document_title: Golden Rule

question_text: do unto others as you'd have done unto you bible verse

question_tokens: do unto others as you 'd have done unto you bible verse

text: Golden Rule

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term "Golden Rule", or "Golden law", began to be used widely in the early 17th century in Britain by Anglican theologians and preachers;[10] the earliest known usage is that of Anglicans Charles Gibbon and Thomas Jackson in 1604.[1][11]

text: Antiquity[edit]

text: Ancient Egypt[edit]

text: Possibly the earliest affirmation of the maxim of reciprocity, reflecting the ancient Egyptian goddess Ma'at, appears in the story of The Eloquent Peasant, which dates to the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1650 BC): "Now this is the command: Do to the doer to make him do."[12][13] This proverb embodies the do ut des principle.[14] A Late Period (c. 664–323 BC) papyrus contains an early negative affirmation of the Golden Rule: "That which you hate to be done to you, do not do to another."[15]

text: Ancient India[edit]

text: Sanskrit tradition[edit]

text: In Mahābhārata, the ancient epic of India, there is a discourse in which the wise minister Vidura advises the King Yuddhiśhṭhira

text: Listening to wise scriptures, austerity, sacrifice, respectful faith, social welfare, forgiveness, purity of intent, compassion, truth and self-control—are the ten wealth of character (self). O king aim for these, may you be steadfast in these qualities. These are the basis of prosperity and rightful living. These are highest attainable things. All worlds are balanced on dharma, dharma encompasses ways to prosperity as well. O King, dharma is the best quality to have, wealth the medium and desire (kāma) the lowest. Hence, (keeping these in mind), by self-control and by making dharma (right conduct) your main focus, treat others as you treat yourself.

text: Tamil tradition[edit]

text: In the Section on Virtue, and Chapter 32 of the Tirukkuṛaḷ (c. 200 BC – c. 500 AD), Tiruvalluvar says: "Do not do to others what you know has hurt yourself" (K. 316.); "Why does one hurt others knowing what it is to be hurt?" (K. 318). He furthermore opined that it is the determination of the spotless (virtuous) not to do evil, even in return, to those who have cherished enmity and done them evil. (K. 312) The (proper) punishment to those who have done evil (to you), is to put them to shame by showing them kindness, in return and to forget both the evil and the good done on both sides (K. 314)

text: Ancient Greece[edit]

text: The Golden Rule in its prohibitive (negative) form was a common principle in ancient Greek philosophy. Examples of the general concept include:

text:
"Avoid doing what you would blame others for doing." – Thales[16] (c. 624–546 BC)
"What you do not want to happen to you, do not do it yourself either. " – Sextus the Pythagorean.[17] The oldest extant reference to Sextus is by Origen in the third century of the common era.[18]
"Do not do to others that which angers you when they do it to you." – Isocrates[19] (436–338 BC)

text: Ancient Persia[edit]

text: The Pahlavi Texts of Zoroastrianism (c. 300 BC–1000 AD) were an early source for the Golden Rule: "That nature alone is good which refrains from doing to another whatsoever is not good for itself." Dadisten-I-dinik, 94,5, and "Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others." Shayast-na-Shayast 13:29[20]

text: Ancient Rome[edit]

text: Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC–65 AD), a practitioner of Stoicism (c. 300 BC–200 AD) expressed the Golden Rule in his essay regarding the treatment of slaves: "Treat your inferior as you would wish your superior to treat you."[21]

text: Religious context[edit]

text: According to Simon Blackburn, the Golden Rule "can be found in some form in almost every ethical tradition".[22]

text: Abrahamic religions[edit]

text: Judaism[edit]

text: A rule of altruistic reciprocity was first stated positively in a well-known Torah verse (Hebrew: ואהבת לרעך כמוך):

text: You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk. Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the LORD.

text: Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BC – 10 AD),[23] used this verse as a most important message of the Torah for his teachings. Once, he was challenged by a gentile who asked to be converted under the condition that the Torah be explained to him while he stood on one foot. Hillel accepted him as a candidate for conversion to Judaism but, drawing on Leviticus 19:18, briefed the man:

text: What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow: this is the whole Torah; the rest is the explanation; go and learn.

text: Hillel recognized brotherly love as the fundamental principle of Jewish ethics. Rabbi Akiva agreed and suggested that the principle of love must have its foundation in Genesis chapter 1, which teaches that all men are the offspring of Adam, who was made in the image of God (Sifra, Ḳedoshim, iv.; Yer. Ned. ix. 41c; Genesis Rabba 24).[24] According to Jewish rabbinic literature, the first man Adam represents the unity of mankind. This is echoed in the modern preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[25][26] And it is also taught, that Adam is last in order according to the evolutionary character of God's creation:[24]

text: Why was only a single specimen of man created first? To teach us that he who destroys a single soul destroys a whole world and that he who saves a single soul saves a whole world; furthermore, so no race or class may claim a nobler ancestry, saying, 'Our father was born first'; and, finally, to give testimony to the greatness of the Lord, who caused the wonderful diversity of mankind to emanate from one type. And why was Adam created last of all beings? To teach him humility; for if he be overbearing, let him remember that the little fly preceded him in the order of creation.[24]

text: The Jewish Publication Society's edition of Leviticus states:

text: Thou shalt not hate thy brother. in thy heart; thou shalt surely rebuke thy neighbour, and not bear sin because of him. 18 Thou shalt not take vengeance, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself: I am the LORD.[27]

text: This Torah verse represents one of several versions of the Golden Rule, which itself appears in various forms, positive and negative. It is the earliest written version of that concept in a positive form.[28]

text: At the turn of the eras, the Jewish rabbis were discussing the scope of the meaning of Leviticus 19:18 and 19:34 extensively:

text: The stranger who resides with you shall be to you as one of your citizens; you shall love him as yourself, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt: I the LORD am your God.

text: Commentators summed up foreigners (= Samaritans), proselytes (= 'strangers who resides with you') (Rabbi Akiva, bQuid 75b) or Jews (Rabbi Gamaliel, yKet 3, 1; 27a) to the scope of the meaning.

text: On the verse, "Love your fellow as yourself," the classic commentator Rashi quotes from Torat Kohanim, an early Midrashic text regarding the famous dictum of Rabbi Akiva: "Love your fellow as yourself – Rabbi Akiva says this is a great principle of the Torah."[29]

text: Israel's postal service quoted from the previous Leviticus verse when it commemorated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on a 1958 postage stamp.[30]

text: Christianity[edit]

text: The "Golden Rule" was given by Jesus of Nazareth, who used it to summarize the Torah: "Do to others what you want them to do to you." and "This is the meaning of the law of Moses and the teaching of the prophets"[31] (Matthew 7:12 NCV, see also Luke 6:31). The common English phrasing is "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you". A similar form of the phrase appeared in a Catholic catechism around 1567 (certainly in the reprint of 1583).[32] The Golden Rule is stated positively numerous times in the Hebrew Pentateuch as well as the Prophets and Writings. Leviticus 19:18 ("Forget about the wrong things people do to you, and do not try to get even. Love your neighbor as you love yourself."; see also Great Commandment) and Leviticus 19:34 ("But treat them just as you treat your own citizens. Love foreigners as you love yourselves, because you were foreigners one time in Egypt. I am the Lord your God.").

text: The Old Testament Deuterocanonical books of Tobit and Sirach, accepted as part of the Scriptural canon by Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, and the Non-Chalcedonian Churches, express a negative form of the golden rule:

text: "Do to no one what you yourself dislike."

text: "Recognize that your neighbor feels as you do, and keep in mind your own dislikes."

text: Two passages in the New Testament quote Jesus of Nazareth espousing the positive form of the Golden rule:

text: Matthew 7:12

text: Do to others what you want them to do to you. This is the meaning of the law of Moses and the teaching of the prophets.

text: Luke 6:31

text: Do to others what you would want them to do to you.

text: A similar passage, a parallel to the Great Commandment, is Luke 10:25-28

text: 25And one day an authority on the law stood up to put Jesus to the test. "Teacher," he asked, "what must I do to receive eternal life?"

