document_title: List of National Basketball Association single-game playoff scoring leaders

question_text: nba record most points in a playoff game

text: This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 50 or more points in a playoff game.

text: It has occurred 34 times in playoff history by 22 players. Only four players have scored 50 or more points on more than one occasion: Michael Jordan (eight times), Wilt Chamberlain (four times), Allen Iverson (three times) and Jerry West (twice).

text:
^
Active NBA player

*
Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Player's team lost the game

MP
Minutes played
FGM
Field goals made
FGA
Field goal attempts

FG%
Field goal percentage
3PM
3-point field goals made
3PA
3-point field goal attempts

3P%
3-point field goal percentage
FTM
Free throws made
FTA
Free throw attempts

FT%
Free throw percentage

text:
Points
Player
Team
Date
Opponent
Series
Score
MP
FGM
FGA
3PM
3PA
FTM
FTA
Notes

63
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
Chicago Bulls
000000001986-04-20-0000April 20, 1986
Boston Celtics
1986 Eastern Conference First Round
131–135
53
22
41
0
0
19
21
[a]

61
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
Los Angeles Lakers
000000001962-04-14-0000April 14, 1962
Boston Celtics
1962 NBA Finals
126–121
48
22
46
–
–
17
19
[b]

56
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
Philadelphia Warriors
000000001962-03-22-0000March 22, 1962
Syracuse Nationals
1962 Eastern Division Semifinals
121–104
48
22
48
–
–
12
22
[c]

56
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (2)
Chicago Bulls
000000001992-04-29-0000April 29, 1992
Miami Heat
1992 Eastern Conference First Round
119–114
43
20
30
0
0
16
18
[d]

56
Barkley, CharlesCharles Barkley*
Phoenix Suns
000000001994-05-04-0000May 4, 1994
Golden State Warriors
1994 Western Conference First Round
140–133
41
23
31
3
4
7
9
[e]

55
Barry, RickRick Barry*
San Francisco Warriors
000000001967-04-18-0000April 18, 1967
Philadelphia 76ers
1967 NBA Finals
130–124

22
48
–
–
11
19
[f]

55
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (3)
Chicago Bulls
000000001988-05-01-0000May 1, 1988
Cleveland Cavaliers
1988 Eastern Conference First Round
106–101
44
24
45
0
0
7
7
[g]

55
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (4)
Chicago Bulls
000000001993-06-16-0000June 16, 1993
Phoenix Suns
1993 NBA Finals
111–105
46
21
37
0
1
13
18
[h]

55
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (5)
Chicago Bulls
000000001997-04-27-0000April 27, 1997
Washington Bullets
1997 Eastern Conference First Round
109–104
44:13
22
35
1
2
10
10

55
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson*
Philadelphia 76ers
000000002003-04-20-0000April 20, 2003
New Orleans Hornets
2003 Eastern Conference First Round
98–90
46:40
21
32
3
5
10
11

54
Havlicek, JohnJohn Havlicek*
Boston Celtics
000000001973-04-01-0000April 1, 1973
Atlanta Hawks
1973 Eastern Conference Semifinals
134–109
48
24
36
–
–
6
6
[i]

54
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (6)
Chicago Bulls
000000001993-05-31-0000May 31, 1993
New York Knicks
1993 Eastern Conference Finals
105–95
39
18
30
6
9
12
14
[j]

54
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson* (2)
Philadelphia 76ers
000000002001-05-09-0000May 9, 2001
Toronto Raptors
2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals
97–92
47:46
21
39
3
5
9
9

53
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (2)
Philadelphia Warriors
000000001960-03-14-0000March 14, 1960
Syracuse Nationals
1960 Eastern Division Semifinals
132–112
47
24
42
–
–
5
16
[k]

53
West, JerryJerry West*
Los Angeles Lakers
000000001969-04-23-0000April 23, 1969
Boston Celtics
1969 NBA Finals
120–118

21
41
–
–
11
13
[l]

53
Isaiah Thomas^
Boston Celtics
000000002017-05-02-0000May 2, 2017
Washington Wizards
2017 Eastern Conference Semifinals
129-119
45
18
33
5
12
12
13
[1]

52
West, JerryJerry West* (2)
Los Angeles Lakers
000000001965-04-05-0000April 5, 1965
Baltimore Bullets
1965 Western Division Finals
118–115

16
38
–
–
20
21
[m]

52
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson* (3)
Philadelphia 76ers
000000002001-05-16-0000May 16, 2001
Toronto Raptors
2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals
121–88
43:29
21
32
8
14
2
2

51
Jones, SamSam Jones*
Boston Celtics
000000001967-03-28-0000March 28, 1967
New York Knicks
1967 Eastern Division Semifinals
118–109
43
19
30
–
–
13
17

51
Floyd, Eric "Sleepy"Eric "Sleepy" Floyd
Golden State Warriors
000000001987-05-10-0000May 10, 1987
Los Angeles Lakers
1987 Western Conference Semifinals
129–121
44
18
26
2
3
13
14
[n]

51
Allen, RayRay Allen*
Boston Celtics
000000002009-04-30-0000April 30, 2009
Chicago Bulls
2009 Eastern Conference First Round
127–128
58:45
18
32
9
18
6
7
[o]

51
Westbrook, RussellRussell Westbrook^
Oklahoma City Thunder
000000002017-04-19-0000April 19, 2017
Houston Rockets
2017 Western Conference Quarterfinals
111-115
41:22
17
43
1
7
15
18

50
Cousy, BobBob Cousy*
Boston Celtics
000000001953-03-21-0000March 21, 1953
Syracuse Nationals
1953 Eastern Division Semifinals
111–105
66
10
22
–
–
30
32
[p]

50
Pettit, BobBob Pettit*
St. Louis Hawks
000000001958-04-12-0000April 12, 1958
Boston Celtics
1958 NBA Finals
110–109

19
34
–
–
12
15
[q]

50
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (3)
Philadelphia Warriors
000000001960-03-22-0000March 22, 1960
Boston Celtics
1960 Eastern Division Finals
128–107
45
22
42
–
–
6
18

50
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (4)
San Francisco Warriors
000000001964-04-10-0000April 10, 1964
St. Louis Hawks
1964 Western Division Finals
121–97

22
32
–
–
6
10

50
Cunningham, BillyBilly Cunningham*
Philadelphia 76ers
000000001970-04-01-0000April 1, 1970
Milwaukee Bucks
1970 Eastern Division Semifinals
111–118
48
22
39
–
–
6
8

50
McAdoo, BobBob McAdoo*
Buffalo Braves
000000001975-04-18-0000April 18, 1975
Washington Bullets
1975 Eastern Conference Semifinals
108–102
45
20
32
–
–
10
14
[r]

50
Wilkins, DominiqueDominique Wilkins*
Atlanta Hawks
000000001986-04-19-0000April 19, 1986
Detroit Pistons
1986 Eastern Conference First Round
137–125
33
19
28
0
0
12
15

50
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (7)
Chicago Bulls
000000001988-04-28-0000April 28, 1988
Cleveland Cavaliers
1988 Eastern Conference First Round
104–93
44
19
35
0
0
12
12
[s]

50
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (8)
Chicago Bulls
000000001989-05-05-0000May 5, 1989
Cleveland Cavaliers
1989 Eastern Conference First Round
105–108
43
14
28
0
1
22
27
[t]

50
Malone, KarlKarl Malone*
Utah Jazz
000000002000-04-22-0000April 22, 2000
Seattle SuperSonics
2000 Western Conference First Round
104–93
43:16
18
32
1
1
13
14
[u]

50
Carter, VinceVince Carter^
Toronto Raptors
000000002001-05-11-0000May 11, 2001
Philadelphia 76ers
2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals
102–78
44:44
19
29
9
13
3
3
[v]

50
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
Los Angeles Lakers
000000002006-05-04-0000May 4, 2006
Phoenix Suns
2006 Western Conference First Round
118–126
52:06
20
35
5
8
5
6
[w]

50
Nowitzki, DirkDirk Nowitzki^
Dallas Mavericks
000000002006-06-01-0000June 1, 2006
Phoenix Suns
2006 Western Conference Finals
117–101
43:29
14
26
5
6
17
18


document_title: Trolls: The Beat Goes On!

question_text: who plays cooper in trolls the beat goes on

root

text: Trolls: The Beat Goes On!

text: Plot

text: The show picks up where the film Trolls left off; the series will follow Queen Poppy, her boyfriend Branch, the Snack Pack and the other Trolls, and their Bergen pals, as they experience everyday life in Troll Village.

tag: p

text: Cast and characters

text:
Skylar Astin as Branch, an over-cautious Troll survivalist, and Queen Poppy's boyfriend.
Amanda Leighton as Poppy, the optimistic queen of the Trolls, and Branch's girlfriend.
Kari Wahlgren as Bridget, Poppy's best friend.

Wahlgren also voices Bernice, a Bergen, Bella Brightly,a troll, Harper, another troll who is very artistic, Mags Gumdrop and Old Lady Bergen.

Sam Lerner as King Gristle, the leader of the Bergens.
Sean T. Krishnan as Guy Diamond, a glittery, silver naked troll with a highly Auto-tuned voice
Kevin Michael Richardson as Smidge, a troll with an extremely deep voice.

Richardson also voices Groth, a Bergen, and Chad and Todd, the guards of the Royal Bergen family, Eyestalk, Maitre D', Foreman and Klaus Von Frousting.

