document_title: Command & Conquer

question_text: what is the newest command and conquer game

text: Command & Conquer

text: History[edit]

text: After Westwood Studios developed the successful Dune II, Computer Gaming World reported in 1993 that the company would not use the Dune license for Westwood's next strategy game "mostly because the programmers are tired of sand". The magazine stated that it would have "new terrain and enemies", and that "the design team is serious about doing a multi-player version".[2]

text: Command & Conquer was released worldwide by Westwood in 1995. The plot is set sometime in the near future where the Earth becomes contaminated by a mysterious resource known only as Tiberium. A global war ensues between the UN-formed Global Defense Initiative to contain it and the cult quasi-state revolutionary Brotherhood of Nod, led by the enigmatic Kane, which seeks to harness it. Highly successful, it was followed by Command & Conquer: Red Alert in 1996 which is set in an alternate universe where the Soviet Union wages war with the Allied West. Developed as the prequel to the original, the Red Alert series was spun off into a separate, lighthearted and comic series, while the original game and its sequels became known as the "Tiberium" series, retaining its sci-fi and serious tone. The first game is sometimes referred to as Tiberian Dawn as a result.

text: The original game was followed by Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun in 1999 and its expansion pack. In 2002, a first person-shooter set in the Tiberium universe, Command & Conquer: Renegade, was released and praised for its online features. The highly anticipated Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars was released in 2007 and followed by the expansion pack Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath. Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight, released in 2010 as the conclusion to the Tiberium saga, received noticeably more mixed reviews because of its deviation from traditional gameplay and story. The Red Alert series was continued by the 2000 title Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2, its expansion, Yuri's Revenge and Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 in 2008, which introduced a third "Empire of the Rising Sun" faction. A spin-off game in 2003, Command & Conquer: Generals, set in a more realistic near-future and featuring the United States, China and the Global Liberation Army was followed by an expansion pack, Zero Hour.

text: The series was originally marketed to an Anglophone audience, though many of the games have been translated into other languages including German, French, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Korean, and Chinese. The series is primarily developed for personal computers running Microsoft Windows, although some titles have been ported to various video game consoles and the Apple Macintosh. Other games for platforms such as iOS and web-based have also been developed. As of July 2010, the Command & Conquer franchise consists of eleven games and eight expansion packs. The first three games of the series have been released as Freeware to promote the successors.[3] EA had confirmed that a new free-to-play game, entitled Command & Conquer, was in development with the studio Victory Games. It was set to be the next game in the series and was expected to be released in 2013. However, after a short alpha period the game was cancelled, and Victory Games disbanded by EA.[4][5] The Command & Conquer series has been a commercial success with over 30 million Command & Conquer games sold as of 2009.

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: The Command & Conquer games belong to the real-time strategy genre, with the exception of the first person shooter Command & Conquer: Renegade. A staple of the series is the parallel campaigns of various different factions to one central storyline. Games in the series also offered multiplayer game options, via LAN and modem connection. All games in the series have also offered online play, as well as "skirmish" matches in which players can face AI enemies.

text: All Command & Conquer real-time strategy games except Command & Conquer: Generals and its expansions have featured the "side bar" for navigation and control as opposed to many other similar games where the control bar is located on the bottom of the screen.

text: Command & Conquer gameplay typically requires the player to construct a base and acquire resources, in order to fund the ongoing production of various types of forces with which to assault and conquer the opponent's base. All available structures of the faction chosen by the player are constructed on-site at so-called "construction yard" - which typically begin as large-sized vehicles capable of deploying themselves into the aforementioned construction yards, called MCVs or Mobile Construction Vehicle. When a construction yard has finished building a new structure, the player can select a spot near to a preexisting structure in order to place it, where the prefabricated building will then rapidly unfold in a distinctive manner.

text: In all games in the series except Command & Conquer: Generals and its expansion, Zero Hour, funds are acquired by specialized "harvester" units which bring their cargo (Tiberium for the Tiberian series of games or ore or the more valuable gems for the Red Alert series) to a "refinery" structure. This in turn will convert the raw material into usable resources, expressed as credits. The raw materials themselves, in games released before Red Alert 2 as well as Command & Conquer 3 require storage space in the form of refineries and, in the case of excess, "storage silo" structures. In Generals and Zero Hour, funds are collected by two methods: collection of supplies by specialized units and converted to money in "supply centers" or directly produced by specialized units, buildings, or tech buildings at a set interval of time.

text: All factions have structures and units with similar functions at their disposal. However, they are adjusted to fit each faction's theme and have somewhat varying properties. Units can be classified into infantry, vehicles, and aircraft, each with their own subdivisions (note: in the Red Alert series there is also naval craft available). Unit effectiveness against opponents follows the rock-paper-scissors (intransitivity) principle found in most real-time strategy games.

text: Virtually every type of structure in the series acts as a tech tree node, and additional units, structures and faction-specific abilities will become available as new structures are built and placed. Access to advanced units and abilities may be temporarily blocked if the required structures are destroyed or if they are not being provided with adequate power by the supporting "power plant" structures.

text: Multiplayer[edit]

text: Each Command & Conquer game has included the ability to play multiplayer games against other humans. Each box of Command & Conquer contains two CD copies of the game, immediately making multiplayer gaming possible with a single purchase of the game. Westwood Studios advertised this on the packaging with the slogan "A second copy, so you and your friend can destroy each other." This resulted in Command & Conquer becoming the first RTS game title to feature competitive online play,[6] and this is considered the most pertinent outside factor in the success of Command & Conquer.[7] All games in the series up to Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 also featured two CDs that could be used for this reason. However, later games did not.

text: Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 was noted for being the first RTS game to enable the campaigns to be played cooperatively online; others had only supported single player campaigns. However, it was only possible to connect to other computers through EA's servers and not with LAN play.

text: Games produced by Westwood use the proprietary Westwood Online system to facilitate multiplayer games over the Internet; Renegade also supported GameSpy. Games under EA's development continued to use GameSpy, but dropped support for Westwood Online in favor of using EA's own servers. The GameSpy master servers have shut down in 2013.[8] The community filled the gap with their services.[9]

text: Games[edit]

text: Tiberium series[edit]

text: Command & Conquer, released on August 31, 1995, was the first game in the series and is widely considered as the title which originally defined and popularized the real-time strategy genre.[6][7][10][11][12][13] Command & Conquer introduced the warring factions of the Global Defense Initiative (GDI) and the Brotherhood of Nod. Command & Conquer was well received and was widely praised by critics: "Command & Conquer is one of the finest, most brilliantly-designed computer games I have ever seen" said GameSpot reviewer Chris Hudak.[14] Command & Conquer has attained 94% as an aggregate score from Metacritic[15] with the less well received Covert Operations expansion pack obtaining an aggregate score of 72% after its 1996 release.[16]

text: Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun, released on August 27, 1999, takes place approximately 30 years after the events in its predecessor. While the original Command & Conquer's plot was centered around an allegorical world politics setting, Tiberian Sun shifted this to a more sci-fi-like setting against the apocalyptic background of Tiberium beginning to assimilate vast portions of the Earth's ecosystems. In 1998, Westwood Studios, the developers of Tiberian Sun, was acquired by Electronic Arts. However, EA had no direct part in the development of the title. Compared to its predecessor, Tiberian Sun relies heavily on science fiction technologies and introduces a new isometric game engine featuring varying level terrain to give the impression of a true 3D environment.

text: The full motion video is also scripted differently; while the cutscenes of Command & Conquer and Red Alert were filmed from a first-person perspective, Tiberian Sun used traditional cinematic shots for its FMVs featuring well known Hollywood actors such as James Earl Jones of the original Star Wars trilogy and Michael Biehn of Terminator and Aliens.

text: Electronic Arts forced the release of Tiberian Sun before the developers at Westwood had finished it. As a result, it was not as well received as Command & Conquer and received an aggregate score of 80% for the title and 73% for the expansion pack titled Firestorm. However the solid storyline, new concepts, more realistic graphics, atmospheric soundtrack and traditional gameplay were praised by critics, making up for some of its weaknesses.

text: Command & Conquer: Renegade, released February 26, 2002, takes place in the final days of the events of Command & Conquer and was the last Command & Conquer game to be created by Westwood Studios before their liquidation in 2003. Unlike any other games in the series, Renegade is a first person shooter[17] giving players their only chance to see the Command & Conquer universe from a first person perspective. Although receiving average reviews, with an aggregate score of 75% on both GameRankings and Metacritic, Renegade was praised for its online features. GameSpy awarded Renegade its 2002 "Wish it had been better" award, condemning the single player but saying that "C&C: Renegade's multiplayer was innovative and fun".[18] Online play was praised for encouraging teamwork and coordinated assaults, unlike other contemporary first-person shooters.[19]

text: Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, released March 29, 2007, was a return to the real-time strategy roots of the Command & Conquer series. As a direct sequel to Tiberian Sun, Tiberium Wars is set approximately 17 years after the events of Tiberian Sun and features the introduction of a third faction, the Scrin. The sequel was highly anticipated by fans and critics alike and attained an aggregate score of 85% from both GameRankings and Metacritic. PC Gamer U.S. gave the game its "Editor's Choice" rating at 90%, stating that "one of the greatest RTS franchises of all time returns to glory", while PC Gamer UK gave it a more reserved rating of 82%, stating that it was "a welcome, but limited, return."