text: 26What is written in the Law?" Jesus replied. "How do you understand it?" 27He answered, " ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul. Love him with all your strength and with all your mind.’(Deuteronomy 6:5) And, ‘Love your neighbor as you love yourself.’ " 28"You have answered correctly," Jesus replied. "Do that, and you will live.".

text: The passage in the book of Luke then continues with Jesus answering the question, "Who is my neighbor?", by telling the parable of the Good Samaritan, indicating that "your neighbor" is anyone in need.[33] This extends to all, including those who are generally considered hostile.

text: Jesus' teaching goes beyond the negative formulation of not doing what one would not like done to themselves, to the positive formulation of actively doing good to another that, if the situations were reversed, one would desire that the other would do for them. This formulation, as indicated in the parable of the Good Samaritan, emphasizes the needs for positive action that brings benefit to another, not simply restraining oneself from negative activities that hurt another. Taken as a rule of judgment, both formulations of the golden rule, the negative and positive, are equally applicable.[34]

text: In one passage of the New Testament, Paul the Apostle refers to the golden rule:

text: Galatians 5:14

text: 14For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this; Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.

text: The neutrality of the style of writing in this article is questioned. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Islam[edit]

text: The Arabian peninsula was know to not practice the golden rule prior to the advent of Islam. "Pre-Islamic Arabs regarded the survival of the tribe, as most essential and to be ensured by the ancient rite of blood vengeance" [35]

text: However, this all changed when Muhammad came on the scene: "Fakir al-Din al-Razi and several other Qur'anic commentators have pointed out that Qur'an 83:1-6 is an implicit statement of the Golden Rule, which is explicitly stated in the tradition, "Pay, Oh Children of Adam, as you would love to be paid, and be just as you would love to have justice!" [36]

text: "Similar examples of the golden rule are found in the hadith of the prophet Muhammad. The hadith recount is believed to have said and done, and traditionally Muslims regard the hadith as second to only the Qur'an as a guide to correct belief and action." [37]

text: From the hadith, the collected oral and written accounts of Muhammad and his teachings during his lifetime:

text: "A Bedouin came to the prophet, grabbed the stirrup of his camel and said: O the messenger of God! Teach me something to go to heaven with it. Prophet said: "As you would have people do to you, do to them; and what you dislike to be done to you, don't do to them. Now let the stirrup go!" [This maxim is enough for you; go and act in accordance with it!]"

text: "None of you [truly] believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself."

text: "Seek for mankind that of which you are desirous for yourself, that you may be a believer."

text: "That which you want for yourself, seek for mankind."[39]

text: "The most righteous person is the one who consents for other people what he consents for himself, and who dislikes for them what he dislikes for himself."[39]

text: Ali ibn Abi Talib (4th Caliph in Sunni Islam, and first Imam in Shia Islam) says:

text: "O' my child, make yourself the measure (for dealings) between you and others. Thus, you should desire for others what you desire for yourself and hate for others what you hate for yourself. Do not oppress as you do not like to be oppressed. Do good to others as you would like good to be done to you. Regard bad for yourself whatever you regard bad for others. Accept that (treatment) from others which you would like others to accept from you... Do not say to others what you do not like to be said to you."

text: Bahá'í Faith[edit]

text: The Writings of the Bahá'í Faith encourages everyone to treat others as they would treat themselves and even prefer others over oneself:

text: O SON OF MAN! Deny not My servant should he ask anything from thee, for his face is My face; be then abashed before Me.

text: Blessed is he who preferreth his brother before himself.

text: And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself.

text: Ascribe not to any soul that which thou wouldst not have ascribed to thee, and say not that which thou doest not.

text: Indian religions[edit]

text: Hinduism[edit]

text: One should never do that to another which one regards as injurious to one’s own self. This, in brief, is the rule of dharma. Other behavior is due to selfish desires.

text: By making dharma (right conduct) your main focus, treat others as you treat yourself[50]

text: Also,

text:
श्रूयतां धर्मसर्वस्वं श्रुत्वा चाप्यवधार्यताम्।
आत्मनः प्रतिकूलानि परेषां न समाचरेत्।।

text: Buddhism[edit]

text: Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama, c. 623–543 BC)[51][52] made this principle one of the cornerstones of his ethics in the 6th century BC. It occurs in many places and in many forms throughout the Tripitaka.

text: Comparing oneself to others in such terms as "Just as I am so are they, just as they are so am I," he should neither kill nor cause others to kill.

text: One who, while himself seeking happiness, oppresses with violence other beings who also desire happiness, will not attain happiness hereafter.

text: Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.

text: Putting oneself in the place of another, one should not kill nor cause another to kill.[53]

text: Jainism[edit]

text: The Golden Rule is paramount in the Jainist philosophy and can be seen in the doctrines of Ahimsa and Karma. As part of the prohibition of causing any living beings to suffer, Jainism forbids inflicting upon others what is harmful to oneself.

text: The following quotation from the Acaranga Sutra sums up the philosophy of Jainism:

text: Nothing which breathes, which exists, which lives, or which has essence or potential of life, should be destroyed or ruled over, or subjugated, or harmed, or denied of its essence or potential.

text: In support of this Truth, I ask you a question – "Is sorrow or pain desirable to you ?" If you say "yes it is", it would be a lie. If you say, "No, It is not" you will be expressing the truth. Just as sorrow or pain is not desirable to you, so it is to all which breathe, exist, live or have any essence of life. To you and all, it is undesirable, and painful, and repugnant.[54]

text: A man should wander about treating all creatures as he himself would be treated.

text: In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self.

text: Saman Suttam of Jinendra Varni[55] gives further insight into this precept:-

text: Just as pain is not agreeable to you, it is so with others. Knowing this principle of equality treat other with respect and compassion.

text: Killing a living being is killing one's own self; showing compassion to a living being is showing compassion to oneself. He who desires his own good, should avoid causing any harm to a living being.

text: Sikhism[edit]

text: Precious like jewels are the minds of all. To hurt them is not at all good. If thou desirest thy Beloved, then hurt thou not anyone's heart.

text: East Asian religions[edit]

text: Confucianism[edit]

text: The same idea is also presented in V.12 and VI.30 of the Analects (c. 500 BC), which can be found in the online Chinese Text Project. The phraseology differs from the Christian version of the Golden Rule. It does not presume to do anything unto others, but merely to avoid doing what would be harmful. It does not preclude doing good deeds and taking moral positions, but there is slim possibility for a Confucian missionary outlook, such as one can justify with the Christian Golden Rule.

text: Taoism[edit]

text: The sage has no interest of his own, but takes the interests of the people as his own. He is kind to the kind; he is also kind to the unkind: for Virtue is kind. He is faithful to the faithful; he is also faithful to the unfaithful: for Virtue is faithful.

text: Regard your neighbor's gain as your own gain, and your neighbor's loss as your own loss.

text: Mohism[edit]

text: If people regarded other people’s states in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own state to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. If people regarded other people’s cities in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own city to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. If people regarded other people’s families in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own family to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. And so if states and cities do not attack one another and families do not wreak havoc upon and steal from one another, would this be a harm to the world or a benefit? Of course one must say it is a benefit to the world.

text: Mozi regarded the golden rule as a corollary to the cardinal virtue of impartiality, and encouraged egalitarianism and selflessness in relationships.

text: Iranian religions[edit]

text: Zoroastrianism[edit]

text: New religious movements[edit]

text: Wicca[edit]

text: Here ye these words and heed them well, the words of Dea, thy Mother Goddess, "I command thee thus, O children of the Earth, that that which ye deem harmful unto thyself, the very same shall ye be forbidden from doing unto another, for violence and hatred give rise to the same. My command is thus, that ye shall return all violence and hatred with peacefulness and love, for my Law is love unto all things. Only through love shall ye have peace; yea and verily, only peace and love will cure the world, and subdue all evil."

text: Scientology[edit]

text: The Way to Happiness expresses the Golden Rule both in its negative/prohibitive form and in its positive form. The negative/prohibitive form is expressed in Precept 19 as:

text: 19. Try not to do things to others that you would not like them to do to you.

