document_title: Genetically modified crops

question_text: when was the first genetically modified plant produced in a laboratory

question_tokens: when was the first genetically modified plant produced in a laboratory

text: Genetically modified crops

text: Gene transfer in nature and traditional agriculture[edit]

text: DNA transfers naturally between organisms.[28] Several natural mechanisms allow gene flow across species. These occur in nature on a large scale – for example, it is one mechanism for the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.[29] This is facilitated by transposons, retrotransposons, proviruses and other mobile genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to new loci in a genome.[30][31] Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.[32][33][34]

text: The introduction of foreign germplasm into crops has been achieved by traditional crop breeders by overcoming species barriers. A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye.[35] Since then important traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced.[36] Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter the makeup of plant genomes.[37][38]

text: History[edit]

text: The first genetically modified crop plant was produced in 1982, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant.[39] The first field trials occurred in France and the USA in 1986, when tobacco plants were engineered for herbicide resistance.[40] In 1987, Plant Genetic Systems (Ghent, Belgium), founded by Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell, was the first company to genetically engineer insect-resistant (tobacco) plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).[41]

text: The People's Republic of China was the first country to allow commercialized transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992,[42] which was withdrawn in 1997.[43]:3 The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S., in 1994, was the FlavrSavr tomato. It had a longer shelf life, because it took longer to soften after ripening.[44] In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first commercially genetically engineered crop marketed in Europe.[45]

text: In 1995, Bt Potato was approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency, making it the country's first pesticide producing crop.[46] In 1995 canola with modified oil composition (Calgene), Bt maize (Ciba-Geigy), bromoxynil-resistant cotton (Calgene), Bt cotton (Monsanto), glyphosate-resistant soybeans (Monsanto), virus-resistant squash (Asgrow), and additional delayed ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca/Peto, and Monsanto) were approved.[40] As of mid-1996, a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU.[40] In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was developed, though as of 2016 it was not yet in commercial production. In 2013 the leaders of the three research teams that first applied genetic engineering to crops, Robert Fraley, Marc Van Montagu and Mary-Dell Chilton were awarded the World Food Prize for improving the "quality, quantity or availability" of food in the world.[47]

text: Methods[edit]

text: Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques,[48] originally including gene guns, electroporation, microinjection and agrobacterium. More recently, CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient editing techniques.

text: Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot" (direct high energy particles or radiations against[49]) target genes into plant cells. It is the most common method. DNA is bound to tiny particles of gold or tungsten which are subsequently shot into plant tissue or single plant cells under high pressure. The accelerated particles penetrate both the cell wall and membranes. The DNA separates from the metal and is integrated into plant DNA inside the nucleus. This method has been applied successfully for many cultivated crops, especially monocots like wheat or maize, for which transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been less successful.[50] The major disadvantage of this procedure is that serious damage can be done to the cellular tissue.

text: Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation is another common technique. Agrobacteria are natural plant parasites, and their natural ability to transfer genes provides another engineering method. To create a suitable environment for themselves, these Agrobacteria insert their genes into plant hosts, resulting in a proliferation of modified plant cells near the soil level (crown gall). The genetic information for tumor growth is encoded on a mobile, circular DNA fragment (plasmid). When Agrobacterium infects a plant, it transfers this T-DNA to a random site in the plant genome. When used in genetic engineering the bacterial T-DNA is removed from the bacterial plasmid and replaced with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium is a vector, enabling transportation of foreign genes into plants. This method works especially well for dicotyledonous plants like potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Agrobacteria infection is less successful in crops like wheat and maize.

text: Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses."

text: Microinjection is used to directly inject foreign DNA into cells.[51]

text: Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are conventionally bred crops.[52][53]

text: In research tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana are the most frequently modified plants, due to well-developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes.[54][55] They serve as model organisms for other plant species.

text: Introducing new genes into plants requires a promoter specific to the area where the gene is to be expressed. For instance, to express a gene only in rice grains and not in leaves, an endosperm-specific promoter is used. The codons of the gene must be optimized for the organism due to codon usage bias.

text: Types of modifications[edit]

text: Transgenic[edit]

text: Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant to plant) or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to correctly and efficiently express in the host organism. Transgenic plants are used to express proteins like the cry toxins from B. thuringiensis, herbicide resistant genes, antibodies[56] and antigens for vaccinations[57] A study led by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) found also viral genes in transgenic plants.[58]

text: Transgenic carrots have been used to produce the drug Taliglucerase alfa which is used to treat Gaucher's disease.[59] In the laboratory, transgenic plants have been modified to increase photosynthesis (currently about 2% at most plants versus the theoretic potential of 9–10%).[60] This is possible by changing the rubisco enzyme (i.e. changing C3 plants into C4 plants[61]), by placing the rubisco in a carboxysome, by adding CO2 pumps in the cell wall,[62][63] by changing the leaf form/size.[64][65][66][67] Plants have been engineered to exhibit bioluminescence that may become a sustainable alternative to electric lighting.[68]

text: Cisgenic[edit]

text: Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics.[69]

text: Subgenic[edit]

text: Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid genome. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately planned.[70][71] The CRISPR technique has also been used to modify white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus).[72]

text: Economics[edit]

text: The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations.[73][74][75] A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn. This was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby.[76][77] Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus [increased by] $240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21%), followed by US consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier, Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi (5%)."[78]

text: According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), in 2014 approximately 18 million farmers grew biotech crops in 28 countries; about 94% of the farmers were resource-poor in developing countries. 53% of the global biotech crop area of 181.5 million hectares was grown in 20 developing countries.[79] PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries.[80]

text: Critics challenged the claimed benefits to farmers over the prevalence of biased observers and by the absence of randomized controlled trials.[citation needed] The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location".[81]

text: In 2013 the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked the EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water, and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU's "time-consuming and expensive regulatory framework" and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies.[82]

text: Participants in agriculture business markets include seed companies, agrochemical companies, distributors, farmers, grain elevators and universities that develop new crops/traits and whose agricultural extensions advise farmers on best practices.[citation needed] According to a 2012 review based on data from the late 1990s and early 2000s, much of the GM crop grown each year is used for livestock feed and increased demand for meat leads to increased demand for GM feed crops.[83] Feed grain usage as a percentage of total crop production is 70% for corn and more than 90% of oil seed meals such as soybeans. About 65 million metric tons of GM corn grains and about 70 million metric tons of soybean meals derived from GM soybean become feed.[83]

text: In 2014 the global value of biotech seed was US$15.7 billion; US$11.3 billion (72%) was in industrial countries and US$4.4 billion (28%) was in the developing countries.[79] In 2009, Monsanto had $7.3 billion in sales of seeds and from licensing its technology; DuPont, through its Pioneer subsidiary, was the next biggest company in that market.[84] As of 2009, the overall Roundup line of products including the GM seeds represented about 50% of Monsanto's business.[85]

text: Some patents on GM traits have expired, allowing the legal development of generic strains that include these traits. For example, generic glyphosate-tolerant GM soybean is now available. Another impact is that traits developed by one vendor can be added to another vendor's proprietary strains, potentially increasing product choice and competition.[86] The patent on the first type of Roundup Ready crop that Monsanto produced (soybeans) expired in 2014[87] and the first harvest of off-patent soybeans occurs in the spring of 2015.[88] Monsanto has broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include the glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products.[89] About 150 companies have licensed the technology,[90] including Syngenta[91] and DuPont Pioneer.[92]

text: Yield[edit]

text: In 2014, the largest review yet concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. The meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014 for three major GM crops: soybean, maize, and cotton. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same.[5][93]

text: Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistant varieties. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points.[93]

text: The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias, by considering sources beyond academic journals. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertilizer use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results.[93]

text: Traits[edit]

text: GM crops grown today, or under development, have been modified with various traits. These traits include improved shelf life, disease resistance, stress resistance, herbicide resistance, pest resistance, production of useful goods such as biofuel or drugs, and ability to absorb toxins and for use in bioremediation of pollution.

text: Recently, research and development has been targeted to enhancement of crops that are locally important in developing countries, such as insect-resistant cowpea for Africa[94] and insect-resistant brinjal (eggplant).[95]

text: Lifetime[edit]

text: The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S. was the FlavrSavr tomato, which had a longer shelf life.[44] It is no longer on the market.

