document_title: First Battle of Bull Run

question_text: who led confederate troops to victory during the first battle of bull run

question_tokens: who led confederate troops to victory during the first battle of bull run

text: First Battle of Bull Run

text: Background[edit]

text: Military and political situation[edit]

text:
Opposing political leaders

Pres.Abraham Lincoln,USA

Pres.Jefferson Davis,CSA

text:
On April 15, 1861, the day after South Carolina military forces attacked and captured Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring an insurrection against the laws of the United States. Earlier, South Carolina and seven other
Southern states had declared their secession from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America.

text: To suppress the rebellion and restore Federal law in the Southern states, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers with ninety-day enlistments to augment the existing U.S. Army of about 15,000. He later accepted an additional 40,000 volunteers with three-year enlistments and increased the strength of the U.S. Army to almost 20,000. Lincoln's actions caused four more Southern states, including Virginia, to secede and join the Confederacy, and by 1 June the Confederate capital had been moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia.

text:
In Washington, D.C., as thousands of volunteers rushed to defend the capital, General in Chief Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott laid out his strategy to subdue the rebellious states. He proposed that an army of 80,000 men be organized and sail down the Mississippi River and capture New Orleans. While the Army "strangled" the Confederacy in the west, the U.S. Navy would blockade Southern ports along the eastern and Gulf coasts. The press ridiculed what they dubbed as Scott's "Anaconda Plan". Instead, many believed the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, only one hundred miles south of Washington, would quickly end the war.[13]
By July 1861 thousands of volunteers were camped in and around Washington. Since General Scott was seventy-five years old and physically unable to lead this force, the administration searched for a more suitable field commander.[14]

text: Irvin McDowell[edit]

text: Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase championed fellow Ohioan, 42-year-old Maj. Irvin McDowell. Although McDowell was a West Point graduate, his command experience was limited. In fact, he had spent most of his career engaged in various staff duties in the Adjutant General's Office. While stationed in Washington he had become acquainted with Chase, a former Ohio governor and senator. Now, through Chase's influence, McDowell was promoted three grades to brigadier general in the Regular Army and on 27 May was assigned command (by President Abraham Lincoln) of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, which included the military forces in and around Washington (Army of Northeastern Virginia).[15] McDowell immediately began organizing what became known as the Army of Northeastern Virginia, 35,000 men arranged in five divisions. Under public and political pressure to begin offensive operations, McDowell was given very little time to train the newly inducted troops. Units were instructed in the maneuvering of regiments, but they received little or no training at the brigade or division level. He was reassured by President Lincoln, "You are green, it is true, but they are green also; you are all green alike."[16] Against his better judgment, McDowell commenced campaigning.

text: Intelligence[edit]

text: During the previous year, U.S. Army captain Thomas Jordan set up a pro-Southern spy network in Washington City, including Rose O'Neal Greenhow, a prominent socialite with a wide range of contacts.[17] He provided her with a code for messages.[18] After he left to join the Confederate Army, he gave her control of his network but continued to receive reports from her.[17] On July 9 and 16, 1861, Greenhow passed secret messages to Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard containing critical information regarding military movements for what would be the First Battle of Bull Run, including the plans of Union general McDowell.[18][19]

text: McDowell's plan and initial movements in the Manassas Campaign[edit]

text: On July 16, 1861, McDowell departed Washington with the largest field army yet gathered on the North American continent, about 35,000 men (28,452 effectives).[6] McDowell's plan was to move westward in three columns and make a diversionary attack on the Confederate line at Bull Run with two columns, while the third column moved around the Confederates' right flank to the south, cutting the railroad to Richmond and threatening the rear of the Confederate army. He assumed that the Confederates would be forced to abandon Manassas Junction and fall back to the Rappahannock River, the next defensible line in Virginia, which would relieve some of the pressure on the U.S. capital.[20] McDowell had hoped to have his army at Centreville by 17 July, but the troops, unaccustomed to marching, moved in starts and stops. Along the route soldiers often broke ranks to wander off to pick apples or blackberries or to get water, regardless of the orders of their officers to remain in ranks.[21]

text: The Confederate Army of the Potomac (21,883 effectives)[22] under Beauregard was encamped near Manassas Junction, approximately 25 miles (40 km) from the United States capital. McDowell planned to attack this numerically inferior enemy army. Union Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson's 18,000 men engaged Johnston's force (the Army of the Shenandoah at 8,884 effectives, augmented by Maj. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes's brigade of 1,465[22]) in the Shenandoah Valley, preventing them from reinforcing Beauregard.

text:
After two days of marching slowly in the sweltering heat, the Union army was allowed to rest in Centreville. McDowell reduced the size of his army to approximately 31,000 by dispatching Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon with 5,000 troops to protect the army's rear. In the meantime, McDowell searched for a way to outflank Beauregard, who had drawn up his lines along Bull Run. On July 18, the Union commander sent a division under Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler to pass on the Confederate right (southeast) flank. Tyler was drawn into a skirmish at Blackburn's Ford over Bull Run and made no headway. Also on the morning of 18 July Johnston had received a telegram suggesting he go to Beauregard's assistance if possible. Johnston marched out of Winchester about noon, while Stuart's cavalry screened the movement from Patterson. Patterson was completely deceived. One hour after
Johnston's departure Patterson telegraphed Washington, "I have succeeded, in accordance with the wishes of the General-in-Chief, in keeping General Johnston's force at Winchester."[23]

text:
For the maneuver to be successful McDowell felt he needed to act quickly. He had already begun to hear rumors that Johnston had slipped out of the valley and was headed for Manassas Junction. If the rumors were true, McDowell might soon be facing 34,000 Confederates, instead
of 22,000. Another reason for quick action was McDowell's concern that the ninety-day enlistments of many of his regiments were about to expire. "In a few days I will lose many thousands of the best of this force", he wrote Washington on the eve of battle. In fact, the next morning two units of McDowell's command, their enlistments expiring that day, would turn
a deaf ear to McDowell's appeal to stay a few days longer. Instead, to the sounds of battle, they would march back to Washington to be mustered out of service.[24]

text: Becoming more frustrated, McDowell resolved to attack the Confederate left (northwest) flank instead. He planned to attack with Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler's division at the Stone Bridge on the Warrenton Turnpike and send the divisions of Brig. Gens. David Hunter and Samuel P. Heintzelman over Sudley Springs Ford. From here, these divisions could march into the Confederate rear. The brigade of Col. Israel B. Richardson (Tyler's Division) would harass the enemy at Blackburn's Ford, preventing them from thwarting the main attack. Patterson would tie down Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley so that reinforcements could not reach the area. Although McDowell had arrived at a theoretically sound plan, it had a number of flaws: it was one that required synchronized execution of troop movements and attacks, skills that had not been developed in the nascent army; it relied on actions by Patterson that he had already failed to take; finally, McDowell had delayed long enough that Johnston's Valley force was able to board trains at Piedmont Station and rush to Manassas Junction to reinforce Beauregard's men.[25]

text: Prelude to battle[edit]

text: On July 19–20, significant reinforcements bolstered the Confederate lines behind Bull Run. Johnston arrived with all of his army, except for the troops of Brig. Gen. Kirby Smith, who were still in transit. Most of the new arrivals were posted in the vicinity of Blackburn's Ford, and Beauregard's plan was to attack from there to the north toward Centreville. Johnston, the senior officer, approved the plan. If both of the armies had been able to execute their plans simultaneously, it would have resulted in a mutual counterclockwise movement as they attacked each other's left flank.[26]

text: McDowell was getting contradictory information from his intelligence agents, so he called for the balloon Enterprise, which was being demonstrated by Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe in Washington, to perform aerial reconnaissance.

text: Opposing forces[edit]

text: Union[edit]

text:
Key Union commanders

Brig. Gen.Irvin McDowell, Army of Northeastern Virginia, (Commanding), USA

Brig. Gen.Daniel Tyler, Army of Northeastern Virginia, (1st Div.) USA

Brig. Gen.David Hunter, Army of Northeastern Virginia, (2nd Div.) USA

Brig. Gen.Samuel P. Heintzelman, Army of Northeastern Virginia, (3rd Div.) USA

Brig. Gen.Theodore Runyon, Army of Northeastern Virginia, (4th Div.) USA

Brig. Gen.Dixon S. Miles, Army of Northeastern Virginia, (5th Div.) USA

Maj. Gen.Robert Patterson, Patterson's Command, USA

text:
McDowell's Army of Northeastern Virginia was organized into five infantry divisions of three to five brigades each. Each brigade contained three to five infantry regiments. An artillery battery was generally assigned to each brigade. The total
number of Union troops present at the Battle of First Bull Run was about
35,000, although only about 18,000 were actually engaged.
The Union army was organized as follows:

text:
1st Division of Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler the largest in the army, contained four brigades, led by Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck, Col. Erasmus Keyes, Col. William T. Sherman, and Col. Israel B. Richardson;
2nd Division of Col. David Hunter of two brigades. These were led by Cols. Andrew Porter and Ambrose E. Burnside;
3rd Division of Col. Samuel P. Heintzelman included 3 brigades, led by Cols. William B. Franklin, Orlando B. Willcox, and Oliver O. Howard;
4th Division of Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon without brigade organization and not engaged, contained seven regiments of New Jersey and one regiment of New York volunteer infantries;
5th Division of Col. Dixon S. Miles included 2 brigades, commanded by Cols. Louis Blenker and Thomas A. Davies;

text: While McDowell organized the Army of Northeastern Virginia, a smaller Union command was organized and stationed northwest of Washington, near Harper's Ferry. Commanded by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson, 18,000 men of the Department of Pennsylvania protected against a Confederate incursion from the Shenandoah Valley.

