 !22
003 !3
1980–2000
[33]

16
Ntini, MakhayaMakhaya Ntini
 South Africa
101 !101
190 !190
20834 !20,834
11242 !11,242
390 !390
2882 !28.82
0323 !3.23
0534 !53.4
07163 !7/37
13168 !13/132
018 !18
004 !4
1998–2009
[34]

17
Botham, IanIan Botham^
 England
102 !102
168 !160
21815 !21,815
10878 !10,878
383 !383
2840 !28.40
0299 !2.99
0569 !56.9
08166 !8/34
13194 !13/106
027 !27
004 !4
1977–1992
[35]

18
Marshall, MalcolmMalcolm Marshall^
 West Indies
081 !81
151 !151
17584 !17,584
07876 !7,876
376 !376
2094 !20.94
0268 !2.68
0467 !46.7
07178 !7/22
11211 !11/89
022 !22
004 !4
1978–1991
[36]

19
Younis, WaqarWaqar Younis^
 Pakistan
087 !87
154 !154
16224 !16,224
08788 !8,788
373 !373
2356 !23.56
0325 !3.25
0434 !43.4
07124 !7/76
13165 !13/135
022 !22
005 !5
1989–2003
[37][38]

20
Khan, ImranImran Khan^
 Pakistan
088 !88
142 !142
19458 !19,458
08258 !8,258
362 !362
2281 !22.81
0254 !2.54
0537 !53.7
08142 !8/58
14184 !14/116
023 !23
006 !6
1971–1992
[39]

Vettori, DanielDaniel Vettori
 New Zealand
113 !113
187 !187
28814 !28,814
12441 !12,441
362 !362
3436 !34.36
0259 !2.59
0795 !79.5
07113 !7/87
12151 !12/149
020 !20
003 !3
1997–2015
[2][40][41]

22
Lillee, DennisDennis Lillee^
 Australia
070 !70
132 !132
18467 !18,467
08493 !8,493
355 !355
2392 !23.92
0275 !2.75
0520 !52.0
07117 !7/83
11177 !11/123
023 !23
007 !7
1971–1984
[42]

Vaas, ChamindaChaminda Vaas
 Sri Lanka
111 !111
194 !194
23438 !23,438
10501 !10,501
355 !355
2958 !29.58
0268 !2.68
0660 !66.0
07129 !7/71
14109 !14/191
012 !12
002 !2
1994–2009
[43]

24
Donald, AllanAllan Donald^
 South Africa
072 !72
129 !129
15519 !15,519
07344 !7,344
330 !330
2225 !22.25
0283 !2.83
0470 !47.0
08129 !8/71
12161 !12/139
020 !20
003 !3
1992–2002
[44]

25
Willis, BobBob Willis
 England
090 !90
165 !165
17357 !17,357
08190 !8,190
325 !325
2520 !25.20
0282 !2.83
0535 !53.4
08157 !8/43
09208 !9/92
017 !16
000 !0
1971–1984
[45]

26
Johnson, MitchellMitchell Johnson
 Australia
073 !73
150 !150
16001 !16,001
08891 !8,891
313 !313
2840 !28.40
0333 !3.33
0511 !51.1
08139 !8/61
12173 !12/127
012 !12
003 !3
2007–2015
[46]

27
Khan, ZaheerZaheer Khan
 India
092 !92
165 !165
18785 !18,785
10247 !10,247
311 !311
3294 !32.94
0327 !3.27
060.4 !60.4
07113 !7/87
10151 !10/149
011 !11
001 !1
2000–2014
[47]

Ashwin, RavichandranRavichandran Ashwin
 India
057 !57
107 !107
16515 !16,515
07951 !7,951
311 !311
2556 !25.56
288 !2.88
0531 !53.1
07141 !7/59
13160 !13/140
026 !26
007 !7
2011–present
[48]

29
Lee, BrettBrett Lee
 Australia
076 !76
150 !150
16531 !16,531
09554 !9,554
310 !310
3081 !30.81
0346 !3.46
0533 !53.3
05170 !5/30
09129 !9/171
010 !10
000 !0
1999–2008
[49]

30
Gibbs, LanceLance Gibbs^
 West Indies
079 !79
148 !148
27115 !27,115
08989 !8,989
309 !309
2909 !29.09
0198 !1.98
0877 !87.7
08162 !8/38
11143 !11/157
018 !18
002 !2
1958–1976
[50]

Morkel, MornéMorné Morkel
 South Africa
086 !86
160 !160
16498 !16,498
08550 !8,550
309 !309
2766 !27.66
310 !3.10
0533 !53.3
0623 !6/23
9110 !9/110
008 !8
000 !0
2006–present
[51]

32
Trueman, FredFred Trueman^
 England
067 !67
127 !127
15178 !15,178
06625 !6,625
307 !307
2157 !21.57
0261 !2.61
0494 !49.4
08169 !8/31
12181 !12/119
017 !17
003 !3
1952–1965
[5]

33
Lyon, NathanNathan Lyon
 Australia
078 !78
149 !149
19194 !19,194
09859 !9,859
306 !306
3221 !32.21
308 !3.08
0627 !62.7
0850 !8/50
13154 !13/154
012 !12
002 !2
2011–present
[52]

text: Last updated: 5 April 2018


document_title: Microchip implant (animal)

question_text: where do they put the microchip in cats

question_tokens: where do they put the microchip in cats

text: Microchip implant (animal)

text: Uses and benefits[edit]

text: Animal shelters, animal control officers and veterinarians routinely look for microchips to return lost pets quickly to their owners, avoiding expenses for housing, food, medical care, outplacing and euthanasia. Many shelters place chips in all outplaced animals.

text: Microchips are also used by kennels, breeders, brokers, trainers, registries, rescue groups, humane societies, clinics, farms, stables, animal clubs and associations, researchers, and pet stores.

text: Some pet doors can be programmed to be activated by the microchips of specific animals, allowing only certain animals to use the door.[1]

text: Some countries require microchips in imported animals to match vaccination records. Microchip tagging may also be required for CITES-regulated international trade in certain endangered animals: for example, Asian Arowana are tagged to limit import to captive-bred fish. Also, birds not banded who cross international borders as pets or for trade must be microchipped so that each bird is uniquely identifiable.

text: Usage[edit]

text: Microchips can be implanted by a veterinarian or at a shelter. After checking that the animal does not already have a chip, the vet or technician injects the chip with a syringe and records the chip's unique ID. No anesthetic is required it is a simple procedure and causes little discomfort: the pain is minimal and short-lived[2]. A test scan ensures correct operation.

text: An enrollment form is completed with chip ID, owner contact information, pet name and description, shelter and/or veterinarian contact information, and an alternate emergency contact designated by the pet owner. Some shelters and vets designate themselves as the primary contact to remain informed about possible problems with the animals they place. The form is sent to a registry, who may be the chip manufacturer, distributor or an independent entity such as a pet recovery service. Some countries have a single official national database. For a fee, the registry typically provides 24-hour, toll-free telephone service for the life of the pet. Some veterinarians leave registration to the owner, usually done online, but a chip without current contact information is essentially useless.

text: The owner receives a registration certificate with the chip ID and recovery service contact information. The information can also be imprinted on a collar tag worn by the animal. Like an automobile title, the certificate serves as proof of ownership and is transferred with the animal when it is sold or traded; an animal without a certificate could be stolen.

text: Authorities and shelters examine strays for chips, providing the recovery service with the ID number, description and location so they may notify the owner or contact. If the pet is wearing the collar tag, the finder does not need a chip reader to contact the registry. An owner can also report a missing pet to the recovery service, as vets look for chips in new animals and check with the recovery service to see if it has been reported lost or stolen.

text: Many veterinarians scan an animal's chip on every visit to verify correct operation. Some use the chip ID as their database index and print it on receipts, test results, vaccination certifications and other records.

text: Some veterinary tests and procedures require positive identification of the animal, and a microchip may be acceptable for this purpose as an alternative to a tattoo.

text: Components of a microchip[edit]

text: A microchip implant is a passive RFID device. Lacking an internal power source, it remains inert until it is powered by the scanner.

