document_title: Hangul

question_text: how many characters are there in korean alphabet

question_tokens: how many characters are there in korean alphabet

root

text: Hangul

text: Names[edit]

text: Official names[edit]

text:
Korean name (South Korea)

Hangul
한글

Hanja
n/a

Revised Romanization
hangeul

McCune–Reischauer
han'gŭl

IPA
[han.ɡɯl]

text:
Korean name (North Korea)

Chosŏn'gŭl
조선글

Hancha
朝鮮-

Revised Romanization
joseongeul

McCune–Reischauer
chosŏn'gŭl

IPA
[tɕo.sʌn.ɡɯl]

text: Hangul is known as hangeul (한글) in South Korea and as Chosŏn'gŭl (조선글) in North Korea.

text: South Korea[edit]

text:
The modern name Hangeul was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912. Han (한) meant "great" in archaic Korean, and geul (글) is the native Korean word for "script." Taken together, then, the meaning is "great script". As the word han had also become one way of indicating Korea as a whole (most commonly transliterated using the Chinese character 韓) the name could also potentially be interpreted as "Korean script".[4] It has been romanized in the following ways:

Hangeul or Han-geul in the Revised Romanization of Korean, which the South Korean government uses in all English publications and encourages for all purposes.
Han'gŭl in the McCune–Reischauer system. When used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics, hangul, and it is often capitalized as Hangul, as it appears in many English dictionaries.
Hankul in the Yale romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies.

tag: ul

text: North Korea[edit]

text: North Koreans call it Chosŏn'gŭl (조선글 [tɕosʰɔnɡɯl]), after Chosŏn, the North Korean name for Korea. Uri kŭlcha (우리 글자 "our characters") is also used.[5]

text: Original name[edit]

text: The original name was Hunminjeongeum (훈민정음; 訓民正音). Because of objections to the names hangeul, Chosŏn'gŭl, and urigeul (우리글) by Koreans in China, the uncommon short form jeongeum may be used, as a neutral name, in some international contexts.

text: Other names[edit]

text: Until the early 20th century, hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite, who preferred the traditional hanja (Han script) writing system.[6] They gave it such names as these:

text:
Achimgeul (아침글 "writing you can learn within a morning").[7] Although somewhat pejorative, it was based on the reality, as expressed by Jeong Inji, that "a wise man can acquaint himself with them before the morning is over; a stupid man can learn them in the space of ten days".[8] In hanja, it is rendered as "故智者不終朝而會，愚者可浹旬而學。"[9]
Gungmun (Hangul: 국문, hanja: 國文 "national script")
Eonmun (Hangul: 언문, hanja: 諺文 "vernacular script")[6]
Amgeul (암글 "women's script"; also written Amkeul 암클).[6] Am (암) is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine
Ahaesgeul or Ahaegeul (아햇글 or 아해글 "children's script")

text: History[edit]

text: Hangul was promulgated by Sejong the Great, the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty. It is often known as a small project done with the king and a group of scholars; however, it is possible that Sejong came up with it by himself.[10]

text: The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, and described in 1446 in a document titled Hunmin Jeongeum ("The Proper Sounds for the Education of the People"), after which the alphabet itself was named.[6] The publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosongul Day, is on January 15.

text: Various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye ("Hunmin Jeong-eum Explanation and Examples"). This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics and the vowel letters according to the principles of yin and yang and vowel harmony.

text: Before the creation of hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil.[11][12][13][14] However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese characters for the lower classes, who often didn't have the privilege of education. To assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as hangul to promote literacy among the common people.[15]

text: Hangul was designed so that even a commoner could learn to read and write; the Haerye says "A wise man can acquaint himself with them before the morning is over; a stupid man can learn them in the space of ten days."[8]

text: Hangul faced opposition by the literary elite, such as Choe Manri and other Korean Confucian scholars in the 1440s, who believed hanja to be the only legitimate writing system, and perhaps saw hangul as a threat to their status.[10] However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women and writers of popular fiction.[16] It was effective enough at disseminating information among the uneducated that Yeonsangun, the paranoid tenth king, forbade the study or use of hangul and banned hangul documents in 1504,[17] and King Jungjong abolished the Ministry of Eonmun (언문청 諺文廳, governmental institution related to hangul research) in 1506.[18]

text: The late 16th century, however, saw a revival of hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, hangul novels became a major genre.[19] By this point spelling had become quite irregular.[16]

text: The first book using hangul in the West was brought to Europe by Isaac Titsingh in 1796. His small library included Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu (An Illustrated Description of Three Countries) by Hayashi Shihei.[20] This book, which was published in Japan in 1785, described the Joseon Kingdom[21] and hangul.[22] In 1832, the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland supported the posthumous abridged publication of Titsingh's French translation.[23]

text: Because of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reformists' push, and the promotion of hangul in schools and literature by Western missionaries,[24] hangul was adopted in official documents for the first time in 1894.[17] Elementary school texts began using hangul in 1895, and the Dongnip Sinmun, established in 1896, was the first newspaper printed in both hangul and English.[25] Still, the literary elites continued to use Chinese characters, and the majority of the common people remained illiterate at this period.

text: During Japanese colonial rule in 1910, Japanese became the official language. However, hangul was taught in the Korean-established schools in Korea built after the annexation, and Korean was written in a mixed hanja-hangul script, where most lexical roots were written in hanja and grammatical forms in hangul. Japan had banned earlier Korean literature, and public schooling became mandatory for children. The orthography was partially standardized in 1912, with 'ㆍ' (arae a – one of the vowels in early hangul no longer used in modern hangul) restricted to Sino-Korean roots, the emphatic consonants standardized to ㅺ sg, ㅼ sd, ㅽ sb, ㅆ ss, ㅾ sj, and final consonants restricted to ㄱ g, ㄴ n, ㄹ l, ㅁ m, ㅂ b, ㅅ s, ㅇ ng, ㄺ lg, ㄻ lm, ㄼ lb (no ㄷ d, as it was replaced by s). Long vowels were marked by a diacritic dot to the left of the syllable, but this was dropped in 1921.[16]

text: A second colonial reform occurred in 1930. Arae a was abolished; the emphatic consonants were changed to ㄲ gg, ㄸ dd, ㅃ bb, ㅆ ss, ㅉ jj; more final consonants (ㄷㅈㅌㅊㅍㄲㄳㄵㄾㄿㅄ) were allowed, making the orthography more morphophonemic; ㅆ ss was written alone (without a vowel) when it occurred between nouns; and the nominative particle 가 ga was introduced after vowels, replacing ㅣ i. (ㅣ i had been written without an ㅇ iung. The nominative particle had been unvarying i in Sejong's day, and perhaps up to the eighteenth or nineteenth century.)[16]

text: Ju Sigyeong, who had coined the term hangul "great script" to replace eonmun "vulgar script" in 1912, established the Korean Language Research Society (朝鮮語研究會; later renamed Hangul Society, 한글學會) which further reformed orthography with Standardized System of Hangul (한글 맞춤법 통일안) in 1933. The principal change was to make hangul as morphophonemic as practical given the existing letters.[16] A system for transliterating foreign orthographies was published in 1940.

text: However, the Korean language was banned from schools in 1938 as part of a policy of cultural assimilation,[26] and all Korean-language publications were outlawed in 1941.[27]

text: The definitive modern orthography was published in 1946, just after independence from colonial rule. In 1948 North Korea attempted to make the script perfectly morphophonemic through the addition of new letters, and in 1953 Syngman Rhee in South Korea attempted to simplify the orthography by returning to the colonial orthography of 1921, but both reforms were abandoned after only a few years.[16]

text: Both Koreas have used hangul or mixed hangul as their sole official writing system, with ever-decreasing use of hanja. Beginning in the 1970s, hanja began to experience a gradual decline in commercial or unofficial writing in the South due to government intervention, with some South Korean newspapers now only using hanja as abbreviations or disambiguation of homonyms. There has been widespread debate as to the future of hanja in South Korea. North Korea instated hangul as its exclusive writing system in 1949, and banned the use of hanja completely.

text: Implementation[edit]

text: While both North and South Korea claim 99% literacy, government studies show that 25% of people in the older generation in the South are not completely literate in hangul.[28]

text: Dissemination[edit]

text: The Hunminjeongeum Society in Seoul attempts to spread the use of hangul to unwritten languages of Asia.[29] In 2009, hangul was unofficially adopted by the town of Bau-Bau, in Sulawesi, Indonesia, to write the Cia-Cia language.[30][31][32] A number of Indonesian Cia-Cia speakers who visited Seoul generated large media attention in South Korea, and they were greeted on their arrival by Oh Se-hoon, the mayor of Seoul.[33] It was confirmed in October 2012 that the attempts to disseminate hangul in Indonesia failed.[34] But there are still some people that use hangul at home or co-officially.

text: Letters[edit]

text: Hangul letters and digraphs are called jamo (자모; 字母) or natsori (낱소리).[nb 1] There are 24 letters and 27 digraphs (and sometimes trigraphs) formed from these letters in the modern alphabet. Of the letters, fourteen are consonants (ja-eum 자음, 子音 "child sounds") and ten are vowels (mo-eum 모음, 母音 "mother sounds"). Five of the consonants are doubled to form the five "tense" (faucalized) consonants of Korean, while another eleven sequences are formed of two different consonants. The ten vowel letters are combined into eleven sequences for diphthongs.

text: The following letters and clusters of letters are found in the modern script:

text:
14 consonant letters: ㄱ g, ㄴ n, ㄷ d, ㄹ l/r, ㅁ m, ㅂ b, ㅅ s, ㅇ null (initial)/ng (final), ㅈ j, ㅊ ch, ㅋ k, ㅌ t, ㅍ p, ㅎ h
6 vowel letters: ㅏ a, ㅓ eo, ㅗ o, ㅜ u, ㅡ eu, ㅣ i
4 iotized vowels (with a y): ㅑ ya, ㅕ yeo, ㅛ yo, ㅠ yu

text: The digraphs are:

text:
5 double ("tense") consonants: ㄲ kk, ㄸ tt, ㅃ bb, ㅆ ss, ㅉ jj
11 consonant clusters: ㄳ gs, ㄵ nj, ㄶ nh, ㄺ lg, ㄻ lm, ㄼ lb, ㄽ ls, ㄾ lt, ㄿ lp, ㅀ lh, ㅄ bs
5 (iotized) diphthongs: ㅐ ae, ㅒ yae, ㅔ e, ㅖ ye, ㅢ ui
6 vowels and diphthongs with a w: ㅘ wa, ㅙ wae, ㅚ oe, ㅝ wo, ㅞ we, ㅟ wi

text: In addition, there are numerous obsolete letters, as well as a number of sequences that are no longer used. Some of these were only ever used for transcribing Chinese.