text: Abstract from the returns of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, commanded by Brigadier-General McDowell, U. S. A., for July 16 and 17, 1861.[5]

text:
ARMY OF NORTHEASTERN VIRGINIA

Commands

Present

For duty

Total

Aggregate

Officers

Men

General staff

19

21

First (Tyler's) Division

569
12,226
9,494
9,936

Second (Hunter's) Division

121
2,364
2,525
2,648

Third (Heintzelman's) Division

382
8,680
9,385
9,777

Fourth (Runyon's) Division

247
5,201
5,502
5,752

Fifth (Miles') Division

289
5,884
5,917
6,207

Twenty-first New York Volunteers

37
684
707
745

Twenty-fifth New York Militia

39
519
534
573

Second United States Cavalry, Company E

4
56
63
73

Total

1,707
35,614
34,127
35,732

text: Abstract from return of the Department of Pennsylvania, commanded by Major-General Patterson, June 28, 1861.[27]

text:
PATTERSON'S COMMAND

Commanding officer

Troops

Present for duty

Infantry

Cavalry

Artillery

Officers

Men

Officers

Men

Officers

Men

Bvt. Maj. Gen. Geo. Cadwalader
First division

322
6,637
11
307
7
251

Maj. Gen. W. H. Keim
Second division

322
6,410
3
74

Total

644
13,047
14
381
7
251

text:
Aggregate present for duty

Infantry

13,691

Cavalry

395

Artillery

258

Total

14,344

text: Confederate[edit]

text:
Key Confederate commanders

Brig. Gen.P. G. T. Beauregard, CSA Army of the Potomac

Brig. Gen.Joseph E. Johnston, CSA Army of the Shenandoah, (Commanding)

text: Joseph E. Johnston's forces was organized as follows:

text:
The Army of the Potomac (Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard) was organized into six infantry brigades, with each brigade containing three to six infantry regiments. Artillery batteries were assigned to various infantry brigades. The total number of troops in the Confederate Army of the Potomac was approximately 22,000. Beauregard's army also contained thirty-nine pieces of field artillery and a regiment of Virginia cavalry. The Army of the Potomac was organized into seven infantry brigades. These were:
1st Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Milledge Luke Bonham;
2nd Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell;
3rd Brigade, under Brig. Gen. David R. Jones;
4th Brigade, under Brig. Gen. James Longstreet;
5th Brigade, under Col. Philip St. George Cocke;
6th Brigade, under Col. Jubal Early;
7th Brigade, under Col. Nathan G. Evans.
Reserve Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes
The Army of the Shenandoah (Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston) was also organized into brigades. It consisted of four brigades of three to five infantry regiments each, which totaled approximately 12,000 men. Each brigade was assigned one artillery battery. In addition to the infantry, there were twenty pieces of artillery and about 300 Virginia cavalrymen under Col. J. E. B. Stuart. Although the combined strength of both Confederate armies was about 34,000, only about 18,000 were actually engaged at First Bull Run. The Army of the Shenandoah consisted of four infantry brigades:
1st Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson;
2nd Brigade, commanded by Col. Francis S. Bartow;
3rd Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Barnard E. Bee;
4th Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith.

text: Abstract front field return, First Corps (Army of the Potomac), July 21, 1861.[7]

text: [Dated September 25, 1861.]

text:
ARMY OF THE POTOMAC

Commands.

General and Staff Officers

Infantry.

Cavalry.

Artillery.

Officers

Men.

Officers

Men.

Officers

Men.

First Brigade

4
211
4,070

Second Brigade

4
133
2,307

Third Brigade

4
128
1,989

Fourth Brigade

4
160
2,364

Fifth Brigade

3
208
8,065

Sixth Brigade

3
261
2,356

Seventh Louisiana

44
773

Eighth Louisiana

43
803

Hampton Legion

27
627

Thirteenth Virginia

34
642

Harrison's Battalion (three companies)

13
196

Troops (ten) of cavalry

38
545

Washington (Louisiana) Artillery

19
201

Kemper's battery

4
76

Latham's battery

4
86

Loudoun Battery

3
55

Shield's battery

3
82

Camp Pickens (heavy artillery)

18
275

Total

22
1,215
18,354
85
1,383
51
775

text:
Aggregates:

Infantry

19,569

Cavalry

1,468

Artillery

826

21,863

text: Abstract from monthly report of Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's division, or Army of the Shenandoah (C. S. A.), for June 30, 1861.[7]

text:
ARMY OF THE SHENANDOAH

Commanding officer.

Troops.

PRESENT FOR DUTY.

Infantry.

Cavalry.

Artillery.

Officers.

Men.

Officers.

Men.

Officers.

Men.

Colonel Jackson

First brigade

128
2,043

4
81

Col. F. S. Bartow

Second brigade

155
2,391

3
59

Brigadier-General Bee

Third brigade

161
2,629

4
78

Col. A. Elzey

Fourth brigade

156
2,106

4
45

Col. J. E. B. Stuart

First Virginia Cavalry

21
313

Col. A. C. Cummings

Virginia Volunteers

14
227

Total

614
9,396
21
313
15
263

text: Aggregate present for duty.

text:
General staff

32

Infantry

10,010

Cavalry

334

Artillery

278

10,654

text: Battle[edit]

text: Morning phase[edit]

text: Matthews Hill[edit]

text: On the morning of July 21, 1861, McDowell sent the divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman (about 12,000 men) from Centreville at 2:30 a.m., marching southwest on the Warrenton Turnpike and then turning northwest toward Sudley Springs. Tyler's division (about 8,000) marched directly toward the Stone Bridge. The inexperienced units immediately developed logistical problems. Tyler's division blocked the advance of the main flanking column on the turnpike. The later units found the approach roads to Sudley Springs were inadequate, little more than a cart path in some places, and did not begin fording Bull Run until 9:30 a.m. Tyler's men reached the Stone Bridge around 6 a.m.[28]

text: At 5:15 a.m., Richardson's brigade fired a few artillery rounds across Mitchell's Ford on the Confederate right, some of which hit Beauregard's headquarters in the Wilmer McLean house as he was eating breakfast, alerting him to the fact that his offensive battle plan had been preempted. Nevertheless, he ordered demonstration attacks north toward the Union left at Centreville. Bungled orders and poor communications prevented their execution. Although he intended for Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell to lead the attack, Ewell, at Union Mills Ford, was simply ordered to "hold ... in readiness to advance at a moment's notice". Brig. Gen. D.R. Jones was supposed to attack in support of Ewell, but found himself moving forward alone. Holmes was also supposed to support, but received no orders at all.[29]

text: All that stood in the path of the 20,000 Union soldiers converging on the Confederate left flank were Col. Nathan "Shanks" Evans and his reduced brigade of 1,100 men.[32] Evans had moved some of his men to intercept the direct threat from Tyler at the bridge, but he began to suspect that the weak attacks from the Union brigade of Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck were merely feints. He was informed of the main Union flanking movement through Sudley Springs by Captain Edward Porter Alexander, Beauregard's signal officer, observing from 8 miles (13 km) southwest on Signal Hill. In the first use of wig-wag semaphore signaling in combat, Alexander sent the message "Look out for your left, your position is turned."[33] Evans hastily led 900 of his men from their position fronting the Stone Bridge to a new location on the slopes of Matthews Hill, a low rise to the northwest of his previous position.[32]

text: The Confederate delaying action on Matthews Hill included a spoiling attack launched by Major Roberdeau Wheat's 1st Louisiana Special Battalion, "Wheat's Tigers". After Wheat's command was thrown back, and Wheat seriously wounded, Evans received reinforcement from two other brigades under Brig. Gen. Barnard Bee and Col. Francis S. Bartow, bringing the force on the flank to 2,800 men.[32] They successfully slowed Hunter's lead brigade (Brig. Gen. Ambrose Burnside) in its attempts to ford Bull Run and advance across Young's Branch, at the northern end of Henry House Hill. One of Tyler's brigade commanders, Col. William Tecumseh Sherman, crossed at an unguarded ford and struck the right flank of the Confederate defenders. This surprise attack, coupled with pressure from Burnside and Maj. George Sykes, collapsed the Confederate line shortly after 11:30 a.m., sending them in a disorderly retreat to Henry House Hill.[34]

text: (Further map details, see: Additional Map 4, Additional Map 5, Additional Map 6 and Additional Map 7.)

text: Noon phase[edit]

text: Henry House Hill[edit]

text: As they retreated from their Matthews Hill position, the remainder of Evans's, Bee's, and Bartow's commands received some cover from Capt. John D. Imboden and his battery of four 6-pounder guns, who held off the Union advance while the Confederates attempted to regroup on Henry House Hill. They were met by generals Johnston and Beauregard, who had just arrived from Johnston's headquarters at the M. Lewis Farm, "Portici".[35] Fortunately for the Confederates, McDowell did not press his advantage and attempt to seize the strategic ground immediately, choosing to bombard the hill with the batteries of Capts. James B. Ricketts (Battery I, 1st U.S. Artillery) and Charles Griffin (Battery D, 5th U.S.) from Dogan's Ridge.[36]

text: Brig. Gen Thomas J. Jackson's Virginia Brigade came up in support of the disorganized Confederates around noon, accompanied by Col. Wade Hampton and his Hampton's Legion, and Col. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry. The Hampton Legion, some 600 men strong, managed to buy Jackson time to construct a defensive line on Henry House Hill by firing repeated volleys at Sherman's advancing brigade. Hampton had purchased about 400 British Enfield rifles to equip the men with, however it is not clear if his troops had them at Bull Run or if the weapons arrived after the battle. If so, they would have been the only foreign-made weapons on the field. The 79th New York was thoroughly decimated by Hampton's musket fire and began to disintegrate. Wade Hampton gestured towards their colonel, James Cameron, and remarked "Look at that brave officer trying to lead his men and they won't follow him." Shortly afterwards, Cameron, the brother of US Senator Simon Cameron, was fatally wounded. It has been claimed that Hampton deliberately targeted officers of the 79th New York in revenge for the death of his nephew earlier in the day, although he had in fact been killed by soldiers of the 69th New York.