text: Most implants contain three elements: a 'chip' or integrated circuit; a coil inductor, possibly with a ferrite core; and a capacitor. The chip contains unique identification data and electronic circuits to encode that information. The coil acts as the secondary winding of a transformer, receiving power inductively coupled to it from the scanner. The coil and capacitor together form a resonant LC circuit tuned to the frequency of the scanner's oscillating magnetic field to produce power for the chip. The chip then transmits its data back through the coil to the scanner.

text: These components are encased in biocompatible soda lime or borosilicate glass and hermetically sealed. Barring rare complications, dogs and cats are unaffected by them.

text: Implant location[edit]

text: In dogs and cats, chips are usually inserted below the skin at the back of the neck between the shoulder blades on the dorsal midline. According to one reference, continental European pets get the implant in the left side of the neck.[3] The chip can often be felt under the skin. Thin layers of connective tissue form around the implant and hold it in place.

text: Horses are microchipped on the left side of the neck, halfway between the poll and withers and approximately one inch below the midline of the mane, into the nuchal ligament.

text: Birds are implanted in their breast muscles. Proper restraint is necessary so the operation requires either two people (an avian veterinarian and a veterinary technician) or general anesthesia.

text: Implanted microchips can distort magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs), including those of the spinal cord.[4]

text: Animal species[edit]

text: Many animal species have been microchipped, including cockatiels and other parrots, horses, llamas, alpacas, goats, sheep, miniature pigs, rabbits, deer, ferrets, penguins, sharks, snakes, lizards, alligators, turtles, toads, frogs, rare fish, chimpanzees, mice, and prairie dogs—even whales and elephants. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service uses microchipping in its research of wild bison, black-footed ferrets, grizzly bears, elk, white-tailed deer, giant land tortoises and armadillos.

text: Worldwide use[edit]

text: Microchips are not yet universal, but they are legally required in some jurisdictions such as the state of New South Wales, Australia[5] and the United Kingdom (for dogs, since 6 April 2016[6]).

text: Some countries, such as Japan, require ISO-compliant microchips or a compatible reader on imported dogs and cats.[7]

text: In New Zealand, all dogs first registered after 1 July 2006 must be microchipped. Farmers protested that farm dogs should be exempt, drawing a parallel to the Dog Tax War of 1898.[8] Farm dogs were exempted from microchipping in an amendment to the legislation passed in June 2006.[9] A National Animal Identification and Tracing scheme in New Zealand is currently being developed for tracking livestock.

text: In April 2012 Northern Ireland became the first part of the United Kingdom to require microchipping of individually licensed dogs.[10] Dog microchipping became mandatory in England on 6 April 2016.[11]

text: In Israel, microchips in dogs are mandatory.[citation needed]

text: Australia has a National Livestock Identification System.

text: The United States uses the National Animal Identification System for farm and ranch animals other than dogs and cats. In most species except horses, an external eartag is typically used in lieu of an implant microchip. Eartags with microchips or simply stamped with a visible number can be used. Both use ISO 15 digit microchip numbers with the U.S. country code of 840.

text: Cross-compatibility and standards issues[edit]

text: In most countries, pet ID chips adhere to an international standard to promote compatibility between chips and scanners. In the United States, however, three proprietary types of chips compete along with the international standard. Scanners distributed to United States shelters and veterinarians well into 2006 could each read at most three of the four types. Scanners with quad-read capability are now available and are increasingly considered required equipment. Older scanner models will be in use for some time, so United States pet owners must still choose between a chip with good coverage by existing scanners and one compatible with the international standard. The four types include:

text:
The ISO Conformant Full Duplex type has the greatest international acceptance. It is common in many countries including Europe (since the late 1990s) and Canada. It is one of two chip protocol types (along with the "Half Duplex" type sometimes used in farm and ranch animals) that conform to International Organization for Standardization standards ISO 11784 & 11785. To support international/multivendor application, the 3-digit country code can contain an assigned ISO country code or a manufacturer code from 900 to 998 plus its identifying serial number.[Note 1] In the United States, distribution of this type has been controversial. When 24PetWatch.com began distributing them in 2003 (and more famously Banfield Pet Hospitals in 2004) many shelter scanners couldn't read them. (Some still can't; asking local shelters about this is still a good idea.) At least one Banfield-chipped pet was inadvertently euthanized.[12]
The Trovan Unique type is another pet chip protocol type in use since 1990 in pets in the United States.[13] Patent problems forced the withdrawal of Trovan's implanter device from United States distribution and they became uncommon in pets in the United States, although Trovan's original registry database "infopet.biz" remained in operation. In early 2007, the American Kennel Club's chip registration service, AKC Companion Animal Recovery Corp, which had been the authorized registry for HomeAgain brand chips made by Destron/Digital Angel, began distributing Trovan chips with a different implanter. These chips are read by the Trovan, HomeAgain (Destron Fearing), and Bayer (Black Label) readers. Despite multiple offers from Trovan to AVID [14] to license the technology to read the Trovan chips, AVID continues to distribute readers that do not read Trovan or the ISO compliant chips.
A third type sometimes known as FECAVA or Destron[Note 2] is available under various brand names. These include, in the United States, "Avid Eurochip", the common current 24PetWatch chips, and the original (and still popular) style of HomeAgain chips. (HomeAgain and 24Petwatch can now supply the true ISO chip instead on request.) Chips of this type have 10 digit [hexadecimal] chip numbers. This "FECAVA" type is readable on a wide variety of scanners in the United States and has been less controversial, although its level of adherence to the ISO standards is sometimes exaggerated in some descriptions.[15][16][17] The ISO standard has an annex (appendix) recommending that three older chip types be supported by scanners, including a 35-bit "FECAVA"/"Destron" type.[18] The common Eurochip/HomeAgain chips don't agree perfectly with the annex description, although the differences are sometimes considered minor.[Note 3] But the ISO standard also makes it clear[Note 4] that only its 64-bit "full-duplex" and "half-duplex" types are "conformant"; even chips (e.g., the Trovan Unique) that match one of the Annex descriptions are not. More visibly, FECAVA cannot support the ISO standard's required country/manufacturer codes. They may be accepted by authorities in many countries where ISO-standard chips are the norm, but not by those requiring literal ISO conformance.
Finally, there's the AVID brand Friendchip type, which is peculiar due to its encryption characteristics. Cryptographic features are not necessarily unwelcome; few pet rescuers or humane societies would object to a design that outputs an ID number "in the clear" for anyone to read, along with authentication features for detection of counterfeit chips, but the authentication in "Friendchips" has been found lacking and rather easy to spoof to the AVID scanner. Although no authentication encryption is involved, obfuscation requires proprietary information to convert transmitted chip data to its original label ID code. Well into 2006, scanners containing the proprietary decryption were provided to the United States market only by AVID and Destron/Digital Angel; Destron/Digital Angel put the decryption feature in some, but not all, of its scanners, possibly as early as 1996. (For years, its scanners distributed to shelters through HomeAgain usually had full decryption, while many sold to veterinarians would only state that an AVID chip had been found.) Well into 2006, both were resisting calls from consumers and welfare group officials to bring scanners to the United States shelter community combining AVID decryption capability with the ability to read ISO-compliant chips. Some complained[19] that AVID itself had long marketed combination pet scanners compatible with all common pet chips except possibly Trovan outside the United States. By keeping them out of the United States, it could be considered partly culpable in the missed-ISO chips problem others blamed on Banfield.[Note 5] In 2006, the European manufacturer Datamars, a supplier of ISO chips used by Banfield and others, gained access to the decryption secrets and began supplying scanners with them to United States customers. This "Black Label" scanner was the first four-standard full-multi pet scanner in the United States market. Later in 2006, Digital Angel announced[20] that it would supply a full-multi scanner in the United States.[Note 6] In 2008 AVID announced a "breakthrough" scanner,[21] although as of October 2010[update] AVID's is still so uncommon that it's unclear whether it supports the Trovan chip. Trovan also acquired the decryption technology in 2006 or earlier, and now provides it in scanners distributed in the United States by AKC-CAR. (Some are quad-read, but others lack full ISO support.)