text: Shortly after the release of Tiberium Wars, the expansion pack Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath was announced. Released on March 24, 2008, Kane's Wrath limited the player to only the Brotherhood of Nod in the campaign mode, though the original factions and six new sub-factions are available for the new strategic mode and skirmish mode. Reception was mainly positive with the expansion attaining an aggregate score of 77%.

text: Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight, released on March 16, 2010, saw a big change in gameplay from the previous Command & Conquer by removing the resource gathering and base building elements in previous games as well as the removal of the third faction, the Scrin. It is a direct sequel to Kane's Wrath (however not directly following on from its storyline), and is set 10 years after the game's final events, a time when Tiberium has advanced to its next evolutionary stage, and is rapidly spreading across Earth making it soon to be uninhabitable. The game came in for severe criticism from series fans for being so different from its predecessors.

text: Renegade X, is a free, fan-made remake of Command & Conquer: Renegade. The developers received approval from EA to release their game,[20] and it entered open beta on February 26, 2014. Renegade X includes a short single-player campaign called Black Dawn.

text: Red Alert series[edit]

text: Command & Conquer: Red Alert, released on October 31, 1996, is set in an alternate universe 1950s and was originally made to be the prequel to Command & Conquer[21] establishing Red Alert as the prologue of the entire Tiberium series of games. Since then Louis Castle has said that connecting Red Alert with the Tiberium series was a "failed experiment". Red Alert introduces the Allies and the Soviets as rival factions roughly analogous to NATO and the Warsaw Pact of the Cold War. The game was received well by critics and has the highest average score of any Command & Conquer game with an average of over 90% from GameRankings and Metacritic, unlike the title's two expansion packs, Red Alert: Counterstrike and Red Alert: The Aftermath of which both received below average reviews for the series with 63% and 70% average scores respectively. Both expansions gave the game more missions and more units. For PlayStation only, there was also a separate release to the original called Red Alert: Retaliation which included all the maps, missions and units of Red Alert: Counterstrike and Red Alert: The Aftermath as well as some newly filmed cut-scenes only available with Red Alert: Retaliation. Before being re-released as freeware on 31 August 2008 by Electronic Arts Command & Conquer: Red Alert had sold over three million copies.[22]

text: Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 was released on October 23, 2000. It featured a Soviet invasion of North America with tanks, conscripts, gargantuan airships, and psychically dominated anti-ship giant squid. Since that game lacked reference to the Tiberian series, the connection established in the first Red Alert game became unclear. Opinion on whether or not the time travel events of the series were forming a separate continuity or just another side adventure on the way to the Tiberium era was divided. However, it has been implied by the original creators of the series, now working at Petroglyph Games, that Red Alert 2 takes place in a parallel universe that came about as a result of time travel experiments taking place some time into the Tiberian series.[23] Red Alert 2 was again received fairly positively with an aggregate score of 86% from GameRankings.

text: An expansion pack to Red Alert 2, Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge was released on October 10, 2001. In Yuri's Revenge, an ex-Soviet figure named Yuri, tries to conquer the world using psychic technology and his own private army. The expansion pack received mostly positive reviews. GameRankings reports an average score of 85% based on 31 reviews,[24] making Yuri's Revenge the best received expansion pack in the entire Command & Conquer series.

text: Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3, released on October 28, 2008, followed up on the story of Red Alert 2 and continued the series' more "light-hearted" take on Command & Conquer. Red Alert 3 escalated matters further by introducing many new comical units and the very well received Empire of the Rising Sun faction, an anime inspired version of the Empire of Japan. Executive producer Chris Corry stated in a pre-release interview that Red Alert 3 will further differentiate the playable factions from each other and "[play] up the silliness in their faction design whenever possible."[25] This approach was seen as popular with Red Alert 3 obtaining an aggregate score of 82% from Metacritic. A stand-alone expansion to Red Alert 3, Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 – Uprising was released on March 12, 2009 to fairly poor reviews for the series with an average score of 64% from Metacritic. Another downloadable standalone game for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 was released known as Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 - Commander's Challenge which contained the Commander's Challenge mode of Uprising for consoles.

text: Command & Conquer: Red Alert (iOS) was released on October 16, 2009 for iOS which was a continuation of the story of Red Alert 2 and takes place before Red Alert 3. It contained two factions, the Allies and Soviet Union with a third faction, the Empire of the Rising Sun, to be added in its expansion pack.

text: Generals series[edit]

text: Command & Conquer: Generals, released on February 10, 2003, had a plotline which was completely unrelated to the other games of the Command & Conquer series. Generals is set in the near future and features the United States, China and the fictional terrorist organization, the Global Liberation Army. Generals uses an engine dubbed "SAGE" (or Strategy Action Game Engine) and is the first fully three-dimensional Command & Conquer real-time strategy game. After its release, Generals received mostly positive reviews. Based on 34 reviews, Metacritic gives it a score of 84/100[26] which includes a score of 9.3/10 from IGN.[27] Generals has also received the E3 2002 Game Critics Awards Best Strategy Game award.[28] One review noted that Generals was the first ever Command & Conquer real-time strategy game that did not include full-motion video cutscenes to tell the story and that it departed from the unique interface and base-building mechanics that had characterized all of the previous C&C RTS titles.[29]

text: An expansion for Generals, Command & Conquer: Generals – Zero Hour, was released on September 22, 2003 to further the Generals storyline. Zero Hour added 9 new armies to the game, over a dozen new campaign missions, and a gameplay mode known as Generals Challenge.[30] Unlike Generals, Zero Hour featured the return of full motion videos to the series. Zero Hour obtained much the same reception as Generals with an aggregate score of 85% and 84% from GameRankings and Metacritic respectively.

text: After EA Los Angeles started up their new internal group Danger Close and switched its focus to the Medal of Honor series, EA launched a new studio named Victory Games to continue the Command & Conquer franchise.[31] On December 10, 2011, Electronic Arts posted that the next game in the series would be Command & Conquer: Generals 2.[32] On December 14, it was also announced that a new browser-based, free-to-play MMO Command & Conquer game is currently under development, under the name Command & Conquer: Tiberium Alliances.[33] On December 15, Tiberium Alliances began a closed beta.[34]

text: Future[edit]

text: On August 15, 2012, it was announced that Generals 2 would be repurposed to a free-to-play game known as simply Command & Conquer.[35] The new game would have been based around the Generals franchise. However, following feedback from players who were able to play the alpha trial, the game was cancelled in October 2013.[36] In 2013, EA has said that the franchise will continue, but has given no other information.[37] In 2014, EA was looking for a new developer of the reboot.[38] Development on this title was cancelled.

text: Chronology[edit]

text:
1995 – Command & Conquer

1996 – Command & Conquer – The Covert Operations

1996 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert

1997 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert – Counterstrike
1997 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert – The Aftermath
1998 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert – Retaliation

1997 – Command & Conquer: Sole Survivor
1999 – Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun

2000 – Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun – Firestorm

2000 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2

2001 – Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge

2002 – Command & Conquer: Renegade

text:
2003 – Command & Conquer: Generals

2003 – Command & Conquer: Generals – Zero Hour

2007 – Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars

2008 – Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath

2008 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3

2009 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 – Uprising
2009 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 - Commander's Challenge

2010 – Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight

text: 2012 – Command & Conquer: Tiberium Alliances

text: 2014 - Renegade X

text: See also canceled Command & Conquer games.

text: Collections[edit]

text:
1997 - Command & Conquer: Red Alert - The Domination Pack

(Includes C&C Red Alert, C&C: Red Alert – Counterstrike and C&C: Red Alert – The Aftermath)

1998 - Command & Conquer: Worldwide Warfare

(Includes Command & Conquer, C&C – The Covert Operations, C&C Red Alert, C&C: Red Alert – Counterstrike and C&C: Red Alert – The Aftermath)

1998 - Command & Conquer: Red Alert - The Arsenal

(Includes C&C: Red Alert – Counterstrike and C&C: Red Alert – The Aftermath)

2001 – Command & Conquer: Theater of War Compilation

(includes Command & Conquer, C&C: Tiberian Sun, C&C: Red Alert and C&C: Red Alert 2)

2002 - Command & Conquer: Red Strike

(includes C&C: Red Alert 2 and C&C: Red Alert 2 – Yuri's Revenge)

2003 – The Command & Conquer Collection

(includes C&C: Tiberian Sun, C&C: Tiberian Sun – Firestorm, C&C: Red Alert 2, C&C: Red Alert 2 – Yuri's Revenge and C&C: Renegade)

2003 – Command & Conquer Generals: Deluxe Edition

(includes C&C: Generals and C&C: Generals – Zero Hour)

2006 – Command & Conquer: The First Decade

(includes Command & Conquer, C&C – The Covert Operations, C&C: Red Alert, C&C: Red Alert – Counterstrike, C&C: Red Alert – The Aftermath, C&C: Tiberian Sun, C&C: Tiberian Sun – Firestorm, C&C: Red Alert 2, C&C: Red Alert 2 – Yuri's Revenge, C&C: Renegade, C&C: Generals and C&C: Generals – Zero Hour)

2007 – The Command & Conquer Saga

(includes C&C: The First Decade and C&C 3: Tiberium Wars)