Fryda Wolff as DJ Suki, the Trolls' resident disk jockey, Satin and Chenille, twins who are joined by their hair, Dr. Moonbloom, Gemma Fur and Gia Grooves.
David Fynn as Biggie, a chubby, friendly troll, and Mr. Dinkles, his pet worm.
Ron Funches as Cooper, a giraffe-like troll who walks on all fours.
Walt Dohrn as Cloud Guy, an anthropomorphic cloud who often makes fun of Branch.
Matt Lowe as Creek, a troll with zen-like wisdom.
David Kaye as King Peppy, the former leader of the Trolls.
Declan Churchil Carter as Keith, a young troll.
Abby Ryder Fortson as Priscilla, a young troll.
Gary Cole as Sky Toronto, the boss and owner of Sky Toronto's Party Shop
Utkarsh Ambudkar as Master Controll, a troll.
Arnie Pantoja as Archer Pastry, a glitter troll.
Sainty Nelsen as Nova Swift.
David Koechner as Buzby, a Bergen.
Pat Pinney as Nangus, a Bergen who is in charge of the dungeon.

tag: ul

text: Episodes

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally released

1
6
January 19, 2018

2
7
March 9, 2018

tag: table

text: Season 1 (2018)

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

1a
1a
"A New Bergen-ing"
Allan Jacobson, Spencer Laudiero, and Jim Mortensen
Story by : Hannah Friedman
Teleplay by : Matthew Beans
Storyboard by : Marcelo De Souza, Naz Ghodrati-Azadi, Ruolin Li, Howie Perry, Stan Ruiz, and Sang Eun Song
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Queen Poppy invites the Bergens to a party, leaving the other trolls horrified.

1b
1b
"Laugh-Out Cloud"
Alex Almaguer and Howie Perry
Written by : Matt Ackels
Storyboard by : Noel Belknap
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Cloud Guy offers to end a drought, but only if Branch becomes his best friend for a day.

2a
2a
"Two-Party System"
Spencer Laudiero and Jim Mortensen
Written by : Matt Ackels
Storyboard by : Dennis Messner, Stan Ruiz, and Sang Eun Song
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Poppy faces a dilemma after she learns that Bridget and Branch both share the same birthday.

2b
2b
"Fun Branch"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : Nate Federman
Storyboard by : Sang Eun Song
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Branch invites the Snack Pack into his bunker in order to prove he's fun.

3a
3a
"Royal Review"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi
Written by : Caitlin Meares
Storyboard by : Kevin Frank
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

A nervous Poppy awaits for her performance as queen.

3b
3b
"Funishment"
Spencer Laudiero and Jim Mortensen
Written by : Elaine Carroll
Storyboard by : Onno De Jong, Marcelo De Souza, Ian Freedman, and Howie Perry
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Poppy has to implement discipline in her kingdom when Cooper accidentally steals a Bergen's pie.

4a
4a
"Bad News Bergens"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi
Written by : Marissa Berlin
Storyboard by : Ruolin Li
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Poppy signs the trolls up for Bergenball.

4b
4b
"Unhealthy Competition"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : Marissa Berlin
Storyboard by : Noel Belknap
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Smidge's stoutberry juice and Guy Diamond's Glitterade are rivaled.

5a
5a
"Cloudy with a Chance of Hugs"
Jim Mortensen
Written by : John D'Arco
Storyboard by : Marcelo De Souza
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

When Poppy and Cloud Guy hang out on Hug Day (a day where Trolls can only hug one another), a jealous Branch fears that Poppy's hug will be gone.

5b
5b
"Creek Week"
Brian Hatfield and Spencer Laudiero
Written by : Julia Miranda
Storyboard by : Stan Ruiz and Portlynn Tagavi
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

After he survived being eaten at the end of Trolls, a reformed Creek returns to Troll Village.

6a
6a
"The Giver"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi and Bryan Newton
Written by : John D'Arco
Storyboard by : Ruolin Li
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Poppy must figure out who left some gifts every harvest moon.

6b
6b
"Bellow Bug Day"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : Nate Federman
Storyboard by : Noel Belknap
January 19, 2018 (2018-01-19)

Things go from bad to worse when Poppy tries to fix a holiday.

text: Season 2 (2018)

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

7a
1a
"Prank Day"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : John D'Arco, Nate Federman and Alex Reid
Storyboard by : Noel Belknap, Yaron Farkash and Portlynn Tagavi
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

This Prank Day, Poppy and Branch must outprank each other in order to earn the title of "Prank Master".

7b
1b
"Adventures in Dinkles-Sitting"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi
Written by : Cam Baity
Storyboard by : Ruolin Li
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Poppy and Branch agree to babysit Mr. Dinkles, but things take a detour (for Branch, anyway).

8a
2a
"Eye'll Be Watching You"
Alex Almaguer
Story by : Hannah Friedman and Sam Friedman
Teleplay by : Matthew Beans
Storyboard by : Noel Belknap, Howie Perry and Sang Eun Song
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Branch creates a safety monitor for the village.

8b
2b
"Sorry Not Sorry"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi
Written by : Marissa Berlin
Storyboard by : Kevin Frank
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

After upsetting Bridget—and to think that Bergens apologize—Gristle seeks help from Poppy on doing so.

9a
3a
"Big Poppy"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : Matthew Beans
Storyboard by : Amy Mai
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Poppy competes at a rap battle in order to save DJ Suki's show.

9b
3b
"Neighbor War"
Brian Hatfield
Written by : Alex Reid
Storyboard by : Fabien Tong and Portlynn Tagavi
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Branch's plans go wrong when it comes to drive Sky Toronto away.

10a
4a
"Remote Out of Control"
Brian Hatfield and Zesung Kang
Written by : Nate Federman and Alex Reid
Storyboard by : Marcelo De Souza and Portlynn Tagavi
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Smidge, Guy, Cooper and Biggie steal Branch's remote control—whom he dubs it "Gary"—and take it out for a spin.

10b
4b
"Critter Comfort"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi
Written by : Matthew Beans and Nate Federman
Storyboard by : Kevin Frank and Pat Pakula
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

It doesn't help matters when Poppy "helps" a bunch of Swampkins.

11a
5a
"The Poppy Horror Picture Show"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi and Brian Hatfield
Written by : Julia Miranda
Storyboard by : Kevin Frank
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

A scary story frightens Biggie so much, he hides away.

11b
5b
"Dinkles Dinkles Little Star"
Brian Hatfield, Spencer Laudiero and Greg Miller
Written by : Matt Ackels
Storyboard by : Marcelo De Souza
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Biggie hires a confidence coach to include Mr. Dinkles in a pet show.

12a
6a
"The Party Games"
Naz Ghodrati-Azadi
Written by : John D'Arco and Alex Reid
Storyboard by : Ruolin Li
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Guy is dumbfounded when a new Party Games contestant arrives.

12b
6b
"Trolly Tales"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : Nate Federman and Alex Reid
Storyboard by : Amy Mai
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

On the kids' first day in the library, Branch and Poppy relive some old tales.

13a
7a
"Model Behavior"
Alex Almaguer
Written by : John D'Arco
Storyboard by : Yaron Farkash
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

Satin and Chenille put on a fashion show.

13b
7b
"Pillow War"
Jim Mortensen
Written by : Nate Federman
Storyboard by : Pat Pakula and Fabien Tong
March 9, 2018 (2018-03-09)

The village puts on a pillow fight in order for one to win the very comfortable Pillow of Destiny.

text: Soundtrack

text:
DreamWorks Trolls - The Beat Goes On! (Music From the TV Series)

Soundtrack album by Cast of Trolls: The Beat Goes On!

Released
March 16, 2018

Genre
Soundtrack

Length
34:00

Label
RCA Records

text: Songs

text: All tracks written by Da Fonseca and Yaeger except written.

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Hair In The Air"
Jeannie Lurie, Mia Minichiello, and Matias Mora
Amanda Leighton, Skylar Astin, and Ensemble
2:16

2.
"Happily Ever After"

Leighton, Astin, and Ensemble
2:34

3.
"One and Only Love"

Kari Wahlgren, Sam Lerner
2:22

4.
"Sunshine All the Time"

Fryda Wolff
2:35

5.
"Best Day Ever"

Leighton
2:32

6.
"Party On"

Kevin Michael Richardson
2:20

7.
"Forgive Me (Show Version)"

Astin
2:24

8.
"Move Ya Body"

Walt Dohrn
2:42

9.
"The Other Side of the Storm"

Leighton, Astin
2:58

10.
"Happy Prank Day"

Leighton, Ensemble Cast
2:18

11.
"Rap Battle Suite"

Leighton, Richardson, Utkarsh Ambudkar, David Fynn
2:15

12.
"Dance It Out"

Leighton
2:49

13.
"The Winners"

Leighton
2:22

14.
"Forgive Me (Remix)"

Astin
2:22

text: Broadcast

text: The series was released internationally on Netflix. It was also released in the United Kingdom on Pop, in Australia on ABC Me, and in Canada on Family.

text: Home media

text: A DVD collection of all the season 1 episodes, titled Trolls: The Beat Goes On!: Season 1 was released on DVD on 2018 by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.


document_title: Box plot

question_text: when is a box and whisker plot used

question_tokens: when is a box and whisker plot used

text: Box plot

text: Types of box plots[edit]

text: Box and whisker plots are uniform in their use of the box: the bottom and top of the box are always the first and third quartiles, and the band inside the box is always the second quartile (the median). But the ends of the whiskers can represent several possible alternative values, among them:

text:
the minimum and maximum of all of the data[1] (as in figure 2)
the lowest datum still within 1.5 IQR of the lower quartile, and the highest datum still within 1.5 IQR of the upper quartile (often called the Tukey boxplot)[2][3] (as in figure 3)
one standard deviation above and below the mean of the data
the 9th percentile and the 91st percentile
the 2nd percentile and the 98th percentile.