text:
13 obsolete consonants: ᄛ, ㅱ, ㅸ, ᄼ, ᄾ, ㅿ, ㆁ (as distinct from ㅇ), ᅎ, ᅐ, ᅔ, ᅕ, ㆄ, ㆆ
10 obsolete double consonants: ㅥ, ᄙ, ㅹ, ᄽ, ᄿ, ᅇ, ᇮ, ᅏ, ᅑ, ㆅ
66 obsolete clusters of two consonants: ᇃ, ᄓ, ㅦ, ᄖ, ㅧ, ㅨ, ᇉ, ᄗ, ᇋ, ᄘ, ㅪ, ㅬ, ᇘ, ㅭ, ᇚ, ᇛ, ㅮ, ㅯ, ㅰ, ᇠ, ᇡ, ㅲ, ᄟ, ㅳ, ᇣ, ㅶ, ᄨ, ㅷ, ᄪ, ᇥ, ㅺ, ㅻ, ㅼ, ᄰ, ᄱ, ㅽ, ᄵ, ㅾ, ᄷ, ᄸ, ᄹ, ᄺ, ᄻ, ᅁ, ᅂ, ᅃ, ᅄ, ᅅ, ᅆ, ᅈ, ᅉ, ᅊ, ᅋ, ᇬ, ᇭ, ㆂ, ㆃ, ᇯ, ᅍ, ᅒ, ᅓ, ᅖ, ᇵ, ᇶ, ᇷ, ᇸ

text:
1 obsolete vowel: ㆍ arae-a ('sub-a'; still used in the Jeju language and sometimes as a substitute for ㅏ a in logos and advertisements)
44 obsolete diphthongs and vowel sequences: ᆜ, ᆝ, ᆢ,[are these iotized vowels?] ᅷ, ᅸ, ᅹ, ᅺ, ᅻ, ᅼ, ᅽ, ᅾ, ᅿ, ᆀ, ᆁ, ᆂ, ᆃ, ㆇ, ㆈ, ᆆ, ᆇ, ㆉ, ᆉ, ᆊ, ᆋ, ᆌ, ᆍ, ᆎ, ᆏ, ᆐ, ㆊ, ㆋ, ᆓ, ㆌ, ᆕ, ᆖ, ᆗ, ᆘ, ᆙ, ᆚ, ᆛ, ᆟ, ᆠ, ㆎ

text: Notes:

text:
The four iotated vowels are derived by adding a short stroke to the basic vowel. They are counted as part of the 24 letters of the alphabet because the iotating stroke is not a letter on its own. In fact, there is no letter for y in hangul.
Of the consonants, ㅊ chieut, ㅋ kieuk, ㅌ tieut, and ㅍ pieup are aspirated derivatives of ㅈ jieut, ㄱ giyeok, ㄷ digeut, and ㅂ bieup, respectively, formed by adding an extra stroke to the unaspirated letters. These are also counted as separate letters of the alphabet, as the aspirating stroke is not a letter on its own.

text: Stroke order[edit]

text: Hangul letters have adopted certain rules of Chinese calligraphy, although ㅇ and ㅎ use a circle, which is not used in printed Chinese characters.

text:
ㄱ (giyeok 기역)

ㄴ (nieun 니은)

ㄷ (digeut 디귿)

ㄹ (rieul 리을)

ㅁ (mieum 미음)

ㅂ (bieup 비읍)

ㅅ (siot 시옷)

ㅇ (ieung 이응)

ㅈ (jieut 지읒)

ㅊ (chieut 치읓)

ㅋ (kieuk 키읔)

ㅌ (tieut 티읕)

ㅍ (pieup 피읖)

ㅎ (hieut 히읗)

ㅏ (a)

ㅐ (ae)

ㅓ (eo)

ㅔ (e)

ㅗ (o)

ㅜ (u)

ㅡ (eu)

text: For the iotized vowels, which are not shown, the short stroke is simply doubled.

text: Letter design[edit]

text:
Calligraphy

Arabic
Chinese
Georgian
Indian
Islamic
Japanese
Korean
Mongolian
Persian
Tibetan
Western

v
t
e

text: Numerous linguists have praised hangul for its featural design, describing it as "remarkable", "the most perfect phonetic system devised", and "brilliant, so deliberately does it fit the language like a glove".[35] The principal reason hangul has attracted this praise is that the shapes of the letters are related to the features of the sounds they represent: the letters for consonants pronounced in the same place in the mouth are built on the same underlying shape. In addition, vowels are made from vertical or horizontal lines so that they are easily distinguishable from consonants.

text: Scripts may transcribe languages at the level of morphemes (logographic scripts like hanja), of syllables (syllabaries like kana), or of segments (alphabetic scripts like the Latin script used to write English and many other languages). Hangul goes one step further in some cases, using distinct strokes to indicate distinctive features such as place of articulation (labial, coronal, velar, or glottal) and manner of articulation (plosive, nasal, sibilant, aspiration) for consonants, and iotation (a preceding i-sound), harmonic class, and i-mutation for vowels.

text: For instance, the consonant ㅌ t [tʰ] is composed of three strokes, each one meaningful: the top stroke indicates ㅌ is a plosive, like ㆆ ʔ, ㄱ g, ㄷ d, ㅈ j, which have the same stroke (the last is an affricate, a plosive–fricative sequence); the middle stroke indicates that ㅌ is aspirated, like ㅎ h, ㅋ k, ㅊ ch, which also have this stroke; and the bottom stroke indicates that ㅌ is alveolar, like ㄴ n, ㄷ d, and ㄹ l. (This element is said to represent the shape of the tongue when pronouncing coronal consonants, though this is not certain.) Two consonants, ㆁ and ㅱ, have dual pronunciations, and appear to be composed of two elements corresponding to these two pronunciations: [ŋ]~silence for ㆁ and [m]~[w] for obsolete ㅱ.

text: With vowel letters, a short stroke connected to the main line of the letter indicates that this is one of the vowels that can be iotated; this stroke is then doubled when the vowel is iotated. The position of the stroke indicates which harmonic class the vowel belongs to, "light" (top or right) or "dark" (bottom or left). In the modern alphabet, an additional vertical stroke indicates i-mutation, deriving ㅐ [ɛ], ㅔ [e], ㅚ [ø], and ㅟ [y] from ㅏ [a], ㅓ [ʌ], ㅗ [o], and ㅜ [u]. However, this is not part of the intentional design of the script, but rather a natural development from what were originally diphthongs ending in the vowel ㅣ [i]. Indeed, in many Korean dialects,[citation needed] including the standard dialect of Seoul, some of these may still be diphthongs.

text: Although the design of the script may be featural, for all practical purposes it behaves as an alphabet. The letter ㅌ is not read as three letters alveolar aspirated plosive, for instance, but as a single consonant t. Likewise, the former diphthong ㅔ is read as a single vowel e.

text: Beside the letters, hangul originally employed diacritic marks to indicate pitch accent. A syllable with a high pitch (거성) was marked with a dot (〮) to the left of it (when writing vertically); a syllable with a rising pitch (상성) was marked with a double dot, like a colon (〯). These are no longer used. Although vowel length is still phonemic in Korean, it is no longer written.

text: Some aspects of hangul reflect a shared history with the 'Phags-pa script, and thus Indic phonology, such as the relationships among the homorganic letters and the alphabetic principle itself; but other aspects such as organization of letters into syllabic blocks, and which 'Phags-pa letters were chosen to be basic to the system, reflect the influence of Chinese writing and phonology.

text: Consonant design[edit]

text: The consonant letters fall into five homorganic groups, each with a basic shape, and one or more letters derived from this shape by means of additional strokes. In the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye account, the basic shapes iconically represent the articulations the tongue, palate, teeth, and throat take when making these sounds.

text:
Simple
Aspirated
Tense

velar
ㄱ
ㅋ
ㄲ

fricatives
ㅅ

ㅆ

palatal
ㅈ
ㅊ
ㅉ

coronal
ㄷ
ㅌ
ㄸ

bilabial
ㅂ
ㅍ
ㅃ

text: The Korean names for the groups are taken from Chinese phonetics:

text:
Velar consonants (아음, 牙音 a-eum "molar sounds")

ㄱ g [k], ㅋ k [kʰ]
Basic shape: ㄱ is a side view of the back of the tongue raised toward the velum (soft palate). (For illustration, access the external link below.) ㅋ is derived from ㄱ with a stroke for the burst of aspiration.

Sibilant consonants (fricative or palatal) (치음, 齒音 chieum "dental sounds"):

ㅅ s [s], ㅈ j [tɕ], ㅊ ch [tɕʰ]
Basic shape: ㅅ was originally shaped like a wedge ∧, without the serif on top. It represents a side view of the teeth. The line topping ㅈ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The stroke topping ㅊ represents an additional burst of aspiration.

Coronal consonants (설음, 舌音 seoreum "lingual sounds"):

ㄴ n [n], ㄷ d [t], ㅌ t [tʰ], ㄹ r [ɾ, l]
Basic shape: ㄴ is a side view of the tip of the tongue raised toward the alveolar ridge (gum ridge). The letters derived from ㄴ are pronounced with the same basic articulation. The line topping ㄷ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The middle stroke of ㅌ represents the burst of aspiration. The top of ㄹ represents a flap of the tongue.

Bilabial consonants (순음, 唇音 suneum "labial sounds"):

ㅁ m [m], ㅂ b [p], ㅍ p [pʰ]
Basic shape: ㅁ represents the outline of the lips in contact with each other. The top of ㅂ represents the release burst of the b. The top stroke of ㅍ is for the burst of aspiration.

Dorsal consonants (후음, 喉音 hueum "throat sounds"):

ㅇ ng [ʔ, ŋ], ㅎ h [h]
Basic shape: ㅇ is an outline of the throat. Originally ㅇ was two letters, a simple circle for silence (null consonant), and a circle topped by a vertical line, ㆁ, for the nasal ng. A now obsolete letter, ㆆ, represented a glottal stop, which is pronounced in the throat and had closure represented by the top line, like ㄱㄷㅈ. Derived from ㆆ is ㅎ, in which the extra stroke represents a burst of aspiration.

text: Vowel design[edit]

text: Vowel letters are based on three elements:

text:
A horizontal line representing the flat Earth, the essence of yin.
A point for the Sun in the heavens, the essence of yang. (This becomes a short stroke when written with a brush.)
A vertical line for the upright Human, the neutral mediator between the Heaven and Earth.

text: Short strokes (dots in the earliest documents) were added to these three basic elements to derive the vowel letter:

text: Simple vowels[edit]

text:
Horizontal letters: these are mid-high back vowels.

bright ㅗ o
dark ㅜ u
neutral ㅡ eu (ŭ)

Vertical letters: these were once low vowels.

bright ㅏ a
dark ㅓ eo (ŏ)
neutral ㅣ i

text: Compound vowels[edit]

text: Hangul never had a w, except for Sino-Korean etymology. Since an o or u before an a or eo became a [w] sound, and [w] occurred nowhere else, [w] could always be analyzed as a phonemic o or u, and no letter for [w] was needed. However, vowel harmony is observed: "dark" ㅜ u with "dark" ㅓ eo for ㅝ wo; "bright" ㅗ o with "bright" ㅏ a for ㅘ wa:

text:
ㅘ wa = ㅗ o + ㅏ a
ㅝ wo = ㅜ u + ㅓ eo
ㅙ wae = ㅗ o + ㅐ ae
ㅞ we = ㅜ u + ㅔ e

text: The compound vowels ending in ㅣ i were originally diphthongs. However, several have since evolved into pure vowels:

text:
ㅐ ae = ㅏ a + ㅣ i (pronounced [ɛ])
ㅔ e = ㅓ eo + ㅣ i (pronounced [e])
ㅙ wae = ㅘ wa + ㅣ i
ㅚ oe = ㅗ o + ㅣ i (formerly pronounced [ø], see Korean phonology)
ㅞ we = ㅝ wo + ㅣ i
ㅟ wi = ㅜ u + ㅣ i (formerly pronounced [y], see Korean phonology)
ㅢ ui = ㅡ eu + ㅣ i

text: Iotized vowels[edit]

text: There is no letter for y. Instead, this sound is indicated by doubling the stroke attached to the base line of the vowel letter. Of the seven basic vowels, four could be preceded by a y sound, and these four were written as a dot next to a line. (Through the influence of Chinese calligraphy, the dots soon became connected to the line: ㅓㅏㅜㅗ.) A preceding y sound, called "iotation", was indicated by doubling this dot: ㅕㅑㅠㅛ yeo, ya, yu, yo. The three vowels that could not be iotated were written with a single stroke: ㅡㆍㅣ eu, (arae a), i.

text:
Simple
Iotized

ㅏ
ㅑ

ㅓ
ㅕ

ㅗ
ㅛ

ㅜ
ㅠ

ㅡ

ㅣ

text: The simple iotated vowels are:

text:
ㅑ ya from ㅏ  a
ㅕ yeo from ㅓ  eo
ㅛ yo from ㅗ  o
ㅠ yu from ㅜ  u

text: There are also two iotated diphthongs:

text:
ㅒ yae from ㅐ  ae
ㅖ ye from ㅔ  e

text: The Korean language of the 15th century had vowel harmony to a greater extent than it does today. Vowels in grammatical morphemes changed according to their environment, falling into groups that "harmonized" with each other. This affected the morphology of the language, and Korean phonology described it in terms of yin and yang: If a root word had yang ('bright') vowels, then most suffixes attached to it also had to have yang vowels; conversely, if the root had yin ('dark') vowels, the suffixes needed to be yin as well. There was a third harmonic group called "mediating" ('neutral' in Western terminology) that could coexist with either yin or yang vowels.