2008 – Command & Conquer 3: Limited Collection

(includes C&C 3: Tiberium Wars and C&C 3: Kane's Wrath)

2008 – Command & Conquer 3: Deluxe Edition

(includes C&C 3: Tiberium Wars and C&C 3: Kane's Wrath)

2012 – Command & Conquer: The Ultimate Collection

(includes Command & Conquer, C&C – The Covert Operations, C&C: Red Alert, C&C: Red Alert – Counterstrike, C&C: Red Alert – The Aftermath, C&C: Tiberian Sun, C&C: Tiberian Sun – Firestorm, C&C: Red Alert 2, C&C: Red Alert 2 – Yuri's Revenge, C&C: Renegade, C&C: Generals, C&C: Generals – Zero Hour, C&C 3: Tiberium Wars, C&C 3: Kane's Wrath, C&C: Red Alert 3, C&C: Red Alert 3 – Uprising and C&C 4: Tiberian Twilight)

text: Music[edit]

text: Much of the music for the series was composed and produced by Westwood Studios' former sound director and video game music composer Frank Klepacki for the early games, with composition duties being taken on by several others following the liquidation of Westwood Studios in 2003. Klepacki returned to the series in 2008 however to assist with the soundtrack for Red Alert 3.

text: The music has been received positively by critics, although praise was higher with earlier entries.

text: The original score for Command & Conquer: Red Alert was composed by Frank Klepacki and was voted the best video game soundtrack of 1996 by PC Gamer and Gameslice magazines.[39] Among his most famous songs from the series is the theme of Red Alert, titled "Hell March", which accents the style of the game with adrenalized riffs of electric guitar, the sounds of marching feet, and synthesizers to a dramatic chant. Originally intended to be the theme for the Brotherhood of Nod faction in the Covert Operations expansion to the original 1995 Command & Conquer game,[40] the track eventually ended up enlisting itself as a staple in the Red Alert series instead, and a second version of "Hell March" was specifically created for Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2.

text: After C&C came out we wasted no time kicking out Covert Ops. I wrote some more ambient style themes they asked me for, and then I began tinkering with this heavy metal song that I was trying to gear towards Nod for the next big C&C game. Brett Sperry came in my office and said "You got anything I can hear for the new C&C?" I played it for him. He said "What's the name of this one?" I said "Hell March." He said "That's the signature song for our next game."[41]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Command & Conquer series have been a commercial success with over 30 million Command & Conquer games sold as of 2009.[42] Games in the series have nearly consistently scored highly on video game review aggregator websites GameRankings and Metacritic, which collect data from numerous review websites. As noted in the table below, the highest rated game is Command & Conquer with a score of 94% from Metacritic. The highest rated game averaged over both sites is Command & Conquer: Red Alert with an average of just over 90%. As a series, Command & Conquer games have averaged approximately 80% when including expansion packs and approximately 84% without.

text: Command & Conquer's long history resulted in Guinness World Records awarding the series six world records in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008. These records include "Biggest Selling RTS Series", "Most Number of Platforms for an RTS", and "Longest Running Actor in Video Game Role" for Joe Kucan, who has played the part of Kane, the villainous mastermind of the series, for 15 years.

text:
Aggregate review scores
As of April 16, 2011.

Game
Year
GameRankings
Metacritic

Command & Conquer
1995
84.33%[16]
94%[15]

The Covert Operations
1996
72%[43]
86%[44]

Sole Survivor
1997
62%[45]
–

Command & Conquer 2: Tiberian Sun
1999
80%[46]
84%[47]

Firestorm
2000
73%[48]
85%[49]

Command & Conquer: Renegade
2002
75%[50]
75%[51]

Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars
2007
85%[52]
85%[53]

Kane's Wrath
2008
77%[54]
77%[55]

Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight
2010
63%[56]
64%[57]

Command & Conquer: Red Alert
1996
91%[58]
90%[59]

Counterstrike
1997
63%[60]
83%[61]

The Aftermath
1997
70%[62]
85%[63]

Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2
2000
86%[64]
84%[65]

Yuri's Revenge
2001
85%[66]
86%[67]

Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3
2008
81%[68]
82%[69]

Uprising
2009
65%[70]
64%[71]

Command & Conquer: Generals
2003
85%[72]
84%[73]

Zero Hour
2003
84%[74]
83%[75]


document_title: Freestyle motocross

question_text: who landed the first backflip on a motorcycle

root

text: Freestyle motocross

text: Evolution of the backflip[edit]

text: The backflip was once considered all but impossible, the "holy grail of FMX". Freestyle riders began contemplating it after the 1998 film "Children of a Metal God" showed riders attempting the trick into water. Also it had been done many times on BMX bikes, and FMX riders were using tricks from BMX riders, such as when Travis Pastrana performed an Indian Air, originally from Mat Hoffman, a BMXer.[citation needed]

tag: p

text: In 1991, Jose Yanez became the first person to backflip a motocross bike.  He practiced for it by flipping his motorcycle into the Salt River, just as he had done with his BMX bike.  He would kill the engine on his 80cc motorcycle just before he hit the water to prevent damage to the bike. Yanez performed the world's first ramp-to-ramp motocross backflip on an 80cc motorcycle in October, 1991 on an 8' tall box jump he built himself in Pagosa Springs, Colorado. Jose's next motocross backflip attempt, this time for The National Enquirer resulted in a crash that kept Jose off motorcycles and bicycles for two years due to an injured knee.

text: In 1993, Bob Kohl was the second person to perform the backflip on a motocross bike. The bike was a 1993 Honda Cr80. He was a professional BMX rider who had performed the trick regularly on a bicycle. He continued to exhibit the trick until a crash in 1995 left him with serious injuries.

text: In 2000, Carey Hart attempted the first backflip on a full-size motocross bike off a modified dirt landing ramp at the Gravity Games 2000. The landing was less than perfect, and Carey crashed immediately after. But Freestyle Motocross was forever changed. Many people started to attempt it, such as Travis Pastrana, who attempted the backflip off a Step Up jump at Summer X Games Freestyle. He bailed off mid-flight, breaking his foot. The trick was still not attempted on a normal FMX setup, off a ramp-to-dirt setup. Carey Hart attempted the backflip again at Summer X Games in 2001, during the Moto X Best Trick competition, but bailed off the bike 45 feet (14 m) in the air, seriously injuring himself.

text: In 2002, Caleb Wyatt was the first person to land a backflip on a large motorcycle, on April 25, 2002, at the Rogue Valley Motocross track (RVMX). This backflip was performed over a mulch pile of grass clippings, leaves, and bark collected during maintenance of the RVMX track. Wyatt constructed a quarter-pipe ramp with the take-off completely vertical shoved into the pile of mulch.

text: 2002 brought the backflip to X Games glory. Travis Pastrana and Mike Metzger were both capable doing flips off ramps. Kenny Bartram was still learning flips, doing them off the backsides of dirt landings, much like Hart in the 2000 Gravity Games. The unthinkable had become reality; a backflip was now common in freestyle competition. Mike Metzger had achieved a back-to-back backflip, which won him Freestyle Gold at Summer X Games 8. When the Gravity Games came along, riders were doing variations in their backflips, wowing the crowd and the judges, who didn't know how to score the riders.

text: In 2003, regular tricks were being used in backflips such as 'No Footers', 'HeelClickers', and 'One Handed' Backflips.

text: 2003 - 2005: These years saw the development of variations including cliffhangers, cordovas etc. As well as the disputed 360s which some consider only off-axis flips. The backflip was perfected over large distances including over 100 feet (30 m). In 2005 at the very first Dew Tour in Louisville, Kentucky, Travis Pastrana landed four backflips in a row. At the Denver Dew Tour in 2006, Kenny Bartram was the first to pull a one-handed takeoff backflip. In 2009 while filming for "Nitro Circus", Pastrana completed a 120 feet (37 m) backflip as part of a larger crossover jump, flipping over a number of riders below in the process.

text: 2006 brought footage of Travis Pastrana completing a double backflip on an uphill/sand setup on his popular "Nitro Circus" Freestyle Motocross movies. On August 4, 2006, at X Games 12 in Los Angeles, he became the first rider to land a double backflip in competition. Having landed another trick that many had considered impossible, he vowed never to do it again.

text: 2007 saw Scott Murray perform double backflips onto a large piece of foam placed over the end of a foam pit. Later that year, Murray attempted the double backflip at X Games but crashed upon landing. He landed the trick at a Supercross event in Italy.

text: At the 2008 Summer X games Jim Dechamp tried a front flip and crashed, breaking his back.  Three months later during Nitro Circus season 1 on MTV, Dechamp landed the front flip during the Guinness World Record episode.

text: In early 2009, Metal Mulisha rider Jeremy Lusk attempted a Hart Attack Indian Air Backflip. He under-rotated, and crashed, hitting his head on the landing. On February 10, he was pronounced dead due to head and spinal cord injuries.

text: At X Games 17, Jackson Strong nailed the first front flip on a dirt bike during the best trick competition.

text: In early 2015, Nitro Circus rider Josh Sheehan landed the first triple backflip, yet another trick deemed impossible by many, on a custom ramp/dirt setup at Travis Pastrana’s “Pastranaland” complex in Maryland. he had previously practiced the trick onto a large air cushion at the Maryland complex, using the same custom ramp built for the stunt.