text: The positive form is expressed in Precept 20 as:

text: 20. Try to treat others as you would want them to treat you.

text: Secular context[edit]

text: Global ethic[edit]

text: The "Declaration Toward a Global Ethic"[62] from the Parliament of the World’s Religions[63][64] (1993) proclaimed the Golden Rule ("We must treat others as we wish others to treat us") as the common principle for many religions.[65] The Initial Declaration was signed by 143 leaders from all of the world's major faiths, including Baha'i Faith, Brahmanism, Brahma Kumaris, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Indigenous, Interfaith, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Native American, Neo-Pagan, Sikhism, Taoism, Theosophist, Unitarian Universalist and Zoroastrian.[65][66] In the folklore of several cultures the Golden Rule is depicted by the allegory of the long spoons.

text: Humanism[edit]

text: Many different sources claim the Golden Rule as a humanist principle:[67][68]

text: Trying to live according to the Golden Rule means trying to empathise with other people, including those who may be very different from us. Empathy is at the root of kindness, compassion, understanding and respect – qualities that we all appreciate being shown, whoever we are, whatever we think and wherever we come from. And although it isn’t possible to know what it really feels like to be a different person or live in different circumstances and have different life experiences, it isn’t difficult for most of us to imagine what would cause us suffering and to try to avoid causing suffering to others. For this reason many people find the Golden Rule’s corollary – "do not treat people in a way you would not wish to be treated yourself" – more pragmatic.[67]

text: Do not do to others what you would not want them to do to you. [is] (…) the single greatest, simplest, and most important moral axiom humanity has ever invented, one which reappears in the writings of almost every culture and religion throughout history, the one we know as the Golden Rule. Moral directives do not need to be complex or obscure to be worthwhile, and in fact, it is precisely this rule's simplicity which makes it great. It is easy to come up with, easy to understand, and easy to apply, and these three things are the hallmarks of a strong and healthy moral system. The idea behind it is readily graspable: before performing an action which might harm another person, try to imagine yourself in their position, and consider whether you would want to be the recipient of that action. If you would not want to be in such a position, the other person probably would not either, and so you should not do it. It is the basic and fundamental human trait of empathy, the ability to vicariously experience how another is feeling, that makes this possible, and it is the principle of empathy by which we should live our lives.

text: In the view of Greg M. Epstein, a Humanist chaplain at Harvard University, " 'do unto others' ... is a concept that essentially no religion misses entirely. But not a single one of these versions of the golden rule requires a God".[71] At least the Biblical accounts, however, portray the obligation to love one's neighbor as oneself as a corollary of a more basic obligation to love God with one's entire being.[72]

text: Existentialism[edit]

text: When we say that man chooses for himself, we do mean that every one of us must choose himself; but by that we also mean that in choosing for himself he chooses for all men. For in effect, of all the actions a man may take in order to create himself as he wills to be, there is not one which is not creative, at the same time, of an image of man such as he believes he ought to be. To choose between this or that is at the same time to affirm the value of that which is chosen; for we are unable ever to choose the worse. What we choose is always the better; and nothing can be better for us unless it is better for all.

text: Other contexts[edit]

text: Human rights[edit]

text: According to Marc H. Bornstein, and William E. Paden, the Golden Rule is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights, in which each individual has a right to just treatment, and a reciprocal responsibility to ensure justice for others.[74]

text: However Leo Damrosch argued that the notion that the Golden Rule pertains to "rights" per se is a contemporary interpretation and has nothing to do with its origin. The development of human "rights" is a modern political ideal that began as a philosophical concept promulgated through the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau in 18th century France, among others. His writings influenced Thomas Jefferson, who then incorporated Rousseau's reference to "inalienable rights" into the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. Damrosch argued that to confuse the Golden Rule with human rights is to apply contemporary thinking to ancient concepts.[75]

text: Scientific research[edit]

text: There has been research published arguing that some 'sense' of fair play and the Golden Rule may be stated and rooted in terms of neuroscientific and neuroethical principles.[76]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant[77] and Friedrich Nietzsche,[78] have objected to the rule on a variety of grounds. The most serious among these is its application. How does one know how others want to be treated? The obvious way is to ask them, but this cannot be done if one assumes they have not reached a particular and relevant understanding.

text: Differences in values or interests[edit]

text: George Bernard Shaw wrote, "Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you. Their tastes may be different."[79] This suggests that if your values are not shared with others, the way you want to be treated will not be the way they want to be treated. Hence, the Golden Rule of "do unto others" is "dangerous in the wrong hands,"[80] according to philosopher Iain King, because "some fanatics have no aversion to death: the Golden Rule might inspire them to kill others in suicide missions."[81]

text: Differences in situations[edit]

text: Immanuel Kant famously criticized the golden rule for not being sensitive to differences of situation, noting that a prisoner duly convicted of a crime could appeal to the golden rule while asking the judge to release him, pointing out that the judge would not want anyone else to send him to prison, so he should not do so to others.[77] Kant's Categorical Imperative, introduced in Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, is often confused with the Golden Rule.

text: Cannot be a sole guide to action[edit]

text: In his book How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, philosopher Iain King has argued that "(although) the idea of mirroring your treatment of others with their treatment of you is very widespread indeed… most ancient wisdoms express this negatively – advice on what you should not do, rather than what you should."[82] He argues this creates a bias in favour of inertia which allows bad actions and states of affairs to persist. The positive formulation, meanwhile, can be "incendiary",[83] since it "can lead to cycles of tit-for-tat reciprocity," unless it is accompanied by a corrective mechanism, such as a concept of forgiveness.[83] Therefore, he concludes that there can be no viable formulation of the Golden Rule, unless it is heavily qualified by other maxims.[84]

text: Responses to criticisms[edit]

text: Walter Terence Stace, in The Concept of Morals (1937), wrote:

text: Mr. Bernard Shaw's remark "Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you. Their tastes may be different" is no doubt a smart saying. But it seems to overlook the fact that "doing as you would be done by" includes taking into account your neighbor's tastes as you would that he should take yours into account. Thus the "golden rule" might still express the essence of a universal morality even if no two men in the world had any needs or tastes in common.[85]

text: Marcus George Singer observed that there are two importantly different ways of looking at the golden rule: as requiring (1) that you perform specific actions that you want others to do to you or (2) that you guide your behavior in the same general ways that you want others to.[86] Counter-examples to the golden rule typically are more forceful against the first than the second.

text: In his book on the golden rule, Jeffrey Wattles makes the similar observation that such objections typically arise while applying the golden rule in certain general ways (namely, ignoring differences in taste, in situation, and so forth). But if we apply the golden rule to our own method of using it, asking in effect if we would want other people to apply the golden rule in such ways, the answer would typically be no, since it is quite predictable that others' ignoring of such factors will lead to behavior which we object to. It follows that we should not do so ourselves—according to the golden rule. In this way, the golden rule may be self-correcting.[87] An article by Jouni Reinikainen develops this suggestion in greater detail.[88]

text: It is possible, then, that the golden rule can itself guide us in identifying which differences of situation are morally relevant. We would often want other people to ignore any prejudice against our race or nationality when deciding how to act towards us, but would also want them to not ignore our differing preferences in food, desire for aggressiveness, and so on. This principle of "doing unto others, wherever possible, as they would be done by..." has sometimes been termed the platinum rule.[89]

text: Popular references[edit]

text: Charles Kingsley's The Water Babies (1863) includes a character named Mrs Do-As-You-Would-Be-Done-By (and another, Mrs Be-Done-By-As-You-Did).[90]


document_title: Summerville, South Carolina

question_text: how far is summerville south carolina from charleston

root

text: Summerville, South Carolina

text: Geography[edit]

text: The center of Summerville is in southeastern Dorchester County; the town extends northeast into Berkeley and Charleston counties. It is bordered to the east by the town of Lincolnville and to the southeast by the city of North Charleston. The Summerville town limits extend south as far as the Ashley River next to Old Fort Dorchester State Historical Park.

tag: p

text: U.S. Route 78 passes near the center of Summerville, leading southeast 24 miles (39 km) to downtown Charleston and northwest 29 miles (47 km) to Interstate 95 at St. George. Interstate 26 leads through the northeast corner of Summerville with access from Exit 199, leading southeast to Charleston and northwest 90 miles (140 km) to Columbia.

