document_title: Magnetic flux

question_text: when is the magnetic flux on a section of a closed surface equal to zero

text: Magnetic flux

text: Description[edit]

text: The magnetic interaction is described in terms of a vector field, where each point in space (and time) is associated with a vector that determines what force a moving charge would experience at that point (see Lorentz force). [1] Since a vector field is quite difficult to visualize at first, in elementary physics one may instead visualize this field with field lines. The magnetic flux through some surface, in this simplified picture, is proportional to the number of field lines passing through that surface (in some contexts, the flux may be defined to be precisely the number of field lines passing through that surface; although technically misleading, this distinction is not important). Note that the magnetic flux is the net number of field lines passing through that surface; that is, the number passing through in one direction minus the number passing through in the other direction (see below for deciding in which direction the field lines carry a positive sign and in which they carry a negative sign).[2] In more advanced physics, the field line analogy is dropped and the magnetic flux is properly defined as the surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field passing through a surface. If the magnetic field is constant, the magnetic flux passing through a surface of vector area S is

text: where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (the magnetic flux density) having the unit of Wb/m2 (tesla), S is the area of the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the normal (perpendicular) to S. For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux through an infinitesimal area element dS, where we may consider the field to be constant:

text: A generic surface, S, can then be broken into infinitesimal elements and the total magnetic flux through the surface is then the surface integral

text: From the definition of the magnetic vector potential A and the fundamental theorem of the curl the magnetic flux may also be defined as:

text: where the line integral is taken over the boundary of the surface S, which is denoted ∂S.

text: Magnetic flux through a closed surface[edit]

text: Gauss's law for magnetism, which is one of the four Maxwell's equations, states that the total magnetic flux through a closed surface is equal to zero. (A "closed surface" is a surface that completely encloses a volume(s) with no holes.) This law is a consequence of the empirical observation that magnetic monopoles have never been found.

text: In other words, Gauss's law for magnetism is the statement:

text: for any closed surface S.

text: Magnetic flux through an open surface[edit]

text: While the magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero, the magnetic flux through an open surface need not be zero and is an important quantity in electromagnetism.[citation needed]

text: Changing magnetic flux[edit]

text: For example, a change in the magnetic flux passing through a loop of conductive wire will cause an electromotive force, and therefore an electric current, in the loop. The relationship is given by Faraday's law:

text: where

text: The two equations for the EMF are, firstly, the work per unit charge done against the Lorentz force in moving a test charge around the (possibly moving) surface boundary ∂Σ and, secondly, as the change of magnetic flux through the open surface Σ. This equation is the principle behind an electrical generator.

text: Comparison with electric flux[edit]

text: By way of contrast, Gauss's law for electric fields, another of Maxwell's equations, is

text: where

text: Note that the flux of E through a closed surface is not always zero; this indicates the presence of "electric monopoles", that is, free positive or negative charges.

text:
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document_title: Cell theory

question_text: who was most responsible for the second part of cell theory (that cells come from previous cells)

question_tokens: who was most responsible for the second part of cell theory ( that cells come from previous cells )

root

text: Cell theory

text: Microscopes

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[2] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[3][4] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[5]

tag: p

text: Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[6]

text: Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[6]

text: Discovery of cells

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[5] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[7] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[8] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[5]

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[8] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[6] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[5]

text: The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[9] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[10] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.

text: In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[11] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.

text: Cell theory

text: Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[12] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[13] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[14] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[9]

text: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

text: 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

text: Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[6] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[9] This translated to:

text: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

text: However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[15] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.

text: Modern interpretation

text: The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

text:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[16]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[17]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[18]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]

tag: ol

text: The modern version of the cell theory

text: The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:

text:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]

tag: ul

text: Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories

text: Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[20] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[21] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl-, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl- as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg++. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph The Permeability of Living Cells, which rejects the bulk phase theories.

text: The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept

text: With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.

text: The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]

text: The reemergence of the bulk phase theories

text: In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.

text: In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.

text: Types of cells

text: Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:

text:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[22] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[22] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[23] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]

text: Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[24]


document_title: Royal Rumble

question_text: who won the first ever women's royal rumble

question_tokens: who won the first ever women 's royal rumble

text: Royal Rumble

text: History

text: Event

text: The Royal Rumble is a pay-per-view consisting of the Royal Rumble match, title matches, and various other matches. The first Royal Rumble event took place on January 24, 1988, and was broadcast live on the USA Network.[4] The following year, the event started to be broadcast on pay-per-view[5] and thus became one of WWE's "big four" pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, Survivor Series, and SummerSlam.[6]

text: The men's Royal Rumble match is usually located at the top of the card, though there have been exceptions, such as the 1988, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006, 2013, and 2018 events.[7] Due to the Rumble match taking up a large amount of time (most Rumble matches last roughly one hour), the Rumble event tends to have a smaller card than most other pay-per-view events, which routinely have six to eight matches per card. The 2008 Royal Rumble was the first WWE pay-per-view to be available in high-definition.[8] The 2018 Royal Rumble was the first to include a women's Royal Rumble match, which was the main event for that year.

text: Match

text: The Royal Rumble is based on the classic Battle Royal match, in which a number of wrestlers (traditionally 30) aim at eliminating their competitors by tossing them over the top rope, with both feet touching the floor.[1][2][9] The winner of the event is the last wrestler remaining after all others have been eliminated.[1][10] According to Hornswoggle, who worked for WWE from 2006 until 2016 and participated in two Rumbles, participants may learn their eliminations by knowing the two wrestlers who are eliminated before them and which wrestlers are entering the Royal Rumble before and after their elimination.[11]

text: Dates, venues, and winners

text:
List of Royal Rumble dates, venues, and winners

Event

Date

City

Venue

Main event

Winner(s)

Entry No.

Ref

1

Royal Rumble (1988)

January 24, 1988

Hamilton, Ontario

Copps Coliseum

The Islanders (Haku and Tama) vs. The Young Stallions (Paul Roma and Jim Powers) in a two out of three falls match

Jim Duggan

13

[12][13]

2

Royal Rumble (1989)

January 15, 1989

Houston, Texas

The Summit

30-man Royal Rumble match

Big John Studd

27

[14][15]

3

Royal Rumble (1990)

January 21, 1990

Orlando, Florida

Orlando Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match

Hulk Hogan

25

[16][17]

4

Royal Rumble (1991)

January 19, 1991

Miami, Florida

Miami Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match

24

[18][19]

5

Royal Rumble (1992)

January 19, 1992

Albany, New York

Knickerbocker Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship

Ric Flair

3

[20][21]

6

Royal Rumble (1993)

January 24, 1993

Sacramento, California

ARCO Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania IX

Yokozuna

27

[22][23]

7

Royal Rumble (1994)

