document_title: History of Goa

question_text: when did goa became part of independent india

question_tokens: when did goa became part of independent india

text: History of Goa

text: Mythological origins (brahmanical)[edit]

text: The first literary reference to Goa is in the Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata as Gomanta which translates as the region of cows.[1] Despite a lack of archaeological and historical evidence, Hindu scriptures mention Parashurama, as its creator(see:Skanda Purana:Sahyadrikhanda). He is said to have settled ten sages in this land and performed fire sacrifices. Another legend has that after performing the penance, the seven sages named the Saptarshis were blessed by Lord Shiva; thereafter the sages were known as the Saptakoteshwar. Further Lord Shiva is believed to have taken up temporary residence after a dispute with his consort Parvati. Yet another legend states Lord Krishna defeated Jarasandha, the king of Magadha on Gomanchal Mountain in Goa. (see:Hari Vamsha purana)[2]

text: In Suta Samhita Govapuri or Goa is associated with spiritually cleansing touch:...The very sight of Govapuri destroys any sin committed in former existence just as sunrise dispels darkness... Certainly there is no other kshetra equal to Govapuri [3]

text: A similar hymn praising Govapuri city is found in Sahyadrikhanda of Skanda Purana, which says the extent of Goapuri was about seven Yojanas.

text:
“
गोकर्णादुत्तरे भागे सप्तयोजनविस्तृतं
तत्र गोवापुरी नाम नगरी पापनाशिनी
”

text: According to the Parshurama legend, Parashurama, the sixth reincarnation of Vishnu faced with an order of banishment from the lands that he had once conquered, sets seven arrows fly from the Sahydris to push back the sea and create a stretch of land which he could claim for himself. The sea-god is believed to have acceded his to wish and created a region Shurparaka, which translates literally to winnowing fan. This region is also known as Parashurama Kshetra.[4] The legend further tells us that having created Goa, Parashurama brought Brahmins from the North and settled them in this land.(See:Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha) -Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajanan shastri Gaytonde).The Parashurama legend thus serves as a symbol of the Sanskritisation that Goan culture experienced with the advent of Brahminical religion to the region, and establishment of Brahminical hegemony[5][6]

text: The Parashurama legend personifies the geological process of elevation of submerged land along the west coast, which must have taken place around 12,000 BC. There is evidence to support this theory as indicated by presence of marine fossils, buried seashells and other features of reclaimed topography in the coastal belt.[2] The evidence provided by the conch (Shankh) at Surla Village, fossilised marine conches discovered in 1863, petrified roots, fossilised branches have been found later in many villages on the foothills of the Sahyadri dating back more than 10,000 BC. Thus the geologists concluded that Goa has risen up from seabed as a result of violent tectonic movements. At the decline of the intensity of pluviation in the last Pleistocenic age around 10.000 BC, the bottom of Deccan plateau was lifted up and out of sea-waters by the tectonic movements, formed the West-coast of India, Goa being a part thereof.[7]

text: Prehistoric period[edit]

text: Paleolithic and Mesolithic era[edit]

text: Until 1993 the existence of humans in Goa during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic period was highly debated. The discovery of rock art engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavati River, has shed light on the prehistory of Goa.[8] The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might have served Stone age man for centuries as a source of water.[9] An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found.[9] This site was discovered by Dr P.P.Shirodkar. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin, at other sites such as Keri, Thane, Anjuna, Mauxim, Kazur in Quepem, Virdi, has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points, bores, cones, et cetera. A hand axe has also been found at Usgalimal.[10] Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the Dudhsagar River.[11] Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic and Mesolithic phases, or to 20,000-30,000 BC.[10] These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers well before the advent of agriculture. Evidence of Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds has posed a problem in determining the exact time period.[12]

text: Kushavati Shamanic culture[edit]

text: Dr. Nandkumar Kamat from the University of Goa discovered the prehistoric petroglyphs of Goa.[note 1] More than 125 forms were found scattered on the banks of river Kushavati in south-eastern Goa. According to Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goan shamanistic practice. For hundreds of years, the Kushavati rock art of Goa was known locally as goravarakhnyachi chitram, or pictures made by cowherds. But people did not know how ancient the works were, nor could anyone interpret them. After thorough study of these forms, scholars have concluded that these petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed these petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ocular labyrinth, one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature added to the evidence of prehistoric shamanism.

text: The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was a hunter-gatherer culture with deep knowledge of local natural resources and processes - water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with water security, so they set up camps near the streams. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the steam. Like every culture, its members confronted the mysteries of illness, death and birth. Kamat believes that this culture dated to 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. On basis of recent DNA-based work on human migration, Dr. Nandkumar Kamat has ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to arrive in Goa. They were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest Mediterraneans who had descended the Western Ghats, probably in their search for sea salt on Goa’s coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools. The entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in masked dance drama Perni jagor can be seen in the same cultural region.

text: Neolithic period[edit]

text: Archaeological evidence in the form of polished stone axes, suggest the first settlements of Neolithic man in Goa.[10] These axes have been found in Goa Velha.[13] During this period tribes of Austric origin such as the Kols, Mundaris and Kharvis may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC.[10] According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.[14] The Negroids were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.[14]

text: The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.[15] Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.[16]

text: During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa.[14]

text: The Iron age[edit]

text: The advent of Sumerians 2200 BC[edit]

text: The first written reference to Goa appear in Cuneiform during Sumerian times when the King Gudea of Lagash called Goa Gubio. This was around 2200 BC and Sumerians had established trade contacts with Goa. Many Sumerians settled in Goa and along the Konkan coast. Sumerians are thought to have designed the fields of Goa because as these follow their measure till date.[clarification needed] Unlike 0.46 m unit generally prevalent elsewhere in India, it is pointed out that the positioning in Goa agrees with Sumerian 12 cubits to a pole, and 0.495 of a metre to a cubit.[citation needed] Later the Phoenicians became extensive settlers of Goa around 1775 BC. Several Cuneiform inscriptions have been found in Goa and an Oracle plate dedicated to Inana has been recovered from Savoi Verem. Sumerians are believed to have modified many local customs and introduce their own systems such as their style of temple architecture, the Devadasi system; the Sumerians also influenced the language, caste system, and the kinship practices to some extent. Sumerian influence in Goa can also be seen in the entertainment and games of the region.[17]

text: The Formations of Gavkaris and the self rule[edit]

text: This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help us clarify the article. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the oligarchic democracy of village-administration in Goa known as Gavkari, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gavkars. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gavkari system where the village's preeminent deity's temple was the centre of all the activities.[17] It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gavkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.[18]

text: Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gavkari existed in Goa. This form of village-administration was called as Gaunponn (Konkani:गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaunponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial).[19] This system for governance became further systematised and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.[18]

text: The later migrations[edit]

text: The second wave of migrants arrived sometime between 1700 and 1400 BC. This second wave migration was accompanied by southern Indians from the Deccan plateau. A wave of Kusha or Harappan people moved to Lothal probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilisation which thrived on sea-trade.[16] With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in early Goan society.[20]

text: The age of empires[edit]

text: The Mauryas[edit]

text: The history of the Mauryas is almost non-existent. The existing records disclose the names of only three of the dynasty's kings, namely Suketavarman, who ruled some time in the 4th or 5th centuries BC, Chandravarman in the 6th century BC, and Ajitavarman in the 7th century BC, who ruled from Kumardvipa or modern Kumarjuve, but beyond that the records provide no clue as to their mutual relationship. These dates were determined by comparing the style of the Nagari script in which these records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly accurately. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and approximately half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in the 2nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, he founded a dynasty that ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara. This dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called Sunaparant by the Mauryas.[21]

text: Chandragupta Maurya incorporated the west coast of India in his province of Aparanta, and the impact of Magadhan Prakrit, the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the formation of early Konkani, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era Buddhism was introduced to Goa. Similarly a native Goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali, who traveled to Sarnath is considered a direct disciple of Buddha, who popularised Buddhism in Goa in 5th century BC.[21]

text: The Shatavahanas[edit]