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 18.1 square miles (47.0 km2), of which 18.0 square miles (46.7 km2) is land and 0.12 square miles (0.3 km2), or 0.62%, is water.[3]

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±
18801,371—18902,21961.9%19002,4209.1%19102,355−2.7%19202,5508.3%19302,5791.1%19403,02317.2%19503,3129.6%19603,6339.7%19703,8395.7%19806,49269.1%199022,519246.9%200027,75223.2%201043,39256.4%Est. 201649,323[4]13.7%U.S. Decennial Census

tag: table

text:
As of the census[1] of 2010, there were 43,392 people residing in 16,181 households in the town.
The population density of Summerville is 2,404.7 inhabitants per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 72.1% White, 21.4% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.6% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.0% of the population.

text: There were 16,181 households out of which 38.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.0% were non-families. 25.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55.

text: In the town, 27.0% of the population was under the age of 18, and 10.5% was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.7 years.

text: The median income for a household in the town was $54,677.  About 11.2% of the population was below the poverty line.  The median value of an owner-occupied home was $182,000.

text: The town has an abundance of affordable houses and lower taxes than cities such as Charleston and North Charleston, and has thus experienced rapid population growth. In 2007, it was designated a principal city of the Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area[5] Summerville is also included as part of the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized area. Dorchester School District Two is the school district for Summerville and the wider area, and is based in the town.

text: History[edit]

text: The first settlement in Summerville began following the American Revolutionary War; it was referred to as Pineland Village in 1785. Development in the area resulted from plantation owners who resided in the Charleston area, and who came to Summerville to escape seasonal insects and swamp fever.[6]

text: Summerville became an official town in 1847. In that year, the town passed a law against cutting down trees of  sizes, the first of such laws in the United States, and a $25 fine was issued upon any who did so without permission. Today, the motto upon the town's official seal reads "Sacra Pinus Esto (The Pine is Sacred)." [7]

text: In 1899, the International Congress of Physicians (or "Tuberculosis Congress"[6]) listed Summerville to be one of the two best areas in the world for treatment and recovery of lung and throat disorders. It received such notation due to its dry and sandy location, and the many pine trees in the area that release turpentine derivatives into the air. This notation is credited with aiding the commercial and residential development of Summerville.[7]

text: The Summerville post office contains a mural, Train Time – Summerville, painted  by Bernadine Custer. Federally commissioned murals were produced from 1934 to 1943 in the United States through the Section of Painting and Sculpture, later called the Section of Fine Arts, of the Treasury Department.[8]

text: The Ashley River Road, Middleton Place, Colonial Dorchester State Historic Site, Old White Meeting House Ruins and Cemetery, and the Summerville Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[9]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Starting in 1972, the town of Summerville has supported the Summerville Family YMCA in hosting the annual Flowertown Festival to support health and wellness programs at the YMCA.[10]  It is the largest arts and crafts festival in South Carolina. It is held during the last weekend of March or the first weekend of April in the Summerville Azalea Park. It will often coincide with the Annual Cooper River Bridge Run that is held in Charleston the same weekend.  During the three days of the Flowertown Festival, Summerville will see approximately 200,000 visitors.  Admission and parking is free to all who attend. There is no alcohol or pets permitted at the festival.  Approximately 200 artist from around the country are invited and will have their works on display for purchase.  Additionally, area restaurants are featured in the "Taste" section of the festival where tickets can be purchased to sample their offerings. Children can enjoy the carnival in the Children's Jubilee/Kids Fest section of the festival.

text: In 1925, these flowers led Summerville's Chamber of Commerce to adopt the slogan "Flower Town in the Pines."

text: Summerville claims the title "The Birthplace of Sweet Tea."[11] However, a recipe for sweet iced tea published in Texas native Marion Cabell's 1879 cookbook, Housekeeping in Old Virginia has been cited as evidence against this claim.[12]

text: Climate[edit]

text:
hideClimate data for Summerville, South Carolina (Airport), 1981–2010 normals

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average high °F (°C)

59.0 (15)

62.8 (17.1)

69.6 (20.9)

76.5 (24.7)

83.2 (28.4)

88.4 (31.3)

91.1 (32.8)

89.6 (32)

84.9 (29.4)

77.1 (25.1)

69.8 (21)

61.6 (16.4)

76.1 (24.5)

Average low °F (°C)

38.1 (3.4)

41.2 (5.1)

47.2 (8.4)

53.8 (12.1)

62.4 (16.9)

70.2 (21.2)

73.6 (23.1)

72.9 (22.7)

67.8 (19.9)

57.3 (14.1)

48.1 (8.9)

40.6 (4.8)

56.1 (13.4)

Average precipitation inches (mm)

3.70 (94)

2.96 (75.2)

3.71 (94.2)

2.91 (73.9)

3.02 (76.7)

5.64 (143.3)

6.52 (165.6)

7.15 (181.6)

6.10 (154.9)

3.75 (95.3)

2.43 (61.7)

3.11 (79)

50.99 (1,295.1)

Average snowfall inches (cm)

0.1 (0.3)

0.2 (0.5)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0.3 (0.8)

0.6 (1.5)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)

9.5

8.6

7.9

7.7

7.8

11.9

13.0

13.2

10.0

7.3

7.0

8.7

112.6

Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)

0.1

0.1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.2

0.4

Mean monthly sunshine hours

179.8

189.3

244.9

276.0

294.5

279.0

288.3

257.3

219.0

223.2

189.0

170.5

2,810.8

Source: NOAA,[13] HKO (sun only, 1961–1990)[14]

text: Leadership[edit]

text: This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)

text: Mayor[edit]

text:
Edward L. Hutchinson (1848-1863)
James Gadsden (1863-1867)
Robert Ilderton Limehouse (1867–69)
Robert A. Pringle (1869)
Benjamin C. Pressley (1870)
Peter K. Coburn (1871)
J. Hall Waring (1872)
Terence R. Tighe (1873)
E. Scott Miles (1874)
Edward J. Limehouse (1875)
James E. Burke (1876)
George Tupper (1877–79)
Jennings W. Perry (1879–85)
John Henry Averill (1889–91)
William H. Richardson (1893-1897, 1899-1901, 1913–23, 1929–32)
Oscar E. Johnston,Jr. (1897–98)
Henry P. Foster (1898–99)
George Tupper, Jr. (1901–03)
F. Julian Carroll (1903–05)
Daniel Miler (1905–07)
Orrin C. Sires (1907–09)
S. Lewis Simons (1909–13)
Edward E. Cauthen (1923–24)
Herbert H. Jessen (1925–28)
Grange Simons Cuthbert (1932–47)
Albert Henry Peters (1947–53)
L. Hayden Doty (1953–65)
William C. Sullivan (1965)
Alan L. Luke (1965–72)
Berlin G. Myers (1972-2011)
William C. Collins (2011-2016)
W. Wiley Johnson (2016- )

tag: ul

text: Town Clerk and Treasurer[edit]

text:
William Russell Dehon (1890–97)
George Tupper (1897-1908)
Edward E. Cauthen (1908–19)
W.R. Mayer (1919–20)
E.P. Lawton (1920–31)
Hugh Hamilton (1931–45)
Sanford B. Stoney (1945–66)
Robert Faires (1966–68)
Richard D. Mellette (1968–71)
Fred Ballard (1971–74)
J. Gordon Jenkins, Jr. (1974–79)
Gerald E. Blackwell (Interim) (1979)
John F. Wilbanks (1979–94)
Kara Silva (1994–96)
Lisa L. Wallace (1996-2016)
Cindy Chitty (2016-)

text: Town Administrator[edit]

text:
John F. Wilbanks (1981-2001)
Mark Williams (2001-2004)
Lisa L. Wallace (Interim) (2004–05, 2011, 2015–16)
Dennis P. Pieper (2005-2011)
Colin L. Martin (2016- )