January 23, 1994

Providence, Rhode Island

Providence Civic Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania X

Bret HartLex Luger

2723

[24][25]

8

Royal Rumble (1995)

January 22, 1995

Tampa, Florida

USF Sun Dome

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XII

Shawn Michaels

1

[26][27]

9

Royal Rumble (1996)

January 21, 1996

Fresno, California

Selland Arena

Bret Hart (c) vs. The Undertaker for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship

18

[28][29]

10

Royal Rumble (1997)

January 19, 1997

San Antonio, Texas

Alamodome

Sycho Sid (c) vs. Shawn Michaels for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship

Stone Cold Steve Austin

5

[30][31]

11

Royal Rumble (1998)

January 18, 1998

San Jose, California

San Jose Arena

Shawn Michaels (c) vs. The Undertaker in a Casket match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship

24

[32][33][34]

12

Royal Rumble (1999)

January 24, 1999

Anaheim, California

Arrowhead Pond

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania XV

Mr. McMahon

2

[35][36][37]

13

Royal Rumble (2000)

January 23, 2000

New York City, New York

Madison Square Garden

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania 2000

The Rock

24

[38][39][40]

14

Royal Rumble (2001)

January 21, 2001

New Orleans, Louisiana

New Orleans Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania X-Seven

Stone Cold Steve Austin

27

[41][42][43]

15

Royal Rumble (2002)

January 20, 2002

Atlanta, Georgia

Philips Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match for a Undisputed WWF Championship match at WrestleMania X8

Triple H

22

[44][45][46]

16

Royal Rumble (2003)

January 19, 2003

Boston, Massachusetts

FleetCenter

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XIX

Brock Lesnar

29

[47][48]

17

Royal Rumble (2004)

January 25, 2004

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Wachovia Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XX

Chris Benoit

1

[49][50][51]

18

Royal Rumble (2005)

January 30, 2005

Fresno, California

Save Mart Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 21

Batista

28

[52][53][54]

19

Royal Rumble (2006)

January 29, 2006

Miami, Florida

American Airlines Arena

Kurt Angle (c) vs. Mark Henry for the World Heavyweight Championship

Rey Mysterio

2

[55][56][57]

20

Royal Rumble (2007)

January 28, 2007

San Antonio, Texas

AT&T Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 23

The Undertaker

30

[58][59][60]

21

Royal Rumble (2008)

January 27, 2008

New York City, New York

Madison Square Garden

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXIV

John Cena

30

[61][62][63]

22

Royal Rumble (2009)

January 25, 2009

Detroit, Michigan

Joe Louis Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXV

Randy Orton

8

[64][65]

23

Royal Rumble (2010)

January 31, 2010

Atlanta, Georgia

Philips Arena

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVI

Edge

29

[66][67]

24

Royal Rumble (2011)

January 30, 2011

Boston, Massachusetts

TD Garden

40-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVII

Alberto Del Rio

38

[68]

25

Royal Rumble (2012)

January 29, 2012

St. Louis, Missouri

Scottrade Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII

Sheamus

22

[69][70][71]

26

Royal Rumble (2013)

January 27, 2013

Phoenix, Arizona

US Airways Center

CM Punk (c) vs. The Rock for the WWE Championship

John Cena

19

[72][73][74]

27

Royal Rumble (2014)

January 26, 2014

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Consol Energy Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXX

Batista

28

[75][76]

28

Royal Rumble (2015)

January 25, 2015

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Wells Fargo Center

30-man Royal Rumble match WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania 31

Roman Reigns

19

[77]

29

Royal Rumble (2016)

January 24, 2016

Orlando, Florida

Amway Center

30-man Royal Rumble match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship; reigning champion Roman Reigns defended the title in the match

Triple H

30

[78][79]

30

Royal Rumble (2017)

January 29, 2017

San Antonio, Texas

Alamodome

30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 33

Randy Orton

23

[80]

31

Royal Rumble (2018)

January 28, 2018

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Wells Fargo Center

30-woman Royal Rumble match for a women's championship match at WrestleMania 34

Shinsuke Nakamura

14

[81][82]

Asuka

25

[83][84]

32

Royal Rumble (2019)

January 27, 2019

Phoenix, Arizona

Chase Field

TBD

TBD

TBD

[85]

tag: table

text: Video box set

text: In March 2007, WWE released a complete DVD box set titled Royal Rumble: The Complete Anthology, which showcases every Royal Rumble event in its entirety, up to the 2007 Royal Rumble.[86]


document_title: Leader of the Opposition (India)

question_text: first leader of opposition in lok sabha was

text: Leader of the Opposition (India)

text:
Leader of the Opposition of India
Emblem of India
IncumbentNone (No opposition with more than 10% seats) (in Lok Sabha)Ghulam Nabi Azad (in Rajya Sabha)Website
www.parliamentofindia.nic.in

text: The Leader of the Opposition is the politician who leads the official opposition in either House of the Parliament of India.

text: While the position also existed in former Central Legislative Assembly of British India, and holders of it there included Motilal Nehru, it received statutory recognition through the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977 which defines the term "Leader of the Opposition" as that member of the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha who, for the time being, is the Leader of that House of the Party in Opposition to the Government having the greatest numerical strength and recognised, as such, by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. However, in order to get formal recognition, the concerned party must have at least  10% of the total strength of the House (55 seats in the Lok Sabha). If any party fails to get 10% seats in opposition, the House will not have recognised leader of the opposition.[1][2] A single party has to meet the 10% seat criteria, not an alliance.[3]

text: This is the most accepted or most spoken rule of appointing this post but when we refer to "Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977" by which the post has got official and statutory status, the majority required is decided by the heads of the houses, that is speaker and chairman as the case maybe.Refer to definition of Leader of Opposition in the act.

text: The Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003, clause 4, provides for the leader of the largest opposition party to be inducted as a member of the selection committee in a scenario where the lower house of parliament does not have a recognised leader of the opposition.[4]

text: Leaders of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha[edit]

text: The Lok Sabha had no recognised Leader of the Opposition until 1969 . The post was also vacant between 1980 and 1989.[5]

text:
Name

Party

Term

Lok Sabha

Vacant

No official opposition

26 January 1952 – 4 April 1957

First

Vacant

No official opposition

4 April 1957 – 4 March 1967

SecondThird

Vacant

No official opposition

4 March 1967 – 12 December 1969

Fourth

Ram Subhag Singh

Indian National Congress (O)

17 December 1969 – 27 December 1970

Vacant

No official opposition

27 December 1970 – 30 June 1977

Fifth

Y. B. Chavan

Indian National Congress

1 July 1977 – 11 April 1978

Sixth

C. M. Stephen

12 April 1978 – 9 July 1979

Y. B. Chavan

10–28 July 1979

Jagjivan Ram

Janata Party

29 July – 22 August 1979

Vacant

No official opposition[6]

