document_title: The Good Witch

question_text: where is good witch supposed to be located

text: The Good Witch

text: Plot[edit]

text: A mysterious, darkly beautiful woman who claims to be named, "Cassandra Nightingale", moves into an old, abandoned house which is reputed to be haunted by its original owner, "The Grey Lady." The small community is divided in their opinion of her: some want her to stay, especially widowed police chief Jake Russell and his two children, while others want her to leave, especially Martha Tinsdale. Through the course of the story, seemingly magical things happen, and the community attributes these occurrences to her. Everyone begins to wonder if she is really a witch.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Catherine Bell as Cassandra Nightingale / (Cassandra's real name: Sue-Ellen Brock)
Chris Potter as Chief of Police Jake Russell
Matthew Knight as Brandon Russell
Hannah Endicott-Douglas as Lori Russell
Nathan McLeod as Michael
Jesse Bostick as Kyle
Paula Boudrea as Nancy
Noah Cappe as Deputy Derek Sanders
Catherine Disher as Martha Tinsdale
Peter MacNeill as George

text: Promotion[edit]

text: On January 15, 2008, Hallmark Channel and Limbo, the mobile entertainment community, teamed up to create and launch the cable network's first-ever mobile interactive initiative. The campaign "enhanced viewers' experience of the premiere of the network's original movie ... through 'Limbo Unique' – a game played via cell phone or online". The grand prize was $2,000 and a portrait of the "Grey Lady" that was featured in the movie.[1]

text: Production[edit]

text: Although set in "Middleton, USA", it was filmed in Hamilton and Niagara on the Lake, Ontario. In the sequel, The Good Witch's Charm, the map on the wall in the police station shows Middleton north and west of Chicago, in the vicinity of DuPage County. The names of the suburbs and interstates that are west of Chicago can be clearly seen.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The movie had great success on Hallmark Channel on the night of its premiere, making it the second-highest-rated original movie to that date. It premiered with a 3.8 HH (household) rating and was in nearly 3.2 million homes.[2] It also was #1 in its time period, propelling the channel to the #4 spot in weekly ranking.[3]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Good Witch (Region 1) DVD was released on January 5, 2010.

text: The Good Witch Collection (Region 1) DVD was released October 14, 2014.[4]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: On February 7, 2009, the Hallmark Channel aired a sequel, The Good Witch's Garden.[5][6] The third installment, The Good Witch's Gift,[7] aired on November 13, 2010, on Hallmark. The fourth installment, The Good Witch's Family, aired on October 29, 2011. The fifth installment The Good Witch's Charm premiered on October 27, 2012. The Good Witch's Destiny sixth installment premiered on October 26, 2013. A seventh installment, The Good Witch's Wonder, aired October 25, 2014.[8]

text: Television series[edit]

text: In February 2014, the Hallmark Channel announced that Good Witch had been green-lighted for a ten-episode series, starring Catherine Bell, to premiere on February 28, 2015.[9][10] Production for the first season began on October 29, 2014, in Toronto,[11] with Sue Tenney as showrunner. Bailee Madison and James Denton also star.[11][12]

text: Characters[edit]

text: A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film.

text:
Character
Title

The Good Witch
Garden
Gift
Family
Charm
Destiny
Wonder
Season 1
Halloween
Season 2
Secrets of Grey House
Season 3

Cassie Nightingale
Catherine Bell

Jake Russell
Chris Potter

Martha Tinsdale
Catherine Disher

George
Peter MacNeill

Peter MacNeill

Brandon Russell
Matthew Knight
Dan Jeannotte

Dan Jeannotte

Lori Russell
Hannah Endicott-Douglas

Derek
Noah Cappe

Tom Tinsdale
Paul Miller

Paul Miller

Paul Miller

Paul Miller

Michael Tinsdale
Nathan McLeod

Edward Ruttle

Edward Ruttle

Gwen

Elizabeth Lennie

Elizabeth Lennie

Abigail Pershing

Sarah Power

Sarah Power

Tara

Ashley Leggat
Rebecca Dalton

Rebecca Dalton

Grace Russell

uncredited
uncredited
Lily-Fay Mowbray
Bailee Madison

Jarod

Randal Edwards

Randal Edwards

Randal Edwards

Sam

James Denton

Ryan

Anthony Lemke

Anthony Lemke

Stephanie

Kylee Evans

Nick

Rhys Matthew Bond

Anthony

Shane Harte

Linda

Gabrielle Miller

Ben

Jefferson Brown

Eve

Kate Corbett

John Dover

Dan Payne

Courtney

Alanna Bale

Liam

Seann Gallagher

Noah

James Swalm


document_title: Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer

question_text: who sings don't fall in love with a dreamer

question_tokens: who sings do n 't fall in love with a dreamer

root

text: Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer

text:
"Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer"

Single by Kenny Rogers with Kim Carnes

from the album Gideon

B-side
"Gideon Tanner"

Released
March 1980

Genre
Country, soft rock[1]

Length
3:39

Label
United Artists

Songwriter(s)
Kim Carnes
David Ellingson

Producer(s)
Larry Butler and Kenny Rogers

Kenny Rogers singles chronology

"Coward of the County"
(1979)
"Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer"
(1980)
"Love the World Away"
(1980)

"Coward of the County"
(1979)
"Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer"
(1980)
"Love the World Away"
(1980)

tag: table

text: "Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer" is a song written by David Ellingson and Kim Carnes and recorded by Kenny Rogers and Carnes as a duet. It was released in March 1980 as the first single from Rogers' album Gideon. The song reached #3 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart[2] and #1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.[3] It was also recorded in Spanish as "No Te Enamores De Un Loco".

tag: p

text: Chart performance[edit]

text:
Chart (1980)
Peak
position

US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[4]
3

US Billboard Hot 100[5]
4

US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[6]
2

Canadian RPM Country Tracks
1

Canadian RPM Top Singles
3

Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary Tracks
1

New Zealand Singles Chart
31

Australian Singles Chart
38

text:
Preceded by
"The Way I Am"
by Merle Haggard
RPM Country Tracks
number-one single
May 31-June 21, 1980
Succeeded by
"Trying to Love Two Women"
by The Oak Ridge Boys


document_title: Lana Lang (Smallville)

question_text: what episode does lana and lex get together

text: Lana Lang (Smallville)

text: Role in Smallville[edit]

text: In the first season, Lana and Clark Kent (Tom Welling) are just beginning their friendship, as she is a popular cheerleader dating star quarterback Whitney Fordman (Eric Johnson), and Clark cannot get near her without getting sick from the kryptonite necklace she wears.[2] In the pilot episode, when her parents are killed in the first meteor shower, Lana is adopted by her aunt Nell (Sarah-Jane Redmond). As the first season progresses, Lana grows closer to Clark, while Whitney begins to distance himself because of his father's medical ailments.[3] In season two's episode "Heat" Lana sends Whitney, who left Smallville for the Marines in the season one finale,[4] a video message breaking up with him.[5] Lana's aunt Nell moves to Metropolis with her fiancé in the season two episode "Ryan", but Lana opts to move in with her friend Chloe Sullivan (Allison Mack) so that she may finish high school in Smallville.[6]

text: By the end of season two, Lana and Clark slowly try and start a romantic relationship, but fear backlash from Chloe because of her personal feelings for Clark.[7] Just as the two give in to their feelings fully, Clark unexpectedly runs away from Smallville in the season two finale.[8] At the start of season three, it is shown that Lana, alongside the Kents, has been spending her time searching for Clark; she ultimately finds him in Metropolis thanks to Chloe's help.[9] Clark's actions in Metropolis force the two to rethink their relationship in the season three episode "Phoenix",[10] and Lana eventually begins a new relationship with Adam Knight (Ian Somerhalder), a guy she met while in physical therapy after being trampled by a horse in season three's "Asylum".[11][12] By the season three episode "Crisis", it is discovered that the relationship Adam attempted to form with Lana was just a ploy so that Adam could investigate Clark.[13]