text: At the Nitro World Games in 2016, Greg Duffy landed the first double front flip.

text: Equipment[edit]

text: Rider gear[edit]

text: FMX riders typically use much of the same riding gear as MX racers. This includes a helmet, goggles, gloves, boots, jersey, neck brace, chest protector, and MX pants. They may supplement this with elbow and knee pads. Riders may also choose to wear 'body armour' to protect the chest and legs when performing the most dangerous of tricks, as did Travis Pastrana when performing his double backflips.

text: Motorcycle Modifications[edit]

text: Riders use modified motocross bikes with aftermarket parts to lower weight and improve performance.  Riders will often shave down the seat foam to give a wider range of motion and better grip on the seat. Steering stabilizers are also common and help keep the front tire running straight when tricks requiring the rider to let go of the handlebars are performed.  Many riders will also shorten the width of the handlebars, to make it easier to put the legs on the bars, like such tricks as the 'heelclicker' or 'rodeo'. Excess cables, such as brakes and clutch cables are usually redirected away from the bars, to avoid riders getting their boots caught on the bike. The engine and mechanical details of an FMX bike are fairly stock, not needing the fine-tuning of a racing bike. Riders may also choose to have 'lever' on their handlebars to help then when performing 'Kiss Of Death Backflips.' A 'lever' is usually a metal plate or pipe coming off the handlebars, and going in front of the riders wrist or lower arm to stop the rider from rotating during the flips, but letting the bike continue to move.  Bikes have aftermarket performance pipes that give more power.  The bike must have very strong suspension and very high-quality tires.

text: Non-Bike or Rider Equipment[edit]

text:
One major component of Freestyle Motocross is the foam pit. These vary in size but are usually a rectangular box filled with shredded or cubed foam.  The FMX rider will jump from a ramp, practising one of the more dangerous or prototype tricks, and execute a safe landing into the safe foam regardless of the actual landing position.
Ramps are usually made out of metal, as this keeps the 'lips' of the ramp consistent.
The landing ramp is normally constructed from dirt.  If the event has limited resources, landings ramps may be built on trucks or trailers.  When freeriding, however, the rider jumps from dirt to dirt.

tag: ul

text: Notable riders[edit]

text:
Nate Adams
Brian Deegan
Kenny Bartram
Seth Enslow
Ailo Gaup
Carey Hart
Taka Higashino
Mike "Mad Mike" Jones
Dayne Kinnaird
Larry Linkogle
Kyle Loza
Jeremy Lusk
Robbie Maddison
Mike Metzger
Travis Pastrana
Mat Rebeaud
Cabbie Richards
Cam Sinclair
Jeremy Stenberg
Blake Williams
Levi Sherwood
Thomas Pagès
Clinton Moore
Ben Milot
Paris Rosen
Jim McNeil


document_title: History of the Arabic alphabet

question_text: when was arabic written for the first time

text: History of the Arabic alphabet

text: Origins[edit]

text: The Arabic alphabet evolved either from the Nabataean,[1][2] or (less widely believed) directly from the Syriac.[3] This table shows changes undergone by the shapes of the letters from the Aramaic original to the Nabataean and Syriac forms. Arabic is placed in the middle for clarity and not to mark a time order of evolution. It should be noted that the Arabic script represented in the table below is that of post-Classical and Modern Arabic, not 6th century Arabic script, which is of a notably different form.

text: It seems that the Nabataean alphabet became the Arabic alphabet thus:

text:
In the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, northern Arab tribes emigrated and founded a kingdom centred around Petra, Jordan. These people (now named Nabataeans from the name of one of the tribes, Nabatu) spoke the Nabataean language, a Northwest Semitic language.
In the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE,[4][5] the first known records of the Nabataean alphabet were written in the Aramaic language (which was the language of communication and trade), but including some Arabic language features: the Nabataeans did not write the language which they spoke. They wrote in a form of the Aramaic alphabet, which continued to evolve; it separated into two forms: one intended for inscriptions (known as "monumental Nabataean") and the other, more cursive and hurriedly written and with joined letters, for writing on papyrus.[6] This cursive form influenced the monumental form more and more and gradually changed into the Arabic alphabet.
Laïla Nehmé has demonstrated the transition of scripts from the Nabataean Aramaic to the recognisably Arabic form that appears to have occurred between the third and fifth centuries CE, replacing the indigenous Arabic alphabet.[7]

text: Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions[edit]

text: The first recorded text in the Arabic alphabet was written in 512. It is a trilingual dedication in Greek, Syriac and Arabic found at Zabad in Syria. The version of the Arabic alphabet used includes only 22 letters, of which only 15 are different, being used to note 28 phonemes:

text: Many myriads of pre-Classical Arabic inscriptions are attested, in alphabets borrowed from Epigraphic South Arabian alphabets (however, Safaitic and Hismaic are not strictly Arabic, but Ancient North Arabian dialects, and written Nabataean is an Aramaic dialect):

text:
Safaitic (over 13,000; almost all graffiti)[8]
Hismaic in the southern parts of central Arabia
Preclassical Arabic inscriptions dating to the 1st century BC from Qaryat Al-Faw
Nabataean inscriptions in Aramaic, written in the Nabataean alphabet
Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet are very few, with only 5 known for certain. They mostly use no dots, making them sometimes difficult to interpret, as many letters are the same shape as other letters (they are written with rasm only)

text: Here are the inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet, and the inscriptions in the Nabataean alphabet that show the beginnings of Arabic-like features.

text:
Name
Whereabouts
Date
Language
Alphabet
Text & notes

Al-Hasa
Nejd, Historical Bahrain region
4th century BC
3 lines in Hasean
Epigraphic South Arabian alphabets
A large funerary stone is inscribed in the Hasaean dialect using a variety of South Arabian monumental script, with three inscribed lines for the man Matmat, that records both patrilineal and matriarchal descent:[9]
1. "Tombstone and grave of Matmat,"
2. "son of Zurubbat, those of 'Ah-"
3. "nas, her of the father of Sa'ad-"
4. "ab.." (Dr. A. Jamme)

Qaryat al-Fāw
Wadi ad-Dawasir, Nejd
1st century BC
10 lines in Arabic
Epigraphic South Arabian alphabets
A tomb dedicatory and a prayer to Lāh, Kāhil and ʻAṯṯār to protect the tomb:
"ʿIgl son of Hafʿam constructed for his brother Rabibil son of Hafʿam the tomb: both for him and for his child and his wife, and his children and their children's children and womenfolk, free members of the folk Ghalwan. And he has placed it under the protection of (the gods) Kahl and Lah and ʿAthtar al-Shariq from anyone strong or weak, and anyone who would attempt to sell or pledge it, for all time without any derogation, so long as the sky produces rain or the earth herbage." (Beeston)

Ein Avdat
Negev in Israel
between AD 88 and 150
3 lines Aramaic, then 3 lines Arabic
Nabataean with a little letter-joining
A prayer of thanks to the god Obodas for saving someone's life:
"For (Obodas -the god-) works without reward or favour, and he, when death tried to claim us, did not let it claim (us), for when a wound (of ours) festered, he did not let us perish." (Bellamy)
"فيفعﻞُﻻفِ ًداوﻻاثرافكاﻦ هُنايَبْ ِغنا الموﺖُﻻأبْ ُغاﻪ فكاﻦ هُنا أدادَ ُجرﺢٌﻻيرْ ِد"

Umm el-Jimal
northeast of Jordan
roughly end of 3rd century - 5th century
Aramaic-Nabataean, Greek, Latin
Nabataean, much letter-joining
More than 50 fragments discovered: [1]
1. "Zabūd son of Māsik "
2. "[.]aynū daughter of MuΉārib"
3. "Kawza' peace!"
(Said and al-Hadad)
"([Th]is is the tomb which SHYMW … built … (2) … [for P]N, hisson, through (the help of) the god of their father … (3) … king Rabel, king of the Nabataeans …" (Butts and Hardy)
"This is the memorial of Julianos, weighed down by long sleep, for whom his father Agathos built it while shedding a tear beside the boundary of the communal cemetery of the people of Christ, in order that a better people might always sing of him openly, being formerly the beloved faithful [son?] of Agathos the presbyter, aged twelve. In the year 239 [of the era of the Provincia Arabia = 344 AD]." (Trombley)
In the 5th century barracks were built. In their southeast tower, which stands to a height of six stories, the names of the archangels—"Michael, Uriel, Gabriel and Raphael"—are inscribed. (Micah Key)

Raqush (this is not a place-name)
Mada'in Saleh in Saudi Arabia
267
Mixture of Arabic and Aramaic, 1 vertical line in Thamudic
Nabataean, some letter-joining. Has a few diacritic dots.
Last inscription in Nabataean language. Epitaph to one Raqush, including curse against grave-violaters:
"This is a grave K b. H has taken care of for his mother, Raqush bint ʿA. She died in al-Hijr in the year 162 in the month of Tammuz. May the Lord of the world curse anyone who desecrates this grave and opens it up, except his offspring! May he [also] curse anyone who buries [someone in the grave] and [then] removes [him] from it! May who buries.... be cursed!" (Healey and Smith)

an-Namāra
100 km SE of Damascus
328-329
Arabic
Nabataean, more letter-joining than previous
A long epitaph for the famous Arab poet and war-leader Imru'ul-Qays, describing his war deeds:
"This is the funerary monument of Imru' al-Qays, son of 'Amr, king of the Arabs, and (?) his title of honour was Master of Asad and Madhhij. And he subdued the Asadis and they were overwhelmed together with their kings, and he put to flight Madhhij thereafter, and came driving them to the gates of Najran, the city of Shammar, and he subdued Ma'add, and he dealt gently with the nobles of the tribes, and appointed them viceroys, and they became phylarchs for the Romans. And no king has equalled his achievements. Thereafter he died in the year 223 on the 7th day of Kaslul. Oh the good fortune of those who were his friends!" (Bellamy)