text: The Korean neutral vowel was ㅣ i. The yin vowels were ㅡㅜㅓ eu, u, eo; the dots are in the yin directions of 'down' and 'left'. The yang vowels were ㆍㅗㅏ ə, o, a, with the dots in the yang directions of 'up' and 'right'. The Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye states that the shapes of the non-dotted letters ㅡㆍㅣ were chosen to represent the concepts of yin, yang, and mediation: Earth, Heaven, and Human. (The letter ㆍ ə is now obsolete except in the Jeju language.)

text: There was yet a third parameter in designing the vowel letters, namely, choosing ㅡ as the graphic base of ㅜ and ㅗ, and ㅣ as the graphic base of ㅓ and ㅏ. A full understanding of what these horizontal and vertical groups had in common would require knowing the exact sound values these vowels had in the 15th century.

text: Our uncertainty is primarily with the three letters ㆍㅓㅏ. Some linguists reconstruct these as *a, *ɤ, *e, respectively; others as *ə, *e, *a. A third reconstruction is to make them all middle vowels as *ʌ, *ɤ, *a.[36] With the third reconstruction, Middle Korean vowels actually line up in a tidy vowel harmony pattern, albeit with only one front vowel and four middle vowels:

text:
ㅣ *i
 ㅡ *ɯ
 ㅜ *u

 ㅓ *ɤ

 ㆍ *ʌ
 ㅗ *o

 ㅏ *a

text: However, the horizontal letters ㅡㅜㅗ eu, u, o do all appear to have been mid to high back vowels, [*ɯ, *u, *o], and thus to have formed a coherent group phonetically in every reconstruction.

text: Traditional account[edit]

text: The generally accepted account[nb 2][37] on the design of the letters is that the vowels are derived from various combinations of the following three components: ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ. Here, ㆍ symbolically stands for the (sun in) heaven, ㅡ stands for the (flat) earth, and ㅣ stands for an (upright) human. The original sequence of the Korean vowels, as stated in Hunminjeongeum, listed these three vowels first, followed by various combinations. Thus, the original order for the vowels was: ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ ㅗ ㅏ ㅜ ㅓ ㅛ ㅑ ㅠ ㅕ. Note that two positive vowels (ㅗ ㅏ) including one ㆍ are followed by two negative vowels including one ㆍ, then by two positive vowels each including two of ㆍ, and then by two negative vowels each including two of ㆍ.

text: The same theory provides the most simple explanation of the shapes of the consonants as approximation of the shapes of the most representative organ needed to form that sound. The original order of the consonants in Hunmin Jeong-eum was: ㄱ ㅋ ㆁ ㄷ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅊ ㅅ ㆆ ㅎ ㅇ ㄹ ㅿ.

text: ㄱ representing the /k/ sound geometrically describes a tongue just before the moment of pronunciation as the tongue blocks the passage of air.

text: ㅋ representing the /kʰ/ sound is derived from ㄱ by adding another stroke.

text: ㆁ representing the /ŋ/ sound may have been derived from ㅇ by addition of a stroke.

text: ㄷ representing the /t/ sound is derived from ㄴ by addition of a stroke.

text: ㅌ representing the /tʰ/ sound is derived from ㄷ by adding another stroke.

text: ㄴ representing the /n/ sound geometrically describes a tongue making contact with an upper palate just before making the "n" sound.

text: ㅂ representing the /p/ sound is derived from ㅁ by adding strokes.

text: ㅍ representing the /pʰ/ sound is a variant of ㅂ, which is obtained by rotating 90 degrees and extending the horizontal strokes.

text: ㅁ representing the /m/ sound geometrically describes a closed mouth before opening the lips.

text: ㅈ representing the /tɕ/ sound is derived from the shape of ㅅ by adding strokes.

text: ㅊ representing the /tɕʰ/ sound is derived from ㅈ by adding another stroke.

text: ㅅ representing the /s/ sound geometrically describes a near contact between the tongue and the teeth.[citation needed]

text: ㆆ representing the /ʔ/ sound geometrically describes an open throat with a bar to indicate that there is an aspiration.

text: ㅎ representing the /h/ sound is derived from ㆆ with the extra stroke representing a stronger flow of the aspiration.

text: ㅇ representing the absence of a consonant geometrically describes an open mouth, which necessarily accompanies the following vowel.

text: ㄹ representing the /ɾ/ and /l/ sounds geometrically describes a backward-bending tongue.

text: ㅿ representing a weak /z/ sound is also derived from the shape of the teeth, but has a different origin than ㅅ[clarification needed] and is not derived from ㅅ by addition of a stroke.

text: Ledyard's theory of consonant design[edit]

text: Although the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye explains the design of the consonantal letters in terms of articulatory phonetics, as a purely innovative creation, there are several theories as to which external sources may have inspired or influenced King Sejong's creation. Professor Gari Ledyard of Columbia University studied on possible connections between hangul and the Mongol 'Phags-pa script of the Yuan dynasty. He believed that the role of 'Phags-pa script in the creation of hangul was quite limited:

text: It should be clear to any reader that in the total picture, that ['Phags-pa script's] role was quite limited ... Nothing would disturb me more, after this study is published, than to discover in a work on the history of writing a statement like the following: "According to recent investigations, the Korean alphabet was derived from the Mongol's phags-pa script."[38] An affine theory states that the consonants are derived from the shape of the speaker's lips and tongue during the pronunciation of the consonants (initially, at least), but this would appear somewhat to strain credulity.[39]

text: Ledyard posits that five of the hangul letters have shapes inspired by 'Phags-pa; a sixth basic letter, the null initial ㅇ, was invented by Sejong. The rest of the letters were derived internally from these six, essentially as described in the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. However, the five borrowed consonants were not the graphically simplest letters considered basic by the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye, but instead the consonants basic to Chinese phonology: ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ, and ㄹ.

text: The Hunmin Jeong-eum states that King Sejong adapted the 古篆 (gojeon, "Gǔ Seal Script") in creating hangul. The 古篆 has never been identified. The primary meaning of 古 gǔ is "old" ("Old Seal Script"), frustrating philologists because hangul bears no functional similarity to Chinese 篆字 zhuànzì seal scripts. However, Ledyard believes 古 gǔ may be a pun on 蒙古 Měnggǔ "Mongol", and that 古篆 is an abbreviation of 蒙古篆字 "Mongol Seal Script", that is, the formal variant of the 'Phags-pa alphabet written to look like the Chinese seal script. There were 'Phags-pa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, including some in the seal-script form, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well.

text: If this was the case, Sejong's evasion on the Mongol connection can be understood in light of Korea's relationship with Ming China after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and of the literati's contempt for the Mongols as "barbarians".

text: According to Ledyard, the five borrowed letters were graphically simplified, which allowed for consonant clusters and left room to add a stroke to derive the aspirate plosives, ㅋㅌㅍㅊ. But in contrast to the traditional account, the non-plosives (ㆁ ㄴ ㅁ ㅅ) were derived by removing the top of the basic letters. He points out that while it is easy to derive ㅁ from ㅂ by removing the top, it is not clear how to derive ㅂ from ㅁ in the traditional account, since the shape of ㅂ is not analogous to those of the other plosives.

text: The explanation of the letter ng also differs from the traditional account. Many Chinese words began with ng, but by King Sejong's day, initial ng was either silent or pronounced [ŋ] in China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean. Also, the expected shape of ng (the short vertical line left by removing the top stroke of ㄱ) would have looked almost identical to the vowel ㅣ [i]. Sejong's solution solved both problems: The vertical stroke left from ㄱ was added to the null symbol ㅇ to create ㆁ (a circle with a vertical line on top), iconically capturing both the pronunciation [ŋ] in the middle or end of a word, and the usual silence at the beginning. (The graphic distinction between null ㅇ and ng ㆁ was eventually lost.)

text: Another letter composed of two elements to represent two regional pronunciations was ㅱ, which transcribed the Chinese initial 微. This represented either m or w in various Chinese dialects, and was composed of ㅁ [m] plus ㅇ (from 'Phags-pa [w]). In 'Phags-pa, a loop under a letter represented w after vowels, and Ledyard proposes this became the loop at the bottom of ㅱ. Now, in 'Phags-pa the Chinese initial 微 is also transcribed as a compound with w, but in its case the w is placed under an h. Actually, the Chinese consonant series 微非敷 w, v, f is transcribed in 'Phags-pa by the addition of a w under three graphic variants of the letter for h, and hangul parallels this convention by adding the w loop to the labial series ㅁㅂㅍ m, b, p, producing now-obsolete ㅱㅸㆄ w, v, f. (Phonetic values in Korean are uncertain, as these consonants were only used to transcribe Chinese.)

text: As a final piece of evidence, Ledyard notes that most of the borrowed hangul letters were simple geometric shapes, at least originally, but that ㄷ d [t] always had a small lip protruding from the upper left corner, just as the 'Phags-pa d [t] did. This lip can be traced back to the Tibetan letter d.

text: Sorting order[edit]

text: The alphabetical order of hangul does not mix consonants and vowels as the Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek alphabets do. Rather, the order is that of the Indic type, first velar consonants, then coronals, labials, sibilants, etc. However, the vowels come after the consonants rather than before them as in the Indic systems.

text: Historical orders[edit]

text: The consonantal order of the Hunmin Jeongeum in 1446 was,

text: and the order of vowels was,

text: In 1527, Choe Sejin reorganized the alphabet:

text: This is the basis of the modern alphabetic orders. It was before the development of the Korean tense consonants and the double letters that represent them, and before the conflation of the letters ㅇ (null) and ㆁ (ng). Thus when the South Korean and North Korean governments implemented full use of hangul, they ordered these letters differently, with South Korea grouping similar letters together, and North Korea placing new letters at the end of the alphabet.

text: South Korean order[edit]

text: In the Southern order, double letters are placed immediately after their single counterparts:

text: The modern monophthongal vowels come first, with the derived forms interspersed according to their form: i is added first, then iotized, then iotized with added i. Diphthongs beginning with w are ordered according to their spelling, as ㅗ or ㅜ plus a second vowel, not as separate digraphs.

text: The order of the final letters (받침) is,

text: ("None" means there is no final letter.)

text: Every syllable begins with a consonant (or the silent ㅇ) that is followed by a vowel (e.g. ㄷ + ㅏ = 다). Some syllables such as "달" and "닭" have a final consonant or final consonant cluster (받침). Then, there are a total of 399 possible combinations for "two-letter syllables" and 10,773 possible combinations for syllables with more than two "letters" (27 possible final endings), for a total of 11,172 possible combinations of hangul "letters" to form syllables.

text: North Korean order[edit]

text: North Korea maintains a more traditional order:

text: ㅇ used as an initial, goes at the very end, as it is a placeholder for the vowels which follow. (A syllable with no final is ordered before all syllables with finals, however, not with null ㅇ.)

text: The new, double, letters are placed at the end of the consonants, just before the null ㅇ, so as not to alter the traditional order of the rest of the alphabet.

text: The order of the vowel letters is,

text: All digraphs and trigraphs, including the old diphthongs ㅐ and ㅔ, are placed after the simple vowels, again maintaining Choe's alphabetic order.

text: The order of the final letters is,

text: Unlike when it is initial, this ㅇ is pronounced, as the nasal ㅇ ng, which occurs only as a final in the modern language. The double letters are placed to the very end, as in the initial order, but the combined consonants are ordered immediately after their first element.

text: Letter names[edit]

text: The hangul arrangement is called the ganada order, (가나다 순) which is basically an alphabetical order named after the first three letters (g, n, d) affixed to the first vowel (a). The letters were named by Choe Sejin in 1527. North Korea regularized the names when it made hangul its official orthography.