text: Numerous references in print state that the incompatibilities between different chip types are a matter of "frequency". One may find claims that early ISO adopters in the United States endangered their customers' pets by giving them ISO chips that work at a "different frequency" from the local shelter's scanner, or that the United States government considered forcing an incompatible frequency change. These claims were little challenged by manufacturers and distributors of ISO chips, although later evidence suggests the claims were disinformation. In fact, all chips operate at the scanner's frequency. Although ISO chips are optimized for 134.2 kHz, in practice they are readable at 125 kHz and the "125 kHz" chips are readable at 134.2 kHz. Confirmation comes from government filings that indicate the supposed "multi-frequency" scanners now commonly available are really single-frequency scanners operating at 125, 134.2 or 128 kHz. In particular, the United States HomeAgain scanner didn't change excitation frequency when ISO-read capability was added; it's still a single frequency, 125 kHz scanner.[22]

text:
Expected results for chip type
(OK=Good read
NR=No read
DO=Detect Only with no number given)

Scanner to test
ISO Conformant Full Duplex chip
AVID Encrypted "FriendChip"
Original U.S. HomeAgain, AVID Eurochip,[Note 7] or FECAVA
"Trovan Unique" and current AKC CAR chips

Minimal ISO Conformant Scanner (also must read HALF Duplex chips common in livestock ear tags)
OK
NR
NR
NR

AVID Basic U.S. Scanner[23]
NR
OK
NR
NR

AVID Deluxe U.S. Scanner
NR
OK
OK
NR

AVID Universal Scanner sold outside U.S.[24]
OK
OK
OK
NR Assumed

AVID MiniTracker Pro Scanner announced August 2008[25]
OK
OK
OK
NR according to some (Few have seen one.)

Various vintages of U.S. HomeAgain "Universal" Shelter Scanners by Destron/Digital Angel Corp.
NR,DO, or OK
OK
OK
Possibly all OK

Typical Destron/Digital Angel Corp. U.S. Veterinarian's scanner pre-2007
[26]

NR
DO
OK
DO

Trovan LID-560-MULTI per mfr. specifications on Web[27]
OK
OK
OK
OK

U.S. Trovan Pocket Scanner per AKC-CAR Web Site[28]
DO
OK
OK
OK

U.S. Trovan ProScan700 per AKC-CAR Web Site[29]
OK
OK
OK
OK

Original 2006 Datamars Black Label Scanner[30]
OK
OK
OK
OK but Reliability Questioned

Datamars Black Label Scanner "classypets" model[31]
OK
NR or DO?
OK
OK but Reliability Questioned

Banfield-Distributed 2004-2005 Vintage Datamars Scanners
OK
Possibly all DO
OK
Possibly all OK but Reliability Questioned (Undocumented Feature)

Datamars Minimax and Micromax[32]
OK
NR
NR
NR

Typical Homemade Scanner[33]
OK
OK but extra step required (web-based decryption service)
OK
OK

Microchip ID Systems "Hero" Scanner[34]
OK
OK
OK
NR

Microchip ID Systems "Pocket Hero" Scanner[35]
OK
NR
NR
NR

text: (For users requiring Shelter-Grade certainty, this table is not a substitute for testing the scanner with a set of specimen chips. One study[36] cites problems with certain Trovan chips on the Datamars Black Label scanner. In general, the study found none of the tested scanners to read all four standards without some deficiency. The study predates the most recent scanner models, however.)

text: Reported adverse reactions[edit]

text: RFID chips are used in animal research, and at least three studies conducted since the 1990s have reported tumors at the site of implantation in laboratory mice and rats.[37] Noted veterinary associations[38] responded with continued support for the procedure as reasonably safe for cats and dogs, pointing to rates of serious complications on the order of one in a million in the U.K., which has a system for tracking such adverse reactions and has chipped over 3.7 million pet dogs. A recent study found no safety concerns for microchipped animals with RFID chips undergoing MRI at one Tesla magnetic field strength.[39] In 2011 a microchip-associated fibrosarcoma was reported found in the neck of a 9-year old, neutered-male cat. Histological examination was consistent with postinjection sarcoma, but all prior vaccinations occurred in the hindlegs.[40]


document_title: Punch-Out!! (NES)

question_text: how to throw uppercut in mike tyson punch out

text: Punch-Out!! (NES)

text: Development[edit]

text: Genyo Takeda produced the Punch-Out!! arcade games and directed the NES versions. Because the NES was not as powerful as the arcade hardware, Takeda and his crew realized that it would be impossible for the NES port to faithfully emulate the arcade graphics. Instead of making the playable boxer wire-framed or transparent in order to see an opponent, they decided to make the playable boxer more short-bodied, so that players could easily see opponents over the large head room of the playable boxer. Other things added to the NES version that the arcade versions lacked were a rough plot, a background music track played during fights, animated cutscenes and a password system for saving progress.

text: Around the time the Gold Version was released, Nintendo of America's founder and former president Minoru Arakawa attended a boxing match featuring future heavyweight champion Mike Tyson. While watching the boxer fight, Arakawa became so astonished with the athlete's "power and skill", he was inspired to use the athlete's name and likeness in the upcoming port of the Punch-Out!! series to help the game sell well.[2] Tyson was rumored to have been paid $50,000 for a three-year period for his likeness. This was something of a risk for Nintendo, as it occurred before Tyson won the World Boxing Council (WBC) heavyweight championship from Trevor Berbick on November 22, 1986.[3]

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: Punch-Out!! features a boxer known as Little Mac, fighting his way up through ranks of the World Video Boxing Association. After facing a series of colorful fictional opponents in three circuits, the goal is to win a final "Dream Fight" against a highly skilled boxer – the real-life Mike Tyson, then-World Heavyweight Champion, in the original release; or the fictional Mr. Dream in the later version.

text: Little Mac has a limited repertoire compared to most of his opponents. His punches are limited to left and right jabs, left and right body blows, and a powerful uppercut. The uppercut can only be used once the player earns a star, which is typically accomplished by counter-punching the opponent directly before or after certain attacks are launched. The player can acquire up to three stars. To perform the uppercut, the player needs to press the start button once a star is earned. To defend, Mac can dodge left or right, duck, and block punches by putting up his guard.

text: Little Mac also has a heart counter, which decreases upon being hit, blocking a punch, or throwing a punch that the opponent dodges or blocks. When the counter decreases to zero, Little Mac temporarily turns pink and appears exhausted, leaving the player unable to attack but still able to dodge, duck, and block. At this point, Mac can regain some hearts (and his normal color palette) only by avoiding the opponent's punches. He immediately loses all of his hearts upon being knocked down, but can regain some by getting up.

text: A bout can end by knockout (KO), if a fighter is unable to get up within ten seconds after being knocked down; by technical knockout (TKO), if a fighter is knocked down three times in one round; or by decision, if the bout lasts three full rounds without a clear winner. In order to win by decision, the player must accumulate higher than a certain point total by punching the opponent and/or knocking him down; the needed total varies from one boxer to the next. However, some bouts cannot be won in this manner and will automatically result in a loss for the player if the opponent is not knocked out. Mac can only get up three times during any one bout; if he is knocked down a fourth cumulative time, he will be unable to rise and thus lose by knockout.

text: When Mac loses his first bout to a ranked opponent, he will have a chance to fight a rematch. However, if he loses a Title Bout, he will fall in the rankings – one place for the Minor or Major Circuits, two places for the World Circuit. Losing a rematch causes him to fall one place (unless he is already at the bottom of his circuit), forcing him to fight his way back up. A third loss (not necessarily a consecutive one), or a loss in the Dream Fight, ends the game.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Little Mac faces a total of 14 opponents: three in the Minor Circuit, four in the Major Circuit, six in the World Circuit, and Tyson/Mr. Dream. However, three of the World Circuit bouts involve previously defeated opponents with new moves.

text: Except for King Hippo, every opponent character sprite is used twice during the game, with a change of head image, colors, and special moves.

text: In addition, Mario makes a cameo appearance as the referee.