text: The Satavahanas dynasty began as vassals of the Mauryan Empire, but declared independence as the Mauryan Empire declined. The Satavahana dynasty ruled Goa through their coastal vassals, the Chutus of Karwar. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts with Roman empire from the coastal trade from Sindh to Saurashtra, from Bharuch to Sopara to Goa, where Greek and Roman ships would halt during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire.[22] With the fall of the Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined.[23] Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa.[24] It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa. Maharashtri prakrit was their language of administration, which influenced medieval Konkani to a great extent.[25]

text: Goa under the Western Kshatrapas[edit]

text: In the year 150AD, Vashishtiputra Satakarni was defeated by his son-in-law, the Kshatrapa King Rudradaman I who established his rule over Goa.[26] This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD. Thereafter the dynasty's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the Abhiras[27]

text: Bhojas[edit]

text: First existing as vassals of the Mauryan Empire and later as an independent empire, the Bhojas ruled Goa for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa. The earliest known record of the Bhoja Empire from Goa dates from the 4th century AD, it was found in the town of Shiroda in Goa. According to Puranik, by tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas, who may have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the Mahabharata war.[28] Two Bhoja copperplates grants dating back to the 3rd century BC were unearthed from Bandora village, written by King Prithvimallavarman. Many other copper plates, have also been recovered from other places in Goa which date from the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD. Ancient Chandrapur, modern day Chandor, was the capital of the Bhoja Empire; the Bhojas ruled Goa, Belgaum and North Canara.[citation needed]

text: From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used Sanskrit and Prakrit for administration. According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many Brahmins and Vaishyas arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north.[29] The Kshatriya Bhojas patronised Buddhism and employed many Buddhist converts of Greek and Persian origin.[30]

text: Medieval period[edit]

text: Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from the 1st century BC to 1500 AD.[citation needed] Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties, there was no organised judicial or policing system in those days, except for traditional arrangements governed by absolute rulers and local chieftains. There may have been more order under Muslim rule.[31] During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.[32]

text:
Dynasties controlling Goa from the 1st century BC to 1500 AD

Name of the ruler
Reign

Indo-Parthians
2nd–4th centuries AD

Abhiras, Batapuras, Bhojas
4th–6th centuries

Chalukyas of Badami
6th–8th centuries

Rashtrakutas of Malkhed, Shilaharas
8th–10th centuries

Kadambas
1006–1356

Yadavas of Devagiri
12th and 13th centuries

Vijayanagar Empire
14th and 15th centuries

Bahmani Sultanate
15th century

text: Shilaharas[edit]

text: The Shilaharas of South Konkan ruled Goa from 755 till 1000 AD. Sannaphulla, the founder of the dynasty, was a vassal of the Rashtrakutas. Their copper-plate inscriptions suggest that they ruled from Vallipattana (there is no unanimity amongst the scholars regarding identification of Vallipattana, some identify it with Balli in Goa, or it may either be Banda or Kharepatan in the modern-day state of Maharashtra), Chandrapura and Gopakapattana.[33] This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. As the Goa Shilahara power waned during the 11th century, the Arab traders gained increasing control of the overseas trade. They enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba King Guhalladeva I, ruling from Chandor, established secular, political, and economic partnerships with these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage, the Kadamba King, Shashthadeva II, firmly established his rule in Goa.[33]

text: Kadambas[edit]

text: The Kadambas ruled Goa between the 10th and 14th centuries. In the beginning, the Kadambas ruled only Sashti and a small part of Konkan. They ruled from Chandor, over a large part of Goa, but the port of Gopakapattana was not included in the early years.[34] The Goa Kadambas were the later scions of the main Kadamba Dynasty, whose modern descendants still live in Goa.

text: Port of Goapakapattna[edit]

text: Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa, including the ports of Gopakpattana and Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom. He made Gopakpattana as his secondary capital. His successor, King Jayakeshi I, expanded the Goan kingdom. The Sanskrit Jain text Dvayashraya mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with Zanzibar, Bengal, Gujarat and Sri Lanka (mentioned as Zaguva, Gauda, Gurjara, and Simhala in the Sanskrit texts). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. Because it was a trading city, Gopakapattna was influenced by many cultures, and its architecture and decorative works showed this cosmopolitan effect. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath, which linked it with Ela, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years, it remained a centre for intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century, the port was looted by the Khalji general Malik Kafur. The capital was transferred to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq's attack on Chandor.[34]

text: Guhalladeva III, Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva, Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in the 12th century. During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa's religion, culture, trade and arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their queens built many Shiva temples as they were devout Shaivites. They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati, Saptakotisha Ladbha Varaveera, Gopakapura varadhishva, Konkanmahacharavarti and Panchamahashabda.[35] The Kings had matrimonial relationships with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The Kings patronised Vedic religion and performed major fire sacrifices like the horse sacrifice or Ashvamedha. They are also known for patronising Jainism in Goa.

text: Though their language of administration was Sanskrit and Kannada, Konkani and Marathi were also prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local tongue. Nagari script, Kadamba script, Halekannada script and Goykanadi scripts were very popular. Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, inscribed a record, dated saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka.[citation needed] Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other subjects were studied. Such Brahampuris were found in many places in Goa such as Savoi verem and Gauli moula.

text: Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years until they lost power to Devagiri Yadavas. After the Muslim invasions, the Kadamba Dynasty was lost forever. Ruins of the palaces, mansions, temples and markets can be still seen in Chandor.

text: Bahmani Sultanate[edit]

text: In 1350 AD, Goa was ruled by the Bahmani Sultanate. However, in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly a century, during which time its harbours were important port of arrival for Arabian horses on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469 Goa was reconquered by the Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga. When this Sultanate broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, which established Goa Velha as its second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese Viceroys as their official residence.

text: Portuguese rule[edit]

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text: Vasco da Gama joined the Portuguese navy as a young man, where he learned navigational skills and served with distinction in the war against Castile.[36] He set off from Lisbon in 1497 and a year later, landed in Calicut, India, and broke the Arab monopoly of trade.[36]

text: In 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Goa at the behest of the local chieftain Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah, the Muslim King of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force on 25 November, with a fully renovated fleet.[37] In less than a day, the Portuguese fleet took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the battle in the streets or while trying to escape.[38] Albuquerque gained the support of the Hindu population, although this frustrated the initial expectations of Thimayya, who aspired to control the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief Aguazil of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people; he was a learned interpreter of the local customs.[39] Albuquerque made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of frequent attacks by raiders, Goa became the centre of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms; the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut dispatched embassies, offering alliances and local concessions to be fortified.

text: In Goa, Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency. He used it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest by the design of the new coins.[40] The new coin, based on the existing local coins, bore a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere (or esfera), King Manuel's badge, on the reverse. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued: gold cruzados or manueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and leais.[41][42] More mints were built in Malacca in 1511.

text: Albuquerque and his successors left the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island almost untouched, abolishing only the rite of sati, in which widows were burned on their husband's funeral pyre. A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.[43]

text: Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca in 1511 and Hormuz in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf, Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy. By mid–16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.

text: Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but this was rejected by the King.

text: The Portuguese set up a base in Goa to consolidate their control of the lucrative spice trade. Goods from all parts of the East were displayed in its bazaar, and separate streets were designated for the sale of different classes of goods: Bahrain pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, and drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago.

text: In 1542, St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the city. It reached the height of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa. A Portuguese proverb said, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon."

text: In the main street, African and Indian slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the capitol of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.[citation needed]

text: Almost all manual labour was performed by slaves. The common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and even the poor noblemen who congregated in boarding-houses subscribed for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.[citation needed]

text: Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim led to conflicts, culminating in the Cuncolim Revolt in which natives killed all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the sixteen chieftains of each ward or vado of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna Fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort the Portuguese killed the chieftains, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian Sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers lost their traditional leaders and the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals. At the same time, they initiated the Goa Inquisition.