text: Consonant names[edit]

text: The modern consonants have two-syllable names, with the consonant coming both at the beginning and end of the name, as follows:

text:
Consonant
Name

ㄱ
giyeok (기역), or kiŭk (기윽) in North Korea

ㄴ
nieun/niŭn (니은)

ㄷ
digeut (디귿), or tiŭt (디읃) in North Korea

ㄹ
rieul/riŭl (리을)

ㅁ
mieum/miŭm (미음)

ㅂ
bieup/piŭp (비읍)

ㅅ
siot (시옷), or siŭt (시읏) in North Korea

ㅇ
ieung/iŭng (이응)

ㅈ
jieut/chiŭt (지읒)

ㅊ
chieut/ch'iŭt (치읓)

ㅋ
kieuk/k'iŭk (키읔)

ㅌ
tieut/t'iŭt (티읕)

ㅍ
pieup/p'iŭp (피읖)

ㅎ
hieut/hiŭt (히읗)

text: All consonants in North Korea, and all but three in the more traditional nomenclature used in South Korea, have names of the format of letter + i + eu + letter. For example, Choi wrote bieup with the hanja 非 bi 邑 eup. The names of g, d, and s are exceptions because there were no hanja pronouncd euk, eut, and eus. 役 yeok is used in place of euk. Since there is no hanja that ends in t or s, Choi chose two hanja to be read in their Korean gloss, 末 kkeut "end" and 衣 ot "clothes".

text: Originally, Choi gave j, ch, k, t, p, and h the irregular one-syllable names of ji, chi, ki, ti, pi, and hi, because they should not be used as final consonants, as specified in Hunmin jeong-eum. But after the establishment of the new orthography in 1933, which allowed all consonants to be used as finals, the names were changed to the present forms.

text: The double consonants are named with the word 쌍/雙 ssang, meaning "twin" or "double", or with 된 doen in North Korea, meaning "strong". Thus:

text:
Letter
South Korean Name
North Korean name

ㄲ
ssanggiyeok (쌍기역)
toen'giŭk (된기윽)

ㄸ
ssangdigeut (쌍디귿)
toendiŭt (된디읃)

ㅃ
ssangbieup (쌍비읍)
toenbiŭp (된비읍)

ㅆ
ssangsiot (쌍시옷)
toensiŭt (된시읏)

ㅉ
ssangjieut (쌍지읒)
toenjiŭt (된지읒)

text: In North Korea, an alternative way to refer to a consonant is by the name letter + ŭ (ㅡ), for example, 그 kŭ for the letter ㄱ, 쓰 ssŭ for the letter ㅆ, etc.

text: Vowel names[edit]

text: The names of the vowel letters are simply the vowel itself, written with the null initial ㅇ ieung and the vowel being named. Thus:

text:
Letter
Name
Letter
Name

ㅏ
a (아)
ㅐ
ae (애)

ㅑ
ya (야)
ㅒ
yae (얘)

ㅓ
eo (어)
ㅔ
e (에)

ㅕ
yeo (여)
ㅖ
ye (예)

ㅗ
o (오)
ㅘ
wa (와)

ㅛ
yo (요)
ㅙ
wae (왜)

ㅚ
oe (외)

ㅜ
u (우)
ㅝ
wo (워)

ㅠ
yu (유)
ㅞ
we (웨)

ㅟ
wi (위)

ㅡ
eu (으)
ㅢ
ui (의)

ㅣ
i (이)

text: In the Seoul dialect of Modern Korean, e (ㅔ) and ae (ㅐ) have no distinction in pronunciation: for this reason they are denoted as eo-i (어이) for e (ㅔ) and a-i (아이) for ae (ㅐ) when giving the spelling of a word or name in spoken conversation.[citation needed] The lack of distinction typically occurs at the end of syllable blocks, e.g. 대 vs. 데, where the syllable lengthens.

text: Obsolete letters[edit]

text: Several letters are obsolete. These include several that represent Korean sounds that have since disappeared from the standard language, as well as a larger number used to represent the sounds of the Chinese rime tables. The most frequently encountered of these archaic letters are:

text:
ㆍ (transcribed ə (arae-a 아래아 "lower a"): Presumably pronounced [ʌ], similar to modern ㅓ eo. It is written as a dot, positioned beneath (Korean for "beneath" is arae) the consonant. The arae-a is not entirely obsolete, as it can be found in various brand names, and in the Jeju language, where it is pronounced [ɒ]

The ə formed a medial of its own, or was found in the diphthong ㆎ arae-ae, written with the dot under the consonant and ㅣ (transcribed i) to its right – in the same fashion as ㅚ or ㅢ.

ㅿ z (bansiot 반시옷, banchieum 반치음): A rather unusual sound, perhaps IPA [ʝ̃] (a nasalized palatal fricative). Modern Korean words previously spelled with ㅿ substitute ㅅ or ㅇ.
ㆆ ʔ (yeorinhieut 여린히읗 "light hieut" or doenieung 된이응 "strong ieung"): A glottal stop, "lighter than ㅎ and harsher than ㅇ".
ㆁ ŋ (yesieung 옛이응): The original letter for [ŋ]; now conflated with ㅇ ieung. (With some computer fonts such as Arial Unicode MS, yesieung is shown as a flattened version of ieung, but the correct form is with a long peak, longer than what one would see on a serif version of ieung.)
ㅸ β (gabyeounbieup 가벼운비읍, sungyeongeumbieup 순경음비읍): IPA [f]. This letter appears to be a digraph of bieup and ieung, but it may be more complicated than that. There were three other, less-common letters for sounds in this section of the Chinese rime tables, ㅱ w ([w] or [m]), a theoretical ㆄ f, and ㅹ ff [v̤]; the bottom element appears to be only coincidentally similar to ieung. However its exact shape, it operates somewhat like a following h in the Latin alphabet (one may think of these letters as bh, mh, ph, and pph respectively). Koreans do not distinguish these sounds now, if they ever did, conflating the fricatives with the corresponding plosives.

text: There were two other now-obsolete double letters,

text:
ㆅ x (ssanghieut 쌍히읗 "double hieut"): IPA [ɣ̈ʲ] or [ɣ̈].
ᅇ (ssang-ieung 쌍이응 "double ieung"): Another letter used in the Chinese rime table.

text: In the original hangul system, double letters were used to represent Chinese voiced (濁音) consonants, which survive in the Shanghainese slack consonants, and were not used for Korean words. It was only later that a similar convention was used to represent the modern "tense" (faucalized) consonants of Korean.

text: The sibilant ("dental") consonants were modified to represent the two series of Chinese sibilants, alveolar and retroflex, a "round" vs. "sharp" distinction (analogous to s vs sh) which was never made in Korean, and which was even being lost from southern Chinese. The alveolar letters had longer left stems, while retroflexes had longer right stems:

text:
Original consonants
ㅅ
ㅆ
ㅈ
ㅉ
ㅊ

Chidueum (alveolar sibilant)
ᄼ
ᄽ
ᅎ
ᅏ
ᅔ

Jeongchieum (retroflex sibilant)
ᄾ
ᄿ
ᅐ
ᅑ
ᅕ

text: There were also consonant clusters that have since dropped out of the language, such as the finals ㅴ bsg and ㅵ bsd, as well as diphthongs that were used to represent Chinese medials, such as ㆇ, ㆈ, ㆊ, ㆋ.

text: Some of the Korean sounds represented by these obsolete letters still exist in some dialects.

text: Unicode[edit]

text: Hangul Jamo (U+1100–U+11FF) and Hangul Compatibility Jamo (U+3130–U+318F) blocks were added to the Unicode Standard in June 1993 with the release of version 1.1. The characters were relocated to their present locations in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0.

text: Hangul Jamo Extended-A (U+A960–U+A97F) and Hangul Jamo Extended-B (U+D7B0–U+D7FF) blocks were added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

text:
Hangul Jamo[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+110x
ᄀ
ᄁ
ᄂ
ᄃ
ᄄ
ᄅ
ᄆ
ᄇ
ᄈ
ᄉ
ᄊ
ᄋ
ᄌ
ᄍ
ᄎ
ᄏ

U+111x
ᄐ
ᄑ
ᄒ
ᄓ
ᄔ
ᄕ
ᄖ
ᄗ
ᄘ
ᄙ
ᄚ
ᄛ
ᄜ
ᄝ
ᄞ
ᄟ

U+112x
ᄠ
ᄡ
ᄢ
ᄣ
ᄤ
ᄥ
ᄦ
ᄧ
ᄨ
ᄩ
ᄪ
ᄫ
ᄬ
ᄭ
ᄮ
ᄯ

U+113x
ᄰ
ᄱ
ᄲ
ᄳ
ᄴ
ᄵ
ᄶ
ᄷ
ᄸ
ᄹ
ᄺ
ᄻ
ᄼ
ᄽ
ᄾ
ᄿ

U+114x
ᅀ
ᅁ
ᅂ
ᅃ
ᅄ
ᅅ
ᅆ
ᅇ
ᅈ
ᅉ
ᅊ
ᅋ
ᅌ
ᅍ
ᅎ
ᅏ

U+115x
ᅐ
ᅑ
ᅒ
ᅓ
ᅔ
ᅕ
ᅖ
ᅗ
ᅘ
ᅙ
ᅚ
ᅛ
ᅜ
ᅝ
ᅞ
 HC
F

U+116x
 HJ
F
ᅡ
ᅢ
ᅣ
ᅤ
ᅥ
ᅦ
ᅧ
ᅨ
ᅩ
ᅪ
ᅫ
ᅬ
ᅭ
ᅮ
ᅯ

U+117x
ᅰ
ᅱ
ᅲ
ᅳ
ᅴ
ᅵ
ᅶ
ᅷ
ᅸ
ᅹ
ᅺ
ᅻ
ᅼ
ᅽ
ᅾ
ᅿ

U+118x
ᆀ
ᆁ
ᆂ
ᆃ
ᆄ
ᆅ
ᆆ
ᆇ
ᆈ
ᆉ
ᆊ
ᆋ
ᆌ
ᆍ
ᆎ
ᆏ

U+119x
ᆐ
ᆑ
ᆒ
ᆓ
ᆔ
ᆕ
ᆖ
ᆗ
ᆘ
ᆙ
ᆚ
ᆛ
ᆜ
ᆝ
ᆞ
ᆟ

U+11Ax
ᆠ
ᆡ
ᆢ
ᆣ
ᆤ
ᆥ
ᆦ
ᆧ
ᆨ
ᆩ
ᆪ
ᆫ
ᆬ
ᆭ
ᆮ
ᆯ

U+11Bx
ᆰ
ᆱ
ᆲ
ᆳ
ᆴ
ᆵ
ᆶ
ᆷ
ᆸ
ᆹ
ᆺ
ᆻ
ᆼ
ᆽ
ᆾ
ᆿ

U+11Cx
ᇀ
ᇁ
ᇂ
ᇃ
ᇄ
ᇅ
ᇆ
ᇇ
ᇈ
ᇉ
ᇊ
ᇋ
ᇌ
ᇍ
ᇎ
ᇏ

U+11Dx
ᇐ
ᇑ
ᇒ
ᇓ
ᇔ
ᇕ
ᇖ
ᇗ
ᇘ
ᇙ
ᇚ
ᇛ
ᇜ
ᇝ
ᇞ
ᇟ

U+11Ex
ᇠ
ᇡ
ᇢ
ᇣ
ᇤ
ᇥ
ᇦ
ᇧ
ᇨ
ᇩ
ᇪ
ᇫ
ᇬ
ᇭ
ᇮ
ᇯ

U+11Fx
ᇰ
ᇱ
ᇲ
ᇳ
ᇴ
ᇵ
ᇶ
ᇷ
ᇸ
ᇹ
ᇺ
ᇻ
ᇼ
ᇽ
ᇾ
ᇿ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2. ᄀ: Hangul jamo with a green background are modern-usage characters which can be converted into precomposed Hangul syllables under Unicode normalization form NFC.
Hangul jamo with a white background are used for archaic Korean only, and there are no corresponding precomposed Hangul syllables.
"Conjoining Jamo Behavior" (PDF). The Unicode Standard (version 8.0). Retrieved 2016-02-05.