text: Any data not included between the whiskers should be plotted as an outlier with a dot, small circle, or star, but occasionally this is not done.

text: Some box plots include an additional character to represent the mean of the data.[2]

text: On some box plots a crosshatch is placed on each whisker, before the end of the whisker.

text: Rarely, box plots can be presented with no whiskers at all.

text: Because of this variability, it is appropriate to describe the convention being used for the whiskers and outliers in the caption for the plot.

text: The unusual percentiles 2%, 9%, 91%, 98% are sometimes used for whisker cross-hatches and whisker ends to show the seven-number summary. If the data is normally distributed, the locations of the seven marks on the box plot will be equally spaced.

text: Variations[edit]

text: Since the mathematician John W. Tukey introduced this type of visual data display in 1969, several variations on the traditional box plot have been described. Two of the most common are variable width box plots and notched box plots (see Figure 4).

text: Variable width box plots illustrate the size of each group whose data is being plotted by making the width of the box proportional to the size of the group. A popular convention is to make the box width proportional to the square root of the size of the group.[1]

text:
Notched box plots apply a "notch" or narrowing of the box around the median. Notches are useful in offering a rough guide to significance of difference of medians; if the notches of two boxes do not overlap, this offers evidence of a statistically significant difference between the medians.[1] The width of the notches is proportional to the interquartile range (IQR) of the sample and inversely proportional to the square root of the size of the sample. However, there is uncertainty about the most appropriate multiplier (as this may vary depending on the similarity of the variances of the samples).[1] One convention is to use

±

1.58
I
Q
R

n

{\displaystyle \pm {\frac {1.58IQR}{\sqrt {n}}}}

.[3]

text: Adjusted box plots are intended for skew distributions. They rely on the medcouple statistic of skewness.[4] For a medcouple value of MC, the lengths of the upper and lower whiskers are respectively defined to be

text:
Observe that for symmetrical distributions, the medcouple will be zero, and this reduces to Tukey's boxplot with equal whisker lengths of

1.5
I
Q
R

{\displaystyle 1.5IQR}

 for both whiskers.

text: Visualization[edit]

text: The box plot allows quick graphical examination of one or more data sets. Box plots may seem more primitive than a histogram or kernel density estimate but they do have some advantages. They take up less space and are therefore particularly useful for comparing distributions between several groups or sets of data (see Figure 1 for an example). Choice of number and width of bins techniques can heavily influence the appearance of a histogram, and choice of bandwidth can heavily influence the appearance of a kernel density estimate.

text: As looking at a statistical distribution is more commonplace than looking at a box plot, comparing the box plot against the probability density function (theoretical histogram) for a normal N(0,1σ2) distribution may be a useful tool for understanding the box plot (Figure 5).


document_title: History of mobile phones

question_text: when was the first portable cell phone invented

question_tokens: when was the first portable cell phone invented

text: History of mobile phones

text: Predecessors[edit]

text: Before the devices existed that are now referred to as mobile phones or cell phones, there were some precursors. In 1908, a Professor Albert Jahnke and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and Power Company claimed to have developed a wireless telephone. They were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not seem to have proceeded with production.[2] Beginning in 1918, the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen.[3] In 1924, public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925, the company Zugtelephonie A. G. was founded to supply train telephony equipment and, in 1926, telephone service in trains of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and the German mail service on the route between Hamburg and Berlin was approved and offered to first-class travelers.[4]

text: Fiction anticipated the development of real world mobile telephones. In 1906, the English caricaturist Lewis Baumer published a cartoon in Punch magazine entitled "Forecasts for 1907" in which he showed a man and a woman in London's Hyde Park each separately engaged in gambling and dating on wireless telephony equipment.[5] Then, in 1926, the artist Karl Arnold created a visionary cartoon about the use of mobile phones in the street, in the picture "wireless telephony", published in the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus.[6]

text: The Second World War made military use of radio telephony links. Hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed high power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations. Modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice and data communications.

text: In the United States, engineers from Bell Labs began work on a system to allow mobile users to place and receive telephone calls from automobiles, leading to the inauguration of mobile service on 17 June 1946 in St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service. A wide range of mostly incompatible mobile telephone services offered limited coverage area and only a few available channels in urban areas. The introduction of cellular technology, which allowed re-use of frequencies many times in small adjacent areas covered by relatively low powered transmitters, made widespread adoption of mobile telephones economically feasible.

text: In the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, in 1957-1961 developed and presented a number of experimental models of handheld mobile phones. The weight of one model, presented in 19kdn61, was only 70 g and could fit on a palm.[7][8] However, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile "Altai" phone was made.[9]

text: In 1965, Bulgarian company "Radioelektronika" presented on the Inforga-65 international exhibition in Moscow the mobile automatic phone combined with a base station. Solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to 15 customers.[10]

text: The advances in mobile telephony can be traced in successive generations from the early "0G" services like MTS and its successor Improved Mobile Telephone Service, to first-generation (1G) analog cellular network, second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks, third-generation (3G) broadband data services to the state-of-the-art, fourth-generation (4G) native-IP networks.

text: Early services[edit]

text: MTS[edit]

text: In 1949, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service. From its start in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1946, AT&T introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about 30,000 calls each week. Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a button on the handset to talk and release the button to listen. The call subscriber equipment weighed about 80 lb.[11]

text: Subscriber growth and revenue generation were hampered by the constraints of the technology. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.[12] Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing 15 USD per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about 176 USD per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.[11]

text: In the UK, there was also a vehicle-based system called "Post Office Radiophone Service,"[13] which was launched around the city of Manchester in 1959, and although it required callers to speak to an operator, it was possible to be put through to any subscriber in Great Britain. The service was extended to London in 1965 and other major cities in 1972.

text: IMTS[edit]

text: AT&T introduced the first major improvement to mobile telephony in 1965, giving the improved service the obvious name of Improved Mobile Telephone Service. IMTS used additional radio channels, allowing more simultaneous calls in a given geographic area, introduced customer dialing, eliminating manual call setup by an operator, and reduced the size and weight of the subscriber equipment.[11]

text: Despite the capacity improvement offered by IMTS, demand outstripped capacity. In agreement with state regulatory agencies, AT&T limited the service to just 40,000 customers system wide. In New York City, for example, 2,000 customers shared just 12 radio channels and typically had to wait 30 minutes to place a call.[11]

text: Radio Common Carrier[edit]

text: Radio Common Carrier[14] or RCC was a service introduced in the 1960s by independent telephone companies to compete against AT&T's IMTS. RCC systems used paired UHF 454/459 MHz and VHF 152/158 MHz frequencies near those used by IMTS. RCC based services were provided until the 1980s when cellular AMPS systems made RCC equipment obsolete.

text: Some RCC systems were designed to allow customers of adjacent carriers to use their facilities, but equipment used by RCCs did not allow the equivalent of modern "roaming" because technical standards were not uniform. For example, the phone of an Omaha, Nebraska–based RCC service would not be likely to work in Phoenix, Arizona. Roaming was not encouraged, in part, because there was no centralized industry billing database for RCCs. Signaling formats were not standardized. For example, some systems used two-tone sequential paging to alert a mobile of an incoming call. Other systems used DTMF. Some used Secode 2805, which transmitted an interrupted 2805 Hz tone (similar to IMTS signaling) to alert mobiles of an offered call. Some radio equipment used with RCC systems was half-duplex, push-to-talk LOMO equipment such as Motorola hand-helds or RCA 700-series conventional two-way radios. Other vehicular equipment had telephone handsets and rotary dials or pushbutton pads, and operated full duplex like a conventional wired telephone. A few users had full-duplex briefcase telephones (radically advanced for their day)

text: At the end of RCC's existence, industry associations were working on a technical standard that would have allowed roaming, and some mobile users had multiple decoders to enable operation with more than one of the common signaling formats (600/1500, 2805, and Reach). Manual operation was often a fallback for RCC roamers.

text: Other services[edit]

text: In 1969 Penn Central Railroad equipped commuter trains along the 360 km New York-Washington route with special pay phones that allowed passengers to place telephone calls while the train was moving. The system re-used six frequencies in the 450 MHz band in nine sites.[12]

text: In the UK, Channel Islands and elsewhere the "Rabbit" phone system was briefly used, being a hybrid of "cell" base stations and handsets. One major limitation was that you had to be less than 300 feet (closer with buildings) from a base due to power limitations on a portable device. [15][better source needed] With modern technology a similar variant is being considered for Apple's new 4G "smart watch" so they can be used in large events in a broadly similar way to a femtocell.

text: European mobile radio networks[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In Europe, several mutually incompatible mobile radio services were developed.

text: In 1966 Norway had a system called OLT which was manually controlled. Finland's ARP, launched in 1971, was also manual as was the Swedish MTD. All were replaced by the automatic NMT, (Nordic Mobile Telephone) system in the early 1980s.

text: In July 1971 Readycall was introduced in London by Burndept after obtaining a special concession to break the Post Office monopoly to allow selective calling to mobiles of calls from the public telephone system. This system was available to the public for a subscription of £16 month. A year later the service was extended to two other UK towns.[16]

text: West Germany had a network called A-Netz launched in 1952 as the country's first public commercial mobile phone network. In 1972 this was displaced by B-Netz which connected calls automatically.

text: The cellular concept[edit]

text: In December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles.[17] At this stage, the technology to implement these ideas did not exist, nor had the frequencies been allocated. Two decades would pass before Richard H. Frenkiel, Joel S. Engel and Philip T. Porter of Bell Labs expanded the early proposals into a much more detailed system plan. It was Porter who first proposed that the cell towers use the now-familiar directional antennas to reduce interference and increase channel reuse (see picture at right)[18] Porter also invented the dial-then-send method used by all cell phones to reduce wasted channel time.

