document_title: Yadav

question_text: yadav caste belongs to which category in bihar

root

text: Yadav

text: Origins

text: In mythology

text: The term Yadav (or sometimes Yadava) has been interpreted to mean a descendant of Yadu, who is a mythological king.[15]

tag: p

text: Using "very broad generalisations", Jayant Gadkari says that it is "almost certain" from analysis of the Puranas that Andhaka, Vrishni, Satvata and Abhira were collectively known as Yadavas and worshipped Krishna. Gadkari further notes of these ancient works that "It is beyond dispute that each of the Puranas consists of legends and myths ... but what is important is that, within that framework [a] certain value system is propounded".[16]

text: Lucia Michelutti notes that

text: At the core of the Yadav community lies a specific folk theory of descent, according to which all Indian pastoral castes are said to descend from the Yadu dynasty (hence the label Yadav) to which Krishna (a cowherder, and supposedly a Kshatriya) belonged. ... [there is] a strong belief amongst them that all Yadavs belong to Krishna's line of descent, the Yadav subdivisions of today being the outcome of a fission of an original and undifferentiated group.[17]

text: Historians like P. M. Chandorkar have used epigraphical and similar evidence to argue that ahirs and gavlis are representative of ancient yadavas and abhiras mentioned in Sanskrit works.[18]. The ahirs used such kind of materials to propagate their yadava kshatriya claim.

text: In practice

text: There are several communities that coalesce to form the Yadavs. Christophe Jaffrelot has remarked that

text: The term 'Yadav' covers many castes which initially had different names: Ahir in the Hindi belt, Punjab and Gujarat, Gavli in Maharashtra, Gola in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka etc. Their traditional common function, all over India, was that of herdsmen, cowherds and milksellers.[8]

text: However, Jaffrelot has also mentioned that most of the modern Yadavs are cultivators mainly engaged in tilling the land and only less than one third of the population in raising the cattle or milk business.[19]

text: M. S. A. Rao had earlier expressed the same opinion as Jaffrelot, and noted that the traditional association with cattle, together with the belief in descent from Yadu, defines the community.[15] According to David Mandelbaum, the association of the Yadav (and their constituent castes, Ahir and Gwala) with cattle has impacted on their commonly viewed ritual status (varna) as Shudra, although the community's members often claim the higher status of Kshatriya. The Shudra status is explained by the nomadic nature of herdsmen, which constrained the ability of other groups in the varna system to validate the adherence to practices of ritual purity; by their involvement in castration of the animals, which was considered to be a ritually polluting act; and because the sale of milk, as opposed to personal use thereof, was thought to represent economic gain from a sacrosanct product.[20]

text: According to Lucia Michelutti:

text: ... Yadavs constantly trace their caste predispositions and skills to descent, and in doing so they affirm their distinctiveness as a caste. For them, caste is not just appellation but quality of blood (Yalman 1969: 87, in Gupta 2000: 82). This view is not recent. The Ahirs (today Yadavs) had a lineage view of caste (Fox 1971; Unnithan-Kumar 1997) that was based on a strong ideological model of descent. This descent-based kinship structure was also linked to a specific Kshatriya and their religious tradition centred on Krishna mythology and pastoral warrior hero-god cults.[21]

text: Yadavs in modern India

text: Occupational background, and location

text: The Yadavs mostly live in Northern India, and particularly in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.[22][23] Traditionally, they were a non-elite[3][4] pastoral caste. Their traditional occupations changed over time and for many years Yadavs have been primarily involved in cultivation,[24] although Michelutti has noted a "recurrent pattern" since the 1950s whereby economic advancement has progressed through involvement in cattle-related business to transportation and thence to construction. Employment with the army and the police have been other traditional occupations in northern India, and more recently government employment in that region has also become significant. She believes that positive discrimination measures and gains as a consequence of land reform legislation have been important factors in at least some areas.[25]

text: Although the Yadavs have formed a fairly significant proportion of the population in various areas, including 11% of that of Bihar in 1931, their interest in pastoral activities was not traditionally matched by ownership of land and consequently they were not a "dominant caste". Their traditional position, which Jaffrelot describes as "low caste peasants", also mitigated against any dominant role. Their involvement in pastoralism accounts for a traditional view of Yadavs as being peaceful, while their particular association with cows has a special significance in Hinduism, as do their beliefs regarding Krishna.[24] Against this image, Russell and Lai, writing in 1916, called the Ahir subdivision uncouth, although it is unclear whether their comments were based entirely on proverbial stories, on observation or on both.[26] Tilak Gupta said that this view persisted in modern times in Bihar, where the Yadav were viewed in highly negative terms by other groups.[27] However, Michelutti observed, these very same people acknowledge and coveted their political influence, connections and abilities.[28]

text: The Yadavs have, however, demonstrated a feature, driven by their more notable members, that shares a similarity with other Indian communities. Mandelbaum has noted that

text: As the families of a jāti, in sufficient number, accrue a strong power base, and as their leading men become united enough to move together for higher status, they typically step up their efforts to improve their jāti customs. They try to abandon demeaning practices and to adopt purer and more prestigious ways. They usually want to drop the old name for a better one.[23]

text: Sanskritisation

text: By the end of the nineteenth century, some Yadavs had become successful cattle traders and others had been awarded government contracts to care for cattle.[29] Jaffrelot believes that the religious connotations of their connections to the cow and Krishna were seized upon by those Yadavs seeking to further the process of Sanskritisation,[24] and that it was Rao Bahadur Balbir Singh, a descendant of the last Abhira dynasty to be formed in India, who spearheaded this. Singh established the Ahir Yadav Kshatriya Mahasabha (AYKM) in 1910, which at once asserted that its Ahir constituents were of Kshatriya ritual rank in the varna system, descended from Yadu (as was Krishna), and really known as Yadavs. The organisation claimed support from the facts that various Raj ethnologists had earlier claimed a connection between the Ahir and the Abhira, and because their participation in recent events such as the Indian Rebellion of 1857 had demonstrated that Ahirs were good fighters.[30]

text: The AYKM was a self-contained unit and did not try to forge links with similar bodies among other caste groups that claimed Kshatriya descent at that time. It had some success, notably in breaking down some of the very strict traditions of endogamy within the community, and it gained some additional momentum as people from rural areas gradually migrated away from their villages to urban centres such as Delhi. Ameliorating the effects of strict endogamy was seen as being conducive to causing the community as a whole to unite, rather than existing as smaller subdivisions within it.[30] Rao has said that the events of this period meant that "the term Yadava refers to both an ethnic category and an ideology".[31]

text: Of particular significance in the movement for Sanskritisation of the community was the role of the Arya Samaj, whose representatives had been involved with the family of Singh since the late 1890s and who had been able to establish branches in various locations.[30] Although this movement, founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, favoured a caste hierarchy and also endogamy, its supporters believed that caste should be determined on merit rather than on heritage. They therefore encouraged Yadavs to adopt the sacred thread as a symbolic way to defy the traditional inherited caste system, and they also supported the creation of cow protection associations (Goraksha Sabha) as a means by which Yadavs and other non-Brahmans could affirm the extent of their commitment to Hinduism by observing the strictures relating to cow slaughter.[32] In Bihar, where the Bhumihars and Rajputs were the dominant groups, the wearing of the thread by Ahirs led to occasions of violence.[33]

text: Jaffrelot has contrasted the motivations of Yadav Sanskritisation with that of the Nairs, another Indian community. He notes that Gyanendra Pandey, Rao and M. N. Srinivas all assert that Yadav Sanskritisation was not a process to imitate or raise the community to ritual parity with the higher ranks but rather to undermine the authority of those ranks. He contrasts this "subversion" theory with the Nair's motive of "emancipation", whereby Sanskritisation was "a means of reconciling low ritual status with growing socio-economic assertiveness and of taking the first steps towards an alternative, Dravidian identity". Using examples from Bihar, Jaffrelot demonstrates that there were some organised attempts among members of the Yadav community where the driving force was clearly secular and in that respect similar to the Nair's socio-economic movement. These were based on a desire to end oppression caused by, for example, having to perform begari (forced labour) for upper castes and having to sell produce at prices below those prevailing in the open market to the zamindars, as well as by promoting education of the Yadav community. This "aggressive Sanskritisation", which caused riots in the area, was emulated by some other of the lower caste groups.[32] In support of the argument that the movements bore similarity, Jaffrelot cites Hetukar Jha, who says of the Bihar situation that "The real motive behind the attempts of the Yadavas, Kurmis and Koeris at Sanskritising themselves was to get rid of this socio-economic repression".[34]

text: The process of Sanskritisation often included creating a history. The first such for the Yadavs was written in the late nineteenth century by Vithal Krishnaji Khedkar, a schoolteacher who became private secretary to a Maharajah. In 1959, Khedekar's work was published by his son, Raghunath Vithal Khedkar, who was a surgeon, under the title The Divine Heritage of the Yadavas. There has been subsequent work to develop his ideas, notably by K. C. Yadav and J. N. Singh Yadav.[23][35]

text: Khedekar's history made the claim that Yadavs were descendants of the Abhira tribe and that the modern Yadavs were the same community referred to as dynasties in the Mahabharata and Puranas.[35] Describing the work of the Khedekars as "a well-edited and well-produced volume", Mandelbaum notes that the Yadavs

text: ... have usually been held in considerably less glorious repute by their neighbors. While an occasional warrior of a pastoral jati did establish his own state and dynasty, cattlekeepers are ranked in many localities among the lower blocks of the Shudras ... [The book] postulates divine and noble ancestry for a good many jatis in several language regions covering hundreds and thousands of people who share little more than a traditional occupation and a conviction about their rightful prerogatives.[23]

text: In creating this history there is some support for an argument that Yadavs were looking to adopt an ethnic identity akin to the Dravidian one that was central to the Sanskritisation of the Nairs and other in south India. However, Jaffrelot believes that such an argument would be overstated because the Yadav "redrawing of history" was much more narrow, being centred on themselves rather than on any wider shared ethnic base. They did acknowledge groups such as the Jats and Marathas as being similarly descended from Krishna but they did not particularly accommodate them in their adopted Aryan ethnic ideology, believing themselves to be superior to these other communities. Jaffrelot considers the history thus created to be one that is "largely mythical [and] enabled Yadav intellectuals to invent a golden age".[35]