22 August 1979 – 18 December 1989

SeventhEighth

Rajiv Gandhi

Indian National Congress

18 December 1989 – 23 December 1990

Ninth

L. K. Advani

Bharatiya Janata Party

24 December 1990 – 13 March 1991

21 June 1991 – 26 July 1993

Tenth

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

21 July 1993 – 10 May 1996

P. V. Narasimha Rao

Indian National Congress

16 May 1996 – 31 May 1996

Eleventh

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Bharatiya Janata Party

1 June 1996 – 4 December 1997

Sharad Pawar

Indian National Congress

19 March 1998 – 26 April 1999

Twelfth

Sonia Gandhi

31 October 1999 – 6 February 2004

Thirteenth

L. K. Advani

Bharatiya Janata Party

21 May 2004 – 18 May 2009

Fourteenth

Sushma Swaraj

21 December 2009 – 19 May 2014

Fifteenth

Vacant

No official opposition [7]

20 May 2014 - Till date

Sixteenth

Source:[8]

text: List of Leaders of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha[edit]

text: In Rajya Sabha until 1969, there was no Leader of the Opposition in real sense of the term. Till then, the practice was to call the Leader of the party in Opposition having the largest number of the members as the Leader of the Opposition, without according him any formal recognition, status or privilege. The office of Leader of the Opposition was given official recognition through the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977. This Act defines the Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha, as a member of the Council of States who is, for the time being, the Leader in that House of the party in opposition to the Government constituting the greatest numerical strength and recognised as such by the Chairman of the Council of States. Thus, the Leader of the Opposition should satisfy three conditions, namely, (i) he should be a member of the House (ii) the Leader in Rajya Sabha of the party in opposition to the Government having the greatest numerical strength and (iii) be recognised as such by the Chairman, Rajya Sabha.

text: Following members have been the Leaders of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha.[9]

text:
Name

Party

Term

1

Shyam Nandan Prasad Mishra

Indian National Congress (O)

December 1969 – March 1971

2

M. S. Gurupadaswamy

March 1971 – April 1972

3

Kamalapati Tripathi

Indian National Congress

30 March 1977 – 15 February 1978

4

Bhola Paswan Shastri

Indian National Congress (O)

24 February 1978 – 23 March 1978

5

Kamalapati Tripathi

Indian National Congress

23 March 1978 – 8 January 1980

6

L. K. Advani

Bharatiya Jana Sangh

21 January 1980 – 7 April 1980

7

P. Shiv Shankar

Indian National Congress

18 December 1989 – 2 January 1991

8

M. S. Gurupadaswamy

Janata Dal

28 June – 21 July 1991

9

S. Jaipal Reddy

22 July 1991 – 29 June 1992

10

Sikander Bakht

Bharatiya Janata Party

7 July 1992 – 23 May 1996

11

Shankarrao Chavan

Indian National Congress

23 May 1996 – 1 June 1996

12

Sikander Bakht

Bharatiya Janata Party

1 June 1996 – 19 March 1998

13

Manmohan Singh

Indian National Congress

21 March 1998 – 21 May 2004

14

Jaswant Singh

Bharatiya Janata Party

3 June 2004 – 16 May 2009

15

Arun Jaitley

3 June 2009 – 26 May 2014

16

Ghulam Nabi Azad

Indian National Congress

8 June 2014 - incumbent


document_title: The X-Files (season 8)

question_text: when does mulder come back from being abducted

text: The X-Files (season 8)

text: Plot overview[edit]

text: At the end of the seventh season finale, "Requiem", Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) was abducted by aliens.[1] Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) meets Special Agent John Doggett (Robert Patrick), the leader of an FBI taskforce organized to conduct a search for Mulder.[2] Although the search ultimately proves unsuccessful, Doggett is assigned to the X-Files and works with Scully to look for explanations to several cases.[3] When Scully learns that several women have reportedly been abducted and impregnated with alien babies, she begins to question her own pregnancy and fears for her unborn child.[4]

text: Doggett introduces Scully to Special Agent Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), an FBI specialist in ritualistic crime, shortly before Mulder's deceased body suddenly appears in a forest at night.[5] Following Mulder's funeral, Assistant Director Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) is threatened by Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea) that he must kill Scully's baby before it is born. Billy Miles (Zachary Ansley), a multiple abductee who disappeared on the same night as Mulder, is returned deceased but his dead body is resurrected and restored to full health.[6] Mulder also returns from death, with Scully supervising his recovery. Fully rejuvenated, Mulder investigates several X-Files, against orders to do so, but soon gets fired, leaving Doggett in charge of the cases. Mulder continues to provide input in an unofficial capacity.[7]

text: Reluctantly accepting Krycek's assistance, Mulder, Doggett and Skinner learn that an alien virus recently created in secret by members of the United States government has replaced several humans, including Miles and several high-ranking FBI personnel, with so-called alien "Super Soldiers". Krycek claims that the soldiers are virtually unstoppable aliens who want to make sure that humans will not survive the colonisation of Earth. They have learned that Scully's baby is a miraculously special child and are afraid that it may be greater than them. They have only recently learned of the baby's importance, which is why Krycek told Skinner to kill the unborn child earlier.[8] When Miles arrives at the FBI Headquarters, Mulder, Doggett, Skinner and Krycek help Scully to escape along with Reyes who drives her to a remote farm. Shortly after Skinner kills Krycek, Scully delivers an apparently normal baby while the alien super soldiers surround her. Without explanation, the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives. While Doggett and Reyes report to the FBI Headquarters, Mulder takes Scully and their newborn son, William, back to her apartment.[9]

text: Themes[edit]

text: The eighth season of The X-Files takes place in a science fiction environment and employs the common science fiction concepts of strongly differentiated characters fighting an unequivocally evil enemy, in this case, the alien Colonists. The first episode of the season, "Within" explores "loss", "loneliness" and "pain" after the disappearance of Mulder.[10] "Per Manum" included basic themes common in the series, such as "dark, foreboding terror", an "overriding sense of paranoia", and "the fear of the unknown", among others.[11] Later on, death and resurrection emerged as a major sub-theme during the season, starting with "The Gift", wherein John Doggett is killed and resurrected, and later in "Deadalive" when Mulder is brought back to life after apparently being dead for three months. This sub-theme would continue well into the ninth season.[12] The main story arc of the season dealt with the idea that, at times, humanity is a greater danger to itself. This theme is made manifest by the Syndicate and the human conspiracy with the aliens.[12]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: The series' original title sequence, crafted in 1993 during the show's first season had remained unchanged for seven seasons. With the partial loss of Duchovny after the seventh-season finale, the decision was made to update the credits, which were first featured in the premiere episode of season eight, "Within". The opening sequence now included new images, updated FBI badge photos for Duchovny and Anderson, and the addition of Patrick to the main cast. Duchovny's badge features in the opening credits only when he appears in an episode. The opening contains images of Scully's pregnancy and, according to Frank Spotnitz, shows an "abstract" explanation for Mulder's absence in this season, with him falling into an eye.[13]