Jabal Ramm
50 km east of Aqaba, Jordan
3rd or likelier late 4th century
3 lines in Arabic, 1 bent line in Thamudic
Arabic. Has some diacritic dots.
In a temple of Allat. Boast or thanks of an energetic man who made his fortune:
"I rose and made all sorts of money, which no world-weary man has [ever] collected. I have collected gold and silver; I announce it to those who are fed up and unwilling." (Bellamy)

Sakakah
in Saudi Arabia
undated
Arabic
Arabic, some Nabataean features, & dots
Includes diacritical points associated with Arabic letters ب, ت, and ن [T, B and N]. (Winnett and Reed)

Sakakah
in Saudi Arabia
3rd or 4th century
Arabic
Arabic
"Hama son of Garm"

Sakakah
in Saudi Arabia
4th century
Arabic
Arabic
"B-`-s-w son of `Abd-Imru'-al-Qais son of Mal(i)k"

Umm al-Jimāl
northeast of Jordan
4th or 5th century
Arabic
similar to Arabic
"This [inscription] was set up by colleagues of ʿUlayh son of ʿUbaydah, secretary of the cohort Augusta Secunda Philadelphiana; may he go mad who effaces it." (Bellamy)

Zabad
in Syria, south of Aleppo
512
Arabic, Greek and Syriac
Arabic
Christian dedicatory. The Arabic says "God's help" & 6 names. "God" is written as الاله, see Allah#Typography:
"With the help of God! Sergius, son of Amat Manaf, and Tobi, son of Imru'l-qais and Sergius, son of Sa‘d, and Sitr, and Shouraih." (C. Rabin)

Jabal Usays
in Syria
528
Arabic
Arabic
Record of a military expedition by Ibrahim ibn Mughirah on behalf of the king al-Harith, presumably Al-Harith ibn Jabalah (Arethas in Greek), king of the Ghassanid vassals of the Byzantines:
"This is Ruqaym, son of Mughayr the Awsite. Al-Ḥārith the king, sent me to 'Usays, upon his military posts in the year 423 [528 CE]"

Harrān
in Leija district, south of Damascus
568
Arabic, Greek
Arabic
Christian dedicatory, in a martyrium. It records Sharahil ibn Zalim building the martyrium a year after the destruction of Khaybar:
"[I] Sharaḥīl, son of Talimu built this martyrium in the year 463 after the destruction of Khaybar by a year."

tag: table

text: Cursive Nabataean writing changed into Arabic writing, likeliest between the dates of the an-Namāra inscription and the Jabal Ramm inscription. Most writing would have been on perishable materials, such as papyrus. As it was cursive, it was liable to change. The epigraphic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic.

text:
The Nabataean alphabet was designed to write 22 phonemes, but Arabic has 28 phonemes; thus, when used to write the Arabic language, 6 of its letters must each represent two phonemes:
d also represented ð,
ħ also represented kh %,
ṭ also represented ẓ,
ayin also represented gh %,
ṣ also represented ḍ,%,
t also represented þ.
: In the cases marked %, the choice was influenced by etymology, as Common Semitic kh and gh became Hebrew ħ and ayin respectively.

text: As cursive Nabataean writing evolved into Arabic writing, the writing became largely joined-up. Some of the letters became the same shape as other letters, producing more ambiguities, as in the table:

text:
Here the Arabic letters are listed in the traditional Levantine order but are written in their current forms, for simplicity. The letters which are the same shape have coloured backgrounds. The second value of the letters that represent more than one phoneme is after a comma. In these tables, ğ is j as in English "June".
In the Arabic language, the g sound seems to have changed into j in fairly late pre-Islamic times, but this seems not to have happened in those tribes who invaded Egypt and settled there.

text:
When a letter was at the end of a word, it often developed an end loop, and as a result most Arabic letters have two or more shapes.
b and n and t became the same.
y became the same as b and n and t except at the ends of words.
j and ħ became the same.
z and r became the same.
s and sh became the same.

text: After all this, there were only 17 letters that were different in shape. One letter-shape represented 5 phonemes (b t th n and sometimes y), one represented 3 phonemes (j ħ kh), and 5 each represented 2 phonemes. Compare the Hebrew alphabet, as in the table at Image:Hebreu hist arabe.png.

text: A similar ambiguity occurs in the German Fraktur font, in which the Roman alphabet uppercase letters I and J look the same but are officially different letters.

text: Early Islamic changes[edit]

text: The Arabic alphabet is first attested in its classical form in the 7th century. See PERF 558 for the first surviving Islamic Arabic writing.

text: In the 7th century, probably in the early years of Islam while writing down the Qur'an, scribes realized that working out which of the ambiguous letters a particular letter was from context was laborious and not always possible, so a proper remedy was required. Writings in the Nabataean and Syriac alphabets already had sporadic examples of dots being used to distinguish letters which had become identical, for example as in the table on the right. By analogy with this, a system of dots was added to the Arabic alphabet to make enough different letters for Classical Arabic's 28 phonemes. Sometimes the resulting new letters were put in alphabetical order after their un-dotted originals, and sometimes at the end.

text: The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April, 643. The dots did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts like the Qur'an were frequently memorized; this practice, which survives even today, probably arose partly to avoid the great ambiguity of the script, and partly due to the scarcity of books in times when printing was unheard-of in the area and every copy of every book had to be written by hand.

text: The alphabet then had 28 letters, and so could be used to write the numbers 1 to 10, then 20 to 100, then 200 to 900, then 1000 (see Abjad numerals). In this numerical order, the new letters were put at the end of the alphabet. This produced this order: alif (1), b (2), j (3), d (4), h (5), w (6), z (7), H (8), T (9), y (10), k (20), l (30), m (40), n (50), s (60), ayn (70), f (80), S (90), q (100), r (200), sh (300), t (400), th (500), dh (600), kh (700), D (800), Z (900), gh (1000).

text: The lack of vowel signs in Arabic writing created more ambiguities: for example, in Classical Arabic ktb could be kataba = "he wrote", kutiba = "it was written" or kutub="books". Later, vowel signs and hamzas were added, beginning some time in the last half of the 6th century, at about the same time as the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew vocalization. Initially, this was done using a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an Umayyad governor of Iraq, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf[citation needed]: a dot above = a, a dot below = i, a dot on the line = u, and doubled dots giving tanwin. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by al-Farahidi.

text: Before the historical decree by Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, all administrative texts were recorded by Persian scribes in Middle Persian language using Pahlavi script, but many of the initial orthographic alterations to the Arabic alphabet might have been proposed and implemented by the same scribes.

text: When new signs were added to the Arabic alphabet, they took the alphabetical order value of the letter which they were an alternative for: tā' marbūta (see also below) took the value of ordinary t, and not of h. In the same way, the many diacritics do not have any value: for example, a doubled consonant indicated by shadda does not count as a letter separate from the single one.

text: Some features of the Arabic alphabet arose because of differences between Qur'anic spelling (which followed the Meccan dialect pronunciation used by Muhammad and his first followers) and the standard Classical Arabic. These include:

text:
tā' marbūta: This arose because the -at ending of feminine nouns (tā' marbūta) was often pronounced as -ah and written as h. To avoid altering Quranic spelling, the dots of t were written over the h.[citation needed]
y (alif maksura ى) used to spell ā at the ends of some words: This arose because ā arising from contraction where single y dropped out between vowels was in some dialects pronounced at the ends of words with the tongue further forward than for other ā vowels, and as a result in the Qu'ran it was written as y.[clarification needed][citation needed]
ā not written as alif in some words: The Arabic spelling of Allāh was decided before the Arabs started using alif to spell ā. In other cases (for example the first ā in hāðā = "this"), it may be that the Meccan dialect pronounced those vowels short.
hamza: Originally alif was used to spell the glottal stop. But Meccans did not pronounce the glottal stop[verification needed], replacing it with w, y or nothing, lengthening an adjacent vowel, or, between vowels, dropping the glottal stop and contracting the vowels, and the Qur'an was written following Meccan pronunciation. The Arabic grammarians invented the hamza diacritic sign and used it to mark the glottal stop. Hamza is Arabic for "hook".

text: Reorganization of the alphabet[edit]

text: Less than a century later, Arab grammarians reorganized the alphabet, for reasons of teaching, putting letters next to other letters which were nearly the same shape. This produced a new order which was not the same as the numeric order, which became less important over time because it was being competed with by the Indian numerals and sometimes by the Greek numerals.

text: The Arabic grammarians of North Africa changed the new letters, which explains the differences between the alphabets of the East and the Maghreb.