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Gold Version[edit]

text: Before the release of Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! in North America, Nintendo released the game in a gold-colored Famicom cartridge simply titled Punch-Out!! in Japan, without Mike Tyson in it, as a prize for the Golf U.S. Course Famicom Tournament in September 1987.[4] The final opponent in this version was Super Macho Man, who was also the final opponent in the Super Punch-Out!! arcade game.

text: When Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! sold well in North America, Nintendo later released the Mike Tyson version in Japan.[5]

text: Punch-Out!![edit]

text: After Nintendo's license to use Mike Tyson as a special Punch-Out!! character expired, it replaced Tyson with a fictional character called Mr. Dream and re-released the game for the NES as simply Punch-Out!! in limited quantities in North America in August 1990[6] and in Europe in 1991.[7]

text: Despite its short run as a NES cartridge, this is the version used in all Virtual Console releases, Animal Crossing as well as the NES Classic Edition compilation.

text: Other releases[edit]

text: In Animal Crossing for the Nintendo GameCube, it is one of the rarer unlockable NES games that can be obtained within the game.

text: Punch-Out!! Featuring Mr. Dream was released on Wii's Virtual Console service on March 30, 2007 in Europe and Australia, on April 3, 2007 in Japan, and on April 16, 2007 in North America; it was released on the Nintendo 3DS's Virtual Console service on February 1, 2012 in Japan, on March 1, 2012 in Europe and Australia, and on March 8, 2012 in North America; it was released on the Wii U's Virtual Console service in North America, Europe, and Australia on March 20, 2013, and in Japan on June 5, 2013.

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Reception

Review scores

Publication
Score

AllGame
[8]

GameSpot
8/10[9]

Gen4[fr]
90%[10]

text: Punch-Out!! has mainly been well received by critics. A GameSpot reader poll ranked it as the 6th greatest NES game. It was rated the 17th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power's Top 200 Games list.[11] In August 2008, Nintendo Power listed it as the sixth best Nintendo Entertainment System video game, praising it for putting arcade-style fun over realism.[12] Author Steve L. Kent called it the second major game of 1987.[3] Author Nathan Lockard cited the graphics, violence, controls, and the variety of it being a "true classic" and one of the best NES games.[13] GamesRadar ranked it the 11th best NES game ever made. The staff called it a "brilliant puzzle game [disguised] as a sports game."[14] Punch-Out!! sold in excess of 2 million copies.[15] Game Informer ranked the Mike Tyson version as its 14th favorite game ever in 2001. The staff noted that no boxing game since Punch-Out has been as "beloved."[16]

text: Other appearances[edit]

text: Punch-Out!! was featured in the comic books of Valiant's Nintendo Comics System. Three stories are based around Little Mac, Doc Louis, and other boxers from the NES version and Mac briefly appears in the comic that introduces the story of Captain N: The Game Master. Mac doesn't appear in the Captain N stories himself; however, King Hippo is featured as a villain. Also, in the opening sequence of the Captain N TV series, the protagonist Kevin Keene was seen playing Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! before being forced into a vortex that formed in his television's screen.[17]

text: In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Little Mac appears as a regular Trophy and an Assist Trophy. In the same game, the music from the Manhattan skyline scene in Punch-Out!! can be heard in the song titled "Famicom Medley." In the Wii game titled Captain Rainbow, Little Mac appears as a supporting character. Little Mac makes his debut as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U.

text: Punch-Out!! made an appearance on The Tonight Show on October 29, 2014. Mike Tyson, being one of the guests that night, was challenged by the host, Jimmy Fallon. He was asked to defeat himself in the game on live TV. The real Mike Tyson was defeated in the first round and lost by TKO.

text: The Training Sequence is covered in Family Guy (S13Ep4 - A Fistful of Meg) by Meg running behind Quagmire, who is riding the bike.

text: Power Punch II[edit]

text: After the release of Punch-Out!!, Krome Studios Melbourne began developing an official sequel starring Mike Tyson with manager Don King. Originally titled Mike Tyson’s Intergalactic Power Punch, the game was supposed to take the series into outer space where Tyson would participate in an intergalactic boxing tournament against various space aliens.

text: The game's production ran into immediate trouble, however, following Tyson's 1991 incarceration for the rape of Desiree Washington. Beam changed the Tyson character's name to Mark Tyler and modified King but did little to change Tyson's in-game character sprite.

text: Nintendo saw the game and disliked it, refusing to publish it due to lack of quality. Eventually, ASC Games published the title, and the game was released on the NES as Power Punch II, despite the fact that it was the first Power Punch title.


document_title: Telegram messenger

question_text: when was the last telegram sent in the uk

text: Telegram messenger

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Telegram boys became popular after the Post Office took over control of inland telegraphs from the railways and private telegraph companies. Many of the boys employed by these services to deliver telegrams transferred to the Post Office. In some respects the life of a telegram boy was not unlike that of someone completing military service. They were expected to behave in a manner befitting one who wore the uniform of the Queen, and were required to complete a daily drill. From 1915 to 1921, morning exercise was added to these requirements.

text: During the 1930s in the United Kingdom the Post Office introduced motorcycles. This started in Leeds where boys aged 17 were allowed to volunteer for training, but only with the permission of their parents. However, following the success of this motorcycles were introduced elsewhere in the country. The fleet was comprised almost exclusively of BSA B33-1 250cc motorbikes which boys were expected to ride at an average of 15 mph. Later 125cc BSA Bantams were used. These were finally replaced with smaller Raleigh, and Puch models.

text: During its heyday in the 1930s, the service was delivering an average of 65 million telegrams per year; however, the service was running at a loss, estimated at £1 million annually.

text: By the 1960s the number of telegrams being delivered had dropped to 10 million, and in 1976 only 844 were delivered.[citation needed] Consequently the Post Office took the decision in 1977 to abolish the service. The service continued for a few years and was briefly operated by British Telecom after it split from the Post Office. British Telecom announced on 19 October 1981 that the telegram would be discontinued,[1] and it was finally taken out of service on 30 September 1982 after 139 years in the United Kingdom.[2]

text: The telegram as such was superseded by the British Telecom Telemessage service, introduced in October 1982.[2] Messages were dictated over the telephone or sent via telex, printed, and delivered overnight by first class post in a distinctive envelope guaranteed for next day delivery, rather than by messenger.[2]

text: United States[edit]

text: Telegraph boys (also referred to as district messenger boys, telegraph messenger boys, or simply as messenger boys) were uniformed young men between 10 and 18 years of age who carried telegrams through urban streets. In most areas they used bicycles; in some dense areas they went on foot. Unlike the men in the telegraph office who worked indoors on fixed wages under close supervision, enjoyed union benefits, and managed the electrical transfer of information, telegraph boys worked outdoors under no supervision on piece wages, saw no union benefits, and managed the physical aspect of the industry in the form of handwritten or printed paper messages.

text: Boys reported for work in the morning clad in their uniforms and awaited their assignments, receiving payment by the mile. Though some chose to travel by foot, bicycles were required for distant destinations. John Dickinson of Dallas, Texas accumulated more than 16,000 miles between April and September 1916. Western Union bought 5,000 bicycles a year and resold them to their telegraph boys nationwide at a discount. A local fleet might number from one to three dozen or more.[3] Companies were responsible for providing uniform laundries, locker rooms, assembly halls, and classrooms.