text: Corporation Counsel[edit]

text:
James E. Burke (1894–97)
Terence R. Tighe (1897-1900)
Legare Walker (1900–01, 1903–52)
Jennings W. Perry, Jr.(1901–03)
Legare Walker, Jr. (1952–53, 1967–71)
Sidney B. Jones, Jr. (1953–67, 1971–77)
Walter M. Bailey, Jr. (1977-1993)
John Hamilton Smith (1993–99)
Troy Guerard Knight (1999-2004)
Kelly Knight (2004–07)
D. Mark Stokes (2007-2011)
G. Waring Parker (2011- )

text: Notable people[edit]

text:
Rick Brewer, former administrator at Charleston Southern University in North Charleston, South Carolina, and current president of Louisiana College in Pineville, Louisiana, former resident of Summerville[15][16]
Janet Cone, college athletic director (UNC Asheville Bulldogs) and former basketball coach
Chuck Eidson, professional basketball player
Brett Gardner, baseball player for the New York Yankees
A. J. Green, 5-time NFL Pro Bowl wide receiver for the Cincinnati Bengals
Charles Green, known as the Angry Grandpa from YouTube
Milton Jennings, professional basketball player
John McKissick, high school football coach, winningest football coach at any level
Fern Michaels, author
Sgt. 1st Class Christopher Andrew Celiz. Killed in action while supporting Operation Freedom's Sentinel on Thursday July 12, 2018 in Afghanistan. Celiz was a graduate of Summerville HS and later attended The Citadel.


document_title: List of Interstate Highways in New York

question_text: what are the major highways in new york

question_tokens: what are the major highways in new york

text: List of Interstate Highways in New York

text: Main routes[edit]

text:
Number
Length (mi)[3]
Length (km)
Southern or western terminus
Northern or eastern terminus
Formed
Removed
Notes

 I0078 !I-78
0.90
1.45
New Jersey line at Manhattan
Manhattan
1961[4]
current
I-78 crosses the Hudson River from New Jersey via the Holland Tunnel and ends at the tunnel plaza in Lower Manhattan.[5]

 I0081 !I-81
183.62
295.51
Pennsylvania line at Kirkwood
Canada–US border at Thousand Islands
1957[6]
current
I-81 crosses the New York–Pennsylvania border south of Binghamton and heads through central New York and the North Country to the Thousand Islands, where it becomes Ontario Highway 137 at the Canada–US border. Along the way, I-81 passes through the cities of Syracuse and Watertown.[5]

 I0084 !I-84
71.46
115.00
Pennsylvania line at Port Jervis
Connecticut line at Southeast
1957[6]
current
I-84 crosses the New York–Pennsylvania state line near the point where New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey meet in the vicinity of Port Jervis. It heads generally east–west across Orange, Dutchess and Putnam counties to the Connecticut state line east of Brewster.[5]

 I0086 !I-86
215.18
346.30
Pennsylvania line at Mina
Elmira
1999[7]
current
I-86, known as the Southern Tier Expressway, heads east–west across the Southern Tier from the Pennsylvania state line west of Findley Lake to NY 352 east of downtown Elmira.[3] A second section of I-86 exists in central Broome County, occupying part of an expressway known as the Quickway.[8] Both pieces of I-86 will eventually be part of a continuous route extending from Erie, Pennsylvania, to Harriman. The I-86 designation is being extended eastward as improvements are made to the existing NY 17 expressway.

 I0087 !I-87
333.90
537.36
The Bronx
Canada–US border at Champlain
1957[6]
current
I-87 extends from the Bronx approach to the Triborough Bridge in New York City to the Canada–US border near Champlain, where it connects with Quebec Autoroute 15, the Decarie Expressway of Montreal. The portion of I-87 from the New York City line to Albany is part of the New York State Thruway mainline; at Albany, I-87 leaves the Thruway and becomes the Adirondack Northway. Aside from Albany, I-87 also serves Kingston NY, Glens Falls, and Plattsburgh.[5]

 I0088 !I-88
117.70
189.42
Chenango
Rotterdam
1968[9]
current
I-88 serves as a connector between I-81 near Binghamton and the New York State Thruway (I-90) near Schenectady. It parallels NY 7 between the two cities and passes through the city of Oneonta.[5]

 I0090 !I-90
386.69
622.32
Pennsylvania line at Ripley
Massachusetts line at Canaan
1957[6]
current
I-90 travels from the Pennsylvania state line at Ripley to the Massachusetts border at Canaan. The vast majority of I-90 in New York is part of the New York State Thruway system; the only segment that is not part of the system is a 20-mile (32 km) portion in the city of Albany and its eastern suburbs. Aside from Albany, I-90 also serves Buffalo, Rochester (via I-490), Syracuse, and Utica.[5]

 I0090N !I-90N
27.75
44.66
Buffalo
Canada–US border at Lewiston
1957[6]
1959[10]
I-90N was the original designation for what is now I-190 in western New York. It was renumbered to I-190 in 1959.[10]

 I0095 !I-95
23.44
37.72
New Jersey line at Manhattan
Connecticut line at Port Chester
1957[6]
current
I-95 extends from the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River (where it crosses from New Jersey into New York City) to the Connecticut state line at Port Chester. It passes through New York City on the Trans-Manhattan and Cross Bronx Expressways.[5] The portion of I-95 from the Pelham Parkway in the Bronx to the Connecticut state line is known as the New England Thruway and is part of the New York State Thruway system.[11]

 I0099 !I-99
12.89
20.74
Pennsylvania line at Lindley
Painted Post
2014[12]
current
I-99 runs north from Pennsylvania along US 15 to I-86 near Corning.

      Former

text: Auxiliary routes[edit]

text:
Number
Length (mi)[3]
Length (km)
Southern or western terminus
Northern or eastern terminus
Formed
Removed
Notes

 I0190 !I-190
28.09
45.21
Buffalo
Canadian border at Lewiston
1959[10]
current
I-190 is a spur connecting the New York State Thruway (I-90) at exit 53 near Buffalo to the Canada–United States border at Lewiston, north of Niagara Falls.[5] The portion of I-190 south of NY 384 is part of the New York State Thruway system.[11] I-190 is the only three-digit Interstate Highway that reaches the Canadian border.[10]

 I0278 !I-278
33.85
54.48
New Jersey line at Staten Island
The Bronx
c. 1960[13]
current
I-278 crosses from New Jersey to New York by way of the Goethals Bridge over the Arthur Kill at Staten Island. It passes through all five boroughs of New York City (technically entering Manhattan when it passes over Wards Island on the Triborough Bridge) before coming to an end at the Bruckner Interchange in the Bronx.[5]

 I0281 !I-281
9.45
15.21
Syracuse
DeWitt
c. 1963[14][15]
1970[16]
I-281 was a connector highway between I-81 and I-90 that passed through the southeastern suburbs of Syracuse. It was renumbered to I-481 in 1970, possibly to avoid confusion with NY 281, a highway that parallels I-81 some miles south of Syracuse.[16]

 I0287 !I-287
30.47
49.04
New Jersey line at Suffern
Rye
c. 1960[13]
current
I-287 crosses the New Jersey border into New York near Suffern and heads generally southeastward across Rockland and Westchester counties to I-95 in Rye. Most of I-287 in Rockland County overlaps with I-87 and all of I-287 east of Suffern is part of the New York State Thruway system.[5][11]

 I0290 !I-290
9.45
15.21
Tonawanda
Amherst
c. 1962[14][17]
current
I-290 is a connector between I-190 in the town of Tonawanda and the New York State Thruway (I-90) near Williamsville. It serves as a northern bypass of Buffalo.[5]

 I0295 !I-295
9.79
15.76
The Bronx
Queens
1970[16]
current
I-295 is a connector route within New York City. It travels from the Bruckner Interchange in the Bronx to the Grand Central Parkway in Queens. It crosses the East River by way of the tolled Throgs Neck Bridge.[5]