text: (Greek waw = the original name of the digamma)

text: The old alphabetical order, as in the other alphabets shown here, is known as the Levantine or Abjadi order. If the letters are arranged by their numeric order, the Levantine order is restored:-

text:
(Note: here "numeric order" means the traditional values when these letters were used as numbers. See Arabic numerals, Greek numerals and Hebrew numerals for more details)
This order is much the oldest. The first written records of the Arabic alphabet show why the order was changed.

text: Adapting the Arabic alphabet for other languages[edit]

text:
Most Common Non-Classical Arabic Consonant Phonemes/Graphemes

Language Family
Austron.
Dravid
Turkic
Indic (Indo-European)
Iranian (Indo-European)

Arabic (Semitic)

Language/Script
Jawi
Arwi
Uyghur
Sindhi
Punjabi
Urdu
Persian
Balochi
Kurdish
Pashto
Iraqi
Hejazi
Egyptian
Algerian
Tunisian
Moroccan

/p/
ڤ
ڣ
پ
پ

/g/
ݢ
ࢴ
گ
ګ
گ
ق
ج
ڨ
ڭ

/t͡ʃ/
چ
Ø
چ
چ
تش
ڜ

/ʒ/
Ø
ژ
Ø
ژ
Ø
چ
Ø
ج

/v/
ۏ
و
ۋ
و
Ø
ڤ
Ø
ڤ
ڥ

/ŋ/
ڠ
ࢳ
ڭ
ڱ
ں
ن
Ø
Ø

/ɳ/
Ø
ڹ
Ø
ڻ
Ø
ڼ
Ø

/ɲ/
ڽ
ݧ
Ø
Ø
Ø

text: When the Arabic alphabet spread to countries which used other languages, extra letters had to be invented to spell non-Arabic sounds. Usually the alteration was three dots above or below:-

text:
Persian and Urdu and Kurdish: /p/: پ
Persian and Urdu and Kurdish: /t͡ʃ/: چ
Persian and Urdu and Kurdish: /ɡ/: گ
Persian and Urdu: /ʒ/: ژ
in Egypt: /ɡ/: ج. That is because ج represents /ɡ/ in Egyptian Arabic (and some other dialects) while in the majortiy of Arabic dialects it represents /ʒ/~/d͡ʒ/
in Egypt: /p/, /ʒ/; /v/ : ڤ; چ ,پ.
in Saudi Arabia, Egypt and many other Arabic countries : /tʃ/: is written as ت+ش and realized as [t]+[ʃ]
Urdu: retroflex sounds: as the corresponding dentals but with a small letter ط above. (This problem in adapting a Semitic alphabet to write Indian languages also arose long before this: see Brahmi)
In South-East Asia: /ŋ/ as in "sing": ڠ or څ

^ Some letters are often used in transcriptions of names and loanwords, in Egypt and other Arabic speaking countries

This book[10] shows an example of ch (Polish cz) being written as ڛ in an Arabic-Polish bilingual Quran for Muslim Tatars living in Poland

text: Decline in use by non-Arabic states[edit]

text: Since the early 20th century, as the Ottoman Empire collapsed and European influence increased, many non-Arab Islamic areas began using the Cyrillic or Latin alphabet, and local adaptations of the Arabic alphabet were abandoned. In many cases, the writing of a language in Arabic script has become restricted to classical texts and traditional purposes (as in the Turkic States of Central Asia, or Hausa and others in West Africa ), while in others, the Arabic alphabet is used alongside the Latin one (as with Jawi in Brunei).

text:
Area used
Arabic spelling system
New spelling system
Date
Ordered by

Some constituent republics in the Soviet Union, especially Muslim States
Persian-based spelling system, later Ottoman Turkish alphabet with alterations
Cyrillic
1920s (to Janalif)
1930s (to Cyrillic)
USSR government

Bosnia and Herzegovina
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
Serbian alphabet (Latin system)
1990s
Yugoslavia government

Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Jawi script (which is still widely used in Brunei and Patani)
Latin alphabet
19th century
British, Dutch and Spanish colonial administrations

Turkey
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
Turkish alphabet (Latin system with alterations)
1928
Republic of Turkey government after the fall of the Ottoman Empire


document_title: The Shack

question_text: who killed missy in the movie the shack

question_tokens: who killed missy in the movie the shack

text: The Shack

text: Plot[edit]

text: The novel is set in the American Northwest. The main character is Mackenzie Allen Phillips, a father of five called "Mack" by his family and friends. Four years prior to the main events of the story, Mack takes three of his children on a camping trip to Wallowa Lake near Joseph, Oregon, stopping at Multnomah Falls on the way. Two of his children are playing in a canoe when it flips and almost drowns Mack's son. Mack is able to save his son by rushing to the water and freeing him from the canoe's webbing, but unintentionally leaves his youngest daughter Missy alone at their campsite. After Mack returns, he sees that Missy is missing. The police are called, and the family discovers that Missy has been abducted and murdered by a serial killer known as the "Little Ladykiller". The police find an abandoned shack in the woods where Missy was taken. Her bloodied clothing is found, but her body is not located. Mack's life sinks into what he calls "The Great Sadness".

text: As the novel begins, Mack receives a note in his mailbox from "Papa", saying that he would like to meet with Mack that coming weekend at the shack. Mack is puzzled by the note—he has had no relationship with his abusive father since he left home at age 13. He suspects that the note may be from God whom his wife Nan refers to as "Papa".

text: Mack's family leaves to visit relatives and he goes alone to the shack, unsure of what he will see there. He arrives and initially finds nothing, but as he is leaving, the shack and its surroundings are supernaturally transformed into a lush and inviting scene. He enters the shack and encounters manifestations of the three persons of the Trinity. God the Father takes the form of an African American woman who calls herself Elousia and Papa; Jesus Christ is a Middle-Eastern carpenter; and the Holy Spirit physically manifests as an Asian woman named Sarayu.

text: The bulk of the book narrates Mack's conversations with Papa, Jesus, and Sarayu as he comes to terms with Missy's death and his relationship with the three of them. Mack also has various experiences with each of them. Mack walks across a lake with Jesus, sees an image of his (Earthly) father in Heaven with Sarayu, and has a conversation with Sophia, the personification of God's wisdom. At the end of his visit, Mack goes on a hike with Papa, now appearing as an older Native American male, who shows him where Missy's body was left in a cave.

text: After spending the weekend at the shack, Mack leaves and is so preoccupied with his thoughts that he is nearly killed in an automobile accident. After his recovery, he realizes that he did not in fact spend the weekend at the shack, but that his accident occurred on the same day that he arrived at the shack. He also leads the police to the cave that Papa revealed, and they find Missy's body still lying there. With the help of forensic evidence discovered at the scene, the Little Ladykiller is arrested and put on trial.

text: Publication[edit]

text: Young originally wrote The Shack as a Christmas gift for his six children with no apparent intention of publishing it. After letting several friends read the book he was urged to publish it for the general public. In 2006, Young worked with Wayne Jacobsen, Brad Cummings (both former pastors from Los Angeles) and Bobby Downes (filmmaker) to bring the book to publication. They had no success with either religious or secular publishers, so they formed Windblown Media for the purpose of publishing the book. The Shack achieved its No. 1 best selling success via word-of-mouth and with the help of a USD$300.00 website; it is often reported that nothing else had been spent on marketing up to September 2007.[7] Additional startup funds were supplied by Brad Cummings, president of Windblown Media, who spent the maximum credit limit on 12 personal credit cards in order to publish the book.[8][9]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Shack went largely unnoticed for over a year after its initial publication, but suddenly became a very popular seller in mid-2008, when it debuted at No. 1 on The New York Times paperback fiction best seller list on June 8.[3] Its success was the result of "word-of-mouth, church-to-church, blog-to-blog campaign" by Young, Jacobsen and Cummings in churches and Christian-themed radio, websites, and blogs.[2]

text: As of May 2010, The Shack had over 10 million copies in print, and had been at No. 1 on The New York Times best seller list for 70 weeks.[10] The Shack was also released in hardcover, and translated into Spanish as La Cabaña.[10] In June 2009 a German translation with the title Die Hütte – ein Wochenende mit Gott (… a Weekend with God) was released.[11] It was also translated into Croatian as "Koliba" and it became very popular in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[citation needed] The book was also translated into Polish as "Chata" and published in 2009. There were re-editions in 2011 and 2017 due to its popularity.

text: However, Mars Hill Church pastor Mark Driscoll criticized The Shack, saying "it misrepresents God"[12] and called William P. Young "a heretic".[13] Evangelical author Chuck Colson wrote a review called "Stay Out of The Shack," in which he criticizes the attribution of "silly lines" to characters representing the three Persons of the Trinity, and the author's "low view of scripture".[14] R. Albert Mohler, Jr. called The Shack "deeply troubling" on his radio show, saying that it "includes undiluted heresy".[15] Apologists author Norman Geisler and William C. Roach published a critique in 2012 detailing their 14 points of theological disagreement with the book (including "unorthodox", "false", "classic heresy", "non-rational", "psychologically helpful ... doctrinally harmful", and "very dangerous").[16]

text: Theologian Randal Rauser has written a generally sympathetic guide to The Shack in his companion volume Finding God in the Shack (Paternoster, 2009). In the book Rauser responds to many of the objections raised by critics like Colson and Mohler.

text: Brad Robison, a psychiatrist and family therapist who used "The Shack" in his practice, wrote "The Shack Study Guide" (Windblown Media, 2016) to assist his patients on their healing journey. It is co-authored by William P. Young.