text: Michelutti prefers the term "yadavisation" to that of "sanskritisation". She argues that the perceived common link to Krishna was used to campaign for the official recognition of the many and varied herding communities of India under the title of Yadav, rather than merely as a means to claim the rank of Kshatriya. Furthermore, that "... social leaders and politicians soon realised that their 'number' and the official proof of their demographic status were important political instruments on the basis of which they could claim a 'reasonable' share of state resources."[17]

text: All-India Yadav Mahasabha

text: The All-India Yadav Mahasabha (AIYM) was founded at Allahabad in 1924 by a meeting of disparate local groups from Bihar, Punjab and what is now Uttar Pradesh.[29][35] Although the AIYM was initially organised by V. K. Khedakar, it was Rao Balbir Singh who developed it and this coincided with a period – during the 1920s and 1930s – when similar Sanskritisation movements elsewhere in the country were on the wane. The program included campaigning in favour of teetotalism and vegetarianism, both of which were features of higher-ranking castes, as well as promoting self-education and promoting the adoption of the "Yadav" name.[22] It also sought to encourage the British Raj to recruit Yadavs as officers in the army and sought to modernise community practices such as reducing the financial burden dowries and increasing the acceptable age of marriage. Furthermore, the AIYM encouraged the more wealthy members of the community to donate to good causes, such as for the funding of scholarships, temples, educational institutions and intra-community communications.[22][33]

text: The Yadav belief in their superiority impacted on their campaigning. In 1930, the Yadavs of Bihar joined with the Kurmi and Koeri agriculturalists to enter local elections. They lost badly but in 1934 the three communities formed the Triveni Sangh political party, which allegedly had a million dues-paying members by 1936. However, the organisation was hobbled by competition from the Congress-backed Backward Class Federation, which was formed around the same time, and by co-option of community leaders by the Congress party. The Triveni Sangh suffered badly in the 1937 elections, although it did win in some areas. Aside from an inability to counter the superior organisational ability of the higher castes who opposed it, the unwillingness of the Yadavs to renounce their belief that they were natural leaders and that the Kurmi were somehow inferior was a significant factor in the lack of success. Similar problems beset a later planned caste union, the Raghav Samaj, with the Koeris.[36]

text: In the post-colonial period, according to Michelutti, it was the process of yadavisation and the concentration on two core aims – increasing the demographic coverage and campaigning for improved protection under the positive discrimination scheme for Backward Classes – that has been a singular feature of the AIYM, although it continues its work in other areas such as promotion of vegetarianism and teetotalism. Their proposals have included measures designed to increase the number of Yadavs employed or selected by political and public organisations on the grounds of their numerical strength, including as judges, government ministers and regional governors. By 2003 the AIYM had expanded to cover seventeen states and Michelutti believed it to be the only organisation of its type that crossed both linguistic and cultural lines. It continues to update its literature, including websites, to further its belief that all claimed descendants of Krishna are Yadav. It has become a significant political force.[37]

text: The campaign demanding that the army of the Raj should recruit Yadavs as officers resurfaced in the 1960s. Well-reported bravery during fighting in the Himalayas in 1962, notably by the 13th Kumaon company of Ahirs, led to a campaign by the AIYM demanding the creation of a specific Yadav regiment.[33]

text: Post-Independence

text: Rao’s study of the Yadava elite in the various states (based on the members and supporters of the All India Yadav Sabha and not on those of the rival All India Yadav Mahasabha) reveals the growth of varied business and professional groups within the caste category. Heading the list are businessmen who comprise roughly 21 per cent of the elite. They include dairy owners, contractors, tobacco and timber merchants, wholesale grass dealers, owners of engineering firms and other industries as well as restaurant owners. They are followed by the large farmers who comprise around 21 per cent of the Yadav elite. Politicians (MPs, MLAs, ministers, municipal councillors, district board members, office-bearers of political parties) constitute 17 percent of the elite and school and college teachers, doctors, lawyers and engineers together another 20 percent.[citation needed] Mandelbaum has commented on how the community basks in the reflected glory of those members who achieve success, that "Yadav publications proudly cite not only their mythical progenitors and their historical Rajas, but also contemporaries who have become learned scholars, rich industrialists, and high civil servants." He notes that this trait can also be seen among other caste groups.[38]

text: The Sadar festival is celebrated by Yadav community in Hyderabad, the following the day of Diwali each year. Community members parade, dancing around their best buffalo bulls, which have been colorfully decorated with flowers and paint.[39]

text: Classification

text: The Yadav are included in the category Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in the Indian states of Bihar,[40] Chhattisgarh,[41] Delhi,[42] Haryana,[43] Jharkhand,[44] Karnataka,[45] Madhya Pradesh,[46] Odisha,[47] Rajasthan,[48] Uttar Pradesh,[49] and West Bengal.[50] In the state of Uttar Pradesh the Social Justice Committee reported over representation of Upper OBCs, specially the Yadavs in public offices and suggested creating sub categories within the OBC category[51] and the Yadav/Ahir are the only group listed in Part A of a three-part OBC classification system introduced there following the official report of 2001.[52]

text: The Allahabad High court in 2013, restrained Government of Uttar Pradesh from continuing the reservation for Ahir, Yadav, Yaduvanshi and Gwala stating the reason that representation of these OBC communities in government services has reached to 59.67 percent.[53] Court also said that exclusion of well represented classes will help other groups who are not able to compete with these advanced groups.[54][55]

text: Gallery

text:
Dancers from the Ahir caste, a major segment of the Yadav group, in Diwali costume, circa 1916

Photograph (1916) of Ahir (now Yadav) dances dressed in cowrie shells for the stick dance at Diwali

tag: table


document_title: Florida House of Representatives

question_text: who chooses the florida speaker of the house

text: Florida House of Representatives

text: Titles[edit]

text: Members of the Senate are referred to as Senators. Because this shadows the terminology used to describe member of U.S. Senate, constituents and the news media, using The Associated Press Stylebook, often refer to State Senators as State Senators to avoid confusion with their Federal counterparts.

text: Terms[edit]

text: Article III, of the Florida Constitution, defines the terms for State Legislators.

text: The Constitution requires State Representatives to be elected on a partisan basis for two-year terms.

text: Legislators take office immediately, upon election.

text: Term limits[edit]

text: On November 3, 1992, almost 77 percent of Florida voters backed Amendment 9, the Florida Term Limits Amendment, which amended the State Constitution, to enact eight year term limits on federal and state officials. Under the Amendment, former members can be elected again after a two-year break.[6] In 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states could not enact congressional term limits, but ruled that the state level term limits remain.[7]

text: Qualifications[edit]

text: Each legislator shall be at least twenty-one years of age, an elector and resident of the District from which elected and shall have resided in the state for a period of two years prior to election.[8]

text: Legislative Session[edit]

text: Each year during which the Legislature meets constitutes a new Legislative Session.

text: Committee Weeks[edit]

text: Legislators start Committee activity in September of the year prior to the Regular Legislative Session. Because Florida is a part-time legislature, this is necessary to allow legislators time to work their bills through the Committee process, prior to the Regular Legislative Session.[9]

text: Regular Legislative Session[edit]

text: The Florida Legislature meets in a 60-day Regular Legislative Session each year. Regular Legislative Sessions in odd-numbered years must begin on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in March. Under the State Constitution, the Legislature can begin even-numbered year Regular Legislative Sessions at a time of it's choosing. [10]

text: Prior to 1991, the Regular Legislative Session began in April. Senate Joint Resolution 380 (1989) proposed to the voters a Constitutional Amendment (approved November 1990) that shifted the starting date of Regular Legislative Session from April to February. Subsequently, Senate Joint Resolution 2606 (1994) proposed to the voters a Constitutional Amendment (approved November 1994) shifting the start date to March, where it remains. The reason for the "first Tuesday after the first Monday" requirement stems back to the time when Regular Legislative Session began in April. Regular Legislative Session could start any day from April 2 through April 8, but never on April 1 -- April Fool's Day. In recent years, the Legislature has opted to start in January in order to allow lawmakers to be home with their families during school spring breaks, and to give more time ahead of the legislative elections in the Fall.[11]

text: Organizational Session[edit]

text: On the fourteenth day following each General Election, the Legislature meets for an Organizational Session to organize and select officers.

text: Special Session[edit]

text: Special Legislative Sessions may be called by the Governor, by a joint proclamation of the Senate President and House Speaker, or by a three-fifths vote of all Legislators. During any Special Session the Legislature may only address legislative business that is within the purview of the purpose or purposes stated in the Special Session Proclamation.[12]

text: Powers and process[edit]

text: The Florida House is authorized by the Florida Constitution to create and amend the laws of the U.S. state of Florida, subject to the Governor's power to veto legislation. To do so, Legislators propose legislation in the forms of bills drafted by a nonpartisan, professional staff. Successful legislation must undergo Committee review, three readings on the floor of each house, with appropriate voting majorities, as required, and either be signed into law by the Governor or enacted through a veto override approved by two-thirds of the membership of each legislative house.[13]

text: Its statutes, called "chapter laws" or generically as "slip laws" when printed separately, are compiled into the Laws of Florida and are called "session laws".[14] The Florida Statutes are the codified statutory laws of the state.[14]

text: In 2009, legislators filed 2,138 bills for consideration. On average, the Legislature has passed about 300 bills into law annually.[15]

text: In 2013, the Legislature filed about 2000 bills. About 1000 of these are "member bills." The remainder are bills by committees responsible for certain functions, such as budget. In 2016, about 15% of the bills were passed.[16] In 2017, 1,885 lobbyists registered to represent 3,724 entities.[16]

text: The House also has the power to propose Amendments to the Florida Constitution. Additionally, the House has the exclusive power to impeach officials, who are then tried by the Senate.

text: Leadership[edit]

text: The House is headed by the Speaker of the House. The Speaker of the House is elected by the members of the Chamber to a two-year term. The Speaker has the power to preside over the Chamber during Session, to appoint committee members and chairs of committees, to influence the placement of bills on the calendar, and to rule on procedural motions. The Speaker Pro Tempore presides if the Speaker leaves the Chair or if there is a vacancy. The Speaker, along with the Senate President and Governor of Florida, control most of the agenda of state business in Florida.