text: In November 2014, the USDA approved a GM potato that prevents bruising.[96][97]

text: In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA,[98] becoming the first genetically modified apple approved for US sale.[99] Gene silencing was used to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing enzymatic browning of the fruit after it has been sliced open. The trait was added to Granny Smith and Golden Delicious varieties.[98][100] The trait includes a bacterial antibiotic resistance gene that provides resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. The genetic engineering involved cultivation in the presence of kanamycin, which allowed only resistant cultivars to survive. Humans consuming apples do not acquire kanamycin resistance, per arcticapple.com.[101] The FDA approved the apples in March 2015.[102]

text: Nutrition[edit]

text: Edible oils[edit]

text: Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for processing or healthier eating.[103][104] Camelina sativa has been modified to produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to fish oils.[105][106]

text: Vitamin enrichment[edit]

text: Golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of Vitamin A targeted at reducing Vitamin A deficiency.[107][108] As of January 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially in any country.[109]

text: Researchers vitamin-enriched corn derived from South African white corn variety M37W, producing a 169-fold increase in Vitamin A, 6-fold increase in Vitamin C and doubled concentrations of folate.[110] Modified Cavendish bananas express 10-fold the amount of Vitamin A as unmodified varieties.[111]

text: Toxin reduction[edit]

text: A genetically modified cassava under development offers lower cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other nutrients (called BioCassava).[112]

text: In November 2014, the USDA approved a potato, developed by J.R. Simplot Company, that prevents bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried. The modifications prevent natural, harmful proteins from being made via RNA interference.[96][97] They do not employ genes from non-potato species. The trait was added to the Russet Burbank, Ranger Russet and Atlantic varieties.[96]

text: Stress resistance[edit]

text: Plants engineered to tolerate non-biological stressors such as drought,[96][97][113][114] frost,[115][116] high soil salinity,[117][118] and nitrogen starvation[119] were in development. In 2011, Monsanto's DroughtGard maize became the first drought-resistant GM crop to receive US marketing approval.[120]

text: Herbicides[edit]

text: Glyphosate[edit]

text: As of 1999, the most prevalent GM trait was glyphosate-tolerance.[121][needs update] Glyphosate (the active ingredient in Roundup and other herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the shikimate pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. The shikimate pathway is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet. More specifically, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS).

text: This trait was developed because the herbicides used on grain and grass crops at the time were highly toxic and not effective against narrow-leaved weeds. Thus, developing crops that could withstand spraying with glyphosate would both reduce environmental and health risks, and give an agricultural edge to the farmer.[121]

text: Some micro-organisms have a version of EPSPS that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. One of these was isolated from an Agrobacterium strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant to glyphosate.[122][123] The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing the 5' end of the gene to a chloroplast transit peptide derived from the petunia EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans.

text: The plasmid used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta-glucuronidase (GUS) from Escherichia coli as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle acceleration method. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the transformation.

text: Bromoxynil[edit]

text: Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil.[45]

text: Glufosinate[edit]

text: Crops have been commercialized that are resistant to the herbicide glufosinate, as well.[124] Crops engineered for resistance to multiple herbicides to allow farmers to use a mixed group of two, three, or four different chemicals are under development to combat growing herbicide resistance.[125][126]

text: In October 2014 the US EPA registered Dow's Enlist Duo maize, which is genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and 2,4-D, in six states.[127][128] Inserting a bacterial aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase gene, aad1 makes the corn resistant to 2,4-D.[127][129] The USDA had approved maize and soybeans with the mutation in September 2014.[130]

text: Dicamba[edit]

text: Monsanto has requested approval for a stacked strain that is tolerant of both glyphosate and dicamba. The request includes plans for avoiding herbicide drift to other crops.[131] Significant damage to other non-resistant crops occurred from dicamba formulations intended to reduce volatilization drifting when sprayed on resistant soybeans in 2017.[132] The newer dicamba formulation labels specify to not spray when average wind speeds are above 10–15 miles per hour (16–24 km/h) to avoid particle drift, average wind speeds below 3 miles per hour (4.8 km/h) to avoid temperature inversions, and rain or high temperatures are in the next day forecast. However, these conditions typically only occur during June and July for a few hours at a time.[133][134]

text: Pest resistance[edit]

text: Insects[edit]

text: Tobacco, corn, rice and some other crops have been engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).[46][135] The introduction of Bt crops during the period between 1996 and 2005 has been estimated to have reduced the total volume of insecticide active ingredient use in the United States by over 100 thousand tons. This represents a 19.4% reduction in insecticide use.[136]

text: In the late 1990s, a genetically modified potato that was resistant to the Colorado potato beetle was withdrawn because major buyers rejected it, fearing consumer opposition.[96]

text: Viruses[edit]

text: Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants.[137] Virus resistant papaya were developed in response to a papaya ringspot virus (PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. They incorporate PRV DNA.[138][139] By 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified.[140][141]

text: Potatoes were engineered for resistance to potato leaf roll virus and Potato virus Y in 1998. Poor sales led to their market withdrawal after three years.[142]

text: Yellow squash that were resistant to at first two, then three viruses were developed, beginning in the 1990s. The viruses are watermelon, cucumber and zucchini/courgette yellow mosaic. Squash was the second GM crop to be approved by US regulators. The trait was later added to zucchini.[143]

text: Many strains of corn have been developed in recent years to combat the spread of Maize dwarf mosaic virus, a costly virus that causes stunted growth which is carried in Johnson grass and spread by aphid insect vectors. These strands are commercially available although the resistance is not standard among GM corn variants.[144]

text: By-products[edit]

text: Drugs[edit]

text: In 2012, the FDA approved the first plant-produced pharmaceutical, a treatment for Gaucher's Disease.[145] Tobacco plants have been modified to produce therapeutic antibodies.[146]

text: Biofuel[edit]

text: Algae is under development for use in biofuels.[147] Researchers in Singapore were working on GM jatropha for biofuel production.[148] Syngenta has USDA approval to market a maize trademarked Enogen that has been genetically modified to convert its starch to sugar for ethanol.[149] In 2013, the Flemish Institute for Biotechnology was investigating poplar trees genetically engineered to contain less lignin to ease conversion into ethanol.[150] Lignin is the critical limiting factor when using wood to make bio-ethanol because lignin limits the accessibility of cellulose microfibrils to depolymerization by enzymes.[151]

text: Materials[edit]

text: Companies and labs are working on plants that can be used to make bioplastics.[152] Potatoes that produce industrially useful starches have been developed as well.[153] Oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.

text: Bioremediation[edit]

text: Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (Arabidopsis thaliana) that contains genes from bacteria that could clean TNT and RDX-explosive soil contaminants in 2011.[154] 16 million hectares in the USA (1.5% of the total surface) are estimated to be contaminated with TNT and RDX. However A. thaliana was not tough enough for use on military test grounds.[155] Modifications in 2016 included switchgrass and bentgrass.[156]

text: Genetically modified plants have been used for bioremediation of contaminated soils. Mercury, selenium and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).[155][157]

text: Marine environments are especially vulnerable since pollution such as oil spills are not containable. In addition to anthropogenic pollution, millions of tons of petroleum annually enter the marine environment from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities. Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB) that may offer useful genes.[158]

text: Asexual reproduction[edit]

text: Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes which genes get propagated to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high-quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year. Typically, the seed company maintains two inbred varieties and crosses them into a hybrid strain that is then sold. Related plants like sorghum and gamma grass are able to perform apomixis, a form of asexual reproduction that keeps the plant's DNA intact. This trait is apparently controlled by a single dominant gene, but traditional breeding has been unsuccessful in creating asexually-reproducing maize. Genetic engineering offers another route to this goal. Successful modification would allow farmers to replant harvested seeds that retain desirable traits, rather than relying on purchased seed.[159]

text: Crops[edit]

text: Herbicide tolerance[edit]

text:
Crop
Use
Countries approved in
First approved[160]
Notes

Alfalfa
Animal feed[161]
USA
2005
Approval withdrawn in 2007[162] and then re-approved in 2011[163]

Canola
Cooking oil
Margarine
Emulsifiers in packaged foods[161]

Australia
2003

Canada
1995

USA
1995

Cotton
Fiber
Cottonseed oil
Animal feed[161]
Argentina
2001

Australia
2002

Brazil
2008

Columbia
2004

Costa Rica
2008

Mexico
2000

Paraguay
2013

South Africa
2000

USA
1994

Maize
Animal feed
high-fructose corn syrup
corn starch[161]

Argentina
1998

Brazil
2007

Canada
1996

Colombia
2007

Cuba
2011

European Union
1998
Grown in Portugal, Spain, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania[164]

Honduras
2001

Paraguay
2012

Philippines
2002

South Africa
2002

USA
1995

Uruguay
2003

Soybean
Animal feed
Soybean oil[161]

Argentina
1996

Bolivia
2005

Brazil
1998

Canada
1995

Chile
2007

Costa Rica
2001

Mexico
1996

Paraguay
2004

South Africa
2001

USA
1993

Uruguay
1996

Sugar Beet
Food[165]
Canada
2001

USA
1998
Commercialised 2007,[166] production blocked 2010, resumed 2011.[165]

text: Insect resistance[edit]

text:
Crop
Use
Countries approved in
First approved[160]
Notes

Cotton
Fiber
Cottonseed oil
Animal feed[161]
Argentina
1998

Australia
2003

Brazil
2005

Burkina Faso
2009

China
1997

Colombia
2003

Costa Rica
2008

India
2002
Largest producer of Bt cotton[167]

Mexico
1996

Myanmar
2006[N 1]

Pakistan
2010[N 1]

Paraguay
2007

South Africa
1997

Sudan
2012

USA
1995

Eggplant
Food
Bangladesh
2013
12 ha planted on 120 farms in 2014[168]

Maize
Animal feed
high-fructose corn syrup
corn starch[161]

Argentina
1998

Brazil
2005

Columbia
2003

Mexico
1996
Centre of origin for maize[169]

Paraguay
2007

Philippines
2002

South Africa
1997

Uruguay
2003

USA
1995

Poplar
Tree
China
1998
543 ha of bt poplar planted in 2014[170]

text: Other modified traits[edit]

text:
Crop
Use
Trait
Countries approved in
First approved[160]
Notes

Canola
Cooking oil
Margarine
Emulsifiers in packaged foods[161]

High laurate canola
Canada
1996

USA
1994

Phytase production
USA
1998

Carnation
Ornamental
Delayed senescence
Australia
1995

Norway
1998

Modified flower colour
Australia
1995

Columbia
2000
In 2014 4 ha were grown in greenhouses for export[171]

European Union
1998
Two events expired 2008, another approved 2007

Japan
2004

Malaysia
2012
For ornamental purposes

Norway
1997

Maize
Animal feed
high-fructose corn syrup
corn starch[161]

Increased lysine
Canada
2006

USA
2006

Drought tolerance
Canada
2010

USA
2011

Papaya
Food[161]
Virus resistance
China
2006

USA
1996
Mostly grown in Hawaii[161]

Petunia
Ornamental
Modified flower colour
China
1997[172]

Potato
Food[161]
Virus resistance
Canada
1999

USA
1997

Industrial[173]
Modified starch
USA
2014

Rose
Ornamental
Modified flower colour
Australia
2009
Surrendered renewal

Colombia
2010[N 2]
Greenhouse cultivation for export only.