text: Jackson posted his five regiments on the reverse slope of the hill, where they were shielded from direct fire, and was able to assemble 13 guns for the defensive line, which he posted on the crest of the hill; as the guns fired, their recoil moved them down the reverse slope, where they could be safely reloaded.[37] Meanwhile, McDowell ordered the batteries of Ricketts and Griffin to move from Dogan's Ridge to the hill for close infantry support. Their 11 guns engaged in a fierce artillery duel across 300 yards (270 m) against Jackson's 13. Unlike many engagements in the Civil War, here the Confederate artillery had an advantage. The Union pieces were now within range of the Confederate smoothbores and the predominantly rifled pieces on the Union side were not effective weapons at such close ranges, with many shots fired over the head of their targets.[38]

text: One of the casualties of the artillery fire was Judith Carter Henry, an 85-year-old widow and invalid, who was unable to leave her bedroom in the Henry House. As Ricketts began receiving rifle fire, he concluded that it was coming from the Henry House and turned his guns on the building. A shell that crashed through the bedroom wall tore off one of the widow's feet and inflicted multiple injuries, from which she died later that day.[39]

text: "The Enemy are driving us", Bee exclaimed to Jackson. Jackson, a former U.S. Army officer and professor at the Virginia Military Institute, is said to have replied, "Then, Sir, we will give them the bayonet."[40] Bee exhorted his own troops to re-form by shouting, "There is Jackson standing like a stone wall. Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer. Rally behind the Virginians."[41] This exclamation was the source for Jackson's (and his brigade's) nickname, "Stonewall". Bee was shot through the stomach shortly after speaking and died the next day, thus it is unclear exactly what he meant, moreover none of his subordinates wrote reports of the battle. Col. States Rights Gist, serving as Bee's aide-de-camp, took command of the brigade. Major Burnett Rhett, chief of staff to General Johnston, claimed that Bee was angry at Jackson's failure to come immediately to the relief of Bee's and Bartow's brigades while they were under heavy pressure. Those who subscribe to this opinion believe that Bee's statement was meant to be pejorative: "Look at Jackson standing there like a stone wall!"[42]

text: Artillery commander Griffin decided to move two of his guns to the southern end of his line, hoping to provide enfilade fire against the Confederates. At approximately 3 p.m., these guns were overrun by the 33rd Virginia, whose men were outfitted in blue uniforms, causing Griffin's commander, Maj. William F. Barry, to mistake them for Union troops and to order Griffin not to fire on them. Close range volleys from the 33rd Virginia and Stuart's cavalry attack against the flank of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment (Ellsworth's Fire Zouaves), which was supporting the battery, killed many of the gunners and scattered the infantry. Capitalizing on this success, Jackson ordered two regiments to charge Ricketts's guns and they were captured as well. As additional Federal infantry engaged, the guns changed hands several times.[43]

text: The capture of the Union guns turned the tide of battle. Although McDowell had brought 15 regiments into the fight on the hill, outnumbering the Confederates two to one, no more than two were ever engaged simultaneously. Jackson continued to press his attacks, telling soldiers of the 4th Virginia Infantry, "Reserve your fire until they come within 50 yards! Then fire and give them the bayonet! And when you charge, yell like furies!" For the first time, Union troops heard the disturbing sound of the Rebel yell. At about 4 p.m., the last Union troops were pushed off Henry House Hill by a charge of two regiments from Col. Philip St. George Cocke's brigade.[44]

text:
To the west, Chinn Ridge had been occupied by Col. Oliver Otis Howard's brigade from Heintzelman's division. Also at 4 p.m., two Confederate brigades-Col. Jubal Early's, which had moved from the Confederate right, and  Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith's (commanded by Col. Arnold Elzey after Smith was wounded), which had just arrived from the Shenandoah Valley—crushed Howard's brigade. Beauregard ordered his entire line forward. At 5 p.m. everywhere McDowell's army was disintegrating. Thousands, in large and small groups or as individuals, began to leave the battlefield and head for Centreville. McDowell rode around the field trying to rally regiments and groups of soldiers, but most had had enough. Unable to stop the mass exodus, McDowell gave orders for Porter's regular infantry battalion, near the intersection of the turnpike and
Manassas-Sudley Road, to act as a rear guard as his army withdrew. The unit briefly held the crossroads, then retreated eastward with the rest of the army.[45] McDowell's force crumbled and began to retreat.[46]

text: (Further map details, see: Additional Map 8, Additional Map 9, Additional Map 10, Additional Map 11 and Additional Map 12.)

text: Union retreat[edit]

text: The retreat was relatively orderly up to the Bull Run crossings, but it was poorly managed by the Union officers. A Union wagon was overturned by artillery fire on a bridge spanning Cub Run Creek and incited panic in McDowell's force. As the soldiers streamed uncontrollably toward Centreville, discarding their arms and equipment, McDowell ordered Col. Dixon S. Miles's division to act as a rear guard, but it was impossible to rally the army short of Washington. In the disorder that followed, hundreds of Union troops were taken prisoner. Wagons and artillery were abandoned, including the 30-pounder Parrott rifle, which had opened the battle with such fanfare. Expecting an easy Union victory, the wealthy elite of nearby Washington, including congressmen and their families, had come to picnic and watch the battle. When the Union army was driven back in a running disorder, the roads back to Washington were blocked by panicked civilians attempting to flee in their carriages.[47]

text: Since their combined army had been left highly disorganized as well, Beauregard and Johnston did not fully press their advantage, despite urging from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, who had arrived on the battlefield to see the Union soldiers retreating. An attempt by Johnston to intercept the Union troops from his right flank, using the brigades of Brig. Gens. Milledge L. Bonham and James Longstreet, was a failure. The two commanders squabbled with each other and when Bonham's men received some artillery fire from the Union rear guard, and found that Richardson's brigade blocked the road to Centreville, he called off the pursuit.[48]

text: In Washington President Lincoln and members of the cabinet waited for news of a Union victory. Instead, a telegram arrived stating "General McDowell's army in full retreat through Centreville. The day is lost. Save Washington and the remnants of this army." The tidings were happier in the Confederate capital. From the battlefield President Davis telegraphed Richmond, "We have won a glorious but dear-bought victory. Night closed on the enemy in full flight and closely pursued."[49]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Brief observations[edit]

text: First Bull Run was a clash between relatively large, ill-trained bodies of recruits, led by inexperienced officers. Neither army commander was able to deploy his forces effectively; although nearly 60,000 men were present at the battle, only 18,000 had actually been engaged. Although McDowell had been active on the battlefield, he had expended most of his energy maneuvering nearby regiments and brigades, instead of controlling and coordinating the movements of his army as a whole. Other factors contributed to McDowell's defeat: Patterson's failure to hold Johnston in the valley; McDowell's two-day delay at Centreville; allowing Tyler's division to lead the march on 21 July thus delaying the flanking divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman; and the 2 1/2-hour delay after the Union victory on Matthews' Hill, which allowed the Confederates to bring up reinforcements and establish a defensive position on Henry Hill. On Henry Hill Beauregard had also limited his control to the regimental level, generally allowing the battle to continue on its own and only reacting to Union moves. Johnston's decision to transport his infantry to the battlefield by rail played a major role in the Confederate victory. Although the trains were slow and a lack of sufficient cars did not allow the transport of large numbers of troops at one time, almost all of his army arrived in time to participate in the battle. After reaching Manassas Junction, Johnston had relinquished command of the battlefield to Beauregard, but his forwarding of reinforcements to the scene of fighting was decisive.[50] Jackson and Bee's brigades had done the largest share of fighting in the battle; Jackson's brigade had fought almost alone for four hours and sustained over 50% casualties.

text: Detailed casualties[edit]

text:
Bull Run was the largest and bloodiest battle in United States history up to that point. Union casualties were 460 killed, 1,124 wounded, and 1,312 missing or captured; Confederate casualties were 387 killed, 1,582 wounded, and 13 missing.[51] Among the Union dead was Col. James Cameron, brother of President Lincoln's first Secretary of War, Simon Cameron.[52] Among the Confederate casualties was Col. Francis S. Bartow, who was the first Confederate brigade commander to be killed in the Civil War. General Bee was mortally wounded and died the following day.[53]
Compared to later battles, casualties at First Bull Run had not been especially heavy. Both Union and Confederate killed, wounded, and missing were a little over one thousand seven hundred each.[54] Two Confederate brigade commanders, Jackson and Edmund Kirby-Smith, were wounded in the battle. No Union officers above the regimental level were killed; two division commanders (Samuel Heintzelman and David Hunter), and one brigade commander (Orlando Willcox) were wounded.

text: Union[edit]

text: Union casualties at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.[8]

text:
ARMY OF NORTHEASTERN VIRGINIA

Troops

Killed

Wounded

Missing

Remarks

Officers

Enlisted Men

Officers

Enlisted Men

Officers

Enlisted Men

General staff

1

First Division, General TYLER:

First Brigade, Colonel Keyes

19
4
46
5
149

Eighteen others slightly wounded.

Second Brigade, General Schenck

3
16

15
1
15

Third Brigade, Colonel Sherman

3
117
15
193
13
240

Fourth Brigade, Colonel Richardson

Not engaged. Guarding Blackburn's Ford.

