document_title: Greek alphabet

question_text: what is the fourth letter of the greek alphabet

question_tokens: what is the fourth letter of the greek alphabet

text: Greek alphabet

text: Letters

text:
Letter
Name
Sound

Ancient[7]
Modern[8]

Α α
alpha, άλφα
[a] [aː]
[a]

Β β
beta, βήτα
[b]
[v]

Γ γ
gamma, γάμμα
[ɡ], [ŋ][ex 1]
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ],
[ŋ][ex 2] ~ [ɲ][ex 3]

Δ δ
delta, δέλτα
[d]
[ð]

Ε ε
epsilon, έψιλον
[e]

Ζ ζ
zeta, ζήτα
[zd]A
[z]

Η η
eta, ήτα
[ɛː]
[i]

Θ θ
theta, θήτα
[tʰ]
[θ]

Ι ι
iota, ιώτα
[i] [iː]
[i], [ʝ],[ex 4] [ɲ][ex 5]

Κ κ
kappa, κάππα
[k]
[k] ~ [c]

Λ λ
lambda, λάμδα
[l]

Μ μ
mu, μυ
[m]

 A Or [dz].[9]

Letter
Name
Sound

Ancient[7]
Modern[8]

Ν ν
nu, νυ
[n]

Ξ ξ
xi, ξι
[ks]

Ο ο
omicron, όμικρον
[o]

Π π
pi, πι
[p]

Ρ ρ
rho, ρώ
[r]

Σ σ/ς[note 1]
sigma, σίγμα
[s]
[s] ~ [z]

Τ τ
tau, ταυ
[t]

Υ υ
upsilon, ύψιλον
[y] [yː]
[i]

Φ φ
phi, φι
[pʰ]
[f]

Χ χ
chi, χι
[kʰ]
[x] ~ [ç]

Ψ ψ
psi, ψι
[ps]

Ω ω
omega, ωμέγα
[ɔː]
[o]

text:
Jump up ^ For example, ἀγκών.
Jump up ^ For example, εγγραφή.
Jump up ^ For example, εγγεγραμμένος.
Jump up ^ For example, βια.
Jump up ^ For example, μια.

text: Sound values

text: In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.[11]

text: Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/b, d, g/) and aspirated plosives (/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:

text:
Former voiced plosives
Former aspirates

Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Labial
Β β
/b/
/v/
Φ φ
/pʰ/
/f/

Dental
Δ δ
/d/
/ð/
Θ θ
/tʰ/
/θ/

Dorsal
Γ γ
/ɡ/
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ]
Χ χ
/kʰ/
[x] ~ [ç]

text: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.

text: The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:

text:
Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Η η
ɛː
> i
Ω ω
ɔː
> o

Ι ι
i(ː)
Ο ο
o

ΕΙ ει
ei
Ε ε
e
> e

Υ υ
u(ː) > y
ΑΙ αι
ai

ΟΙ οι
oi > y

ΥΙ υι
yː > y

text: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

text: Digraphs and letter combinations

text: Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above (⟨ει, αι, οι⟩) (and in some cases the ancient Greek υι, for example υιός), there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/. The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced [av], [ev] and [iv] respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek (or alternatively as [af], [ef] and [if] respectively in devoicing environments) The more ancient combination ⟨ωυ⟩ or ⟨ωϋ⟩ can occur in ancient especially in Ionic texts or in personal names. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd]) respectively; ⟨τζ⟩ stands for [dz] and ⟨τσ⟩ stands for [t͡s]. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal [ŋ]; thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. (Analogously to ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩, ⟨γκ⟩ is also used to stand for [g].) There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩.

text:
Combination
Pronunciation
Devoiced pronunciation

⟨αυ⟩
[av]
[af]

⟨ευ⟩
[ev]
[ef]

⟨ηυ⟩
[iv]
[if]

⟨μπ⟩
[b]

⟨ντ⟩
[d]

⟨τζ⟩
[dz]

⟨τσ⟩
[t͡s]

text: Diacritics

text: In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (ά), the grave accent (ὰ), or the circumflex accent (α̃ or α̑). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (ἁ), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (ἀ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transiliteration rrh.

text: The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ι⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/), which became monophthongized during antiquity.

text: Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (¨), indicating a hiatus.

text: In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.

text: Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, "whatever") from ότι (óti, "that").[12]

text: Romanization

text: There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩) respectively; and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨κ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩, and the vowel combinations ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩ respectively. The letters ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨φ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩; ⟨χ⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩; and word-initial ⟨ρ⟩ as ⟨rh⟩.

text: For Modern Greek, there are multiple different transcription conventions. They differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843),[13] by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,[14] by the Library of Congress,[15] and others.

text: History

text: Origins

text: During the Mycenaean period, from around the 16th century to the 12th century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the 13th century BC. In the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged.[2] The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense,[6] as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.[16]

text: Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (Ι, iota) and [u] (Υ, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ (|aleph) was used for [a] (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ (ʿayin) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron); and the letter for /h/ (he) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega) was introduced.

text: Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for /pʰ/, Χ (chi) for /kʰ/ and Ψ (psi) for /ps/. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.

text:
Phoenician
Greek

aleph
/ʔ/

Α
alpha
/a/, /aː/

beth
/b/

Β
beta
/b/

gimel
/ɡ/

Γ
gamma
/ɡ/

daleth
/d/

Δ
delta
/d/

he
/h/

Ε
epsilon
/e/, /eː/[note 2]

waw
/w/

Ϝ
(digamma)
/w/

zayin
/z/

Ζ
zeta
[zd](?)

heth
/ħ/

Η
eta
/h/, /ɛː/

teth
/tˤ/

Θ
theta
/tʰ/

yodh
/j/

Ι
iota
/i/, /iː/

kaph
/k/

Κ
kappa
/k/

lamedh
/l/

Λ
lambda
/l/

mem
/m/

Μ
mu
/m/

nun
/n/

Ν
nu
/n/

text:
Phoenician
Greek

samekh
/s/

Ξ
xi
/ks/

ʿayin
/ʕ/

Ο
omicron
/o/, /oː/[note 2]

pe
/p/

Π
pi
/p/

ṣade
/sˤ/

Ϻ
(san)
/s/

qoph
/q/

Ϙ
(koppa)
/k/

reš
/r/

Ρ
rho
/r/

šin
/ʃ/

Σ
sigma
/s/

taw
/t/

Τ
tau
/t/

(waw)
/w/

Υ
upsilon
/u/, /uː/

–

Φ
phi
/pʰ/

–

Χ
chi
/kʰ/

–

Ψ
psi
/ps/

–

Ω
omega
/ɔː/

text: Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ (san), which had been in competition with Σ (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with Κ (kappa) for /k/, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.

text: Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon, literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.

text: Archaic variants

text: There were initially numerous local variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. A form of western Greek native to Euboea, which among other things had Χ for /ks/, was transplanted to Italy by early Greek colonists, and became the ancestor of the Old Italic alphabets and ultimately, through Etruscan, of the Latin alphabet. Athens used a local form of the alphabet until the 5th century BC; it lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. The classical 24-letter alphabet that became the norm later was originally the local alphabet of Ionia; this was adopted by Athens in 403 BC under archon Eucleides and in most other parts of the Greek-speaking world during the 4th century BC.

text: Letter names

text: When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.

text: The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα;[17] in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ([ʝ] is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.

text:
Greek alphabet

The names of the letters in spoken Standard Modern Greek

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text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
Phoenician original
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Α
ἄλφα
aleph
alpha
[alpʰa]
[ˈalfa]
/ˈælfə/ ( listen)