Japan
2008

USA
2011

Soybean
Animal feed
Soybean oil[161]

Increased oleic acid production
Argentina
2015

Canada
2000

USA
1997

Stearidonic acid production
Canada
2011

USA
2011

Squash
Food[161]
Virus resistance
USA
1994

Sugar Cane
Food
Drought tolerance
Indonesia
2013
Environmental certificate only

Tobacco
Cigarettes
Nicotine reduction
USA
2002

text: Development[edit]

text: The number of USDA-approved field releases for testing grew from 4 in 1985 to 1,194 in 2002 and averaged around 800 per year thereafter. The number of sites per release and the number of gene constructs (ways that the gene of interest is packaged together with other elements)—have rapidly increased since 2005. Releases with agronomic properties (such as drought resistance) jumped from 1,043 in 2005 to 5,190 in 2013. As of September 2013, about 7,800 releases had been approved for corn, more than 2,200 for soybeans, more than 1,100 for cotton, and about 900 for potatoes. Releases were approved for herbicide tolerance (6,772 releases), insect resistance (4,809), product quality such as flavor or nutrition (4,896), agronomic properties like drought resistance (5,190), and virus/fungal resistance (2,616). The institutions with the most authorized field releases include Monsanto with 6,782, Pioneer/DuPont with 1,405, Syngenta with 565, and USDA’s Agricultural Research Service with 370. As of September 2013 USDA had received proposals for releasing GM rice, squash, plum, rose, tobacco, flax, and chicory.[174]

text: Farming practices[edit]

text: This section needs expansion with: examples and additional citations of how farmers' use of GM crops changes their practices. You can help by adding to it. (September 2012)

text: Resistance[edit]

text: Bt resistance[edit]

text: Constant exposure to a toxin creates evolutionary pressure for pests resistant to that toxin. Overreliance on glyphosate and a reduction in the diversity of weed management practices allowed the spread of glyphosate resistance in 14 weed species/biotypes in the US.[174]

text: One method of reducing resistance is the creation of refuges to allow nonresistant organisms to survive and maintain a susceptible population.

text: To reduce resistance to Bt crops, the 1996 commercialization of transgenic cotton and maize came with a management strategy to prevent insects from becoming resistant. Insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any (recessive) resistance genes are diluted within the population. Resistance lowers evolutionary fitness in the absence of the stressor (Bt). In refuges, non-resistant strains outcompete resistant ones.[175]

text: With sufficiently high levels of transgene expression, nearly all of the heterozygotes (S/s), i.e., the largest segment of the pest population carrying a resistance allele, will be killed before maturation, thus preventing transmission of the resistance gene to their progeny.[176] Refuges (i. e., fields of nontransgenic plants) adjacent to transgenic fields increases the likelihood that homozygous resistant (s/s) individuals and any surviving heterozygotes will mate with susceptible (S/S) individuals from the refuge, instead of with other individuals carrying the resistance allele. As a result, the resistance gene frequency in the population remains lower.

text: Complicating factors can affect the success of the high-dose/refuge strategy. For example, if the temperature is not ideal, thermal stress can lower Bt toxin production and leave the plant more susceptible. More importantly, reduced late-season expression has been documented, possibly resulting from DNA methylation of the promoter.[177] The success of the high-dose/refuge strategy has successfully maintained the value of Bt crops. This success has depended on factors independent of management strategy, including low initial resistance allele frequencies, fitness costs associated with resistance, and the abundance of non-Bt host plants outside the refuges.[178]

text: Companies that produce Bt seed are introducing strains with multiple Bt proteins. Monsanto did this with Bt cotton in India, where the product was rapidly adopted.[179] Monsanto has also; in an attempt to simplify the process of implementing refuges in fields to comply with Insect Resistance Management(IRM) policies and prevent irresponsible planting practices; begun marketing seed bags with a set proportion of refuge (non-transgenic) seeds mixed in with the Bt seeds being sold. Coined "Refuge-In-a-Bag" (RIB), this practice is intended to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional labor needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand.[180] This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt-resistance occurring for corn rootworm, but may increase the risk of resistance for lepidopteran corn pests, such as European corn borer. Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects.[181][182]

text: Herbicide resistance[edit]

text: Best management practices (BMPs) to control weeds may help delay resistance. BMPs include applying multiple herbicides with different modes of action, rotating crops, planting weed-free seed, scouting fields routinely, cleaning equipment to reduce the transmission of weeds to other fields, and maintaining field borders.[174] The most widely planted GM crops are designed to tolerate herbicides. By 2006 some weed populations had evolved to tolerate some of the same herbicides. Palmer amaranth is a weed that competes with cotton. A native of the southwestern US, it traveled east and was first found resistant to glyphosate in 2006, less than 10 years after GM cotton was introduced.[183][184][185]

text: Plant protection[edit]

text: Farmers generally use less insecticide when they plant Bt-resistant crops. Insecticide use on corn farms declined from 0.21 pound per planted acre in 1995 to 0.02 pound in 2010. This is consistent with the decline in European corn borer populations as a direct result of Bt corn and cotton. The establishment of minimum refuge requirements helped delay the evolution of Bt resistance. However, resistance appears to be developing to some Bt traits in some areas.[174]

text: Tillage[edit]

text: By leaving at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface from harvest through planting, conservation tillage reduces soil erosion from wind and water, increases water retention, and reduces soil degradation as well as water and chemical runoff. In addition, conservation tillage reduces the carbon footprint of agriculture.[186] A 2014 review covering 12 states from 1996 to 2006, found that a 1% increase in herbicde-tolerant (HT) soybean adoption leads to a 0.21% increase in conservation tillage and a 0.3% decrease in quality-adjusted herbicide use.[186]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the USA and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of each product. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.[187][188]

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2013, GM crops were planted in 27 countries; 19 were developing countries and 8 were developed countries. 2013 was the second year in which developing countries grew a majority (54%) of the total GM harvest. 18 million farmers grew GM crops; around 90% were small-holding farmers in developing countries.[1]

text:
Country
2013– GM planted area (million hectares)[189]
Biotech crops

USA
70.1
Maize, Soybean, Cotton, Canola, Sugarbeet, Alfalfa, Papaya, Squash

Brazil
40.3
Soybean, Maize, Cotton

Argentina
24.4
Soybean, Maize, Cotton

India
11.0
Cotton

Canada
10.8
Canola, Maize, Soybean, Sugarbeet

Total
175.2
----

text: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports every year on the total area of GM crop varieties planted in the United States.[190][191] According to National Agricultural Statistics Service, the states published in these tables represent 81–86 percent of all corn planted area, 88–90 percent of all soybean planted area, and 81–93 percent of all upland cotton planted area (depending on the year).

text: Global estimates are produced by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) and can be found in their annual reports, "Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops".[1][192]

text: Farmers have widely adopted GM technology (see figure). Between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,750,000 km2 (432 million acres).[1] 10% of the world's arable land was planted with GM crops in 2010.[3] As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain.[3] One of the key reasons for this widespread adoption is the perceived economic benefit the technology brings to farmers. For example, the system of planting glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged provided farmers with the opportunity to dramatically increase the yield from a given plot of land, since this allowed them to plant rows closer together. Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage.[193] Likewise, using Bt seeds means that farmers do not have to purchase insecticides, and then invest time, fuel, and equipment in applying them. However critics have disputed whether yields are higher and whether chemical use is less, with GM crops. See Genetically modified food controversies article for information.