text: In all these early examples, a mobile phone had to stay within the coverage area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call, i.e. there was no continuity of service as the phones moved through several cell areas. The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the late 1960s, in papers by Frenkiel and Porter. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., a Bell Labs engineer,[19] invented a "three-sided trunk circuit" to aid in the "call handoff" process from one cell to another. His patent contained an early description of the Bell Labs cellular concept, but as switching systems became faster, such a circuit became unnecessary and was never implemented in a system.

text: A cellular telephone switching plan was described by Fluhr and Nussbaum in 1973,[20] and a cellular telephone data signaling system was described in hipatitas by Hachenburg et al.[21]

text: Emergence of automated services[edit]

text: The first fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles was launched in Sweden in 1956. Named MTA (Mobiltelefonisystem A), it allowed calls to be made and received in the car using a rotary dial. The car phone could also be paged. Calls from the car were direct dial, whereas incoming calls required an operator to locate the nearest base station to the car. It was developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator. Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment. MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed 40 kg. In 1962, an upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was introduced. This was a push-button telephone, and used transistors and DTMF signaling to improve its operational reliability. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success.[22][23] The network remained open until 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.

text: In 1958 development began on a similar system for motorists in the USSR.[24] The "Altay" national civil mobile phone service was based on Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The main developers of the Altay system were the Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications (VNIIS) and the State Specialized Project Institute (GSPI). In 1963 the service started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30 cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of Russia.

text: In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster, Kansas, USA, the S&T Telephone Company, (still in business today) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility, offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas. This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard, and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines, trucks, and automobiles. For some as yet unknown reason, the system, after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period, was shut down. The management of the company was immediately changed, and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960, not to be seen again.[citation needed]

text: In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic phone RAT-0,5 combined with a base station RATZ-10 (RATC-10) on Interorgtechnika-66 international exhibition. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to six customers ("Radio" magazine, 2, 1967; "Novosti dnya" newsreel, 37, 1966).

text: One of the first successful public commercial mobile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland, launched in 1971. Posthumously, ARP is sometimes viewed as a zero generation (0G) cellular network, being slightly above previous proprietary and limited coverage networks.[citation needed]

text: Handheld mobile phone[edit]

text: Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles.[19] Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival.[25][26] The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Cooper weighed 1.1 kg (2.42 lb) and measured 23 cm long, 13 cm deep and 4.45 cm wide. The prototype offered a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge.[27]

text: John F. Mitchell,[28][29][30] Motorola's chief of portable communication products and Cooper's boss in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell successfully pushed Motorola to develop wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.[31][32]

text: The early generations[edit]

text: Newer technology has been developed and rolled out in a series of waves or generations. The "generation" terminology only became widely used when 3G was launched, but is now used retroactively when referring to the earlier systems.

text: 1G – Analogue cellular[edit]

text: First automatic analogue cellular systems deployed were NTT's system first used in Tokyo in 1979, later spreading to the whole of Japan, and NMT in the Nordic countries in 1981.

text: The first analogue cellular system widely deployed in North America was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).[33] It was commercially introduced in the Americas in 13 October 1983, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987. AMPS was a pioneering technology that helped drive mass market usage of cellular technology, but it had several serious issues by modern standards. It was unencrypted and easily vulnerable to eavesdropping via a scanner; it was susceptible to cell phone "cloning" and it used a Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) scheme and required significant amounts of wireless spectrum to support.

text: On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAC 8000X mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100m to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market.[34] The phone had a talk time of just thirty-five minutes and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.[35][36]

text: Many of the iconic early commercial cell phones such as the Motorola DynaTAC Analog AMPS were eventually superseded by Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) in 1990, and AMPS service was shut down by most North American carriers by 2008.

text: In February 1986 Australia launched its Cellular Telephone System by Telecom Australia. Peter Reedman was the first Telecom Customer to be connected on 6 January 1986 along with five other subscribers as test customers prior to the official launch date of 28 February.

text: 2G – Digital cellular[edit]

text: In the 1990s, the 'second generation' mobile phone systems emerged. Two systems competed for supremacy in the global market: the European developed GSM standard and the U.S. developed CDMA standard. These differed from the previous generation by using digital instead of analog transmission, and also fast out-of-band phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.

text: In 1991 the first GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in Finland. In general the frequencies used by 2G systems in Europe were higher than those in America, though with some overlap. For example, the 900 MHz frequency range was used for both 1G and 2G systems in Europe, so the 1G systems were rapidly closed down to make space for the 2G systems. In America the IS-54 standard was deployed in the same band as AMPS and displaced some of the existing analog channels.

text: In 1993, IBM Simon was introduced. This was possibly the world's first smartphone. It was a mobile phone, pager, fax machine, and PDA all rolled into one. It included a calendar, address book, clock, calculator, notepad, email, and a touchscreen with a QWERTY keyboard.[37] The IBM Simon had a stylus you used to tap the touch screen with. It featured predictive typing that would guess the next characters as you tapped. It had applications, or at least a way to deliver more features by plugging a PCMCIA 1.8 MB memory card into the phone.[38] Coinciding with the introduction of 2G systems was a trend away from the larger "brick" phones toward tiny 100 – 200 gram hand-held devices. This change was possible not only through technological improvements such as more advanced batteries and more energy-efficient electronics, but also because of the higher density of cell sites to accommodate increasing usage. The latter meant that the average distance transmission from phone to the base station shortened, leading to increased battery life while on the move.

text: The second generation introduced a new variant of communication called SMS or text messaging. It was initially available only on GSM networks but spread eventually on all digital networks. The first machine-generated SMS message was sent in the UK on 3 December 1992 followed in 1993 by the first person-to-person SMS sent in Finland. The advent of prepaid services in the late 1990s soon made SMS the communication method of choice among the young, a trend which spread across all ages.

text: 2G also introduced the ability to access media content on mobile phones. In 1998 the first downloadable content sold to mobile phones was the ring tone, launched by Finland's Radiolinja (now Elisa). Advertising on the mobile phone first appeared in Finland when a free daily SMS news headline service was launched in 2000, sponsored by advertising.

text: Mobile payments were trialed in 1998 in Finland and Sweden where a mobile phone was used to pay for a Coca-Cola vending machine and car parking. Commercial launches followed in 1999 in Norway. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart.

text: The first full internet service on mobile phones was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999.

text: 3G – Mobile broadband[edit]

text: As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it became clear that demand for data (such as access to browse the internet) was growing. Further, experience from fixed broadband services showed there would also be an ever-increasing demand for greater data speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission.[39] In addition, the standardization process focused on requirements more than technology (2 Mbit/s maximum data rate indoors, 384 kbit/s outdoors, for example).

text: Inevitably this led to many competing standards with different contenders pushing their own technologies, and the vision of a single unified worldwide standard looked far from reality. The standard 2G CDMA networks became 3G compliant with the adoption of Revision A to EV-DO, which made several additions to the protocol while retaining backwards compatibility:

text:
Introduction of several new forward link data rates that increase the maximum burst rate from 2.45 Mbit/s to 3.1 Mbit/s
Protocols that would decrease connection establishment time
Ability for more than one mobile to share the same time slot
Introduction of QoS flags

text: All these were put in place to allow for low latency, low bit rate communications such as VoIP.[40]

text: The first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in the Tokyo region in May 2001. NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001, using the WCDMA technology. In 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival CDMA2000 1xEV-DO technology were launched by SK Telecom and KTF in South Korea, and Monet in the US. Monet has since gone bankrupt. By the end of 2002, the second WCDMA network was launched in Japan by Vodafone KK (now Softbank). European launches of 3G were in Italy and the UK by Three/Hutchison group, on WCDMA. 2003 saw a further eight commercial launches of 3G, six more on WCDMA and two more on the EV-DO standard.

text: During the development of 3G systems, 2.5G systems such as CDMA2000 1x and GPRS were developed as extensions to existing 2G networks. These provide some of the features of 3G without fulfilling the promised high data rates or full range of multimedia services. CDMA2000-1X delivers theoretical maximum data speeds of up to 307 kbit/s. Just beyond these is the EDGE system which in theory covers the requirements for 3G system, but is so narrowly above these that any practical system would be sure to fall short.

text: The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media streaming of radio (and even television) content to 3G handsets became possible,[41] with companies such as RealNetworks[42] and Disney[43] among the early pioneers in this type of offering.

text: In the mid-2000s (decade), an evolution of 3G technology began to be implemented, namely High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/s.

text: By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9% of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV-DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.

text: Although mobile phones had long had the ability to access data networks such as the Internet, it was not until the widespread availability of good quality 3G coverage in the mid-2000s (decade) that specialized devices appeared to access the mobile web. The first such devices, known as "dongles", plugged directly into a computer through the USB port. Another new class of device appeared subsequently, the so-called "compact wireless router" such as the Novatel MiFi, which makes 3G Internet connectivity available to multiple computers simultaneously over Wi-Fi, rather than just to a single computer via a USB plug-in.

text: Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi wasn't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G-capable laptops became commonly known as "netbooks". Other types of data-aware devices followed in the netbook's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.

text: 4G – Native IP networks[edit]

text: By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media.[44] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

text: One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an all-IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio media, utilizing packet switching over Internet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.[45]

text: Mobile device charger standards[edit]

text:
USB power standards for mobile charger

Port
Current
Voltage
Power (max)