 I0390 !I-390
76.42
122.99
Avoca
Gates
c. 1973[18][19]
current
I-390 extends from the Southern Tier Expressway (I-86 and NY 17) in the Southern Tier town of Avoca to I-490 just west of Rochester. I-390 connects to I-90 (the New York State Thruway) in Henrietta, a southern suburb of Rochester.[5]

 I0478 !I-478
2.41
3.88
Brooklyn
Manhattan
c. 1970[16][19]
current
I-478's entire length consists of the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel and its approaches. Its south end is at I-278, and its north end is at NY 9A.[5]

 I0481 !I-481
14.96
24.08
Syracuse
North Syracuse
1970[16]
current
I-481 leaves I-81 south of Syracuse and rejoins its parent in North Syracuse. I-81 serves downtown Syracuse while I-481 bypasses the city to the east, passing through the Syracuse suburbs of Jamesville and DeWitt along the way.[5]

 I0487 !I-487
—
—
The Bronx
Beacon
—
—
I-487 was a proposed designation for the Hudson River Expressway, a highway that would have run through the Hudson Valley between the Bronx and Beacon. The project was cancelled by 1971.[20]

 I0490 !I-490
37.62
60.54
Le Roy
Victor
c. 1961[13][17]
current
I-490 is a loop route off the New York State Thruway (I-90) between the town of Le Roy and the town of Victor. I-90 bypasses the city of Rochester to the south while I-490 serves the city's suburbs and Rochester itself.[5]

 I0495 !I-495
70.99
114.25
Manhattan
Riverhead
1958[21]
current
I-495, better known as the Long Island Expressway or LIE, extends across Long Island from the western portal of the Queens Midtown Tunnel in Manhattan to Riverhead, Suffolk County.[5] There is a gap in the designation between I-278 and I-678, where it is designated in between as NY 495.[22]

 I0587 !I-587
1.23
1.98
Kingston
Kingston
1960[23]
current
I-587 is a short spur linking downtown Kingston to the New York State Thruway (I-87) at exit 19 northwest of the city. It is entirely concurrent with NY 28.[5]

 I0590 !I-590
4.91
7.90
Brighton
Rochester
1980[24]
current
I-590 serves as a connector between I-390 in Brighton and I-490 in Rochester (at the Can of Worms).[5]

 I0678 !I-678
14.68
23.63
Queens
The Bronx
c. 1965[25][26]
current
I-678 runs entirely within two boroughs of New York City: Queens and the Bronx. The highway begins at the John F. Kennedy International Airport and ends at the Bruckner Interchange in the Bronx.[5]

 I0684 !I-684
28.43
45.75
White Plains
Southeast
1970[16]
current
I-684 connects I-287 in White Plains to I-84 near Brewster. A small portion of the route is located in Connecticut.[5]

 I0687 !I-687
4.6
7.4
Albany
Colonie
—
—
I-687 was a proposed designation for a connector between I-90 and I-87 in northern Albany. The expressway was never constructed due to a lack of funding. I-687 was removed from local and national highway plans in the 1970s.[27] The I-687 designation is currently resevered.[22]

 I0690 !I-690
13.61
21.90
Van Buren
DeWitt
c. 1962[14][17]
current
I-690 travels southeast from exit 39 on the New York State Thruway (I-90) in Van Buren and passes through the western suburbs of Syracuse before heading east through the city itself and terminating in DeWitt, where it merges into I-481. I-690 serves the New York State Fairgrounds by way of exits 5–7.[5]

 I0695 !I-695
1.77
2.85
The Bronx
The Bronx
1986[28]
current
I-695 is a short connector route in the Bronx between I-95 (Bruckner Expressway) and I-295 (Cross Bronx Expressway) near the Throgs Neck Bridge.[5]

 I0781 !I-781
4.74
7.63
Pamelia
Le Ray
2009[29]
current
I-781 is a connector north of Watertown between I-81 and Fort Drum.[29] It was completed in 2012.[30]

 I0787 !I-787
10.17
16.37
Albany
Troy
c. 1965[25][31]
current
I-787 is a spur leading from New York State Thruway exit 23 southwest of downtown Albany to the city of Troy north of Albany. In between, I-787 passes through downtown Albany.[5]

 I0790 !I-790
2.06
3.32
Utica
Utica
c. 1961[17][26]
current
I-790 is a short connector route linking downtown Utica to exit 31 of the New York State Thruway (I-90) northeast of the city.[5]

 I0878 !I-878
0.70
1.13
Queens
Queens
1970[16]
current
I-878 is an unsigned designation for the portion of NY 878 from I-678 (Van Wyck Expressway) east to the JFK Expressway. It is the shortest three-digit Interstate Highway in the Interstate Highway System.[32] I-878 is not shown in the traffic logs.

 I0890 !I-890
9.14
14.71
Rotterdam
Guilderland
1962[14][17]
current
I-890 is a loop route off the New York State Thruway (I-90) between Gilderland and Rotterdam. While the Thruway bypasses the city of Schenectady to the south, I-890 directly serves it.[5]

 I0895 !I-895
1.35
2.17
The Bronx
The Bronx
1970[16]
current
I-895 is a short freeway in the Bronx, linking the Bruckner Expressway (I-278) to the Cross Bronx Expressway (I-95).[5]

 I0990 !I-990
6.29
10.12
Amherst
Amherst
c. 1981[33][34]
current
I-990 is a spur in the Buffalo suburb of Amherst that leads from I-290 to NY 263 in northern Erie County.[5] It is the highest numbered route in the Interstate Highway System.[35]

      Former


document_title: Binding energy

question_text: where does the gravitational potential energy of an object come from (site 1)

question_tokens: where does the gravitational potential energy of an object come from ( site 1 )

text: Binding energy

text: General idea[edit]

text: In general, binding energy represents the mechanical work that must be done against the forces which hold an object together, disassembling the object into component parts separated by sufficient distance that further separation requires negligible additional work.

text: In bound systems, if the binding energy is removed from the system, it must be subtracted from the mass of the unbound system, simply because this energy has mass. Thus, if energy is removed (or emitted) from the system at the time it is bound, the loss of energy from the system will also result in the loss of the mass of the energy from the system.[1] System mass is not conserved in this process because the system is "open" (i.e., is not an isolated system to mass or energy input or loss) during the binding process.

text: There are several types of binding energy, each operating over a different distance and energy scale. The smaller the scale of a bound system, the higher its associated binding energy.

text: Types of binding energy[edit]

text: In astrophysics, the gravitational binding energy of an object, such as a celestial body, is the energy required to expand the material to infinity. Solely for the purpose of comparison with the other types of binding energy, if a body with the mass and radius of the Earth were made purely of hydrogen-1, then the gravitational binding energy of that body would be about 0.391658 eV per atom. If a hydrogen-1 body had the mass and radius of the Sun, its gravitational binding energy would be about 1,195.586 eV per atom.

text: At the molecular level, bond energy and bond-dissociation energy are measures of the binding energy between the atoms in a chemical bond. It is the energy required to disassemble a molecule into its constituent atoms. This energy appears as chemical energy, such as that released in chemical explosions, the burning of chemical fuel and biological processes. Bond energies and bond-dissociation energies are typically in the range of few eV per bond. For example, the bond-dissociation energy of a carbon-carbon bond is about 3.6 eV.

text: At the atomic level, the atomic binding energy of the atom derives from electromagnetic interaction, mediated by photons. It is the energy required to disassemble an atom into free electrons and a nucleus.[2] Electron binding energy is a measure of the energy required to free electrons from their atomic orbits. This is more commonly known as ionization energy.[3] Among the chemical elements, the range of ionization energies is from 3.8939 eV for the first electron in an atom of caesium to 11.567617 keV for the 29th electron in an atom of copper.

text: At the nuclear level, nuclear binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a nucleus into the free, unbound neutrons and protons it is composed of. It is the energy equivalent of the mass defect, the difference between the mass number of a nucleus and its true measured mass.[4][5] Nuclear binding energy derives from the nuclear force or residual strong force, which is mediated by three types of mesons. The average nuclear binding energy per nucleon ranges from 2.22452 MeV for hydrogen-2 to 8.7945 MeV for nickel-62.