Β
βῆτα
beth
beta
[bɛːta]
[ˈvita]
/ˈbiːtə/, US: /ˈbeɪtə/

Γ
γάμμα
gimel
gamma
[ɡamma]
[ˈɣama]
/ˈɡæmə/

Δ
δέλτα
daleth
delta
[delta]
[ˈðelta]
/ˈdɛltə/

Η
ἦτα
heth
eta
[hɛːta], [ɛːta]
[ˈita]
/ˈiːtə/, US: /ˈeɪtə/

Θ
θῆτα
teth
theta
[tʰɛːta]
[ˈθita]
/ˈθiːtə/, US: /ˈθeɪtə/ ( listen)

Ι
ἰῶτα
yodh
iota
[iɔːta]
[ˈʝota]
/aɪˈoʊtə/ ( listen)

Κ
κάππα
kaph
kappa
[kappa]
[ˈkapa]
/ˈkæpə/ ( listen)

Λ
λάμβδα
lamedh
lambda
[lambda]
[ˈlamða]
/ˈlæmdə/ ( listen)

Μ
μῦ
mem
mu
[myː]
[mi]
/ˈmjuː/ ( listen); occasionally US: /ˈmuː/

Ν
νῦ
nun
nu
[nyː]
[ni]
/ˈnjuː/ (US: /ˈnuː/)

Ρ
ῥῶ
reš
rho
[rɔː]
[ro]
/ˈroʊ/ ( listen)

Τ
ταῦ
taw
tau
[tau]
[taf]
/ˈtaʊ/ or /ˈtɔː/

text: In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
Phoenician original
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ζ
ζῆτα
zayin
zeta
[zdɛːta]
[ˈzita]
/ˈziːtə/, US: /ˈzeɪtə/

Ξ
ξεῖ, ξῖ
samekh
xi
[kseː]
[ksi]
/ˈzaɪ/, /ˈksaɪ/

Σ
σίγμα
šin
siɡma
[siɡma]
[ˈsiɣma]
/ˈsɪɡmə/

text: In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖ, indicating an original pronunciation with -ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ι.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ξ
ξεῖ, ξῖ
xi
[kseː]
[ksi]
/ˈzaɪ/, /ˈksaɪ/

Π
πεῖ, πῖ
pi
[peː]
[pi]
/ˈpaɪ/

Φ
φεῖ, φῖ
phi
[pʰeː]
[fi]
/ˈfaɪ/

Χ
χεῖ, χῖ
chi
[kʰeː]
[çi]
/ˈkaɪ/ ( listen)

Ψ
ψεῖ, ψῖ
psi
[pseː]
[psi]
/ˈsaɪ/, /ˈpsaɪ/ ( listen)

text: The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩, pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o") respectively. The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩, while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩, which at this time was pronounced [y], was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Medieval)
Greek (Modern)
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ε
εἶ
ἐ ψιλόν
ἔψιλον
epsilon
[eː]
[ˈepsilon]
/ˈɛpsɪlɒn/, some UK: /ɛpˈsaɪlən/

Ο
οὖ
ὀ μικρόν
ὄμικρον
omicron
[oː]
[ˈomikron]
/ˈɒmɪkrɒn/ ( listen), traditional UK: /oʊˈmaɪkrɒn/

Υ
ὖ
ὐ ψιλόν
ὔψιλον
upsilon
[uː], [yː]
[ˈipsilon]
/juːpˈsaɪlən/, /ˈʊpsɪlɒn/, also UK: /ʌpˈsaɪlən/, US: /ˈʌpsɪlɒn/

Ω
ὦ
ὠ μέγα
ὠμέγα
omega
[ɔː]
[oˈmeɣa]
US: /oʊˈmeɪɡə/, traditional UK: /ˈoʊmɪɡə/

text: Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa] and [ˈkapʰa]; also, ήτα has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa] in Cypriot.[18]

text: Letter shapes

text: Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.

text: The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes.[19] The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.

text: In the 9th and 10th century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive.[19] This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.

text:
Inscription
Manuscript
Modern print

Archaic
Classical
Uncial
Minuscule
Lowercase
Uppercase

α
Α

β
Β

γ
Γ

δ
Δ

ε
Ε

ζ
Ζ

η
Η

θ
Θ

ι
Ι

κ
Κ

λ
Λ

μ
Μ

ν
Ν

ξ
Ξ

ο
Ο

π
Π

ρ
Ρ

σς
Σ

τ
Τ

υ
Υ

φ
Φ

χ
Χ

ψ
Ψ

ω
Ω

text: Derived alphabets

text: The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:[6]

text:
The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient scripts in Italy, adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via Etruscan
The Gothic alphabet, devised in the 4th century AD to write the Gothic language, based on a combination of Greek and Latin models[20]
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the 9th century AD for writing Old Church Slavonic
The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards

tag: ul

text: It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, which in turn influenced the development of the Georgian alphabet.[21]

text: Other uses

text: Use for other languages

text: Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.[22] For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

text: Antiquity

text:
Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800–300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications – as were the original Old Italic alphabets.
Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
The Greco-Iberian alphabet was used for writing the ancient Iberian language in parts of modern Spain.
Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) used the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest
The Hebrew and Aramaic text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.
The Bactrian language, an Iranian language spoken in what is now Afghanistan, was written in the Greek alphabet during the Kushan Empire (65–250 AD). It adds an extra letter ⟨þ⟩ for the sh sound [ʃ].[23]
The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write Coptic, the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today.

text: Middle Ages

text:
An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10th–12th centuries found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in Greek script.[24][25][26][27] The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.

text: Early modern

text:
Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500.[28] The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.
Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.
Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.
Urum or Greek Tatar.
Pomak language in Western Thrace.
Judaeo-Spanish language, a Jewish dialect of Spanish, has occasionally been published in Greek characters in Greece.[29]

text: In mathematics and science

text: Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.

text: Astronomy

text: Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

text: International Phonetic Alphabet

text: Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).[30] Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:[31]

text:
β
beta
U+03B2
voiced bilabial fricative

θ
theta
U+03B8
voiceless dental fricative

χ
chi
U+03C7
voiceless uvular fricative

text: On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.

text:
Greek letter
Phonetic letter
Uppercase

φ
phi
ɸ
U+0278
Latin small letter phi
Voiceless bilabial fricative
–

γ
gamma
ɣ
U+0263
Latin small letter gamma
Voiced velar fricative
Ɣ U+0194

ε
epsilon
ɛ
U+025B
Latin small letter open e
(alias: epsilon)
Open-mid front unrounded vowel
Ɛ U+0190

α
alpha
ɑ
U+0251
Latin small letter alpha
Open back unrounded vowel
Ɑ U+2C6D

υ
upsilon
ʊ
U+028A
Latin small letter upsilon
near-close near-back rounded vowel
Ʊ U+01B1

ι
iota
ɩ
U+0269
Latin small letter iota
Obsolete for near-close near-front unrounded vowel now ɪ
Ɩ U+0196

text: The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda ⟨λ⟩, but ⟨ɬ⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is ⟨ʎ⟩, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.

text: Use as numerals

text: Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma ⟨Ϝ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨Ϙ⟩ for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi ⟨Ͳ⟩, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as ⟨ϛ⟩, ⟨ϟ⟩ and ⟨ϡ⟩ respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.

text:
Αʹ αʹ
alpha
1

Βʹ βʹ
beta
2

Γʹ γʹ
gamma
3

Δʹ δʹ
delta
4

Εʹ εʹ
epsilon
5

ϛʹ
digamma (stigma)
6

Ζʹ ζʹ
zeta
7

Ηʹ ηʹ
eta
8

Θʹ θʹ
theta
9

text:
Ιʹ ιʹ
iota
10

Κʹ κʹ
kappa
20

Λʹ λʹ
lambda
30

Μʹ μʹ
mu
40

Νʹ νʹ
nu
50

Ξʹ ξʹ
xi
60

Οʹ οʹ
omicron
70

Πʹ πʹ
pi
80

ϟʹ
koppa
90

text:
Ρʹ ρʹ
rho
100

Σʹ σʹ
sigma
200

Τʹ τʹ
tau
300

Υʹ υʹ
upsilon
400

Φʹ φʹ
phi
500

Χʹ χʹ
chi
600

Ψʹ ψʹ
psi
700

Ωʹ ωʹ
omega
800

ϡʹ
sampi
900

text: Use in naming student fraternities and sororities

text: In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in 1776.[32]

text: Glyph variants

text: Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

text:
The symbol ϐ ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (β). In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and ϐ is used word-internally.
The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped

ϵ

{\displaystyle \epsilon \,\!}

 ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or

ε

{\displaystyle \varepsilon \,\!}

 (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϑ ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϰ ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (κ), used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϖ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (π), also used as a technical symbol.
The letter rho (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol ϱ (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ϲ ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
The capital letter upsilon (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, (

Υ

{\displaystyle \,\Upsilon }

) used as a technical symbol, e.g. in physics.
The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as

ϕ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \phi \,\!}

 (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as

φ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \varphi \,\!}

 (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol ϕ (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.

text: Computer encodings

text: For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.

text: The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.

text: ISO/IEC 8859-7

text: For the range A0–FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

text: Greek in Unicode

text: Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: ᾱ́.[citation needed]

text: There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

text: This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).

text: To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

text:
Greek and Coptic[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+037x
Ͱ
ͱ
Ͳ
ͳ
ʹ
͵
Ͷ
ͷ

ͺ
ͻ
ͼ
ͽ
;
Ϳ

U+038x

΄
΅
Ά
·
Έ
Ή
Ί

Ό

Ύ
Ώ

U+039x
ΐ
Α
Β
Γ
Δ
Ε
Ζ
Η
Θ
Ι
Κ
Λ
Μ
Ν
Ξ
Ο

U+03Ax
Π
Ρ

Σ
Τ
Υ
Φ
Χ
Ψ
Ω
Ϊ
Ϋ
ά
έ
ή
ί

U+03Bx
ΰ
α
β
γ
δ
ε
ζ
η
θ
ι
κ
λ
μ
ν
ξ
ο

U+03Cx
π
ρ
ς
σ
τ
υ
φ
χ
ψ
ω
ϊ
ϋ
ό
ύ
ώ
Ϗ

U+03Dx
ϐ
ϑ
ϒ
ϓ
ϔ
ϕ
ϖ
ϗ
Ϙ
ϙ
Ϛ
ϛ
Ϝ
ϝ
Ϟ
ϟ

U+03Ex
Ϡ
ϡ
Ϣ
ϣ
Ϥ
ϥ
Ϧ
ϧ
Ϩ
ϩ
Ϫ
ϫ
Ϭ
ϭ
Ϯ
ϯ

U+03Fx
ϰ
ϱ
ϲ
ϳ
ϴ
ϵ
϶
Ϸ
ϸ
Ϲ
Ϻ
ϻ
ϼ
Ͻ
Ͼ
Ͽ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text:
Greek Extended[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+1F0x
ἀ
ἁ
ἂ
ἃ
ἄ
ἅ
ἆ
ἇ
Ἀ
Ἁ
Ἂ
Ἃ
Ἄ
Ἅ
Ἆ
Ἇ

U+1F1x
ἐ
ἑ
ἒ
ἓ
ἔ
ἕ

Ἐ
Ἑ
Ἒ
Ἓ
Ἔ
Ἕ

U+1F2x
ἠ
ἡ
ἢ
ἣ
ἤ
ἥ
ἦ
ἧ
Ἠ
Ἡ
Ἢ
Ἣ
Ἤ
Ἥ
Ἦ
Ἧ

U+1F3x
ἰ
ἱ
ἲ
ἳ
ἴ
ἵ
ἶ
ἷ
Ἰ
Ἱ
Ἲ
Ἳ
Ἴ
Ἵ
Ἶ
Ἷ

U+1F4x
ὀ
ὁ
ὂ
ὃ
ὄ
ὅ

Ὀ
Ὁ
Ὂ
Ὃ
Ὄ
Ὅ

U+1F5x
ὐ
ὑ
ὒ
ὓ
ὔ
ὕ
ὖ
ὗ

Ὑ

Ὓ

Ὕ

Ὗ

U+1F6x
ὠ
ὡ
ὢ
ὣ
ὤ
ὥ
ὦ
ὧ
Ὠ
Ὡ
Ὢ
Ὣ
Ὤ
Ὥ
Ὦ
Ὧ

U+1F7x
ὰ
ά
ὲ
έ
ὴ
ή
ὶ
ί
ὸ
ό
ὺ
ύ
ὼ
ώ

U+1F8x
ᾀ
ᾁ
ᾂ
ᾃ
ᾄ
ᾅ
ᾆ
ᾇ
ᾈ
ᾉ
ᾊ
ᾋ
ᾌ
ᾍ
ᾎ
ᾏ

U+1F9x
ᾐ
ᾑ
ᾒ
ᾓ
ᾔ
ᾕ
ᾖ
ᾗ
ᾘ
ᾙ
ᾚ
ᾛ
ᾜ
ᾝ
ᾞ
ᾟ

U+1FAx
ᾠ
ᾡ
ᾢ
ᾣ
ᾤ
ᾥ
ᾦ
ᾧ
ᾨ
ᾩ
ᾪ
ᾫ
ᾬ
ᾭ
ᾮ
ᾯ

U+1FBx
ᾰ
ᾱ
ᾲ
ᾳ
ᾴ

ᾶ
ᾷ
Ᾰ
Ᾱ
Ὰ
Ά
ᾼ
᾽
ι
᾿

U+1FCx
῀
῁
ῂ
ῃ
ῄ

ῆ
ῇ
Ὲ
Έ
Ὴ
Ή
ῌ
῍
῎
῏

U+1FDx
ῐ
ῑ
ῒ
ΐ

ῖ
ῗ
Ῐ
Ῑ
Ὶ
Ί

῝
῞
῟

U+1FEx
ῠ
ῡ
ῢ
ΰ
ῤ
ῥ
ῦ
ῧ
Ῠ
Ῡ
Ὺ
Ύ
Ῥ
῭
΅
`

U+1FFx

ῲ
ῳ
ῴ

ῶ
ῷ
Ὸ
Ό
Ὼ
Ώ
ῼ
´
῾

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Combining and letter-free diacritics

text: Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

text:
Combining
Spacing
Sample
Description

U+0300
U+0060
(  ̀)
"varia / grave accent"

U+0301
U+00B4, U+0384
(  ́)
"oxia / tonos / acute accent"

U+0304
U+00AF
(  ̄)
"macron"

U+0306
U+02D8
(  ̆)
"vrachy / breve"

U+0308
U+00A8
(  ̈)
"dialytika / diaeresis"

U+0313
U+02BC
(  ̓)
"psili / comma above" (spiritus lenis)

U+0314
U+02BD
(  ̔)
"dasia / reversed comma above" (spiritus asper)

U+0342

(  ͂)
"perispomeni" (circumflex)

U+0343

(  ̓)
"koronis" (= U+0313)

U+0344
U+0385
(  ̈́)
"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)

U+0345
U+037A
(  ͅ)
"ypogegrammeni / iota subscript".

text: Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

text: IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for ß).

text: Chapter letters

text: Not to be confused with the Greek-letter acronyms for the names of entire fraternities (or sororities), different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) named using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A Chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B Chapter, a Γ Chapter, and so on and so forth.

text: In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω Chapter is AA Chapter, followed by AB Chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "Chapter Letter," albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.