text: After the partial departure of Duchovny, Carter decided to focus almost solely on the character of Doggett during the first half of the season. This led to some unhappiness from the cast and critics, most notably Duchovny and Anderson.[14][15] According to Tom Kessenich in his book Examinations, Anderson reportedly "wasn't thrilled" with the lack of attention her character was getting; instead, the writers were crafting episodes solely for Doggett because he was the show's new "voice".[14][15] Duchovny, on the other hand, was unhappy because Mulder's abduction was never properly examined. Reportedly, Duchovny offered to write and direct an episode based around the conceit of Mulder being trapped in the alien spaceship, as seen in the season opener "Within" and "Without". Carter, however, nixed the idea because "it was not about Doggett."[14]

text: Casting[edit]

text: The show's seventh season was a time of closure for The X-Files. Characters within the show were written out—including Cigarette Smoking Man (William B. Davis) and Mulder's mother (Rebecca Toolan)—and several plot threads were resolved, including the fate of Fox Mulder's sister Samantha.[16] Furthermore, after settling his contract dispute, Duchovny quit the show.[17][18] This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season.[19] Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny's departure, and Carter penned "Requiem", the finale episode of the seventh season, as a possible series finale.[13] However, at the last minute, a new season was ordered and Duchovny agreed to star part-time, returning for 12 episodes instead of 21.[18] Due to this change, the producers found it difficult to write Duchovny's character out of the script, but also eventually explain Mulder's absence if there were to be an upcoming season. Eventually, it was decided to have the character abducted by aliens.[13]

text: Hoping to continue the series, Carter introduced a new central character to replace Mulder: John Doggett. More than 100 actors auditioned for the role, with only about ten considered by the producers. Lou Diamond Phillips and Hart Bochner were among the auditionees, and Phillips, Bochner and Bruce Campbell (who played Wayne Weinsider in a previous episode of The X-Files) were considered for the role, but the producers eventually choose Robert Patrick.[20] The season also introduced Monica Reyes (portrayed by Annabeth Gish), who would become a main character in the following season.[13][21]

text: Crew[edit]

text: Chris Carter, who also served as executive producer and showrunner during the season, wrote or co-wrote the bulk of the episodes for the season, with nine of the twenty one episodes. Of the nine, four were co-written with executive producer Frank Spotnitz. Carter also wrote five episodes solo, and Spotnitz wrote four episodes solo. The rest of the writing staff contributed one or two episodes. Vince Gilligan was promoted to executive producer and wrote one episode. John Shiban was promoted to co-executive producer and wrote one episode. David Amann was promoted to producer and wrote one episode. Jeffrey Bell was promoted to executive story editor and wrote one episode. Greg Walker was promoted to executive story editor and wrote two episodes. Steven Maeda was promoted to story editor and wrote two episodes. Daniel Arkin, who wrote a freelance episode for the series previously, returned to contribute to the story for one episode.

text: Kim Manners was promoted to co-executive producer and directed the most of episodes of the season with seven. Directors who directed multiple episodes for the season included Tony Wharmby who directed four, Rod Hardy directed three, and Richard Compton directed two. Peter Markle, Terrence O'Hara, and Barry K. Thomas each directed one episode. Carter directed a single episode, while writer Spotnitz made his directorial debut.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Muldera
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scullyb
Robert Patrick as Special Agent John Doggett

text: a ^ Although appearing in only 12 episodes, Duchovny is credited as "starring" in the opening credits for the episodes in which he appeared.

text: b ^ Does not appear in "The Gift", except in archived footage.

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text: Also starring[edit]

text:
Mitch Pileggi as Walter Skinner
Annabeth Gish as Monica Reyes
Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek

text: Guest starring[edit]

text:
James Pickens, Jr. as Alvin Kersh
Tom Braidwood as Melvin Frohike
Bruce Harwood as John Fitzgerald Byers
Dean Haglund as Richard Langly
Kirk B. R. Woller as Agent Gene Crane
Zachary Ansley as Billy Miles
Adam Baldwin as Knowle Rohrer
Jeff Gulka as Gibson Praise
Sheila Larken as Margaret Scully
Brian Thompson as Alien Bounty Hunter

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Episodes marked with a double dagger () are episodes in the series' Alien Mythology arc.[nb 1]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code [23]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

162
1
"Within"
Kim Manners
Chris Carter
November 5, 2000 (2000-11-05)
8ABX01
15.87[24]

An FBI taskforce is organized to hunt for Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) but Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) suspects the taskforce leader, Special Agent John Doggett (Robert Patrick), and instead chooses to search for her lost partner with Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi).

163
2
"Without"
Kim Manners
Chris Carter
November 12, 2000 (2000-11-12)
8ABX02
15.1[25]

At a remote school in the Arizona desert, Doggett, Scully, Gibson and Skinner – as well as a host of students and agents – do not know who to trust as the bounty hunter works among them; and – in a spaceship close by – Mulder is experimented on.

164
3
"Patience"
Chris Carter
Chris Carter
November 19, 2000 (2000-11-19)
8ABX04
13.3[25]

Having been assigned to the X-Files, John Doggett joins Scully to investigate a series of gruesome murders that appear to be the work of a bat-like creature. This being their first case together, Scully and Doggett find that their investigative techniques are less than similar.

165
4
"Roadrunners"
Rod Hardy
Vince Gilligan
November 26, 2000 (2000-11-26)
8ABX05
13.6[25]

Working alone, Scully pursues a cult that worship a slug-like organism; but in her efforts to save an injured stranger, she discovers she's in over her head.

166
5
"Invocation"
Richard Compton
David Amann
December 3, 2000 (2000-12-03)
8ABX06
13.9[25]

Having been kidnapped for ten years, a little boy mysteriously reappears but has not aged one bit. While the case stirs up painful memories for Doggett, suspicion stirs that the boy is not all he seems.

167
6
"Redrum"
Peter Markle
Story by : Steven Maeda & Daniel Arkin
Teleplay by : Steven Maeda
December 10, 2000 (2000-12-10)
8ABX03
13.2[25]

After his wife is murdered, a lawyer friend of Doggett's tries to clear his name of the crime but the days regress backwards.

168
7
"Via Negativa"
Tony Wharmby
Frank Spotnitz
December 17, 2000 (2000-12-17)
8ABX07
12.37[26]

Doggett and Skinner work to avert the murderous spree of a religious cult leader, while Scully takes time off to deal with the early stages of her pregnancy.