text: At a yet more fundamental level, quantum chromodynamics binding energy is the energy which binds the various quarks together inside a hadron. This energy derives from the strong interaction, which is mediated by gluons. The chromodynamic binding energy inside a nucleon, for example, amounts to approximately 99% of the nucleon's mass. The chromodynamic binding energy of a proton is about 928.9 MeV, while that of a neutron is about 927.7 MeV.

text: Mass-energy relation[edit]

text: Classically, a bound system is at a lower energy level than its unbound constituents. Its mass must be less than the total mass of its unbound constituents. For systems with low binding energies, this "lost" mass after binding may be fractionally small. For systems with high binding energies, however, the missing mass may be an easily measurable fraction. This missing mass may be lost during the process of binding as energy in the form of heat or light, with the removed energy corresponding to removed mass through Einstein's equation E = mc2. Note that in the process of binding, the constituents of the system might enter higher energy states of the nucleus/atom/molecule, but these types of energy also have mass. It is necessary that they be removed from the system before its mass may decrease. Once the system cools to normal temperatures and returns to ground states in terms of energy levels, there is less mass remaining in the system than there was when it first combined and was at high energy. In that case, the removed heat represents exactly the mass "deficit" and the heat itself retains the mass which was lost (from the point of view of the initial system). This mass appears in any other system which absorbs the heat and gains thermal energy.[6]

text: As an illustration, consider two objects attracting each other in space through their gravitational field. The attraction force accelerates the objects and they gain some speed toward each other converting the potential (gravity) energy into kinetic (movement) energy. When either the particles 1) pass through each other without interaction or 2) elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed), starts to revert into potential form driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances. Therefore, in order to bind the particles, the kinetic energy gained due to the attraction must be dissipated (by resistive force). Complex objects in collision ordinarily undergo inelastic collision, transforming some kinetic energy into internal energy (heat content, which is atomic movement), which is further radiated in the form of photons—the light and heat. Once the energy to escape the gravity is dissipated in the collision, the parts will oscillate at closer, possibly atomic, distance, thus looking like one solid object. This lost energy, necessary to overcome the potential barrier in order to separate the objects, is the binding energy. If this binding energy were retained in the system as heat, its mass would not decrease. However, binding energy lost from the system (as heat radiation) would itself have mass. It directly represents the "mass deficit" of the cold, bound system.

text: Closely analogous considerations apply in chemical and nuclear considerations. Exothermic chemical reactions in closed systems do not change mass, but become less massive once the heat of reaction is removed, though this mass change is much too small to measure with standard equipment. In nuclear reactions, however, the fraction of mass that may be removed as light or heat, i.e., binding energy, is often a much larger fraction of the system mass. It may thus be measured directly as a mass difference between rest masses of reactants and (cooled) products. This is because nuclear forces are comparatively stronger than the Coulombic forces associated with the interactions between electrons and protons, that generate heat in chemistry.

text: Mass change[edit]

text: Mass change (decrease) in bound systems, particularly atomic nuclei, has also been termed mass defect, mass deficit, or mass packing fraction.[citation needed]

text: The difference between the unbound system calculated mass and experimentally measured mass of nucleus (mass change) is denoted as Δm. It can be calculated as follows:

text: After nuclear reactions that result in an excited nucleus, the energy that must be radiated or otherwise removed as binding energy for a single nucleus to produce the unexcited state may be in any of several forms. This may be electromagnetic waves, such as gamma radiation; the kinetic energy of an ejected particle, such as an electron, in internal conversion decay; or partly as the rest mass of one or more emitted particles, such as the particles of beta decay. No mass deficit can appear, in theory, until this radiation or this energy has been emitted and is no longer part of the system.

text: When nucleons bind together to form a nucleus, they must lose a small amount of mass, i.e., there is a change in mass, in order to stay bound. This mass change must be released as various types of photon or other particle energy as above, according to the relation E = mc2. Thus, after binding energy has been removed, binding energy = mass change × c2. This energy is a measure of the forces that hold the nucleons together. It represents energy that must be supplied again from the environment, if the nucleus were to be broken up into individual nucleons.

text: The energy given off during either nuclear fusion or nuclear fission is the difference of the binding energies of the "fuel", i.e., the initial nuclide(s), from that of the fission or fusion products. In practice, this energy may also be calculated from the substantial mass differences between the fuel and products, which uses previous measurement of the atomic masses of known nuclides, which always have the same mass for each species. This mass difference appears once evolved heat and radiation have been removed, which is a given requirement for measuring the (rest) masses of the (non-excited) nuclides involved in such calculations.


document_title: Presentence investigation report

question_text: who is responsible for preparing the presentence investigation report

text: Presentence investigation report

text: History[edit]

text: The reports trace their origins to the efforts of prison reformer John Augustus who in the 1840s began a campaign to allow discretion in sentencing to help those who were deemed undeserving of harsh sentences and could be reformed. The practice became firmly entrenched in the 1920s under a theory that crime was a pathology that could be diagnosed and treated like a disease.[2]

text: The information included in a typical PSIR encompasses both legal and extralegal information about the defendant such as:[3][4]

text: Legal Information

text:
Juvenile record
Adult record
Probation/parole history
Official version of offense
Plea bargain
Custody status
Pending cases

text: Extralegal Information

text:
Probation officer recommendations
Gang affiliation
Background and ties to the community
Substance abuse history
Physical health
Mental health
Financial circumstances
Employment history
Education history
Victim-impact statement
Marital history
Military record
Evaluative/needs summary

text: One may note that there is considerably more extralegal information contained within the PSIR. This is important because many have seen this as suggestive of sentencing disparities or inequality in the treatment of offenders with a lower socioeconomic status or little to few ties to the community, but As Alarid and Montemayor (2010, p. 130) state, "The use of extralegal factors becomes especially important in that the PSIR identifies needs related to the defendant's criminal behavior for future treatment intervention services"[5]

text: Purpose[edit]

text: The report is immediately to help the court determine an appropriate sentence and also serves other purposes. Since the advent of the sentencing guidelines, the importance of the presentence report has increased because the document is now designed to frame factual and legal issues for sentencing. Thereafter, if a defendant is incarcerated, the Bureau of Prisons or State Department of Corrections will use information in the report to designate the institution where the offender will serve the sentence and determine the offender's eligibility or need for specific correctional programs. Also, depending on the jurisdiction, the presentence report can be used to calculate the release date. The probation officer assigned responsibility for the offender's case during probation and supervised release will use the report to make an initial assessment of case needs and risks. Additionally, the report may be used as a source of information for future research.

text: Preparation[edit]

text: Whether interviewing or reviewing documents, the probation officer must weigh the evidence based on the best available information. The final report must contain only accurate information. The goal is to produce a report that the court may rely upon at sentencing. Though it is inevitable that there will be data that the probation officer is unable to verify, that information should be clearly identified. The probation officer must distinguish between facts and the inferences, opinions, or conclusions based upon those facts.

text: When a defendant is referred for a presentence investigation, the officer must immediately begin to gather the facts. Though the procedure varies somewhat from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, the officer usually conducts several aspects of the investigation concurrently to ensure that the presentence report is submitted to the court on time. Since officers routinely conduct multiple presentence investigation simultaneously, meeting the deadlines can be difficult.

text: Review of records[edit]

text: During any investigation a probation officer may review numerous documents including: court dockets, plea agreements, investigative reports from numerous agencies, previous probation or parole records, pretrial services records, medical records, counseling and substance abuse treatment records, scholastic records, employment records, financial records, and others. The probation officer must scrutinize each document received and determine the likely accuracy of the record.

text: The probation officer's investigation of the offense usually begins with an examination of the complaint, information, or indictment charging the defendant and the docket describing the judicial history of the case. These documents may be found in the district court clerk's file. The officer will use them to develop a brief chronological history of the prosecution of the case and identify the specific charges that resulted in the conviction. The review of the clerk's file may also reveal the identities of co-defendants or related cases, the status of which must be investigated and reported in the presentence report. At the same time, the probation officer may also request information about the offender's history, circumstances, and release status from the pretrial services officer or from a separate pretrial services agency.