document_title: List of states and union territories of India by area

question_text: india which is the largest state of india

root

text: List[edit]

text:
Rank

State / Territory

Area (km2)

Region

National Share (%)

Country of comparable size

Ref

1

Rajasthan

342,239

Western

10.41

 Republic of the Congo

2

Madhya Pradesh

308,350

Central

9.37

 Oman

3

Maharashtra

307,713

Western

9.36

 Oman

4

Uttar Pradesh

243,290

Northern

7.33

 United Kingdom

5

Jammu and Kashmir

222,236

Northern

6.76

 Guyana

[note 1]

6

Gujarat

196,024

Western

5.96

 Senegal

7

Karnataka

191,791

Southern

5.83

 Senegal

8

Andhra Pradesh

162,968

Southern

4.87

 Tunisia

9

Odisha

155,707

Eastern

4.73

 Bangladesh

10

Chhattisgarh

135,191

Central

4.11

 Greece

11

Tamil Nadu

130,058

Southern

3.95

 Nicaragua

12

Telangana

112,077

Southern

3.49

 Honduras

13

Bihar

94,163

Eastern

2.86

 Hungary

14

West Bengal

88,752

Eastern

2.70

 Serbia

15

Arunachal Pradesh

83,743

Northeastern

2.54

 Austria

16

Jharkhand

79,714

Eastern

2.42

 Czech Republic

17

Assam

78,438

Northeastern

2.38

 Czech Republic

18

Himachal Pradesh

55,673

Northern

1.70

 Croatia

19

Uttarakhand

53,483

Northern

1.62

 Costa Rica

20

Punjab

50,362

Northern

1.53

 Costa Rica

21

Haryana

44,212

Northern

1.34

 Denmark

22

Kerala

38,863

Southern

1.18

 Bhutan

23

Meghalaya

22,429

Northeastern

0.68

 Djibouti

24

Manipur

22,327

Northeastern

0.68

 Belize

25

Mizoram

21,081

Northeastern

0.64

 El Salvador

26

Nagaland

16,579

Northeastern

0.50

 Swaziland

27

Tripura

10,486

Northeastern

0.31

 Lebanon

28

Sikkim

7,096

Northeastern

0.21

 French Southern and Antarctic Lands

29

Goa

3,702

Western

0.11

 French Polynesia

UT1

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

8,249

Bay of Bengal

0.25

 Puerto Rico

NCT

Delhi

1,484

Northern

0.04

 Faroe Islands

UT2

Puducherry

562

Southern

0.01

 Andorra

UT3

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

491

Western

0.01

 Andorra

UT4

Chandigarh

114

Northern

0.003

 Wallis and Futuna

UT5

Daman and Diu

112

Western

0.003

 Montserrat

UT6

Lakshadweep

32

Arabian Sea

0.001

 Macau

**

Disputed area (between the states)

23

0.0007

 Nauru

[note 2][note 3]

India

3,287,263[a]

100

tag: table

text: Source:Area of states[3]

tag: p

text: The area figures of states and union territories do not add up to area of India because:

text:
The shortfall of 7 km2. area of Madhya Pradesh and 3 km2. area of Chhattisgarh is yet to be resolved by the  Survey of  India.[3]
Disputed area of 13 km2. between Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh is neither included in Puducherry nor in Andhra Pradesh.[3]
Area figures includes the area under occupation by Pakistan and China.  The area includes 13,297+64,817 = 78,114  km2. of disputed area under Pakistan's control, 5,180  km2. of disputed area handed over by Pakistan to China and 37,555  km2 of disputed area under control of China 5,180+37,555=42,735 km2 ie, Total occupied atras is 42,735 + 78114 = 1,20,849 km2 so 2,22,236 - 1,20,849 =1,01,387 km2  .[3]


document_title: List of top Olympic gold medalists in swimming

question_text: who has the most gold medals in swimming

text: This is the top 15 male Olympic swimming gold medalists:

text:
Name
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1.
 Michael Phelps
23
3
2
28

2.
 Mark Spitz
9
1
1
11

3.
 Matt Biondi
8
2
1
11

4.
 Ryan Lochte
6
3
3
12

5.
 Gary Hall, Jr.
5
3
2
10

6.
 Ian Thorpe
5
3
1
9

7.
 Aaron Peirsol
5
2
0
7

8.
 Nathan Adrian
5
1
2
8

9.
 Tom Jager
5
1
1
7

10.
 Don Schollander
5
1
0
6

11.
 Johnny Weissmuller
5
0
0
5

12.
 Alexander Popov
4
5
0
9

13
 Roland Matthes
4
2
2
8

 Jason Lezak
4
2
2
8

15.
 Matt Grevers
4
2
0
6

text: This is the top 15 female Olympic swimming gold medalists:

text:
Name
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1.
 Jenny Thompson
8
3
1
12

2
 Kristin Otto
6
0
0
6

 Amy Van Dyken
6
0
0
6

4.
 Krisztina Egerszegi
5
1
1
7

 Dana Vollmer
5
1
1
7

6.
 Katie Ledecky
5
1
0
6

7.
 Missy Franklin
5
0
1
6

8.
 Dara Torres
4
4
4
12

9
 Dawn Fraser
4
4
0
8

 Kornelia Ender
4
4
0
8

11
 Inge de Bruijn
4
2
2
8

 Allison Schmitt
4
2
2
8

13.
 Libby Trickett
4
1
2
7

14
 Janet Evans
4
1
0
5

 Yana Klochkova
4
1
0
5

text: Individual events[edit]

text: All swimmers with at least four individual gold medals are listed.

text: Men

text:
Name
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1.
 Michael Phelps
13
2
1
16

2.
 Mark Spitz
4
1
1
6

3.
 Alexander Popov
4
1
0
5

4.
 Roland Matthes
4
0
1
5

5
 Tamás Darnyi
4
0
0
4

 Kosuke Kitajima
4
0
0
4

text: Women

text:
Name
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1.
 Krisztina Egerszegi
5
1
1
7

2.
 Inge de Bruijn
4
1
1
6

3
 Janet Evans
4
1
0
5

 Yana Klochkova
4
1
0
5

5.
 Kristin Otto
4
0
0
4

 Katie Ledecky
4
0
0
4


document_title: Lewis Smith Lake

question_text: where is indian head rock on smith lake

question_tokens: where is indian head rock on smith lake

text: Lewis Smith Lake

text:
Lewis Smith Lake

Location
Cullman / Walker / Winston counties, Alabama, US

Coordinates
33°56′32″N 087°06′21″W / 33.94222°N 87.10583°W / 33.94222; -87.10583Coordinates: 33°56′32″N 087°06′21″W / 33.94222°N 87.10583°W / 33.94222; -87.10583

Basin countries
United States

Surface area
21,000 acres (85 km2)

Surface elevation
510 ft (160 m)

text: Lewis Smith Lake is a reservoir in north Alabama. Located on the Sipsey Fork of the Black Warrior River, the lake covers over 21,000 acres (85 km2) [1] in Cullman, Walker, and Winston counties. The maximum depth at the dam is 264 feet. The three-fingered lake has over 500 miles (800 km) [1] of shoreline, and at full pool has a level of 510 feet (160 m).[2]

text: The lake was created by Alabama Power with the construction of the Lewis Smith Dam. One of the largest earthen dams in the eastern United States, it stretches 2,200 feet (670 m) in length and reaches a maximum height of 300 feet (91 m). Construction began on November 25, 1957, and the dam entered service on September 5, 1961. The name honors Lewis Martin Smith, president of Alabama Power from 1952 to 1957.[3]

text: Nearby towns include Bremen, Crane Hill and Dodge City in Cullman County; Curry and Jasper in Walker County; and Addison, Arley, Houston, and Double Springs in Winston County.