text: In 1556 the printing press was first introduced to India and Asia at Saint Paul's College in Goa; through the spread of the printing press, Goa led the acceleration of the availability of the knowledge and customs of Europe.[44][45][46] After getting established in Goa, the Jesuits introduced the printing press technology for the first time in history into Macau-China in 1588 and into Japan in 1590.[47] The Jesuits founded the university of Santo Tomas in the Philippines, which is the oldest existing university in Asia;[48] in the same period, Goa Medical College was established as the first European medical college in Asia.[49]

text: The Crown in Lisbon undertook to finance missionary activity; missionaries and priests converted large numbers of people in all spheres of society, especially in Goa.[50] St Francis Xavier in Goa, pioneered the establishment of a seminary, called Saint Paul's College. It was the first Jesuit headquarters in Asia.[51][52][53] St Francis founded the College to train Jesuit missionaries. He went to the Far East, traveling towards China. Missionaries of the Jesuit Order spread out through India, going as far north as the court of the great Moghul Emperor Jallaluddin Akbar. Having heard about the Jesuits, he invited them to come and teach him and his children about Christianity.[54]

text: From Goa, the Jesuit order was able to set up base almost anywhere in Asia for evangelistic missions, including the founding of Roman Catholic colleges, universities and faculties of education. Jesuits are known for their work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits, and for their missionary efforts. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice and ecumenical dialogue.;[55] Saint Paul's College Goa was a base for their evangelisation of Macau, and then for their important missionary campaigns into China and Japan. Macau eventually superseded St Paul's College, Goa. They built St Paul College in 1594 (now the University of Macau), known in Latin as the college of Mater Dei.[56] Because of state conflicts with the Jesuits, In 1762 the Marquês de Pombal expelled the order from Macau.[57] The Macau university combined evangelisation with education.[56]

text: In the year 1600 António de Andrade made the long voyage from Lisbon to Goa, where he pursued his higher studies at St. Paul's College and was ordained a Jesuit priest. He eventually became rector of the same college. He made a landmark missionary expedition from Goa, across the length of India and into Tibet. He overcame incredible hardships in the journey as the first European to cross the Himalaya mountains into Tibet.[58][59] There he founded churches and a mission in 1625.[60] The corpse of the co-founder of the Society of Jesus, Francis Xavier, whose example many Goan missionaries tried to emulate by engaging in evangelising work in Asia, was shipped to Goa on 11 December 1553. Goa has also produced its own saints: the martyrs of Cuncolim; St. Joseph Vaz, whose missionary exploits in Sri Lanka are remembered with gratitude in that country; and the Venerable Angelo de Souza.[61]

text: The 16th-century monument, the Cathedral or Sé, was constructed during Portugal's Golden Age, and is the largest church in Asia, as well as larger than any church in Portugal. The church is 250 ft in length and 181 ft in breadth. The frontispiece stands 115 ft high. The Cathedral is dedicated to St. Catherine of Alexandria and is also known as St. Catherine's Cathedral.[62][63] It was on her feast day in 1510 that Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Muslim army and took possession of the city of Goa.

text: The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in India by both Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial. Of this number, only 57 were sentenced to death and executed; another 64 were burned in effigy. Most were subjected to lesser punishments or penances.

text: The Inquisition was established to punish relapsed New Christians, Jews and Muslims who had converted to Catholicism, as well as their descendants, but were suspected of practicing their ancestral religion in secret. Numerous Portuguese Jews (as converted Catholics) had come to Goa and worked as traders. Due to persecution during the Inquisition, most left and migrated to Fort St. George (later Madras/Chennai) and Cochin, where English and Dutch rule, respectively, were more tolerant.

text: In Goa the Inquisition also scrutinised Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. It prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites, or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. While its ostensible goal was to preserve the Catholic faith, the Inquisition was used against Indian Catholics as an instrument of social control, as well as a method of confiscating victims' property and enriching the Inquisitors. Goan Inquisition was abolished in 1812.

text: Decline[edit]

text: The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an epidemic.

text: Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, and Fryer in 1675 describe Goa's ever-increasing poverty and decay. After escaping from Agra, Shivaji slowly started gaining the areas which he lost through the Treaty of Purendar to the Moghuls. He conquered most of the area adjoining the Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem, Bicholim, Sattari, Ponda, Sanguem, Quepem and Canacona. Sawantwadi Bhonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals.

text: In 1683 Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer all of Goa, including the areas then in Portuguese control. He almost ousted the Portuguese, but to their surprise a Mughal army prevented the city's capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressure the northern Portuguese possession at Vasai, but the conquest could not be completed because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.

text: Following the Third Battle of Panipat, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire was weakened. The Portuguese defeated the Rajas of Sawantwadi and the Raja of Sunda to conquer an area that stretched from Pernem to Cancona. This territory formed the Novas Conquistas, the boundaries of present-day Goa.

text: In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese Nova Goa), today's Panaji. In 1843 this was made the official seat of government in 1843; it completed a move that had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city. Old Goa has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO because of its history and architecture.[64]

text: In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree, developed by his minister Marquês de Pombal, granting Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and were represented in the Portuguese parliament. (The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.)[65]

text: In 1787, some priests started a rebellion against Portuguese rule. It was known as the Conspiracy of the Pintos. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British between 1812-1815 in line with the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance during the Napoleonic Wars.

text: Second World War[edit]

text: Goa remained neutral during the conflict like Portugal. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. Three German merchants ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in the port of Mormugao. The Ehrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to the U-boats operating in the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.

text: But the British Navy was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of SOE backed a covert raid using members from the Calcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they sunk the Ehrenfels. The British then sent a decrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British forces.

text: The raid was covered in the book Boarding Party by James Leasor. Due to the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the book was published in 1978.[66] In 1980 the story was made into the film, The Sea Wolves, starring Gregory Peck, David Niven and Roger Moore.

text: After the independence of India[edit]

text: When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal Nehru insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. However, Portugal refused. By contrast, France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Puducherry), surrendered all its Indian possessions relatively quickly.[67][68]

text: In 1954, unarmed Indians[69] took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice at The Hague. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.

text: In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, the Satyagrahis,[69] demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.[69]

text: Later the same year, the Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed; Nehru declared that his government would not tolerate the Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão, and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese, the Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa, to overcome the blockade.

text: Indian annexation of Goa[edit]

text: India made many requisitions to the Salazar regime of Portugal to grant their Indian colonies independence, but when that failed, on 18 December 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa and liberated it. Operation Vijay involved sustained land, sea and air strikes for more than thirty-six hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on 19 December. A United Nations resolution "condemning" the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United Kingdom in the United Nations Security Council, but would be vetoed by the USSR. The territory of Goa was under military rule for five months. However, the previous civil service was soon restored. Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and voted to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was later admitted Indian statehood in 1987.

text: Goa celebrates "Liberation Day" on 19 December every year, which is also a state holiday.


document_title: Georgia lieutenant gubernatorial election, 2018

question_text: who's running for lieutenant governor in georgia

question_tokens: who 's running for lieutenant governor in georgia

root

text: Republican primary[edit]

text: Candidates[edit]

text: Declared[edit]

text:
Geoff Duncan, State Representative[2][3]
Rick Jeffares, State Senator[4]
David Shafer, State Senator[5]

tag: ul

text: Declined[edit]

text:
Brandon Beach, State Senator (endorsed Jeffares)[6][7]
Jim Butterworth, former State Senator and former Adjutant General of the Georgia National Guard[8]
Casey Cagle, Lieutenant Governor of Georgia (running for Governor)[1]
Bill Cowsert, Majority Leader of the Georgia State Senate[8][2]
Tim Echols, Georgia Public Service Commissioner[8][9]
Steve Gooch, State Senator (endorsed Jeffares)[10][11][12][7]
Hunter Hill, State Senator (running for Governor)[2][13]
Burt Jones, State Senator (endorsed Jeffares)[8][2][14][7]
Brian Kemp, Secretary of State of Georgia (running for Governor)[8][15]
Rick Knox[16]
Josh McKoon, State Senator (running for Secretary of State)[17][18]
Butch Miller, State Senator (endorsed Shafer)[8][2][19]
Allen Peake, State Representative[20][21]

text: Endorsements[edit]

text:
showGeoff Duncan

U.S. Senators

Marco Rubio, United States Senator from Florida[22]

State Representatives

Michael Caldwell, State Representative[23]
David Clark, State Representative[24]
Allen Peake, State Representative[25]