text:
Hangul Jamo Extended-A[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+A96x
ꥠ
ꥡ
ꥢ
ꥣ
ꥤ
ꥥ
ꥦ
ꥧ
ꥨ
ꥩ
ꥪ
ꥫ
ꥬ
ꥭ
ꥮ
ꥯ

U+A97x
ꥰ
ꥱ
ꥲ
ꥳ
ꥴ
ꥵ
ꥶ
ꥷ
ꥸ
ꥹ
ꥺ
ꥻ
ꥼ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text:
Hangul Jamo Extended-B[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+D7Bx
ힰ
ힱ
ힲ
ힳ
ힴ
ힵ
ힶ
ힷ
ힸ
ힹ
ힺ
ힻ
ힼ
ힽ
ힾ
ힿ

U+D7Cx
ퟀ
ퟁ
ퟂ
ퟃ
ퟄ
ퟅ
ퟆ

ퟋ
ퟌ
ퟍ
ퟎ
ퟏ

U+D7Dx
ퟐ
ퟑ
ퟒ
ퟓ
ퟔ
ퟕ
ퟖ
ퟗ
ퟘ
ퟙ
ퟚ
ퟛ
ퟜ
ퟝ
ퟞ
ퟟ

U+D7Ex
ퟠ
ퟡ
ퟢ
ퟣ
ퟤ
ퟥ
ퟦ
ퟧ
ퟨ
ퟩ
ퟪ
ퟫ
ퟬ
ퟭ
ퟮ
ퟯ

U+D7Fx
ퟰ
ퟱ
ퟲ
ퟳ
ퟴ
ퟵ
ퟶ
ퟷ
ퟸ
ퟹ
ퟺ
ퟻ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text:
Hangul Compatibility Jamo[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+313x

ㄱ
ㄲ
ㄳ
ㄴ
ㄵ
ㄶ
ㄷ
ㄸ
ㄹ
ㄺ
ㄻ
ㄼ
ㄽ
ㄾ
ㄿ

U+314x
ㅀ
ㅁ
ㅂ
ㅃ
ㅄ
ㅅ
ㅆ
ㅇ
ㅈ
ㅉ
ㅊ
ㅋ
ㅌ
ㅍ
ㅎ
ㅏ

U+315x
ㅐ
ㅑ
ㅒ
ㅓ
ㅔ
ㅕ
ㅖ
ㅗ
ㅘ
ㅙ
ㅚ
ㅛ
ㅜ
ㅝ
ㅞ
ㅟ

U+316x
ㅠ
ㅡ
ㅢ
ㅣ
  HF
ㅥ
ㅦ
ㅧ
ㅨ
ㅩ
ㅪ
ㅫ
ㅬ
ㅭ
ㅮ
ㅯ

U+317x
ㅰ
ㅱ
ㅲ
ㅳ
ㅴ
ㅵ
ㅶ
ㅷ
ㅸ
ㅹ
ㅺ
ㅻ
ㅼ
ㅽ
ㅾ
ㅿ

U+318x
ㆀ
ㆁ
ㆂ
ㆃ
ㆄ
ㆅ
ㆆ
ㆇ
ㆈ
ㆉ
ㆊ
ㆋ
ㆌ
ㆍ
ㆎ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Parenthesised (U+3200–U+321E) and circled (U+3260–U+327E) Hangul compatibility characters are in the Enclosed CJK Letters and Months block:

text:
Hangul subset of Enclosed CJK Letters and Months[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+320x
㈀
㈁
㈂
㈃
㈄
㈅
㈆
㈇
㈈
㈉
㈊
㈋
㈌
㈍
㈎
㈏

U+321x
㈐
㈑
㈒
㈓
㈔
㈕
㈖
㈗
㈘
㈙
㈚
㈛
㈜
㈝
㈞

...
(U+3220–U+325F omitted)

U+326x
㉠
㉡
㉢
㉣
㉤
㉥
㉦
㉧
㉨
㉩
㉪
㉫
㉬
㉭
㉮
㉯

U+327x
㉰
㉱
㉲
㉳
㉴
㉵
㉶
㉷
㉸
㉹
㉺
㉻
㉼
㉽
㉾

...
(U+3280–U+32FF omitted)

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Half-width Hangul compatibility characters (U+FFA0–U+FFDC) are in the Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms block:

text:
Hangul subset of Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

...
(U+FF00–U+FF9F omitted)

U+FFAx
 HW
HF
ﾡ
ﾢ
ﾣ
ﾤ
ﾥ
ﾦ
ﾧ
ﾨ
ﾩ
ﾪ
ﾫ
ﾬ
ﾭ
ﾮ
ﾯ

U+FFBx
ﾰ
ﾱ
ﾲ
ﾳ
ﾴ
ﾵ
ﾶ
ﾷ
ﾸ
ﾹ
ﾺ
ﾻ
ﾼ
ﾽ
ﾾ

U+FFCx

ￂ
ￃ
ￄ
ￅ
ￆ
ￇ

ￊ
ￋ
ￌ
ￍ
ￎ
ￏ

U+FFDx

ￒ
ￓ
ￔ
ￕ
ￖ
ￗ

ￚ
ￛ
ￜ

...
(U+FFE0–U+FFEF omitted)

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Hangul in other Unicode blocks:

text:
Tone marks for Middle Korean[40][41][42] are in the CJK Symbols and Punctuation block:  〮 (U+302E),  〯 (U+302F)
11,172 precomposed hangul syllables make up the Hangul Syllables block (U+AC00–U+D7A3)

text: Restored letters[edit]

text: To make hangul a perfect morphophonological fit to the Korean language, North Korea introduced six new letters, which were published in the New Orthography for the Korean Language and used officially from 1948 to 1954.

text: Two obsolete letters were restored: ⟨ㅿ⟩ (리읃), which was used to indicate an alternation in pronunciation between initial /l/ and final /d/; and ⟨ㆆ⟩ (히으), which was only pronounced between vowels. Two modifications of the letter ㄹ were introduced, one for a ㄹ which is silent finally, and one for a ㄹ which doubled between vowels. A hybrid ㅂ-ㅜ letter was introduced for words which alternated between those two sounds (that is, a /b/ which became /w/ before a vowel). Finally, a vowel ⟨1⟩ was introduced for variable iotation.

text: Morpho-syllabic blocks[edit]

text: Except for a few grammatical morphemes prior to the twentieth century, no letter may stand alone to represent elements of the Korean language. Instead, letters are grouped into syllabic or morphemic blocks of at least two and often three: (1) a consonant or a doubled consonant called the initial (초성, 初聲 choseong syllable onset), (2) a vowel or diphthong called the medial (중성, 中聲 jungseong syllable nucleus), and, optionally, (3) a consonant or consonant cluster at the end of the syllable, called the final (종성, 終聲 jongseong syllable coda). When a syllable has no actual initial consonant, the null initial ㅇ ieung is used as a placeholder. (In modern hangul, placeholders are not used for the final position.) Thus, a block contains a minimum of two letters, an initial and a medial. Although the hangul had historically been organized into syllables, in the modern orthography it is first organized into morphemes, and only secondarily into syllables within those morphemes, with the exception that single-consonant morphemes may not be written alone.

text: The sets of initial and final consonants are not the same. For instance, ㅇ ng only occurs in final position, while the doubled letters that can occur in final position are limited to ㅆ ss and ㄲ kk.

text: Not including obsolete letters, there are 11,172 possible hangul blocks.

text: Letter placement within a block[edit]

text:
History of the alphabet[show]

Egyptian hieroglyphs 32 c. BCE

Hieratic 32 c. BCE

Demotic 7 c. BCE

Meroitic 3 c. BCE

Proto-Sinaitic 19 c. BCE

Ugaritic 15 c. BCE
Epigraphic South Arabian 9 c. BCE

Ge’ez 5–6 c. BCE

Phoenician 12 c. BCE

Paleo-Hebrew 10 c. BCE

Samaritan 6 c. BCE

Libyco-Berber 3 c. BCE

Tifinagh

Paleohispanic (semi-syllabic) 7 c. BCE
Aramaic 8 c. BCE

Kharoṣṭhī 4 c. BCE
Brāhmī 4 c. BCE

Brahmic family (see)

E.g. Tibetan 7 c. CE

Hangul (core letters only) 1443

Devanagari 13 c. CE

Canadian syllabics 1840

Hebrew 3 c. BCE
Pahlavi 3 c. BCE

Avestan 4 c. CE

Palmyrene 2 c. BCE
Syriac 2 c. BCE

Nabataean 2 c. BCE

Arabic 4 c. CE

N'Ko 1949 CE

Sogdian 2 c. BCE

Orkhon (old Turkic) 6 c. CE

Old Hungarian c. 650 CE

Old Uyghur

Mongolian 1204 CE

Mandaic 2 c. CE

Greek 8 c. BCE

Etruscan 8 c. BCE

Latin 7 c. BCE

Cherokee (syllabary; letter forms only) c. 1820 CE

Runic 2 c. CE
Ogham (origin uncertain) 4 c. CE

Coptic 3 c. CE
Gothic 3 c. CE
Armenian 405 CE
Georgian (origin uncertain) c. 430 CE
Glagolitic 862 CE
Cyrillic c. 940 CE

Old Permic 1372 CE

Thaana 18 c. CE (derived from Brahmi numerals)

v
t
e

text: The placement or "stacking" of letters in the block follows set patterns based on the shape of the medial.

text: Consonant and vowel sequences such as ㅄ bs, ㅝ wo, or obsolete ㅵ bsd, ㆋ üye are written left to right.

text: Vowels (medials) are written under the initial consonant, to the right, or wrap around the initial from bottom to right, depending on their shape: If the vowel has a horizontal axis like ㅡ eu, then it is written under the initial; if it has a vertical axis like ㅣ i, then it is written to the right of the initial; and if it combines both orientations, like ㅢ ui, then it wraps around the initial from the bottom to the right:

text:
initial
medial

initial

medial

initial
med.
2

med. 1

text: A final consonant, if there is one, is always written at the bottom, under the vowel. This is called 받침 batchim "supporting floor":

text:
initial
medial

final

initial

medial

final

initial
med.
2

med.

final

text: A complex final is written left to right:

text:
initial
medial

final 1
final 2

initial

medial

final 1
final 2

initial
med.
2

med.

fin. 1
fin. 2

text: Blocks are always written in phonetic order, initial-medial-final. Therefore:

text:
Syllables with a horizontal medial are written downward: 읍 eup;
Syllables with a vertical medial and simple final are written clockwise: 쌍 ssang;
Syllables with a wrapping medial switch direction (down-right-down): 된 doen;
Syllables with a complex final are written left to right at the bottom: 밟 balp.

text: Block shape[edit]

text: Normally the resulting block is written within a square of the same size and shape as a hanja (Chinese character) by compressing or stretching the letters to fill the bounds of the block; therefore someone not familiar with the scripts may mistake Hangul text for hanja or Chinese text.

text: However, some recent fonts (for example Eun, HY깊은샘물M, UnJamo) move towards the European practice of letters whose relative size is fixed, and the use of whitespace to fill letter positions not used in a particular block, and away from the East Asian tradition of square block characters (方块字). They break one or more of the traditional rules:

text:
Do not stretch initial consonant vertically, but leave white space below it if no lower vowel and/or no final consonant.
Do not stretch right-hand vowel vertically, but leave white space below it if no final consonant. (Often the right-hand vowel extends farther down than the left-hand consonant, like a descender in European typography)
Do not stretch final consonant horizontally, but leave white space to left of it.
Do not stretch or pad each block to be a fixed width, but allow variable width (kerning) where syllable blocks with no right-hand vowel and no double final consonant can be narrower than blocks that do have a right-hand vowel or double final consonant.