Micro-USB
500 mA
5 V
2.5 W

1 A
5 V
5 W

2 A
5 V
10 W

Type-C[46]
100 mA to 3 A
5 V
15 W

1.7 A to 3 A
9 V
27 W

1.8 A to 3 A
15 V
45 W

2.25 A to 5 A
20 V
100 W

text: Before a universal charger standard was agreed upon in the late 2000s users needed an adaptor which was often the same brand as their phone to recharge the battery.

text: In China[edit]

text: As of 14 June 2007[update], all new mobile phones applying for a license in China are required to use a USB port as a power port for battery charging.[47][48] This was the first standard to use the convention of shorting D+ and D−.[49]

text: OMTP/GSMA Universal Charging Solution[edit]

text: In September 2007, the Open Mobile Terminal Platform group (a forum of mobile network operators and manufacturers such as Nokia, Samsung, Motorola, Sony Ericsson, and LG) announced that its members had agreed on Micro-USB as the future common connector for mobile devices.[50][51]

text: The GSM Association (GSMA) followed suit on 17 February 2009,[52][52][53][54][55] and on 22 April 2009, this was further endorsed by the CTIA – The Wireless Association,[56] with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) announcing on 22 October 2009 that it had also embraced the Universal Charging Solution as its "energy-efficient one-charger-fits-all new mobile phone solution," and added: "Based on the Micro-USB interface, UCS chargers will also include a 4-star or higher efficiency rating—up to three times more energy-efficient than an unrated charger."[57]

text: EU smartphone power supply standard[edit]

text: In June 2009, many of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed an EC-sponsored Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), agreeing to make most data-enabled mobile phones marketed in the European Union compatible with a common External Power Supply (common EPS). The EU's common EPS specification (EN 62684:2010) references the USB Battery Charging Specification and is similar to the GSMA/OMTP and Chinese charging solutions.[58][59] In January 2011, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) released its version of the (EU's) common EPS standard as IEC 62684:2011.[60]

text: Satellite mobile[edit]

text: As well as the now-common cellular phone, there is also the very different approach of connecting directly from the handset to an Earth-orbiting satellite. Such mobile phones can be used in remote areas out of reach of wired networks or where construction of a cellular network is uneconomic.

text: The Inmarsat system is the oldest, originally developed in 1979 for safety of life at sea, and uses a series of satellites in geostationary orbits to cover the majority of the globe. Several smaller operators use the same approach with just one or two satellites to provide a regional service. An alternative approach is to use a series of low Earth orbit satellites much closer to Earth. This is the basis of the Iridium and Globalstar satellite phone services.


document_title: List of National Basketball Association annual scoring leaders

question_text: who had the most points in the nba last year

text: Key[edit]

text:
^
Denotes player who is still active in the NBA

*
Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Denotes player who won the MVP award that year

Player (X)
Denotes the number of times the player had been the scoring leader up to and including that season

G
Guard
F
Forward
C
Center

text: Scoring leaders[edit]

text:
Season
Player
Age[a]
Pos[b]
Team
Games
played
Field goals
made
3-point
field goals
made
Free throws
made
Total
points
Points per
game
Ref

1946–47
Fulks, JoeJoe Fulks*
25
F/C
Philadelphia Warriors
60
475
—
439
1,389
23.2
[11][12]

1947–48
Zaslofsky, MaxMax Zaslofsky[c]
22
G/F
Chicago Stags
48
373
—
261
1,007
21.0
[14][15]

1948–49
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan*
24
C
Minneapolis Lakers
60
583
—
532
1,698
28.3
[16][17]

1949–50
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan* (2)
25
C
Minneapolis Lakers
68
649
—
567
1,865
27.4
[17][18]

1950–51
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan* (3)
26
C
Minneapolis Lakers
68
678
—
576
1,932
28.4
[17][19]

1951–52
Arizin, PaulPaul Arizin*
23
F/G
Philadelphia Warriors
66
548
—
578
1,674
25.4
[20][21]

1952–53
Johnston, NeilNeil Johnston*
23
C
Philadelphia Warriors
70
504
—
556
1,564
22.3
[22][23]

1953–54
Johnston, NeilNeil Johnston* (2)
24
C
Philadelphia Warriors
72
591
—
577
1,759
24.5
[23][24]

1954–55
Johnston, NeilNeil Johnston* (3)
25
C
Philadelphia Warriors
72
521
—
589
1,631
22.7
[23][25]

1955–56
Pettit, BobBob Pettit*
23
F/C
St. Louis Hawks
72
646
—
557
1,849
25.7
[26][27]

1956–57
Arizin, PaulPaul Arizin* (2)
28
F/G
Philadelphia Warriors
71
613
—
591
1,817
25.6
[21][28]

1957–58
Yardley, GeorgeGeorge Yardley*
29
F/G
Detroit Pistons
72
673
—
655
2,001
27.8
[29][30]

1958–59
Pettit, BobBob Pettit* (2)
26
F/C
St. Louis Hawks
72
719
—
667
2,105
29.2
[27][31]

1959–60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*[d]
23
C
Philadelphia Warriors
72
1,065
—
577
2,707
37.6
[32][33]

1960–61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (2)
24
C
Philadelphia Warriors
79
1,251
—
531
3,033
38.4
[33][34]

1961–62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (3)[e]
25
C
Philadelphia Warriors
80
1,597
—
835
4,029
50.4
[33][35]

1962–63
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (4)
26
C
San Francisco Warriors
80
1,463
—
660
3,586
44.8
[33][36]

1963–64
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (5)
27
C
San Francisco Warriors
80
1,204
—
540
2,948
36.9
[33][37]

1964–65
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (6)
28
C
San Francisco Warriors
Philadelphia 76ers
73
1,063
—
408
2,534
34.7
[33][38]

1965–66
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (7)
29
C
Philadelphia 76ers
79
1,074
—
501
2,649
33.5
[33][39]

1966–67
Barry, RickRick Barry*
22
F
San Francisco Warriors
78
1,011
—
753
2,775
35.6
[40][41]

1967–68
Bing, DaveDave Bing*[f]
24
G
Detroit Pistons
79
835
—
472
2,142
27.1
[44][45]

1968–69
Hayes, ElvinElvin Hayes*[g]
23
F/C
San Diego Rockets
82
930
—
467
2,327
28.4
[46][47]

1969–70
West, JerryJerry West*[h]
31
G
Los Angeles Lakers
74
831
—
647
2,309
31.2
[49][50]

1970–71
Alcindor, LewLew Alcindor*[i]
23
C
Milwaukee Bucks
82
1,063
—
470
2,596
31.7
[52][53]

1971–72
Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar* (2)
24
C
Milwaukee Bucks
81
1,159
—
504
2,822
34.8
[53][54]

1972–73
Archibald, Nate "Tiny"Nate "Tiny" Archibald*
24
G
Kansas City-Omaha Kings
80
1,028
—
663
2,719
34.0
[55][56]

1973–74
McAdoo, BobBob McAdoo*
22
C/F
Buffalo Braves
74
901
—
459
2,261
30.6
[57][58]

1974–75
McAdoo, BobBob McAdoo* (2)
23
C/F
Buffalo Braves
82
1,095
—
641
2,831
34.5
[58][59]

1975–76
McAdoo, BobBob McAdoo* (3)
24
C/F
Buffalo Braves
78
934
—
559
2,427
31.1
[58][60]

1976–77
Maravich, PetePete Maravich*
29
G
New Orleans Jazz
73
886
—
501
2,273
31.1
[61][62]

1977–78
Gervin, GeorgeGeorge Gervin*[j]
25
G/F
San Antonio Spurs
82
864
—
504
2,232
27.2
[68][69]

1978–79
Gervin, GeorgeGeorge Gervin* (2)
26
G/F
San Antonio Spurs
80
947
—
471
2,365
29.6
[69][70]

1979–80
Gervin, GeorgeGeorge Gervin* (3)
27
G/F
San Antonio Spurs
78
1,024
32
505
2,585
33.1
[69][71]

1980–81
Dantley, AdrianAdrian Dantley*
24
F/G
Utah Jazz
80
909
2
632
2,452
30.7
[72][73]

1981–82
Gervin, GeorgeGeorge Gervin* (4)
29
G/F
San Antonio Spurs
79
993
10
555
2,551
32.3
[69][74]

1982–83
English, AlexAlex English*
29
F
Denver Nuggets
82
959
2
406
2,326
28.4
[75][76]

1983–84
Dantley, AdrianAdrian Dantley* (2)
27
F/G
Utah Jazz
79
802
1
813
2,418
30.6
[73][77]

1984–85
King, BernardBernard King*[k]
28
F
New York Knicks
55
691
1
426
1,809
32.9
[79][80]

1985–86
Wilkins, DominiqueDominique Wilkins*[l]
26
F
Atlanta Hawks
78
888
13
577
2,366
30.3
[82][83]

1986–87
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
23
G
Chicago Bulls
82
1,098
12
833
3,041
37.1
[84][85]

1987–88
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (2)
24
G
Chicago Bulls
82
1,069
7
723
2,868
35.0
[85][86]

1988–89
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (3)
25
G
Chicago Bulls
81
966
27
674
2,633
32.5
[85][87]

1989–90
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (4)
26
G
Chicago Bulls
82
1,034
92
593
2,753
33.6
[85][88]

1990–91
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (5)
27
G
Chicago Bulls
82
990
29
571
2,580
31.5
[85][89]

1991–92
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (6)
28
G
Chicago Bulls
80
943
27
491
2,404
30.1
[85][90]

1992–93
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (7)
29
G
Chicago Bulls
78
992
81
476
2,541
32.6
[85][91]

1993–94
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*[m]
28
C
San Antonio Spurs
80
840
10
693
2,383
29.8
[93][94]