Individuals

John F. Brock, former Coca-Cola Enterprises CEO[26]

tag: table

text:
showRick Jeffares

U.S. Representatives

Drew Ferguson, United States Congressman, 3rd district[27]

State Senators

John Albers, State Senator[7]
Brandon Beach, State Senator[7]
Matt Brass, State Senator[7]
Dean Burke, State Senator[7]
Steve Gooch, State Senator[7]
Tyler Harper, State Senator[7]
Burt Jones, State Senator[28]
John F. Kennedy, State Senator[7]
Brian Strickland, State Senator[7]
Blake Tillery, State Senator[7]
Lindsey Tippins, State Senator[7]

State Representatives

Dave Belton, State Representative[7]
Shaw Blackmon, State Representative[7]
Geoff Cauble, State Representative[7]
John Corbett, State Representative[7]
Robert Dickey, State Representative[7]
Matt Hatchett, State Representative[7]
David Knight, State Representative[7]
Dominic LaRiccia, State Representative[7]
Jodi Lott, State Representative[7]
Karen Mathiak, State Representative[7]
John Meadows III, State Representative[7]
Chad Nimmer, State Representative[7]
Jay Powell, State Representative[7]
Trey Rhodes, State Representative[7]
Dale Rutledge, State Representative[7]
Jason Shaw, State Representative[7]
Andy Welch, State Representative[7]
Bill Werkheiser, State Representative[7]

text:
showDavid Shafer

U.S. Senators

Ted Cruz, United States Senator from Texas[29]
Phil Gramm, former United States Senator from Texas[30]
Mack Mattingly, former United States Senator from Georgia[31]
Rick Santorum, former United States Senator from Pennsylvania and candidate for President of the United States in 2012 and 2016[32]

U.S. Representatives

Ben Blackburn, former United States Congressman, 4th district[33]
Mac Collins, former United States Congressman, 8th district[34]
Newt Gingrich, former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, 6th district[35]
Barry Goldwater Jr., former United States Congressman from California and son of former United States Senator Barry Goldwater[36]
John Linder, former United States Congressman, 7th district[37]
Fletcher Thompson, former United States Congressman, 5th district[33]

State Senators

Lee Anderson, State Senator[34]
C. Ellis Black, State Senator[34]
Mike Dugan, State Senator[34]
Marty Harbin, State Senator[34]
Chuck Hufstetler, State Senator[34]
Greg Kirk, State Senator[34]
Kay Kirkpatrick, State Senator[34]
William Ligon, State Senator[34]
P.K. Martin IV, State Senator[34]
Fran Millar, State Senator[34]
Butch Miller, State Senator[19]
Jeff Mullis, State Senator[38]
Chuck Payne, State Senator[34]
Jesse Stone, State Senator[34]
Bruce Thompson, State Senator[34]
Larry Walker III, State Senator[34]
Ben Watson, State Senator[34]
John Wilkinson, State Senator[34]

State Representatives

Mandi Ballinger, State Representative[34]
Paul Battles, State Representative[34]
Tommy Benton, State Representative[34]
Beth Beskin, State Representative[34]
Bruce Boatright, State Representative[34]
Josh Bonner, State Representative[34]
Johnnie Caldwell Jr., State Representative[34]
John Carson, State Representative[34]
Joyce Chandler, State Representative[34]
Sharon Cooper, State Representative[34]
Clay Cox, State Representative[34]
John Deffenbaugh, State Representative[34]
Matt Dollar, State Representative[34]
Matt Dubnik, State Representative[34]
Emory Dunahoo, State Representative[34]
Chuck Efstration, State Representative[34]
Earl Ehrhart, State Representative[34]
Bubber Epps, State Representative[34]
Barry Fleming, State Representative[34]
Rich Golick, State Representative[34]
Micah Gravely, State Representative[34]
Meagan Hanson, State Representative[34]
Buddy Harden, State Representative[34]
Brett Harrell, State Representative[34]
Lee Hawkins, State Representative[34]
Dewayne Hill, State Representative[34]
Scott Hilton, State Representative[34]
Bill Hitchens, State Representative[34]
Don Hogan, State Representative[34]
Susan Holmes, State Representative[34]
Rick Jasperse, State Representative[34]
Jeff Jones, State Representative[34]
Tom Kirby, State Representative[34]
Howard Maxwell, State Representative[34]
Tom McCall, State Representative[34]
Don Parsons, State Representative[34]
Jesse Petrea, State Representative[34]
Alan Powell, State Representative[34]
Paulette Rakestraw, State Representative[34]
Jason Ridley, State Representative[34]
Danae Roberts, State Representative[34]
Terry Rogers, State Representative[34]
Ed Rynders, State Representative[34]
Deborah Silcox, State Representative[34]
Richard Smith, State Representative[34]
Ron Stephens, State Representative[34]
Jan Tankersley, State Representative[34]
Steve Tarvin, State Representative[34]
Tom Taylor, State Representative[34]
Wendell Willard, State Representative[34]

Statewide officials

George P. Bush, Texas Land Commissioner[39]
Chuck Eaton, Georgia Public Service Commissioner[9]
Tim Echols, Georgia Public Service Commissioner[9]
Doug Everett, Georgia Public Service Commissioner[9]
Mike Huckabee, former Governor of Arkansas[40]
Ralph Hudgens, Georgia Insurance Commissioner[38]
Bubba McDonald, Georgia Public Service Commissioner[9]
Stan Wise, Georgia Public Service Commissioner[9]

Organizations

GeorgiaCarry.org[30]
National Rifle Association[41]
Republican Liberty Caucus[42]

text: Polling[edit]

text:
Poll source
Date(s)
administered
Sample
size
Margin of
error
Geoff
Duncan
Rick
Jeffares
David
Shafer
Undecided

University of Georgia
April 19–26, 2018
507
± 4.4%
12%
7%
14%
65%

text: Results[edit]

text:
Republican primary results

Party
Candidate
Votes
%

Republican
David Shafer
267,736
48.91%

Republican
Geoff Duncan
145,897
26.65%

Republican
Rick Jeffares
133,788
24.44%

Total votes
547,421
100%

text: Runoff[edit]

text: Polling[edit]

text: Results[edit]

text:
Republican primary runoff results

Party
Candidate
Votes
%

Republican
Geoff Duncan

Republican
David Shafer

Total votes

100

text: Democratic primary[edit]

text: Candidates[edit]

text: Declared[edit]

text:
Sarah Riggs Amico, businesswoman[43]
Triana Arnold James, small businessowner, and veteran[44]

text: Declined[edit]

text:
Stacey Evans, State Representative (running for Governor)[2][45]
Ken Hodges, former Dougherty County District Attorney and nominee for Attorney General in 2010 (running for the Georgia Court of Appeals)[46][47]
Ronnie Mabra, former State Representative[48][49]
Jon Ossoff, investigative filmmaker, former congressional aide and nominee for GA-06 in 2017[50]
Doug Stoner, Smyrna City Councilman and former State Senator (running for the Public Service Commission)[5]

text: Endorsements[edit]

text:
showSarah Riggs Amico

Billy Mitchell, State Representative[51]

text:
showTriana Arnold James

Teresa Shook Cooper, original founder of the Women's March[52]

text: Polling[edit]

text:
Poll source
Date(s)
administered
Sample
size
Margin of
error
Sarah
Amico
Triana
James
Undecided

University of Georgia
April 12–18, 2018
473
± 4.5%
10%
20%
70%

text: Results[edit]

text:
Democratic primary results[53]

Party
Candidate
Votes
%

Democratic
Sarah Riggs Amico
279,343
55.6

Democratic
Triana Arnold James
223,089
44.4

Total votes
502,432
100


document_title: Marla Adams

question_text: who plays deena on the young and the restless

text: Marla Adams

text:
Marla Adams

Born
(1938-08-28) August 28, 1938 (age 79)
Ocean City, New Jersey, U.S.