text: So far, these fonts have been used as design accents on signs or headings, rather than for typesetting large volumes of body text.

text: Linear Hangul[edit]

text: There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the letters individually and in a row, in the fashion of the European alphabets: e.g. ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ for 한글 hangeul.[43]

text: Avant-garde typographer Ahn Sangsu made a font for the "Hangul Dada" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the letters horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each letter would normally have within a block, unlike the century-old linear writing proposals.[44]

text: While Koreans have largely accepted the European-derived conventions of writing successive syllables left-to-right in horizontal lines instead of in vertical columns, adding spaces between words, and European-style punctuation, they have completely resisted getting rid of syllabic blocks, the most distinctive feature of this writing system.

text: Orthography[edit]

text: Until the 20th century, no official orthography of Hangul had been established. Due to liaison, heavy consonant assimilation, dialectical variants and other reasons, a Korean word can potentially be spelled in various ways. King Sejong seemed to prefer morphophonemic spelling (representing the underlying root forms) rather than a phonemic one (representing the actual sounds). However, early in its history, Hangul was dominated by phonemic spelling. Over the centuries the orthography became partially morphophonemic, first in nouns, and later in verbs. Today it is as morphophonemic as is practical. The difference between phonetic Romanization, phonemic orthography, and morpho-phonemic orthography can be illustrated with the phrase motaneun sarami:

text:
Phonetic transcription and translation:

motaneun sarami
[mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.ɾa.mi]
a person who cannot do it

Phonemic transcription:

모타는사라미
/mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.la.mi/

Morphophonemic transcription:

못하는사람이
|mot-ha-nɯn-sa.lam-i|

Morpheme-by-morpheme gloss:

못–하–는
사람=이

mot-ha-neun
saram=i

cannot-do-[attributive]
person=[subject]

text: After the Gabo Reform in 1894, the Joseon Dynasty and later the Korean Empire started to write all official documents in hangul. Under the government's management, proper usage of hangul and hanja, including orthography, was discussed, until the Korean Empire was annexed by Japan in 1910.

text: The Government-General of Korea popularized the writing style of a mixture of hanja and hangul which was used in later Joseon dynasty. The government revised the spelling rules in 1912, 1921 and 1930, which were relatively phonemic.

text: The Hangul Society, founded by Ju Si-gyeong, announced a proposal for a new, strongly morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in both North and South Korea. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for hangul orthography is called Hangeul Matchumbeop, whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education.

text: Mixed scripts[edit]

text: Since the Late Joseon dynasty period, various hanja-hangul mixed systems were used. In these systems, hanja was used for lexical roots, and hangul for grammatical words and inflections, much as kanji and kana are used in Japanese. Today however, hanja have been almost entirely phased out of daily use in North Korea, and in South Korea they are now mostly restricted to parenthetical glosses for proper names and for disambiguating homonyms.

text: Indo-Arabic numerals are also mixed in with hangul, as in 2007년 3월 22일 (22 March 2007). In Korean pop-culture Roman words may be mixed in for artistic purposes as well.

text: The Latin script, and occasionally other scripts, may be sprinkled within Korean texts for illustrative purposes, or for unassimilated loanwords. Very occasionally non-hangul letters may be mixed into hangul syllabic blocks, as Gㅏ Ga at right.

text: Readability[edit]

text: Because of the clustering of syllables, words are shorter on the page than their linear counterparts would be, and the boundaries between syllables are easily visible (which may aid reading, if segmenting words into syllables is more natural for the reader than dividing them up into phonemes).[45] Because the component parts of the syllable are relatively simple phonemic characters, the number of strokes per character on average is lower than in Chinese characters. Unlike syllabaries, such as Japanese kana, or Chinese logographs, none of which encode the constituent phonemes within a syllable, the graphic complexity of Korean syllabic blocks varies in direct proportion with the phonemic complexity of the syllable.[46] Unlike linear alphabets such as those derived from Latin, the Korean orthography allows the reader to "utilize both the horizontal and vertical visual fields";[47] finally, since hangul syllables are represented both as collections of phonemes and as unique-looking graphs, they may allow for both visual and aural retrieval of words from the lexicon.

text: Style[edit]

text: Hangul may be written either vertically or horizontally. The traditional direction is from top to bottom, right to left. Horizontal writing in the style of the Latin script was promoted by Ju Si-gyeong, and has become overwhelmingly prevalent.

text: In Hunmin Jeongeum, hangul was printed in sans-serif angular lines of even thickness. This style is found in books published before about 1900, and can be found today in stone carvings (on statues, for example).

text: Over the centuries, an ink-brush style of calligraphy developed, employing the same style of lines and angles as traditional Korean calligraphy. This brush style is called gungche (궁체 宮體), which means "Palace Style" because the style was mostly developed and used by the maidservants (gungnyeo, 궁녀 宮女) of the court in Joseon dynasty.

text: Modern styles that are more suited for printed media were developed in the 20th century. In 1993, new names for both Myeongjo (明朝) and Gothic styles were introduced when Ministry of Culture initiated an effort to standardize typographic terms, and the names Batang (바탕, meaning "background") and Dotum (돋움, meaning "stand out") replaced Myeongjo and Gothic respectively. These names are also used in Microsoft Windows.

text: A sans-serif style with lines of equal width is popular with pencil and pen writing, and is often the default typeface of Web browsers. A minor advantage of this style is that it makes it easier to distinguish -eung from -ung even in small or untidy print, as the jongseong ieung (ㅇ) of such fonts usually lacks a serif that could be mistaken for the short vertical line of the letter ㅜ (u).


document_title: Digital clock

question_text: when was the first digital alarm clock invented

text: Digital clock

text: History[edit]

text: The first digital pocket watch was the invention of Austrian engineer Josef Pallweber who created his "jump-hour" mechanism in 1883. Instead of a conventional dial, the jump-hour featured two windows in an enamel dial, through which the hours and minutes are visible on rotating discs. The second hand remained conventional. By 1885 Pallweber mechanism was already on the market in pocket watches by Cortébert and IWC; arguably contributing to the subsequent rise and commercial success of IWC. The principles of Pallweber jump-hour movement had appeared in wristwatches by the 1920s (Cortébert) and are still used today (Chronoswiss Digiteur). While the original inventor didn't have a watch brand at the time, his name has since been resurrected by a newly established watch manufacturer.[1]

tag: p

text: Plato clocks used a similar idea but a different layout. These spring-wound pieces consisted of a glass cylinder with a column inside, affixed to which were small digital cards with numbers printed on them, which flipped as time passed. The Plato clocks were introduced at the St. Louis World Fair in 1904, produced by Ansonia Clock Company. Eugene Fitch of New York patented the clock design in 1903.[2] 13 years earlier Josef Pallweber had patented the same invention using digital cards (different from his 1885 patent using moving disks) in Germany (DRP No. 54093).[3] The German factory Aktiengesellschaft für Uhrenfabrikation Lenzkirch made such digital clocks in 1893 and 1894.[4]

text: The earliest patent for a digital alarm clock was registered by D.E Protzmann and others on October 23, 1956, in the United States. Protzmann and his associates also patented another digital clock in 1970, which was said to use a minimal amount of moving parts. Two side-plates held digital numerals between them, while an electric motor and cam gear outside controlled movement.[2]

text: In 1970, the first digital wristwatch with an LED display was mass-produced. Called the Pulsar, and produced by the Hamilton Watch Company, this watch was hinted at two years prior when the same company created a prototype digital watch for Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey.[5] Throughout the 1970s, despite the initial hefty cost of digital watches, the popularity of said devices steadily rose.

text: Over the years, many different types of digital alarm clocks have been developed.

text: In Soviet Russia, the 7-segment digital clocks were known as Elektronika 7.

text: Construction[edit]

text: Digital clocks typically use the 50 or 60 hertz oscillation of AC power or a 32,768 hertz crystal oscillator as in a quartz clock to keep time. Most digital clocks display the hour of the day in 24-hour format; in the United States and a few other countries, a more commonly used hour sequence option is 12-hour format[citation needed] (with some indication of AM or PM). Some timepieces, such as many digital watches, can be switched between 12-hour and 24-hour modes. Emulations of analog-style faces often use an LCD screen, and these are also sometimes described as "digital".

text: Displays[edit]

text: To represent the time, most digital clocks use a seven-segment LED, VFD, or LCD for each of four digits. They generally also include other elements to indicate whether the time is AM or PM, whether or not an alarm is set, and so on.

text: Setting[edit]

text: If people find difficulty in setting the time in some designs of digital clocks in electronic devices where the clock is not a critical function, they may not be set at all, displaying the default after powered on, 00:00 or 12:00.[6][7]

text: Digital clocks that run on mains electricity and have no battery must be reset every time the power has an accident or if they are moved. Even if power is cut off for a second, most clocks will still have to be reset. This is a particular problem with alarm clocks that have no "battery" backup, because even a very brief power outage during the night usually results in the clock failing to trigger the alarm in the morning.

text: To reduce the problem, many devices designed to operate on household electricity incorporate a battery backup to maintain the time during power outages and during times of disconnection from the power supply. More recently, some devices incorporate a method for automatically setting the time, such as using a broadcast radio time signal from an atomic clock, getting the time from an existing satellite television or computer connection, or by being set at the factory and then maintaining the time from then on with a quartz movement powered by an internal rechargeable battery. Commercial digital clocks are typically more reliable than consumer clocks. Multi-decade backup batteries can be used to maintain time during power loss.

text: Uses[edit]

text: Because digital clocks can be very small and inexpensive devices that enhance the popularity of product designs, they are often incorporated into all kinds of devices such as cars, radios, televisions, microwave ovens, standard ovens, computers and cell phones. Sometimes their usefulness is disputed: a common complaint is that when time has to be set to Daylight Saving Time, many household clocks have to be readjusted. The incorporation of automatic synchronisation by a radio time signal is reducing this problem (see Radio clock).


document_title: Back to the Secret Garden

question_text: the secret garden who does mary end up with

text: Back to the Secret Garden

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Back to the Secret Garden

Written by
Frances Hodgson Burnett (Characters from book)
Joe Wiesenfeld (story)

Directed by
Michael Tuchner

Starring
Camilla Belle
Joan Plowright
Aled Roberts
Cherie Lunghi
Leigh Lawson

Theme music composer
Allyn Ferguson

Country of origin
United Kingdom

Original language(s)
English

Production

Producer(s)
Nick Gillott

Cinematography
Ian Wilson

Editor(s)
Keith Palmer

Running time
100 minutes

Distributor
Hallmark Entertainment

Release

Original release

2 September 2001 (2001-09-02)

text: Back to the Secret Garden is a 2001 family fantasy film. Produced for television, the film serves as a sequel to the 1987 Hallmark Hall of Fame film, The Secret Garden. It contains some of the previous characters such as Lady Mary and Sir Colin Craven, who are now married, and Martha Sowerby, who is now the mistress of Misselthwaite Manor, which has become an orphanage for children whose parents died in World War II. They had appeared as children in the original story some 40 years earlier, and are now middle aged adults.

text: Dickon does not return, as he died while fighting in the war.