text: In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically modified varieties.[4][194][195] Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide-tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely Bt protein).[196] These constitute "input-traits" that are aimed to financially benefit the producers, but may have indirect environmental benefits and cost benefits to consumers. The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimated in 2003 that 70–75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contained a GM ingredient.[197]

text: Europe grows relatively few genetically engineered crops[198] with the exception of Spain, where one fifth of maize is genetically engineered,[199] and smaller amounts in five other countries.[200] The EU had a 'de facto' ban on the approval of new GM crops, from 1999 until 2004.[201][202] GM crops are now regulated by the EU.[203] In 2015, genetically engineered crops are banned in 38 countries worldwide, 19 of them in Europe.[204][205] Developing countries grew 54 percent of genetically engineered crops in 2013.[1]

text: In recent years GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of worldwide GM crops in developing countries.[1] 2013's largest increase was in Brazil (403,000 km2 versus 368,000 km2 in 2012). GM cotton began growing in India in 2002, reaching 110,000 km2 in 2013.[1]

text: According to the 2013 ISAAA brief: "...a total of 36 countries (35 + EU-28) have granted regulatory approvals for biotech crops for food and/or feed use and for environmental release or planting since 1994... a total of 2,833 regulatory approvals involving 27 GM crops and 336 GM events (NB: an "event" is a specific genetic modification in a specific species) have been issued by authorities, of which 1,321 are for food use (direct use or processing), 918 for feed use (direct use or processing) and 599 for environmental release or planting. Japan has the largest number (198), followed by the U.S.A. (165, not including "stacked" events), Canada (146), Mexico (131), South Korea (103), Australia (93), New Zealand (83), European Union (71 including approvals that have expired or under renewal process), Philippines (68), Taiwan (65), Colombia (59), China (55) and South Africa (52). Maize has the largest number (130 events in 27 countries), followed by cotton (49 events in 22 countries), potato (31 events in 10 countries), canola (30 events in 12 countries) and soybean (27 events in 26 countries).[1]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: GM foods are controversial and the subject of protests, vandalism, referenda, legislation, court action[206] and scientific disputes. The controversies involve consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations and scientists. The key areas are whether GM food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the effect of GM crops on health and the environment, the effects of pesticide use and resistance, the impact on farmers, and their roles in feeding the world and energy production.

text: There is a scientific consensus[207][9][208][209] that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,[210][211][212][14][15] but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.[16][17][213] Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.[19][20][21][214] The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.[23][24][25][26]

text: No reports of ill effects have been documented in the human population from GM food.[215][216][217] Although GM crop labeling is required in many countries, the United States Food and Drug Administration does not require labeling, nor does it recognize a distinction between approved GM and non-GM foods.[218] The federal government of the United States passed a law that requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018, and allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site.[219]

text: Advocacy groups such as Center for Food Safety, Union of Concerned Scientists, Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Fund claim that risks related to GM food have not been adequately examined and managed, that GM crops are not sufficiently tested and should be labelled, and that regulatory authorities and scientific bodies are too closely tied to industry.[citation needed] Some studies have claimed that genetically modified crops can cause harm;[220][221] a 2016 review that reanalyzed the data from six of these studies found that their statistical methodologies were flawed and did not demonstrate harm, and said that conclusions about GM crop safety should be drawn from "the totality of the evidence... instead of far-fetched evidence from single studies".[222]


document_title: 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship

question_text: who is broadcasting the college football national champions

root

text: Background[edit]

text: The Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015.[2]

tag: p

text: 2018 College Football Playoff[edit]

text:
Semifinals

Championship

January 1 – Sugar Bowl

Mercedes-Benz Superdome, New Orleans

  1
  Clemson
6

  4
  Alabama
24

January 8 – National Championship

Mercedes-Benz Stadium, Atlanta

  4
  Alabama (OT)
26

January 1 – Rose Bowl

Rose Bowl, Pasadena

  3
  Georgia
23

  2
  Oklahoma
48

  3
  Georgia (2OT)
54

tag: table

text:
view
talk
edit

tag: ul

text: The College Football Playoff (CFP) selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide.[3]

text: Teams[edit]

text: Alabama[edit]

text: The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24–6 to reach the championship game. The Tide had a 12–1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers. The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban.[4]

text: Georgia[edit]

text: The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54–48 in double overtime to reach the championship game. The Bulldogs had a 13–1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers, 28–7. The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart.[5]

text: Game summary[edit]

text: After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game. After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown. Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40-yard field goal. The teams each had three-and-outs for the game's first two punts. During Georgia's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score.[6]

text: After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41-yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three. Alabama's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted. Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10-yard-line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6–0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half. On Alabama's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama's JK Scott punted for the third time. Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury. Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1:19 remaining in the half on their own 31-yard-line. Nine plays later, on Alabama's 1-yard-line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13–0 going into halftime.[6]

text: Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half. They started their drive on their own 22-yard-line. Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three-and-out. The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt. Georgia started their drive on their own 36-yard-line, but punted on 4th & 17. Alabama took over on their own 44-yard-line.[6] The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6-yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80-yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20–7. On the second play of Alabama's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia's Deandre Baker. Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama's 39-yard-line. The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40-yard-line. The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43-yard field goal that put Bama within ten. The teams then traded punts. Just prior to Alabama's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency". He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious. Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted. The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3:49. With three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game-winning 36-yard field goal to the left, sending the game to overtime.[6]

text: In overtime, Georgia scored on a 51-yard field goal. On Alabama's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16-yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game-winning 41-yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith.[6] Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game.[7]

text: Scoring summary[edit]

text:
[hide]Scoring summary

Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score

Plays
Yards
TOP
Alabama
Georgia

2
14:14
14
55
7:40
Georgia
41-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship
0
3

2
7:33
13
70
5:19
Georgia
27-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship
0
6

2
0:07
9
69
1:12
Georgia
Mecole Hardman 1-yard touchdown run, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good
0
13

3
8:52
7
56
1:59
Alabama
Henry Ruggs III 6-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa, Andy Pappanastos kick good
7
13

3
6:52
4
93
1:55
Georgia
Mecole Hardman 80-yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good
7
20

3
5:20
6
15
1:06
Alabama
43-yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos
10
20

4
9:24
8
71
2:15
Alabama
30-yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos
13
20

4
3:49
8
66
3:21
Alabama
Calvin Ridley 7-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa, Andy Pappanastos kick good
20
20

OT

4
-9

Georgia
51-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship
20
23

OT

2
25

Alabama
DeVonta Smith 41-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa
26
23

"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
26
23

text: Statistics[edit]

text:
1
2
3
4
OT
Total

No. 4 Crimson Tide
0
0
10
10
6
26

No. 3 Bulldogs
0
13
7
0
3
23

text:
Statistics
Alabama
Georgia

First downs
20
22

Plays–yards
71–371
77–365

Rushes–yards
39–184
45–133

Passing yards
187
232

Passing: Comp–Att–Int
17–32–1
16–32–2

Time of possession
26:17
33:43

Sources: ESPN, StatBroadcast

text:
Team
Category
Player
Statistics

Alabama
Passing
Tua Tagovailoa
14/24, 166 yds, 3 TD, 1 INT

Rushing
Najee Harris
6 car, 64 yds

Receiving
Calvin Ridley
4 rec, 32 yds, 1 TD

Georgia
Passing
Jake Fromm
16/32, 232 yds, 1 TD, 2 INT

Rushing
Sony Michel
14 car, 98 yds

Receiving
Riley Ridley
6 rec, 82 yds

Sources: ESPN, StatBroadcast

text: Broadcasting[edit]

text: The game was televised nationally by ESPN. On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime. This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes-Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park.[8]

text: Dispute[edit]

text: Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers in the 2018 Peach Bowl, the UCF Knights claimed the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football.[9] [3] UCF held a victory parade at Disney World[10] and hung a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement.[11] The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches, many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska; Frost himself (who coached UCF in the game) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract.[12]

text: The selection committee controversially ranked undefeated UCF 12th at the end of the regular season, below a number of two-loss teams from the Power Five conferences, which left them out of the CFP. The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll, receiving 57 first-place votes, while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first-place votes — the first time in the CFP era that the AP poll did not have a unanimous No. 1 team.[13] Additionally, the Knights finished the 2017 football season as the No. 1 team in the Colley Bias Free Matrix Rankings. The Colley Matrix is recognized by the NCAA in its list of “national champion major selections.” [14]


document_title: Jacobs (surname)

question_text: where did the last name jacobs come from

text: Jacobs (surname)

text:
JacobsEtymology
"son of Jacob"Connected families
Jacob, Jacobson

text:
Jacobs is a patronymic medieval surname.  Its origin is from the given name Jacob, derived from the Latin Jacobus, itself derived from the Hebrew language personal name Yaakov, from the Hebrew word akev ("heel").  It is a common in English speaking countries.  There are many variant spellings. The first record of the surname is in 1244 in the "Cartularium Monasterii de Rameseia".[1]
Jacobs is also an ancient Anglo-Saxon surname that came from the baptismal name Jacob. The surname Jacobs referred to the son of Jacob which belongs to the category of patronymic surnames.
People with the surname Jacobs include:

text:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

text: A[edit]