1994–95
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal*
22
C
Orlando Magic
79
930
0
455
2,315
29.3
[95][96]

1995–96
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (8)
32
G
Chicago Bulls
82
916
111
548
2,491
30.4
[85][97]

1996–97
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (9)
33
G
Chicago Bulls
82
920
111
480
2,431
29.6
[85][98]

1997–98
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan* (10) [n]
34
G
Chicago Bulls
82
881
30
565
2,357
28.7
[85][101]

1998–99[o]
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson*[p]
23
G
Philadelphia 76ers
48
435
58
356
1,284
26.8
[104][105]

1999–00
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal* (2)
27
C
Los Angeles Lakers
79
956
0
432
2,344
29.7
[96][106]

2000–01
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson* (2)[q]
25
G
Philadelphia 76ers
71
762
98
585
2,207
31.1
[105][108]

2001–02
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson* (3)[r]
26
G
Philadelphia 76ers
60
665
78
475
1,883
31.4
[105][110]

2002–03
McGrady, TracyTracy McGrady*[s]
23
G/F
Orlando Magic
75
829
173
576
2,407
32.1
[112][113]

2003–04
McGrady, TracyTracy McGrady* (2)[t]
24
G/F
Orlando Magic
67
653
174
398
1,878
28.0
[113]

2004–05
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson* (4)
29
G
Philadelphia 76ers
75
771
104
656
2,302
30.7
[105]

2005–06
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
27
G
Los Angeles Lakers
80
978
180
696
2,832
35.4
[115]

2006–07
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant (2)
28
G
Los Angeles Lakers
77
813
137
667
2,430
31.6
[115]

2007–08
James, LeBronLeBron James^[u]
23
F
Cleveland Cavaliers
75
794
113
549
2,250
30.0
[117]

2008–09
Wade, DwyaneDwyane Wade^
27
G
Miami Heat
79
854
88
590
2,386
30.2
[118]

2009–10
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^[v]
21
F
Oklahoma City Thunder
82
794
128
756
2,472
30.1
[120]

2010–11
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^ (2)
22
F
Oklahoma City Thunder
78
711
145
594
2,161
27.7
[120]

2011–12[w]
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^ (3)[x]
23
F
Oklahoma City Thunder
66
643
133
431
1,850
28.0
[120]

2012–13
Anthony, CarmeloCarmelo Anthony^[y]
28
F
New York Knicks
67
669
157
425
1,920
28.7
[124]

2013–14
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^ (4)
25
F
Oklahoma City Thunder
81
849
192
703
2,593
32.0
[120]

2014–15
Westbrook, RussellRussell Westbrook^[z]
26
G
Oklahoma City Thunder
67
627
86
546
1,886
28.1
[126]

2015–16
Curry, StephenStephen Curry^[aa]
28
G
Golden State Warriors
79
805
402
363
2,375
30.1
[128]

2016–17
Westbrook, RussellRussell Westbrook^ (2)
28
G
Oklahoma City Thunder
81
824
200
710
2,558
31.6
[126]

2017–18
James Harden[ab]
28
G
Houston Rockets
72
651
265
624
2,191
30.4
[130]

text: Multiple-time leaders[edit]

text:
Ranking
Player
Team
Times leader
Years

1
Michael Jordan
Chicago Bulls
10
1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998

2
Wilt Chamberlain
Philadelphia Warriors/San Francisco Warriors (5) / Philadelphia 76ers (2)
7
1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966

3
Kevin Durant
George Gervin
Allen Iverson
Oklahoma City Thunder
San Antonio Spurs
Philadelphia 76ers
4
2010, 2011, 2012, 2014
1978, 1979, 1980, 1982
1999, 2001, 2002, 2005

6
Neil Johnston
Bob McAdoo
George Mikan
Philadelphia Warriors
Buffalo Braves
Minneapolis Lakers
3
1953, 1954, 1955
1974, 1975, 1976
1949, 1950, 1951

9
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
Paul Arizin
Kobe Bryant
Adrian Dantley
Tracy McGrady
Shaquille O'Neal
Bob Pettit
Russell Westbrook
Milwaukee Bucks
Philadelphia Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
Utah Jazz
Orlando Magic
Orlando Magic (1) / Los Angeles Lakers (1)
St. Louis Hawks
Oklahoma City Thunder
2
1971, 1972
1952, 1957
2006, 2007
1981, 1984
2003, 2004
1995, 2000
1956, 1959
2015, 2017


document_title: History of the United States dollar

question_text: when did we stop backing the dollar with gold

text: History of the United States dollar

text: Background[edit]

text: By the end of 1778, Continental Currency retained only between 1⁄5 to 1⁄7 of its original face value. By 1780, Continental bills – or Continentals – were worth just 1⁄40 of their face value. Congress tried to reform the currency by removing the old bills from circulation and issuing new ones, but this met with little to no success. By May 1781, Continentals had become so worthless they ceased to circulate as money. Benjamin Franklin noted that the depreciation of the currency had, in effect, acted as a tax to pay for the war.[2] In the 1790s, after the ratification of the United States Constitution, Continentals could be exchanged for treasury bonds at 1% of face value.[3]

text: Congress appointed Robert Morris to be Superintendent of Finance of the United States following the collapse of Continental currency. In 1782, Morris advocated the creation of the first financial institution chartered by the United States. The Bank of North America was funded in part by specie loaned to the United States by France. Morris helped finance the final stages of the war by issuing notes in his name, backed by his own money. The Bank of North America also issued notes convertible into specie.[4] On July 6, 1785, the Continental Congress of the United States authorized the issuance of a new currency, the US dollar.

text: However, runaway inflation and the collapse of the Continental currency prompted delegates at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 to include the gold and silver clause in the United States Constitution, preventing individual States from issuing their own bills of credit. Article One states they were prohibited to "make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts."[5] Some people use this clause to argue that federal paper money is unconstitutional. [6][7]

text: The United States Mint was created by Congress following the passing of the Coinage Act of 1792. It was primarily tasked with producing and circulating coinage. The first Mint building was in Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States. The Mint was originally placed within the Department of State, until the Coinage Act of 1873 when it became part of the Department of the Treasury (in 1981 it was placed under the auspices of the Treasurer of the United States). The Mint had the authority to convert any precious metals into standard coinage for anyone's account with no seigniorage charge beyond refining costs.

text: Early history[edit]

text: After the creation of the U.S. dollar, the fledgling American administration of President George Washington turned its attention to monetary issues again in the early 1790s under the leadership of Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury at the time. Congress acted on Hamilton's recommendations in the Coinage Act of 1792, which established the dollar as the basic unit of account for the United States. The word dollar is derived from Low Saxon cognate of the High German Thaler. The most commonly circulated and readily available currency, used by common Americans, at this time, was the Spanish Peso, also known as the "Spanish milled dollar", which was valued for its high silver content.

text: In the early 19th century, gold rose in relation to silver, resulting in the removal from commerce of nearly all gold coins, and their subsequent melting. Therefore, in the Coinage Act of 1834, the 15:1 ratio of silver to gold was changed to a 16:1 ratio by reducing the weight of the nation's gold coinage. This created a new U.S. dollar that was backed by 1.50 g (23.22 grains) of gold. However, the previous dollar had been represented by 1.60 g (24.75 grains) of gold. The result of this revaluation, which was the first devaluation of the U.S. dollar, was that the value in gold of the dollar was reduced by 6%. Moreover, for a time, both gold and silver coins were useful in commerce.

text: In 1853, the weights of U.S. silver coins (except the dollar itself, which was rarely used) were reduced. This had the effect of placing the nation effectively (although not officially) on the gold standard. The retained weight in the dollar coin was a nod to bimetallism, although it had the effect of further driving the silver dollar coin from commerce. Foreign coins, including the Spanish dollar, were also, widely used,[8] as legal tender, until 1857.

text: With the enactment of the National Banking Act of 1863, during the American Civil War and its later versions that taxed states' bonds and currency out of existence, the dollar became the sole currency of the United States and remains so today.

text: During the 19th century the dollar was less accepted around the world than the British pound. Nellie Bly carried Bank of England notes on her 1889-1890 trip around the world in 72 days; she also brought some dollars, Bly wrote, "to use at different ports as a test to see if American money was known outside of America". Traveling east from New York, she did not see American money until she found $20 gold pieces used as jewelry in Colombo; there Bly found that as currency dollars were accepted at a 60% discount.[9]

text: In 1878, the Bland-Allison Act was enacted to provide for freer coinage of silver. This act required the government to purchase between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month at market prices and to coin it into silver dollars. This was, in effect, a subsidy for politically influential silver producers.

text: The discovery of large silver deposits in the Western United States in the late 19th century created a political controversy. Due to the large influx of silver, the value of silver in the nation's coinage dropped precipitously. On one side were agrarian interests such as the United States Greenback Party that wanted to retain the bimetallic standard in order to inflate the dollar, which would allow farmers to more easily repay their debts. On the other side were Eastern banking and commercial interests, who advocated sound money and a switch to the gold standard. This issue split the Democratic Party in 1896. It led to the famous "cross of gold" speech given by William Jennings Bryan, and may have inspired many of the themes in The Wizard of Oz. Despite the controversy, the status of silver was slowly diminished through a series of legislative changes from 1873 to 1900, when a gold standard was formally adopted. The gold standard survived, with several modifications, until 1971.

text: Gold standard[edit]

text: Bimetallism persisted until March 14, 1900, with the passage of the Gold Standard Act, which provided that:

text: ...the dollar consisting of twenty-five and eight-tenths grains (1.67 g) of gold nine-tenths fine, as established by section thirty-five hundred and eleven of the Revised Statutes of the United States, shall be the standard unit of value, and all forms of money issued or coined by the United States shall be maintained at a parity of value with this standard...