Total, First Division

6
152
19
254
19
404

Second Division, Colonel HUNTER:

First Brigade, Colonel Porter

1
83
9
139
9
236

Four surgeons missing.

Second Brigade, Colonel Burnside

5
35
3
85
2
59

Five surgeons missing.

Total Second Division

6
118
12
224
11
295

Third Division, Colonel HEINTZELMAN:

Division headquarters.

1

First Brigade, Colonel Franklin

3
68
13
183
4
22

Second Brigade, Colonel Willcox

1
70
11
161

186

Third Brigade, Colonel Howard

2
48
7
108
6
174

Total, Third Division

6
186
32
452
10
382

Fourth Division, General RUNYON

In reserve on the Potomac.

Fifth Division, Colonel MILES:

First Brigade Colonel Blenker

6

16

94

Second Brigade, Colonel Davies

1
1

1

Total, Fifth Division

6
1
17

95

Grand total

19
462
64
947
40
1,176

text: Union artillery lost in the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.[55]

text:
Batteries

Commanders

Guns lost

Remarks

Rifled

Smooth

Total

First U. S. Artillery, Company G(two 20-pounder Parrotts,one 30-pounder Parrott).

Lieutenant Edwards

1

1

20-pounders saved

First U. S. Artillery, Company I(six 10-pounder Parrots)

Captain Ricketts

6

6

None saved

Second U. S. Artillery, Company D

Captain Arnold

2
2
4

None saved

Second U. S. Artillery, Company E(two 13-pounder James, two 6-pounders (old), two 12-pounder howitzers).

Captain Carlisle

2
2
4

Two 6-pounders saved

Fifth S. Artillery [Company D],(two 10-pounder Parrotts,two 6-pounders (old),two 12-pounder howitzers).

Captain Griffin

1
4
5

One 10-pounder saved

Rhode Island Battery(six 13-pounder James)

5

5

One saved

Total lost

17
8
25

text: Confederate[edit]

text: Confederate casualties at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.[10]

text:
Command

Killed

Wounded

Missing

Aggregate

Officers

Enlisted Men

Officers

Enlisted Men

Officers

Enlisted Men

ARMY OF THE POTOMAC

INFANTRY

First Louisiana (battalion)

8
5
33

2
48

Seventh Louisiana

3

23

26

Thirteenth Mississippi

6

6

Seventeenth Mississippi

2

9

11

Eighteenth Mississippi

2
6
2
28

38

Fifth North Carolina

1

3

4

Second South Carolina

5
6
37

48

Fourth South Carolina

1
10
9
70

6
96

Fifth South Carolina

3

23

26

Eighth South Carolina

5
3
20

28

Hampton Legion

19

100

2
121

First Virginia

6

6

Seventh Virginia

9
1
37

47

Eighth Virginia

6

23

1
30

Seventeenth Virginia

1

3

4

Eighteenth Virginia

6
1
12

19

Nineteenth Virginia

1

4

1
6

Twenty-eighth Virginia

9

9

Forty-ninth Virginia

1
9
1
29

40

ARTILLERY

Alexandria Light Artillery

1

2

3

Latham's

1

1

Loudoun

3

3

Washington (La.)

1

2

3

CAVALRY

Thirtieth Virginia

2
3

4

9

Hanover

1
3

4

ARMY OF THE SHENANDOAH

INFANTRY

Fourth Alabama

4
36
6
151

Seventh Georgia

1
18
12
122

Eighth Georgia

3
38
6
153

First Maryland

1

5

Second Mississippi

4
21
3
79
1

Eleventh Mississippi

7

21

Sixth North Carolina

1
22
4
46

Third Tennessee

1

3

Second Virginia

3
15
3
69

Fourth Virginia

1
30

100

Fifth Virginia

6

47

Tenth Virginia

6

10

Twenty-seventh Virginia

1
18

122

Thirty-third Virginia

1
44

101

Total First Corps

6
99
29
490

12
632

Total Second Corps

19
263
34
1,029
1

Grand total

25
362
63
1,519
1
12
632

text:
Today will be known as BLACK MONDAY. We are utterly and disgracefully routed, beaten, whipped by secessionists.
—  Union diarist George Templeton Strong[56]

tag: div

text:
If the war had turned out to be of short duration, Bull Run would have been a disaster for the Union. But if, as now seemed more plausible, a long and nasty war was inevitable, that battle had a curiously salutary effect for the Union side. It provided a wake-up call for those optimists—like Seward or even Lincoln—who had hoped for or counted on a quick result.
—  David Detzer, Donnybrook[57]

text:
Bull Run was a turning point in the American Civil War ... in the sense that the battle struck with impelling force upon public opinion at home and abroad, upon Congress, and upon the Commander-in-chief. It framed new patterns of thought and led to far-reaching changes in the conduct of the war. The failure at Bull Run inspired a second Northern rising. Volunteering accelerated, 90-day men reenlisted, states rushed fresh regiments forward in plenitude. ... As they realized victory would not come readily, a new mood fastened upon Northerners. An iron resolve entered the Northern soul ...
—  James A. Rawley, Turning Points of the Civil War[58]

text: Effect on the Union and subsequent events[edit]

text: Union forces and civilians alike feared that Confederate forces would advance on Washington, D.C., with very little standing in their way. On July 24, Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe ascended in the balloon Enterprise to observe the Confederates moving in and about Manassas Junction and Fairfax. He saw no evidence of massing Confederate forces, but was forced to land in Confederate territory. It was overnight before he was rescued and could report to headquarters. He reported that his observations "restored confidence" to the Union commanders.[59]

text: The Northern public was shocked at the unexpected defeat of their army when an easy victory had been widely anticipated. Both sides quickly came to realize the war would be longer and more brutal than they had imagined. On July 22 President Lincoln signed a bill that provided for the enlistment of another 500,000 men for up to three years of service.[60] On July 25, eleven thousand Pennsylvanians who had earlier been rejected by the U.S. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, for federal service in either Patterson's or McDowell's command arrived in Washington, D.C., and were finally accepted.[61]

text: Three months after First Bull Run Union forces suffered another, smaller defeat at the Battle of Ball's Bluff, near Leesburg, Virginia. The perceived military incompetence at First Bull Run and Ball's Bluff led to the establishment of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, a congressional body created to investigate Northern military affairs. Concerning the Battle of First Bull Run, the committee listened to testimony from a variety of witnesses connected with McDowell's army. Although the committee's report concluded that the principal cause of defeat was Patterson's failure to prevent Johnston from reinforcing Beauregard, Patterson's enlistment had expired a few days after the battle, and he was no longer in the service. The Northern public clamored for another scapegoat, and McDowell bore the chief blame. On 25 July 1861, he was relieved of army command and replaced by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who would soon be named general-in-chief of all the Union armies. McDowell was also present to bear significant blame for the defeat of Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia thirteen months later, at the Second Battle of Bull Run.[54][62]

text: Effect on the Confederacy[edit]

text: The reaction in the Confederacy was more muted. There was little public celebration as the Southerners realized that despite their victory, the greater battles that would inevitably come would mean greater losses for their side as well.[63] Once the euphoria of victory had worn off, Jefferson Davis called for 400,000 additional volunteers.[54]

text: Beauregard was considered the Confederate hero of the battle and was promoted that day by C.S. President Davis to full general in the Confederate army.[64] Stonewall Jackson, arguably the most important tactical contributor to the victory, received no special recognition, but would later achieve glory for his 1862 Valley Campaign. Privately, Davis credited Greenhow with ensuring Confederate victory.[18] Jordan sent a telegram to Greenhow: "Our President and our General direct me to thank you. We rely upon you for further information. The Confederacy owes you a debt. (Signed) JORDAN, Adjutant-General."[65]

text: The battle also had long-term psychological consequences. The decisive victory led to a degree of over-confidence on the part of Confederate forces, while prompting a determined organizational effort on the part of the Union. In hindsight commentators on both sides agreed that the one-sided outcome "proved the greatest misfortune that would have befallen the Confederacy". Although modern historians generally agree with this interpretation, James M. McPherson has argued that the esprit de corps attained by Confederate troops on the heels of their victory, together with a new sense of insecurity felt by northern commanders, also gave the Confederacy a military edge in the following months.[66]

text: Confederate victory: turning point of the American Civil War[edit]

text: "Bull Run" vs. "Manassas"[edit]

text: The name of the battle has caused controversy since 1861. The Union Army frequently named battles after significant rivers and creeks that played a role in the fighting; the Confederates generally used the names of nearby towns or farms. The U.S. National Park Service uses the Confederate name for its national battlefield park, but the Union name (Bull Run) also has widespread currency in popular literature.[67]

text: Confusion between the battle flags[edit]

text: Battlefield confusion between the battle flags, especially the similarity of the Confederacy's "Stars and Bars" and the Union's "Stars and Stripes" when fluttering, led to the adoption of the Confederate Battle Flag, which eventually became the most popular symbol of the Confederacy and the South in general.[68]

text: Conclusions[edit]

text: First Bull Run demonstrated that the war would not be won by one grand battle, and both sides began preparing for a long and bloody conflict. The battle also showed the need for adequately trained and experienced officers and men. One year later many of the same soldiers who had fought at First Bull Run, now combat veterans, would have an opportunity to test their skills on the same battlefield at the Second Battle of Bull Run/Manassas.[54]

text: Additional battle maps[edit]

text: Gallery: the First Bull Run hour by hour[edit]

text:
Map 1:Situation Mid-July 1861

Map 2:Beauregard's defensive situation(Mid-July 1861)

Map 3:Situation at 05:30-06:00(July 21, 1861)

Map 4:Situation at 10:30-11:00(July 21, 1861)