text:
A. J. Jacobs (born 1968), American journalist and author
AJ Jacobs (born 1985), South African rugby referee
Aad Jacobs (born 1936), Dutch businessman
Abe Jacobs (born 1938), New Zealand professional wrestler
Adolph Jacobs (1939–2014), American guitar player
Adrian Jacobs (born 1980), South African rugby player
Alan Jacobs (born 1958), American film director and screenwriter
Aletta Jacobs (1854–1929), Dutch physician, feminist and pacifist
Alfred Jacobs (1897–1976), Australian activist for civil liberties and Aboriginal rights
Allan Jacobs (born 1928), American urban designer, planner and writer
Alma Smith Jacobs (1916–1997), American librarian
Ananda Jacobs (born 1983), American actress, singer, model, producer and composer
Andreas Jacobs (born 1963), German businessman
Andy Jacobs (born 1952), British sports radio personality
Anja Jacobs (born 1974), German film director
Anthony Jacobs, Baron Jacobs (born 1931), British businessman and politician
Ariël Jacobs (born 1953), Belgian football player and manager
Arnold Jacobs (1892–1974), Argentine cricketer
Arnold Jacobs (1915–1998), American orchestral tuba player
Art Jacobs (1902–1967), American baseball pitcher
Arthur Jacobs (1922–1996), English musicologist
Arthur I. Jacobs (1858–1918), American drill-chuck innovator
Arthur P. Jacobs (1922–1973), American film producer

text: B[edit]

text:
Bárbara Jacobs (born 1947), Mexican writer
Ben Jacobs (born 1982), Australian rugby player
Ben Jacobs (born 1988), American football player
Ben Jacobs (born 1992), Australian rules footballer
Benjamin R. Jacobs (1879–1963), American biochemist
Bert Jacobs (1941–1999), Dutch football player and manager
Beverley Jacobs (born 1965), Canadian First Nation lawyer and activist
Bobby Jacobs (born 1965), Dutch bassist and composer for the prog-rock group Focus
Blair Jacobs (born 1970), English radio presenter
Brad Jacobs (born 1985), Canadian curler
Brandon Jacobs (born 1982), American football player
Brian Jacobs (born 1995), Dutch footballer
Brian Jacobs, American actor
Bruce Jacobs (born 1964), American talk radio host
Bruce Jacobs (born 1975), South African field hockey player

text: C[edit]

text:
C. Scott Jacobs, American communication theorist
Cameron Jacobs (born 1989), South African rugby player
Carol Jacobs (born c. 1950), American board game (reversi) player
Carrie Jacobs-Bond (1862–1946), American singer, pianist, and songwriter
Charles Fenno Jacobs (1904–1974), American photographer
Charles Jacobs (born 1970) American judge
Charlotte Jacobs (1847–1916), Dutch feminist and pharmacist
Charly Jacobs (de; fr; nl) (1948–2013), Belgian footballer
Chris Jacobs (actor), American co-host of Discovery Channel television show Overhaulin'
Chris Jacobs (born 1964), American swimmer
Christian Jacobs (born1972), American musician, television producer and actor
Christianne Meneses Jacobs (born 1971), Nicaraguan American writer, editor, and teacher
Clare Jacobs (1886–1971), American pole vaulter

text: D[edit]

text:
Dan Jacobs (born 1942), American jazz trumpeter
Dan Jacobs (born 1982), American metal guitarist with the band Atreyu
Daniel Jacobs (born 1987), American professional boxer
Daniel Jacobs (born 1949), Canadian pilot and engineer
Danny Jacobs (born 1968), American voice actor
Danny Jacobs (born 1980), Australian rules footballer
David Jacobs (1888–1976), Welsh sprinter
David Jacobs (c. 1973–2008), American personal trainer, convicted steroid dealer and informant
David Jacobs (born 1977), Indonesian table tennis player
Debbie Jacobs (born 1955), American disco singer
Dennis Jacobs (born 1944), American judge
Dolly Jacobs (born 1957), American circus aerialist

text: E[edit]

text:
Edgar P. Jacobs (1904–1987), Belgian comic book writer and artist
Édouard Jacobs (1851–1925), Belgian cellist
Elizabeth Jacobs (1903–1983), American anthropologist
Elsy Jacobs (1933–1988), Luxembourgian road bicycle racer
Elmer F. Jacobs (born 1945), American architect
Ethel D. Jacobs (1910–2001), American racehorse owner/breeder
Eva E. Jacobs (died 2015), American statistician

text: F[edit]

text:
Ferdinand Jacobs (c. 1713–1783), English Hudson's Bay Company officer
Ferne Jacobs (born 1942), an American fiber artist
Ferris Jacobs, Jr. (1836–1886), American (New York) politician and Union Army general
Francis Jacobs (born 1939), British jurist
Franklin Jacobs (born 1957), an American high jumper
Friedrich Jacobs (1764–1847), German classical scholar

text: G[edit]

text:
Garry Jacobs (born 1946), American sociologist
Gary Jacobs (born 1952), American television comedy writer and producer
Gary Jacobs (born 1965), Scottish boxer
George Jacobs, Sr. (c. 1620–1692), hanged for witchcraft in Salem witch trials
George Jacobs (1877–1945), American inventor
George W. "Doc" Jacobs (died 1968), American basketball coach
Georges Jacobs (born 1940), Belgian businessman
Gerald Jacobs, British author
Gillian Jacobs (born 1982), American actress
Glenn Jacobs (born 1967), American professional wrestler better known as Kane
Graeme Jacobs (born 1944), Australian rules footballer

text: H[edit]

text:
Hans Jacobs (1907–1994), German sailplane designer and pioneer
Harriet Ann Jacobs (1813–1897), African-American writer and abolitionist
Harry Jacobs (fl. 1904), American tug of war athlete
Harry Jacobs (born 1937), American football player
Heidi Hayes Jacobs (born 1948), American educator and businesswoman
Helen Jacobs (1908–1997), American tennis player
Helene Jacobs (1906–1993), German Resistance member
Henri Jacobs (fr; nl) (1864–1935), Belgian architect
Henry Jacobs (1824–1901), first Dean of Christchurch, New Zealand
Henry Jacobs (1924–2015), American sound artist and humorist
Henry Eyster Jacobs (1844–1911), American religious figure and writer
Herbert Jacobs, (1903-1987), American journalist and inventor of Jacobs Method for Crowd Measurement
Hirsch Jacobs (1904–1970), American horse trainer
Howard Jacobs, American sports lawyer

text: I[edit]

text:
Irwin M. Jacobs (born 1933), American co-founder of Qualcomm
Israel Jacobs (1726–1796), colonial Pennsylvania politician

text: J[edit]

text:
Jack Jacobs (1919–1974), American and Canadian football player
Jack H. Jacobs (born 1945),American Medal of Honor recipient
Jaco Jacobs (born 1980), South African children's book author
Jacob Jacobs (1812–1879), Belgian painter
Jacob Jacobs (1890–1977), Yiddish theater and vaudeville director, producer, etc.
James Jacobs, American game designer
James B. Jacobs (born 1947), American law professor
Jane Jacobs (1916–2006), American-Canadian urbanist
Jane Jacobs (born 1924),  All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player
Jane M. Jacobs (born 1958), Australian geographer
Janet Jacobs (born 1928), All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player
Janice L. Jacobs (born 1946), American Foreign Service Officer
Jay Jacob (1911–2013), American founder of Jay Jacobs clothing retailer
Jay Jacobs (born 1938), American sports announcer
Jay Jacobs (born 1953), American politician
Jay Jacobs (born c. 1964), American athletic director
Jean-Charles Jacobs (1821–1907), Belgian physician and entomologist
Jerry A. Jacobs (born 1955), American sociologist
Jill Jacobs (born 1951), American educator and wife of Vice President Joe Biden
Jill Jacobs (born 1975), American Conservative rabbi
Jim Jacobs (born 1942), American composer, lyricist, and writer
Jimmy Jacobs (1930–1988), American handball player and boxing manager
Jimmy Jacobs (born 1984), American professional wrestler
Joan Jacobs Brumberg (born 1944), American social historian
Jochem Jacobs (born 1977), Dutch guitarist, producer and recording engineer
Joe Jacobs (born 1970), American Arena Football league player
Joe Jacobs (actor) (born 1983), English actor
John Jacobs (1925–2017), English golfer
John Jacobs (born 1945), American golfer
John Jacobs (1947–1997), American student and anti-war activist
John Jacobs (born 1959), American evangelist and bodybuilder
John C. Jacobs (1838–1894), New York politician
John Henry Jacobs (1847–1934), American sandstone industrialist
Johnny Jacobs (1916–1982), American television announcer
Jon Jacobs (born 1966), British actor and entrepreneur
Jos Jacobs (born 1953), Belgian road bicycle racer
Josef Jacobs (1894–1978), German pilot
Joseph Jacobs (1854–1916), Australian-born folklorist, literary critic and historian
Joseph J. Jacobs (1916–2004), American engineer and businessman
Julian Jacobs (born 1937), American judge
Julian Jacobs (born 1994), American basketball player
June Jacobs, British Jewish peace activist

text: K[edit]

text:
Kate Jacobs (born 1959), American singer-songwriter
Katie Jacobs Stanton (born 1969), American businesswoman, head of international strategy at Twitter
Keaghan Jacobs (born 1989), South African footballer
Ken Jacobs (born 1933), American experimental filmmaker
Kenneth Jacobs (born 1917), Australian judge
Kenneth M. Jacobs (born c. 1958), American businessman, CEO of Lazard
Klaus Johann Jacobs (1936–2008), German-born Swiss billionaire
Kristin Jacobs (born 1959), American politician, mayor of Broward County, Florida
Kyle Jacobs (born 1973), American country musician and songwriter
Kyle Jacobs (born 1991), South African footballer