text:
Speaker of the Florida House: Richard Corcoran (R)
Speaker Pro Tempore of the Florida House: Jeanette Núñez (R)
Majority Leader of the Florida House: Ray Rodrigues (R)
Minority Leader of the Florida House: Janet Cruz (D)

tag: ul

text: Composition[edit]

text:
76

40

Republican

Democratic

text:
Affiliation
Party
(Shading indicates majority caucus)

Total

Republican
Democratic
NPA
Vacant

End of previous legislature
81
37
1
119
1

Begin (November 2016)
79
41
0
120
0

May 18, 2017[17]
78
119
1

August 15, 2017[18]
77
118
2

September 1, 2017[19]
76
117
3

September 26, 2017[20]

October 10, 2017[21]
77
118
2

November 1, 2017[22]
40
117
3

November 24, 2017[23]
76
116
4

December 19, 2017[24]
77
117
3

December 24, 2017[25]
76
116
4

Latest voting share
7001655000000000000♠65.5%
7001345000000000000♠34.5%

text: Leadership[edit]

text:
Position
Name
Party
District

Speaker of the House
Richard Corcoran
Republican
37

Speaker pro tempore
Jeanette Núñez
Republican
119

Majority Leader
Ray Rodrigues
Republican
76

Minority Leader
Janet Cruz
Democratic
62

Minority Leader pro tempore
Bobby DuBose
Democratic
94

text: Members, 2016–2018[edit]

text:
District
Name
Party
Residence
Counties represented
First Elected[26]

1
Clay Ingram
Rep
Pensacola
Part of Escambia
2010

2
Frank White
Rep
Pensacola
Parts of Escambia and Santa Rosa
2016

3
Jayer Williamson
Rep
Pace
Parts of Okaloosa and Santa Rosa
2016

4
Mel Ponder
Rep
Destin
Part of Okaloosa
2016

5
Brad Drake
Rep
DeFuniak Springs
Holmes, Jackson, Walton, Washington, part of Bay
2014,
2008-12

6
Jay Trumbull
Rep
Panama City
Part of Bay
2014

7
Halsey Beshears
Rep
Monticello
Calhoun, Franklin, Gulf, Jefferson, Lafayette, Liberty, Madison, Taylor, Wakulla, part of Leon
2012

8
Ramon Alexander
Dem
Tallahassee
Gadsden, part of Leon
2016

9
Loranne Ausley
Dem
Tallahassee
Part of Leon
2016,
2000-08

10
Elizabeth W. Porter
Rep
Lake City
Baker, Columbia, Hamilton, Suwannee, part of Alachua
2010

11
Cord Byrd
Rep
Neptune Beach
Nassau, part of Duval
2016

12
Clay Yarborough
Rep
Jacksonville
Part of Duval
2016

13
Tracie Davis
Dem
Jacksonville
Part of Duval
2016

14
Kimberly Daniels
Dem
Jacksonville
Part of Duval
2016

15
Jay Fant
Rep
Jacksonville
Part of Duval
2014

16
Jason Fischer
Rep
Jacksonville
Part of Duval
2016

17
Cyndi Stevenson
Rep
St. Augustine
Part of St. Johns
2015

18
Travis Cummings
Rep
Orange Park
Part of Clay
2012

19
Bobby Payne
Rep
Palatka
Bradford, Putnam, Union, part of Clay
2016

20
Clovis Watson, Jr.
Dem
Alachua
Parts of Alachua and Marion
2012

21
Chuck Clemons
Rep
Newberry
Dixie, Gilchrist, part of Alachua
2016

22
Charlie Stone
Rep
Ocala
Levy, part of Marion
2012

23
Stan McClain
Rep
Belleview
Part of Marion
2016

24
Paul Renner
Rep
Palm Coast
Flagler, parts of St. Johns and Volusia
2015

25
Tom Leek
Rep
Ormond Beach
Part of Volusia
2016

26
Patrick Henry
Dem
Daytona Beach
Part of Volusia
2016

27
David Santiago
Rep
Deltona
Part of Volusia
2012

28
Jason Brodeur
Rep
Sanford
Part of Seminole
2010

29
Scott Plakon
Rep
Longwood
Part of Seminole
2014,
2008-12

30
Bob Cortes
Rep
Altamonte Springs
Parts of Orange and Seminole
2014

31
Jennifer Sullivan
Rep
Mount Dora
Parts of Lake and Orange
2014

32
Larry Metz
Rep
Yalaha
Part of Lake
2010

33
Vacant[23]
Sumter, parts of Lake and Marion

34
Ralph Massullo Jr.
Rep
Lecanto
Citrus, part of Hernando
2016

35
Blaise Ingoglia
Rep
Spring Hill
Part of Hernando
2014

36
Amber Mariano
Rep
Hudson
Part of Pasco
2016

37
Richard Corcoran
Rep
Land O' Lakes
Part of Pasco
2010

38
Danny Burgess
Rep
Zephyrhills
Part of Pasco
2014

39
Vacant[23]
Parts of Osceola and Polk

40
Colleen Burton
Rep
Lakeland
Part of Polk
2014

41
Sam Killebrew
Rep
Winter Haven
Part of Polk
2016

42
Mike La Rosa
Rep
St. Cloud
Parts of Osceola and Polk
2012

43
John Cortes
Dem
Kissimmee
Part of Osceola
2014

44
Bobby Olszewski
Rep
Winter Garden
Part of Orange
2017

45
Kamia Brown
Dem
Orlando
Part of Orange
2016

46
Bruce Antone
Dem
Orlando
Part of Orange
2012

47
Mike Miller
Rep
Orlando
Part of Orange
2014

48
Amy Mercado
Dem
Orlando
Part of Orange
2016

49
Carlos Guillermo Smith
Dem
Orlando
Part of Orange
2016

50
Rene Plasencia
Rep
Orlando
Parts of Brevard and Orange
2014

51
Tom Goodson
Rep
Titusville
Part of Brevard
2010

52
Thad Altman
Rep
Rockledge
Part of Brevard
2016,
2003-08

53
Randy Fine
Rep
Melbourne Beach
Part of Brevard
2016

54
Erin Grall
Rep
Vero Beach
Indian River, part of St. Lucie
2016

55
Cary Pigman
Rep
Avon Park
Glades, Highlands, Okeechobee, part of St. Lucie
2012

56
Ben Albritton
Rep
Wauchula
DeSoto, Hardee, part of Polk
2010

57
Jake Raburn
Rep
Lithia
Part of Hillsborough
2012

58
Lawrence McClure
Rep
Dover
Part of Hillsborough
2017

59
Ross Spano
Rep
Dover
Part of Hillsborough
2012

60
Jackie Toledo
Rep
Tampa
Part of Hillsborough
2016

61
Sean Shaw
Dem
Tampa
Part of Hillsborough
2016

62
Janet Cruz
Dem
Tampa
Part of Hillsborough
2010

63
Shawn Harrison
Rep
Tampa
Part of Hillsborough
2014

64
J. W. Grant
Rep
Tampa
Parts of Hillsborough and Pinellas
2015,
2010-14

65
Chris Sprowls
Rep
Palm Harbor
Part of Pinellas
2014

66
Larry Ahern
Rep
Seminole
Part of Pinellas
2010

67
Chris Latvala
Rep
Clearwater
Part of Pinellas
2014

68
Ben Diamond
Dem
St. Petersburg
Part of Pinellas
2016

69
Kathleen Peters
Rep
South Pasadena
Part of Pinellas
2012

70
Wengay Newton
Dem
St. Petersburg
Parts of Hillsborough, Manatee, Pinellas, Sarasota
2016

71
Jim Boyd
Rep
Bradenton
Parts of Manatee and Sarasota
2010

72
Vacant[19]
Part of Sarasota

73
Joe Gruters
Rep
Sarasota
Parts of Manatee and Sarasota
2016

74
Julio Gonzalez
Rep
Venice
Part of Sarasota
2014

75
Michael J. Grant
Rep
Port Charlotte
Charlotte
2016,
2004-08

76
Ray Rodrigues
Rep
Estero
Part of Lee
2012

77
Dane Eagle
Rep
Cape Coral
Part of Lee
2012

78
Heather Fitzenhagen
Rep
Fort Myers
Part of Lee
2012

79
Matt Caldwell
Rep
Lehigh Acres
Part of Lee
2010

80
Byron Donalds
Rep
Naples
Hendry, part of Collier
2016

81
Joe Abruzzo
Dem
Wellington
Part of Palm Beach
2016,
2008-12

82
MaryLynn Magar
Rep
Tequesta
Parts of Martin and Palm Beach
2012

83
Gayle Harrell
Rep
Stuart
Parts of Martin and St. Lucie
2010,
2000-08

84
Larry Lee, Jr.
Dem
Port St. Lucie
Part of St. Lucie
2012

85
Rick Roth
Rep
Loxahatchee
Part of Palm Beach
2016

86
Matt Willhite
Dem
Wellington
Part of Palm Beach
2016

87
David Silvers
Dem
West Palm Beach
Part of Palm Beach
2016

88
Al Jacquet
Dem
Lantana
Part of Palm Beach
2016

89
Bill Hager
Rep
Delray Beach
Part of Palm Beach
2010

90
Lori Berman
Dem
Lantana
Part of Palm Beach
2010

91
Emily Slosberg
Dem
Boca Raton
Part of Palm Beach
2016

92
Patricia Hawkins-Williams
Dem
Lauderdale Lakes
Part of Broward
2016

93
George Moraitis
Rep
Fort Lauderdale
Part of Broward
2010

94
Bobby DuBose
Dem
Fort Lauderdale
Part of Broward
2014

95
Barrington Russell
Dem
Lauderdale Lakes
Part of Broward
2016

96
Kristin Jacobs
Dem
Pompano Beach
Part of Broward
2014

97
Jared Moskowitz
Dem
Coral Springs
Part of Broward
2012

98
Katie Edwards
Dem
Plantation
Part of Broward
2012

99
Evan Jenne
Dem
Hollywood
Part of Broward
2014

100
Joe Geller
Dem
Aventura
Parts of Broward and Miami-Dade
2014

101
Shevrin D. Jones
Dem
West Park
Part of Broward
2012

102
Sharon Pritchett
Dem
Miami Gardens
Parts of Broward and Miami-Dade
2012

103
Manny Díaz, Jr.
Rep
Hialeah
Parts of Broward and Miami-Dade
2010

104
Richard Stark
Dem
Weston
Part of Broward
2012

105
Carlos Trujillo
Rep
Miami
Parts of Broward, Collier, and Miami-Dade
2010

106
Bob Rommel
Rep
Naples
Part of Collier
2016

107
Barbara Watson
Dem
Miami Gardens
Part of Miami-Dade
2011

108
Roy Hardemon
Dem
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2016

109
Cynthia Stafford
Dem
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2010

110
José R. Oliva
Rep
Miami Lakes
Part of Miami-Dade
2011

111
Bryan Avila
Rep
Hialeah
Part of Miami-Dade
2014

112
Nicholas Duran
Dem
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2016

113
David Richardson
Dem
Miami Beach
Part of Miami-Dade
2012

114
Vacant[22]
Part of Miami-Dade

115
Michael Bileca
Rep
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2010

116
Daniel Perez
Rep
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2017

117
Kionne McGhee
Dem
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2012

118
Robert Asencio
Dem
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2016

119
Jeanette Núñez
Rep
Miami
Part of Miami-Dade
2010

120
Holly Merrill Raschein
Rep
Key Largo
Monroe and part of Miami-Dade
2012

text: District map[edit]


document_title: Anne Feeney

question_text: who wrote have you been to jail for justice

text: Anne Feeney

text: Life and career[edit]

text: Feeney was born in Charleroi, Pennsylvania to Annabelle (née Runner) and Edward J. Feeney. She has a younger sister, Kathleen. The family moved to the nearby Brookline neighborhood of the city of Pittsburgh in 1954. She graduated from Resurrection Elementary School in 1964.