text: In the call-box system developed in 1872, a customer would ring the telegraph office for a messenger who would then speed to the customer's door to pick up a handwritten message and return to the telegraph office to have it sent electrically to its destination.[4]

text: The life could be dangerous. Boys were expected to "scorch" their bicycles in urban traffic. Strikes occurred with messenger boys cycling en-masse to keep scabs from being hired. Boys attended continuation schools on a four-hours-per-week schedule rather than the 36-hour schedule of public schools. During slack times, the telegraph office hid the boys from public view in basements and back rooms where they smoked, read penny dreadfuls, and shot craps. Weekends or evenings might involve taking part in uniformed military drills before the public. At night, the boys might be required to enter the red light districts in connection with their job duties.[4] The demand for telegraph boys fell when companies began reading messages over the telephone.[3]

text: In the autumn of 1913, bicycling telegraph boy Robert Crawford of Washington, D.C. collided with a car carrying President Woodrow Wilson. The President sent his personal physician to attend Crawford. Later, he visited the boy in the hospital and presented him with a new bicycle. "I did not know it was the President's car that I ran into," the boy said. Wilson replied, "I rather thought it was the President's car that ran into you."[3]

text: Notable telegram boys[edit]

text:
Frank McCourt, author and teacher
Ralph Reader, founder of the Scout Gang Shows
Dave Ward, deputy leader of the Communication Workers Union
Hyman G. Rickover, Father of the US Nuclear Navy


document_title: North American river otter

question_text: how long can a river otter stay under water

text: North American river otter

text: Taxonomy and evolution[edit]

text: The North American river otter was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1777.[5] The mammal was identified as a species of otter and has a variety of common names, including North American river otter, northern river otter, common otter and, simply, river otter.[5] Other documented common names are American otter, Canada otter, Canadian otter, fish otter, land otter, nearctic river otter, and Prince of Wales otter.[6]

text: The river otter was first classified in the genus Lutra; Lutra was the early European name. The species name was Lutra canadensis.[5] The species epithet canadensis means "of Canada".[7]

text: In a new classification, the species is called Lontra canadensis, where the genus Lontra includes all the New World river otters.[8] Molecular biological techniques have been used to determine when the river otter and the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) of South America diverged. These analyses suggest they diverged in the Miocene epoch 23.03 to 5.33 million years ago (Mya), which is "much earlier" than indicated in the fossil record.[9] Fossils of a giant river otter dating back 3.5 Mya have been found in the US Midwest, however fossils of the modern river otter did not appear in North America until about 1.9 Mya.[10] The earliest known fossil of Lontra canadensis, found in the US Midwest, is from the Irvingtonian stage (1,800,000 to 300,000 years ago).[11] The oldest fossil record of an Old World river otter comes from the late Pliocene epoch (3.6 to 1.8 Mya).[12] The New World river otters originated from the Old World river otters after a migration across the Bering Land Bridge, which existed off and on between 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago. The otters migrated to North America and southwards again across the Panamanian Land Bridge, which formed 3 Mya.[6]

text: Subspecies[edit]

text: Listed alphabetically[13]

text:
L. c. canadensis (Schreber, 1777) – (eastern Canada, USA, Newfoundland)
L. c. kodiacensis (Goldman, 1935) – (Kodiak Islands, Alaska)
L. c. lataxina (Cuvier, 1823) – (USA)
L. c. mira (Goldman, 1935) – (Alaska, British Columbia)
L. c. pacifica (J. A. Allen, 1898) – (Alaska, Canada, northern USA, south to central California, northern Nevada, and northeastern Utah)
L. c. periclyzomae (Elliot, 1905) – (British Columbia)
L. c. sonora (Rhoads, 1898) – (USA, Mexico)

text: Physical characteristics[edit]

text: The North American river otter is a stocky animal of 5 to 14 kilograms (11 to 31 lb), with short legs, a muscular neck no smaller than the head, and an elongated body that is broadest at the hips.[11] They have long bodies, and long whiskers that are used to detect prey in dark waters. [14]An average adult male weighs about 11.3 kilograms (25 lb) against the female's average of 8.3 kilograms (18 lb). Its body length ranges from 66 to 107 centimetres (26 to 42 in).[15] About one-third of the animal's total length consists of a long, tapered tail.[11] Tail lengths range from 30 to 50 centimetres (12 to 20 in).[15] Large male North American river otters can exceed a weight of 15 kilograms (33 lb).[16] It differs from the European otter by its longer neck, narrower visage, the smaller space between the ears and its shorter tail.[17]

text: A broad muzzle is found on the river otter's flat head, and the ears are round and inconspicuous. The rhinarium is bare, with an obtuse, triangular projection. Eyes of the animal are small and placed anteriorly. A short, broad rostrum for exhaling and a long, broad cranium define the relatively flat skull.[11] The river otter's nostrils and ears close during submersion, inhibiting water from entering them.[11] Its vibrissae (whiskers) are long and thick, enhancing sensory perception underwater and on land.[11]

text: The fur of the species is short (guard hairs average 23.8 mm (0.94 in)), with a density of about 57,800 hairs/cm2 (373,000 hairs/in2) in the midback section. The pelage has a high luster and varies from light brown to black. The throat, chin, and lips are grayer than the rest of the body. Fur of senescent river otters may become white-tipped, and rare albinos may occur.[11]

text: Sexual dimorphism exists among the river otters.[18] Males are, on average, 5% larger than females. In Idaho, juvenile, yearling, and adult males averaged 8, 11, and 17% heavier, respectively, than females of the same age. A clinical reduction in size may exist from north to south along the Pacific coast, but not from east to west.[11]

text: North American river otters live an average of 21 years of age in captivity,[18] but they can reach 25 years of age.[11] However, they normally live about 8 to 9 years in the wild,[18] but are capable of living up to 13 years of age.[11]

text: Form and function[edit]

text: The river otter is physically well-equipped for aquatic life. The ears are short, the neck is the same diameter as the head, the legs are short and powerful, the toes are fully webbed, and the tail (one-third of body length) is tapered. These qualities give the river otter a streamlined profile in water, but reduce agility on land. The smell and hearing abilities of the river otter are acute. The otter has a delicate sense of touch in the paws in addition to great dexterity.[11] River otters characteristically approach within a few feet of a boat or a person on shore because they're near-sighted, a consequence of vision adapted for underwater sight. River otters have transparent nictitating membranes to protect their eyes while swimming.[6][19][20]

text: The right lung of the river otter is larger than the left, having four lobes compared with two for the left. Reduced lobulation of the lungs is presumed to be adaptive for underwater swimming. In addition, the length of the trachea of the river otter is intermediate between that of terrestrial carnivores and marine mammals. The mean tracheal length of the river otter is 15.3 cm (6.0 in), or 23.2% of the body length. A shorter trachea may improve air exchange and increase lung ventilation in diving mammals.[11]

text: Most mustelids, including otters, have specialized teeth, including sharp canines and carnassials that inflict lethal bites to prey. Also, river otters have large molars used for crushing hard objects, such as the shells of molluscs.[21] An adult river otter has a total of 36 teeth. Additional premolars may be present.[11] The dental formula is 3.1.4.13.1.3.2.

text: Behavior[edit]

text: River otters are active year-round, and are most active at night and during crepuscular hours. They become much more nocturnal in the spring, summer, and fall seasons, and more diurnal during winter. They may migrate as a result of food shortages or environmental conditions, but they do not migrate annually.[11] River otters only settle in areas that consist of vegetation, rock piles, and sufficient coverage[22].