text: The most popular tourist attraction on Smith lake is the Indian head cliff jump. It's 70 feet ( 21m ) and is located on the south shoreline of Smith lake. It's considered the most dangerous cliff jump located on Smith lake. There have already been two deaths reported where the victims just didn't surface. The bodies were later found.


document_title: List of VFL/AFL players to have played 300 games

question_text: who has played the most afl games ever

question_tokens: who has played the most afl games ever

text: AFL Life Membership[edit]

text: Individuals who have participated as a player, coach and/or umpire in 300 senior games in league-sanctioned games — including home-and-away, pre-season, state representative, and International rules games — are awarded life membership of the AFL.[2]

text: List of players[edit]

text: Current to the end of the 2017 AFL Season

text:
Player
Games
Club(s)
Career span

Brent Harvey
432
North Melbourne
1996–2016

Michael Tuck
426
Hawthorn
1972–1991

Kevin Bartlett
403
Richmond
1965–1983

Dustin Fletcher
400
Essendon
1993–2015

Robert Harvey
383
St Kilda
1988–2008

Simon Madden
378
Essendon
1974–1992

Craig Bradley
375
Carlton
1986–2002

Adam Goodes
372
Sydney
1999–2015

Bernie Quinlan
366
Footscray (177)
Fitzroy (189)
1969–1977
1978–1986

Brad Johnson
364
Western Bulldogs
1994–2010

John Blakey
359
Fitzroy (135)
North Melbourne (224)
1985–1992
1993–2002

Bruce Doull
356
Carlton
1969–1986

Paul Roos
356
Fitzroy (269)
Sydney (87)
1982–1994
1995–1998

Matthew Pavlich
353
Fremantle
2000–2016

Doug Hawkins
350
Footscray (329)
Fitzroy (21)
1978–1994
1995

Chris Grant
341
Western Bulldogs
1990–2007

Shaun Burgoyne
341
Port Adelaide (157)
Hawthorn (184)
2002–2009
2010–present

Andrew McLeod
340
Adelaide
1995–2010

John Rantall
336
South Melbourne (260)
North Melbourne (70)
Fitzroy (6)
1963–72, 1976-79
1973–1975
1980

Nick Riewoldt
336
St Kilda
2001–2017

Kevin Murray
333
Fitzroy
1955–1974

David Cloke
333
Richmond (219)
Collingwood (114)
1974–1982, 1990–1991
1983–1989

Leigh Matthews
332
Hawthorn
1969–1985

Justin Madden
332
Essendon (45)
Carlton (287)
1980–1982
1983–1996

Corey Enright
332
Geelong
2001–2016

Drew Petrie
332
North Melbourne (316)
West Coast (16)
2001-2016
2017

Gary Dempsey
329
Footscray (207)
North Melbourne (122)
1967–1978
1979–1984

Sam Mitchell
329
Hawthorn (307)
West Coast (22)
2002–2016
2017

John Nicholls
328
Carlton
1957–1974

Barry Round
328
Footscray (135)
South Melbourne (193)
1968–1975
1976–1985

Ian Nankervis
325
Geelong
1967–1983

Jason Akermanis
325
Brisbane Bears (38)
Brisbane Lions (210)
Western Bulldogs (77)
1995–1996
1997–2006
2007–2010

Jude Bolton
325
Sydney
1999–2013

Paul Salmon
324
Essendon (224)
Hawthorn (100)
1983–1995, 2002
1996–2000

Scott West
324
Western Bulldogs
1993–2008

Nathan Burke
323
St Kilda
1987–2003

Simon Black
322
Brisbane Lions
1998–2013

Nick Dal Santo
322
St Kilda (260)
North Melbourne (62)
2002–2013
2014–2016

E.J. "Ted" Whitten
321
Footscray
1951–1970

Stewart Loewe
321
St Kilda
1986–2002

Tyson Edwards
321
Adelaide
1995–2010

Dick Reynolds
320
Essendon
1933-1951

Marcus Ashcroft
318
Brisbane Bears (152)
Brisbane Lions (166)
1989–1996
1997–2003

Terry Daniher
313
South Melbourne (19)
Essendon (294)
1976–1977
1978–1992

Tony Shaw
313
Collingwood
1977–1994

Roger Merrett
313
Essendon (149)
Brisbane Bears (164)
1978–1987
1988–1996

James Kelly
313
Geelong (273)
Essendon (40)
2002-2015
2016-2017

Jack Dyer
312
Richmond
1931–1949

Stephen Silvagni
312
Carlton
1985–2001

Mark Ricciuto
312
Adelaide
1993–2007

Brendon Goddard
312
St Kilda (205)
Essendon (107)
2003–2012
2013–present

Robert Murphy
312
Western Bulldogs
2000-2017

Ben Hart
311
Adelaide
1992–2006

Glenn Archer
311
North Melbourne
1992–2007

Scott Thompson
308
Melbourne (39)
Adelaide (269)
2001–2004
2005–2017

Tim Watson
307
Essendon
1977–1994

Gordon Coventry
306
Collingwood
1920–1937

Wayne Schimmelbusch
306
North Melbourne
1973–1987

Alastair Lynch
306
Fitzroy (120)
Brisbane Bears (32)
Brisbane Lions (154)
1988–1993
1994–1996
1997–2004

Paul Williams
306
Collingwood (189)
Sydney (117)
1991–2000
2001–2006

David Neitz
306
Melbourne
1993–2008

Adam Simpson
306
North Melbourne
1995–2009

Shane Crawford
305
Hawthorn
1993–2008

Jimmy Bartel
305
Geelong
2002–2016

Luke Hodge
305
Hawthorn
2002-2017

Russell Greene
304
St Kilda (120)
Hawthorn (184)
1974–1980
1980–1988

Chris Langford
303
Hawthorn
1983–1997

Michael O'Loughlin
303
Sydney
1995–2009

Don Scott
302
Hawthorn
1967–1981

Luke Power
302
Brisbane Lions (282)
Greater Western Sydney (20)
1998–2011
2012

Gary Ablett Jr.
302
Geelong (192)
Gold Coast (110)
2002-2010
2011-present

Len Thompson
301
Collingwood (268)
South Melbourne (20)
Fitzroy (13)
1965–1978
1979
1980

Shannon Grant
301
Sydney (58)
North Melbourne (243)
1995–1997
1998–2008

John "Sam" Newman
300
Geelong
1964–1980

Francis Bourke
300
Richmond
1967–1981

Barry Breen
300
St Kilda
1965–1982

Kelvin Moore
300
Hawthorn
1970–1984

Garry Foulds
300
Essendon
1974–1989

Mick Martyn
300
North Melbourne (287)
Carlton (13)
1988–2002
2003

Rohan Smith
300
Western Bulldogs
1992–2006

Gavin Wanganeen
300
Essendon (127)
Port Adelaide (173)
1991–1996
1997–2006

Kane Cornes
300
Port Adelaide
2001–2015

Jarrad McVeigh
300
Sydney
2004-present

text: Games record holder[edit]

text: This is a list of players who have held the record for total number of games played in the VFL/AFL at senior level, from 1897 starting with the first player to reach 100 games.

text:
Player
Games
Club(s)
Career span
Record surpassed [3]

Charlie Pannam
193
Collingwood (179)
Richmond (14)
1897-1907
1908
(First VFL/AFL Player to reach 100 games)

Fred Elliott
209
Melbourne (12)
Carlton (197)
1899
1900-1901; 1903-1911
1910: Grand Final