text: Feeney graduated from Fontbonne Academy,[1] a Catholic girls' high school, in 1968.

text: After saving for one year, she purchased a Martin D-28 guitar that she retired from service after 40 years. The Vietnam War and Civil Rights Movement were influential events that shaped her politics and songwriting. Feeney was also influenced by her grandfather, William Patrick Feeney,[1] who was a mineworkers' organizer and violinist who also used his music in the service of political and labor causes.

text: In 1972 she was arrested in Miami at the Republican National Convention where she was protesting Richard Nixon's re-nomination for President of the United States. The charges were subsequently dismissed. That same year Feeney attended the 2nd Annual Conference on Women and the Law. Inspired by the group that founded "Women Organized Against Rape" in Philadelphia, Feeney began a campaign for a rape crisis center in Pittsburgh. The work begun by her committee evolved into Pittsburgh Action Against Rape,[2] which still provides services to rape victims in the Pittsburgh area. She graduated from the University of Pittsburgh in 1974 with a Liberal Studies degree.

text: In 1976 she joined a bluegrass band - Cucumber Rapids.[3] Feeney played rhythm guitar and acoustic double bass. The other members of the band were John Wiley Nelson (guitar), Paul Boas (harmonica), Gary Mohler (guitar and dobro) and Bill Vandivier (banjo, bass and trumpet). Later on, Larry Zierath (mandolin) replaced Gary Mohler, and violinist John Mattes joined the band shortly thereafter. The group disbanded in 1977.

text: On November 19, 1977, she married labor attorney Ron Berlin.[4] She graduated from the University of Pittsburgh School of Law[4] in 1978. Feeney is the mother of two children, Dan (1979) and Amy (1981) Berlin. She worked for 12 years as a trial attorney and served as president of the Pittsburgh Musicians' Union (the only woman ever elected to this position) from 1997-1998.[5]

text: Feeney's marriage to Ron Berlin ended in divorce in 1995 but she has remained involved in community activism and regional performances at political and labor rallies. She is a member of the Industrial Workers of the World[6] as well as the American Federation of Musicians.[5]

text: Since 1991, Feeney has toured North America and the world to perform and participate in political and labor rallies and events.[7] Her first recording, Look to the Left, was released in 1992.[8] Since then she has released several more albums, including "Union Maid," "If I Can't Dance," "Have you Been to Jail for Justice?", Dump the Bosses Off Your Back.[6] and, most recently "Enchanted Way" (2010). Feeney and her daughter Amy Berlin performed Feeney's song "Ain't I a Woman" at the "March for Women's Lives" in Washington, DC, on April 25, 2004.[9]

text: Feeney's music has been recorded by Peter, Paul and Mary[7] and played in concert as well. Political cartoonist Mike Konopacki included her recording of "Union Maid" in a flash animation in 2003. Feeney's music is frequently featured on the broadcast radio program Democracy Now! and her anthem "Have You Been to Jail for Justice?" is featured in the documentaries This is What Democracy Looks Like,[10] Isn't This a Time: A Tribute to Harold Leventhal[11] and Get Up/Stand Up: The History of Pop and Protest.

text: In 2002, she married Swedish political artist Julie Leonardsson.[12]

text: In August 2010, while touring in Sweden, Feeney was diagnosed with small cell lung cancer. She is currently undergoing treatment for that, as well as a MAC infection in her lungs. Her friends around North America have been holding benefit events to provide her living expenses since she will be unable to work for some time. In 2013, the cancer was determined to be in complete remission.[citation needed]

text: Discography[edit]

text: Compilations[edit]

text:
As part of Wild Wimmin for Peace: The Great Peace March, 1986[1]
Vote in November - Election 2004 by: Anti-Theft Device, 2004
Hail to the Thief: Songs for the Bush Years
Hail to the Thieves, Volume III
Farewell to the Thief
Hold Me Up to the Light: (with Chris Chandler)
Stoking the Fires of Resistance

text: Solo albums[edit]

text:
Look to the Left, 1992[8]
Heartland (Live), 1994[13]
Have You Been to Jail for Justice?, 2001[7]
Union Maid, 2003
Original Recordings, 2004
If I Can't Dance, 2006[14]
Dump the Bosses Off Your Back, 2008[6]
Enchanted Way, 2010

text: With Chris Chandler[edit]

text:
Flying Poetry Circus, 2001[15]
Live from the Wholly Stolen Empire, 2003[16]


document_title: 100 Greatest of All Time

question_text: who is considered the best tennis player of all time

text: 100 Greatest of All Time

text: List[edit]

text: An "international panel of tennis experts" determined this ranking of 62 men and 38 women.[1] The United States was credited with the most great players (38), followed by Australia (17), France (7), Great Britain (6) and Czechoslovakia (5). Forty-three players made the list from the Americas, 39 from Europe and 18 from Oceania.

text: Note: Bolded players are still active today. Slams figures reflect number of wins in Singles draws and are up-to-date, meaning that they may now be higher than the numbers used to determine the March 2012 list.

text:
Rank
Name
Gender
Nationality
Grand Slamtournaments
Pro Slamtournaments
Total Slamtournaments