169
8
"Surekill"
Terrence O'Hara
Greg Walker
January 7, 2001 (2001-01-07)
8ABX09
13.3[25]

The fatal shooting of a realtor while alone in a cinderblock jail cell has Doggett hoping motive will yield more than method, but they soon learn that there is more to this case than meets the eye.

170
9
"Salvage"
Rod Hardy
Jeffrey Bell
January 14, 2001 (2001-01-14)
8ABX10
11.7[25]

Doggett and Scully encounter a dead man who is still living – only somewhat changed. What they discover is a man made of metal, enacting vengeance on those he believes created him.

171
10
"Badlaa"
Tony Wharmby
John Shiban
January 21, 2001 (2001-01-21)
8ABX12
11.8[27]

When a mystic smuggles himself out of India, Scully and Doggett give chase as his murderous spree starts terrorising two families in suburban Washington, D.C. But Scully soon comes upon a crisis of faith when she realises how dissimilar her techniques are from Mulder, even as she tries to be the believer.

172
11
"The Gift"
Kim Manners
Frank Spotnitz
February 4, 2001 (2001-02-04)
8ABX11
14.6[28]

Doggett comes upon an old case about a professed 'soul-eater' that Mulder kept secret from Scully, which he hopes will ultimately prove the truth behind Mulder's abduction.

173
12
"Medusa"
Richard Compton
Frank Spotnitz
February 11, 2001 (2001-02-11)
8ABX13
13.8[25]

A string of bizarre deaths in the tunnels of the Boston subway system sees Doggett join a team of professionals underground to investigate. Meanwhile, Scully has to defy the train authorities above land, who are determined to get the trains up and running within hours.

174
13
"Per Manum"
Kim Manners
Chris Carter & Frank Spotnitz
February 18, 2001 (2001-02-18)
8ABX08
16.0[29]

Scully becomes personally involved when she encounters several women who had no way of naturally conceiving but who claim to have been abducted and impregnated with alien babies.

175
14
"This Is Not Happening"
Kim Manners
Chris Carter & Frank Spotnitz
February 25, 2001 (2001-02-25)
8ABX14
16.9[30]

Doggett calls on another agent, Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), to assist in the Mulder case, but Scully's fears about finding him come to a head with the sudden recovery of abductees seized at the same time.

176
15
"Deadalive"
Tony Wharmby
Chris Carter & Frank Spotnitz
April 1, 2001 (2001-04-01)
8ABX15
12.4[31]

Three months after Mulder's funeral, a former abductee awakens from the dead and Scully pins her hopes on resurrecting her partner. Meanwhile, Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea) offers Skinner a loathsome deal which he claims can save Mulder's life.

177
16
"Three Words"
Tony Wharmby
Chris Carter & Frank Spotnitz
April 8, 2001 (2001-04-08)
8ABX18

N/A

Mulder secretly conducts his own investigation after a man is gunned down on the White House lawn attempting to inform the President of a planned alien invasion. However, he is soon in over his head as he tries to expose further evidence of colonization.

178
17
"Empedocles"
Barry K. Thomas
Greg Walker
April 22, 2001 (2001-04-22)
8ABX17
12.46[32]

Reyes enlists Mulder's help investigating a killer's connection to the unsolved murder of Doggett's son but Mulder soon finds himself clashing with Doggett.

179
18
"Vienen"
Rod Hardy
Steven Maeda
April 29, 2001 (2001-04-29)
8ABX16
11.8[25]

Mulder and Doggett are asked to investigate several deaths aboard an oil rig, but Mulder is convinced the rig is carrying an alien black oil; meanwhile a heavily pregnant Scully attempts to protect Mulder in absentia.

180
19
"Alone"
Frank Spotnitz
Frank Spotnitz
May 6, 2001 (2001-05-06)
8ABX19
12.7[25]

With Scully on maternity leave, Doggett is paired with an enthusiastic young agent named Layla Harrison who knows everything about the X-Files, and her apotheosis of Mulder and Scully leads to him learning a thing or two. But when Harrison and Doggett disappear, Mulder defies orders in an attempt to find them.

181
20
"Essence"
Kim Manners
Chris Carter
May 13, 2001 (2001-05-13)
8ABX20
12.8[25]

Mulder, Skinner and Doggett come up against the horrible consequences of the Syndicate's pact with the aliens, as a hybrid attempts to erase all evidence of the tests – including Scully's soon-to-be-born baby. The men call on Reyes, and – reluctantly – Alex Krycek to help them.

182
21
"Existence"
Kim Manners
Chris Carter
May 20, 2001 (2001-05-20)
8ABX21
14.00[33]

Mulder, Doggett and Skinner face off with the alien replicants as they desperately try to expose the conspiracy within the FBI. Meanwhile Scully goes into labour in a remote location, but Reyes soon learns they may be no safer there.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Reportedly, Patrick was cast due to the hopes that his featured role in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) would attract a great 18- to 35-year-old male demographic to the show. Early on, Fox executives reported a 10 percent overall increase in the demographic, solely due to Patrick's casting.[34] "Within", the season's first episode, earned a Nielsen household rating of 9.5, meaning that it was seen by 9.5% of the nation's estimated households.[35] The episode was viewed by 15.87 million viewers,[24] which marked an 11% decrease from the seventh season opener, "The Sixth Extinction."[36] The highest-rated episode of the season was "This is Not Happening", which was viewed by 16.9 million viewers, making it the most-watched episode of the series, in terms of viewers, since "The Sixth Extinction".[30][37] The season finale, "Existence", earned a Nielsen household rating of 8.4, meaning that it was seen by 8.4% of the nation's estimated households.[38] The episode was watched by 14 million viewers, overall.[33] The nine episodes of the season that did not feature Mulder averaged only 13 million viewers, whereas the twelve episodes that did feature Mulder averaged 13.93 million viewers, almost a difference of one million. The season averaged a total of 13.53 million viewers, down from the seventh season's 14.2 million.[39]

text: During 2000, companies were paying Fox $225,000 for every 30-second spot that would air between acts of The X-Files. Many Information technology (IT) companies were buying commercials during the show, largely due to the fact that "many ['coders IT geeks'] get their weekly fix of science fiction from this prime-time show."[31]

text: Reviews[edit]