text: Season three's "Forsaken" reveals that Lana, in order to move on with her life, applies and is admitted into a program to study in Paris, France.[14] Season four shows that Lana, while in Paris, began a romantic relationship with Jason Teague (Jensen Ackles). At the beginning of season four, Lana returns to Smallville after receiving a mysterious tattoo on her lower back, which resembles a symbol on the local Kawatche cave walls, when she touched the tomb of Countess Margaret Isobel Theroux.[15] In season four's "Spell" and "Sacred", the tattoo acts as a doorway for the spirit of Isobel to inhabit Lana's body; each time Isobel takes over Lana's body she sets out to find the three stones of knowledge, which are also being searched for by Clark and Lex Luthor (Michael Rosenbaum).[16][17] In the season four finale "Commencement", Lana is confronted by Jason's mother Genevieve (Jane Seymour), who is also after the three stones of knowledge, and during a struggle Isobel comes forward and kills Genevieve. The resulting death of Genevieve, who was revealed to have been the cause for Isobel's death centuries prior in the episode "Bound",[18] releases Isobel's control over Lana.[19]

text: During the second meteor shower, Lana witnesses the landing of an alien spacecraft, and two alien beings emerging and killing everyone in sight in the season five premiere.[20] The spaceship becomes Lana's primary focus in season five, officially teaming up with Lex Luthor to discover the mystery behind the ship in the episode "Splinter".[21] When her relationship with Clark hits a breaking point in season five's "Hypnotic",[22] she begins to grow closer to Lex.[23] The relationship with Lex eventually leads to marriage in the season six episode "Promise", but not before Lana discovers Clark's secret and realizes why he has been lying to her all these years.[24] When she learns that Lex set up a fake pregnancy in order to get her to marry him in the season six finale "Phantom", Lana effectively ends the marriage and fakes her own death to escape Lex after he threatens her. She also frames Lex for her murder, to punish him for his betrayal.[25] It is revealed at the start of season seven that her effort fails, but as part of the "settlement" of their divorce, Lex makes sure that Lana does not go to jail for her actions.[26]

text: With Clark's secret no longer an issue, the two begin a real relationship in the season seven episode "Fierce".[27] Lana becomes obsessed with making Lex pay for all his crimes against humanity, which causes her to develop the Isis Foundation, using $10 million she stole from Lex. The Isis Foundation is a counseling center for kryptonite-infected people, but it doubles as a front for Lana's surveillance on Lex. Her obsessions also begin to affect her relationship with Clark by the episode "Wrath".[28] Eventually, Lana realizes that, even though she loves him, the only way for Clark to help the world to the best of his ability would be if she left Clark and Smallville for good, which she does in the season seven finale.[29]

text: In the season eight episode "Bride", Oliver Queen (Justin Hartley), believing he is tracking Lex Luthor who has been missing since the season seven finale, discovers Lana instead. Oliver convinces her to return to Smallville so that she can attend Chloe's wedding.[30] In the season eight episode "Power", it is revealed that Lana really returned so that she could steal Lex's "Prometheus" technology, which harnesses alien DNA to give the wearer of a "super-suit" superhuman abilities, for herself. By the end of the episode, the procedure is complete, and Lana becomes just as strong and invulnerable as Clark.[31] In the episode "Requiem", Lana discovers that her suit absorbs kryptonite, but also emits the radiation making her a potential danger to Clark. When Winslow Schott puts a kryptonite bomb on the roof of the Daily Planet, Lana is forced to absorb all of the kryptonite to deactivate the bomb. As a result, she leaves Smallville to go on her own quest as Clark can no longer get near her without the kryptonite radiation hurting him.[32]

text: Portrayal[edit]

text: Creators Alfred Gough and Miles Millar were initially trying to find someone for the role of Clark Kent, but Kristin Kreuk was the first to be cast, as Lana Lang. Casting director Coreen Mayrs sent David Nutter, the director of the pilot episode, a tape of 69 people and the second person on the tape was Kreuk.[33] They loved her audition tape so much they immediately showed her to the network.[34] For one of her auditions, she read the graveyard scene with Tom Welling; the network thought they had "great chemistry".[34] Jade Unterman and Louise Grant portrayed the character as a child and an elderly woman, respectively.[35][36]

text: At the time she was cast as Lana, Kreuk had no idea who the character was in Superman lore. Her uncle, who owned a comic book shop, filled her in on the details and she learned more from the producers. Kreuk realized that the character in the comics and her character on the show were two different people. As a result, Kreuk learns about the development of Lana as Lana is learning in the show, just as Welling does with Clark Kent.[37] When asked if her being cast as a traditionally red haired character caused outcry from fans, Kreuk believes that whoever did "got over it pretty fast".[38] By season three, Kreuk had decided to "invest" herself less in her character, as she felt that her character's ultimate development was entirely in the hands of the producers. She no longer became frustrated when the producers had Lana doing things that Kreuk felt were out of character, instead trusting that they would find the right direction for the character.[39]

text: Kreuk enjoyed the fourth season because it gave her the chance to stretch her acting abilities with Lana's storyline involving the spirit of Countess Margaret Isobel Thoreaux. According to the actress, "That was a lot of fun; I thought it was funny as well […] It really was wonderful to be able to stretch and play this driven woman who has a goal and is going to reach it, and in the meantime she's going to be sexy doing it. That was a lot of fun for me because the show [sometimes] isn't realistic so, as actors, we get to play with different types of things."[40] Kreuk says her strangest moment on the show was playing a vampire in season five's "Thirst", an experience she remembers as "uncomfortable" due to the fake blood they covered her in.[38] Kreuk left the series at the end of the seventh season,[41] but appeared in five episodes in season eight as a guest star.[42]

text: Coincidentally, Annette O'Toole, who portrayed Martha Kent in the series, played Lana Lang in Superman III, starring Christopher Reeve.

text: Character development[edit]

text: Storyline progression[edit]

text: One of the early turning points for the character came in season one's "X-Ray", when Lana discovers information about her parents that changes her perspective on them. It began with her mother's graduation speech, which showed that her mother was not as happy as her aunt had led her to believe. Lana's perception of her mother drove the way she led her own life, which was based on the idea of everyone perceiving her in a good light.[37] In season two, Lana discovers that her mother had had an affair with a man named Henry Small, and that he was her biological father. This continued the idea established in season one that Lana's perception that her parents were this perfect couple was wrong. According to Kreuk, meeting her biological father allowed the character to realize that she had to create her own life, as the one she had envisioned did not actually exist.[1]

text: Season two also showed Lana's transition from the "girl next door" to a more "self-reliant young woman". At the beginning of the season Lana is forced to come to terms with her diminished feelings for Whitney, as well as her growing feelings for Clark. It takes time before Lana is strong enough to finally tell Whitney the truth, in a video message, about the way she feels.[1] The Talon, a local coffee shop co-owned by Lana, becomes her new grounding force as Whitney and her aunt have left Smallville. Kreuk thinks that it can be hard to believe that a sixteen-year-old girl could become co-owner of a coffee shop, but she believes that it helps to provide more independence for the character and establish her more within the show.[1] Eventually, in order to really get to know herself, and find her role in life, Lana leaves Smallville for Paris.[39] In season four, Kristin Kreuk felt like Lana is "going a little crazy and is uncertain about her direction, and feels people aren't validating her beliefs".[43]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: At the start of the show, Lana Lang is characterized as the girl next door. As Kreuk describes her, she is the "beautiful, popular girl who is really lonely". She has a "hole in her heart", because of the loss of her parents, and feels empathy for everyone.[1] Kristin feels that deep down the character is a "tough girl", and that Lex manages to bring that side of her out more. For instance, he convinces her to fight back against a rival coffee shop that is spreading rumors about The Talon – the coffee shop that she joint owns with Lex.[37] Unfortunately, that tough side is not seen in the first season. According to Kreuk, the character was never placed in situations where she could show her outgoing side, because she was left to communicate primarily with Whitney and Clark. Kreuk thinks that Lana "lived in her head a little bit"; she was intelligent enough to read classical books, but would also read romantic novels "on the sly".[37]