Map 5:Situation at 11:00-11:30(July 21, 1861)

Map 6:Situation at 12:00-12:30(July 21, 1861)

Map 7:Situation at 13:00(July 21, 1861)

Map 8:Situation at 14:30-15:00(July 21, 1861)

Map 9:Situation at 15:00(July 21, 1861)

Map 10:Situation at 15:30(July 21, 1861)

Map 11:Situation at 16:00(July 21, 1861)

Map 12:Situation at 16:30-17:30(July 21, 1861)

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The First Battle of Bull Run is mentioned in the novel Gods and Generals, but is depicted more fully in its film adaptation. The battle forms the climax of the film Class of '61.  It also appears in the first episode of the second season of the mini-series North and South, in the second episode of the first season of the mini-series How the West Was Won and in the first episode of the mini-series The Blue and the Gray. Manassas (1999) is the first volume in the James Reasoner Civil War Series of historical novels. The battle is described in Rebel (1993), the first volume of Bernard Cornwell's The Starbuck Chronicles series of historical novels. The battle is described from the viewpoint of a Union infantryman in Upton Sinclair's novella Manassas, which also depicts the political turmoil leading up to the Civil War. The battle is also depicted in John Jakes's The Titans, the fifth novel in The Kent Family Chronicles, a series that explores the fictional Confederate cavalry officer Gideon Kent. The battle is the subject of the Johnny Horton song, "Battle of Bull Run". Shaman, second in the Cole family trilogy by Noah Gordon, includes an account of the battle.  The battle is also depicted in the song "Yankee Bayonet" by indie-folk band The Decemberists. In Murder at 1600, Detective Harlan Regis (Wesley Snipes) has built a plan-relief of the battle which plays a certain role in the plot.

text: Sesquicentennial[edit]

text: Prince William County staged special events commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War through 2011. Manassas was named the No. 1 tourist destination in the United States for 2011 by the American Bus Association for its efforts in highlighting the historical impact of the Civil War. The cornerstone of the commemoration event featured a reenactment of the battle on July 23–24, 2011. Throughout the year, there were tours of the Manassas battlefield and other battlefields in the county and a number of related events and activities.[69]

text: The City of Manassas commemorated the 150th anniversary of the battle July 21–24, 2011.[70]

text: Battlefield preservation[edit]

text: Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park, which is designated as a National Battlefield Park  More than 900,000 people visit the battlefield each year. (In comparison, 22 million people visited nearby Washington, D.C. in 2016[71]) As a historic area under the National Park Service, the park was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.[72]


document_title: Civil Services of India

question_text: who is known as the father of civil services in india

root

text: Civil Services of India

text: History[edit]

text:
“

If a responsible government is to be established in India, there will be a far greater need than is even dreamt of at present for persons to take part in public affairs in the legislative assemblies and elsewhere and for this reason the more Indians we can employ in the public service the better. Moreover, it would lessen the burden of Imperial responsibilities if a body of capable Indian administrators could be produced..

”

— Regarding the importance of Indianising Civil Services, Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms[7]

tag: table

text: Warren Hastings laid the foundation of civil service and Charles Cornwallis reformed, modernised and rationalised it. Hence, Charles Cornwallis is known as the 'Father of Civil Service in India'. He introduced Covenanted Civil Services (Higher Civil Services) and Uncovenanted Civil Services (Lower Civil Services).

tag: p

text: The present civil services of India is mainly based on the pattern of the former Indian Civil Service of British India. The civil services were divided into two categories - covenanted and uncovenanted. The covenanted civil service consisted of only Europeans (i.e., English personnel) occupying the higher posts in the government. The uncovenanted civil service was solely introduced to facilitate the entry of Indians at the lower rung of the administration.[8][9]

text: With the passing of the Government of India Act 1919, the Imperial Services headed by the Secretary of State for India, were split into two – All India Services and Central Services.[10]

text: The All India and Central Services (Group A) were designated as Central Superior Services as early as 1924.[11] From 1924 to 1934, Administration in India consisted of 10 All India Services and 5 central departments, all under the control of Secretary of State for India, and 3 central departments under joint Provincial and Imperial Control.[11]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: The present modern civil service was formed after the partition of India in 1947. It was Sardar Patel's vision that the Civil Service should strengthen cohesion and national unity. The values of integrity, impartiality and merit remain the guiding principles of Indian civil services.[citation needed]

text: By the early 21st century, Indian civil servants have been colloquially called "babus",[12] while Indian bureaucracy is called "babudom", as in the "rule of babus", especially in Indian media.[13][14][15]

text: Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions located in New Delhi is unofficially the "Ministry of Civil Services" in India. The Ministry is responsible for training, reforms and pension for the civil service system in India.

text: Constitutional provision for All-India Services[edit]

text: The constitution under Article 312[16] provides for All India Civil Services branches to be set up by giving the power to the Rajya Sabha (upper house of the Parliament of India) to resolve by a two-thirds majority to establish new all-India services. The Indian Administrative Service, Indian Police Service and Indian Forest Service are set up under this constitutional provision.[17]

text: Power, purpose and responsibilities[edit]

text: The responsibility of the civil services is to run the administration of India. The country is managed through a number of Central Government agencies in accordance with the policy directions given by the ministries.

text: The members of the civil services are represented as administrators in the central government and state government; emissaries in the foreign missions/embassies; as tax collectors and revenue commissioners; as civil service commissioned police officers; as permanent representative(s) and employees in the United Nations and its agencies and as Chairman, Managing Director, full-time functional Director/Member of the Board of Management of various Public Sector Undertakings/ Enterprises, Corporations, Banks and financial institutions. Civil servants are employed to various agencies of India and can also be appointed as advisors or special duty officers or private secretaries to ministers of the Union and the State Government.[18][19]

text: All appointments in the rank of Joint Secretary to Government of India and above, other major appointments, empanelment and extension of tenure is done by the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet. However, all appointments in the ranks below Joint Secretary in the federal government are done by the Civil Services Board. Civil servants are the actual laws and policies' makers in the country. They work on behalf of the elected government and cannot publicly show their disinterest or disapproval for the elected government. It is mandatory for them to form certain rules and policies according to the government's views and interests, but additionally they cannot be removed by any state or central government, but can only be retired.

text: Governance[edit]

text: Head of the Civil Services[edit]

text: The highest ranking civil servant is the Cabinet Secretary. He is ex-officio Chairman of the Civil Services Board; the chief of the Indian Administrative Service and head of all civil services under the rules of business of the Government of India. He also holds the 11th position in the Order of Precedence of India.

text: The position holder is accountable for ensuring that the Civil Service is equipped with the skills and capability to meet the everyday challenges it faces and that civil servants work in a fair and decent environment.

text: Values and codes[edit]

text: Values[edit]

text: A member of the civil service in discharge of his/her functions is to be guided by maintaining absolute integrity, allegiance to the constitution and the law of the nation, patriotism, national pride, devotion to duty, honesty, impartiality and transparency.[20]

text: Codes[edit]

text: The Government of India promotes values and a certain standard of ethics of requiring and facilitating every civil servant:[20]

text:
To discharge official duty with responsibility, honesty, accountability and without discrimination.
To ensure effective management, leadership development and personal growth.
To avoid misuse of official position or information.
To serve as instruments of good governance and foster social economic development.

tag: ul

text: Construction[edit]

text: The Higher Civil Services of India can be classified into two types - the All India Services and the Central Civil Services (Group A). The recruits are university graduates (or above) selected through a rigorous system of examinations: Civil Services Examination, Engineering Services Examination, Combined Geo-Scientist and Geologist Examination, I.E.S./I.S.S. Examination, Combined Medical Services Examination, Central Armed Police Forces of Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) for Group A posts.

text: All India Services[edit]

text: All appointments to All India Civil Services are made by the President of India.

text:
Indian Administrative Service (IAS)
Indian Forest Service (IFS)
Indian Police Service (IPS)

text: Central Services (Group A)[edit]

text:
The Central Civil Services (Group A) are concerned with the administration of the Union Government.[21]
All appointments to Central Civil Services (Group A) are made by the President of India.

text:
Archaeological Service, Group 'A'.
Botanical Survey of India, Group 'A'.
Central Architects Service, Group 'A'.
Central Engineering (Civil) Group 'A' Service.
Central Engineering (Electrical and Mechanical) Group 'A' Service.
Central Health Service, Group 'A'.
Central Revenues Chemical Service, Group 'A'.
Central Secretariat Service-
(a) Selection Grade
(b) Grade I.

General Central Service, Group 'A'.
Geological Survey of India, Group 'A'.
Indian Audit and Accounts Service, Group 'A'.
Indian Civil Accounts Service.
Indian Defence Accounts Service
Indian Foreign Service, Group 'A'.
Indian Meteorological Service, Group 'A'.
Indian Postal Service, Group 'A'.
Indian Posts and Telegraphs Traffic Service, Group 'A'.
Indian Revenue Service -
(a) Customs Branch (Indian Customs Service, Group 'A')
(b) Central Excise Branch (Central Excise Service, Group 'A')
(c) Income Tax Branch (Income Tax Service, Group 'A')

Indian Salt Service, Group 'A'.
Mercantile Marine Training Ship Service, Group 'A'.
Directorate General of Mines Safety, Group 'A'.
Overseas Communications Service, Group 'A'.
Survey of India, Group 'A'.
Indian Telecommunication Service, Group 'A'.
Zoological Survey of India, Group 'A'.