text: Thus the United States moved to a gold standard, making both gold and silver the legal-tender coinage of the United States, and guaranteed the dollar as convertible to 1.5 g (23.22 grains) of gold.[10]

text: The gold standard was suspended twice during World War I, once fully and then for foreign exchange. At the onset of the war, U.S. corporations had large debts payable to European entities, who began liquidating their debts in gold. With debts looming to Europe, the dollar to British pound exchange rate reached as high as $6.75, far above the (gold) parity of $4.8665. This caused large gold outflows until July 31, 1914, when the New York Stock Exchange closed and the gold standard was temporarily suspended. In order to defend the exchange value of the dollar, the US Treasury Department authorized state and nationally chartered banks to issue emergency currency under the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, and the newly created Federal Reserve organized a fund to assure debts to foreign creditors. These efforts were largely successful, and the Aldrich-Vreeland notes were retired starting in November and the gold standard was restored when the New York Stock Exchange re-opened in December 1914.[11]

text: As the United States remained neutral in the war, it remained the only country to maintain its gold standard, doing so without restriction on import or export of gold from 1915 to 1917. During the participation of the United States as a belligerent, President Wilson banned gold export, thereby suspending the gold standard for foreign exchange. After the war, European countries slowly returned to their gold standards, though in somewhat altered form.[11][12]

text: During the Great Depression, every major currency abandoned the gold standard. Among the earliest, the Bank of England abandoned the gold standard in 1931 as speculators demanded gold in exchange for currency, threatening the solvency of the British monetary system. This pattern repeated throughout Europe and North America. In the United States, the Federal Reserve was forced to raise interest rates in order to protect the gold standard for the US dollar, worsening already severe domestic economic pressures. After bank runs became more pronounced in early 1933, people began to hoard gold coins as distrust for banks led to distrust for paper money, worsening deflation and depleting gold reserves.[11][12]

text: The Gold Reserve Act[edit]

text: In early 1933, in order to fight severe deflation Congress and President Roosevelt implemented a series of Acts of Congress and Executive Orders which suspended the gold standard except for foreign exchange, revoked gold as universal legal tender for debts, and banned private ownership of significant amounts of gold coin. These acts included Executive Order 6073, the Emergency Banking Act, Executive Order 6102, Executive Order 6111, the Agricultural Adjustment Act, 1933 Banking Act, House Joint Resolution 192, and later the Gold Reserve Act.[11] These actions were upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the "Gold Clause Cases" in 1935.[13]

text: For foreign exchange purposes, the set $20.67 per ounce value of the dollar was lifted, allowing the dollar to float freely in foreign exchange markets with no set value in gold. This was terminated after one year. Roosevelt attempted first to restabilize falling prices with the Agricultural Adjustment Act; however, this did not prove popular, so instead the next politically popular option was to devalue the dollar on foreign exchange markets. Under the Gold Reserve Act the value of gold was fixed at $35 per ounce, making the dollar more attractive for foreign buyers (and making foreign currencies more expensive for those holding dollars). This change led to more conversion of gold into dollars, allowing the U.S. to effectively corner the world gold market.[14][15]

text: The suspension of the gold standard was considered temporary by many in markets and in the government at the time, but restoring the standard was considered a low priority to dealing with other issues.[11][14]

text: Under the post-World War II Bretton Woods system, all other currencies were valued in terms of U.S. dollars and were thus indirectly linked to the gold standard. The need for the U.S. government to maintain both a $35 per troy ounce (112.53 ¢/g) market price of gold and also the conversion to foreign currencies caused economic and trade pressures. By the early 1960s, compensation for these pressures started to become too complicated to manage.

text: In March 1968, the effort to control the private market price of gold was abandoned. A two-tier system began. In this system all central-bank transactions in gold were insulated from the free market price. Central banks would trade gold among themselves at $35 per troy ounce (112.53 ¢/g) but would not trade with the private market. The private market could trade at the equilibrium market price and there would be no official intervention. The price immediately jumped to $43 per troy ounce (138.25 ¢/g). The price of gold touched briefly back at $35 (112.53 ¢/g) near the end of 1969 before beginning a steady price increase. This gold price increase turned steep through 1972 and hit a high that year of over $70 (2.25 $/g). By that time floating exchange rates had also begun to emerge, which indicated the de facto dissolution of the Bretton Woods system. The two-tier system was abandoned in November 1973. By then the price of gold had reached $100 per troy ounce (3.22 $/g).

text: In the early 1970s, inflation caused by rising prices for imported commodities, especially oil, and spending on the Vietnam War, which was not counteracted by cuts in other government expenditures, combined with a trade deficit to create a situation in which the dollar was worth less than the gold used to back it.

text: In 1971, President Richard Nixon unilaterally ordered the cancellation of the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold. This act was known as the Nixon Shock.

text: U.S. dollar value vs. gold value[edit]

text: The sudden jump in the price of gold after the demise of the Bretton Woods accords was a result of the significant prior debasement of the US dollar due to excessive inflation of the monetary supply via central bank (Federal Reserve) coordinated fractional reserve banking under the Bretton Woods partial gold standard. In the absence of an international mechanism tying the dollar to gold via fixed exchange rates, the dollar became a pure fiat currency and as such fell to its free market exchange price versus gold. Consequently, the price of gold rose from $35 per troy ounce (1.125 $/g) in 1969 to almost $500 (29 $/g) in 1980.

text: Shortly after the gold price started its ascent in the early 1970s, the price of other commodities such as oil also began to rise. While commodity prices became more volatile, the average exchange rate between oil and gold remained much the same in the 1990s as it had been in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.

text: Fearing the emergence of a specie gold-based economy separate from central banking, and with the corresponding threat of the collapse of the U.S. dollar, the U.S. government approved several changes to the trading on the COMEX. These changes resulted in a steep decline in the traded value of precious metals from the early 1980s onward.

text: In September 1987 under the Reagan administration the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury James Baker made a proposal through the International Monetary Fund to use a commodity basket (which included gold).[citation needed]

text: Silver standard[edit]

text: United States silver certificates were a type of representative money printed from 1878 to 1964 in the United States as part of its circulation of paper currency.[16] They were produced in response to silver agitation by citizens who were angered by the Fourth Coinage Act, and were used alongside the gold-based dollar notes. The silver certificates were initially redeemable in the same face value of silver dollar coins, and later in raw silver bullion.

text: Since the early 1920s, silver certificates were issued in $1, $5, and $10 denominations. In the 1928 series, only $1 silver certificates were produced. Fives and tens of this time were mainly Federal Reserve notes, which were backed by and redeemable in gold. In 1933, Congress passed the Agricultural Adjustment Act which included a clause allowing for the pumping of silver into the market to replace the gold. A new 1933 series of $10 silver certificate was printed and released, but not many were released into circulation.

text: In 1934, a law was passed in Congress that changed the obligation on Silver Certificates so as to denote the current location of the silver.

text: The last government regulation regarding the silver standard was in 1963, when President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 11110, delegating to the Treasury Secretary his authority to authorize the US Department of Treasury to issue silver certificates for any silver held by the U.S. Government in excess of that not already backing issued certificates. This was necessary because of Kennedy's signing of Public Law 88-36 on the same day, one of the effects of which was a repeal of the Silver Purchase Act of 1934-this act had authorized the Treasury Secretary to purchase silver bullion and issue silver certificates against it. Silver certificates continued to be issued for a short period of time in the $1 denomination, but were discontinued in late 1963.

text: Use as international reserve currency[edit]

text: History[edit]

text: World War II devastated European and Asian economies while leaving the United States' economy relatively unharmed.[17] As European governments exhausted their gold reserves and borrowed to pay the United States for war material, the United States accumulated large gold reserves. This combination gave the United States significant political and economic power following the war.[18]

text: The Bretton Woods agreement codified this economic dominance of the dollar after the war. In 1944, Allied nations sought to create an international monetary order that sustained the global economy and prevented the economic malaise that followed the First World War. The Bretton Woods agreement laid the foundations for an international monetary order that created rules and expectations for the international economic system. It created the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the predecessor of the World Bank, and an international monetary system based on fixed exchange rates. It valued the dollar at $35 per ounce of gold and the remaining signatories pegged their respective currency relative to the dollar, leading some economists to argue that Bretton Woods “dethroned”[19] gold as the default asset.[20]

text: While Bretton Woods institutionalized the dollar's importance following the war, Europe and Asia faced dollar shortages. The international community needed dollars to finance imports from the United States to rebuild what was lost in the war.[21] In 1948 Congress passed the European Recovery Program - generally known as the Marshall Plan – giving dollars to European countries to purchase imports needed to rebuild their economies. The plan helped European countries by providing them dollars to purchase the imports needed to produce exports, eventually allowing the countries to export enough of their own goods to obtain the dollars necessary to sustain their economies without reliance on any Marshall-like plan. At the same time, Joseph Dodge worked with Japanese officials and Congress to pass the Dodge Plan in 1949, which worked similarly to the Marshall Plan, but for Japan rather than Europe.[20]

text: The Marshall and Dodge plans' successes have brought new challenges to the U.S. dollar. In 1959, dollars in circulation around the world exceeded U.S. gold reserves, which became vulnerable to the equivalent of a bank run. In 1960, Yale economist Robert Triffin described the problem to Congress: either the dollar was not freely available and other countries could not afford to import American goods, or the dollar was freely available but confidence that the dollar could be converted to gold would wane.[22]

text: Eventually, the United States chose to devalue the dollar. During the early 1960s American officials largely prevented the conversion of dollars to gold with a series of "gentlemanly" agreements and other policies – which included the London Gold Pool - but these actions were not sustainable; the danger of a run on U.S. gold reserves was too high.[23] With Nixon's election in 1968, American officials became increasingly concerned until Nixon finally issued Executive Order 11615 in August 1971, ending the direct convertibility of dollars to gold. He said, "We must protect the position of the American dollar as pillar of monetary stability around the world… I am determined that the American dollar must never again be hostage in the hands of the international speculators."[24] This became known as the Nixon Shock and marked the dollar's transition from the gold standard to a fiat currency.