text: As Alfred Gough sees it, Lana is a by-product of Clark and Lex's decisions. She will always love Clark, and Clark will always love her, but it was Clark's bad decisions, and Lex's "basest instincts" that make Lana the "receptacle of all of these bad decisions", marking her as a tragic figure on the show.[43] While Lana was with Clark, Kreuk characterizes her as a "wimpy, whiny kind of girl"; with Lex, Lana is "strong, powerful, and doesn't have to question, 'What is going on? What does he think? Does he love me? I don't know where I stand.'"[43] To clarify, Lana's relationship with Lex brings out a darkness that had not been seen in the character. This is evident in "Nemesis" when Lana manipulates her way into seeing Lionel, only to interrogate him about why he forced her to marry Lex, as well as leaving Lex to die in the underground tunnels. As Gough explains, by the end of the sixth season, Lana has shown that she can beat Lex at his own games.[44]

text: Reviewer Jennifer Malkowski feels that Lana is one of the most gullible characters on television. According to Malkowski, Lana's strong feminist stance, and her request that people should stop protecting her and start telling her the truth, are diluted by her willingness to believe whatever pieces of information she gets, even if they are lies.[45] After the series ended, Gough and Millar expressed regret with Lana's characterization throughout the course of the show, which they felt damaged Lana in the audiences' mind. Gough and Millar believed that Lana's behavior toward Clark (for refusing to reveal his secret) made her come across as cold and unsympathetic.[46]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: When Smallville first began, Lana was in a romantic relationship with Whitney Fordman, the star quarterback of the football team. Kreuk believes that Lana truly was in love with Whitney when they first started dating, but by the time the audience first sees her in the pilot she is no longer in that same state of mind. Kreuk believes that by the time of the pilot Lana had grown “comfortable” with Whitney, and that was where their relationship ended.[37] Though Lana had growing feelings for Clark, Kreuk feels that the producers rushed the coupling of Clark and Lana at the end of the second season. She believes that with everything that had happened throughout the season between the two characters, it seemed a bit of a stretch for Lana to just quickly fall into Clark's arms.[1] The next season began to develop more of the relationship between Lex and Lana. Kreuk believes that Lana cares for Lex as a friend, and that she recognizes the "undertones" that Lex may be placing on their relationship, but that Lana tends to ignore them. Kreuk recognizes that Lex is a big part of Lana's life, and that Lana tries to pay more attention to the good that Lex does and focus less on the darker aspects of his life.[39]

text: The friendship that Lana shares with Chloe was deeply damaged at the start of season three, so much so that not even Kreuk realized how badly until the episode "Truth". Lana is aware that Chloe still has romantic feelings for Clark, but their friendship suffered the most when Chloe revealed that she had known where Clark had been hiding for months. The feelings of distrust for Chloe remained hidden until "Truth"—where Chloe gained the ability to have others speak the truth no matter what—when Lana finally revealed how much she cannot trust Chloe.[39] This developing friendship between Lex and Lana puts a strain on Lana's relationship with Clark. Just as Clark is beginning to realize the truth about Lex and his lies, Lana is starting to trust Lex more. Ultimately, it is Clark's own lack of honesty that forces Lana to leave Smallville and go to Paris at the end of season three. In the end, Kreuk believes that Clark is Lana's only true friend, as Lex is more focused on bringing his father to justice and she and Chloe have a tense relationship based on their mutual feelings for Clark.[39]

text: While in Paris, Lana begins a new romantic relationship with Jason Teague. Kreuk believes that Lana did love Jason Teague, but she also still loved Clark at the same time. With Clark, it was the "first love" that she never had the chance to discover, and that lingered with her while she was in Paris during the space between seasons three and four. According to Kreuk, before Lana can experience successful relationships with other people she will need to know what it is like to truly be in a relationship with Clark, because of the "intense connection between [the] two".[40] Allison Mack shares her insight into the relationship between Clark and Lana, believing that the pair should have remained apart until they could finally be honest with each other: "There's no honesty in their relationship, and there's no way that they could have a healthy relationship without that honesty […] You can't be with someone if you're not honest with them." Kreuk echoes Mack's sentiments, acknowledging that Lana is not stupid, and if Clark wants a real relationship then he is going to have to be honest with her.[40]

text:
"A part of me feels that she could never really love Lex, and that is why she can be with him: he's not capable of hurting her. She fully loved Clark, Jason, and Whitney. She loved those people. She can care about Lex and want the best for him, but I don't think she could fall blindly in love with him."

— Kristin Kreuk on Lana's relationship with Lex.[43]

tag: div

text: The beginning of season five saw, for the first time, Clark and Lana in a happy relationship together, one that was void of dishonesty and secrets. The return of Clark's powers in "Hidden", as well as the secrets and lies that accompany them, caused stress on their relationship. In the series' 100th episode, Clark finally took a chance and told Lana the truth. When it resulted, indirectly, in her death and he was allowed to live the day over again Clark chose not to tell her his secret. In "Hypnotic", in an effort to stop hurting Lana emotionally, Clark told her that he no longer loved her. This drove Lana into Lex's arms. Writer Darren Swimmer explains that this was not something that just happened in the series, but something that had been hinted at for many seasons. Swimmer believes that Lana started dating Lex as a way of making Clark mad, but the relationship "turned into much more". Kreuk contends that Lana went to Lex because "she knows she will never really love him." Kreuk believes that Lana's relationship with the men in her life has been motivated by a desire to fill a void in her life that was left after her parents were killed. This need to fill that emptiness was fulfilled in "Void", when Lana took a drug to induce death so that she could see her parents in the afterlife. Upon meeting her parents, Kreuk believes that Lana realized that she no longer needed someone else to fill that hole in her. Kreuk sees this filled void as the reason why Lana would gravitate toward Lex. Although she did not truly love Lex, Kreuk argues that Lex was not a rebound guy and that Lana did have feelings for him."[43]

text: Even though Lana eventually marries Lex in season six, Al Gough argues that Lana still loved Clark and Clark still loved her. The only reason Lana was with Lex was because Clark forced her in that direction and she ended up getting in over her head.[44] By contrast, writer Caroline Dries feels that Lana did love Lex, and that she did not make any hasty decisions when she agreed to marry him. Dries believes that the progression of the show demonstrates that Lex earned Lana's love. To answer viewers that hated to see Lana marry Lex, Dries contends that as viewers we are seeing all of Lex, including how evil he truly is, while Lana only sees the portion of Lex that appears good.[44]

text: Reception[edit]

text: In 2001, Kristin Kreuk was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress, as well as Female Cinescape Genre Face of the Future.[47] The following year, alongside co-star Tom Welling, Kreuk was nominated for a Best Actress Saturn Award again.[48] She would receive two more nominations in that category, one in 2004 and one in 2006, before she departed from the show.[49][50] In the 2003 Teen Choice Awards, Kristin Kreuk was nominated for Choice TV Actress: Drama/Action Adventure.[51] She was nominated again in 2004,[52] 2006,[53] 2008 for the revised category Choice TV Actress: Action Adventure,[54] and finally in 2009.[55] Kreuk was also co-nominated with Welling at the 2006 Teen Choice Awards for Most Beautiful Couple (TV - Choice Chemistry).[56]

text: DVD Verdict's Brian Byun felt that the casting of the series was "pitch-perfect"; noting that Kreuk is "painfully luminous" as Lana Lang, which makes it obvious why she is the object of Clark's obsession.[57]

text: Other media appearances[edit]

text: Young adult novels[edit]

