document_title: Captive killer whales

question_text: why do orcas have collapsed dorsal fins in the wild

text: Captive killer whales

text: Orcas[edit]

text: Killer whales are large, active and intelligent. Males range from 6 to 9.7 m (20 to 32 ft) and weigh over 8 tonnes (8.8 tons), while females range from 5 to 7 m (16 to 23 ft) and weigh 3 to 5 tonnes (3.3 to 5.5 tons).[3] The killer whale (Orcinus orca) is the largest species of the Dolphin family. The species is found in all the world's oceans, from the frigid Arctic and Antarctic regions to warm, tropical seas. Killer whales are intelligent, versatile and opportunistic predators. Some populations feed mostly on fish, and other populations hunt marine mammals, including sea lions, seals, walruses, dolphins, large whales and some species of shark. They are considered an apex predator, as no animal predates on them. There are up to five distinct killer whale types, some of which may be separate races, subspecies or even species.[citation needed][4] Killer whales are highly social; some populations are composed of matrilineal family groups, which are the most stable of any animal species.[5] The sophisticated social behavior, hunting techniques, and vocal behavior of killer whales have been described as manifestations of animal culture.[6]

text: Although killer whales are not an endangered species, some local populations are threatened or endangered due to bioaccumulation of PCBs pollution, depletion of prey species, captures for marine mammal parks, conflicts with fishing activities, acoustic pollution, shipping vessels, stress from whale-watching boats, and habitat loss.[7][8][9]

text: Capture and breeding[edit]

text: It is extremely difficult to capture killer whales and to provide a healthy environment for the captives. Early attempts in the 1960s caused many injuries and deaths. However, with experience the teams who specialized in the business became more adept and post-capture survival rates improved. Live captures peaked in the early 1970s, but have become increasingly rare as the marine parks have learned how to maintain theme park populations through captive breeding and artificial insemination.

text: North Eastern Pacific captures[edit]

text: The first capture in the North Eastern Pacific occurred in November 1961. A collecting crew from Marineland of the Pacific in Los Angeles, took the 5.2 m (17 ft) orca to a tank at the aquarium, where she repeatedly crashed into the walls. She was named Wanda and died the following day.[10][11] The next killer whale captured, Moby Doll, had been harpooned and shot in 1964 and survived for three months when brought back for display to Vancouver, British Columbia.[12]  The third capture for display occurred in June 1965 when William Lechkobit found a 22-foot (6.7m) male orca in his floating salmon net that had drifted close to shore near Namu, British Columbia. The killer whale was sold for $8,000 to Ted Griffin, a Seattle public aquarium owner. Named after his place of capture, Namu was the subject of a film that changed some people's attitudes toward orcas.[13]

text: In October 1965, Shamu, a very young, 14 foot (4.25m), 2000 lb (900 kg) Southern Resident orca was captured by Ted Griffin off Penn Cove, Puget Sound to be a companion for the orca Namu at Griffin's Seattle public aquarium.[14][15][16] Her name means ‘Friend of Namu’[17] (alternately 'She-Namu').[18] However, Shamu did not get along with Namu and so was sold to SeaWorld in San Diego in December 1965.[19][20]

text: During the 1960s and early 1970s, nearly 70 killer whales were taken from Pacific waters for exhibition. The Southern Resident community of the Northeast Pacific lost 48 of its members to captivity. By 1976, only 80 killer whales were left in the community, which remains endangered. With subsequent captures, the theme parks learned more about avoiding injury during capture and subsequent care of killer whales, and discovered that they could be trained to perform tricks, making them a great attraction to visitors. As commercial demand increased, growing numbers of Pacific orcas were captured, peaking in 1970.[21]

text: A turning point came with a mass capture of orcas from the L-25 pod in August 1970 at Penn Cove, Puget Sound off the coast of Washington. The Penn Cove capture became controversial due to the large number of wild killer whales that were taken (seven) and the number of deaths that resulted: four juveniles died, as well as one adult female who drowned when she became tangled in a net while attempting to reach her calf. In his interview for the CNN documentary Blackfish, former diver John Crowe told how all five of the whales had their abdomen slit open and filled with rocks, their tails weighted down with anchors and chains, in an attempt to conceal the deaths.[22]  The facts surrounding their deaths were discovered three months later after three of the dead whales washed ashore on Whidbey Island. Public concern about the welfare of the animals and the impact of captures on the wild pods led to the Marine Mammal Protection Act being passed in 1972 by the US Congress, protecting orcas from being harassed or killed, and requiring special permits for capture. Since then, few wild orcas have been captured in Northeastern Pacific waters.[23][24]