1
Roger Federer

  SUI
20
0
20

2
Rod Laver

 AUS
11
8
19

3
Steffi Graf

 GER
22
0
22

4
Martina Navratilova

 TCH/ USA
18
0
18

5
Pete Sampras

 USA
14
0
14

6
Rafael Nadal

 ESP
17
0
17

7
Björn Borg

 SWE
11
0
11

8
Margaret Court

 AUS
24
0
24

9
Chris Evert

 USA
18
0
18

10
Billie Jean King

 USA
12
0
12

11
Don Budge

 USA
6
4
10

12
Andre Agassi

 USA
8
0
8

13
John McEnroe

 USA
7
0
7

14
Serena Williams

 USA
23
0
23

15
Jimmy Connors

 USA
8
0
8

16
Bill Tilden

 USA
10
4
14

17
Roy Emerson

 AUS
12
0
12

18
Ivan Lendl

 TCH
8
0
8

19
Monica Seles

 YUG/ USA
9
0
9

20
Ken Rosewall

 AUS
8
15
23

21
Boris Becker

 GER
6
0
6

22
Venus Williams

 USA
7
0
7

23
Fred Perry

 GBR
8
2
10

24
Suzanne Lenglen

 FRA
8
0
10

25
Stefan Edberg

 SWE
6
0
6

26
Justine Henin

 BEL
7
0
7

27
Maureen Connolly

 USA
9
0
9

28
Arthur Ashe

 USA
3
0
3

29
Helen Wills

 USA
19
0
19

30
Martina Hingis

  SUI
5
0
5

31
John Newcombe

 AUS
7
0
7

32
Lew Hoad

 AUS
4
1
5

33
Mats Wilander

 SWE
7
0
7

34
Jack Kramer

 USA
3
2
5

35
Pancho Gonzalez

 USA
2
12
14

36
René Lacoste

 FRA
7
0
7

37
Evonne Goolagong Cawley

 AUS
7
0
7

38
Maria Bueno

 BRA
7
0
7

39
Althea Gibson

 USA
5
0
5

40
Novak Djokovic

 SRB
14
0
14

41
Guillermo Vilas

 ARG
4
0
4

42
Jim Courier

 USA
4
0
4

43
Lindsay Davenport

 USA
3
0
4

44
Arantxa Sánchez Vicario

 ESP
4
0
4

45
Kim Clijsters

 BEL
4
0
4

46
Henri Cochet

 FRA
7
1
8

47
Jean Borotra

 FRA
4
0
4

48
Frank Sedgman

 AUS
5
2
7

49
Ilie Năstase

 ROU
2
0
2

50
Tony Trabert

 USA
5
2
7

51
Doris Hart

 USA
6
0
6

52
Jack Crawford

 AUS
6
0
6

53
Tracy Austin

 USA
2
0
2

54
Manuel Santana

 ESP
4
0
4

55
Gustavo Kuerten

 BRA
3
0
3

56
Stan Smith

 USA
2
0
2

57
Jennifer Capriati

 USA
3
0
3

58
Alice Marble

 USA
5
0
5

59
Margaret Osborne duPont

 USA
6
0
6

60
Virginia Wade

 GBR
3
0
3

61
Neale Fraser

 AUS
3
0
3

62
Hana Mandlíková

 TCH
4
0
4

63
Lleyton Hewitt

 AUS
2
0
2

64
Ellsworth Vines

 USA
3
5
8

65
Pancho Segura

 ECU
0
4
4

66
Bobby Riggs

 USA
3
3
6

67
Fred Stolle

 AUS
2
0
2

68
Helen Hull Jacobs

 USA
5
0
5

69
Louise Brough

 USA
6
0
6

70
Patrick Rafter

 AUS
2
0
2

71
Maria Sharapova

 RUS
5
0
5

72
Gottfried Von Cramm

 GER
2
0
2

73
Jaroslav Drobný

 TCH
3
0
3

74
Tony Roche

 AUS
1
0
1

75
Pauline Betz Addie

 USA
5
0
5

76
William Renshaw

 GBR
7
0
7

77
Molla Mallory

 USA
8
0
8

78
Ashley Cooper

 AUS
4
0
4

79
Gabriela Sabatini

 ARG
1
0
1

80
Marat Safin

 RUS
2
0
2

81
Vic Seixas

 USA
2
0
2

82
Yevgeny Kafelnikov

 RUS
2
0
2

83
Jan Kodeš

 TCH
3
0
3

84
Norman Brookes

 AUS
3
0
3

85
Yannick Noah

 FRA
1
0
1

86
Tony Wilding

 NZL
6
0
6

87
Mary Pierce

 FRA
2
0
2

88
Amélie Mauresmo

 FRA
2
0
2

89
Dorothea Lambert Chambers

 GBR
7
0
7

90
Bill Johnston

 USA
3
0
3

91
Shirley Fry Irvin

 USA
4
0
4

92
Svetlana Kuznetsova

 RUS
2
0
2

93
Nicola Pietrangeli

 ITA
2
0
2

94
Andy Roddick

 USA
1
0
1

95
Thomas Muster

 AUT
1
0
1

96
Manuel Orantes

 ESP
1
0
1

97
Pat Cash

 AUS
1
0
1

98
Bunny Austin

 GBR
0
0
0

99
Ann Haydon-Jones

 GBR
3
0
3

100
Michael Chang

 USA
1
0
1


document_title: Neuromuscular junction

question_text: as a result of ach stimulation calcium ions are released from the

text: Neuromuscular junction

text: Structure and function of the neuromuscular junction[edit]

text: The neuromuscular junction differs from chemical synapses between neurons. Presynaptic motor axons stop 30 nanometers from the sarcolemma, the cell membrane of a muscle cell. This 30-nanometer space forms the synaptic cleft through which signalling molecules are released. The sarcolemma has invaginations called postjunctional folds, which increase the surface area of the membrane exposed to the synaptic cleft.[2] These postjunctional folds form what is referred to as the motor endplate, which possess nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at a density of 10,000 receptors/micrometer2 in skeletal muscle.[3] The presynaptic axons form bulges called terminal boutons (or presynaptic terminals) that project into the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. The presynaptic terminals have active zones that contain vesicles, also called quanta, full of acetylcholine molecules. These vesicles can fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release ACh molecules into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis after depolarization.[2] AChRs are localized opposite the presynaptic terminals by protein scaffolds at the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. Dystrophin, a structural protein, connects the sarcomere, sarcolemma, and extracellular matrix components. Rapsyn is another protein that docks AChRs and structural proteins to the cytoskeleton. Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn.[2]

text: Mechanism of action[edit]

text: The neuromuscular junction is where a neuron activates a muscle to contract. Upon the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic neuron terminal, voltage-dependent calcium channels open and Ca2+ ions flow from the extracellular fluid into the presynaptic neuron's cytosol. This influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter-containing vesicles to dock and fuse to the presynaptic neuron's cell membrane through SNARE proteins. Fusion of the vesicular membrane with the presynaptic cell membrane results in the emptying of the vesicle's contents (acetylcholine) into the synaptic cleft, a process known as exocytosis. Acetylcholine diffuses into the synaptic cleft and can bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the motor endplate.

text: Acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction[edit]

text:
Ion channel linked receptor
Ions
Ligand (such as acetylcholine)

tag: ol

text: Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter synthesized from dietary choline and acetyl-CoA (ACoA), and is involved in the stimulation of muscle tissue in vertebrates as well as in some invertebrate animals. In vertebrate animals, the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a ligand-gated ion channel. Each subunit of this receptor has a characteristic “cys-loop,” which is composed of a cysteine residue followed by 13 amino acid residues and another cysteine residue. The two cysteine residues form a disulfide linkage which results in the “cys-loop” receptor that is capable of binding acetylcholine and other ligands. These cys-loop receptors are found only in eukaryotes, but prokaryotes possess ACh receptors with similar properties.[3] Not all species use a cholinergic neuromuscular junction; e.g. crayfish and fruit flies have a glutamatergic neuromuscular junction.[2]

text: AChRs at the skeletal neuromuscular junction form heteropentamers composed of two α, one β, one ɛ, and one δ subunits.[4] When a single ACh ligand binds to one of the α subunits of the ACh receptor it induces a conformational change at the interface with the second AChR α subunit. This conformational change results in the increased affinity of the second α subunit for a second ACh ligand. AChRs therefore exhibit a sigmoidal dissociation curve due to this cooperative binding .[3] The presence of the inactive, intermediate receptor structure with a single-bound ligand keeps ACh in the synapse that might otherwise be lost by cholinesterase hydrolysis or diffusion. The persistence of these ACh ligands in the synapse can cause a prolonged post-synaptic response.[5]

text: Development of the neuromuscular junction[edit]

text: The development of the neuromuscular junction requires signaling from both the motor neuron's terminal and the muscle cell's central region, During development, muscle cells produce acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and express them in the central regions in a process called prepatterning. Agrin, a heparin proteoglycan, and MuSK kinase are thought to help stabilize the accumulation of AChR in the central regions of the myocyte. MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase — meaning that it induces cellular signaling by binding phosphate molecules to self regions like tyrosines, and to other targets in the cytoplasm.[6] Upon activation by its ligand agrin, MuSK signals via two proteins called "Dok-7" and "rapsyn", to induce "clustering" of acetylcholine receptors.[7] ACh release by developing motor neurons produces postsynaptic potentials in the muscle cell that positively reinforces the localization and stabilization of the developing neuromuscular junction.[8]

text: These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse "knockout" studies. In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok-7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses.[9]

text: The development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all-human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells.[10] In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation.

text: Research methods[edit]

text: José del Castillo and Bernard Katz used ionophoresis to determine the location and density of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at the neuromuscular junction. With this technique, a microelectrode was placed inside the motor endplate of the muscle fiber, and a micropipette filled with acetylcholine (ACh) is placed directly in front of the endplate in the synaptic cleft. A positive voltage was applied to the tip of the micropipette, which caused a burst of positively charged ACh molecules to be released from the pipette. These ligands flowed into the space representing the synaptic cleft and bound to AChRs. The intracellular microelectrode monitored the amplitude of the depolarization of the motor endplate in response to ACh binding to nicotinic (ionotropic) receptors. Katz and del Castillo showed that the amplitude of the depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential) depended on the proximity of the micropipette releasing the ACh ions to the endplate. The farther the micropipette was from the motor endplate, the smaller the depolarization was in the muscle fiber. This allowed the researchers to determine that the nicotinic receptors were localized to the motor endplate in high density.[2][3]

text: Toxins are also used to determine the location of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. α-Bungarotoxin is a toxin found in the snake species Bungarus multicinctus that acts as an ACh antagonist and binds to AChRs irreversibly. By coupling assayable enzymes such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the α-bungarotoxin, AChRs can be visualized and quantified.[2]

text: Toxins that affect the neuromuscular junction[edit]

text: Nerve gases[edit]

text: Nerve gases and liquor damage this area.

text: Botulinum toxin[edit]

text: Botulinum toxin (aka botulinum neurotoxin, BoNT, and sold under the trade name Botox) inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with SNARE proteins.[2] This toxin crosses into the nerve terminal through the process of endocytosis and subsequently interferes with SNARE proteins, which are necessary for ACh release. By doing so, it induces a transient flaccid paralysis and chemical denervation localized to the striated muscle that it has affected. The inhibition of the ACh release does not set in until approximately two weeks after the injection is made. Three months after the inhibition occurs, neuronal activity begins to regain partial function, and six months, complete neuronal function is regained.[11]

text: Tetanus toxin[edit]

text: Tetanus toxin, also known as tetanospasmin is a potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani and causes the disease state, tetanus. The LD50 of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 1 ng/kg, making it second only to Botulinum toxin D as the deadliest toxin in the world. It functions very similarly to botunlinum neurotoxin (BoNT) by attaching and endocytosing into the presynaptic nerve terminal and interfering with SNARE protein complexes. It differs from BoNT in a few ways, most apparently in its end state, wherein tetanospasmin demonstrates a rigid / spastic paralysis as opposed to the flaccid paralysis demonstrated with BoNT.

text: Latrotoxin[edit]

text: Latrotoxin (α-Latrotoxin) found in venom of widow spiders also affects the neuromuscular junction by causing the release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic cell. Mechanisms of action include binding to receptors on the presynaptic cell activating the IP3/DAG pathway and release of calcium from intracellular stores and pore formation resulting in influx of calcium ions directly. Either mechanism causes increased calcium in presynaptic cell, which then leads to release of synaptic vesicles of acetylcholine. Latrotoxin causes pain, muscle contraction and if untreated potentially paralysis and death.

text: Snake venom[edit]

text: Snake venoms act as toxins at the neuromuscular junction and can induce weakness and paralysis. Venoms can act as both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins.[12]

text: Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β-neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles.[12]

text: Postsynaptic neurotoxins, otherwise known as α-neurotoxins, act oppositely to the presynaptic neurotoxins by binding to the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. This prevents interaction between the acetylcholine released by the presynaptic terminal and the receptors on the postsynaptic cell. In effect, the opening of sodium channels associated with these acetylcholine receptors is prohibited, resulting in a neuromuscular blockade, similar to the effects seen due to presynaptic neurotoxins. This causes paralysis in the muscles involved in the affected junctions. Unlike presynaptic neurotoxins, postsynaptic toxins are more easily affected by anti-venoms, which accelerate the dissociation of the toxin from the receptors, ultimately causing a reversal of paralysis. These neurotoxins experimentally and qualitatively aid in the study of acetylcholine receptor density and turnover, as well as in studies observing the direction of antibodies toward the affected acetylcholine receptors in patients diagnosed with myasthenia gravis.[12]

text: Diseases[edit]

text: Any disorder that compromises the synaptic transmission between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is categorized under the umbrella term of neuromuscular diseases. These disorders can be inherited or acquired and can vary in their severity and mortality. In general, most of these disorders tend to be caused by mutations or autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune disorders, in the case of neuromuscular diseases, tend to be humoral mediated, B cell mediated, and result in an antibody improperly created against a motor neuron or muscle fiber protein that interferes with synaptic transmission or signaling.