text: Lana makes her first literary appearance in Smallville: Strange Visitors, published by Aspect. In Strange Visitors, Lana attempts to organize a fund raiser for the family of a school mate, Stewart, who was diagnosed with terminal cancer. Her effort is rendered moot when Lex Luthor and Dr. Donald Jacobi, a con artist that comes to Smallville, pick up Stewart's medical bills after a meteor rock removes all of the malignant cancer cells in his brain.[58] In Smallville: Dragon, Lana visits an antiques dealer, Mrs. Mayfern, looking for a gift for her boyfriend, Whitney. When she leaves she breaks up with Whitney and starts dating Clark. It is eventually discovered that she was hypnotized by Mrs. Mayfern, whose homegrown herbal tea is fertilized by meteor rocks.[59]

text: Comic books[edit]

text: Lana made a non-speaking cameo appearance in the ninth issue of the show's comic book continuation Smallville: Season Eleven, written by executive story editor Bryan Q. Miller. Though Clark and Bart Allen do not notice her, she watches them race over the coast of Cameroon.[60] Lana returns in a parallel storyarc Valkyrie, in which she uses the superhero alias "Angel of the Plateau" and battles terrorists in Africa. Lana also saves Lois from one of their attacks. Lana reveals that she has been using her abilities to help and protect children from people who would exploit them after Lana had settled in Africa. However, Lois tries not to reveal her relationship with Clark to Lana. Elsewhere, the terrorists seek John Corben's aid in defeating Angel of the Plateau. Corben's new kryptonite heart (installed by Winslow Schott) has absorbed the nanites embedded in Lana's skin, rendering her powerless and no longer emitting the kryptonite radiation once more. After Lois helps Lana defeat Corben, Lana reveals that she had seen Lois's engagement ring, thus she already knows about Clark's relationship with Lois. Lana gives her blessing to Lois, and decides to remain in Africa as the Angel.[61]


document_title: The Kissing Booth

question_text: who does the girl end up with in the kissing booth

text: The Kissing Booth

text: Plot[edit]

text: Born on the same day and time in the same hospital, Elle Evans (Joey King) and Lee Flynn (Joel Courtney) have been best friends all their lives. To protect their special relationship, the pair created a set of friendship rules they are sworn to follow including #9: relatives totally off limits, especially Lee's bad boy older brother Noah (Jacob Elordi).

text: On the first day of school Elle's pants rip forcing her to go to school wearing a skirt that is too small. Tuppen, another student, touches her which almost gets Lee into a fight but Noah intervenes. Elle, having violated the dress code, has to serve detention with Noah and Tuppen.  Tuppen later apologizes to Elle. She later agrees to go out with him however she is stood up. He goes to see her later that night to let her know that he was threatened by Noah not to go out with her.

text: Elle and Lee have to create a booth for the school carnival and decide on a kissing booth. The two have difficulty finding people to participate but get a group of popular girls called the OMG's (Olivia, Mia, and Gwyneth) to participate by lying to them saying that Noah likes one of them and will go if they go.

text: That night, the kissing booth is a success. However, girls including the OMG's become angry when they discover that Noah is not actually working the kissing booth. For payback, the girls send Elle up to the booth to kiss a nerdy kid while blindfolded. The boy switches with Noah having him next in line to kiss Elle. When Elle won't stop talking Noah kisses her, not knowing who it is she takes off her blindfold and Noah goes in for a second kiss. After cleaning up Elle sees Noah flirting with another girl so she runs home while Noah looks at her. While on her way home it starts to rain and Noah offers her a ride on his motorcycle. However, the rain gets too heavy and they have to stop. They shelter in a nearby glass ‘bandstand’ in a park. Elle kisses Noah again and he pulls away. After staring at each other Noah goes in for another kiss. Elle ends up pulling away, telling him she can't be another one of his conquests. He looks hurt but tells Elle why he likes her. They kiss again but are interrupted by a security guard who recognizes Noah and tells him to stop bringing girls there. Elle gets upset that Noah brought her to the place where he brings his other girlfriends and leaves.

text: The next day while at a party Elle is harassed by another student and Noah almost starts a fight with him. This causes her to storm off but Noah requests her to get in his car. Instead of going home he takes her to the Hollywood Sign and they talk about their relationship. They both admit to liking each other and decide to come up with rules for their relationship, one being that Lee never finds out. The two kiss and end up having sex.

text: Elle and Noah start to see each other secretly and are careful that Lee or anyone else don't find out. While in Noah's room his mom almost walks in on them and Elle has to hide. While hiding she overhears her say that he had been accepted to an Ivy League school. Soon after he reveals to her that he is going to Harvard and she starts to realize that he won't be around next year. One day while hanging out with Noah, Lee walks in on him tending to a cut on her face. He become suspicious and asks Elle if it was Noah who hurt her. This infuriates Noah and they are about to get involved in a fight, but Elle stops them and takes Lee away. Lee asks her is there is something going on between the two of them, to which she denies. She ends up feeling guilty about lying to Lee and goes back to Noah and tells him that they need to come clean that night and when Noah agrees he says that way he can take her to prom. They kiss but Lee ends up seeing it. Hurt, Lee attempts to leave his house but Elle tries to get him to talk before Noah intervenes and eventually get into a fight. After backing off, Lee leaves and Elle tells Noah to leave her alone.

text: Lee starts giving Elle the silent treatment and Noah goes missing. While at the arcade one day Lee invites Elle over to play a game and they make up and make plans for their upcoming birthday party. Before prom, Noah finally returns but to talk to Elle's dad who says he does not approve but it is her decision.

text: Elle goes to prom with Lee and his girlfriend Rachel and has a good time until a replica of their kissing booth is revealed. Noah comes out from behind the curtains to tell Elle that he loves her but she responds by saying that she cannot keep on hurting the people she loves because of him and that no one wants them to be together. Noah agrees to this but then asks her what does she want. To this Elle does not seem to have an answer and she runs away sobbing. Rachel chases after her but she gets away before they can say anything.

text: The next day at their costume themed birthday party, Elle begins missing Noah and decides to leave. Lee stops her and Elle tells him that she loves him but she also loves Noah and if he can't accept that then maybe they shouldn't be friends. Lee, finally accepts that Noah makes her happy and agrees to help Elle find him. Elle and Lee get in the car and leave for the airport. She starts sharing her true feelings for Noah to Lee and then it is revealed that all this time in the car it was Noah in Lee's costume. Elle is surprised to see Noah and admits to him that she loves him. They embrace and kiss.

text: During the next few weeks, Elle and Noah spend every day together before he has to leave for college. When it is time to go Elle goes with him to the airport and he leaves. After watching him leave, she drives off on Noah's motorcycle saying that she does not know if they will be together forever but she knows that a part of her heart will always belong to Noah Flynn. The story ends with Elle stating that everything happened just because of the Kissing Booth.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Joey King as Shelley "Elle" Evans
Joel Courtney as Lee Flynn
Jacob Elordi as Noah Flynn
Molly Ringwald as Mrs. Flynn

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: In June 2014, Vince Marcello was hired to write the film adaptation of teenage author Beth Reekles' young adult novel The Kissing Booth, which was originally published on Wattpad.[1] In November 2016, it was announced that Netflix had purchased rights to the film, with Marcello now set to helm his screenplay.[2] In January 2017, Joey King and Molly Ringwald signed on to star in the film.[3]

text: The filming took place in Los Angeles, California, and in Cape Town, South Africa between January and April 2017.[3]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on 11 May 2018 on Netflix.[4] According to Netflix, one in three viewers of the film have re-watched it, "which is 30 percent higher than the average movie re-watch rate on the [streaming service]."[5] Deeming the film a huge success for the service, CCO Ted Sarandos called the film "one of the most-watched movies in the country, and maybe in the world."[6]

text: Reception[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 13%, based on 8 reviews, and an average rating of 3.7/10.[7]

text: The Kissing Booth was panned by critics.[8] IndieWire's Kate Erbland gave the film a "D" grade, adding that "Unfortunately, the high school-set rom-com is a sexist and regressive look at relationships that highlights the worst impulses of the genre."[9] Ani Bundel of NBCNews criticized the film's "problematic stereotyping of masculinity and relationships" and lack of original ideas. "It feels like it was written by someone who simply digested everything she was told 'romance' was supposed to be by the patriarchy, and vomited back at us. Nearly every cliché in the film feels cribbed from another movie, like a song made completely of samples from better-known hits."[8]