text: L[edit]

text:
L. Rowley Jacobs (c.1823–1890s), itinerant American portrait painter
Laura Jacobs, American novelist, journalist, and dance critic
Laura Ann Jacobs, (born 1960) American sculptor and mixed media artist
Lawrence Jacobs (born 1955), American News Corporation executive and lawyer
Leighshe Jacobs (born 1985), South African cricketer
Lesedi Sheya Jacobs (born 1997), Namibian tennis player
Lewis Jacobs (1904–1997), American author, director and publisher
Lionel M. Jacobs ( 1842–1922), American businessman and politician
Lodewijk Jacobs (born 1951), Dutch sprint canoer
Lohan Jacobs (born 1991), South African rugby player
Lou Jacobs (1903–1992), American circus clown
Louis Jacobs (1920–2006), British Orthodox rabbi
Louis L. Jacobs (born 1948), American vertebrate paleontologist

text: M[edit]

text:
Manis Jacobs (1782–1839), Dutch-born rabbi in New Orleans
Marc Jacobs (born 1963), American fashion designer
Margaret D. Jacobs (born 1963), American historian
Marie-Josée Jacobs (born 1950), politician from Luxembourg
Marion Walter Jacobs (Little Walter') (1930–1968), American blues harmonica player
Marius Jacobs (es; nl) (1929–1983), Dutch botanist
Mark Jacobs (born 1951), American writer and diplomat
Mark Jacobs, American video game executive
Mark Jacobs, American documentary maker
Mary Frick Garrett Jacobs (1851–1936), American socialite, philanthropist, and art collector.
Matthew Jacobs (born 1985), English-born rugby player
Maxwell Ralph Jacobs (1905-1979), Australian forester
Michael Jacobs (born 1952), travel and arts writer
Michael Jacobs (producer) (born 1955), American producer and playwright
Michael Jacobs (born 1991), English footballer
Michael J. Jacobs (born 1952), English photojournalist
Mike Jacobs (1877–1949), American baseball player
Mike Jacobs (1880–1953), American boxing promoter
Mike Jacobs (born 1960), American (Illinois) politician
Mike Jacobs (born c. 1976), American (Georgia) politician
Mike Jacobs (born 1980), American baseball player

text: N[edit]

text:
Nancy Jacobs (born 1951), American (Maryland) politician
Nat Jacobs (born 1939), English boxer
Noel Jacobs (1898–1977), English commander in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps

text: O[edit]

text:
Olu Jacobs (born 1942), Nigerian actor
Onno Jacobs (born 1964), Dutch businessman associated with FC Feyenoord
Orange Jacobs (1827–1914), American lawyer, newspaper publisher, and politician
Otto Jacobs (1889–1955), American baseball catcher

text: P[edit]

text:
Parker Jacobs (born 1975), American musician and graphic designer
Patricia Jacobs (born 1934), British geneticist
Patti Ruffner Jacobs (1875–1935), American suffragist
Paul Jacobs (1894–1973), Canadian First Nation hockey player
Paul Jacobs (1918–1978), American activist
Paul Jacobs (born 1949), Flemish author
Paul Jacobs (born 1977), American organist
Paul Jacobs (1930–1983), American pianist
Paul E. Jacobs (born 1962), American Chief Executive Officer of Qualcomm
Paul Emil Jacobs (1802–1866), German painter
Paul Ross Jacobs (born 1950), American composer and musician
Pete Jacobs (1899-c.1952), American jazz drummer
Pete Jacobs (born 1981), Australian triathlete
Peter Jacobs (fencer) (born 1938), British Olympic fencer
Peter Jacobs (lacrosse) (born 1973), American lacrosse player
Petrus Jacobs (1910–1967), South African military commander
Pieter Jacobs (born 1986), Belgian road bicycle racer
Pim Jacobs (1934–1996), Dutch jazz pianist and television presenter

text: Q[edit]

text: Quinton Jacobs (born 1979), Namibian footballer

text: R[edit]

text:
Regina Jacobs (born 1963), American middle distance runner
René Jacobs (born 1946), Belgian conductor and countertenor
Sir Roland Ellis Jacobs (1891–1981), South Australian businessman
Richard Jacobs (1925–2009), American businessman
Richard Jacobs (born 1956), American Reform rabbi
Ridley Jacobs (born 1967), Antiguan cricketer
Rob Jacobs (born 1943), Dutch football player and manager
Robert Nelson Jacobs (born 1954), American screenwriter
Rodger Jacobs (born 1959), American writer
Ron Jacobs (1928–2002), English rugby player
Ron Jacobs (1937–2016), American broadcaster
Ron Jacobs (1942–2015), American basketball coach
Rusty Jacobs (born 1967), American film actor
Ruud Jacobs (de; nl) (born 1938), Dutch jazz-bassist and music producer

text: S[edit]

text:
Sam Jacobs (born 1938), American Roman Catholic bishop
Sam Jacobs (born 1988), Australian rules footballer
S. J. Jacobs, Samuel Joshua Jacobs (1853–1937), South Australian businessman
Samuel William Jacobs (1871–1938), Canadian lawyer and politician
Sean Divine Jacobs (born 1976), American rapper
Simeon Jacobs (1839–1885), South African judge
Simmone Jacobs (born 1966), British sprinter
Solomon Jacobs (1861–1920), English rabbi
Steve Jacobs (born 1967), Australian actor
Steven Jacobs (born 1967), Australian television presenter and actor
Steven Jacobs (born 1987), Belgian footballer
Steven L. Jacobs (born 1947), American historian
Stu Jacobs (born 1965), New Zealand footballer
Susan S. Jacobs (born c. 1945), American diplomat and children's rights activist

text: T[edit]

text:
Thomas M. Jacobs (1926–2014), American Nordic skier
Thornwell Jacobs (1877–1956), American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister.
Tim Jacobs (born 1952), Canadian ice hockey player
Tommy Jacobs (born 1935), American golfer
Tramain Jacobs (born 1992), American football player
Trevor Jacobs (born 1946), English footballer

text: U[edit]

text: V[edit]

text: W[edit]

text:
W. W. Jacobs (1863–1943), English author
Walter Jacobs (1930–1968), American blues harmonica player
Walter Abraham Jacobs (1883–1967), American chemist
Washington Michael Jacobs (1828–1899), American miner
Wayne Jacobs (born 1969), English footballer and football coach
Werner Jacobs (1909–1999), German film director
Wilfred Jacobs (1919–1995), Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda
William H. Jacobs (1831–1882), German-born American legislator and banker

text: X[edit]

text: Y[edit]

text: Z[edit]

text:
Zina Jacobs (1821–1901), American Mormon pioneer
Zane Jacobs (2004-???)


document_title: House of Cards (season 5)

question_text: who becomes the president in house of cards season 5

text: House of Cards (season 5)

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting began for the season on June 17, 2016.[1] Filming had begun by July 20, 2016,[2] and finished by February 14, 2017.[3]

text: On January 28, 2016, Netflix renewed House of Cards for a fifth season. It was also announced that series creator Beau Willimon would step down as showrunner following the fourth season.[4] It was announced in February 2016 that Melissa James Gibson and Frank Pugliese, who both joined the show in the third season, would serve as co-showrunners for the fifth season,[5] which was released on May 30, 2017.[6] In October 2016, it was announced that Patricia Clarkson and Campbell Scott had been cast for the fifth season.[7] The first trailer for the season was released on May 1, 2017.[8]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Kevin Spacey as Francis "Frank" J. Underwood, the President of the United States[9]
Robin Wright as Claire Underwood, First Lady of the United States, former United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Democratic Vice Presidential Nominee, Vice President of the United States and the President of the United States[9]
Michael Kelly as Douglas "Doug" Stamper, the White House Chief of Staff[9]
Campbell Scott as Mark Usher,[10] top-level Republican campaign adviser and strategist
Patricia Clarkson as Jane Davis,[10] Deputy Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade
Paul Sparks as Thomas Yates,[9] speechwriter and Claire Underwood's lover
Derek Cecil as Seth Grayson,[11] the White House Press Secretary
Neve Campbell as LeAnn Harvey,[9] a Texas-based political consultant, the Underwood campaign manager
Joel Kinnaman as Will Conway, the Republican nominee for president and Governor of New York[9]
Dominique McElligott as Hannah Conway,[9] wife of New York Governor and Republican presidential nominee Will Conway
Boris McGiver as Tom Hammerschmidt, an editor at The Washington Herald and Lucas Goodwin's former boss
Korey Jackson as Sean Jeffries, a young reporter at The Washington Herald working under Hammerschmidt
Jayne Atkinson as Catherine Durant, Secretary of State[11]
Colm Feore as General Ted Brockhart, Republican Vice-Presidential Nominee
Damian Young as Aidan Macallan, a data scientist and NSA contractor who is friends with LeAnn Harvey
James Martinez as Alex Romero, a Democratic congressman from Arizona
Michel Gill as Garrett Walker, the former President of the United States and Frank's predecessor
Gerald McRaney as Raymond Tusk, former associate of President Walker's and Frank's adversary
Larry Pine as Bob Birch, the House Minority Leader and a Democratic U.S. Representative from Michigan
Curtiss Cook as Terry Womack, the House Minority Whip
Lars Mikkelsen as Viktor Petrov, the President of the Russian Federation
Wendy Moniz as Laura Moretti, widow of a liver transplant candidate
Reed Birney as Donald Blythe, the Vice President of the United States
Malcolm Madera as Eric Rawlings, a Civil War reenactor and personal trainer
Kate Lyn Sheil as Lisa Williams, a girlfriend of Rachel Posner's before Rachel's death
Jeremy Holm as Agent Nathan Green, the Deputy Director of the FBI
Kim Dickens as Kate Baldwin, a journalist and former White House Correspondent for the Wall Street Telegraph
Dan Ziskie as Jim Matthews, former Vice President of the United States and Governor of Pennsylvania.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