text: Autoimmune[edit]

text: Myasthenia gravis[edit]

text: Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where the body makes antibodies against either the acetylcholine receptor (AchR) (in 80% of cases), or against postsynaptic muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) (0–10% of cases). In seronegative myasthenia gravis low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4 is targeted by IgG1, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of its ligand, preventing the ligand from binding its receptor. It is not known if seronegative myasthenia gravis will respond to standard therapies.[13]

text: Neonatal MG[edit]

text: Neonatal MG is an autoimmune disorder that affects 1 in 8 children born to mothers who have been diagnosed with Myasthenia gravis (MG). MG can be transferred from the mother to the fetus by the movement of AChR antibodies through the placenta. Signs of this disease at birth include weakness, which responds to anticholinesterase medications, as well as fetal akinesia, or the lack of fetal movement. This form of the disease is transient, lasting for about three months. However, in some cases, neonatal MG can lead to other health effects, such as arthrogryposis and even fetal death. These conditions are thought to be initiated when maternal AChR antibodies are directed to the fetal AChR and can last until the 33rd week of gestation, when the γ subunit of AChR is replaced by the ε subunit.[14]

text: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome[edit]

text: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. This rare disease can be marked by a unique triad of symptoms: proximal muscle weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and areflexia.[15] Proximal muscle weakness is a product of pathogenic autoantibodies directed against P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channels, which in turn leads to a reduction of acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals on the presynaptic cell. Examples of autonomic dysfunction caused by LEMS include erectile dysfunction in men, constipation, and, most commonly, dry mouth. Less common dysfunctions include dry eyes and altered perspiration. Areflexia is a condition in which tendon reflexes are reduced and it may subside temporarily after a period of exercise.[16]

text: 50–60% of the patients that are diagnosed with LEMS also have present an associated tumor, which is typically small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This type of tumor also expresses voltage-gated calcium channels.[16] Oftentimes, LEMS also occurs alongside myasthenia gravis.[15]

text: Treatment for LEMS consists of using 3,4-diaminopyridine as a first measure, which serves to increase the compound muscle action potential as well as muscle strength by lengthening the time that voltage-gated calcium channels remain open after blocking voltage-gated potassium channels. In the US, treatment with 3,4-diaminopyridine for eligible LEMS patients is available at no cost under an expanded access program.[17][18] Further treatment includes the use of prednisone and azathioprine in the event that 3,4-diaminopyridine does not aid in treatment.[16]

text: Neuromyotonia[edit]

text: Neuromyotonia (NMT), otherwise known as Isaac’s syndrome, is unlike many other diseases present at the neuromuscular junction. Rather than causing muscle weakness, NMT leads to the hyperexcitation of motor nerves. NMT causes this hyperexcitation by producing longer depolarizations by down-regulating voltage-gated potassium channels, which causes greater neurotransmitter release and repetitive firing. This increase in rate of firing leads to more active transmission and as a result, greater muscular activity in the affected individual. NMT is also believed to be of autoimmune origin due to its associations with autoimmune symptoms in the individual affected.[14]

text: Genetic[edit]

text: Congenital myasthenic syndromes[edit]

text: Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are very similar to both MG and LEMS in their functions, but the primary difference between CMS and those diseases is that CMS is of genetic origins. Specifically, these syndromes are diseases incurred due to mutations, typically recessive, in 1 of at least 10 genes that affect presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic proteins in the neuromuscular junction. Such mutations usually arise in the ε-subunit of AChR,[14] thereby affecting the kinetics and expression of the receptor itself. Single nucleotide substitutions or deletions may cause loss of function in the subunit. Other mutations, such as those affecting acetylcholinesterase and acetyltransferase, can also cause the expression of CMS, with the latter being associated specifically with episodic apnea.[19] These syndromes can present themselves at different times within the life of an individual. They may arise during the fetal phase, causing fetal akinesia, or the perinatal period, during which certain conditions, such as arthrogryposis, ptosis, hypotonia, ophthalmoplegia, and feeding or breathing difficulties, may be observed. They could also activate during adolescence or adult years, causing the individual to develop slow-channel syndrome.[14]

text: Treatment for particular subtypes of CMS (postsynaptic fast-channel CMS)[20][21] is similar to treatment for other neuromuscular disorders. 3,4-Diaminopyridine, the first-line treatment for LEMS, is under development as an orphan drug for CMS[22] in the US, and available to eligible patients under an expanded access program at no cost.[17][18]

text: Bulbospinal muscular atrophy[edit]

text: Bulbospinal muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy’s disease, is a rare recessive trinucleotide, polyglutamine disorder that is linked to the X chromosome. Because of its linkage to the X chromosome, it is typically transmitted through females. However, Kennedy’s disease is only present in adult males and the onset of the disease is typically later in life. This disease is specifically caused by the expansion of a CAG-tandem repeat in exon 1 found on the androgen-receptor (AR) gene on chromosome Xq11-12. Poly-Q-expanded AR accumulates in the nuclei of cells, where it begins to fragment. After fragmentation, degradation of the cell begins, leading to a loss of both motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia.[23]

text: Symptoms of Kennedy’s disease include weakness and wasting of the facial bulbar and extremity muscles, as well as sensory and endocrinological disturbances, such as gynecomastia and reduced fertility. Other symptoms include elevated testosterone and other sexual hormone levels, development of hyper-CK-emia, abnormal conduction through motor and sensory nerves, and neuropathic or in rare cases myopathic alterations on biopsies of muscle cells.[23]

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy[edit]

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetic disorder that results in the absence of the structural protein dystrophin at the neuromuscular junction. It affects 1 in 3,600–6,000 males and frequently causes death by the age of 30. The absence of dystrophin causes muscle degeneration, and patients present with the following symptoms: abnormal gait, hypertrophy in the calf muscles, and elevated creatine kinase. If left untreated, patients may suffer from respiratory distress, which can lead to death.[24]


document_title: Military funerals in the United States

question_text: who receives the american flag at a military funeral

text: Military funerals in the United States

text: Eligibility[edit]

text: Generally, federal law allows for military funeral honors for all veterans who were discharged under circumstances "other than dishonorable."  Funeral directors will require the veteran's DD Form 214 to establish eligibility.[2]

text: Those who are eligible for military funerals and full honors in the United States include the following:[3]

text:
Active duty or Selected Reserve in the United States Armed Forces.
Former active duty or Selected Reserve who departed under conditions other than dishonorable in the United States Armed Forces.
Former enlisted servicemen or servicewomen who completed at least one term or period of initial obligated service in the Selected Reserve and departed under conditions other than dishonorable.
Former servicemen or servicewomen who were discharged due to a disability incurred or aggravated in the line of duty.

text: Ceremony[edit]

text: In the United States, there are several types of military funerals such as those performed at Arlington National Cemetery, which include and omit certain components depending on the status of the deceased (active, retired, veteran, rank/occupation).[4]

text: Standard honor military funerals include the following:

text:
A military chaplain for family members.
A casket draped in the flag of the United States and as a pall.
A casket team serving as honor guards in a ceremonial role over the remains and as pallbearers.
For funerals for an enlisted non-commissioned officer of E-9 and Officers, the casket is transported via a horse-drawn limbers and caissons. For all other funerals, the casket is transported using a hearse.
Fighter jets in missing man formation by the United States Air Force may perform an aerial flyover.
The formation of a rifle party consisting of an odd number of service members, between 3 and 7, will fire a three-volley salute (size varies according to the rank of the deceased).
The playing of Taps is performed by a lone bugler or an audio recording, at a distance 30 to 50 yards from the grave site while a “Final Salute” is given.  (In specific cases with the United States Military Academy, a muffled drum roll might accompany the bugler.)

text: Full honor military funerals include all standard honors in addition to the following:

text:
For funerals of commanding officers of O-6 (Colonel/Captain) and above, a caparisoned, riderless horse, symbolizing a fallen leader, will follow the limbers and caissons.
For funerals of general officers and flag officers of O-10 (four-star rank), a 17 gun salute is fired; O-9 (three-star rank), a 15 gun salute is fired; O-8 (two-star rank), a 13 gun salute is fired; O-7 (one-star rank), an 11 gun salute is fired.
A military band and an escort platoon participate (size varies according to the rank of the deceased).

text: Armed forces military funerals include all standard and full honors in addition to the following:

text:
Escort platoons from all five branches of the United States Armed Forces participate.
These funerals are reserved for the President of the United States (as commander-in-chief), the Secretary of Defense, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and officers granted multiple-service command.
For funerals of presidents, a 21 gun salute using artillery and battery pieces is fired (not to be confused with a three-volley salute), while all other high state officials receive 19 gun salutes.

text: When a spouse or other dependent of a current or former member of the United States Armed Forces is buried, the military service in which the primary party served will provide a casket team and a chaplain. No other military honors will be rendered unless the spouse served in the military.

text: The flag of the United States draped over the casket is meticulously folded thirteen times by a total of six honor guards, three on each side of the casket.  When the flag is completely folded, the stars point upwards, which remind Americans of their national motto, In God We Trust.[5][6][self-published source][7]  After the flag is completely folded and tucked in, it takes on the appearance of a tricorne hat, reminding Americans of the soldiers who served under General George Washington, and the sailors and Marines who served under Captain John Paul Jones, who were followed by their comrades and shipmates in the United States Armed Forces.[5][6][7]

text: An honor guard composed of one or more branches of the United States Armed Forces, presents the flag to the next of kin. The presenter, if possible a member of the same service as the deceased, will generally kneel while presenting the folded flag, with the straight edge of the flag facing the recipient.  The presenter then recites the following wording, which was standardized on April 20, 2012:[8]

text: On behalf of the President of the United States, the United States (Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force or Coast Guard ), and a grateful nation, please accept this flag as a symbol of our appreciation for your loved one's honorable and faithful service.

text: Three spent shell-casings, each representing one of three volleys, were sometimes slipped into the folds of the flag before its presentation to the next of kin.  The intention was to convey that the presence of the shell-casings proved that a rifle volley had taken place in connection with the members funeral.[9][10]  However, this practice has become infrequent and is rarely seen today as Title 4, Section 8(h) of the United States Code specifies that the flag should not be used as a receptacle for holding anything.[11]

text: Ramp ceremonies[edit]

text: A "ramp ceremony" is a memorial ceremony, not an actual funeral, for a soldier killed in a war zone held at an airfield near or in a location where an airplane is waiting nearby to take the deceased's remains to his or her home country. The term has been in use since about 2005 and became common during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.[12]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
The military funeral of U.S. Navy Rear Admiral Henry H. Bell held in Hiogo, Japan on January 14, 1868.