text: Despite being deemed "sexist"[9][10] and "objectively bad"[11][12] by several critics, The Kissing Booth was widely consumed among audiences.  Netflix's Ted Sarandos, CCO affirmed the film's success as a "hugely popular original movie" for the streaming service.[11]

text: The Kissing Booth on Wattpad[edit]

text: The Kissing Booth was written in 2011 by author Beth Reekles. It originated as a story on Wattpad where it won a Watty Award for "Most Popular Teen Fiction" in Wattpad's annual writing contest.[13] By 2012 it had amassed over 19 million reads and, in 2013, was published by Penguin Random House.[14] In an interview with Forbes, Reekles explains what drew her to Wattpad: "I loved the feeling of community on the site, and when I began to share, I liked the anonymity of it because I was so self-conscious about my writing and hadn't shared it with anyone before."[15]


document_title: Brown v. Board of Education

question_text: where did the brown vs board of education happen

question_tokens: where did the brown vs board of education happen

text: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Background

text: For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation. This policy had been endorsed in 1896 by the United States Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson, which held that as long as the separate facilities for the separate races were equal, segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment ("no State shall ... deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws").

text: The plaintiffs in Brown asserted that this system of racial separation, while masquerading as providing separate but equal treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black Americans. Racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCO's 1950 Statement, signed by a wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled The Race Question.[4] This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism. Another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944).[5] Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration. The research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Court's decision.[6] The Clarks' "doll test" studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildren's mental status.[7]

text: The United States and the Soviet Union were both at the height of the Cold War during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court Justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism played on America's international image. When Justice William O. Douglas traveled to India in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes?" Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India." Chief Justice Earl Warren, nominated to the Supreme Court by President Eisenhower, echoed Douglas's concerns in a 1954 speech to the American Bar Association, proclaiming that "Our American system like all others is on trial both at home and abroad, ... the extent to which we maintain the spirit of our constitution with its Bill of Rights, will in the long run do more to make it both secure and the object of adulation than the number of hydrogen bombs we stockpile."[8][9]

text: Case

text: Filing and arguments

text:
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text: In 1951, a class action suit was filed against the Board of Education of the City of Topeka, Kansas in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas. The plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children.[10]

text: The suit called for the school district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The Topeka Board of Education operated separate elementary schools under an 1879 Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett; Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter; and Lucinda Todd.

text: The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his local church, and an African American.[11] He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend. Brown's daughter Linda, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to Monroe Elementary, her segregated black school one mile (1.6 km) away, while Sumner Elementary, a white school, was seven blocks from her house.[12][13]

text: As directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools.

text: The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received by the U.S. Supreme Court Justices. The 13 plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming, Zelma Henderson, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, and Lucinda Todd.[14][15] The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88.[16][17]

text: The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), which had upheld a state law requiring "separate but equal" segregated facilities for blacks and whites in railway cars.[18] The three-judge District Court panel found that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on negro children, but denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings, transportation, curricula, and educational qualifications of teachers.[19]

text: Supreme Court review

text: The case of Brown v. Board of Education as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases: Brown itself, Briggs v. Elliott (filed in South Carolina), Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (filed in Virginia), Gebhart v. Belton (filed in Delaware), and Bolling v. Sharpe (filed in Washington D.C.).

text: All were NAACP-sponsored cases. The Davis case, the only case of the five originating from a student protest, began when 16-year-old Barbara Rose Johns organized and led a 450-student walkout of Moton High School.[20] The Gebhart case was the only one where a trial court, affirmed by the Delaware Supreme Court, found that discrimination was unlawful; in all the other cases the plaintiffs had lost as the original courts had found discrimination to be lawful.

text: The Kansas case was unique among the group in that there was no contention of gross inferiority of the segregated schools' physical plant, curriculum, or staff. The district court found substantial equality as to all such factors. The lower court, in its opinion, noted that, in Topeka, "the physical facilities, the curricula, courses of study, qualification and quality of teachers, as well as other educational facilities in the two sets of schools [were] comparable."[21] The lower court observed that "colored children in many instances are required to travel much greater distances than they would be required to travel could they attend a white school" but also noted that the school district "transports colored children to and from school free of charge" and that "[n]o such service [was] provided to white children."[21]

text: In the Delaware case the district court judge in Gebhart ordered that the black students be admitted to the white high school due to the substantial harm of segregation and the differences that made the separate schools unequal.

text: The NAACP's chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall—who was later appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967—argued the case before the Supreme Court for the plaintiffs. Assistant attorney general Paul Wilson—later distinguished emeritus professor of law at the University of Kansas—conducted the state's ambivalent defense in his first appellate argument.

text: In December 1952, the Justice Department filed a friend of the court brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on foreign-policy considerations of the Truman administration in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States," five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from colonial rule. Attorney General James P. McGranery noted that

text: The existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills.[22]

text: The brief also quoted a letter by Secretary of State Dean Acheson lamenting that

text: The United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country.[23]

text: British barrister and parliamentarian Anthony Lester has written that "Although the Court's opinion in Brown made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision."[23]

text: Unanimous opinion and consensus building

text: In spring 1953, the Court heard the case but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.[24]

text: The Court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the Court to gather a consensus around a Brown opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument.

text: Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued.[25] Justices Douglas, Black, Burton, and Minton were predisposed to overturn Plessy.[25] Fred M. Vinson noted that Congress had not issued desegregation legislation; Stanley F. Reed discussed incomplete cultural assimilation and states' rights and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African-American community; Tom C. Clark wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out."[25] Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to judicial activism and expressed concerns about the proposed decision's enforceability.[25] Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice.[25] Warren had supported the integration of Mexican-American students in California school systems following Mendez v. Westminster.[26] However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a White House dinner, where the president told him: "These [southern whites] are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African American plaintiffs.[27][28][29]

text: In his reading of the unanimous decision, Justice Warren noted the adverse psychological effects that segregated schools had on African American children.[30] Brown's cite of the Kenneth and Mamie Doll Study was criticized by Justice Clarence Thomas in a later concurring opinion [31] for implying black inferiority. According to Susan Firestone, the study itself is dubious in conclusion and unreliable in reproduction.[32]

text: While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the judicial restraint faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the Court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a recess appointment, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment.

text: Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the Court must overrule Plessy to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive Southern resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion.

text: Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justices Jackson and Reed finally decided to drop their dissent. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the Court.[33] Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion.[34]

text: Holding

text: Reporters who observed the court holding were surprised by two facts. First, the court made a unanimous decision. Prior to the ruling, there were reports that the court members were sharply divided and might not be able to agree. Second, the attendance of Justice Robert H. Jackson who had suffered a mild heart attack and was not expected to return to the bench until early June 1954. "Perhaps to emphasize the unanimity of the court, perhaps from a desire to be present when the history-making verdict was announced, Justice Jackson was in his accustomed seat when the court convened."[35] Reporters also noted that former Secretary of State Dean Acheson (who had related the case to foreign policy considerations) and current Attorney General Herbert Brownell were in the courtroom.[36]

text: The key holding of the Court was that, even if segregated black and white schools were of equal quality in facilities and teachers, segregation by itself was harmful to black students and unconstitutional. They found that a significant psychological and social disadvantage was given to black children from the nature of segregation itself, drawing on research conducted by Kenneth Clark assisted by June Shagaloff. This aspect was vital because the question was not whether the schools were "equal", which under Plessy they nominally should have been, but whether the doctrine of separate was constitutional. The justices answered with a strong "no":

text: [D]oes segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does. ...

text: "Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The effect is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school system." ...

text: Local outcomes

text: The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 on.[37] The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level".[38]

text: Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to neighborhood attendance centers in January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option.[39][40][41] Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka's schools:

text: "They accepted it," she said. "It wasn't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals."[42]

text: The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of McKinley Burnett, NAACP chapter president who organized the case.[citation needed]

text: Monroe Elementary was designated a U.S. National Historic Site unit of the National Park Service on October 26, 1992.