text: The show's eighth season received mixed to positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club noted that the first eight seasons of The X-Files were "good-to-great", and that the eighth season of the show was "revitalized by the new 'search for Mulder' story-arc."[40] John C. Snider of SciFiDimensions gave the season a favorable review, calling it "great" and describing its episodes as "pretty strong".[41] Collin Polonowonski of DVD Times said that the season included "more hits than misses overall" but was throughout negative about the mythology episodes claiming them to be the "weakest" episodes in the season.[42] Many critics eventually accepted Doggett's character. Anita Gates of The New York Times said that most fans had "accepted" the introduction of the character and further stated that he actually looked "Like a Secret Service Agent."[43] Carter commented on the character, saying "Everybody likes Robert Patrick and the character", but further stating that the fans "miss" Duchovny's character, Mulder.[44] Dave Golder of SFX called Patrick "superb" and noted that his entrance in the series "inject[ed] a sense of pragmatism and good old-fashioned plain-speaking in to the show which we didn't realise was missing until we got it."[45] Entertainment Weekly reviewer Ken Tucker said that Patrick's portrayal of Doggett was "hardboiled alertness", giving mostly positive reviews about his inclusion.[46] Cynthia Littleton of The Hollywood Reporter described the season as the show's "swan song".[47]

text: Not all reviews were positive. Jesse Hassenger from PopMatters gave a negative review to the season, claiming that Patrick was mis-cast and calling David Duchovny's appearances as Fox Mulder shallow.[48] Golder criticized the season for "recycling plots with gusto" and for featuring Mulder falling into Scully's eye in the opening credits, noting that it "gives Duchovny too much of a lingering presence on the show, reinforcing prejudices against Patrick as some kind of 'imposter'."[45]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: "This Is Not Happening" was nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for cinematography.[13] Robert Patrick won a Saturn Award in the category "Best Television Actor" in 2001 for his role as Doggett,[49] that year Gillian Anderson was nominated in the category "Best Actress on Television" and the series itself was nominated in the category "Best Network Television Series" in the Saturn Awards, but failed to win.[50] Anderson was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild award the very same year in the category "Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series".[51] The X-Files won its last Emmy Award with "Deadalive", and Bill Roe received a nomination for "Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series".[13][52]

text: DVD release[edit]

text:
The X-Files – The Complete Eighth Season

Set details[23]
Special features[23]

21 episodes
6-disc set
1.78:1 aspect ratio
Subtitles: English, Spanish
English (Dolby 2.0 Surround)

"The Truth About Season Eight" Documentary
DVD-ROM game
Audio Commentaries (Dolby Digital 2.0 Stereo)

"Alone" – Frank Spotnitz
"Existence" – Kim Manners

Selected special effects clips
Deleted scenes
Character profiles
42 promotional television spots

Release dates

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

November 4, 2003 (2003-11-04)
March 14, 2004 (2004-03-14)
April 14, 2004 (2004-04-14)

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ All of these episodes were included on the DVD collections The X-Files Mythology, Volume 3 – Colonization and The X-Files Mythology, Volume 4 – Super Soldiers, released by Fox, with the exception of "The Gift". However, this episode is labelled as a mythology episode in the series' official guide book, The Complete X-Files: Behind the Series the Myths and the Movies, released in 2008.[22]


document_title: Tiffany & Co.

question_text: where does tiffany and co make their jewelry

text: Tiffany & Co.

text: History[edit]

text: Establishment[edit]

text: Founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and John B. Young[7] in Brooklyn, Connecticut in 1837 as a "stationery and fancy goods emporium", the store initially sold a wide variety of stationery items, and operated as "Tiffany, Young and Ellis" in Lower Manhattan. The name was shortened to Tiffany & Company in 1853 when Charles Tiffany took control and established the firm's emphasis on jewelry.[8] Tiffany & Company has since opened stores in major cities all over the world. Unlike other stores at the time in the 1830s, Tiffany clearly marked the prices on its goods to forestall any haggling over prices. In addition, against the social norm at the time, Tiffany only accepted cash payments, and did not accept payments on credit.[9] Such practices, fixed prices for ready money, were first introduced by Palmer's of London Bridge in 1750, who employed the young Robert Owen, the later social reformer.[10]

text: "Blue Book" and the Civil War[edit]

text: The first Tiffany's mail order catalog, known as the "Blue Book," was published in 1845 in the United States (U.S.);[11] and publishing of the catalog continues in the 21st century. In 1862, Tiffany & Company supplied the Union Army with swords (Model 1840 Cavalry Saber), flags and surgical implements. In 1867, Tiffany & Co. was the first US firm to win an award for the excellence in silverware at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. In 1868, Tiffany was incorporated.[6]

text: "Gilded Age"[edit]

text: In 1870, the company built a new store building at 15 Union Square West, Manhattan, designed by John Kellum and costing $500,000. It was described by The New York Times as a "palace of jewels".[12] Tiffany stayed at this site until 1906.[12]

text: In 1877, an insignia that would become the famous New York Yankees "NY" logo was struck on a police medal of honor by Tiffany & Company; the Yankees adopted the logo in 1909. In 1878, Tiffany won the gold medal for jewelry and a grand prize for silverware at the Paris Exposition, which gave the Tiffany brand name added prestige. In 1887, Tiffany bought the French Crown Jewels, which attracted publicity and further solidified the Tiffany brand's association with high-quality diamonds.[13] The company revised the Great Seal of the United States in 1885. In 1902, after the death of Charles Lewis Tiffany, his son, Louis Comfort Tiffany, became the company's first official Design Director.[11]

text: In 1919, the company made a revision to the Medal of Honor on behalf of the United States Department of the Navy.[14] This "Tiffany Cross" version was rare because it was awarded only for combat, using the previous design for non-combat awards.[15] In 1942 the Navy established the Tiffany version for non-combat heroism, but in August 1942 the Navy eliminated the Tiffany Cross and the two-medal system.[16] In 1956, legendary designer Jean Schlumberger joined Tiffany, and Andy Warhol collaborated with Tiffany to create Tiffany Holiday Cards (circa 1956-1962).[11][17]

text: In 1968 Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the U.S. at the time, commissioned Tiffany to design a White House china-service that featured 90 flowers.[18][19] In November 1978, Tiffany & Co. was sold to Avon Products Inc. for about US$104 million in stock. However, in a 1984 Newsweek article, the Fifth Avenue Tiffany store was likened to the Macy's department store during a white sale due to the high number of inexpensive items on sale;[9] furthermore, customers complained about declining quality and service. In August 1984, Avon sold Tiffany to an investor group led by William R. Chaney for US$135.5 million in cash. Tiffany went public again in 1987 and raised about US$103.5 million from the sale of 4.5 million shares of common stock.[9]

text: Due to the 1990–1991 recession in the United States, Tiffany commenced an emphasis upon mass merchandising. A new campaign was launched that stressed how Tiffany could be affordable for all; for example, the company advertised that the price of diamond engagement rings started at US$850. “How to Buy a Diamond” brochures were sent to 40,000 people who called a toll-free number specifically set up to target the broader population.[9] However, to maintain its image as a luxury goods company, high-style images remained on display in Tiffany stores.[9]