Members of the Presidential Salute Guns Battery,  3rd Infantry Regiment, render a gun salute with 3" anti-tank guns during a military funeral at Arlington National Cemetery on August 10, 1998.

A casket team from the 1st Special Forces Group carries the flag-draped casket of Sergeant First Class Nathan Chapman on January 8, 2002.

A casket team from the United States Navy folds the flag covering the casket of NASA Astronaut and U.S. Navy Captain Laurel Blair Salton Clark, who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003.

The casket of Caspar Weinberger, 15th United States Secretary of Defense, in a ceremonial funeral procession en route to Arlington National Cemetery on April 4, 2006.

A casket team from the 3rd Infantry Regiment transports the remains of Retired Chief Warrant Officer Michael J. Novosel during a funeral procession at Arlington National Cemetery on April 13, 2006.

The Ceremonial Unit assigned to Naval Air Station Lemoore rendering honors at a military funeral at San Joaquin Valley National Cemetery in Gustine, California.

Escort platoons march in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery as part of the funeral procession for former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral William J. Crowe in 2007.

A casket team carries Major Douglas A. Zembiec, former commander of E Company, 2nd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment from the Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis, Maryland following the funeral service.


document_title: The Nightmare Before Christmas

question_text: who voices the boogeyman in nightmare before christmas

text: The Nightmare Before Christmas

text: Plot[edit]

text: Halloween Town is a fantasy world filled with citizens such as deformed monsters, ghosts, ghouls, goblins, zombies, mummies, vampires, werewolves, and witches. Jack Skellington, the "Pumpkin King" and leader of the town, leads them in organizing the annual Halloween celebrations. However, privately Jack has grown weary of the same routine year after year, and wants something new. Wandering in the woods the morning after Halloween, he stumbles across seven trees containing doors leading to towns representing various holidays, and opens a portal to Christmas Town. Awed by the unfamiliar holiday, Jack returns to Halloween Town to show the residents his findings, but they fail to grasp the idea of Christmas and compare everything to their ideas of Halloween. Jack sequesters himself in his tower to study Christmas and find a way to rationally explain it, but cannot. He ultimately decides that it's unfair for Christmas Town alone to enjoy the holiday and announces that he and the citizens of Halloween Town will take over Christmas this year.

text: Jack assigns the citizens of Halloween Town Christmas-themed jobs, including singing carols, making presents, and building a sleigh to be pulled by skeletal reindeer. Sally, a beautiful rag doll woman that is secretly in love with Jack, feels that their efforts will end in disaster, but Jack dismisses her and assigns her the task of sewing him a red coat to wear. He also tasks Lock, Shock and Barrel, a trio of mischievous trick-or-treating children, to abduct Santa Claus and bring him back to Halloween Town. Jack tells Santa he will be bringing Christmas to the world in his place this year. Jack orders the trio to keep Santa safe, but the children instead deliver Santa to Oogie Boogie, a gambling-addict bogeyman, who plots to play a game with Santa's life at stake. Sally attempts to rescue Santa so he can stop Jack, but Oogie captures her as well.

text: Jack departs to deliver presents to the world, but the Halloween-styled gifts terrify and attack the populace. As concerns over "Santa's" behavior grows, the military takes action and shoot down Jack, causing him to crash in the cemetery. As Jack bemoans the disaster he has made of Christmas, he finds he enjoyed the experience nonetheless, reigniting his love of Halloween. Jack returns to Halloween Town and finds Oogie's lair. Oogie tries to kill Jack, and Jack pulls apart the thread holding Oogie's cloth form together, revealing a massive pile of bugs that fall into Oogie's cauldron and are killed. Jack apologizes to Santa for his actions, and Santa assures Jack that he can fix things and returns to Christmas Town. As Santa replaces the Halloween-style presents with genuine ones, the townspeople of Halloween Town celebrate Jack's return. Santa then visits Halloween Town and brings them a snowfall for the residents to play with. In the graveyard, Jack and Sally declare their love for each other.

text: Voice Cast[edit]

text:
Chris Sarandon (speaking voice) and Danny Elfman (singing voice) as Jack Skellington, a skeleton known as the "Pumpkin King" of Halloween Town. He owns a ghost dog named Zero, who has a small, glowing jack-o'-lantern nose. Danny Elfman also voices Barrel, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. Elfman was initially cast as Jack's singing voice and, after the songs were recorded, Sarandon was cast to match Elfman's voice style.[6][7]
Catherine O'Hara as Sally, a rag doll-like creation of Finklestein, and the growing love interest of Jack. She is an amateur toxicologist that uses various types of poison to liberate herself from the captivity of Finklestein. She's also psychic and has premonitions when anything bad is about to happen. O'Hara also voices Shock, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. She had previously co-starred in Burton's Beetlejuice (1988).
William Hickey as Doctor Finklestein, a mad scientist, and the "father" of Sally. He is listed in the credits only as "Evil Scientist" and is only mentioned by name once in the film.
Glenn Shadix as Mayor of Halloween Town, an enthusiastic leader who conducts town meetings. His wild mood swings from happy to distraught cause his head to spin between a "happy" and "sad" face; where some career politicians are figuratively two-faced, the Mayor is literally so. Burton and Shadix previously worked on Beetlejuice.
Ken Page as Oogie Boogie, a villainous bogeyman in Halloween Town, who has a passion for gambling.
Ed Ivory as Santa Claus, the leader of Christmas Town. Santa Claus is responsible for the annual celebration of Christmas, at which time he delivers presents to children around the world. Ivory also does the brief narration at the start of the film.
Paul Reubens as Lock, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. Reubens and Burton previously worked on Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985) and Batman Returns (1992).

text: The cast also features Kerry Katz, Carmen Twillie, Randy Crenshaw, Debi Durst, Glenn Walters, Sherwood Ball, and Greg Proops voicing various characters. Patrick Stewart recorded narration for a prologue and epilogue. While not used in the final film, the narration is included on the soundtrack album.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: As writer Tim Burton's upbringing in Burbank, California was associated with the feeling of solitude, the filmmaker was largely fascinated by holidays during his childhood. "Anytime there was Christmas or Halloween, […] it was great. It gave you some sort of texture all of a sudden that wasn't there before", Burton would later recall.[8] After completing his short film Vincent in 1982,[8] Burton, who was then-employed at Walt Disney Feature Animation, wrote a three-page poem titled The Nightmare Before Christmas, drawing inspiration from television specials of Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, How the Grinch Stole Christmas! and the poem A Visit from St. Nicholas.[9] Burton intended to adapt the poem into a television special with the narration spoken by his favorite actor, Vincent Price,[10] but also considered other options such as a children's book.[11] He created concept art and storyboards for the project in collaboration with Rick Heinrichs, who also sculpted character models;[12][13] Burton later showed his and Heinrichs' works-in-progress to Henry Selick, also a Disney animator at the time.[14] After the success of Vincent in 1982, Disney started to consider developing The Nightmare Before Christmas as either a short film or 30-minute holiday television special.[12] However, the project's development eventually stalled, as its tone seemed "too weird" to the company.[15] As Disney was unable to "offer his nocturnal loners enough scope", Burton was fired from the studio in 1984,[10] and went on to direct the commercially successful films Beetlejuice and Batman.[15]

text: Over the years, Burton regularly thought about the project. In 1990, Burton found out that Disney still owned the film rights.[16] He and Selick committed to produce a full-length film with the latter as director.[14] Disney was looking forward to Nightmare "to show capabilities of technical and storytelling achievements that were present in Who Framed Roger Rabbit."[17] Nightmare marked Burton's third film in a row to have a Christmas setting. Burton could not direct because of his commitment to Batman Returns and he did not want to be involved with "the painstakingly slow process of stop motion".[14] To adapt his poem into a screenplay, Burton approached Michael McDowell, his collaborator on Beetlejuice. McDowell and Burton experienced creative differences, which convinced Burton to make the film as a musical with lyrics and compositions by frequent collaborator Danny Elfman. Elfman and Burton created a rough storyline and two-thirds of the film's songs.[2] Elfman found writing Nightmare's eleven songs as "one of the easiest jobs I've ever had. I had a lot in common with Jack Skellington."[12] Caroline Thompson still had yet to be hired to write the screenplay.[2] With Thompson's screenplay, Selick stated, "there are very few lines of dialogue that are Caroline's. She became busy on other films and we were constantly rewriting, re-configuring and developing the film visually."[18]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Selick and his team of animators began production in July 1991 in San Francisco, California with a crew of over 120 workers, utilizing 20 sound stages for filming.[14][19] Joe Ranft was hired from Disney as a storyboard supervisor, while Eric Leighton was hired to supervise animation.[20] At the peak of production, 20 individual stages were simultaneously being used for filming.[21] In total, there were 109,440 frames taken for the film. The work of Ray Harryhausen, Ladislas Starevich, Edward Gorey, Étienne Delessert, Gahan Wilson, Charles Addams, Jan Lenica, Francis Bacon, and Wassily Kandinsky influenced the filmmakers. Selick described the production design as akin to a pop-up book.[12][18] In addition, Selick stated, "When we reach Halloween Town, it's entirely German Expressionism. When Jack enters Christmas Town, it's an outrageous Dr. Seuss-esque setpiece. Finally, when Jack is delivering presents in the 'Real World', everything is plain, simple and perfectly aligned."[22] Vincent Price, Don Ameche, and James Earl Jones were considered to provide the narration for the film's prologue; however, all proved difficult to cast, and the producers instead hired local voice artist, Ed Ivory.[6]

text: On the direction of the film, Selick reflected, "It's as though he [Burton] laid the egg, and I sat on it and hatched it. He wasn't involved in a hands-on way, but his hand is in it. It was my job to make it look like 'a Tim Burton film', which is not so different from my own films."[18] When asked on Burton's involvement, Selick claimed, "I don't want to take away from Tim, but he was not in San Francisco when we made it. He came up five times over two years, and spent no more than eight or ten days in total."[18] Walt Disney Feature Animation contributed with some use of second-layering traditional animation.[14] Burton found production somewhat difficult because he was directing Batman Returns and in pre-production of Ed Wood.[2]

text: The filmmakers constructed 227 puppets to represent the characters in the movie, with Jack Skellington having "around four hundred heads", allowing the expression of every possible emotion.[23] Sally's mouth movements "were animated through the replacement method. During the animation process, […] only Sally's face 'mask' was removed in order to preserve the order of her long, red hair. Sally had ten types of faces, each made with a series of eleven expressions (e.g. eyes open and closed, and various facial poses) and synchronized mouth movements."[24] The stop motion figurine of Jack was reused in James and the Giant Peach (also directed by Selick) as Captain Jack.