Indian Frontier Administrative Service, Group 'A'-
(a) Grade I
(b) Grade II

Central Legal Service (Grades I, II, III and IV)
Railway Inspectorate Service, Group 'A'
Indian Foreign Service, Branch (B) (erstwhile)-
(a) General Cadre, Grade I
(b) General Cadre, Grade II

Delhi and Andaman and Nicobar Islands Civil Service, Grade I.
Delhi and Andaman and Nicobar Islands Police Service, Grade I.
Indian Inspection Service, Group 'A'
Indian Supply Service, Group 'A'
Central Information Service-
(a) Selection Grade
(b) Senior Administrative Grade
(c) Junior Administrative Grade
(d) Grade I
(e) Grade II

Indian Statistical Service
Indian Economic Service
Telegraph Traffic Service, Group 'A'
Central Water Engineering Service, Group 'A'
Central Power Engineering Service, Group 'A'
Company Law Board Service
Labour Officers of the Central Pool, Group 'A'
Central Engineering Service (Roads), Group 'A'
Indian Posts and Telegraphs Accounts and Finance Service, Group 'A'
Indian Broadcasting (Engineers) Service
Central Trade Service, Group 'A'
Armed Forces Headquarters Civil Services (Group 'A')
Central Secretariat Official Language Service (Group 'A')

text: Central Services (Group B)[edit]

text:
For Group B posts, the Combined Graduate Level Examination (CGLE) is conducted by the Staff Selection Commission (SSC).[a][22]
All appointments to Group B are made by the authorities specified by a general or special order of the President.

text:
Armed Forces Headquarters Civil Services
Botanical Survey of India, Group 'B'
Central Electrical Engineering Service, Group 'B'
Central Engineering Service, Group 'B'
Central Excise Service, Group ‘B’
Central Health Service, Group ‘B’
Central Power Engineering Service, Group ‘B’
Central Secretariat Official Language Service, Group ‘B’
Central Secretariat Service, Group 'B' (Section and Assistant Section Grade officers only)
Central Secretariat Stenographers’ Service, (Grade I, Grade II and Selection Grade officers only)
Customs Appraisers Service, Group ‘B’- (Principal Appraisers and Head Appraisers)
Customs Preventive Service, Group ‘B’ – (Chief Inspectors)
Defence Secretariat Service
DANICS, Grade II
DANIPS, Grade II
Geological Survey of India, Group 'B'
Indian Foreign Service, Group ‘B’ - (General Cadre, Grade I and General Cadre, Grade II only)
Indian Posts and Telegraphs Accounts and Finance Service, Group ‘B’ Telecommunication Wing.
Indian Posts & Telegraphs Accounts & Finance Service, Postal Wing, Group ‘B’
Income Tax Service, Group ‘B’
Indian Salt Service, Group ‘B’
India Meteorological Service, Group ‘B'
Survey of India, Group 'B'
Postal Superintendents’ Service, Group ‘B’
Postmasters’ Service, Group ‘B’
Railway Board Secretariat Service, Group ‘B’
Telecommunication Engineering Service, Group ‘B’
Telegraphs Traffic Service, Group ‘B
Zoological Survey of India, Group 'B'

text: State Services (Group A)[edit]

text:
The State Civil Services examinations and recruitment are conducted by the individual states public service commissions in India. These services are feeder services of All India Services.
All appointments to State Services (Group A) are made by the Governors of States.

text: All state civil and Administrative services in India above the rank of Deputy Collector are group A service. The officers of following services are later promoted to IAS.

text:
Andhra Pradesh State Civil Service (Executive Branch)
Arunachal Pradesh Civil Service-Executive Branch (APCS) officer promoted to IAS.
Assam Civil Service (ACS)
Bihar Administrative Service (BAS)
Goa Civil Service (GCS)
State Administrative Service (SAS)
State Civil Service (SCS)
Gujarat Administrative Service (GAS)
Haryana Civil Service (HCS)
Himachal Pradesh Administrative Service (HPAS)
Jharkhand Administrative Service (JAS)
Kashmir Administrative Service (KAS)
Karnataka Administrative Service (KAS)

Kerala Administrative Service (KAS)
Manipur Civil Service (MCS)
Mizoram Civil Service (MCS)
Meghalaya Civil Service (MCS)
Nagaland Civil Service (NCS)
Odisha Administrative Service (OAS)
Provincial Civil Service (Uttar Pradesh)
Punjab Civil Service (PCS)
Rajasthan Administrative Service (RAS)
Sikkim Civil Service (SCS)
Telangana Civil Service-Executive Branch (TCS)
Tamil Nadu Civil Service (TNCS)
West Bengal Civil Service (WBCS)

text: All state police services above the rank of Deputy SP are group A service. The officers of following services are later promoted to IPS.

text:
Andhra Pradesh State Police Service (APPS)
Arunachal Pradesh Police Service (APPS)
Assam Police Service (APS)
Bihar Police Service (BPS)
Goa Police Service (GPS)
State Police Service (SPS)
State Police Service (SPS)
Gujarat Police Service (GPS)
Haryana Police Service (HPS)
Himachal Pradesh Police Service (HPPS)
Jharkhand Police Service (JPS)
Kashmir Police Service (KPS)
Karnataka State Police Service (KSPS)

Kerala Police Service (KPS)
Manipur Police Service (MPS)
Mizoram Police Service (MPS)
Meghalaya Police Service (MPS)
Nagaland Police Service (NPS)
Odisha Police Service (OPS)
Provincial Police Service (PPS)
Punjab Police Service (PPS)
Rajasthan Police Service (RPS)
Sikkim Police Service (SPS)
Telangana Police Service (TPS)
Tamil Nadu Police Service (TNPS)
West Bengal Police Service (WBPS)

text: All state judicial services above the rank of Judicial Magistrate are group A service. The officers of following services are later promoted as judges in High Courts.

text:
Higher Judicial Service (HJS)
Provincial Civil Service-Judicial Branch (PCS-J)

text: State Services (Group B)[edit]

text: The state civil services (Group B) deal with subjects such as land revenue, agriculture, forests, education etc. The officers are recruited by different States through the respective State Public Service Commissions, and appointed by the Governor of that state.

text:
Assistant Registrar Cooperative Societies
Block Development Officer
District Employment Officer
District Food and Supplies Controller/Officer
District Treasury Officer
District Welfare Officer
Excise and Taxation Officer
Tehsildar/Talukadar/Assistant Collector
Any other Class-I/Class-II service notified as per rules by the concerned State, i.e. officers, lecturers, assistants, associate professors, or principals of Government Degree Colleges, Class I

text: Concerns and Reforms[edit]

text:
“

The IAS is hamstrung by political interference, outdated personnel procedures, and a mixed record on policy implementation, and it is in need of urgent reform. The Indian government should reshape recruitment and promotion processes, improve performance-based assessment of individual officers, and adopt safeguards that promote accountability while protecting bureaucrats from political meddling.

”

— The Indian Administrative Service Meets Big Data, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace[23][24]

text: As of 2011, in a duration of past three years over 450 chargesheets have been filed and a total of 943 cases are at different stages of investigation by CBI against civil servants.[25][26]

text:
“

We estimate that if India were to pursue civil service reforms and reach the Asian average on government effectiveness, it could add 0.9 percentage points annually to per capita GDP... Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance.

”

—  Goldman Sachs report[27]

text: A study by the Hong Kong-based Political and Economic Risk Consultancy, released in 2012, ranked and rated Indian bureaucracy as the worst in Asia with a 9.21 rating out of 10. According to the study, India's inefficient and corrupt bureaucracy was responsible for most of the complaints that business executive have about the country.[28][29][30] A paper prepared in 2012 by the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions states that corruption is prevalent at all levels in civil services and it is institutionalised.[31][32]

text: On 28 November 2011, the Department of Personnel and Training (DOPT) of the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions created a proposal to retire and remove incompetent, inefficient and unproductive All India Service officers after 15 years of service, instead of tolerating them until their retirement. Former Cabinet Secretary TSR Subramanian welcomed this move with caution, saying, "Periodical weeding out is very good. But the process to determine who needs to be prematurely retired should be fair and transparent. There is a possibility that even good officers may be targeted because of political reasons,". Former UPSC chairman PC Hota echoed his sentiments remarking that, "We need drastic remedies. The situation has become terrible. The other day an officer in Delhi was arrested for disproportionate assets of Rs.31.5 million. She is just a 2000-batch IAS officer with 11 years of service. But at the same time, the officers' service records should be analysed before a decision against him was taken".[33][34][35] The proposal has been accepted and rule 16(3) of the All India Services (death-cum-retirement benefits) Rules of 1958 was amended on 31 January 2012.[33][35][36]

text: In October 2013, the Supreme Court of India, in the case of TSR Subramanian & Ors vs Union of India & Ors [37] ordered both Government of India and State governments to ensure fixed tenure to civil servants. The court asked senior bureaucrats to write down the oral instructions from politicians so that a record would be kept of all the decisions. This judgement was seen on the similar lines of the Supreme Court's 2006 judgement in Prakash Singh case on police reforms.[38][39] The judgement was welcomed by various bureaucrats and the media who hoped that it will help in giving freedom and independence to the functioning of bureaucracy.[40][41]

text:
"Much of the deterioration in the functioning of bureaucracy is due to political interference."
Justice K. S. Radhakrishnan and Justice P. C. Ghose, Supreme Court of India[40]

text: In 2016, the Ministry of Finance for the first time, dismissed 72 and prematurely retired another 33 Indian Revenue Service officers for non-performance and on disciplinary grounds.[42][43][44][45][46] In 2016, it was reported that Government of India has decided to empower common man to seek prosecution of corrupt IAS officers.[47] Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions (DOPT) has accepted to receive requests from private persons seeking sanction for prosecution in respect of IAS officers without any proper proposal and supporting documents. [47]

text: Civil Services Day[edit]