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1946, Lady Mary Craven (Cherie Lunghi) visits an American orphanage, telling the children about an exchange program that will allow one child to travel to England and stay at Misselthwaite Manor, which is now an orphanage. She meets young Lizzie Buscana (Camilla Belle), who is in the garden trying to take care of her mother's rose bush. Lady Mary tells Lizzie about the exchange program and the secret garden, whereupon Lizzie agrees to participate so she can see the garden for herself.

text: Lizzie arrives in England and is met at the train station by Martha Sowerby (Joan Plowright), who runs Misselthwaite Manor. Lizzie quickly discovers that the children are only allowed to be in the garden on Sunday after church and must be on their best behaviour and not touch anything.

text: Making friends with Geraldine, Steven and Robert (Aled Roberts), Lizzie visits the garden after curfew and realizes that she must help it. Returning to the manor Lizzie notices a fire in Robert's room, caused by Robert having fallen asleep with a candle still lit. After alerting everyone and helping put out the fire, she is questioned by Martha as to why she is still dressed and how she knew there was a fire. Lizzie tells Martha about her illicit visit to the garden, and Martha discovers that Lizzie stole the key to the garden. Martha discovers that Geraldine told Lizzie about the key, but Geraldine believes the key should belong to Lizzie, and that the garden has chosen her, instead of Martha, who could not find the door.

text: Geraldine (Florence Hoath), who is jealous of Lizzie, learns that Ms. Sowerby gave the key to Lizzie, and persuades Steven to steal it in revenge for Lizzie's rejection of his feelings. When Lizzie finds the key missing, she assumes that Robert has taken it, knowing of his animosity towards her. She goes to find the key with Robert and discovers that it was Steven (Justin Girdler) who took it, on Geraldine's instructions, and threw the key in the pond. Lizzie confronts Geraldine, who initially denies it, but confesses when Martha punishes her for being a liar.

text: Lizzie is told that maybe she does not need the key, because of the magic door. When Martha goes to meet Lady Mary, who has returned to Misselthwaite, she tells Mary of the garden's untended state, even though it has been well-tended in her absence. Lizzie realises that the garden has been starved of children's love and fun; with the help of Robert she gathers the orphans, who run to the quickly-reviving garden.

text: Lady Mary and Sir Colin (Leigh Lawson) arrive with Martha and are amazed, as the garden does not look dead as Martha had described. Lizzie tells Lady Mary that the garden needed love and that she should not have it closed. Lady Mary informs Lizzie that the garden belongs to her, and that it took "a girl from across the sea, many years ago" to bring the garden back to life, and that it has taken a girl from across the sea to do it again, and that it is up to her to do as she wishes with the garden. Lizzie announces that the garden will stay open so that all the children can enjoy it.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Camilla Belle as Lizzie Buscana
Aled Roberts as Robert
Florence Hoath as Geraldine
Justin Girdler as Steven
Joan Plowright as Martha Sowerby
George Baker as Will Weatherstaff
Cherie Lunghi as Lady Mary Craven
Leigh Lawson as Sir Colin Craven
David Warner as Dr. Snodgrass
Danielle McCormack as Penelope
Liza Ross as Sister Mary
Lisa Martin as Doris
Sheila Steafel as Miss Chillblaine


document_title: Galactic Center

question_text: who discovered the center of the milky way galaxy

text: Galactic Center

text: Proof of existence and location[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Because of interstellar dust along the line of sight, the Galactic Center cannot be studied at visible, ultraviolet or soft (low-energy) X-ray wavelengths. The available information about the Galactic Center comes from observations at gamma ray, hard (high-energy) X-ray, infrared, sub-millimetre and radio wavelengths.

text: Harlow Shapley stated in 1918 that the halo of globular clusters surrounding the Milky Way seemed to be centered on the star swarms in the constellation of Sagittarius, but the dark molecular clouds in the area blocked the view for optical astronomers. In the early 1940s Walter Baade at Mount Wilson Observatory took advantage of wartime blackout conditions in nearby Los Angeles to conduct a search for the center with the 100 inch Hooker Telescope. He found that near the star Alnasl (Gamma Sagittarii) there is a one-degree-wide void in the interstellar dust lanes, which provides a relatively clear view of the swarms of stars around the nucleus of our Milky Way Galaxy. This gap has been known as Baade's Window ever since.

text: At Dover Heights in Sydney, Australia a team of radio astronomers from the Division of Radiophysics at the CSIRO, led by Joseph Lade Pawsey, used 'sea interferometry' to discover some of the first interstellar and intergalactic radio sources, including Taurus A, Virgo A and Centaurus A. By 1954 they had built an 80 feet (24.4 meters) fixed dish antenna and used it to make a detailed study of an extended, extremely powerful belt of radio emission that was detected in Sagittarius. They named an intense point-source near the center of this belt Sagittarius A, and realised that it was located at the very center of our Galaxy, despite being some 32 degrees south-west of the conjectured galactic center of the time.

text: In 1958 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) decided to adopt the position of Sagittarius A as the true zero co-ordinate point for the system of galactic latitude and longitude.[1] In the equatorial coordinate system the location is: RA 17h 45m 40.04s, Dec −29° 00′ 28.1″ (J2000 epoch).

text: Distance to the Galactic Center[edit]

text: The exact distance between the Solar System and the Galactic Center is not certain,[2] although estimates since 2000 have remained within the range 24–28.4 kilolight-years (7.4–8.7 kiloparsecs).[3] The latest estimates from geometric-based methods and standard candles yield the following distances to the Galactic Center:

text:
7000740000000000000♠7.4±0.2(stat) ± 0.2(syst) or 7020228340141028572♠7.4±0.3 kpc (7020227057531341939♠≈24±1 kly)[3]
7020235128631707800♠7.62±0.32 kpc (7020234626115720003♠≈24.8±1 kly)[4]
7020237597173772973♠7.7±0.7 kpc (7020237464334861778♠≈25.1±2.3 kly)[5]
7.94 or 7020246854206517375♠8.0±0.5 kpc (7020245978992287100♠≈26±1.6 kly)[6][7][8]
7000798000000000000♠7.98±0.15(stat) ± 0.20(syst) or 7020246854206517375♠8.0±0.25 kpc (7020245978992287100♠≈26±0.8 kly)[9]
7020257036942536217♠8.33±0.35 kpc (7020255439722759681♠≈27±1.1 kly)[10]
7020268453949587645♠8.7±0.5 kpc (7020268684745421294♠≈28.4±1.6 kly)[11]

text: An accurate determination of the distance to the Galactic Center as established from variable stars (e.g. RR Lyrae variables) or standard candles (e.g. red-clump stars) is hindered by countless effects, which include: an ambiguous reddening law; a bias for smaller values of the distance to the Galactic Center because of a preferential sampling of stars toward the near side of the Galactic bulge owing to interstellar extinction; and an uncertainty in characterizing how a mean distance to a group of variable stars found in the direction of the Galactic bulge relates to the distance to the Galactic Center.[12][13]

text: The nature of the Milky Way's bar, which extends across the Galactic Center, is also actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning between 1–5 kpc (short or a long bar) and 10–50°.[11][12][14] Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other.[15] The bar is delineated by red-clump stars (see also red giant); however, RR Lyr variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar.[12][16][17] The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5-kpc ring" that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way.[18]

text: Supermassive black hole[edit]

text: The complex astronomical radio source Sagittarius A appears to be located almost exactly at the Galactic Center (approx. 18 hrs, −29 deg), and contains an intense compact radio source, Sagittarius A*, which coincides with a supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. Accretion of gas onto the black hole, probably involving a disk around it, would release energy to power the radio source, itself much larger than the black hole. The latter is too small to see with present instruments.

text: A study in 2008 which linked radio telescopes in Hawaii, Arizona and California (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) measured the diameter of Sagittarius A* to be 44 gigameters (0.3 AU).[19][20] For comparison, the radius of Earth's orbit around the Sun is about 150 million kilometers (1.0 AU), whereas the distance of Mercury from the Sun at closest approach (perihelion) is 46 million kilometers (0.3 AU). Thus the diameter of the radio source is slightly less than the distance from Mercury to the Sun.

text: Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany using Chilean telescopes have confirmed the existence of a supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center, on the order of 4.3 million solar masses.[10]

text: On 5 January 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*, according to astronomers.[22]

text: Stellar population[edit]

text: The central cubic parsec around Sagittarius A* contains around 10 million stars.[23] Although most of them are old red giant stars, the Galactic Center is also rich in massive stars. More than 100 OB and Wolf–Rayet stars have been identified there so far.[24] They seem to have all been formed in a single star formation event a few million years ago. The existence of these relatively young stars was a surprise to experts, who expected the tidal forces from the central black hole to prevent their formation. This paradox of youth is even stronger for stars that are on very tight orbits around Sagittarius A*, such as S2 and S0-102. The scenarios invoked to explain this formation involve either star formation in a massive star cluster offset from the Galactic Center that would have migrated to its current location once formed, or star formation within a massive, compact gas accretion disk around the central black-hole. Most of these 100 young, massive stars seem to be concentrated within one or two disks, rather than randomly distributed within the central parsec.[25][26] This observation however does not allow definite conclusions to be drawn at this point.

text: Star formation does not seem to be occurring currently at the Galactic Center, although the Circumnuclear Disk of molecular gas that orbits the Galactic Center at two parsecs seems a fairly favorable site for star formation. Work presented in 2002 by Antony Stark and Chris Martin mapping the gas density in a 400-light-year region around the Galactic Center has revealed an accumulating ring with a mass several million times that of the Sun and near the critical density for star formation. They predict that in approximately 200 million years there will be an episode of starburst in the Galactic Center, with many stars forming rapidly and undergoing supernovae at a hundred times the current rate. This starburst may also be accompanied by the formation of galactic jets as matter falls into the central black hole. It is thought that the Milky Way undergoes a starburst of this sort every 500 million years.

text: In addition to the paradox of youth, there is also a "conundrum of old age" associated with the distribution of the old stars at the Galactic Center. Theoretical models had predicted that the old stars—which far outnumber young stars—should have a steeply-rising density near the black hole, a so-called Bahcall–Wolf cusp. Instead, it was discovered in 2009 that the density of the old stars peaks at a distance of roughly 0.5 parsec from Sgr A*, then falls inward: instead of a dense cluster, there is a "hole", or core, around the black hole.[27] Several suggestions have been put forward to explain this puzzling observation, but none is completely satisfactory.[28][29] For instance, although the black hole would eat stars near it, creating a region of low density, this region would be much smaller than a parsec. Because the observed stars are a fraction of the total number, it is theoretically possible that the overall stellar distribution is different than what is observed, although no plausible models of this sort have yet been proposed.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
White Dwarfs in Milky Way's Central Hub[30]

The center of the Milky Way - image taken by ISAAC, the VLT's near- and mid-infrared spectrometer and camera

Infrared image from Spitzer Space Telescope

A view of the night sky near Sagittarius, enhanced to show better contrast and detail in the dust lanes. The principal stars in Sagittarius are indicated in red.

The central parts of the Milky Way, as observed in the near-infrared with the NACO instrument on ESO's Very Large Telescope

Infra-red image of the center of the Milky Way revealing a new population of massive stars

Detection of an unusually bright X-Ray flare from Sagittarius A*, a supermassive black hole in the center of the Milky Way galaxy[22]


document_title: Lucifer (TV series)

question_text: who plays lucifer's brother on the show lucifer

question_tokens: who plays lucifer 's brother on the show lucifer

text: Lucifer (TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: The series focuses on Lucifer Morningstar, the Devil, who is bored and unhappy as the Lord of Hell, and resigns his throne and abandons his kingdom for Los Angeles to become a consultant with the LAPD whilst running his nightclub "Lux".

text: Episodes[edit]

text: In April 2016, Fox renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on September 19, 2016.[3] On October 31, 2016, the series received a 22-episode full second season pickup by Fox.[4] On February 13, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a third season initially of 22 episodes, which premiered on October 2, 2017.[5][6] However, in March 2017, it was revealed that the final four episodes of the second season would be removed and put in the third season to air, meaning that the second season would consist of 18 episodes.[7][8]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
January 25, 2016 (2016-01-25)
April 25, 2016 (2016-04-25)

2
18
September 19, 2016 (2016-09-19)
May 29, 2017 (2017-05-29)

3
26[9]
October 2, 2017 (2017-10-02)
TBA

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text:
Tom Ellis as Lucifer Morningstar:[10]
The Lord of Hell, who is bored with his life, abdicates his throne and becomes a civilian consultant for the Los Angeles Police Department while running his own high-end nightclub, called "Lux". Lucifer is open with, and frequently tells people, that he is the Devil, but very few take this seriously. He is a Fallen angel, and besides powers such as superhuman invulnerability, strength and speed, he has a supernatural ability to make people tell him their hidden desires. When he arrived in Los Angeles, he had his wings severed. Lucifer is highly sexual, and can make himself irresistible to most people. Neil Gaiman's Lucifer was partly inspired by David Bowie, but the show's creators decided against trying to mimic Bowie.[11] Tom Ellis saw the character as a sort of Oscar Wilde or Noël Coward character "with added rock and roll spirit", approaching his portrayal as if he were the "lovechild of Noël Coward and Mick Jagger, with a dash of British actor Terry-Thomas".[12]

Lauren German as Detective Chloe Decker:[13]
Like her father before her, she is an LAPD homicide detective. She solves crimes with Lucifer after he takes an interest in her because she appears immune to his abilities. Due to an earlier incident concerning a cop shooting, she was ostracized by her fellow officers, resulting in her being partnered with Lucifer as her civilian consultant. When she is around Lucifer, he becomes vulnerable to physical harm. The events of season 2 reveal that Chloe's conception was the result of a miracle, performed by God with assistance from Amenadiel. Her ex-husband, Dan, is also with the LAPD, and they have a daughter, Trixie. Chloe's mother Penelope (Rebecca De Mornay) is an actress.