Jock McHale
261
Collingwood
1903-1920
1914: Round 10

Vic Thorp
263
Richmond
1910-1925
1925: Round 15

Gordon Coventry
306
Collingwood
1920-1937
1935: Round 11

Jack Dyer
312
Richmond
1931-1949
1949: Round 9

Dick Reynolds
320
Essendon
1933-1951
1950: Round 14

Ted Whitten
321
Footscray
1951-1970
1970: Round 5

John Nicholls
328
Carlton
1957-1974
1974: Round 9

Kevin Murray
333
Fitzroy
1955-1964; 1967-1974
1974: Round 18

John Rantall
336
South Melbourne (260)
North Melbourne (70)
Fitzroy (6)
1963-1972; 1976-1979
1973-1975
1980
1980: Round 7

Kevin Bartlett
403
Richmond
1965-1983
1980: Qualifying Final

Michael Tuck
426
Hawthorn
1972-1991
1990: Round 22

Brent Harvey
432
North Melbourne
1996–2016
2016: Round 19

text: Current to Finals Week 1, 2016

text: Most time teammates[edit]

text: List of player pairs playing 300 or more games together

text:
Player
Games
Club(s)
Career span

Tyson Edwards & Andrew McLeod
307
Adelaide
1995–2010

Jude Bolton & Adam Goodes
301
Sydney
1999–2013


document_title: Grease (film)

question_text: who does frenchy end up with in grease

question_tokens: who does frenchy end up with in grease

text: Grease (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the summer of 1958, greaser Danny Zuko and sweet Australian girl Sandy Olsson meet at the beach and fall in love. When the summer comes to an end, Sandy, whose family is returning to Australia, worries that they might never meet again, but Danny tells her that their love is "only the beginning." At the beginning of the new school year at Rydell High School ("Grease"), Danny reunites with his fellow gang members, the T-Birds, of whom his best friend Kenickie, along with Doody, Sonny, and Putzie are members. Meanwhile, unbeknownst to Danny, Sandy arrives at school, with her family's plans having changed, with her new friend Frenchy, a member of the Pink Ladies. Other Pink Ladies Rizzo, Marty, and Jan also arrive, excited to be seniors, as does Patty Simcox, a high-achieving cheerleader.

text: At lunch, Frenchy introduces Sandy to the other Pink Ladies while Danny and the T-Birds make fun of practicing football players, including the handsome Tom Chisum. Each group asks Danny and Sandy, respectively, about their summers and they each independently describe their romance without using the other's name, with Sandy's description far more innocent than Danny's ("Summer Nights"). Headed back to class, Sandy reveals that it was Danny Zuko she met, and Rizzo teases that perhaps she'll meet him again.

text: At a pep rally before a football game, Sandy and Patty perform as cheerleaders; there, Sandy and Tom flirt.  Kenickie arrives with a used car he plans on rebuilding so he can race it at Thunder Road, a popular street race spot; as he says this, Leo, a rival greaser, drives by in a menacing manner. Rizzo puts Sandy and Danny together, surprising both of them.  Sandy is thrilled to see Danny, but he is obnoxious and indifferent, upsetting Sandy. Frenchy invites Sandy to a sleepover with the Pink Ladies to cheer her up.

text: Rizzo and the other girls pressure Sandy into smoking a cigarette and having a drink of wine at the sleepover. Frenchy reveals that she plans to drop out of Rydell to go to beauty school and in an effort to prove herself, tries to pierce Sandy's ear, making Sandy sick. Rizzo makes fun of her innocent nature ("Look At Me, I'm Sandra Dee") and leaves when the T-Birds arrive in Kenickie's car. Rizzo tries to make Danny jealous by flirting with Kenickie, but Danny is unmoved and leaves.  Kenickie leaves with Rizzo, stranding Putzie, Sonny, and Doody. Sandy laments over her feelings towards Danny, despite his earlier behavior ("Hopelessly Devoted to You").

text: Kenickie and Rizzo, while in the midst of sex, are interrupted when Leo, along with his girlfriend Cha-Cha, deliberately crashes his own street racer into Kenickie's and insults Rizzo. At the same time, Kenickie's condom breaks.

text: The next day, the T-Birds look over Kenickie's car, and although they are initially skeptical of its potential, Danny and Kenickie explain the modifications they could add to make it a hot-rodding sex machine ("Greased Lightnin'"). At the popular hangout The Frosty Palace, Danny, after brushing off an attempt by Patty to flirt with him, apologizes to Sandy for his behavior at the pep rally, but she rejects him having started dating Tom instead. Danny approaches Coach Calhoun about playing a sport. After picking fights with the jocks in basketball, wrestling and baseball, Calhoun suggests cross-country running; Danny proves to be a successful runner, which impresses Sandy and angers Tom.

text: Danny takes Sandy to the Frosty Palace for a date; they are soon joined by the rest of the greasers, and Danny and Sandy quickly leave in discomfort. Putzie and Jan, in an awkward exchange, agree to pair off for the dance; Kenickie and Rizzo get into an argument and go their separate ways, while Sonny unsuccessfully tries to court Marty. After everyone else has left, Frenchy, whose hair has turned bright pink, tells a waitress she has dropped out of beauty school and is visited by a guardian angel who advises her to return to Rydell ("Beauty School Dropout").

text: At the school dance, Leo and Cha-Cha show up as Rizzo's and Kenickie's respective dates. Vince Fontaine, who is hosting a live telecast of the dance, flirts with Marty. All of the students take part in a dance contest that descends into chaos ("Born to Hand Jive"). Danny and Sandy do well, but Sonny pulls Sandy off the dance floor, allowing Cha Cha to step in and win with Danny. During the last dance ("Blue Moon"), Sonny, Putzie, and Doody moon the national TV audience.

text: Danny apologizes to Sandy and tries to make it up to her by taking her to a drive-in movie theater. She's unmoved by his pleas for forgiveness until he asks her to wear his ring, which she gleefully accepts. Danny then tries to make out with her, causing Sandy to angrily throw his ring at him and run off in disgust, leaving Danny distraught ("Sandy"). Meanwhile, Rizzo admits she may be pregnant to Marty and asks her to keep it a secret, but the story gets back to Kenickie, and he tells Rizzo he doesn't run away from his mistakes. Rizzo tells Kenickie the baby isn't his, which both relieves and upsets him.

text: The next day, the T-Birds have finished Kenickie's car and he is eager to race it against Leo's at Thunder Road. Sandy tells Rizzo she plans to watch the race and offers to help Rizzo despite the rumors about Rizzo's character that have been spread around school. She thanks Sandy and muses to herself about how her sins are not as bad as they could be ("There Are Worse Things I Could Do").

text: The T-Birds, Pink Ladies, and Scorpions gather for the race, with the winner receiving the loser's car as a prize. Just before the race begins, Kenickie hits his head, and Danny takes the wheel. Despite Leo using bladed hub caps (in a sequence paying homage to Ben-Hur), Danny wins the race. Sandy watches from afar and concludes that she must change her approach to life if she wants to win over Danny, asking Frenchy for help ("Look At Me, I'm Sandra Dee (Reprise)").