Occupation
Actress

Years active
1961–present

text: Marla Adams (born August 28, 1938; Ocean City, New Jersey) is an American television actress, best known for her roles as Belle Clemens on The Secret Storm, from 1968 to 1974,[1] and as Dina Abbott Mergeron on The Young and the Restless. As Belle Clemens, she was the show's reigning villainess for the last years of its run, stopping at almost nothing to destroy the life of the show's leading heroine, Amy Ames. Like Vicky and Dorian later on One Life to Live, the two rivals were at one time related through marriage. As Dina Abbott on The Young and the Restless from 1983 to 1986, in 1991 and again in 1996, she caused major disruptions in the lives of her three children and ex-husband John Abbott and his wife Jill. She reprised her role as Dina for three episodes on The Young and the Restless in 2008 when Katharine Chancellor was presumed dead. In May 2017, Adams returned to The Young and the Restless.[2]

tag: p

text: Right before joining The Young and the Restless, she stepped into the role of the scheming Myrna Clegg, on the defunct daytime drama Capitol after the departure of actress Carolyn Jones who had left for health reasons, prior to Marj Dusay, who remained until the end of the show's run. As Helen Mullin on Generations, she was involved in a storyline involving racism, although it was her character's husband, Charles, who was the racist even though he was revealed to have a black mistress. She was the third actress to play Beth Logan, Brooke (Katherine Kelly Lang), Donna (Carrie Mitchum, now Jennifer Gareis), and Katie's (Nancy Sloan, now Heather Tom) mother on The Bold and the Beautiful (1991). In 1999, she appeared on Days of Our Lives as snooty Dr. Claire McIntyre.

text: Adams appeared on Broadway in the 1958 production of "The Visit" at the Morosco Theatre with Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne.

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Years
Title
Role
Notes

1961
Splendor in the Grass
June

1968–1974
Secret Storm, TheThe Secret Storm
Belle Clemens Britton Kincaid[3]

1983
The Young and the Restless
Dina Abbott Mergeron[4]
Recurring role; 1983–1986, 1991, 1996, 2008, 2017–

1985
Gotcha!
Maria Moore[5]

1991
The Bold and the Beautiful
Beth Logan


document_title: 10 Things I Hate About You

question_text: band on roof at end of 10 things i hate about you

text: 10 Things I Hate About You

text: Plot[edit]

text: Cameron James, a new student at Padua High School in the Seattle area, becomes instantly smitten with popular sophomore Bianca Stratford. Geeky Michael Eckman warns him that Bianca is vapid and conceited, and that her overprotective father does not allow Bianca or her older sister, the shrewish Kat, to date. Kat, a senior, is accepted to Sarah Lawrence College in New York, but her father, Walter, wants her to stay close to home. Bianca wishes to date affluent senior Joey Donner, but Walter, an obstetrician worrisome of teenage pregnancy, will not allow his daughters to date until they graduate. Frustrated by Bianca's insistence and Kat's rebelliousness, Walter declares that Bianca may date only when Kat does, knowing that Kat's antisocial attitude makes this unlikely.

text: When Cameron asks Bianca out, she informs him of her father's new rule and, as a pretense for allowing her to date Joey, suggests that Cameron find someone willing to date Kat. Cameron selects "bad boy" Patrick Verona, but Patrick scares him off. Michael assists by convincing Joey to pay Patrick to take out Kat, under the pretense that this will allow Joey to date Bianca. Patrick agrees to the deal, but Kat rebuffs his first few advances. Michael and Cameron help him by prying Bianca for information on Kat's likes and dislikes. Armed with this knowledge, Patrick begins to win Kat's interest. She goes to a party with him, which enables Bianca to go as well, much to Walter's dismay.

text: At the party, Kat becomes upset when she sees Bianca with Joey, and responds by getting drunk. Patrick attends to her, and Kat starts to open up, expressing her interest in starting a band. However, when she tries to kiss him, Patrick pulls away and Kat leaves, infuriated. Meanwhile, Bianca ignores Cameron in favor of Joey, leaving Cameron dejected. Bianca soon realizes, however, that Joey is shallow and self-absorbed, and asks Cameron for a ride home. Cameron admits his feelings for her and his frustration with how she has treated him. Bianca responds by kissing him.

text: Joey offers to pay Patrick to take Kat to the prom so he can take Bianca. Patrick initially refuses, but relents when Joey offers him more money. Kat is still angry with Patrick, but he wins her over by serenading her with the accompaniment of the marching band, and she helps him sneak out of detention. They go on a date which turns romantic, but Kat becomes suspicious and angry when Patrick insists that she go with him to the prom, an event she is adamantly against. Bianca is irritated that Cameron has not asked her to the prom, and so accepts Joey's invitation, but Walter will not allow it unless Kat goes too. Kat confesses to Bianca that she dated Joey when they were freshmen and, succumbing to peer pressure, had sex with him. Afterward she regretted it and Joey dumped her, so she vowed to never again do anything just because everyone else was doing it. Bianca insists that she can make her own choices, so Kat agrees to go to the prom with Patrick, and Bianca decides to go with Cameron instead of Joey.

text: All is going well at the prom until Bianca learns that Joey planned to have sex with her that night. Angry that Bianca has spurned him for Cameron, Joey reveals his arrangement with Patrick, which causes Kat to leave heartbroken. Joey then punches Cameron, but is in turn beaten up by Bianca for having hurt her, Kat, and Cameron. Bianca and Cameron share another kiss.

text: The next day, Bianca reconciles with Kat and begins dating Cameron. Walter admits that Kat is capable of taking care of herself, and gives her permission to attend Sarah Lawrence College. For an assignment in which the students were required to write their own version of William Shakespeare's Sonnet 141, Kat reads aloud a poem titled "10 Things I Hate About You", revealing that she still loves Patrick. Patrick surprises her with a guitar bought with the money that Joey paid him, and confesses that he has fallen for her. Kat forgives him, and the two reconcile with a kiss.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Julia Stiles as Katarina "Kat" Stratford, the antisocial, shrewish elder Stratford sister.
Heath Ledger as Patrick Verona, the "bad boy" who is hired to date Kat and falls for her in the process.
Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Cameron James, the new student at Padua High School who is smitten with Bianca and goes to great lengths to win her favor.
Larisa Oleynik as Bianca Stratford, the younger of the two Stratford sisters, superficial and popular.
Larry Miller as Walter Stratford, an obstetrician and single parent who is overprotective of his daughters, Kat and Bianca.
Andrew Keegan as Joey Donner, an affluent, self-absorbed high school senior and aspiring model who intends to have sex with Bianca, and to that end pays Patrick to date Kat.
David Krumholtz as Michael Eckman, a geek who assists Cameron in his quest to woo Bianca, and in the process tries to woo Kat's friend Mandella.
Susan May Pratt as Mandella, Kat's only close friend and an aficionado of William Shakespeare, who ends up going to the prom with Michael.
Gabrielle Union as Chastity Church, Bianca's best friend, who betrays Bianca by going out with Joey when Bianca spurns him.
Daryl Mitchell as Mr. Morgan, teacher of Kat, Patrick, and Joey's English class.
Allison Janney as Ms. Perky, Padua High School's guidance counselor and a writer of erotic literature.
David Leisure as Mr. Chapin, coach of the girls' soccer team.
Greg Jackson as "Scurvy", a friend of Patrick.
Kyle Cease as Bogey Lowenstein, a golf enthusiast and member of a clique of aspiring MBAs.
The band Letters to Cleo (singer Kay Hanley, guitarists Greg McKenna and Michael Eisenstein, bassist Scott Riebling, and drummer Jason Sutter) appears as the band performing at Club Skunk, playing their songs "Come On" and "Co-Pilot", and playing a cover version of Cheap Trick's "I Want You to Want Me" on the school's rooftop during the closing credits. Hanley and Eisenstein also appear in the prom scene, performing a cover of Nick Lowe's "Cruel to Be Kind" with Save Ferris.
The band Save Ferris (singer Monique Powell, guitarist Brian Mashburn, bassist Bill Uechi, trumpeter José Castellaños, trombonist Brian Williams, saxophonist Eric Zamora, and drummer Evan Kilbourne) appears as the band performing at the prom, playing their songs "I Know" and "Can't Stop" as well as covers of The Isley Brothers' "Shout" and Nick Lowe's "Cruel to Be Kind".