Kevin Alejandro as Detective Daniel "Dan" Espinoza:[14]
An LAPD homicide detective and Chloe's ex-husband. He dislikes Lucifer because of the hellraiser's connection to Chloe and their daughter, Trixie. Lucifer repeatedly calls him "Douche" (or "Detective Douche", "Sir Douche", etc.). Originally Chloe's superior on the force, Dan was suspended due to the events of the Malcolm Graham case, then reinstated with a demotion to Detective.

D. B. Woodside as Amenadiel:[15]
An angel, Lucifer's older brother, and the eldest of all their siblings. His physical powers are similar to Lucifer's, and he can also stop time. He arrives in Los Angeles to encourage Lucifer to go back to Hell, and failing that, he attempts to force Lucifer back in different ways. Unlike Lucifer, Amenadiel has always followed God's orders, but comes to question his life-choices as events on earth begin to affect him.

Lesley-Ann Brandt as Mazikeen:[16][17]
Confidante and devoted ally of Lucifer Morningstar, "Maze" for short. She is a demon who, having served as his head torturer, followed him from Hell to Los Angeles, and acted as a bartender and bodyguard at Lucifer's club. In season 2, Maze, looking for a new direction on Earth, becomes a bounty hunter, having found something that feels right to her.

Scarlett Estevez as Beatrice "Trixie" Espinoza:[18]
Chloe and Dan's seven-year-old (at the start of the series) daughter, who befriends Lucifer and Mazikeen.

Rachael Harris as Dr. Linda Martin:[15]
Lucifer's Stanford-educated psychotherapist, who initially accepts "payments" from him in the form of sex. Like almost everyone else, Dr. Martin does not take what Lucifer says at face value, and at first believes that Lucifer is using a religious metaphor to describe himself and his dysfunctional family relationships, until he reveals his true self, which leaves her visibly shaken. Prior to this her attempts to help Lucifer solve his emotional and personal problems have limited success, since she does not appreciate what he tells her is the truth, and because Lucifer himself has a tendency to misunderstand or misapply her advice. Eventually, Dr. Martin becomes part of Lucifer's circle of friends as well as his therapist.

Kevin Rankin as Detective Malcolm Graham (season 1):[19]
A police officer who was shot prior to the beginning of the series. Chloe Decker witnessed the shooting, which occurred while Malcolm was secretly meeting with a suspected criminal. After the shooting, he was left in a coma. He briefly died but was then brought back from hell by Amenadiel to kill Lucifer, and is killed at the end of season one.

Tricia Helfer as Charlotte Richards/"Mum" (season 2–present):[20]
Lucifer and Amenadiel's mother and exiled wife of God, who has escaped her prison in Hell. She is described as "the goddess of all creation", but her name and exact nature remain unrevealed. She is rumored to have caused plagues and floods before her imprisonment, and seeks revenge on her ex-husband. On Earth, her soul occupies the body of Charlotte Richards, a murdered lawyer. At the end of season 2, she leaves the universe, prompted by Lucifer to create her own world. As she leaves, she resurrects the human Charlotte who has no memory of her time as "Mum."

Aimee Garcia as Ella Lopez (seasons 2–present):[21]
A forensic scientist for the LAPD who helps Chloe and Lucifer with their cases. Ella hails from Detroit, and grew up with four brothers. Ella wears a crucifix, leading both Lucifer and Chloe to ask questions about her Christian faith; according to Ella, she had an aunt who was a nun, but who taught her that to doubt things was all right, and so Ella believes that questioning things makes her a better scientist.

Tom Welling as Lieutenant Marcus Pierce (season 3): A well-respected police lieutenant who becomes Chloe's, Dan's, and Ella's new boss at the precinct.[22]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and casting[edit]

text: In September 2014, it was reported that DC and Fox were developing a television series based on the Sandman character Lucifer, as originally written by Neil Gaiman.[1] In February 2015, it was announced that Tom Ellis had been cast as Lucifer Morningstar, and that Tom Kapinos would write the pilot, to be directed by Len Wiseman.[10] Lina Esco was originally cast as Maze (Mazikeen),[23] however, the role was later recast with Lesley-Ann Brandt.[16] Nicholas Gonzalez portrayed Dan in the pilot episode.[24] The series is a "loose adaption" of the original comic-book.[25]

text: In May 2015, the series was officially picked up for 13 episodes for the 2015–16 season.[26][27] Fox then hired Almost Human alum Joe Henderson as showrunner, with Kapinos remaining on the series in a lesser capacity.[28]

text: In June 2016, it was announced that Tricia Helfer had been cast as Lucifer and Amenadiel's mother, Charlotte, and that she was to appear in multiple episodes in season 2.[29] The character was promoted to series regular in July 2016.[30] Aimee Garcia had also been cast as a regular in season 2, playing L.A.P.D.'s forensic scientist Ella Lopez.[31]

text: In August 2016, executive producer Ildy Modrovich announced the casting of Michael Imperioli as the angel Uriel, Amenadiel and Lucifer's middle brother with "a chip on his shoulder".[32]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Although the pilot was shot on location in Los Angeles, the rest of the first season and the entirety of the second were filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, with a relocation to California beginning with the third season,[33] taking advantage of tax incentives provided by the California Film Commission under its "Program 2.0" initiative.[34]

text: Music[edit]

text: The opening theme is a six-second clip from "Being Evil Has a Price", performed by the band Heavy Young Heathens.[35] In a lawsuit filed against Warner Bros., the song's composers, Robert and Aron Marderosian, claim the song has been used without giving them proper credit or a licensing agreement.[36]

text: Several episodes include musical performances by Tom Ellis, although he has stated in interviews that while it is his vocals, the piano accompaniment seen on screen is not actually him.[37] Neil Gaiman is a fan of David Bowie, and some of Bowie's music has been used on the show.[38]

text: Release[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Broadcast on the Fox network in the US, and on FX in Australia.[39] The series is also broadcast in New Zealand on the TVNZ1 channel [40]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The series is available on Amazon Prime in the United Kingdom,[41] and the first season on CraveTV in Canada.[42]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Timeslot (ET)
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
TV season
Rank
Avg. viewers
(millions)

Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)

1
Monday 9:00 pm
13
January 25, 2016 (2016-01-25)
7.16[43]
April 25, 2016 (2016-04-25)
3.89[44]
2015–16
62
7.17[45]

2
18
September 19, 2016 (2016-09-19)
4.36[46]
May 29, 2017 (2017-05-29)
3.31[47]
2016–17
85
5.13[48]

3
Monday 8:00 pm
26[9]
October 2, 2017 (2017-10-02)
3.92[49]
TBA
TBD
2017–18
TBD
TBD

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The pilot episode was screened in July at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con. The pilot was met positively by the viewers, with Bleeding Cool's Dan Wickline praising the episode, saying "the show itself is enjoyable because of the great dialogue and flawless delivery from its lead" and "This version of Lucifer refuses to take almost anything seriously and the show is better for it."[50] Max Nicholson of IGN rated the pilot episode a 6.9/10, praising Tom Ellis's performance as Lucifer and the lighthearted tone of the show, but criticizing the show for essentially being another crime procedural show.[51]

text: The first season received mixed reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 50% approval rating based on 36 reviews, with an average rating of 5.24/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Lucifer's got sex appeal, but the show's hackneyed cop procedural format undermines a potentially entertaining premise."[52] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 49 out of 100, based 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[53]

text: Critics were more generous of the second season. It holds a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on five reviews, with an average score of 7.75 out of 10.[54] Several critics praised the second season for its atmosphere and Tom Ellis' performance as Lucifer Morningstar. Ed Power of the Telegraph gave the season 2 premiere a 4/5 stating that "It is entirely beguiled by its own preposterousness".[55] Bernard Boo of We Got This Covered gave the premiere 3.5/5 stars saying "Lucifer's second season gets off to a nice start, building on the show's strengths while retaining some of the weaknesses. It remains an unapologetically sordid, demonically fun hour of TV".[56] LaToya Ferguson of the A.V. Club gave it a B, calling the episode funny with "genuinely funny moments to come from" and saying that the premiere "starts the season off on a good note". She praised Tom Ellis' performance calling it "pitch perfect".[57]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Awards show
Nominee(s)
Categories
Result(s)
Source(s)

2016
Teen Choice Awards
Tom Ellis
Choice TV: Breakout Star
Nominated
[58]

Lucifer
Choice TV: Breakout Show
Nominated

2017
Saturn Awards
Best Fantasy Television Series
Nominated
[59]

Dragon Awards
Best Science Fiction or Fantasy Series
Nominated
[60]

text: Censorship campaign[edit]

text: On May 28, 2015, the American Family Association (AFA) website One Million Moms launched a petition to prevent the show's airing.[61] The petition says the new series "will glorify Satan as a caring, likable person in human flesh."[62] It posted the petition on that date and 31,312 had signed the petition by the series' premiere date.[63] The petition on the main AFA website, posted the same date, garnered 134,331 signatures by the premiere date.[64][65] In response to the petition, character creator Neil Gaiman commented on his Tumblr page: "Ah. It seems like only yesterday (but it was 1991) that the "Concerned Mothers of America" announced that they were boycotting The Sandman because it contained lesbian, gay, bi-sexual and trans characters. It was Wanda that upset them most: the idea of a trans-woman in a comic book... They told us they were organizing a boycott of The Sandman, which they would only stop if we wrote to the American Family Association and promised to reform. I wonder if they noticed it didn't work last time, either..."[66] Regardless of the campaign, Fox renewed the series in April 2016 for a second season.[67]


document_title: Whom the gods would destroy

question_text: who said those whom the gods wish to destroy

text: Whom the gods would destroy

text: The phrase "Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad" is a phrase spoken by Prometheus in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "The Masque of Pandora" (1875).[1]

text: Other versions[edit]

text: The first version of this phrase appears in Antigone by Sophocles (verses 620-623) as "τὸ κακὸν δοκεῖν ποτ᾽ ἐσθλὸν τῷδ᾽ ἔμμεν' ὅτῳ φρένας θεὸς ἄγει πρὸς ἄταν" meaning "evil appears as good in the minds of those whom gods lead to destruction". Even this appears to be a borrowing from an earlier, lost Greek play.[citation needed]

text: Subsequently the phrase was used in Latin, "Quem Iuppiter vult perdere, dementat prius" (Whom Jupiter would ruin, he first makes mad), and, in Christian times, "Iuppiter" was replaced by "God" as in "μωραίνει Κύριος ον βούλεται απολέσαι"

text: Another version ("Those whom the gods wish to destroy they first make mad") is quoted as a "heathen proverb" in Daniel, a Model for Young Men (1854) by William Anderson Scott (1813–1885).

text: A prior Latin version is "Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat" (Life of Samuel Johnson, 1791) but this involves God, (presumably the Christian God) not 'the gods'.

text: This phrase was also used by British politician (and classicist) Enoch Powell in his 1968 speech on immigration commonly known as the "Rivers of Blood" speech [2]