text: Impact[edit]

text: The United States enjoys some benefits because the dollar serves as the international reserve currency. The United States is less likely to face a balance of payments crisis.

text: The position of the dollar as the international reserve currency also has a cost: the American government is more likely to forego fiscal expansionary policies in order to maintain confidence in the dollar.[25]

text: United States Notes[edit]

text: A United States Note, also known as a Legal Tender Note, was a type of paper money that was issued from 1862 to 1971 in the U.S. Having been current for over 100 years, they were issued for longer than any other form of U.S. paper money. They were known popularly as "greenbacks" in their day, a name inherited from the Demand Notes that they replaced in 1862.

text: While issuance of United States Notes ended in January 1971, existing United States Notes are still valid currency in the United States today, though rarely seen in circulation.

text: Both United States Notes and Federal Reserve Notes are parts of the national currency of the United States, and both have been legal tender since the gold recall of 1933. Both have been used in circulation as money in the same way. However, the issuing authority for them came from different statutes.[26] United States Notes were created as fiat currency, in that the government has never categorically guaranteed to redeem them for precious metal - even though at times, such as after the specie resumption of 1879, federal officials were authorized to do so if requested.

text: The difference between a United States Note and a Federal Reserve Note is that a United States Note represented a "bill of credit" and was inserted by the Treasury directly into circulation free of interest. Federal Reserve Notes are backed by debt purchased by the Federal Reserve, and thus generate seigniorage for the Federal Reserve System, which serves as a lending intermediary between the Treasury and the public.

text: Fiat standard[edit]

text: Today, like the currency of most nations, the dollar is fiat money, unbacked by any physical asset. A holder of a federal reserve note has no right to demand an asset such as gold or silver from the government in exchange for a note.[27] Consequently, some proponents of the intrinsic theory of value believe that the near-zero marginal cost of production of the current fiat dollar detracts from its attractiveness as a medium of exchange and store of value because a fiat currency without a marginal cost of production is easier to debase via overproduction and the subsequent inflation of the money supply.

text: In 1963, the words "PAYABLE TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND" were removed from all newly issued Federal Reserve notes. Then, in 1968, redemption of pre-1963 Federal Reserve notes for gold or silver officially ended. The Coinage Act of 1965 removed all silver from quarters and dimes, which were 90% silver prior to the act. However, there was a provision in the act allowing some coins to contain a 40% silver consistency, such as the Kennedy Half Dollar. Later, even this provision was removed, with the last circulating silver-content halves minted in 1969. All previously silver coins minted for general circulation are now clad. During 1982, the composition of the cent was changed from copper to zinc with a thin copper coating. The content of the nickel has not changed since 1946.[citation needed] Silver and gold coins are produced by the U.S. government, but only as non-circulating commemorative pieces or in sets for collectors.

text: All circulating notes, issued from 1861 to present, will be honored by the government at face value as legal tender. This means that the federal government will accept old notes as payments for debts owed to the federal government (taxes and fees), or exchange old notes for new ones, but will not redeem notes for gold or silver, even if the note states that it may be thus redeemed. Some bills may have a premium to collectors.[citation needed]

text: The only exception to this rule is the $10,000 gold certificate of Series 1900, a number of which were inadvertently released to the public because of a fire in 1935. A box of them was literally thrown out a window. This set is not considered to be "in circulation" and, in fact, is stolen property. However, the government canceled these banknotes and removed them from official records. Their value, relevant only to collectors, is approximately one thousand US dollars.[28]

text: According to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, there is $1.2 trillion in total US currency in worldwide circulation as of July 2013.[29]

text: Color and design[edit]

text: The federal government began issuing currency like the Spanish dollars during the American Civil War. As photographic technology of the day could not reproduce color, it was decided the back of the bills would be printed in a color other than black. Because the color green was seen as a symbol of stability, it was selected. These were known as "greenbacks" for their color and started a tradition of the United States' printing the back of its money in green. The author of that invention was chemist Christopher Der-Seropian.[citation needed] In contrast to the currency notes of many other countries, Federal Reserve notes of varying denominations are the same colors: predominantly black ink with green highlights on the front, and predominantly green ink on the back. Federal Reserve notes were printed in the same colors for most of the 20th century, although older bills called "silver certificates" had blue highlights on the front, and "United States notes" had red highlights on the front.

text: In 1928, sizing of the bills was standardized (involving a 25% reduction in their current sizes, compared to the older, larger notes nicknamed "horse blankets").[30] Modern U.S. currency, regardless of denomination, is 2.61 inches (66.3 mm) wide, 6.14 inches (156 mm) long, and 0.0043 inches (0.109 mm) thick. A single bill weighs about fifteen and a half grains (one gram) and costs approximately 4.2 cents for the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to produce.

text: Microprinting and security threads were introduced in the 1991 currency series.

text: Another series started in 1996 with the $100 note, adding the following changes:

text:
A larger portrait, moved off-center to create more space to incorporate a watermark.
The watermark to the right of the portrait depicting the same historical figure as the portrait. The watermark can be seen only when held up to the light (and had long been a standard feature of all other major currencies).
A security thread that will glow pink when exposed to ultraviolet light in a dark environment.[31] The thread is in a unique position on each denomination.
Color-shifting ink that changes from green to black when viewed from different angles. This feature appears in the numeral on the lower right-hand corner of the bill front.
Microprinting in the numeral in the note's lower left-hand corner and on Benjamin Franklin's coat.
Concentric fine-line printing in the background of the portrait and on the back of the note. This type of printing is difficult to copy well.
The value of the currency written in 14pt Arial font on the back for those with sight disabilities.
Other features for machine authentication and processing of the currency.

text: Annual releases of the 1996 series followed. The $50 note June 12, 1997, introduced a large dark numeral with a light background on the back of the note to make it easier for people to identify the denomination.[32] The $20 note in 1998 introduced a new machine-readable capability to assist scanning devices. The security thread glows green under ultraviolet light, and "USA TWENTY" and a flag are printed on the thread, while the numeral "20" is printed within the star field of the flag. The microprinting is in the lower left ornamentation of the portrait and in the lower left corner of the note front. As of 1998[update], the $20 note was the most frequently counterfeited note in the United States. The new design of the $5 and $10 notes were released in 2000.

text: May 13, 2003, The Treasury announced that it would introduce new colors into the $20 bill, the first U.S. currency since 1905 (not counting the 1934 gold certificates) to have colors other than green or black. The move was intended primarily to reduce counterfeiting, rather than to increase visual differentiation between denominations. The main colors of all denominations, including the new $20 and $50, remain green and black; the other colors are present only in subtle shades in secondary design elements. This contrasts with notes of the euro, Australian dollar, and most other currencies, where strong colours are used to distinguish each denomination from the other.

text: The new $20 bills entered circulation October 9, 2003, the new $50 bills, September 28, 2004. The new $10 notes were introduced in 2006 and redesigned $5 bills began to circulate March 13, 2008. Each will have subtle elements of different colors, though will continue to be primarily green and black. The Treasury said it will update Federal Reserve notes every 7 to 10 years to keep up with counterfeiting technology. In addition, there have been rumors that future banknotes will use embedded RFID microchips as another anti-counterfeiting tool.[33]

text: The 2008 $5 bill contains significant new security updates. The obverse side of the bill includes patterned yellow printing that will cue digital image-processing software to prevent digital copying, watermarks, digital security thread, and extensive microprinting. The reverse side includes an oversized purple number 5 to provide easy differentiation from other denominations.[34]

text: On April 21, 2010, the U.S. Government announced a heavily redesigned $100 bill that featured bolder colors, color shifting ink, microlenses, and other features. It was scheduled to start circulating on February 10, 2011, but was delayed due to the discovery of sporadic creasing on the notes and "mashing" (when there is too much ink on the paper, the artwork on the notes are not clearly seen). The redesigned $100 bill was released October 8, 2013.[35] It costs 11.8 cents to produce each bill.[36]

text: "The soundness of a nation's currency is essential to the soundness of its economy. And to uphold our currency's soundness, it must be recognized and honored as legal tender and counterfeiting must be effectively thwarted," Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said at a ceremony unveiling the $20 bill's new design. Prior to its current design, the most recent redesign of the U.S. dollar bill was in 1996.

text:
Current $20 bill front.

Current $20 bill back.

text: As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the American Council of the Blind, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 and the current version of the $100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period.[37] In 2016, the Treasury announced a number of design changes to the $5, $10 and $20 bills; to be introduced in this next redesign. The redesigns include:[38][39]

text:
The back of the $5 bill will be changed to showcase historical events at the pictured Lincoln Memorial by adding portraits of Marian Anderson (due to her famous performance there after being barred from Constitution Hall due to her race), Martin Luther King Jr.'s (due to his famous I Have A Dream speech), and Eleanor Roosevelt (who arranged Anderson's performance).
The back of the $10 bill will be changed to show a 1913 march for women's suffrage in the United States, plus portraits of Sojourner Truth, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, Alice Paul, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
On the $20 bill, Andrew Jackson will move to the back (reduced in size, alongside the White House) and Harriet Tubman will appear on the front.