text: Production[edit]

text: Many of the scenes were filmed on location at Stadium High School and at a house in the Proctor District of Tacoma, Washington. The prom sequence was shot over three days in Seattle.[2]

text: Costume designer Kim Tillman designed original dresses for Larisa Oleynik and Julia Stiles as well as the period outfits for Susan May Pratt and David Krumholtz. Gabrielle Union's snakeskin prom dress is a Betsey Johnson design. Heath Ledger and Joseph Gordon-Levitt's vintage tuxes came from Isadora's in Seattle.[2]

text: The primary tagline is an allusion to a poem written by Elizabeth Barrett Browning from her Sonnets from the Portuguese collection. ("How do I loathe thee? Let me count the ways.") Another tagline is a spoof from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet ("Romeo, Oh Romeo, Get Out Of My Face.") and another is a line from The Taming of the Shrew that is spoken in the film by Cameron ("I burn, I pine, I perish!"). The original script was finalized on November 12, 1997.[3]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed US$8,330,681 in 2,271 theaters in the United States and Canada, averaging $3,668 per venue, and ranking number two at the box office (behind The Matrix). It grossed a total of $38,178,166 in the United States and Canada and $15,300,000 in other territories, about $53,500,000 worldwide. The film had an estimated budget of $16 million and is considered a moderate financial and critical success. On October 12, 1999, the Region 1 DVD was released. In the box office, the film is number ten in teen romance, 18th in high school comedies, and ranked 96th in comedies.[4]

text: Critics[edit]

text: The film received generally positive feedback from critics. Geoff Andrew from Time Out praised the film's leads, stating "Stiles grows into her character, and Ledger is effortlessly charming".[5] Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four, claiming, "I liked the movie's spirit, the actors and some of the scenes. The music, much of it by the band Letters to Cleo, is subtle and inventive while still cheerful."[6] Brad Laidman from Film Threat said the film was "pure of heart and perfectly executed."[7] Ron Wells, another critic from Film Threat, expressed, "Of all the teen films released this year, this one is, by far, the best."[8]

text: Entertainment Weekly listed the film at #49 on its list of Best High School Movies.[9]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film got a 61% from critics, based on 62 reviews, with a rating of 6.1/10. The critical consensus on the site was: "Julia Stiles and Heath Ledger add strong performances to an unexpectedly clever script, elevating 10 Things (slightly) above typical teen fare."[10]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: 10 Things I Hate About You was a breakout success for stars Stiles, Ledger, and Gordon-Levitt.[11][12][13] Gordon-Levitt, Stiles, and Oleynik each received Young Star Award nominations for Best Actor/Actress in a Comedy Film. The movie was nominated for seven Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie: Breakout Star (Stiles), Choice Movie: Comedy, Choice Movie: Funniest Scene (featuring Krumholtz), Choice Movie: Love Scene (featuring Stiles and Ledger), Choice Movie: Hissy Fit (Gordon-Levitt), Choice Movie: Villain (Gordon-Levitt) and Choice Movie: Soundtrack. The film's casting directors Marcia Ross and Donna Morong won "Best Casting for Feature Film, Comedy" at the Casting Society of America in 1999. In 2000, Stiles won the CFCA Award for "Most Promising Actress" for her role as Kat Stratford (tied with Émilie Dequenne in Rosetta) and an MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female Performance. The same year, Ledger was nominated for Best Musical Performance for the song "Can't Take My Eyes Off You."

text: Soundtrack album[edit]

text: The soundtrack album features popular modern rock anthems from 1970s up to the late 1990s, including various covers from Letters to Cleo, who created modernised renditions of songs such as "I Want You To Want Me" by Cheap Trick and "Cruel to Be Kind" by Nick Lowe. The albums peak position in the Billboard (magazine) charts was 52nd [14], which was just after its release and it managed to hold a place in the Billboard top 200 for a total of 27 weeks[15]. Artists such as The Notorious B.I.G. and Joan Jett were also used in the films soundtrack, although were not featured on the soundtrack album. The album was described by AllMusic as "One of the best modern rock soundtracks of the spring 1999 season".[16]

text:
10 Things I Hate About You

Soundtrack album

Released
April 6, 1999

Genre
Alternative rock, ska, pop, funk

Label
Hollywood

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

Allmusic
[17]

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performer
Length

1.
"I Want You to Want Me" (originally performed by Cheap Trick)
Rick Nielsen
Letters to Cleo
3:25

2.
"F.N.T." (from Great Divide, 1996)
Dan Wilson, Jacob Slichter
Semisonic
3:29

3.
"I Know" (contains an interpretation of "Shout", written by O'Kelly Isley, Ronald Isley, and Rudolph Isley and originally performed by The Isley Brothers)
Michael Holton, Miré Molner, Brian Mashburn
Save Ferris
2:52

4.
"Your Winter" (from Fortress, 2000)
Ken Block, Jett Beres, Andrew Copeland, Ryan Newell, Mark Trojanowski, Bill Smith
Sister Hazel
4:39

5.
"Even Angels Fall" (from Key of a Minor, 2000)
Tom Whitlock, Jessica Riddle, Kim Bullard, Penny Framstad
Jessica Riddle
3:27

6.
"New World" (from Leroy, 2001)
Leroy Miller
Leroy
3:02

7.
"Saturday Night"
Rodney Jerkins, Marti Sharron, Dan Sembello
Ta-Gana
4:26

8.
"Atomic Dog" (from Computer Games, 1982)
George Clinton, Garry Shider, David Spradley
George Clinton
4:44

9.
"Dazz" (from Good High, 1976)
Ray Ransom, Edward Irons, Reginald Hargis
Brick
3:24

10.
"The Weakness in Me" (from Walk Under Ladders, 1981)
Joan Armatrading
Joan Armatrading
3:32

11.
"War" (from "My Favourite Game", 1998)
Peter Svensson, Nina Persson
The Cardigans
3:57

12.
"Wings of a Dove" (1983)
Carl Smyth, Graham McPherson
Madness
3:00

13.
"Cruel to Be Kind" (originally performed by Nick Lowe)
Nick Lowe, Ian Gomm
Letters to Cleo
3:01

14.
"One More Thing"
Richard Gibbs
Richard Gibbs
3:01

Total length:
49:59

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: In June 1999, the Scholastic Corporation published a novelization of the story, adapted by David Levithan.[18] The story is retold as it is in the film with each chapter written from the point of view of either Bianca, Cameron, Kat, Patrick, or Michael.

text: In October 2008, ABC Family ordered a pilot episode of 10 Things I Hate About You, a half-hour, single-camera comedy series based on the feature film of the same name. Larry Miller is the only actor from the film to reprise his role in the television series. The director of the film, Gil Junger, directed many of the episodes including the pilot while the film's music composer, Richard Gibbs, also returned to do the show's music. The series was adapted and produced by Carter Covington.[19] The show premiered on July 7, 2009,[20] and lasted 20 episodes.

text: References to Shakespeare[edit]

text: The film is a retelling of William Shakespeare's play The Taming of the Shrew in an American high school setting. Screenwriters Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith also wrote the script for She's the Man (2006), a retelling of Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night set in an American college.

text: Kat and Bianca share the same names as the female leads in the original play. Their surname is Stratford, a nod to Shakespeare’s birthplace. Patrick’s surname Verona references the home of his relative character Petruchio. The characters attend Padua High School, named after where the play is set.

text: Cameron (Lucentio, who disguises himself as a tutor named Cambio) tutors Bianca in French and slips in a line from play while obsessing over her: “I burn, I pine, I perish”. Patrick's character reflects the outlandish behavior of Petruchio, and Michael coerces Patrick into the marching band incident with the words from Sonnet 56: “Sweet love, renew thy force”. The physicality of Petruchio and Katherina is transformed into a playful paintball match; the prom substitutes for the Act V feast; Kat's poem replaces Katherina's famous Act V speech; and Joey Donner's wager over Bianca's virginity parallels the bet placed by Shakespeare's husbands regarding their partners' obedience.[21]


document_title: Mount Rainier

question_text: when did mt. rainier last have a significant eruption

question_tokens: when did mt . rainier last have a significant eruption

text: Mount Rainier

text: Name[edit]

text: Mount Rainier was first known by the local Salishan speakers as Talol, or Tacoma or Tahoma. One hypothesis of the word origin is [təˡqʷuʔbəʔ] ("mother of waters"), in the Lushootseed language spoken by the Puyallup people.[8] Another hypothesis is that "Tacoma" means "larger than Mount Baker" in Lushootseed: "Ta", larger, plus "Koma (Kulshan)", Mount Baker.[9] Other names originally used include Tahoma, Tacobeh, and Pooskaus.[10]

text: The current name was given by George Vancouver, who named it in honor of his friend, Rear Admiral Peter Rainier.[11] The map of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804-1806 refers to it as "Mt. Regniere".