text: The gang celebrates graduation at a school carnival where Rizzo tells Kenickie she isn't pregnant and they reunite. Danny arrives wearing a letterman's sweater, to the other T-Birds' dismay. Sandy shocks everyone when she arrives with a new, wilder hairstyle and wearing a revealing black outfit and leather jacket. In song, Danny and Sandy reaffirm their commitment to each other ("You're the One That I Want"). As the film ends, the greasers promise to stay together after school ends ("We Go Together") and Danny and Sandy depart in a red hot rod, which takes flight as they wave goodbye to their friends.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Principal cast[edit]

text:
John Travolta as Danny Zuko, who lives a double life as leader of the greaser gang the T-Birds and as Sandy's boyfriend
Olivia Newton-John as Sandy Olsson, Danny's girlfriend and an Australian expatriate and ingénue, who transforms from square to greaser
Stockard Channing as Betty Rizzo, Kenickie's girlfriend and the cynical leader of the Pink Ladies clique
Jeff Conaway as Kenickie, Danny's best friend, Rizzo's love interest and the owner of Greased Lightnin'
Barry Pearl as Doody, a member of the T-Birds; he pairs with Frenchy at the school dance
Michael Tucci as Sonny LaTierri, a trouble-making wannabe womanizer and T-Bird who courts Marty with little success over the course of the film
Kelly Ward as Putzie, a member of the T-Birds whose relationship with Jan builds over the course of the film
Didi Conn as Frenchy, Sandy's closest friend in the Pink Ladies and an aspiring beautician
Jamie Donnelly as Jan, a quirky member of the Pink Ladies with a liking for Ipana toothpaste
Dinah Manoff as Marty Maraschino, a member of the Pink Ladies whose attractiveness regularly draws the attention of men, including Sonny and Vince Fontaine

text: Secondary cast[edit]

text:
Eve Arden as Principal McGee, who shows discomfort at the goings-on at Rydell High.
Dody Goodman as Secretary Blanche Hodel, who enjoys even the wilder antics at the school.
Sid Caesar as Coach Vince Calhoun, the tough-talking gym teacher and coach of all the school's perennially losing sports teams
Eddie Deezen as Eugene Felsnick, the class nerd
Susan Buckner as Patty Simcox, the head cheerleader and a rival for Danny's affections
Lorenzo Lamas as Tom Chisum, a popular jock who competes for Sandy's affections
Dennis C. Stewart as Leo "Craterface" Balmudo, leader of the Scorpions, a rival greaser gang
Annette Charles as Charlene "Cha-Cha" DiGregorio, Leo's girlfriend
Joan Blondell as Vi, a waitress at the Frosty Palace
Ellen Travolta as Waitress
Frankie Avalon as Teen Angel
Edd Byrnes as Vince Fontaine, on-air personality at KZAZ radio and television
Sha-Na-Na as Johnny Casino and the Gamblers, a rock and roll band
Alice Ghostley as Mrs. Murdock, a rogue auto shop teacher who helps build Greased Lightnin' for the T-Birds
Darrell Zwerling as Mr. Lynch
Dick Patterson as Mr. Rudie
Fannie Flagg as Nurse Wilkins

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: John Travolta had previously worked with producer Robert Stigwood on Saturday Night Fever, had a nascent singing career at the time (including the top-10 hit "Let Her In" in 1976), and had previously appeared as Doody in a touring production of the stage version of Grease. He made a number of casting recommendations that Stigwood ultimately accepted, including suggesting Randal Kleiser (who had never directed a theatrical feature before this but had directed Travolta in the 1976 telefilm The Boy in the Plastic Bubble) as director, and Olivia Newton-John, then known almost exclusively as a country music singer, as Sandy.[4] Newton-John had done little acting before this film, with only one film credit (the unreleased 1970 film Toomorrow, which predated her singing breakthrough) to her name up to that time. Before accepting the role, Newton-John requested a screen test for Grease to avoid another career setback.[5] The screen test was done with the drive-in movie scene. Newton-John, who is native to England and lived most of her life in Australia, was unable to perform with a convincing American accent, and thus her character was rewritten to be Australian. Before Newton-John was hired, Allan Carr was considering numerous names such as Ann-Margret, Susan Dey and Marie Osmond for the lead role; Newton-John agreed to a reduced asking price in exchange for star billing.[5] In a case of life imitating art, Newton-John's own musical career would undergo a transformation similar to that of the Sandy Olsson character; her next album after Grease, the provocatively titled Totally Hot, featured a much more sexual and pop-oriented approach, with Newton-John appearing on the album cover in similar all-leather attire and teased hair.[6]

text: Jeff Conaway, like Travolta, had previously appeared in the stage version of Grease; he had played Danny Zuko during the show's run on Broadway.[7] Jamie Donnelly reprised her role as Jan from the Broadway show, the only cast member to do so; as her hair had begun to gray by this point, she had to dye her hair to resemble her stage character.[8] Kelly Ward had previously appeared as a similar sarcastic supporting character in The Boy in the Plastic Bubble with Travolta under Kleiser; he was cast as Putzie, a mostly new character.

text: Lorenzo Lamas was a last-minute replacement for Steven Ford, who developed stage fright shortly before filming and backed out. His role contained no spoken dialogue and required Lamas to dye his hair blond to avoid looking like most of the other T-Birds (although Conaway and Ward were also blonds).[8]

text: Henry Winkler was once considered for a lead in the film. Winkler, who was playing Arthur Fonzarelli on Happy Days, was originally chosen to play Danny. His lack of singing experience and fear of being typecast after Happy Days and the film The Lords of Flatbush led him to decline the role.[citation needed] Adult film star Harry Reems was originally signed to play Coach Calhoun; however, executives at Paramount nixed the idea due to Reems' previous work in adult films, and producers cast Sid Caesar instead.[9] Caesar was one of several veterans of 1950s television (Eve Arden, Frankie Avalon, Joan Blondell, Edd Byrnes, Alice Ghostley, Dody Goodman) to be cast in supporting roles. Coincidentally, Frankie Avalon and Randal Kleiser had both appeared in 1966's Fireball 500, the latter as an extra.

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: The opening beach scene was shot at Malibu's Leo Carrillo State Beach, making explicit reference to From Here to Eternity. The exterior Rydell scenes, including the basketball, baseball and track segments, were shot at Venice High School in Venice, California, while the Rydell interiors, including the high school dance, were filmed at Huntington Park High School. The sleepover was shot at a private house in East Hollywood. The Paramount Pictures studio lot was the location of the scenes that involve Frosty Palace and the musical numbers "Greased Lightning" and "Beauty School Dropout". The drive-in movie scenes were shot at the Burbank Pickwick Drive-In (it was closed and torn down in 1989 and a shopping center took its place). The race was filmed at the Los Angeles River, between the First and Seventh Street Bridges, where many other films have been shot.[10] The final scene where the carnival took place used John Marshall High School.[11] Furthermore, owing to budget cuts, a short scene was filmed at Hazard Park in Los Angeles.

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Scenes inside the Frosty Palace contain obvious blurring of various Coca-Cola signs.[12] Prior to the film's release, producer Allan Carr had made a product-placement deal with Coca-Cola's main competitor Pepsi (for example, a Pepsi logo can be seen in the animated opening sequence). When Carr saw the footage of the scene with Coca-Cola products and signage, he ordered director Randal Kleiser to either reshoot the scene with Pepsi products or remove the Coca-Cola logos from the scene. As reshoots were deemed too expensive and time-consuming, optical mattes were used to cover up or blur out the Coca-Cola references. The 'blurring' covered up trademarked menu signage and a large wall poster, but a red cooler with the logo could not be sufficiently altered so was left unchanged. According to Kleiser, "We just had to hope that Pepsi wouldn't complain. They didn't."[13][14]

text: Due to an editing error, a closing scene in which Danny and Sandy kiss was removed from the finished print and lost before its theatrical release. The scene was preserved only in black-and-white; Kleiser attempted to have the existing footage colorized and restored to the film for the film's re-release in 1998 but was dissatisfied with the results. The scene is included as an extra on the 40th anniversary home video release, and Kleiser hopes to make another attempt at colorizing the footage that is effective enough for the footage to be inserted into the film as he originally intended by the time the film's 50th anniversary comes in 2028.[15]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Grease was originally released to North American theaters on June 16, 1978 and was an immediate box office success. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $8,941,717 in 862 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking at No. 2 (behind Jaws 2) at the box office for the weekend[16] and with the all-time opening weekend records.[17] Despite losing the weekend, it set a record gross in its first 19 days with $40,272,000.[18]