text: Social implications

text: Not everyone accepted the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In Virginia, Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. organized the Massive Resistance movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them.[43] See, for example, The Southern Manifesto. For more implications of the Brown decision, see School integration in the United States.

text: Deep South

text: Texas Attorney General John Ben Shepperd organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to implementation of desegregation.[44]

text: In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out his state's National Guard to block black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight Eisenhower responded by deploying elements of the 101st Airborne Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to Arkansas and by federalizing Arkansas's National Guard.[45]

text: Also in 1957, Florida's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an Interposition Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But Florida Governor LeRoy Collins, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods.

text: In Mississippi fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years.[46] When Medgar Evers sued to desegregate Jackson, Mississippi schools in 1963 White Citizens Council member Byron De La Beckwith murdered him.[47] Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994.[48]

text: In 1963, Alabama Gov. George Wallace personally blocked the door to Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama to prevent the enrollment of two black students. This became the infamous Stand in the Schoolhouse Door[49] where Wallace personally backed his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" policy that he had stated in his 1963 inaugural address.[50] He moved aside only when confronted by General Henry Graham of the Alabama National Guard, who was ordered by President John F. Kennedy to intervene.

text: Upland South

text: In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting Brown, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954 the Greensboro, North Carolina school board declared that it would abide by the Brown ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D. E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted integration, putting up legal obstacles[how?] to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation.[51][52]

text: In Moberly, Missouri, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African-American teachers from the local "negro school" were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al.; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal.[53][54]

text: North

text: Many Northern cities also had de facto segregation policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In Harlem, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the Second Great Migration caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but Brown helped stimulate activism among African-American parents like Mae Mallory who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on Brown's principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first freedom schools of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically-white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of white flight, however.)[55][56]

text: The intellectual roots of Plessy v. Ferguson, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation in 1896 under the doctrine of "separate but equal" were, in part, tied to the scientific racism of the era.[57][58] However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time.[59] In deciding Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The Court buttressed its holding by citing (in footnote 11) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools.

text: Both scholarly and popular ideas of hereditarianism played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the Brown decision.[59] The Mankind Quarterly was founded in 1960, in part in response to the Brown decision.[60][61]

text: Legal criticism and praise

text: William Rehnquist wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" when he was a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by 'liberal' colleagues but I think Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be reaffirmed." Rehnquist continued, "To the argument . . . that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minorities are."[62] Rehnquist also argued for Plessy with other law clerks.[63]

text: However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson's tentative views for his own use." Justice Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in Brown.[64] Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time."[65] In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the Brown decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent.[66]

text: Chief Justice Warren's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge Learned Hand decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber"[67] and Herbert Wechsler finding Brown impossible to justify based on neutral principles.[68]

text: Some aspects of the Brown decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, himself an African American, wrote in Missouri v. Jenkins (1995) that at the very least, Brown I has been misunderstood by the courts.

text: Brown I did not say that "racially isolated" schools were inherently inferior; the harm that it identified was tied purely to de jure segregation, not de facto segregation. Indeed, Brown I itself did not need to rely upon any psychological or social-science research in order to announce the simple, yet fundamental truth that the Government cannot discriminate among its citizens on the basis of race. …

text: Segregation was not unconstitutional because it might have caused psychological feelings of inferiority. Public school systems that separated blacks and provided them with superior educational resources making blacks "feel" superior to whites sent to lesser schools—would violate the Fourteenth Amendment, whether or not the white students felt stigmatized, just as do school systems in which the positions of the races are reversed. Psychological injury or benefit is irrelevant …

text: Given that desegregation has not produced the predicted leaps forward in black educational achievement, there is no reason to think that black students cannot learn as well when surrounded by members of their own race as when they are in an integrated environment. (…) Because of their "distinctive histories and traditions," black schools can function as the center and symbol of black communities, and provide examples of independent black leadership, success, and achievement.[69]

text: Some Constitutional originalists, notably Raoul Berger in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary," make the case that Brown cannot be defended by reference to the original understanding of the 14th Amendment. They support this reading of the 14th amendment by noting that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including Michael W. McConnell, a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions," argue that the Radical Reconstructionists who spearheaded the 14th Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools.[70] Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress a few years following the amendment's ratification.[71]

text: The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example, Drew S. Days has written:[72] "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that 'distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality,' Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943). . . ."

text: In his book The Tempting of America (page 82), Robert Bork endorsed the Brown decision as follows:

text: By 1954, when Brown came up for decision, it had been apparent for some time that segregation rarely if ever produced equality. Quite aside from any question of psychology, the physical facilities provided for blacks were not as good as those provided for whites. That had been demonstrated in a long series of cases … The Court's realistic choice, therefore, was either to abandon the quest for equality by allowing segregation or to forbid segregation in order to achieve equality. There was no third choice. Either choice would violate one aspect of the original understanding, but there was no possibility of avoiding that. Since equality and segregation were mutually inconsistent, though the ratifiers did not understand that, both could not be honored. When that is seen, it is obvious the Court must choose equality and prohibit state-imposed segregation. The purpose that brought the fourteenth amendment into being was equality before the law, and equality, not separation, was written into the law.

text: In June 1987, Philip Elman, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General's office during Harry Truman's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court's decision, and stated that the NAACP's arguments did not present strong evidence.[73] Elman has been criticized for offering a self-aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades.[74] However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court's most outspoken advocates of the judicial restraint philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations.[75][76] Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President George W. Bush spoke at the opening of the Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site, calling Brown "a decision that changed America for the better, and forever."[77] Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling.

text: In an article in Townhall, Thomas Sowell argued that When Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal," Dunbar High School was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court."[78]

text: Brown II

text: In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as "Brown II"[79] the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed," a phrase traceable to Francis Thompson's poem, The Hound of Heaven.[80]

text: Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed" was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted "Brown II" as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years—and in some cases for a decade or more—using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private" schools, and "token" integration where a few carefully selected black children were admitted to former white-only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.[81]

text: For example, based on "Brown II," the U.S. District Court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.

text: White students in the county were given assistance to attend white-only "private academies" that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme Court overturned "Brown II" in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, declaring that "...the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out," and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race.[82]

text: Brown III

text: In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott, Jr. (son of the original Brown team member), with assistance from the American Civil Liberties Union, persuaded Linda Brown Smith—who now had her own children in Topeka schools—to be a plaintiff in reopening Brown. They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools' policy of "open enrollment" had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred" schools that would create both predominantly African American and predominantly European American schools within the district. The district court reopened the Brown case after a 25-year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs' request finding the schools "unitary". In 1989, a three-judge panel of the Tenth Circuit on 2–1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment.[83] In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District's request for certiorari and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit's mandate.

text: After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to Topeka Unified School District No. 501 on July 27, 1999.[84] One of the new magnet schools is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the Brown case and civil rights.[85]

text: Related cases

text: Other comments

text: Linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience of being refused enrollment:[86]

text: ...we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out ... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just couldn't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates.[87]

text: Linda Brown died on March 25, 2018 at the age of 76.[88]


document_title: Hunting Hitler

question_text: how many episodes is hunting hitler season 3

text: Hunting Hitler

text: Reception[edit]

text: The show has been criticized by Variety Magazine for "capitalizing on the American public's fascination with Hitler to produce a show based on a theory, while providing no evidence to substantiate the theory."[4][5][6]

text: Investigative team[edit]

text:
Bob Baer — Former CIA Operative
Dr. John Cencich — Former International War Crimes Investigator, Professor, and Criminologist
Nada Bakos — Former Terrorist Targeting Officer
Tim Kennedy — U.S. Army Special Forces and Former MMA Fighter
James Holland — WWII Historian
Mike Simpson — Medical Doctor, Airborne Ranger, and Special Forces Operator
Gerrard Williams — Investigative Journalist and Historian
Lenny DePaul — Former Commander U.S. Marshals
Steve Rambam - Private Investigator and Nazi Hunter

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

Season premiere
Season finale

1
8
November 10, 2015 (2015-11-10)
December 29, 2015 (2015-12-29)

2
8
November 15, 2016 (2016-11-15)
January 3, 2017 (2017-01-03)

3
8
January 2, 2018 (2018-01-02)
February 20, 2018 (2018-02-20)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

1
1
"The Hunt Begins"
November 10, 2015 (2015-11-10)
N/A

Armed with 700 pages of recently declassified FBI documents, twenty-one year CIA veteran Bob Baer and war crimes investigator Dr. John Cencich begin a worldwide investigation into what might have happened to Adolf Hitler at the end of WWII had he survived the bunker. First stop on their hunt is a small town in Argentina with mysterious Nazi ties where an FBI report places Hitler residing three-and-a-half months after he was believed dead.