text: Although "Rainier" had been considered the official name of the mountain, Theodore Winthrop, in his posthumously published 1862 travel book The Canoe and the Saddle, referred to the mountain as "Tacoma" and for a time, both names were used interchangeably, although "Mt. Tacoma" was preferred in the city of Tacoma.[12][13]

text: In 1890, the United States Board on Geographic Names declared that the mountain would be known as "Rainier".[14] Following this in 1897, the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, and the national park was established three years later. Despite this, there was still a movement to change the mountain's name to "Tacoma" and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924.[15][16]

text: In the lead up to Super Bowl XLVIII, the Washington State Senate passed a resolution on Friday, January 31, 2014, temporarily renaming the mountain Mount Seattle Seahawks until the midnight after the Super Bowl, Monday, February 3, 2014,[17] in response to the renaming of 53 mountains in Colorado after the 53 members of the Denver Broncos by Governor of Colorado John Hickenlooper.[18]

text: After the 2015 restoration of the original name Denali to Mount McKinley in Alaska, debate over Mount Rainier's name intensified.[19]

text: Geographical setting[edit]

text: Mount Rainier is the highest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. This peak is located just east of Eatonville and just southeast of Seattle and Tacoma.[20] Mount Rainier is ranked third of the 128 ultra-prominent mountain peaks of the United States. Mount Rainier has a topographic prominence of 13,210 ft (4,026 m), which is greater than that of K2, the world's second-tallest mountain, at 13,189 ft (4,020 m).[21] On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area to such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as "the Mountain."[22] On days of exceptional clarity, it can also be seen from as far away as Corvallis, Oregon (at Marys Peak) and Victoria, British Columbia.[23]

text: With 26 major glaciers[24] and 36 sq mi (93 km2) of permanent snowfields and glaciers,[25] Mount Rainier is the most heavily glaciated peak in the lower 48 states. The summit is topped by two volcanic craters, each more than 1,000 ft (300 m) in diameter, with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater. Geothermal heat from the volcano keeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice, and has formed the world's largest volcanic glacier cave network within the ice-filled craters,[26] with nearly 2 mi (3.2 km) of passages.[27] A small crater lake about 130 by 30 ft (39.6 by 9.1 m) in size and 16 ft (5 m) deep, the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14,203 ft (4,329 m), occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft (30 m) of ice and is accessible only via the caves.[28][29]

text: The Carbon, Puyallup, Mowich, Nisqually, and Cowlitz Rivers begin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier. The sources of the White River are Winthrop, Emmons, and Fryingpan Glaciers. The White, Carbon, and Mowich join the Puyallup River, which discharges into Commencement Bay at Tacoma; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east of Lacey; and the Cowlitz joins the Columbia River between Kelso and Longview.

text: Subsidiary peaks[edit]

text: The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits. The highest is called the Columbia Crest. The second highest summit is Point Success, 14,158 ft (4,315 m), at the southern edge of the summit plateau, atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver. It has a topographic prominence of about 138 ft (42 m), so it is not considered a separate peak. The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap, 14,112 ft (4,301 m), at the northwestern edge, which overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and the dramatic Willis Wall. Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft (150 m), and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence-based rules. A prominence cutoff of 400 ft (122 m) is commonly used in Washington state.[30]

text: High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known as Little Tahoma Peak, 11,138 ft (3,395 m), an eroded remnant of the earlier, much higher, Mount Rainier. It has a prominence of 858 ft (262 m), and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest, so it is usually considered a separate peak. If considered separately from Mt. Rainier, Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington.[31][32]

text: Geology[edit]

text: Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc that consists of lava flows, debris flows, and pyroclastic ejecta and flows. Its early volcanic deposits are estimated at more than 840,000 years old and are part of the Lily Formation (about 2.9 million to 840,000 years ago). The early deposits formed a "proto-Rainier" or an ancestral cone prior to the present-day cone.[33] The present cone is more than 500,000 years old.[34]

text: The volcano is highly eroded, with glaciers on its slopes, and appears to be made mostly of andesite. Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16,000 ft (4,900 m) before a major debris avalanche and the resulting Osceola Mudflow approximately 5,000 years ago.[35] In the past, Rainier has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous lahars (volcanic mudflows) due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way to Puget Sound, a distance of more than 30 mi (48 km). Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle.[36] This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1,600 ft (500 m) of Rainier, bringing its height down to around 14,100 ft (4,300 m). About 530 to 550 years ago, the Electron Mudflow occurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow.[37]

text: After the major collapse approximately 5,000 years ago, subsequent eruptions of lava and tephra built up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1,000 years ago. As many as 11 Holocene tephra layers have been found.[33]

text: Modern activity and the current threat[edit]

text: The most recent recorded volcanic eruption was between 1820 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882 and 1894 as well.[38]

text: Although Mount Rainier is now dormant, as of 2016[update] Seismic monitors have been located in Mount Rainier National Park and on the mountain itself to monitor activity.[39] However, an eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and an eruption would also cause trouble from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to San Francisco[40] because of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere.

text: Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of the Pacific Ring of Fire. This includes mountains and calderas like Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak in California, Crater Lake, Three Sisters, and Mount Hood in Oregon, Mount Saint Helens, Mount Adams, Glacier Peak, and Mount Baker in Washington, and Mount Cayley, Garibaldi, Silverthrone, and Mount Meager in British Columbia. All of the above are dormant, but alive, and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future, including Mount Rainier.[41][42] Of these, only two have erupted since the beginning of the twentieth century: Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 and 2004. However, past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples of sub-plinian eruptions or higher: Crater Lake's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to implode,[43] and Mt. Rainier's closest neighbor, Mount St. Helens, had a huge chunk of the side of the mountain blow up in a phreatic explosion caused by a mix of gas and water. Where St. Helens was once perfectly symmetrical there is now, thirty five years later, a huge crater at the top of one face. Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in this range at 2-3 per century.[44]

text: Mount Rainier is currently listed as a Decade Volcano, or one of the 16 volcanoes with the greatest likelihood of causing great loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes.[45] If Mt. Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18, 1980 eruption, the effect would be cumulatively greater, because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on the volcano compared to Mount St. Helens,[37] the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier, and the simple fact that Mt Rainier is a much bigger volcano, almost twice the size of St. Helens.[46] Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property,[47] as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), about 150,000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier.[7] Not only is there much ice atop the volcano, the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity. According to Geoff Clayton, a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm, RH2 Engineering, a repeat of the Osceola mudflow would destroy Enumclaw, Orting, Kent, Auburn, Puyallup, Sumner and all of Renton.[36] Such a mudflow might also reach down the Duwamish estuary and destroy parts of downtown Seattle, and cause tsunamis in Puget Sound and Lake Washington.[48] Rainier is also capable of producing pyroclastic flows and expelling lava.[48]

text: According to K. Scott, a scientist with the USGS:

text: "A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire...For example, a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years, on the average, is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire. People know the danger of fire, so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms, but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars, and few have applicable flood insurance."[49]

text: The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs in Pierce County.[50] The more populous King County is also in the lahar area, but currently has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard.[51] More recently (since 2001) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up, leading local authorities in at-risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to the Armero tragedy.[52][53]

text: Seismic background[edit]

text: Typically, up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit. Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time, predominantly in the region of 13,000 feet (4 km) below the summit. These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier. Presumably, hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids.[54] Seismic swarms (not initiated with a mainshock) are common features at volcanoes, and are rarely associated with eruptive activity. Rainier has had several such swarms; there were days-long swarms in 2002, 2004, and 2007, two of which (2002 and 2004) included M 3.2 earthquakes. A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier.[55] Yet another swarm was observed in 2011.[56]