text: Movement[edit]

text: River otters swim by quadrupedal paddling, forelimb paddling, alternate hind-limb paddling, simultaneous hind-limb paddling, or body and tail dorsoventral undulation. The tail, which is stout and larger in surface area than the limbs, is used for stability while swimming and for short bursts of rapid propulsion. While swimming at the surface, the dorsal portion of the river otter's head, including nostrils, ears, and eyes, is exposed above water. It must remain in motion to maintain its position at the surface.[11]

text: On land, the river otter can walk, run, bound, or slide. Foot falls during walking and running follow the sequence of left limb, right limb, right limb, left limb. During walking, the limbs are moved in a plane parallel to the long axis of the body. Bounding is the result of simultaneous lifting of the limbs off the ground. As the front feet make contact with the ground, the back feet are lifted and land where the front paws first contacted the ground, producing a pattern of tracks in pairs typical of most mustelids. Sliding occurs mostly on even surfaces of snow or ice, but can also occur on grassy slopes and muddy banks. Sliding across snow and ice is a rapid and efficient means of travel, and otters traveling over mountain passes, between drainages, or descending from mountain lakes often slide continuously for several hundred meters. Rear leg paddling enables continuous sliding where gravity is an insufficient or an opposing force.[23] During winter, the river otters heavily use openings in the ice, and may excavate passages in beaver dams for accessing open water.[11]

text: North American river otters are highly mobile and have the capacity of traveling up to 42 km (26 mi) in one day. Daily movements of yearling males and females in Idaho averaged 4.7 and 2.4 km (2.9 and 1.5 mi) in spring, 5.1 and 4.0 km (3.2 and 2.5 mi) in summer, and 5.0 and 3.3 km (3.1 and 2.1 mi) in autumn, respectively. Daily movements of family groups averaged 4.7, 4.4, and 2.4 km (2.9, 2.7, and 1.5 mi) in spring, summer, and winter, respectively. Both males and family groups travel drastically less during winter.[11]

text: Playing[edit]

text: River otters are renowned for their sense of play. Otter play mostly consists of wrestling with conspecifics. Chasing is also a common game. River otters rely upon play to learn survival skills such as fighting and hunting. However, playful behavior was found in only 6% of 294 observations in a study in Idaho, and was limited mostly to immature otters.[11]

text: Hunting[edit]

text: Prey is captured with a quick lunge from ambush, or more rarely, after a sustained chase. River otters can remain underwater for nearly 4 minutes, swim at speeds approaching 11 km/h (6.8 mph), dive to depths nearing 20 m (22 yd), and travel up to 400 m (440 yd) while underwater. Several river otters may even cooperate while fishing. Small fish are eaten at the surface, but larger ones are taken to the shore to be consumed. Live fish are typically eaten from the head.

text: River otters dry themselves and uphold the insulative quality of their fur by frequent rubbing and rolling on grass, bare ground, and logs.

text: A highly active predator, the river otter has adapted to hunting in water, and eats aquatic and semiaquatic animals. The vulnerability and seasonal availability of prey animals mainly governs its food habits and prey choices.[24] This availability is influenced by the following factors: detectability and mobility of the prey, habitat availability for the various prey species, environmental factors, such as water depth and temperature, and seasonal changes in prey supply and distribution in correspondence with otter foraging habitat.[25][26]

text: The diet of the river otter can be deduced by analyzing either scat obtained in the field,[27] or gut contents removed from trapped otters.[28] Fish are the primary component of the river otter's diet throughout the year.[29] Every study done on the food habits of the river otter has identified varying fish species as being the primary component of its diet. For instance, an Alberta, Canada study involved the collection and analysis of 1,191 samples of river otter scats collected during each season.[30] Fish remnants were found present in 91.9% of the scat samples. Moreover, a western Oregon study revealed fish remains were present in 80% of the 103 digestive tracts examined.[29] Crustaceans (crayfish), where regionally available, are the second-most important prey for otters. Crustaceans may even be consumed more than fish. For example, a study conducted in a central California marshland indicated crayfish formed nearly 100% of the river otter's diet at certain times of the year.[31] However, river otters, as foragers, will immediately take advantage of other prey when readily obtainable.[32] Other prey consumed by river otters includes fruits,[33] reptiles, amphibians, birds (most especially moulting ducks which render the birds flightless and thus makes them easier to capture), aquatic insects, small mammals, and mollusks.[24] River otters are not scavengers; they avoid consuming carrion.[26][34] Northern river otters do not generally handle prey of a large size relative to themselves but there are occasions where they've been observed ambushing and killing adult common snapping turtles while the large turtles (which are roughly equal in average body weight to a river otter) are hibernating.[35] Remains of the much larger American beaver have been found in otter scat in some regions, although most otter dietary studies in areas where otters and beaver are sympatric do not show them to be regular predators of beavers (despite the claims of fur-trappers that otters frequently hunt beavers) and perhaps only young beaver kits may be attacked.[34][36]

text: Otters do not dramatically reduce prey populations in the wild, generally speaking. When a copious supply of food dwindles or other prey becomes available, otters either transfer to a new location or convert their dietary choices to the most adequate prey.[21] When left unchecked, though, otter depredations can be quite significant under certain circumstances (e.g. in hatcheries or other fish culture facilities). Likewise, the potential predatory impact of otters may be considerable whenever fish are physically confined (most commonly in smaller ponds offering sparse cover or other escape options). Resolution of such conflicts will usually require removal and/or relocation of nuisance otters. Even in larger bodies of water, they may take disproportional advantage of any seasonal concentrations of fish when and where only very limited areas of suitable spawning, low-flow, or over-wintering habitat may exist. Even such fast-swimming species as trout become lethargic in extremely cold water, with a commensurate increase in their vulnerability to predation. As such, careful consideration of any threatened, endangered, or fish species of special interest is warranted prior to reintroduction of otters to a watershed. Although other prey species are of temporary significance to the river otter, the deciding factor whether the river otter can establish itself as a permanent resident of one location is the year-round availability of fish.[21]

text: There are reports of photographs of retrieving otters that were used by hunters near Butte, Nebraska.[citation needed]

text: Social behavior[edit]

text: The North American river otter is more social than most mustelids. In all habitats, their basic social group is the family, consisting of an adult female and her progeny. Adult males also commonly establish enduring social groupings, some documented to comprise as many as 17 individuals. In coastal areas, males may remain gregarious even during the estrous period of females. Family groups may include helpers, which can be made up of unrelated adults, yearlings, or juveniles.[11] Male otters disperse from such family groups more often than females. When females leave, they tend to move much further away (60–90 km or 37–56 mi) than males (up to 30 km or 19 mi), which tend to move shorter distances. Male river otters do not seem to be territorial, and newly dispersing males may join established male groups.[37] On occasion, groups of unrelated juveniles are observed. River otters living in groups hunt and travel together, use the same dens, resting sites, and latrines, and perform allogrooming. In freshwater systems, groups occur most often in autumn and during early winter. From mid-winter through the breeding season, adult females move and den alone. River otters are not territorial, but individual otters of different groups portray mutual avoidance. Home ranges of males are larger than those of females, and both sexes exhibit intra- and intersexual overlap of their domains.[11]

text: Communication[edit]

text: Communication among North American river otters is accomplished mainly by olfactory and auditory signals. Scent marking is imperative for intergroup communication. The river otter scent-marks with feces, urine, and possibly anal sac secretions. Musk from the scent glands may also be secreted when otters are frightened or angry.[11]

text: River otters can produce a snarling growl or hissing bark when bothered, and a shrill whistle when in pain. When at play or traveling, they sometimes give off low, purring grunts. The alarm call, given when shocked or distressed by potential danger, is an explosive snort, made by expelling air through the nostrils. River otters also may use a birdlike chirp for communication over longer distances, but the most common sound heard among a group of otters is low-frequency chuckling.[11]

text: Reproduction and life cycle[edit]

text: North American river otters are polygynous.[11] Females usually do not reproduce until two years of age, although yearlings produce offspring on occasion. Males are sexually mature at two years of age.[1] The number of corpora lutea increases directly with age.[11]

text: River otters typically breed from December to April. Copulation lasts from 16–73 minutes and may occur in water or on land. During the breeding, the male grabs the female by the neck with his teeth. Copulation is vigorous, and is interrupted by periods of rest. Females may caterwaul during or shortly after mating. Female estrus lasts about a month per year,[38] and true gestation lasts 61–63 days. Because the otters delay implantation for at least eight months, the interval between copulation and parturition can reach 10–12 months.[11] Delayed implantation distinguishes the species from the European otter, which lacks this feature.[39] Young are born between February and April,[1] and parturition lasts three to eight hours.[11]

text: In early spring, expectant mothers begin to look for a den where they can give birth. The female otters do not dig their own dens; instead, they rely on other animals, such as beavers, to provide suitable environments to raise their offspring. When the mothers have established their domains, they give birth to several kits.[15] Litter size can reach five, but usually ranges from one to three.[11] Each otter pup weighs approximately five ounces.[15] At birth, the river otters are fully furred, blind, and toothless. The claws are well-formed and facial vibrissae (about 5 mm (0.20 in) long) are present. The kits open their eyes after 30–38 days. The newborns start playing at five to six weeks, and begin consuming solid food at 9–10 weeks. Weaning occurs at 12 weeks, and females provide solid food for their progeny until 37–38 weeks have transpired. The maximum weight and length of both sexes are attained at three to four years of age.[11]

text: The mothers raise their young without aid from adult males. When the pups are about two months old and their coats grow in, their mother introduces them to the water. Otters are natural swimmers and, with parental supervision, they acquire the skills necessary to swim.[15] The otters may leave the den by eight weeks and are capable of sustaining themselves upon the arrival of fall, but they usually stay with their families, which sometimes include the father, until the following spring. Prior to the arrival of the next litter, the otter yearlings venture out in search of their own home ranges.[40]

text: Geographic range[edit]

text: The North American river otter is found throughout North America, inhabiting inland waterways and coastal areas in Canada, the Pacific Northwest, the Atlantic states, and the Gulf of Mexico. River otters also currently inhabit coastal regions throughout the United States and Canada. North American river otters also inhabit the forested regions of the Pacific coast in North America. The species is also present throughout Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands, and the north slope of the Brooks Range.