text: Before interviewing the defendant about the offense, the probation officer must review official descriptions of the offense conduct and the applicable guidelines. As a result, it is often necessary to postpone a discussion of the offense until a second interview. The offender is also asked to submit a written statement about the offense conduct.

text: Additionally, the probation officer must make an inquiry into the offender's criminal history. This is usually accomplished by using databases maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI,) the National Crime Information Center (NCIC,) or state law enforcement agencies. Though the guideline criminal history category is based only upon sentences imposed for juvenile adjudications and criminal convictions meeting specific criteria, the probation officer reports all known incidents in which the defendant has been involved in criminal behavior to partially fulfill the statutory mandate to provide information to the court regarding the history and characteristics of the defendant. The early examination of computerized criminal history records enables the officer to identify which law enforcement, court, and correctional records must be reviewed. In addition, the initial interview of the defendant should include questioning about the offender's residential history so that the officer can check local police and court records in every jurisdiction where the defendant has lived. Additionally, the probation officer may request physical and mental health, educational, employment or financial records from a variety of sources to corroborate information provided by the offender.

text: Interview of defendant[edit]

text: Probation officers investigate by interviewing and reviewing documents. Unless the defendant declines, the defendant is questioned in every case. Additionally, the officer should interview the defense counsel, the prosecutor, law enforcement agents who investigated the conduct that led to the defendant's conviction, victims, the defendant's family, present or previous employers, school officials, doctors, counselors, and others. The diverse interview settings that probation officers encounter require them to be proficient in a variety of questioning techniques.

text: Ideally, the offender is available for the interview early in the investigation. The defendant interview is the pivotal point around which the presentence investigation turns. Often, the format is a structured interview during which a standard worksheet is completed. The worksheet follows the format of the presentence report and provides space for recording data about the offense and the offender's characteristics and history. Each item on the form is reviewed with the defendant. Even though some of the data solicited from the offender during this interview may not appear in the final report, it is impossible at this stage to determine what information will be included. No question is asked without a purpose. The defendant's answers will determine follow up questions, items for further investigation or corroboration, and, ultimately, whether the data should be included in the report.

text: The presentence investigation is often the first inquiry into the offender's past, and the initial interview provides the framework for the report's description of the offender's history and circumstances. The probation officer inquires about the defendant's family and developmental history, familial and marital relationships, education, employment history, physical and mental health, alcohol or controlled substance abuse, and finances. The emphasis throughout the questioning is on identifying information that is relevant for understanding the defendant's offense conduct and present situation. During the interview, the probation officer will ask the offender to sign authorizations to release confidential information. At the conclusion of the initial interview, the offender may be asked to provide numerous documents to the probation officer substantiating the offender's complete life history. Additionally, the offender may be asked to submit an autobiography fleshing out the skeletal information already gathered about the social history.

text: The second interview may be scheduled either in the probation office or in the offender's home. By visiting the home, the probation officer may verify information by talking to other family members and may obtain clues about the offender's standard of living, community ties, and use of alcohol or controlled substances. A second interview is also an opportunity to clarify any vague, contradictory, or confusing information.

text: If the defendant impedes the probation officer's investigation, e.g. by failing to disclose all prior convictions and arrests, his sentence may be increased for obstruction of justice and failure to accept responsibility, even if the undisclosed information has no effect on his criminal history score. Since some defendants may not remember all such prior history, some defense attorneys conduct their own investigations. Some courts have ruled that a defendant waives his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination when he pleads guilty. It remains to be seen exactly how this applies to presentence investigation interviews, but it appears likely that a defendant who refuses to talk about his criminal history will jeopardize his sentence reduction for acceptance of responsibility.[6]

text: Gathering of information from other persons[edit]

text: Another step that must occur early in the investigation is contact prosecutor assigned to the case. The prosecutor will be asked to provide information about the conduct that resulted in the defendant's conviction, victim's losses, the defendant's history, and any other data relevant to the sentencing decision. During the investigation, the defense counsel will also be asked to discuss the same topics.

text: After the interview of the offender, contact with the prosecutor, and the criminal history inquiry, the probation officer must identify any information gaps, must identify potential sources for the missing information, and must plan on how to eliminate the gaps. It may be necessary for the investigating officer to request another probation officer in another jurisdiction to conduct a collateral investigation about a specific aspect of the case. Supplemental interviews may be scheduled with case agents, victims, family members, employers, counselors, or others.

text: Writing and revision[edit]

text: Gradually, the emphasis shifts from gathering information to analyzing data. The probation officer must take the tentative findings of fact regarding the offense conduct and criminal history and must make tentative applications of the sentencing guidelines. The applicable sentencing options that the probation officer must recite in the presentence report. Additionally, the probation officer must study the case to identify potential grounds for departure from the guidelines and then must analyze any potential departure to determine if it is valid. During the investigation, the probation officer may consult a probation officer specialist who is a subject matter expert about guidelines, financial investigation, mental health, substance abuse, or some other aspect of the case. The probation officer may also consult a supervisor or, in a team environment, other members of the officer's team.

text: Finally, the probation officer must write a draft of the report for disclosure to the defendant and the attorneys. When objections to report are received, the probation officer must manage the resolution of disputes. The officer must be impartial and open to opposing perspective and must consider all relevant and reliable information before making an independent judgment about the tentative findings of fact and guideline applications that will be recommended to the court. The probation officer must be prepared to report unresolved disputes to the court in a detached, dispassionate manner focusing on the factual or legal disagreement among the parties.

text: After revising the report in response to objections, the probation officer develops a sentencing recommendation based on the facts and sentencing options identified in the report. The written justification for the recommendation is the probation officer's evaluation and analysis of the offense, the offender, and the sentencing options. The justification provides the officer's rationale for the specific sentencing recommendations. It should address the statutory factors to be considered in imposing a sentence and should assist the court in the preparation of the judge's statement of reasons for imposing a sentence.

text: The officer then discloses the final report and sentencing recommendation to court. Also, the officer discloses the report to the defendant, and both attorneys, but the job is not finished. The probation officer must be prepared to discuss the case with the sentencing judge in chambers or in court, to answer questions about the report that arise during the sentencing hearing, and, ultimately, to testify under oath in open court as to the basis for the factual findings and guideline applications recommended in the report.

text: In the Federal System, after the offender's sentencing by the Court, the probation officer must ensure that copies of the pre-sentence report and other requested documents are forwarded to the U.S. Bureau of Prisons and the U.S. Sentencing Commission. If possible, the probation officer must also interview the offender after sentencing and instruct the defendant about the conditions of supervision that the court imposed. A written copy of the conditions of supervision must be provided to each offender.

text: Rules[edit]

text: Local rules, adopted by the judges of each jurisdiction, supplement the federal rules and set a specific schedule for the disclosure of the initial draft of the presentence report to the defendant and both counsel, for the filing of objections to the report by counsel, and for the submission of the final report to the court, the defendant, and counsel. The report must be disclosed to the court, the defendant, defendant's counsel, and the attorney for the government at least before the sentencing.

text: The probation officer must manage the investigation process within the time line established by those rules. In addition to gathering information, the officer must plan to verify that information, interpret and evaluate the data, determine the appropriate sentencing guidelines and statutes to the specific facts of the case, and present the results of the investigation in an organized and objective report. The probation officer must set deadlines for the submission of information by the defendant and others and monitor compliance with the deadlines.

text: Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 32[7] and U.S.S.G. §6A1.1 regulate presentence reports.[8]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Presentence reports typically include copious amounts of hearsay that would not be permitted in court testimony. This practice has been criticized:[9]

text:
“
Generally, the state (or judge) seeks to rely on extremely subjective, hearsay-laden documents such as police reports and presentence reports as “evidence” that the defendant committed a “violent” crime. In other words, they attempt to “go behind” the prior conviction by looking at the alleged facts of the crime to determine whether the crime was “violent”. This practice violates due process. Moreover, this practice will inevitably lead to "ad hoc mini-trials" concerning prior offenses that have long since gone stale.
”