text: Glaciers[edit]

text: Glaciers are among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier. They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers, including some that provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation. Together with perennial snow patches, the 26 major glaciers cover about 36 square miles (93 km2) of the mountain's surface and have a volume of about 1 cubic mile (4.2 km3).[24][25]

text: Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and by deformation, the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals. Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier. During May 1970, Nisqually Glacier was measured moving as fast as 29 inches (74 cm) per day. Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter, probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base.[25]

text: The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past. For example, during the last ice age, from about 25,000 to about 15,000 years ago, glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin.[25]

text: Between the 14th century and 1850, many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age. Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as the Little Ice Age. During the Little Ice Age, the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft (200 to 240 m) downvalley from the site of the Glacier Bridge, Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers merged at the base of Glacier Island, and the terminus of Emmons Glacier reached within 1.2 mi (1.9 km) of the White River Campground.[25]

text: Retreat of the Little Ice Age glaciers was slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid. Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950, Mount Rainier's glaciers lost about one-quarter of their length. Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s, however, many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid-century. The Carbon, Cowlitz, Emmons, and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s. Since the early-1980s, however, many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed.[25]

text: The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows, through glacial outburst floods not associated with any eruption. The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in August, 2015.[57]

text: Human history[edit]

text: At the time of European contact, the river valleys and other areas near the mountain were inhabited by many Pacific Northwest tribes who hunted and gathered berries in its forests and mountain meadows. These included the Nisqually, Cowlitz, Yakama, Puyallup, and Muckleshoot.[citation needed]

text: Captain George Vancouver reached Puget Sound in early May 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain.[11]

text: In 1833, Dr. William Fraser Tolmie explored the area looking for medicinal plants. Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump received a hero's welcome in the streets of Olympia after their successful summit climb in 1870.[60][61] The first female ascent was made in 1890 by Fay Fuller, accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates.[62]

text: John Muir climbed Mount Rainier in 1888, and although he enjoyed the view, he conceded that it was best appreciated from below. Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain. In 1893, the area was set aside as part of the Pacific Forest Reserve in order to protect its physical and economic resources, primarily timber and watersheds.[63]

text: Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment, railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism. On March 2, 1899, President William McKinley established Mount Rainier National Park as America's fifth national park. Congress dedicated the new park "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people"[64] and "... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition."[65]

text: On 24 June 1947, Kenneth Arnold reported seeing a formation of nine unidentified flying objects over Mount Rainier. His description led to the term "flying saucers".[66]

text: In 1998, the United States Geological Survey began putting together the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System to assist in the emergency evacuation of the Puyallup River valley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow. It is now run by the Pierce County Department of Emergency Management. Tacoma, at the mouth of the Puyallup, is only 37 mi (60 km) west of Rainier, and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi (43 and 32 km) away, respectively.[67]

text: Mt. Rainier appears on four distinct United States postage stamp issues. In 1934, it was the 3-cent issue in a series of National Park stamps, and was also shown on a souvenir sheet issued for a philatelic convention. The following year, in 1935, both of these were reprinted by Postmaster General James A. Farley as special issues given to officials and friends. Because of complaints by the public, "Farley's Follies" were reproduced in large numbers. The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it is imperforate. Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available.[68]

text: The Washington state quarter, which was released on April 11, 2007, features Mount Rainier and a salmon.[69][70]

text: Climbing[edit]

text: Mountain climbing on Mount Rainier is difficult, involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south of Alaska. Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit, with a success rate of approximately 50%. Climbing teams require experience in glacier travel, self-rescue, and wilderness travel. About 8,000 to 13,000 people attempt the climb each year,[71] about 90% via routes from Camp Muir on the southeast flank.[72] Most of the rest ascend Emmons Glacier via Camp Schurman on the northeast. About half of the attempts are successful, with weather and physical conditioning of the climbers being the most common reasons for failure. All climbers who plan to climb above high camps, Camp Muir and Camp Schurman, are required by law to purchase a Mount Rainier Climbing Pass and register for their climb.[73] Additionally, solo climbers must fill out a solo climbing request form and receive written permission from the Superintendent before attempting to climb.[74]

text: Climbing routes[edit]

text: All climbing routes on Mount Rainier require climbers to possess some level of technical climbing skill. This includes ascending and descending the mountain with the use of technical climbing equipment such as crampons, ice axes, harnesses, and ropes. Difficulty and technical challenge of climbing Mount Rainier can vary wildly between climbing routes. Routes are graded in NCCS Alpine Climbing format.

text: The normal route to the summit of Mount Rainier is the Disappointment Cleaver Route, grade II-III. As climbers on this route have access to the permanently established Camp Muir, it sees the significant majority of climbing traffic on the mountain. This route is also the most common commercially guided route. The term "cleaver" is used in the context of a rock ridge that separates two glaciers. The reason for naming this cleaver a "disappointment" is unrecorded, but it is thought to be due to climbers reaching it only to recognize their inability to reach the summit.[75] An alternative route to the Disappointment Cleaver is the Ingraham Glacier Direct Route, grade II, and is often used when the Disappointment Cleaver route cannot be climbed due to poor route conditions.

text: The Emmons Glacier Route, grade II, is an alternative to the Disappointment Cleaver route and poses a lower technical challenge to climbers. The climbers on the route can make use of Camp Schurman (9,500 ft), a glacial camp site. Unlike Camp Muir, Camp Schurman has no permanent structure, so climbers must carry their overnight equipment to the location.[76]

text: The Liberty Ridge Route, grade IV, was first climbed by Ome Daiber, Arnie Campbell and Jim Burrow in 1935 and is listed as one of the Fifty Classic Climbs of North America by Steve Roper and Allen Steck. The Liberty Ridge Route is a considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous route than the normal route to the summit. This route only accounts for approximately 2% of climbers on the mountain, but accounts for approximately 25% of deaths on the mountain.[77] The Liberty Ridge Route runs up the center of the North Face of Mount Rainier and crosses the very active Carbon Glacier.

text: Dangers and accidents[edit]

text: About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall, avalanche, falls, and hypothermia associated with severe weather (58 reported since and including the 1981 accident through 2010 per American Alpine Club Accidents in North American Mountaineering and the NPS).

text: The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981, when eleven people lost their lives in an ice fall on the Ingraham Glacier.[78] This was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier.[79]

text: More recently, the mountain received media attention in 2012, as one of the park rangers lost his life when several climbers were caught in a storm while trying to ascend the mountain. While trying to help load the climbers into a rescue helicopter, the ranger lost his footing, and slid 3,700 feet (1,100 m) to his death.[80][81]

text: In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years, six climbers—two guides, and four clients—last heard from on May 28, 2014, were presumed dead on May 31, 2014, when low-flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers. Officials concluded that there was no possible chance of survival after the climbers fell 3,300 feet (1,000 m) while attempting or returning from the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route. Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9,500 ft (2,900 m), possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing, though the exact cause of the accident is unknown.[82] The bodies of three of the guest climbers were spotted on August 7, 2014, during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19, 2014. The bodies of the fourth guest climber and two guides have not been located.[83][84]

text: Outdoor recreation[edit]

text: Hiking, backcountry skiing, photography, and camping are popular in the park. Hiking trails, including the Wonderland Trail—a 93-mile or 150-kilometre circumnavigation of the peak—provide access to the backcountry. Mount Rainier is also popular for winter sports, including snowshoeing and cross-country skiing.[85]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The summit of Mount Rainier has an alpine climate.

text:
[hide]Climate data for Mount Rainier (14,411 feet; 4,392 m)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °F (°C)
7
(−14)
9
(−13)
11
(−12)
17
(−8)
22
(−6)
26
(−3)
33
(1)
32
(0)
28
(−2)
20
(−7)
14
(−10)
8
(−13)
18.9
(−7.2)

Average low °F (°C)
−3
(−19)
−2
(−19)
−2
(−19)
2
(−17)
6
(−14)
10
(−12)
15
(−9)
14
(−10)
12
(−11)
7
(−14)
2
(−17)
−2
(−19)
4.9
(−15)

Source: [86]