text: Grease has grossed $188,755,690 domestically and $206,200,000 internationally, totaling $394,955,690	 worldwide. Globally, it was the highest-grossing musical ever, eclipsing the 13-year-old record held by The Sound of Music, but has since been overtaken by Les Misérables, Mamma Mia! and the 2017 release of Beauty and the Beast. Grease is now the fourth highest-grossing live action musical.[19]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Grease received mostly positive reviews from movie critics[20] and is considered by many as one of the best films of 1978.[21][22][23][24]

text: Vincent Canby on its initial release in June 1978 called the film "terrific fun", describing it as a "contemporary fantasy about a 1950s teen-age musical—a larger, funnier, wittier and more imaginative-than-Hollywood movie with a life that is all its own"; Canby pointed out that the film was "somewhat in the manner of Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which recalls the science-fiction films of the '50s in a manner more elegant and more benign than anything that was ever made then, Grease is a multimillion-dollar evocation of the B-picture quickies that Sam Katzman used to turn out in the '50s (Don't Knock the Rock, 1956) and that American International carried to the sea in the 1960s (Beach Party, 1963)."[25]

text: Grease was voted the best musical ever on Channel 4's 100 greatest musicals in 2004.[26] The film holds a 75% approval rating on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 64 reviews with an average rating of 6.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Grease is a pleasing, energetic musical with infectiously catchy songs and an ode to young love that never gets old."[27] It holds a score of 70/100 on the review aggregator Metacritic based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[20]

text: Grease premiered for the first time on American television in 1981 on ABC-TV. It was re-released to theaters in 1998 to mark the 20th anniversary. The film was also ranked number 21 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.[28][29]

text: Home video[edit]

text: Grease was first released in the US on VHS by Paramount Home Video in 1982, with reissues in 1989 and 1994; the last VHS release was on June 23, 1998 and titled the 20th Anniversary Edition following a theatrical re-release that March. On September 24, 2002, it was released on DVD for the first time. On September 19, 2006, it was re-released on DVD as the Rockin' Rydell Edition, which came with a black Rydell High T-Bird jacket cover, a white Rydell "R" letterman's sweater cover or the Target-exclusive Pink Ladies cover. It was released on Blu-ray Disc on May 5, 2009. In connection with the film's 40th anniversary, Paramount released Grease on 4K, UHD, Blu-Ray and DVD on April 24, 2018.[30]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Year

Nominee/work

Award

Result

1978

Grease

Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy

Nominated

John Travolta

Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy

Nominated

Olivia Newton-John

Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy

Nominated

"Grease"

Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song

Nominated

"You're the One That I Want"

Nominated

1979

CIC

Golden Screen Award

Won

Stockard Channing

People's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture Supporting Actress

Won

Grease

People's Choice Award for Favorite Musical Motion Picture

Won

Grease

People's Choice Award for Favorite Overall Motion Picture

Won

"Hopelessly Devoted to You"

Academy Award for Best Original Song

Nominated

2006

Grease

Satellite Award for Best Classic DVD

Nominated

2008

"You're the One That I Want"

TV Land Award for Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room

Nominated

text: American Film Institute Recognition[edit]

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions: No. 97
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: No. 70 for "Summer Nights"
AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals: No. 20

text: Sequels and spin-offs[edit]

text: The sequel, Grease 2 (1982), stars Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer. While only a few cast members from the original movie such as Dody Goodman, Sid Caesar, Eddie Deezen, Didi Conn, Dennis Stewart and Eve Arden reprise their respective roles. Dick Patterson returned, playing a different character. It grossed $15 million on its $13 million budget. Patricia Birch, the original movie's choreographer, directed the sequel. It would be the only movie that she would direct.

text: On July 8, 2010, a sing-along version of Grease was released to select theaters around the U.S.[31] A trailer was released in May 2010, with cigarettes digitally removed from certain scenes, implying heavy editing; however, Paramount confirmed these changes were done only for the film's advertising,[32] and the rating for the film itself changed from its original PG to that of PG-13 for "sexual content including references, teen smoking and drinking, and language."[33] The movie was shown for two weekends only; additional cities lobbied by fans from the Paramount official website started a week later and screened for one weekend.[34]

text: On March 12, 2013, Grease and Grease 2 were packaged together in a Double Feature DVD set from Warner Home Video.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The soundtrack album ended 1978 as the second-best selling album of the year in the United States, exceeded only by another soundtrack album, from the film Saturday Night Fever, which also starred Travolta.[3]  The song "Hopelessly Devoted to You" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Music—Original Song. The song "You're the One That I Want" was released as a single prior to the film's release and became an immediate chart-topper, despite not being in the stage show or having been seen in the film at that time.[35] Additionally, the dance number to "You're the One That I Want" was nominated for TV Land's award for "Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room" in 2008.[36] In the United Kingdom, the two Travolta/Newton-John duets, "You're the One That I Want" and "Summer Nights", were both number one hits and as of  2011[update] are still among the 20 best-selling singles of all time (at Nos. 6 and 19 respectively).[37] The movie's title song was also a number-one hit single for Frankie Valli.[38]

text: The song "Look at Me, I'm Sandra Dee" references Sal Mineo in the original stage version. Mineo was stabbed to death a year before filming, so the line was changed to refer to Elvis Presley instead. The references to Troy Donohue, Doris Day, Rock Hudson and Annette Funicello are from the original stage version. Coincidentally, this scene as well as the scene before and the scene after it were filmed on August 16, 1977, the date of Elvis Presley's death.[39]

text: Some of the songs were not present in the film; songs that appear in the film but not in the soundtrack are "La Bamba" by Ritchie Valens, "Whole Lotta Shaking Going On" by Jerry Lee Lewis, "Alma Mater", "Alma Mater Parody", and "Rydell Fight Song". "Alone at a Drive-in Movie (instrumental)", "Mooning", and "Freddy My Love" are not present in the film, although all three are listed in the end credits in-addition to being on the soundtrack. (Both "Mooning" and "Rock'n'Roll Party Queen," the latter of which was played in the film as background music, were written in the musical for a character named Roger that was written out of the film, replaced by the non-singing Putzie. In general, all of the songs in the musical that were performed by characters other than Danny, Rizzo, Sandy or Johnny Casino were either taken out of the film or given to other characters, including Marty Maraschino's number "Freddy My Love," Kenickie's "Greased Lightnin'," and Doody's "Those Magic Changes.") Two songs from the musical, "Shakin' at the High School Hop" "and "All Choked Up," were left off both the film and the soundtrack.

text: The songs appear in the film in the following order:

text:
"Love is a Many-Splendored Thing"
"Grease"
"Alma Mater"
"Summer Nights" – Danny, Sandy, Pink Ladies and T-Birds
"Rydell Fight Song" – Rydell Marching Band
"Look at Me, I'm Sandra Dee" – Rizzo and Pink Ladies
"Hopelessly Devoted to You" – Sandy
"Greased Lightnin'" – Danny and T-Birds
"La Bamba"
"It's Raining on Prom Night"
"Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' On"
"Beauty School Dropout" – Teen Angel and Female Angels
"Rock n' Roll Party Queen"
"Rock n' Roll is Here to Stay" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Those Magic Changes" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers; Danny sings along onscreen
"Tears on My Pillow" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Hound Dog" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Born to Hand Jive" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Blue Moon" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Sandy" – Danny
"There Are Worse Things I Could Do" – Rizzo
"Look at Me, I'm Sandra Dee (Reprise)" – Sandy
"Alma Mater Parody" (instrumental)
"You're the One That I Want" – Danny, Sandy, Pink Ladies, and T-Birds
"We Go Together" – Cast
"Grease (Reprise)"

tag: ol

text: Television[edit]

text: On August 17, 2009, a television series inspired by the film premiered in Venezuela. The series was produced and directed by Vladimir Perez. The show explores and expands on the characters and story from the film.[40][41]