text: However, urbanization and pollution instigated reductions in range area.[1] They are now absent or rare in Arizona, Hawaii, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, and West Virginia. Reintroduction projects have expanded their distribution in recent years, especially in the Midwestern United States. Since their reintroduction to Kentucky in the early 90s, they have recovered to the point that a trapping season was started in 2006, and the species is now found in all major waterways.[41] In 2010, the Colorado Department of Wildlife reported the species, reintroduced in the 1980s, was "thriving" and recommended its protection status be reconsidered.[42] In late 2012, a river otter nicknamed Sutro Sam took up residence around the former site of the Sutro Baths in San Francisco, the first river otter sighting in that city in more than half a century.[43] In Canada, North American river otters occupy all provinces and territories, except for Prince Edward Island.[1]

text: Historical records indicate river otters were once populous throughout most major drainages in the continental United States and Canada prior to European settlement. North America’s largest otter populations were found in areas with an abundance and diversity of aquatic habitats, such as coastal marshes, the Great Lakes region, and glaciated areas of New England. In addition, riverine habitats in interior regions supported smaller, but practical, otter populations.[1] The otter existed on all parts of the Pacific Coast, including the seashore and inland streams and lakes.[44] However, large populations never occurred in areas of Southern California such as the chaparral and oak woodlands and Mojave Desert seasonal waterway regions, or in the xeric shrubland regions in New Mexico, Texas, Nevada, and Colorado. In Mexico, the otters lived in the Rio Grande and Colorado River Deltas.[18]

text: Habitat[edit]

text: Although commonly called a "river otter", the North American river otter is found in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, both freshwater and coastal marine, including lakes, rivers, inland wetlands, coastal shorelines, marshes, and estuaries. It can tolerate a great range of temperature and elevations. A river otter's main requirements are a steady food supply and easy access to a body of water. However, it is sensitive to pollution, and will disappear from tainted areas.[18]

text: Like other otters, the North American river otter lives in a holt, or den, constructed in the burrows of other animals, or in natural hollows, such as under a log or in river banks. An entrance, which may be under water or above ground, leads to a nest chamber lined with leaves, grass, moss, bark, and hair.[18] Den sites include burrows dug by woodchucks (Marmota monax), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), nutria (Myocastor coypus), or beaver and muskrat lodges. River otters also may use hollow trees or logs, undercut banks, rock formations, backwater sloughs, and flood debris. The use of den and resting sites is chiefly opportunistic, although locations that provide protection and seclusion are preferred.[11]

text: Population localization[edit]

text: Aquatic life ties North American river otters almost exclusively to permanent watersheds.[11] The river otters favor bog lakes with banked shores containing semiaquatic mammal burrows and lakes with beaver lodges. The otters avoid water bodies with gradually sloping shorelines of sand or gravel. In Maine, use of watersheds by river otters is negatively associated with the proportion of mixed hardwood-softwood stands in forested areas adjacent to waterways. However, it is positively associated with the number of beaver flowages, watershed length, and average shoreline diversity. In Idaho, river otters prefer valley habitats over mountainous terrain, and they select valley streams over valley lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. Log jams are heavily used when present. In Florida, inhabitation of North American river otters is lowest in freshwater marshes, intermediate in salt marshes, and highest in swamp forests. During the dry season, they will recede from the marshland and move to permanent ponds, where water is available and food is in greater supply. In Idaho and Massachusetts, ecological elements preferred for latrine sites include large conifers, points of land, beaver bank dens and lodges, isthmuses, mouths of permanent streams, or any object that protrudes from the water.[1]

text: River otters often reside in beaver ponds. Encounters between otters and beavers are not necessarily hostile. In Idaho, otters and beavers were recorded in the same beaver lodge simultaneously on three separate occasions. The otters may compete with the American mink (Mustela vison) for resources. In Alaska, the two species living in marine environments indicate niche separation through resource partitioning, probably related to the swimming abilities of these mustelids.[11]

text: Fish[edit]

text: River otters consume an extensive assortment of fish species ranging in size from 2 to 50 centimeters (0.79 to 19.69 in) that impart sufficient caloric intake for a minute amount of energy expenditure.[26] River otters generally feed on prey that is in larger supply and easier to catch. As a result, slow-swimming fish are consumed more often than game fishes when both are equally available.[28][32] Slow-moving species include suckers (Catostomidae), catfish, sunfish and bass (Centrarchidae); and daces, carp, and shiners (Cyprinidae).[25] For instance, Catostomidae are the primary dietary component of river otters in Colorado's Upper Colorado River Basin.[45] Likewise, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is a preferred fish species for the otter in other regions of Colorado.[45] Fish species frequently found in the diets of the North American river otters include: Catostomidae, which consists of suckers (Catostomus spp.) and redhorses (Moxostoma spp.); Cyprinidae, made up of carp (Cyprinus spp.), chubs (Semotilus spp.), daces (Rhinichthys spp.), shiners (Notropis and Richardsonius spp.), and squawfishes (Ptychocheilus spp.); and Ictaluridae, which consists of bullheads and catfish (Ictalurus spp.).[21] Other fish an integral part of the river otters' diets are those that are often plentiful and found in large schools: sunfish (Lepomis spp.); darters (Etheostoma spp.); and perches (Perca spp.).[21][28][29] Bottom-dwelling species, which have the tendency to remain immobile until a predator is very close, are susceptible to river otters. These include mudminnows (Umbra limi) and sculpins (Cottus spp.).[21][28][29] Game fish, such as trout (Salmonidae) and pike (Esocidae), are not a significant component of their diets.[26][28] They are less likely to be prey for the North American river otters since they are fast-swimming and can find good escape cover.[26] However, river otters will prey on trout, pike, walleye (Sander vitreus vitreus), salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), and other game fish during spawning.[29]

text: Adult river otters are capable of consuming 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to 3.3 lb) of fish per day.[32] A study conducted on captive otters revealed they preferred larger fish, ranging from 15 to 17 centimeters (5.9 to 6.7 in), more than smaller fish, ranging from 8 to 10 centimeters (3.1 to 3.9 in), and they had difficulty catching fish species less than 10 centimeters (3.9 in) or larger than 17 centimeters (6.7 in).[24] Otters are known to take larger fish on land to eat, whereas smaller fish are consumed in the water.[32]

text: Crustaceans[edit]

text: Otters may prefer to feed on crustaceans, especially crayfish (Cambarus, Pacifasticus, and others) more than fish where they are locally and seasonally plentiful.[25] In Georgia, crayfish accounted for two-thirds of the prey in the summer diet, and their remnants were present in 98% of the summer spraint. In the winter, crayfish made up one-third of the otter's diet.[46] A study conducted on North American river otters in a southwestern Arkansas swamp identified a correlation between crayfish consumption, fish consumption, and water levels.[47]