text: The Civil Service Day is celebrated on 21 April every year.[48] The purpose for this day is to rededicate and recommit themselves to the cause of the people. It is observed by all Civil Services. This day gives civil servants the opportunity for introspection and thinking about future strategies to deal with the challenges being posed by the changing times.[49]

text: On this occasion, all officers of Central and State Governments are honoured for excellence in public administration by the Prime Minister of India. The 'Prime Minister Award for Excellence in Public Administration' is presented in three categories. Under this scheme of awards instituted in 2006, all the officers individually or as group or as organisation are eligible.[49]

text: The award includes a medal, scroll and a cash amount of ₹100,000 (US$1,500). In case of a group, the total award money is ₹500,000 (US$7,300) subject to a maximum of ₹100,000 (US$1,500) per person. For an organisation the cash amount is limited to ₹500,000 (US$7,300).[49]


document_title: Cherry blossom

question_text: where did the cherry blossom trees come from

text: Cherry blossom

text: Flower viewing[edit]

text: "Hanami" is the centuries-old practice of picnicking under a blooming sakura or ume tree. The custom is said to have started during the Nara period (710–794), when it was ume blossoms that people admired in the beginning, but by the Heian period (794–1185) cherry blossoms came to attract more attention, and hanami was synonymous with sakura.[7] From then on, in both waka and haiku, "flowers" (花, hana) meant "cherry blossoms". The custom was originally limited to the elite of the Imperial Court, but soon spread to samurai society and, by the Edo period, to the common people as well. Tokugawa Yoshimune planted areas of cherry blossom trees to encourage this. Under the sakura trees, people had lunch and drank sake in cheerful feasts.

text: Every year the Japanese Meteorological Agency and the public track the sakura zensen (cherry blossom front) as it moves northward up the archipelago with the approach of warmer weather via nightly forecasts following the weather segment of news programs. The blossoming begins in Okinawa in January, and typically reaches Kyoto and Tokyo at the end of March or the beginning of April. It proceeds into areas at the higher altitudes and northward, arriving in Hokkaido a few weeks later. Japanese pay close attention to these forecasts and turn out in large numbers at parks, shrines and temples with family and friends to hold flower-viewing parties. Hanami festivals celebrate the beauty of the cherry blossom and for many are a chance to relax and enjoy the beautiful view. The custom of hanami dates back many centuries in Japan. The eighth-century chronicle Nihon Shoki (日本書紀) records hanami festivals being held as early as the third century AD.

text: Most Japanese schools and public buildings have cherry blossom trees outside of them. Since the fiscal and school year both begin in April, in many parts of Honshu, the first day of work or school coincides with the cherry blossom season.

text: The Japan Cherry Blossom Association developed a list of Japan's Top 100 Cherry Blossom Spots[8] with at least one location in every prefecture.

text: Symbolism in Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, cherry blossoms symbolize clouds due to their nature of blooming en masse, besides being an enduring metaphor for the ephemeral nature of life,[9] an aspect of Japanese cultural tradition that is often associated with Buddhist influence,[10] and which is embodied in the concept of mono no aware.[11] The association of the cherry blossom with mono no aware dates back to 18th-century scholar Motoori Norinaga.[11] The transience of the blossoms, the exquisite beauty and volatility, has often been associated with mortality[9] and graceful and readily acceptance of destiny and karma; for this reason, cherry blossoms are richly symbolic, and have been utilized often in Japanese art, manga, anime, and film, as well as at musical performances for ambient effect. There is at least one popular folk song, originally meant for the shakuhachi (bamboo flute), titled "Sakura", and several pop songs. The flower is also represented on all manner of consumer goods in Japan, including kimono, stationery, and dishware.

text: The Sakurakai or Cherry Blossom Society was the name chosen by young officers within the Imperial Japanese Army in September 1930 for their secret society established with the goal of reorganizing the state along totalitarian militaristic lines, via a military coup d'état if necessary.[12]

text: During World War II, the cherry blossom was used to motivate the Japanese people, to stoke nationalism and militarism among the populace.[13] Even prior to the war, they were used in propaganda to inspire "Japanese spirit", as in the "Song of Young Japan", exulting in "warriors" who were "ready like the myriad cherry blossoms to scatter".[14] In 1932, Akiko Yosano's poetry urged Japanese soldiers to endure sufferings in China and compared the dead soldiers to cherry blossoms.[15] Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death".[16] The last message of the forces on Peleliu was "Sakura, Sakura" — cherry blossoms.[17] Japanese pilots would paint them on the sides of their planes before embarking on a suicide mission, or even take branches of the trees with them on their missions.[13] A cherry blossom painted on the side of the bomber symbolized the intensity and ephemerality of life;[18] in this way, the aesthetic association was altered such that falling cherry petals came to represent the sacrifice of youth in suicide missions to honor the emperor.[13][19] The first kamikaze unit had a subunit called Yamazakura or wild cherry blossom.[19] The government even encouraged the people to believe that the souls of downed warriors were reincarnated in the blossoms.[13]

text: In its colonial enterprises, Imperial Japan often planted cherry trees as a means of "claiming occupied territory as Japanese space".[13]

text: Cherry blossoms are a prevalent symbol in Irezumi, the traditional art of Japanese tattoos. In tattoo art, cherry blossoms are often combined with other classic Japanese symbols like koi fish, dragons or tigers.[20]

text: Varieties and blooming[edit]

text: Japan has a wide variety of cherry blossoms (sakura); well over 200 cultivars can be found there.[21] The following species, hybrids, and varieties are used for sakura:[22][23][24][25][26]

text:
Prunus apetala var. pilosa
Prunus campanulata
Prunus × furuseana
Prunus incisa var. incisa
Prunus incisa var. kinkiensis
Prunus × introrsa
Prunus × kanzakura
Prunus × miyoshii
Prunus padus
Prunus × parvifolia
Prunus pendula
Prunus × sacra
Prunus sargentii
Prunus serrulata
Prunus × sieboldii
Prunus × subhirtella
Prunus × syodoi
Prunus × tajimensis
Prunus × takenakae
Prunus verecunda
Prunus × yedoensis

text: The most popular variety of cherry blossom in Japan is the Somei Yoshino. Its flowers are nearly pure white, tinged with the palest pink, especially near the stem. They bloom and usually fall within a week, before the leaves come out. Therefore, the trees look nearly white from top to bottom. The variety takes its name from the village of Somei (now part of Toshima in Tokyo). It was developed in the mid- to late-19th century at the end of the Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji period. The Somei Yoshino is so widely associated with cherry blossoms that jidaigeki and other works of fiction often depict the variety in the Edo period or earlier; such depictions are anachronisms.

text: Winter sakura or fuyuzakura (Prunus subhirtella autumnalis) begins to bloom in the fall and continues blooming sporadically throughout the winter. It is said to be a cross between edohiganzakura, the Tokyo Higan cherry (P. incisa) and mamezakura (P. pendula).[27]

text: Other categories include yamazakura, yaezakura, and shidarezakura. The yaezakura have large flowers, thick with rich pink petals. The shidarezakura, or weeping cherry, has branches that fall like those of a weeping willow, bearing cascades of pink flowers.

text: By country[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: During World War II, a prisoner of war (POW) camp near the town of Cowra in New South Wales, Australia, was the site of one of the largest prison escapes of the war, on 5 August 1944. During the Cowra breakout and subsequent rounding up of POWs, four Australian soldiers and 231 Japanese soldiers died and 108 prisoners were wounded. The Japanese War Cemetery holding the dead from the Breakout was tended after the war by members of the Cowra RSL and ceded to Japan in 1963. In 1971 the Cowra Tourism Development decided to celebrate this link to Japan, and proposed a Japanese garden for the town. The Japanese government agreed to support this development as a sign of thanks for the respectful treatment of their war dead; the development also received funding from the Australian government and private entities.

text: The garden was designed by Ken Nakajima (1914–2000), a world-renowned designer of Japanese gardens at the time. The first stage was opened in 1979, and a second stage in 1986. The gardens were designed in the style of the Edo period and are a kaiyū-shiki or strolling garden. They are designed to show all of the landscape types of Japan. At five hectares (12 acres), the Cowra Japanese Garden is the largest Japanese garden in the Southern Hemisphere. An annual cherry blossom festival during September is now a major event in Cowra's tourism calendar.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: With the Japanese diaspora to Brazil, many immigrants brought seedlings of cherry trees. In São Paulo State, home to the largest Japanese community outside Japan, it is common to find them in Japan-related facilities and in some homes, usually of the cultivars Prunus serrulata 'Yukiwari' and Prunus serrulata var. lannesiana 'Himalaya'. Some cities, as Garça[28] and Campos do Jordão,[29] have annual festivals to celebrate the blooming of the trees and the Japanese culture. In the Parana State (in southern Brazil), many cities received many of these immigrants, who planted the trees, as in Apucarana,[30] Maringá, Cascavel[31] and especially in the capital city of Curitiba.[32]

text: In the capital city of Parana, the first seedlings were brought by Japanese immigrants in the first half of the 20th century, but large quantities of them were only planted from the 1990s, with the opening of the Botanical Garden of Curitiba.[32] Nowadays the seedlings are produced locally and used in afforestation[33] of streets and squares – as in the Japanese Square, where there are more than 30 cherry trees around the square which were sent by the Japanese Empire to Curitiba.[34]

text: Canada[edit]

text: Vancouver, British Columbia is famous for its thousands of cherry trees (estimated 50,000) lining many streets and in many parks, including Queen Elizabeth Park and Stanley Park. Vancouver holds the Vancouver Cherry Blossom Festival every year.[35] With multiple varieties and a temperate climate, they begin to bloom in February yearly and peak in April.