53
1
"Chapter 53"
Daniel Minahan
Frank Pugliese
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-501

Chaos erupts when Frank steals the floor of the House and demands that Congress formally declare war on ICO. When the Speaker insists that Frank yield the floor, he insists that he "will not yield." Later, Frank and Claire attend Jim Miller's funeral, which is also attended by Will Conway and his wife. During the service, Jim's daughter Melissa blames Frank for the death of her father, before whispering something in his ear. Claire appears on Charlie Rose to debate Hammerschmidt, who claims that Frank's war on ICO is a diversion. Meanwhile, Conway goes into damage control when his wife claims that the mother of Josh Masterson is a victim, too. Claire speaks with Ms. Masterson and asks that she tell her son to surrender. The manhunt for Masterson heats up as the FBI closes in on a location on the Virginia border. However, Frank has been holding Masterson captive in an unknown location and has him summarily executed, informing the press that he "wishes" Masterson had been taken alive. Frank calls to speak with the Millers, but Jim's widow hangs up on him. Afterwards, Frank and Claire greet people outside the White House, telling them they have nothing to be afraid of.

54
2
"Chapter 54"
Daniel Minahan
Melissa James Gibson
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-502

At an event in New York City, Claire is informed that one of Frank's old friends has gone missing and is presumed dead. Meanwhile, Frank hosts a luncheon of the nation's governors, seeking to gain the support of the governors from five critical swing states. Catherine Durant states her opposition to Frank's "war" on terror, while Donald Blythe believes it has helped his poll numbers. Meanwhile, Aidan Macallan attempts to hack into a telecom switching center and delete everything that may implicate him and the Underwoods. As Aidan nervously awaits the file deletion, electronic devices around the Washington, D.C. area are affected in what Frank claims is an ICO cyber attack. He uses the incident to pressure Congress to accept his declaration of war. Meanwhile, Conway takes his kids trick-or-treating, but as the military mobilizes in response to the cyber attack, he has an outburst on live TV which Frank and Claire drink to.

55
3
"Chapter 55"
Alik Sakharov
John Mankiewicz
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-503

The day before the 2016 election, Conway holds a 24-hour live-stream call-in with voters and is asked a question by someone who knows about his time in the military; Hannah insists that Will is too humble to discuss the topic. While Claire and Frank campaign together in Pennsylvania, Doug confronts Governor Matthews for not following through with establishing voting centers or bringing in the National Guard. Back in D.C., Cathy alerts Frank to a Syrian national with strong ICO connections named Mohammad Kalabi. With Conway getting all the publicity, Frank calls into the 24-hour live stream and tells Conway that he can ask him any question he wants. Will responds by asking why he was never given a chance to complete the mission and save Mr. Miller after successfully negotiating the release of Miller's wife and daughter. Frank says the terrorists could tell Conway was weak, meaning Frank had to step in and take control. Frank's last-minute call grabs the morning headlines. However, the Underwoods are given worrying news: voter turnout is unsettlingly low across the country. Frank, however, insists that they are not going anywhere.

56
4
"Chapter 56"
Alik Sakharov
Kenneth Lin
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-504

On Election Day, voter turnout for Frank and Claire is low, and the polls are working in Conway's favor, yet he remains cautious. Frank calls the governor of Tennessee and tells him that the home of a suspected terrorist has been raided and a plot to bomb the state's polling stations has been uncovered, urging him to shut them down. A riot caused by a bomb-sniffing dog occurs at one Tennessee polling station and injures several people. Frank is able to convince the governor to halt voting and declare a state of emergency. A curfew is enacted, much to Conway's dismay. Amid terrorist threats, the governor of Ohio calls Frank and says he is considering closing down polling stations, while Frank adamantly tells him not to, pretending that he doesn’t want that to happen. After Conway wins the state of Pennsylvania, Frank calls him to concede the election, but slyly says to the camera audience, "What, do you think I learned nothing from Al Gore?" In the wake of the call, Conway, his wife Hannah, and some of his advisers are elated, but his campaign manager Mark Usher remains skeptical. Several hours pass and Frank has yet to publicly announce his concession, frustrating Conway. At that moment, the governor of Ohio makes a national TV broadcast to announce he felt he had no choice to close the Ohio polls due to the potential terror threat and that the results are not certifiable as a result. Several more states hold their election results as well, thereby leaving the election contested. In the Oval Office, Frank and Claire discuss remaining in power for decades to come.

57
5
"Chapter 57"
Michael Morris
Laura Eason
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-505

Nine weeks have passed since the unresolved election, which will now be decided by a contingent election in the House. A frustrated Conway believes he was fairly elected, and begins to show signs of a potential breakdown. Despite Frank's approval rating falling to 19%, Claire says they are done winning the American people and must now win over Congress. Hammerschmidt meets with Lisa Williams to discuss information regarding Doug, but he is hesitant to believe her. Frank talks to convince Alex Romero, a Democratic congressman, to sway other House Democrats to vote for him. Aidan, who had previously gone missing, calls LeAnn to tell her that he will leak incriminating information on the Underwoods if she doesn't get the authorities off his back. While LeAnn is able to flip a vote from Maine, Doug fails to win New Hampshire. On the day of the vote, Claire asks Donald to prevent a filibuster and keep Republicans off the floor. When he refuses, Claire begins insulting him and his late wife. Neither Conway nor Frank receive the 26 votes in the House needed to win, meaning that the Senate's vice presidential selection between Claire and General Ted Brockhart will assume the duties of the Presidency until the House votes again. Claire, alone in the White House residence, walks toward the camera and briefly looks directly at the camera audience as the episode ends.

58
6
"Chapter 58"
Michael Morris
Bill Kennedy
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-506

Claire becomes Acting President of the United States until the House votes again. Frank congratulates her on the position, even if it's just for a few weeks. Durant informs the Underwoods that a research facility in Antarctica has been taken over by an unidentified military group, suspecting the Russians. Meanwhile, it appears that Aidan has been kidnapped and may be forced to reveal secrets. Conway's campaign manager Mark Usher is able to secure a meeting for Conway with the Congressional Black Caucus, in the hopes they will consider supporting him instead of Frank, but the meeting goes very poorly. On a private plane back to New York, an exasperated Conway finally cracks under the pressure and curses out Usher, threatening to leave him on the tarmac upon arrival, then berates the pilots for not allowing him to fly the plane and declares maniacally that he will be President. Sean visits Lisa then tells Hammerschmidt, who fires him after discovering that Sean looked through his notes. Hammerschmidt later investigates the death of Zoe Barnes. To avoid a mixed-ticket White House, Frank and Claire are able to convince Usher to support new elections in Ohio and Tennessee, so long as the Speaker approves. Claire, Frank, and Cathy learn it is the Russians who have kidnapped Aidan.

59
7
"Chapter 59"
Alik Sakharov
Tian Jun Gu
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-507

Claire and Frank argue over Mark Usher and are briefed in the Situation Room about the potential location of Ahmed Al Ahmadi, the leader of ICO. The generals believe Ahmed is in Damascus, but they’re divided on how to approach the situation. Hammerschmidt continues his investigation into Rachel Posner and her possible connection to Doug. Claire holds a meeting with Cathy and Jane Davis, but the three are moved to a bunker underground when a truck carrying radioactive material is missing. Doug calls LeAnn and Seth from the bunker, telling them to keep calm. Frank and Claire question Jane's security clearance. Doug informs Frank of a hot-mic recording where Brockhart says he’d actively tell his troops to disobey orders if Frank put them on the borders of Syria. Frank leaves the bunker and accuses Brockhart of orchestrating a fake terrorist threat in order to make them evacuate D.C. and effectively stage a coup d'etat to sabotage his election; after Brockhart names the general behind the plot, the truck is "found." The general is forced to resign, but not before telling Claire that neither she nor her husband deserve to be in the White House. The next day, the Underwoods accuse Usher of being involved in the incident, playing the Brockhart audio tape. When Usher insists he stop, Frank says "it gets so much better".