text: During the winter and spring, when the water levels were higher, otters had a greater tendency to prey upon crayfish (73% of scats had crayfish remains) rather than fish.[47] However, when water levels are lower, crayfish will seek out shelter while fish become more highly concentrated and susceptible to predation. Therefore, fish are more vulnerable to being preyed upon by otters because the crayfish have become more difficult to obtain.[25]

text: Reptiles and amphibians[edit]

text: Amphibians, where regionally accessible, have been found in the river otter's diet during the spring and summer months, as indicated in many of the food habit studies.[28][30] The most common amphibians recognized were frogs (Rana and Hyla).[29] Specific species of reptiles and amphibians prey include: boreal chorus frogs (Pseudacris maculata); Canadian toads (Bufo hemiophrys); wood frogs (Rana sylvatica);[30] bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana); green frogs (Rana clamitans);[32] northwestern salamanders (Ambystoma gracile); Pacific giant salamander (Dicamptodon ensatus); rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa);[29] and garter snakes (Thamnophis).[21][29]

text: Amphibians and reptiles are more obtainable by the river otter during the spring and summer as a result of breeding activity, appropriate temperatures, and water supply for the prey.[47]

text: Birds[edit]

text: Waterfowl, rails, and some colonial nesting birds are preyed upon by otters in various areas.[28][45] Susceptibility of these species is greatest during the summer (when waterfowl broods are vulnerable) and autumn.[28] The otters have also been known to catch and consume moulting American wigeon (Mareca americana) and green-winged teal (Anas crecca).[30] Other species of birds found within their diets include: northern pintail (Anas acuta); mallard (Anas platyrhynchos); canvasback (Aythya valisineria); ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis); and the American coot (Fulica americana).[29]

text: Although they consume birds, river otters do not feed on bird eggs.[24]

text: Insects[edit]

text: Aquatic invertebrates have been recognized as an integral part of the river otter's diet.[21][30][32][45] Otters consume more aquatic insects in the summer as the populations increase and specific life stages heighten their susceptibility.[30] Most aquatic invertebrates preyed upon by the otters are from the families Odonata (dragonfly nymphs), Plecoptera (stonefly nymphs), and Coleoptera (adult beetles).[30][45] Invertebrates discovered within scats or digestive tracts could most likely be a secondary food item, first being consumed by the fish that are subsequently preyed upon by the otters.[27][29]

text: Mammals[edit]

text: Mammals are rarely consumed by river otters, and are not a major dietary component.[26][27] Mammals preyed upon by otters are characteristically small or are a type species found in riparian zones.[45] The few occurrences of mammals found in the river otter's diet include: muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus); meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus); eastern cottontails (Sylvilagus floridanus); and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus).[30][32][48]

text: Records of otters preying upon beavers (Castor canadensis) vary; it has been reported in the southern boreal forest of Manitoba.[49] Trappers in Alberta, Canada commonly assert otters are major predators of beavers.[30] A 1994 river otter study reported findings of beaver remains in 27 of 1,191 scats analyzed.[30] However, many other studies did not report any findings of beaver remains in the scat sampled.[47][50]

text: Threats[edit]

text: The otter has few natural predators when in water. Aquatic predators include the alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), killer whales (Orcinus orca), and sharks, none of which commonly coexist with this otter and thus rarely pose a threat.[11] On land or ice, the river otter is considerably more vulnerable. Terrestrial predators include the coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (Lynx rufus), lynx (Lynx canadensis), domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris), wolf (Canis lupus), mountain lion (Felis concolor), black bear (Ursus americanus) and (in young or small otters) red fox (Vulpes vulpes) .[33] Most river otter mortality is caused by human-related factors, such as trapping, illegal shooting, roadkills, and accidental captures in fish nets or set lines. Accidental deaths may be the result of ice flows or shifting rocks. Starvation may occur due to excessive tooth damage.[11]

text: Threats to otter populations in North America vary regionally. Otter inhabitation is affected by type, distribution, and density of aquatic habitats and characteristics of human activities. Preceding the settlement of North America by Europeans, otters were prevalent among aquatic habitats throughout most of the continent. Trapping, loss or degradation of aquatic habitats through filling of wetlands, and development of coal, oil, gas, tanning, timber, and other industries, resulted in extirpations, or declines, in otter populations in many areas. In 1980, an examination conducted on U.S. river otter populations determined they were extirpated in 11 states, and had experienced drastic lapses in 9 others. The most severe population declines occurred in interior regions where fewer aquatic habitats supported fewer otter populations. Although the distribution became reduced in some regions of southern Canada, the only province-wide extirpation occurred on Prince Edward Island.[1]

text: During the 1970s, improvements in natural resource management techniques emerged, along with increased concerns about otter population declines in North America. Consequently, many wildlife management agencies developed strategies to restore or enhance otter populations, including the use of reintroduction projects. Since 1976, over 4,000 otters have been reintroduced in 21 U.S. states. All Canadian provinces except Prince Edward Island and 29 U.S. states have viable populations that sustain annual harvests. Annual harvest numbers of northern river otters are similar for Canada and the United States, with most pelts being used in the garment industry. In the late 1970s, annual harvest in North America reached approximately 50,000 pelts, for a value of US$3 million. Otters are inadvertently harvested by traps set for beavers, and therefore management plans should consider both species simultaneously. While current harvest strategies do not pose a threat to maintaining otter populations, harvest may limit expansion of otter populations in some areas.[1] Otter harvests correlate positively with the beaver harvests and with the average beaver pelt price from the preceding year. Fur of the river otter is thick and lustrous and is the most durable of Native American furs. River otter pelts are used as the standard for rating the quality of other pelts.[11]

text: Oil spills present a localized threat to otter populations, especially in coastal areas. Water pollution and other diminution of aquatic and wetland habitats may limit distribution and pose long-term threats if the enforcement of water quality standards is not upheld. Acid drainage from coal mines is a persistent water quality issue in some areas, as it eliminates otter prey. This dilemma prevents, and consequently inhibits, recolonization or growth of otter populations. Recently, long-term genetic consequences of reintroduction projects on remnant otter populations has been discussed. Similarly, many perceived threats to otters, such as pollution and habitat alterations, have not been rigorously evaluated. Little effort has gone into assessing the threat of disease to wild river otter populations, so it is poorly understood and documented. River otters may be victims of canine distemper, rabies, respiratory tract disease, and urinary infection. In addition, North American river otters can contract jaundice, hepatitis, feline panleucopenia, and pneumonia. They host numerous endoparasites, such as nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, the sporozoan Isopora, and acanthocephalans. Ectoparasites include ticks, sucking lice(Latagophthirus rauschi), and fleas (Oropsylla arctomys).[1]

text: Conservation status[edit]

text: Lontra canadensis is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. They have been virtually eliminated through many parts of their range, especially around heavily populated areas in the midwestern and eastern United States.[51] Appendix II lists species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction currently, but may become so unless trade is closely controlled.[52]

text: The North American river otter is considered a species of least concern according to the IUCN Red List, as it is not currently declining at a rate sufficient for a threat category. By the early 1900s, river otter populations had declined throughout large portions of their historic range in North America. However, improvements in water quality (through enactment of clean water regulations) and furbearer management techniques have permitted river otters to regain portions of their range in many areas. Reintroduction projects have been particularly valuable in restoring populations in many areas of the United States. However, river otters remain rare or absent in the southwestern United States. Water quality and development inhibit recovery of populations in some areas. The species is widely distributed throughout its range. In many places, the populations have re-established themselves because of conservation initiatives. Reintroduction of river otters may present a problem in that it may contaminate the genetic structure of the native population.[1]

text: Habitat degradation and pollution are major threats to their conservation; river otters are highly sensitive to pollution[citation needed] and readily accumulate high levels of mercury, organochloride compounds, and other chemical elements. The species is often used as a bioindicator because of its position at the top of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems. Environmental disasters, such as oil spills, may increase levels of blood haptoglobin and interleukin-6 immunoreactive protein, but decrease body mass. Home ranges of river otters increase in size on oiled areas compared to unoiled areas, and individual otters also modify their habitat use. Declines in the richness and diversity of prey species may explain these changes.[11]