2
2
"Secret Nazi Lair"
November 17, 2015 (2015-11-17)
N/A

Tim Kennedy, US Army Special Forces, joins archeologists Philip Kiernan and Daniel Schavelzon to explore a mysterious Nazi complex deep in the jungles of Argentina. The three-building site yields a trove of Nazi artifacts as well as evidence of a structure of unexplained opulence. Lenny DePaul, former US Marshal, begins an investigation in Berlin to determine if Hitler could have faked his death.

3
3
"Escape From Berlin"
November 24, 2015 (2015-11-24)
N/A

Bob Baer and Dr. John Cencich expand their investigation as to how Adolf Hitler could have escaped Berlin under siege. One of the world's foremost death claims investigator Steven Rambam and Nazi profiler and historian Gerrard Williams join Tim Kennedy to investigate a site that the FBI reported that Hitler used to disembark from a U-boat in Argentina. Lenny DePaul uncovers an escape route from Hitler's bunker in Berlin to nearby Tempelhof Airport, where multiple Nazi airplanes took off under the cover of darkness.

4
4
"The Tunnel"
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
N/A

Bob Baer and Dr. John Cencich continue their investigation into the death of Adolf Hitler by sending teams into three countries: Germany, Spain, and Argentina. Lenny DePaul and Sascha Keil find a never before discovered tunnel leading from Hitler's bunker directly to Tempelhof Airport where Hitler's personal plane awaited. Tim Kennedy joins a team of elite marine archeologists to search for a possible German U-Boat off the coast of Argentina. Lenny joins Gerrard Williams to investigate if Hitler could have arrived in Spain and remained hidden with the help of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco.

5
5
"Ratlines"
December 8, 2015 (2015-12-08)
N/A

Bob Baer and Dr. John Cencich send Lenny DePaul and Gerrard Williams to Spain, where they investigate a remote monastery that could have been a hiding place for Nazis and uncover an eyewitness that places Hitler living within those very walls. Further investigation leads the team to a mysterious German plane landing and nearby Nazi communication devices deep in Spain. Tim Kennedy prepares to dive for what could be a sunken German U-Boat off the coast of Argentina. Ultimately the team is led to the Canary Islands, where they uncover a possible Enigma machine and tunnels used to supply German U-boats with torpedoes.

6
6
"Hitler's Safehouse"
December 15, 2015 (2015-12-15)
N/A

The manhunt for Adolf Hitler finds Lenny DePaul and Gerrard Williams deep in the Canary Islands, where secret tunnels and a massive German compound may have supplied everything from weapons to a medical facility along Hitler's potential journey to South America. As the investigation pushes further into Argentina, Tim Kennedy infiltrates a German town known for harboring Nazis after the war. When Gerrard uncovers a mysterious, isolated mansion that could have housed Hitler, the team devises a stealth recon mission with high consequences for failure.

7
7
"Friends in High Places"
December 22, 2015 (2015-12-22)
N/A

Following declassified FBI files, Bob Baer and Dr. John Cencich uncover Hitler's potential next moves in Argentina, where a close confidant of the Fuhrer operated a mysterious hotel. The team investigates the now-defunct resort and discovers an eyewitness placing Hitler at the location as well as mysterious hidden passageways. Tim Kennedy and Gerrard Williams travel to a small coastal town in Brazil, where the FBI files reported Hitler and Eva Braun attended an exclusive ballet performance near a mysterious high-tech communications tower.

8
8
"Hitler's Plane"
December 29, 2015 (2015-12-29)
N/A

After tracking Hitler's attempts to return to power through wealthy supporters in Argentina and Brazil, Bob Baer and Dr. John Cencich hit the ground in South America to tackle their biggest lead yet. An FBI report places Hitler in Colombia after unloading from a plane. Bob and John identify the marsh where they believe this plane was hidden, and gain unprecedented access to use state-of-the-art side-scan sonar to locate what could be the Nazi plane that shuttled Hitler to within 2,000 miles of the United States.

text: Season 2 (2016–2017)[edit]

text: In Season Two evidence for further research was expanded beyond the declassified FBI documentation used in the first season to declassified documentation from the CIA, MI6, and Argentinian, Russian and Germany authorities.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

9
1
"The Hunt Continues"
November 15, 2016 (2016-11-15)
N/A

Bob Baer and John Cencich return with new experts and new technology to examine Hitler’s possible escape from every angle. Armed with 14,000 declassified files from international intelligence agencies, the team opens new lines of inquiry in their investigation that spans thousands of miles. They return to Berlin, where Lenny DePaul and Sascha Keil discover an unknown fifth exit from Hitler’s Fuhrerbunker. Knowing that Hitler had access to another way out of the bunker, they begin investigating areas that could have served as a makeshift runway out of Berlin. Meanwhile, Tim Kennedy and Alasdair Brooks, historical archaeologist, reunite with Daniel Schavelzon at the mysterious Nazi lair in Misiones, Argentina. They discover a new building that could be more than just a hideout–it could be a military compound!

10
2
"The Compound"
November 22, 2016 (2016-11-22)
N/A

Bob and John's dual investigation continues in Europe and Argentina. While investigating makeshift runways as an escape from Berlin by air, the team finds reason to believe Hitler would have had a stopping point on the way to Spain. Following files that place Hitler in Denmark after the war, Lenny and James Holland head to Denmark, where they investigate an airstrip and a massive bunker system and meet with local experts to uncover Hitler's possible escape route. Still deep in the jungles of Misiones, Argentina, Tim and Alasdair unearth clue after clue that could make this area a Nazi militarized compound. Terraced structures, man-made walls and defensible outposts all point to a heavily guarded area--perfectly set up to protect a high value Nazi target.

11
3
"Eyewitness Accounts"
November 29, 2016 (2016-11-29)
N/A

Bob and John's investigation leads them to Northern Spain, where a declassified document shows Hitler and a close associate, Leon Degrelle, could have moved from Denmark to San Sebastian, Spain. James Holland and Mike Simpson hit the ground in Spain, where they discover several eye witnesses, a satellite of the Third Reich, and what could be a Nazi communications center. The South American team is in Misiones, Argentina, where they are able to speak with a living relative of Herman Goering. The team uncovers another eyewitness in the area, who claims his father worked for Martin Bormann, Hitler's right-hand man, after the end of the war. Because Bormann was believed dead in 1945, this bombshell lead could open a whole new path of the investigation.

12
4
"The Web"
December 6, 2016 (2016-12-06)
N/A

While following leads on a Nazi escape network, the teams in Southern Spain and Northern Argentina both make discoveries of vast tunnel systems in the mountains.

13
5
"The Factory"
December 13, 2016 (2016-12-13)
N/A

Bob and John's investigation continues in Spain, Morocco and Argentina. The teams look into Hitler's possible escape route while uncovering a plan for a Nazi 4th Reich.

14
6
"The Secret Island"
December 20, 2016 (2016-12-20)
N/A

Digging deeper into reports about the Fourth Reich, Bob and John send the team to a rumored weapons testing site in Germany, and a mysterious deserted island in Argentina that could have housed nuclear facilities with Nazi ties after the war.