text: In 2000, The Tiffany & Company Foundation was established to provide grants to nonprofit organizations working in the areas of the environment and the arts.[20] In June 2004, Tiffany sued EBay, claiming that the latter was making profits from the sale of counterfeit Tiffany products;[21] however, Tiffany lost both at trial and on appeal.[22]

text: On 2009, a collaboration between the Japanese mobile-phone operator SoftBank and Tiffany & Co. was announced. The two companies designed a cellphone, limited to ten copies, and containing more than 400 diamonds, totaling more than 20 carats (4.0 g). Each cellphone cost more than 100,000,000 yen (£781,824).[23]

text: United States V. Lederhaas-Okun, Ingrid[edit]

text: A media report in early July 2013 revealed that former Tiffany & Company vice president Ingrid Lederhaas-Okun had been arrested and charged with stealing more than $US1.3 million of diamond bracelets, drop earrings, and other jewellery. According to prosecutors from Manhattan, U.S., the official charges filed against Ms. Lederhaas-Okun accused her of "wire fraud and interstate transportation of stolen property."[24]

text: In February 2017, the company announced that CEO Frédéric Cuménal was out of a job immediately after 22 months, blaming weak sales results. He was replaced on an interim basis by the New York jeweler's longtime former CEO and current chairman Michael Kowalski.[25]

text: Stores[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Since 1940, Tiffany's flagship store has operated at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City, U.S. The polished granite exterior is well known for its window displays, and the store has been the location for a number of films, including Breakfast at Tiffany's, starring Audrey Hepburn, and Sweet Home Alabama, starring Reese Witherspoon. The former Tiffany and Company Building on 37th Street is on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.[26]

text: When it opened in 1990, the Tiffany & Co. store at Fairfax Square in Tysons Corner, Virginia, U.S. became the largest outside of New York City, with 14,500 sq ft (1,350 m2) of retail space.[27]

text: In the United Kingdom (UK), Tiffany stores are located in Terminal 5, at London's Heathrow airport (opened at the end of March 2008), in the Westfield London shopping centre in Shepherd's Bush, in Old Bond Street, opposite the entrance to Burlington Gardens, and in Manchester, Selfridges Exchange Square. A flagship Irish store was opened in Brown Thomas on Dublin's Grafton Street in October 2008 and is the largest of the company's European outlets. Also in October 2008, Tiffany's opened a store in Madrid, Spain, and brought the Tiffany Yellow Diamond (pictured at right) to the opening.[citation needed]

text: In Australia, Tiffany & Company's flagship store is located on Collins Street in Melbourne. Other stores include Chadstone Shopping Centre (Melbourne); Sydney (Castlereagh Street, Westfield Bondi Junction and DFS Galleria on George Street); Brisbane (Queens Plaza); and Perth (King Street).[citation needed]

text: On March 8, 2001, Tiffany's launched its first Latin American store in São Paulo, Brazil, located in the Iguatemi São Paulo shopping center.[28] The company opened a second store in the city on October 20, 2003,[29] near the famous Oscar Freire Street. The last store opened was Curitiba in September 2013, now Tiffany has stores in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Brasília e Curitiba.

text: In 2004, Tiffany & Company created "Iridesse", a chain of stores dedicated to pearl-only jewelry. The company operated 16 stores in Florida, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, California, Illinois, Massachusetts, and Virginia. However, the chain operated at a loss since its founding and the company announced in early 2009 that, despite its continued belief in the concept, it would discontinue Iridesse due to the economic climate of the time.[30]

text: Tiffany & Co. reported in 2006 that its location at South Coast Plaza in Costa Mesa, California, U.S. was its most profitable location, followed by the New York City flagship store, the Boston, Massachusetts outlet in Copley Place, and the Ala Moana Shopping Center in Honolulu, Hawaii.[citation needed]

text: Tiffany & Co. announced its second store opening at Pavilion Kuala Lumpur in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in September 2007 to coincide with the shopping mall's opening. The store consists of 1,700 sq ft (160 m2) retail space and features the same decor elements as the New York City flagship store. Later that year, other stores were opened in the U.S., such as the Natick Collection in Natick, Massachusetts, U.S., which opened in September 2007, and Mohegan Sun Erika's casino in Connecticut, U.S, and the Providence Place mall in Providence, Rhode Island, U.S., both of which opened in November 2007.[citation needed]

text: As of January 31, 2007, the company operated 64 Tiffany & Company. stores in the U.S., with a total physical area of approximately 486,000 gross square feet, as well as 103 international stores that measure approximately 306,000 gross square feet in total.

text: The company's expansion continued in 2011 with the opening of a store at the Multiplaza complex in Escazú, Costa Rica[citation needed] and a Richmond, Virginia, U.S. location in Stony Point Fashion Park on September 9, 2011.[citation needed]

text: In November 2012, the company operated in 22 countries and its worldwide net sales reached US$3.6 billion in 2011. Over 50% of the company's 2011 sales occurred in the U.S.[31]

text: As of January 31, 2014, the company operated 121 stores in the Americas, 72 in Asia-Pacific, 54 in Japan, 37 in Europe and 5 in "emerging markets". The 298[32] stores have 1,165,700 gross retail square footage. The company's flagship store in New York had 45,500 gross retail square footage and accounted for 8% of the company's net sales in the latest fiscal year ended January 31, 2014.[3]

text: The company plans to continue expanding in 2014 with the opening of a flagship store at the Centro Andino complex in Bogota, Colombia

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: The company's manufacturing facilities produce approximately 60% of the merchandise sold[citation needed]—the balance, including rose-gold and almost all non-jewelry items, coming from third parties overseas. Tiffany's oversees a significant U.S. manufacturing base, with jewelry and silver goods produced in Mount Vernon, New York; majority in Cumberland, Rhode Island; and Lexington, Kentucky, while silver hollow-ware is produced in Rhode Island. The company's other subsidiaries, located in facilities outside the U.S., process, cut and polish the diamonds.

text: The company may increase the percentage of internally manufactured jewelry in the future, but it is not expected[by whom?] that Tiffany will ever manufacture all of its needs. Some of the key factors which management considered[when?] prior to its decision to outsource manufacturing included: product quality; gross margin; access to or mastery of various jewelry-making skills and technology; support for alternative capacity; and the cost of capital investments.[33]

text: Advertising[edit]

text: After the initial "Blue Book" Tiffany catalog was published in 1845, Tiffany continued to use its catalog as an advertisement strategy. The Tiffany catalog is one of the first catalogs to be printed in full color and was free until 1972. Tiffany's mail-order catalogs reached 15 million people in 1994. Tiffany also produces a corporate gift catalog each year, and corporate customers purchase Tiffany products for business gift-giving, employee service and achievement recognition awards, and customer incentives. Tiffany still produces a catalog for subscribers, but its advertisement strategy is no longer focused primarily on its catalog.[6]

text: In addition to the mail-order catalog, Tiffany displays its advertisements in many locations, including bus stops, in magazines and newspapers, and online. Tiffany routinely places ads in Vanity Fair, The New York Times Magazine, Architectural Digest, Money, Conde Nast Traveler, Black Enterprise, and Texas Monthly.[citation needed] With the advent of new technologies, Tiffany places banner advertisements in the New York Times' mobile app for the iPhone, whereby the user can download the Tiffany app free of charge.[34][35] In January 2015 they launched their first ever same-sex couple campaign.