text: High Park in Toronto, Ontario features many Somei-Yoshino cherry trees (the earliest species to bloom and much loved by the Japanese for their fluffy white flowers) that were given to Toronto by Japan in 1959. Through the Sakura Project, the Japanese Consulate donated a further 34 cherry trees to High Park in 2001, plus cherry trees to various other locations like Exhibition Place, McMaster University, York University (near Calumet College and on Ottawa Road near McLaughlin College) and the University of Toronto's main (next to Robarts Library) and Scarborough campuses. Niagara Falls also has many near the Falls itself. Royal Botanical Gardens in Burlington and Hamilton was also the recipient of a number of Somei-Yoshino cherry trees that were donated by the Consulate-General of Japan in Toronto as part of the Sakura Project. The trees are located in the Arboretum and the Rock Garden and were planted to celebrate the continual strengthening of friendship between Japan and Canada. Peak bloom time at Royal Botanical Gardens is normally around the last week of April or the first week of May.

text: China[edit]

text: Cherry trees naturally grow in the middle northern or southern part of China, the area nearby the sea. However, the most famous cherry blossom parks in China reflect Japan's brief occupation of parts of China during the first half of the 20th century or the donation from Japan thereafter:

text:
Longwangtang Cherry Blossom Park in Lushun, Dalian, Liaoning
East Lake Cherry Blossom Park near Wuhan University, in Donghu District, Wuhan, Hubei
Wuhan University, in Donghu District, Wuhan, Hubei
Nanshan Botanical Garden in Nan'an District, Chongqing

text: France[edit]

text: Parc de Sceaux, located in a suburb of Paris, has two orchards of cherry trees, one for white cherry blossoms (Prunus avium) and one for pink cherry blossoms (Prunus serrulata), the later with about 150 trees that attract many visitors when they bloom in early April.

text: Germany[edit]

text: The cherry blossom is a major tourist attraction in Germany's Altes Land orchard region. The largest Hanami in Germany, in Hamburg, with Japanese-style fireworks, organized by the German-Japanese society, draws tens of thousands spectators every spring. Starting in 2015, Hamburg will be allowed to bestow the title of "Cherry Blossom Queen" by the Japan Cherry Blossom Association, one of only three cities worldwide to receive this privilege. The first Cherry Blossom Queen of Hamburg will be crowned by the Cherry Blossom Queen of Japan on May 23.[36]

text: In 1990, along prior sections of the Berlin Wall, Japan donated cherry blossoms to express appreciation of German reunification. The gift was supported by donations from the Japanese people allowing for over 9,000 trees to be planted. The first trees were planted in November of that year near Glienicker Bridge.[37]

text: The Cherry Blossom festival in the Bonn Altstadt is also very famous: de:Kirschblütenfest Bonn.

text: India[edit]

text: In India, the cherry blossom is an attraction as well, most notably in Himalayan states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Sikkim & northern districts of West Bengal of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling. Temple towns like Kalpa, Sarahan, Chitkul, Sangla and Narkanda are notable for their wild cherry blossom during spring covering Himalayan foothills. They can also be seen in various British-era botanical gardens especially in Nilgiri Hills, Garo Hills, Khasi Hills as well as in some hill stations in the Western Ghats.[38]

text: Prunus cerasoides is wild Himalayan cherry and sour cherry,[39] known in Hindi as padma or padmakashtha,[40] is a deciduous cherry tree found in parts of East, South and Southeast Asia. It is of the family Rosaceae and the genus Prunus. Recently Kolkata municipal department and the forest department planted cherry blossoms across main city places like Rajarhat. They were in full bloom the first week of March 2017.

text: Korea[edit]

text: The origins of cherry blossoms in South Korea is contentious. The Japanese planted Yoshino cherry trees at Seoul's Changgyeonggung Palace and the viewing of cherry blossoms was introduced to Korea during Japanese rule.[41] The festivals continued even after the Japanese surrendered at the end of WWII but have been controversial, and many cherry trees were cut down to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the Japanese surrender because they were seen as symbols of the occupation.[42][43] Yet Koreans continued to plant Yoshino cherry trees and festivals began attracting a wide range of tourists. Many Korean media assert that the Yoshino cherry is the same species as a Korean indigenous, endangered species called king cherry, whose mass production is still being studied.[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] In 2007, a study conducted on the comparison of king cherry and Yoshino cherry concluded that these trees were categorized as distinct species.[51] In 2016, a study on DNA analyses suggested the independent origin between king cherry and yoshino cherry each other.[52] In 2016, a new scientific name Cerasus × nudiflora was given to King cherry to distinguish it from Yoshino cherry (Prunus × yedoensis).[53] In Korea most of the places for cherry blossom festivals, including Yeouido and Jinhae, are still planted with Yoshino cherry trees.[54][55][56][57]

text: In Korea, cherry blossoms have the meaning of purity and beauty.[58]

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the year 2000, the Japan Women's Club (JWC) donated 400 cherry blossom trees to the city of Amstelveen. The trees have been planted in the cherry blossom park in the Amsterdamse Bos. A special detail is that every tree has a name — 200 trees have female Japanese names, 200 trees have female Dutch names.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: Hagley Park is the largest urban open space in Christchurch, New Zealand and has many cherry blossom trees of several varieties.[59]

text: Taiwan[edit]

text: Typically found in mountainous areas, cherry blossoms are a popular attraction in Taiwan, with numerous specially tailored viewing tours. Among the most easily accessible and thus most popular locations for viewing them are Yangmingshan, in Taipei, and Wuling Farm, in Taichung.

text: Thailand[edit]

text: Cherry blossoms are found in Northern Thailand.[60]

text: Turkey[edit]

text: In 2005, Japanese cherry trees were presented by Japan to the Nezahat Gökyiğit Botanical Garden in Istanbul, Turkey. Each tree represents one sailor of the frigate Ertogrul which was a famous frigate of the Ottoman Turkish navy. On the way back from a goodwill visit to Japan in 1890 she ran into a typhoon and sank with loss of 587 Ottoman Turkish sailors. That loss is being remembered at every anniversary. The Japanese cherry trees represent memory of those who died and provide remembrance.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Batsford Arboretum in Gloucestershire (England), holds the national collection of Japanese village cherries, sato-sakura group.[61] Keele University in Staffordshire (England), has one of the UK's largest collections of flowering cherries, with more than 150 varieties.[62]

text: United States[edit]

text: Japan gave 3,020 cherry blossom trees as a gift to the United States in 1912 to celebrate the nations' then-growing friendship, replacing an earlier gift of 2,000 trees which had to be destroyed due to disease in 1910. These trees were planted in Sakura Park in Manhattan and line the shore of the Tidal Basin and the roadway in East Potomac Park in Washington, D.C. The first two original trees were planted by first lady Helen Taft and Viscountess Chinda on the bank of the Tidal Basin. The gift was renewed with another 3,800 trees in 1965.[63][64] In Washington, D.C. the cherry blossom trees continue to be a popular tourist attraction (and the subject of the annual National Cherry Blossom Festival) when they reach full bloom in early spring.[65] Just outside of Washington, D.C., the suburb of Kenwood in Bethesda, Maryland has roughly 1,200 trees that are popular with locals and tourists.[66]

text: New Jersey's Branch Brook Park, which is maintained by the Essex County, is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nation's largest collection of cherry blossom trees, with about 5,000.[67][68][69]

text: Also, Balboa Park of San Diego has 2,000 cherry blossom trees that blossom in mid to late March. In Los Angeles, over 2,000 trees are located at Lake Balboa in Van Nuys. These trees were donated by an anonymous Japanese benefactor and were planted in 1992. They originated from a single parent tree and were developed to grow in warm climates.[70]

text: Philadelphia is also home to over 2,000 flowering Japanese cherry trees, half of which were a gift from the Japanese government in 1926 in honor of the 150th anniversary of American independence, with the other half planted by the Japan America Society of Greater Philadelphia between 1998 and 2007. Philadelphia's cherry blossoms are located within Fairmount Park, and the annual Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia celebrates the blooming trees. The University of Washington in Seattle also has cherry blossoms in its Quad.

text: Other US cities have an annual cherry blossom festival (or sakura matsuri), including the International Cherry Blossom Festival in Macon, Georgia, which features over 300,000 cherry trees. The Brooklyn Botanic Garden in New York City also has a large, well-attended festival.[71] Portsmouth, New Hampshire, is the site of the peace conference that produced the Treaty of Portsmouth, for which the original Washington, DC cherry trees were given in thanks. Several cherry trees planted on the bank of the tidal pond next to Portsmouth City Hall were the gift of Portsmouth's Japanese sister city of Nichinan—the hometown of Marquis Komura Jutarō, Japan's representative at the conference.[72] Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, has 200 somei yoshino trees, a gift from its sister institution, Japan's Chubu University.[73]

text:
Cherry blossoms in Washington D.C.

Cherry blossoms at the Pittock Mansion in Oregon

Cherry blossoms in Newark, New Jersey

Cherry blossoms in Owensboro, Kentucky

text: Culinary use[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Cherry blossoms and leaves are edible and both are used as food ingredients in Japan:

text:
The blossoms are pickled in salt and umezu (ume vinegar), and used for coaxing out flavor in wagashi, (a traditional Japanese confectionery,) or anpan, (a Japanese sweet bun, most-commonly filled with red bean paste.)
Salt-pickled blossoms in hot water are called sakurayu, and drunk at festive events like weddings in place of green tea.
The leaves, mostly from the Ōshima cherry because of the softness, are also pickled in salted water and used for sakuramochi.

text: Since the leaves contain coumarin, which is toxic in large doses, it is not recommended to eat them in great quantities.