60
8
"Chapter 60"
Roxann Dawson
John Mankiewicz
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-508

Frank attends an elite weekend retreat to firm up support for the upcoming elections in Ohio and Tennessee. Among the attendees are Usher, Brockhart, Raymond Tusk, and Benjamin Grant, the head of Pollyhop. Claire is awakened in the middle of the night and hurried into the Situation Room, informed that a Russian research vessel carrying 100 people is sinking in the Antarctic. The next morning, Frank and Brockhart chat about the Al Ahmadi situation. After negotiating trade deals with China, Jane reveals to Claire that they are willing to aid the rescue, as there’s an American aboard the Russian ship. Claire asks for proof of the American's presence before moving forward. In the woods, Frank contacts Doug and tells him that Brockhart is making a deal with Tusk, and orders Doug to stop it. Frank remembers something that Tusk mentioned ("A little restraint would be unexpected") and tells Doug not to act on it. Claire plays hard ball with China on the rescue operation and a trade deal. Though China is hesitant at first, the rescue mission goes through and China gets credit, but the lost American is not found. On his way out, Grant gives Frank a recording of Conway's tirade on the plane. The next day, Frank and Claire meet with Usher in the Oval Office and inform him of the recording. With that leverage, the Underwoods are able to recruit Usher, who advises them how to release the recording.

61
9
"Chapter 61"
Roxann Dawson
Bill Kennedy
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-509

After winning the Ohio election, Frank becomes President-elect of the United States. Frank offers Conway a menial position when he calls to concede, prompting Conway to curse him. Frank and Claire celebrate with champagne in the Oval Office. Doug believes it is unwise to allow LeAnn and Usher into the administration; Frank agrees that LeAnn's connection to Aidan is worrisome, but Usher should stay. Meanwhile, LeAnn has lunch with Kate Baldwin, revealing she is being kicked out because Aidan stole NSA files and might leak classified material in Russia. Tom informs Claire that he is finished being her speechwriter. Romero threatens the Underwoods, saying he will convince Congress to reopen the Declaration of War Committee to investigate them. He demands two seats on the dais at Frank's inauguration and a line in the inaugural address about Medicare. Frank is sworn in, but his address does not address Romero or his concerns. Aidan unwillingly agrees to do an interview in Russia with Kate. However, he calls LeAnn, who tells him policemen have come to arrest him. During the inaugural ball, Frank and Eric Rawlings, the civil war re-enactor and personal trainer, share a darkly intimate moment. In the halls of the West Wing, Frank tells Claire that Congress is reopening its investigation into Frank. As the party breaks up, Frank blackmails Tom and tells him not to cheat on Claire again. Meanwhile, Hammerschmidt contacts Zoe's father, who reluctantly meets with him and says he had no idea that Zoe was in trouble. LeAnn, under the impression that giving up Aidan would save her job, is shocked when Doug fires her. In the Oval Office, Claire and Frank meet with Jane. Frank says he wants Aidan back on American soil.

62
10
"Chapter 62"
Agnieszka Holland
Kenneth Lin
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-510

As Frank discovers Jackie Sharp will be testifying before the Declaration of War Committee, Claire is informed that the American from the Antarctic expedition froze to death. Claire wants the body to get lost in transit. With Romero heading the committee, Frank tries to get in his good graces again by offering him the position of party whip. Romero, however, is not looking to negotiate. Jackie pleads the Fifth during her testimony. LeAnn becomes concerned about Aidan, who isn't willing to reveal what he told the Russians. Jane makes it clear that what is important is learning what Aidan divulged. She also informs the Underwoods that a gas attack is imminent in Homs, Syria, advising that they send in 30,000 troops after the attack and divert the committee's attention. When Frank and Claire tell Durant, she begins questioning the operation and later voices her protest to Jane. Doug confronts a frightened Lisa, who then calls Hammerschmidt and tells him about the encounter. LeAnn is confronted in a parking garage by Aidan, who is alive. The two share a close moment before he leaves. Frank is informed that Garrett Walker will be testifying. Though he is expected to plead the Fifth, tension arises when he and Frank meet before the hearing. Walker breaks his silence, revealing that it was Frank who got him involved in the Chinese money dealings. That night, LeAnn is given a voice recording revealing that Aidan has been murdered in his hotel room. Meanwhile, Jane shreds files regarding the dead Antarctic worker and Aidan.

63
11
"Chapter 63"
Agnieszka Holland
Laura Eason
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-511

On MSNBC, Seth and Hammerschmidt debate Walker's credibility in the wake of his testimony. Frank, Claire, Doug, and Usher discuss impeachment and the idea of censure, which Frank and Doug oppose. The next day, Hammerschmidt discovers leaked information that the White House staged the terrorist threat on Election Day. Seth panics in his office, while Frank discusses spying on all White House personnel to identify the leaker. While alone one night in the White House residence, Claire truly breaks the fourth wall for the first time in the series, and speaks directly to the camera audience, telling them that she has always known they have been there, but she is suspicious of them and their intentions, and that she is "ambivalent about attention." The FBI tells LeAnn that Aidan's death looked like a suicide, but the gun is missing. Meanwhile, Claire tells Tom she wants him to leave. Frank is confronted by Bob Birch and Terry Womack, who want Frank to consider resignation. Frank is speechless, partially because Womack himself is under investigation. Doug spies on West Wing staffers and is intrigued when LeAnn receives something unknown from Aidan. After confessing to Laura Moretti that he is the reason her husband died, Doug goes to LeAnn's apartment and the two have sex. An article drops the next day reporting that a source within the White House confirmed that Frank used questionable intelligence to close polling stations during the election. Frank confronts Cathy about this; she is cooperating with Romero. Frank later states that he believes Cathy is the leak, and that he has held on to her resignation. News breaks that Cathy will testify before the committee. An unknown source gives Hammerschimdt a "birthday card" containing a USB flash drive.

64
12
"Chapter 64"
Robin Wright
Frank Pugliese & Melissa James Gibson
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-512

In the Executive Residence, Frank tries to dissuade Cathy Durant from testifying before the committee, but she adamantly refuses his request. On her way out, Frank then pushes her down a flight of stairs, knocking her unconscious, and calls for help, claiming she's fallen. Cathy is hospitalized and thus prevented from testifying. Frank holds a press conference in the Oval Office regarding the Syrian gas bombings. However, reporters ask him about the growing possibility of impeachment. Frank is informed that Hammerschmidt is investigating Zoe's death and believes that it was not an accident. Needing to focus attention away from them, Frank and Claire agree that someone must take the fall for this alleged investigation. The next night, Claire and Frank hold a dinner for Doug, where they try to convince him to take the blame for Zoe's murder. Though initially off-put, Doug goes to LeAnn and "confesses" to the murder, though she doesn't believe him. It is revealed that Doug is in possession of birthday cards similar to those sent to Hammerschmidt. Claire discovers that Tom has been continuing his manuscript, which includes her confessions about the deaths of Zoe and Peter Russo. She goes to visit Tom to convince him not to publish his recent work, but he refuses and threatens to blackmail her. Claire and Tom have sex, but he suddenly dies from poison Claire had put in his whiskey. Mark then comes home the next morning and discovers his body, whereupon he is forced to quietly "dispose" of it. LeAnn and Nathan Green give their testimony. Frank, watching, debates whether he should testify as well. While he is urged not to, Frank goes to the committee, and while he claims to have done nothing wrong, he accuses the committee of trying to sabotage his presidency and that he respects the office too much to allow the investigation to go on. As a result, he announces he will resign the following day.

65
13
"Chapter 65"
Robin Wright
Melissa James Gibson & Frank Pugliese
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-513

Claire protests Frank's resignation, but he concludes it's the best outcome for everyone. Frank reveals that he has been planning this since the weekend retreat before the Ohio and Tennessee elections, where he concluded that the real power is not in who occupies the White House, but who “owns” it. He reveals he is behind the leaks to Hammerschmidt. Claire then confesses to him that she has killed Tom Yates and that there is no way it will lead back to them. After Frank resigns, Claire is sworn in and assumes the presidency, whereupon she leads an operation to track down Yusef Al-Ahmadhi, the elusive ICO terrorist plaguing the U.S. Doug gets interviewed by Hammerschmidt, who is continuing his investigation into Zoe's death. LeAnn is appointed as Claire’s Chief of Staff with the agreement that she turn over everything she knew about Aidan to Jane. However, shortly after she does so, Claire, Davis and Usher claim that the impending war means a more experienced Chief of Staff is needed, and LeAnn is presumably fired or forced to resign. That night, on her way to meet with Doug, LeAnn’s car is run off the road and she is presumed dead. Seth is also replaced at Claire's behest. Frank asks for a public pardon from Claire for both him and Doug. She agrees to do so in her upcoming TV broadcast, but tells Frank that for their secret arrangement to work, he has to leave the White House and make it appear that they are estranged. Frank reluctantly does so. That night, Claire gives her first televised address as the new President, informing the nation that they have killed Ahmadhi and that the U.S. is going to war with ICO. However, she gives no mention of a pardon to Frank or Doug, despite having agreed to do so. Frank, who has been watching the broadcast from his hotel room, angrily calls her to presumably demand an explanation, but Claire rejects the call, and stares towards the camera audience and coldly declares: "My turn."

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 69% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The consensus reads, "House of Cards enjoys a confident return to form this season, though its outlandish edge is tempered slightly by the current political climate."[12] On Metacritic, the season has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[13]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: House of Cards received four major nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series, Kevin Spacey for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Robin Wright for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, and Michael Kelly for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.[14]