text: Wayne Jacobsen, one of Young's early collaborators, wrote a detailed response to several common points of criticism. His column "Is the Shack Heresy?" was published online by Windblown Media.[17]

text: Legal dispute[edit]

text: In July 2010 the Los Angeles Times reported that The Shack had "spawned a tangle of lawsuits over royalties and even the book's authorship."[18] Young claimed that he was owed $8 million in royalties, Jacobsen and Cummings filed a suit against Young,[19] Young asked the court to dismiss or stay the claims,[20]and Jacobsen and Cummings responded.[21] Hachette, the commercial publisher involved, asked the court to determine to whom it should pay royalties from the book.[22] On January 10, 2011 the court declared that it had been advised that the case between Young et al. and Jacobsen et al. "has been settled or is in the process of being settled" and the case was dismissed.[23][24]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: A movie adaptation of The Shack, directed by Stuart Hazeldine, was released on March 3, 2017, with Sam Worthington portraying Mack, Octavia Spencer as Papa, and Tim McGraw as Willie.[25] Rotten Tomatoes critics score is 21%; audience score is 85%.[26]

text: References in other works[edit]

text: The Shack was referred to by Stephen King in his 2010 title, Full Dark, No Stars, which is a compilation of four novellas. In the final novella, A Good Marriage, the protagonist recalls that her husband recommended she read The Shack and he said the novel was "a life-changer."[citation needed]


document_title: Indian Army United Nations peacekeeping missions

question_text: who was awarded param vir chakra during un peacekeeping missions

text: Past Missions[edit]

text: The following are the Indian contributions to the United Nations Peacekeeping Missions since 1950.

text: (a) Korea (1950–54): 60th Indian Field Ambulance, a Parachute-trained Medical Unit composed of 17 officers, 9 JCOs and 300 other ranks was deployed in the Korean War from November 1950 till July 1954, the longest tenure by any unit under the UN flag. Apart from the unit's primary role, an ADS and a surgical team comprising seven officers and five other ranks participated in Operation Tomahawk, and airborne operation by the 187 Airborne Regimental Combat Team on 21 March 1951. The unit was awarded citations by the chiefs of the US 8th Army and the ROK Army, a special mention in the House of Lords in London, commendations by commanders of various formations the unit was part of, individual honours included four US Bronze Stars, two Mahavir Chakras, six Vir Chakras and 25 Mention-in-Despatches. The unit was also awarded the President's Trophy on 10 March 1955 by the then President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the only one to be awarded till date. Lt-Gen. K S Thimmayya was appointed as the Chairman of the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission set up by UN. India also provided a custodian force under Major General S.P.P. Thorat comprising 231 officers, 203 JCOs and 5696 other ranks.[1][6]

text: (b) Indo-China (1954–70): India provided an Infantry Battalion and supporting staff for control of Indo-China, comprising three states of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Tasks included monitoring, ceasefire and repatriation of prisoners of war, among others. A total of 970 officers, 140 JCOs and 6157 other ranks were provided during the period from 1954-1970.[1]

text: (c) Middle East (1956–67): India was part of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF), where for the first time armed troop contingents were deployed. India's contribution was an infantry battalion and other support elements. Over a period of 11 years, 393 officers, 409 JCOs and 12383 other ranks took part in the operations.[1]

text: (d) Congo (1960–64) (ONUC): Two infantry Brigades composed of 467 officers, 401 JCOs and 11354 other ranks participated and conducted operations. A flight of six Canberra bomber aircraft of the IAF also participated in the operations. 39 personnel of the Indian contingent laid down their lives. Capt GS Salaria was awarded posthumously the Paramvir Chakra for action in Katanga, Southern Congo.[1]

text: (e) Cambodia (1992-1993): United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia was set up to supervise ceasefire, disarm combatants, repatriate refugees and monitor conduct of free and fair elections. A total of 1373 peacekeepers from all ranks of the Indian Army participated.[1][7]

text: (f) Mozambique (1992–94) (ONUMOZ): Two Engineer companies, HQ company, logistics company, staff officers and military observers were provided. In all 1083 peacekeepers from all ranks participated.[8]

text: (g) Somalia (1993–94) (UNITAF & UNOSOM II): The Indian Navy and Indian Army took active part in UN Operations. Indian Army deployed a Brigade Group composed of 5000 personnel from all ranks and the navy deployed four warships.[1][9]

text: (h) Rwanda (1994–96) (UNAMIR): An Infantry Battalion group, a signal company, and engineer company, staff officers and Military Observers were provided. Total of 956 from all ranks took part. Brigadier Shiva Kumar of the Indian Army (Acting) was the third and final Force Commander of UN troops serving in Rwanda from December 1995-March 1996.[10]

text: (i) Angola (1989-1999) (UNAVEM): Besides providing a Deputy Force Commander, an Infantry Battalion group and an engineer company comprising a total of 1014 from all ranks. India contributed 10 military observers for UNAVEM I, 25 for UNAVEM II and 20 military observers, 37 SOs, and 30 senior NCOs for UNAVEM III.[11]

text: (j) Sierra Leone (1999-2001) (UNAMSIL): Two Infantry Battalion groups, two engineer companies, Quick reaction company, Attack helicopter unit, medical unit and Logistic support in addition to sector HQ and Force Headquarters staff were provided.[12]

text: (k) Ethiopia-Eritrea (2006–08) (UNMEE): Indian contribution comprised one infantry battalion group, one construction engineer company and one force reserve company, apart from staffing at various HQs and military observers.[1][13]

text: Current Missions[edit]

text: The Indian Armed Forces are currently undertaking the following UN Missions.

text: (a) Lebanon (UNIFIL) (Since Dec 1998): One infantry battalion group, Level II Hospital comprising 650 peacekeepers from all ranks and 23 staff officers till date, have been deployed. The current situation in the Mission is tense and volatile due to the crises in Syria.[14] UNIFIL's mandate is renewed by United Nations Security Council annually. Current mandate expires on 31 August 2014.[15]

text: (b) Congo (MONUSCO) (Since January 2005): Extended Chapter VII mandate with Augmented Infantry Brigade Group (four infantry battalions with level III Hospital), Army aviation contingent with utility helicopters along with a large number of military observers and SOs have been contributed. In addition, two Formed Police Units (FPU) ex BSF and ITBP have also been deployed since 2009. Lt Gen Chander Prakash of India, was, till recently the Force Commander in MONUSCO. MONUSCO's new mandate vide Resolution 2098 (2013) has been implemented with an Intervention Brigade provided by AU, deployed under UN Command. The FARDC along with the support of MONUSCO were able to destroy the M-23 Rebel Group, however the situation continues to be volatile and uncertain due to the presence of other armed groups.[16]. The Current COAS of the Indian Army, Bipin Rawat once commanded a MONUSCO bridge. [17]

text: (c) Sudan and South Sudan (UNMIS/UNMISS) (Since April 2005): Two Infantry Battalion groups, sector HQ, Engineer company, signal company, Level-II Hospital and a large number of military observers and staff officers (SOs) have been deployed. The mission has a Deputy Force Commander Brig Asit Mistry (Indian Army) and until recently a Deputy Police Commissioner Mr Sanjay Kundu (Indian Police Service) was also present there. The latest political developments in the Mission led to widespread inter-tribe violence and large displacement of locals. In the ensuing intra state conflict two Indian Peacekeepers lost their lives while ensuring Protection of Civilians.[18] The current situation continues to be highly volatile and sporadic clashes between the tribes are being reported regularly.[19]

text: (d) Golan Heights (UNDOF) (Since February 2006): A Logistics battalion with 190 personnel has been deployed to look after the logistics security of UNDOF. Maj.Gen. I.S. Singha is the Force Commander since July 2012. Current crisis due to Syrian conflict has impacted the mission and exchange of fire between the Syrian Forces and the armed groups have put the Peacekeepers in grave danger.[19]

text: (e) Ivory Coast (UNOCI) (Since April 2004): The mission has been supported by Indian staff officers (SOs) and military observers since its inception.[20]

text: (f) Haiti (MINUSTAH) (Since December 1997): Apart from three Indian Formed Police Unit (FPU) there, i.e. from CISF, CRPF and Assam Rifles, which have been successful,[1] the mission has been supported by Indian Army staff officers since its inception.[21]

text: (g) Liberia (UNMIL) (Since April 2007): India has been contributing both male and female Formed Police Units from CRPF and its Specialized unit RAF in Liberia. The Female Formed Police Unit (FPU) has especially become an inspiration for the women of the host nation and have become trendsetters for other such female FPUs across the Globe. Till recently, Mr Gautam Sawang of India was the acting Police Commissioner there.[22][23]


document_title: Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga

question_text: mahakal temple was located in the kingdom of which dynasty

text: Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga

text: Jyotirlinga[edit]