text: Products[edit]

text: Diamonds[edit]

text: George Frederick Kunz, a Tiffany’s gemologist, was instrumental in the international adoption of the metric carat as a weight standard for gems, and the Tiffany standard for sterling and platinum have been adopted as U.S. standards.[citation needed] The 128.54 carats (25.708 g) Tiffany Yellow Diamond is usually on display in the New York City flagship store.[citation needed]

text: Tiffany designs were worn by famous U.S. families such as the Astors, Vanderbilts, Posts, Huttons and Morgans. Athletes, Hollywood stars, and European royalty were also Tiffany customers. However, like other similar diamond retailers, Tiffany's enacts a strict policy against the repurchasing of diamonds sold from its stores. In 1978, a female customer in New York City was denied after she attempted to sell back a diamond ring she had bought from Tiffany two years earlier for US$100,000. Writing for The Atlantic publication in 1982, Edward Jay Epstein explained the rationale for such a policy:

text: Retail jewelers, especially the prestigious Fifth Avenue stores, prefer not to buy back diamonds from customers, because the offer they would make would most likely be considered ridiculously low ... Most jewelers would prefer not to make a customer an offer that might be deemed insulting and also might undercut the widely held notion that diamonds go up in value. Moreover, since retailers generally receive their diamonds for engagement rings from wholesalers on consignment, and need not pay for them until they are sold, they would not readily risk their own cash to buy diamonds from customers. Rather than offer customers a fraction of what they paid for diamonds, retail jewelers almost invariably recommend to their clients firms that specialize in buying diamonds "retail."[36]

text: In November 2012, Tiffany & Co. negotiated a three-year contract to purchase diamonds from Russia's ALROSA for US$60 million annually. At the time of the ALROSA deal, the company held contracts with diamond mines in Australia, Botswana, Canada, Namibia, Russia, Sierra Leone, and South Africa.[31][37]

text: Colored gemstones[edit]

text: Tiffany offers jewelry incorporating a wide variety of colored gemstones including gems it played a role in popularizing such as tsavorite,[38] Kunzite, and morganite. In February 2015, a turquoise and aquamarine bib designed by Francesca Amfitheatrof, Tiffany’s design director, worn by Cate Blanchett at the 2015 Academy Awards, contrasted favorably with the white–diamond encrusted jewelry worn by other stars.[32]

text: Fragrances[edit]

text: In the late 1980s, Tiffany & Co. ventured into the fragrance business. Tiffany for women was launched in 1987, a floral perfume for women by perfumer Francois Demachy. At $220 per ounce, "Tiffany" was successfully marketed by major department stores across the United States.[39] Two years later, Tiffany for Men was launched in 1989 and developed by perfumer Jacques Polge. The bottle for both the men's and women's fragrance were designed by Pierre Dinand. In 1995, Tiffany launched Trueste perfume for women which was later discontinued. Currently, Tiffany continues to produce the core fragrance product for men and the product for women.

text: Sports awards[edit]

text: Tiffany's is the maker of the Vince Lombardi Trophy, made annually to be awarded to the NFL team that wins the Super Bowl that year.[40]

text: Tiffany & Co. is the maker of the Larry O' Brien Trophy. The trophy that is given to the winner of the NBA Finals. Tiffany & Co. Has been manufacturing the trophies since 1977.

text: Tiffany & Co. also made the 2010 and 2012 World Series rings for the San Francisco Giants.[41]

text: The MLS championship trophy was also made by Tiffany & Co.[42]

text: The NASCAR Sprint Cup Series' Sprint Cup trophy is also made by Tiffany & Co. and is given to the champion every year, the most recent being given to 2016 champion Jimmie Johnson.

text: The Detroit Gold Cup trophy made originally by Tiffany & Co. in 1904, is awarded annually to the champion of the Detroit Gold Cup H1 Unlimited hydroplane race.

text: A £10,000 Rugby League World Cup trophy was made by Tiffanys to celebrate the centenary of Rugby league.[43]

text: NFL: AFC, NFC, Vince Lombardi, Pete Rozelle, NFL Rookie, Pro Bowl, Ed Thorpe,

text: Golf: Byron Nelson, Dicks Sporting Goods, LPGA Japan, LPGA Commissioner’s Trophy, LPGA International Crown, Northern Trust Open, Ocean Arena, Presidents Cup, FedEx Cup, Arnold Palmer Invitational,

text: Soccer: MLS Cup, MLS MVP,

text: Baseball: World Series, Home Run Derby, MVP World Series, World Baseball Classic, Commissioner’s Historic Achievement,

text: Horse Racing: Arlington Park, Belmont, Triple Crown, Woodlawn Vase, Polo Challenge, Kentucky Derby,

text: NBA: Larry O’Brien, MVP, Western Conference, Eastern Conference, WNBA: Global Community Cup

text: Tennis: US Open Championship, US Open Series Championship,

text: Other: ING NYC Marathon Medallions and Rudin Tray, NASCAR Sprint Cup, Vanderbilt Cup, Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year, Woodruff Cup, Viking Rowing,

text: Rings: NY Giants (2007, 2010) NO Saints (2009) SF Giants (2010, 2012) USA Basketball (2010, 2012) LA Kings (2012, 2014) LA Galaxy (2012) Seattle Seahawks (2012)

text: Current designers and collections[edit]

text:
Elsa Peretti's collections include Bean, Diamonds by the Yard, Open Heart, Sevillana, and Teardrop.
Paloma Picasso's collections include Loving Heart and Sugar Stacks.
Jean Schlumberger
Francesca Amfitheatrof collections include The Art of the Sea and the Tiffany T collection.[32]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Tiffany and Co. has been mentioned on the titles of several works, such as the Breakfast at Tiffany's play and that play's namesakes, a famous film from 1961 starring Audrey Hepburn and a 1995 alternative rock song.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Silver tea pot

White House china service for Lady Bird Johnson

Tea Set, about 1877, held at the Birmingham Museum of Art

Carved frog for display at the Exposition Universelle (1900) in Paris

Diamond necklace ca. 1904

Wisteria Tiffany Studios lamp ca. 1902

Hooker Emerald Brooch commissioned by Tiffany in 1950

Tray or Waiter, displayed at World's Columbian Exposition, 1893, Brooklyn Museum