15
7
"Unmarked Graves"
December 27, 2016 (2016-12-27)
N/A

With Peron toppled from power, Hitler and Bormann could have been forced to flee Argentina. Following leads from declassified files, Bob and John send their teams into Chile and Paraguay to investigate Hitler's whereabouts if he were forced to escape.

16
8
"Nazi Colony"
January 3, 2017 (2017-01-03)
N/A

Bob and John have followed hundreds of international declassified files all the way from Berlin to Chile, where they now investigate a secretive German community with reported Nazi ties. Inside the compound they find clues pointing to the potential forming of a Fourth Reich.

text: Season 3 (2017–2018)[edit]

text: In Season Three further evidences of weapon of mass destruction have been revealed.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

17
0[7]
"Anatomy of a Manhunt"
December 26, 2017 (2017-12-26)
N/A

Bob Baer and his team of elite investigators offer an inside look at the definitive investigation into the true fate of Adolf Hitler. Along with exclusive previews of the next stage of the investigation, they share their most explosive evidence and explain the strategies and methods they're using to crack the greatest cold case in modern history.

18
1[8]
"The Final Hunt Begins"
January 2, 2018 (2018-01-02)
N/A

Bob Baer recruits one of the world's most foremost terrorist targeting officers, Nada Bakos. Enacting a new hunting strategy so effective its lead to the capture of Osama bin Laden, the team uncovers two planned escape routes for Hitler out of Germany, one to the North and one South. Along the southern route, Tim and James discover a vast tunnel system under Hitler's home. Up north, Lenny and Gerrard investigate a massive Nazi compound hiding under the perfect cover.

19
2[9]
"Clandestine Cache"
January 9, 2018 (2018-01-09)
N/A

Lenny and Gerrard make a startling discovery in a sabotaged aircraft hangar in northern Germany. Mike and James scan an Austrian lake in search for a large cache of secret Nazi documents.

20
3[10]
"Nuclear Nazi Weapons"
January 16, 2018 (2018-01-16)
N/A

In Norway, Tim and Gerrard explore a hydroelectric plant where the Nazis were dangerously close to producing a nuclear weapon. Mike and James investigate a cabin high in the Austrian Alps where Hitler’s top associate made the ultimate sacrifice.

21
4[11]
"150 Feet Below"
January 23, 2018 (2018-01-23)
N/A

At the bottom of an Arctic fjord in Norway, Tim dives on Nazi relics that may blow the case wide open. Mike and James encounter a smuggler who leads them to Nazi castle on the Italian border.

22
5[12]
"Dead Drops"
January 30, 2018 (2018-01-30)
N/A

Mike and James excavate the grounds of a remote Alpine hotel in search of buried Nazi dead drops. In Rome, Lenny and Gerrard make a shocking discovery that implicates some of the world’s most powerful people.

23
6[13]
"Lurking Beneath the Surface"
February 6, 2018 (2018-02-06)
1.65[14]

At a lagoon in Uruguay, Tim and Mike uncover evidence of a long-range seaplane that was shuttling Nazis all around the continent. In Buenos Aires, Tim and Gerrard convince an informant to share a massive cache of explosive documents that could unravel the clandestine global Nazi network known as “Die Spinne.”

24
7[15]
"Target: United States"
February 13, 2018 (2018-02-13)
N/A

On the trail of “The Angel of Death,” Tim and Mike investigate a key Nazi support point in Uruguay. Mike and Lenny review newly declassified Chilean files that reveal a secret plot to attack the United States.

25
8[16]
"Hitler's Last Will"
February 20, 2018 (2018-02-20)
N/A

Tim and Gerrard discover a mysterious militarized Nazi compound deep in the jungle of Paraguay. Mike and Lenny explore a Nazi concentration camp in Chile before an anonymous source leads them to Hitler’s Last Will and Testament. The team makes a shocking discovery of a positively identified and validated 4th microfilm copy of Hitler's Last Will and Testament from the anonymous source. Bob Baer presents the completed case files and presents the evidence of the escape routes and networks that Hitler might have used to a Former FBI Investigator and personal friend. The case is presented in order to determine whether the evidence is enough to make the 75 year old cold case reopen.


document_title: Bowman's capsule

question_text: where does the filtrate go after it leaves the bowman's capsule

question_tokens: where does the filtrate go after it leaves the bowman 's capsule

text: Bowman's capsule

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: Outside the capsule, there are two "poles":

text:
The vascular pole is the side with the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole.
The urinary pole is the side with the proximal convoluted tubule.

text: Inside the capsule, the layers are as follows, from outside to inside:[citation needed]

text:
Parietal layer—A single layer of simple squamous epithelium. Does not function in filtration.
Bowman's space (or "urinary space", or "capsular space")—Between the visceral and parietal layers, into which the filtrate enters after passing through the filtration slits.[1]
Visceral layer—Lies just above the thickened glomerular basement membrane and is made of podocytes. Beneath the visceral layer lie the glomerular capillaries.[citation needed]
Filtration barrier—The filtration barrier is composed of the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerular capillaries, the fused basal lamina of the endothelial cells and podocytes, and the filtration slits of the podocytes. The barrier permits the passage of water, ions, and small molecules from the bloodstream into the Bowman's space. The barrier prevents the passage of large and/or negatively charged proteins (such as albumin). The basal lamina of the filtration barrier is composed of three layers. The first layer is the lamina rara externa, adjacent to the podocyte processes. The second layer is the lamina rara interna, adjacent to the endothelial cells. The final layer is the lamina densa which is a darker central zone of the basal lamina. It consists of the meshwork of type IV collagen and laminin which act as a selective macromolecular filter.[citation needed]

text:
A - Renal corpuscle
B - Proximal tubule
C - Distal convoluted tubule
D - Juxtaglomerular apparatus
1. Basement membrane (Basal lamina)
2. Bowman's capsule - parietal layer 3. Bowman's capsule - visceral layer 3a. Pedicels (podocytes) 3b. Podocyte or sometimes called Bowman's cells 4. Bowman's space (urinary space) 5a. Mesangium - Intraglomerular cell
5b. Mesangium - Extraglomerular cell
6. Granular cells (Juxtaglomerular cells)
7. Macula densa
8. Myocytes (smooth muscle)
9. Afferent arteriole
10. Glomerulus Capillaries
11. Efferent arteriole

text: Physiology[edit]

text: The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml/min, equivalent to 80 times the daily blood volume.[citation needed]

text: Any proteins under roughly 30 kilodaltons can pass freely through the membrane, although there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes.[citation needed]

text: Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not.[citation needed]

text: As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman's capsule is very similar to blood plasma (filtrate or glomerular filtrate is composed of blood plasma minus plasma protein i.e. it contains all the components of blood plasma except the proteins) in composition as it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule.[citation needed]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a diagnostic test of kidney function.[citation needed]

text: A decreased GFR may be a sign of renal failure.[citation needed]

text: A number of diseases can result in various problems within the glomerulus. Examples include acute proliferative (endocapillary) glomerulonephritis, mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis, mesangiocapillary (membranoproliferative) glomerulonephritis, acute crescentic glomerulonephritis, focal segmental glomerulonephritis, and diabetic glomerulosclerosis.[citation needed]

text: Eponym[edit]

text: Bowman's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman (1816–1892), a British surgeon and anatomist.[2] However, thorough microscopical anatomy of kidney including the nephronic capsule was described by the Ukrainian surgeon and anatomist from the Russian Empire, Prof. Alexander Shumliansky (1748–1795), in his 1788 doctoral thesis "De structura renum: Tractatus physiologico-anatomicus" ("About Kidney Structure: an Physiological-Anatomical Treatise", in Latin); thus, much prior to Bowman.[3]

text: Together with the glomerulus it is known as a renal corpuscle, or a Malpighian corpuscle, named after Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), an Italian physician and biologist. This name is not used widely anymore, probably to avoid confusion with Malpighian bodies of the spleen.[citation needed]