text: Soundtracks[edit]

text: The film's soundtrack album was released in 1993 on Walt Disney Records. For the film's 2006 re-release in Disney Digital 3-D, a special edition of the soundtrack was released, featuring a bonus disc which contained covers of five of the film's songs by Fall Out Boy, Panic! at the Disco, Marilyn Manson, Fiona Apple, and She Wants Revenge. Four original demo tracks by Elfman were also included.[25] On September 30, 2008, Disney released the cover album Nightmare Revisited, featuring artists such as Amy Lee, Flyleaf, Korn, Rise Against, Plain White T's, The All-American Rejects, and many more.

text: American gothic rock band London After Midnight featured a cover of "Sally's Song" on their 1998 album Oddities.

text: LiLi Roquelin did a French cover of "Sally's Song" which was released on her album Will you hate the rest of the world or will you renew your life? in 2010.

text: Another soundtrack released in 2003 was the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday CD. Although most were not original songs from the movie, one song provided on the CD is a medley of "Making Christmas", "What's This?", and "Kidnap the Sandy Claws". Other songs included are original holiday songs changed to incorporate the theme of the movie. The last song on the list, however, is the soundtrack for the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday ride.

text: Release[edit]

text: Disney decided to release the film under their Touchstone Pictures banner because they thought the film would be "too dark and scary for kids", Selick remembered. "Their biggest fear, and why it was kind of a stepchild project, [was] they were afraid of their core audience hating the film and not coming."[26] To convey Burton's' involvement and attract a wider audience, Disney marketed the film as Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas. Burton explained that,"…it turned more into more of a brand-name thing, it turned into something else, which I'm not quite sure about."[2] The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 9,[27] and was given a limited release on October 15, 1993, before its wide theatrical release on October 29.

text: The Nightmare Before Christmas was reissued by Disney under the Walt Disney Pictures banner and re-released on October 20, 2006, with conversion to Disney Digital 3-D.[4] Industrial Light & Magic assisted in the process.[20] The film subsequently received annually releases in October 2007 and 2008.[28] The El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California has been showing the film in 4-D screenings annually in October, ending on Halloween, since 2010.[29] The reissues have led to a reemergence of 3-D films and advances in RealD Cinema.[30][31]

text: Home media[edit]

text: With years of successful home video sales, Nightmare subsequently achieved the ranks of a cult film.[20] Touchstone Home Video first released the film on VHS on September 30, 1994, and on DVD on December 2, 1997. The DVD release contained no special features.[32] Nightmare was released a second time on October 3, 2000 as a special edition. The release included an audio commentary by Selick and cinematographer Pete Kozachik, a 28-minute making-of documentary, a gallery of concept art, storyboards, test footage and deleted scenes. Burton's Vincent and Frankenweenie were also included.[33] Both DVDs were non-anamorphic widescreen releases.

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD again (this time with an anamorphic transfer) and on Blu-ray Disc (for the first time) on August 26, 2008 as a two-disc digitally remastered "collector's edition", but still containing the same special features.[34][35]

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released The Nightmare Before Christmas on Blu-ray 3D on August 30, 2011. The release included a Blu-ray 3D disc, Blu-ray Disc and a DVD that includes both a DVD and digital copy of the film.[36]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Disney has undertaken an extensive marketing campaign of these characters across many media. Since 2001, Disneyland has held a seasonal Nightmare Before Christmas theme for its Haunted Mansion Holiday attraction. The attraction, an overlay of the park's Haunted Mansion, features characters, decorations and music from the film. In addition to Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party and Mickey's Halloween Party featuring the film's characters,[37] Jack Skellington, Sally, Pajama Jack, and the Mayor have been made into Bendies figures,[38] while Jack and Sally even appear in fine art.[39] Moreover, Sally has been made into an action figure and a Halloween costume.[40] A Jack Skellington figurine is available for the Disney Infinity video game, allowing the character to be playable in the game's "Toy Box Mode".[41] Jack is also the titular character in the short story "Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas: Jack's Story".[42] Nightmare has inspired video game spin-offs, including Oogie's Revenge and The Pumpkin King, and is among the many Disney-owned franchises that contribute to the mythology of the Kingdom Hearts series. A trading card game is also available.

text: Jim Edwards contends that "Tim Burton's animated movie The Nightmare Before Christmas is really a movie about the marketing business. The movie's lead character, Jack Skellington, the chief marketing officer (CMO) for a successful company, decides that his success is boring and he wants the company to have a different business plan."[43]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Around the release of the film, Disney executive David Hoberman was quoted, "I hope Nightmare goes out and makes a fortune. If it does, great. If it doesn't, that doesn't negate the validity of the process. The budget was less than any Disney blockbuster so it doesn't have to earn Aladdin-sized grosses to satisfy us."[12] The film earned $50 million in the United States on its first theatrical run.[28] and was regarded as a moderate "sleeper hit".

text: The Nightmare Before Christmas made a further $8.7 million in box office gross in its 2006 reissue.[44] The 2007 and 2008 reissues earned $14.5 million and $1.1 million, respectively, increasing the film's total box office gross to $75 million.[28]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film initially received positive reviews from critics; it has since gone on to receive widespread critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 94%, based on 88 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's consensus reads, "The Nightmare Before Christmas is a stunningly original and visually delightful work of stop-motion animation."[45] On Metacritic the film has a score of 77 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[46]

text: Roger Ebert gave a highly positive review for Nightmare. Ebert believed the film's visual effects were as revolutionary as Star Wars, taking into account that Nightmare was "filled with imagination that carries us into a new world".[47]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it a restoration of "originality and daring to the Halloween genre. This dazzling mix of fun and fright also explodes the notion that animation is kid stuff. … It's 74 minutes of timeless movie magic."[48] James Berardinelli stated "The Nightmare Before Christmas has something to offer just about everyone. For the kids, it's a fantasy celebrating two holidays. For the adults, it's an opportunity to experience some light entertainment while marveling at how adept Hollywood has become at these techniques. There are songs, laughs, and a little romance. In short, The Nightmare Before Christmas does what it intends to: entertain."[49] Desson Thomson of The Washington Post enjoyed stylistic features in common with Oscar Wilde, German Expressionism, the Brothers Grimm and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.[50]

text: Michael A. Morrison discusses the influence of Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! on the film, writing that Jack parallels the Grinch and Zero parallels Max, the Grinch's dog.[51] Philip Nel writes that the film "challenges the wisdom of adults through its trickster characters", contrasting Jack as a "good trickster" with Oogie Boogie, whom he also compares with Dr. Seuss' Dr. Terwilliker as a bad trickster.[52] Entertainment Weekly reports that fan reception of these characters borders on obsession, profiling Laurie and Myk Rudnick, a couple whose "degree of obsession with [the] film is so great that … they named their son after the real-life person that a character in the film is based on."[53] This enthusiasm for the characters has also been profiled as having spread beyond North America to Japan.[54] Yvonne Tasker notes "the complex characterization seen in The Nightmare Before Christmas".[55]

text: Danny Elfman was worried the characterization of Oogie Boogie would be considered racist by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).[56] Elfman's predictions came true; however, director Henry Selick stated the character was inspired by the Betty Boop cartoon The Old Man of the Mountain. "Cab Calloway would dance his inimitable jazz dance and sing 'Minnie the Moocher' or 'Old Man of the Mountain', and they would rotoscope him, trace him, turn him into a cartoon character, often transforming him into an animal, like a walrus," Selick continued. "I think those are some of the most inventive moments in cartoon history, in no way racist, even though he was sometimes a villain. We went with Ken Page, who is a black singer, and he had no problem with it".[18]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.[5][57] Nightmare won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, while Elfman won Best Music. Selick and the animators were also nominated for their work.[58] Elfman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score.[59] Most recently, the film ranked #1 on Rotten Tomatoes' "Top 25 Best Christmas Movies" list.[60]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:

Nominated Animation Film[61]

text: Possible sequel[edit]

text: In 2001, Disney began to consider producing a sequel, but rather than using stop motion, Disney wanted to use computer animation.[62] Burton convinced Disney to drop the idea. "I was always very protective of Nightmare not to do sequels or things of that kind," Burton explained. "You know, 'Jack visits Thanksgiving world' or other kinds of things just because I felt the movie had a purity to it and the people that like it… Because it's a mass-market kind of thing, it was important to kind of keep that purity of it."[31] The 2004 video game The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge did serve as a sequel of the film, with Capcom's crew of developers going after Burton for advice,[63] and having the collaboration of the film's art director, Deane Taylor.[64] In 2009, Selick said he would do a film sequel if he and Burton could create a good story for it.[65]

text: Related media[edit]

text: A collectible card game based on the film called The Nightmare Before Christmas TCG was released in 2005 by NECA. The game was designed by Quixotic Games founder Andrew Parks[66] and Kez Shlasnger. It consists of a Premiere set and 4 Starter Decks based on four characters, Jack Skellington, the Mayor, Oogie Boogie, and Doctor Finklestein. Each Starter Deck contains a rule book, a Pumpkin King card, a Pumpkin Points card, and a 48-card deck. The game has four card types: Characters, Locales, Creations, and Surprises. The Cards' rarities are separated into four categories: Common, Uncommon, Rare, Ultra Rare.

text: Quixotic Games also developed The Nightmare Before Christmas Party Game that was released in 2007 by NECA.[67]

text: A collector's edition The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed Jenga game was issued with orange, purple and black blocks with Jack Skellington heads on them. The set comes in a coffin-shaped box instead of the normal rectangular box.[68]

text: A 168-card Munchkin Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed Munchkin was developed by USAopoly featuring the citizens of Halloween Town such as Jack Skellington, Oogie Boogie, Doctor Finklestein, and Lock, Shock and Barrel. The game comes with a custom die similar to the ones used by Oogie Boogie in the film.[69][70]