text: As per the Shiva Purana, Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu once had an argument over who was supreme in the creation.[1] To test them, Shiva pierced the three worlds as an endless pillar of light, the jyotirlinga. Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma decide to travel along the pillar downwards and upwards respectively, to find the end of the light. Brahma lied that he had found the end, while Vishnu conceded his defeat. Shiva appeared as a second pillar of light and cursed Brahma that he would have no place in ceremonies while Vishnu would be worshipped till the end of eternity.  The jyotirlinga is the supreme partless reality, out of which Shiva partly appears.  The jyotirlinga shrines, thus are places where Shiva appeared as a fiery column of light.[2][3] There are 64 forms of Shiva, not to be confused with Jyotirlingas.  Each of the twelve jyotirlinga sites take the name of the presiding deity - each considered different manifestation of Shiva.[4]   At all these sites, the primary image is lingam representing the beginningless and endless Stambha pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva.[4][5][6] The twelve jyotirlinga are Somnath in Gujarat, Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh, Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh, Kedarnath in Himalayas in Uttrakhand State, Bhimashankar in Maharashtra, Viswanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Triambakeshwar in Maharashtra, Vaidyanath at Deogarh in Jharkhand or at Baijnath in Himachal Pradesh, Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat, Rameshwar at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar at Aurangabad in Maharashtra.[1][7]

text: The Temple[edit]

text:
Sapta PuriSita & Lakshmana leave AyodhyaHaridwar
Dwarka: Dwarakadheesh templeVaranasi Temples
Ujjain: Mahakaleshwar JyotirlingaKanchipuram: Kamakshi Amman Temple
Mathura: Shri Krishna Janmabhoomivte

text: The idol of Mahakaleshwar is known to be dakshinamurti, which means that it is facing the south. This is a unique feature, upheld by the tantric shivnetra tradition to be found only in Mahakaleshwar among the 12 Jyotirlingas. The idol of Omkareshwar Mahadev is consecrated in the sanctum above the Mahakal shrine. The images of Ganesh, Parvati and Karttikeya are installed in the west, north and east of the sanctum sanctorum. To the south is the image of Nandi, the vehicle of Lord Shiva. The idol of Nagchandreshwar on the third storey is open for darshan only on the day of Nag Panchami. The temple has five levels, one of which is underground. The temple itself is located in a spacious courtyard surrounded by massive walls near a lake. The shikhar or the spire is adorned with sculptural finery. Brass lamps light the way to the underground sanctum. It is believed that prasada (holy offering) offered here to the deity can be re-offered unlike all other shrines.[8]

text: The presiding deity of time, Shiva, in all his splendor, reigns eternally in the city of Ujjain. The temple of Mahakaleshwar, its shikhar soaring into the sky, an imposing façade against the skyline, evokes primordial awe and reverence with its majesty. The Mahakal dominates the life of the city and its people, even in the midst of the busy routine of modern preoccupations, and provides an unbreakable link with ancient Hindu traditions.

text: On the day of Maha Shivaratri, a huge fair is held near the temple, and worship goes on through the night.[9]

text: In the precincts of the Mahakaleshwar temple is Shri Swapaneshwar Mahadev temple, where devotees pray to Shiva as Mahakaal, to realize the most important dreams of their lives. Sadashiv Mahadev is so empathetic, benevolent and easy to please that devotees are sure to be granted the boons they wish for with a pure heart in this temple, it is believed. Here Mahadev is Swapaneshwar and Shakti is Swapaneshwari.[10]

text: The temple is open from 4 am to 11 pm.

text: The temple is also glorified in 7th century.C.E, Tamil tevaram hymns of tirugnanasambandar, sundarar, tirunavukkarasar, and they refer to the same as tiru oonjai maakalam, oonjai being Tamil name of word ujjain.

text: The Mahakaleshwar Temple as a Shakti Peeth[edit]

text: The shrine is revered as one of the 18 Maha Shakti Peetham.[11][12][13]

text: Shakti Peethas are shrines that are believed to have enshrined with the presence of Shakti due to the falling of body parts of the corpse of Sati Devi, when Lord Shiva carried it. Each of the 51 Shakti peethas have shrines for Shakti and  Kalabhairava. The Upper Lip of Sati Devi is said to have fallen here and the Shakti is called as Mahakali.

text: References in Hindu scriptures[edit]

text: According to the Puranas, the city of Ujjain was called Avantika and was famous for its beauty and its status as a devotional epicenter. It was also one of the primary cities where students went to study holy scriptures. According to legend, there was a ruler of Ujjain called Chandrasena, who was a pious devotee of Lord Shiva and worshiped him all the time. One day, a farmer's boy named Shrikhar was walking on the grounds of the palace and heard the King chant the Lord's name and rushed to the temple to start praying with him. However, the guards removed him by force and sent him to the outskirts of the city near the river Kshipra. Rivals of Ujjain, primarily King Ripudamana and King Singhaditya of the neighboring kingdoms decided to attack the Kingdom and take over its treasures around this time. Hearing this, Shrikhar started to pray and the news spread to a priest named Vridhi. He was shocked to hear this and upon the urgent pleas of his sons, started to pray to Lord Shiva at the river Kshipra. The Kings chose to attack and were successful; with the help of the powerful demon Dushan, who was blessed by Lord Brahma to be invisible, they plundered the city and attacked all the devotees of Lord Shiva.

text: Upon hearing the pleas of His helpless devotees, Lord Shiva appeared in his Mahakala form and destroyed the enemies of King Chandrasena. Upon the request of his devotees Shrikhar and Vridhi, Lord Shiva agreed to reside in the city and become the chief deity of the Kingdom and take care of it against its enemies and to protect all His devotees. From that day on, Lord Shiva resided in His light form as Mahakala in a Lingam that was formed on its own from the powers of the Lord and His consort, Parvati. The Lord also blessed his devotees and declared that people who worshipped Him in this form would be free from the fear of death and diseases. Also, they would be granted worldly treasures and be under the protection of the Lord himself.

text: Bharthari was the elder son of King Gandharva-Sena, and received the kingdom of Ujjain from the celestial god Indra and the King of Dhara.

text: When Bharthari was king of 'Ujjayani' (modern day Ujjain) in his state there lived a Brahman who after years of austerities was given the fruit of immortality from the celestial tree of Kalpavriksha. The Brahman presented the same to his monarch, Raja Bharthari, who in turn, passed it on to his love, the beautiful, Pinglah Rani or Ananga Sena  Raja Bhartrhari's last and youngest wife. The queen, being in love with the Head police officer of the state, Mahipaala, presented the fruit to him, who further passed it on to his beloved, Lakha, one of the maids of honour. Eventually, Lakha being in love with the king presented the fruit back to the king. Having completed the circle, the fruit revealed the downsides of infidelity to the king, he summoned the queen and ordered her beheading, and ate the fruit himself. After that he abdicated the throne, and became a religious mendicant.

text: He later became a disciple of Pattinatthar (Swetharanyar or Pattinatthu chettiyar is poorvashram name of this saint from Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu) who first indulged in an argument about samsari and sanyasi with king Bhartrhari. Later during the conversation pattinathar said that all women have 'dual mind' and it might be the true case even with Parameswari. King conveyed this news to rani Pingalah and she ordered Pattinathar to get punished and to sit in 'kalu maram' (Tree, whose top portion would be sharpened like a pencil and whole tree is fully coated with oil, a person who is punished to sit in the top will be split into 2 pieces), they tried to kill pattinathar, but kalu maram started burning and nothing happened to Pattinathar, the king came to know this news and went directly to Pattinathar and asked him to get ready to die the next day, but Pattinathar replied, " I'm ready right now, to die". The next day king came with tears in his eyes and released saint from jail because he actually noticed queen pingalah in love with horsemen that night, He threw away his empire, wealth, even full coat dress and dressed in a simple kovanam (loin cloth), the king became a disciple of Pattinatthar and got mukthi (salvation) in Kalahasthi temple.[14]

text: Kalidasa (c. 4th–5th century CE), the great Sanskrit poet of the times during the regime of king Vikramāditya belonging to the Gupta period, has mentioned about the rituals of the temple in his works in Meghadūta. He mentions about the nada-aradhana, the performance of art and dance during the evening rituals.[15]

text: History[edit]

text: The temple complex was destroyed by Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish during his raid of Ujjain in 1234-5.[16][17][18]

text: The present structure was built by the Maratha general Ranoji Scindia in 1734 CE. Further developments and management was done by other members of his dynasty, including Mahadji Scindia (1730–12 February 1794) and Daulat Rao Scindia's wife Baiza Bai. (1827–1863). During the reign of Jayajirao Scindia (until 1886), major programs of the then Gwalior State used to be held at this temple.[citation needed]

text: Maratha regime was established in Ujjain in the fourth decade of Eighteenth c. The administration of Ujjain was assigned by Peshwa Bajirao-I to his faithful commander Ranoji Shinde, The diwan of Ranoji was Sukhatanakar Ramchandra Baba Shenavi who was very wealthy he decided to invest his wealth for religious purposes. In this connection, he re-built the famous Mahakala temple in Ujjain during the 4th-5th decades of Eighteenth c. AD.

text: After Independence the Dev Sthan Trust was replaced by the municipal corporation of Ujjain. Nowadays it is under the collectorate office of Ujjain districrt.[16][17][18]

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
1. *Shreenath Madhavji : Mahayoddha Mahadji Ki Shourya Gatha* (History Research book in Hindi) Published in 2013 at Gwalior, Author Pandit Neelesh Ishwarchandra Karkare
2. *Tawareekh-E-ShindeShahi* (History Research book in Hindi) Published in 2017 at Gwalior, Author Pandit Neelesh Ishwarchandra Karkare