text: Lolita, originally known as Tokitae, was a survivor of the Penn Cove captures. She was about six years old at time of capture and is now the oldest captive killer whale. Lolita is the subject of the documentary Lolita: Slave to Entertainment, released in 2008.[25] Various groups still argue that Lolita should be released into the wild.[26][27]

text: Icelandic captures[edit]

text: When the US Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 effectively stopped the capture of Pacific orcas, exhibitors found an area more tolerant of killer whale captures in Iceland. Icelandic herring fishermen had traditionally seen killer whales as competitors for their catch, and sale of live killer whales promised a large new source of income. 48 live killer whales captured in Icelandic waters were exported to marine parks between 1976 and 1988. The capture process was based on luring the orcas by dumping leftovers from herring fishing in front of the pod, capturing the killer whales in a purse seine net, selecting desirable animals and hauling them on board in a specially designed frame, then placing them in foam-lined boxes full of seawater.[28] However, restrictions on US killer whale import permits and advances in captive breeding programs meant that the market never became as large as expected. Growing concern from conservationists and animal rights activists has caused the Icelandic government to limit the number of orcas that may be captured each year.[29]

text: Perhaps the best known of the Icelandic captives is Keiko, caught in 1979 and sold to the Icelandic aquarium in Hafnarfjörður. Three years later, he was sold to Marineland Canada, where he first started performing for the public and developed skin lesions indicative of poor health. He was then sold to Reino Aventura (now named Six Flags Mexico), an amusement park in Mexico City, in 1985. He was the star of the 1993 movie Free Willy, the publicity from which led to an effort by Warner Brothers Studio to find him a better home. Using donations from the studio, Craig McCaw the Oregon Coast Aquarium in Newport, Oregon spent over $7 million to construct facilities to return him to health with the hope of returning him to the wild. He was airlifted to his new home in January 1996, where he soon regained weight. In September 1998, he was flown to Klettsvik Bay in Vestmannaeyjar in Iceland, and gradually reintroduced to the wild, returning to the open sea in July 11, 2002. Keiko died from pneumonia in December 12, 2003 at the age of 27 years.[30][31] He had become lethargic and had a loss of appetite.

text: North Western Pacific captures[edit]

text: 1,477 killer whales were hunted in Japanese waters between 1948 and 1972, 545 of them around Hokkaido. Killer whale encounters in Japanese waters are now rare.[32] In 1997 a group of ten killer whales was corralled by Japanese fisherman banging on iron rods and using water bombs to disorient the animals and force them into a bay near Taiji, Wakayama, a technique known as dolphin drive hunting which these villagers have been practising for years. The orcas were held in the bay for two days before being auctioned to Japanese marine parks. Five animals were released, and the other five transported via road or sea to the aquariums. All five are dead.[33]

text: The first live killer whale captured in Russia was an 18-foot (5.5 m)-long female estimated to be about six years old, captured off the Pacific coast of the Kamchatka district on September 26, 2003. She was transferred over 7,000 miles (11,000 km) to a facility owned by the Utrish Dolphinarium on the Black Sea, where she died in October 2003 after less than a month in captivity.[34]

text: Killer whales born in captivity[edit]

text: The majority of today's theme-park killer whales were born in captivity: 33 out of 56. Kalina, a female orca born in September 1985 at SeaWorld Orlando, was the first captive orca calf to survive more than two months. Kalina's mother is an Icelandic female named Katina, and her father, Winston (also known as Ramu III), was a Pacific Southern Resident, making Kalina an Atlantic/Pacific hybrid – a unique situation that would not have occurred in the wild.[35]

text: The first killer whale conceived through artificial insemination was Nakai, who was born to Kasatka at the SeaWorld park in San Diego in September 2001.[36] A female killer whale named Kohana, the second killer whale conceived in this manner, was born at the same park eight months later.[37] Artificial insemination lets park owners maintain a healthier genetic mix in the small groups of killer whales at each park while avoiding the stress of moving the animals between marinas.[38]

text: The practice of exhibiting killer whales born in captivity is less controversial than of retaining free-born orcas, since the captive-born orcas have known no other world and may not be able to adapt to life in the wild. Captive breeding also promises to reduce incentives to capture wild orcas.[39] However, in January 2002 the Miami Seaquarium stated that captive orcas are dying faster than they are being born, and as it is virtually impossible to obtain orcas captured from the wild, the business of exhibiting captive orcas may eventually disappear.[40]

text: Captivity locations[edit]

text: As of September 29, 2016, orcas in 13 facilities in North and South America, Europe and Asia provide entertainment for theme park visitors.[41] Building the physical infrastructure of the parks requires major capital expenditure, but as the star attractions the orcas are arguably the most valuable and irreplaceable assets.

text: SeaWorld[edit]

text: SeaWorld is a chain of marine mammal parks in the United States and is the largest owner of captive killer whales in the world. The parks feature killer whale, sea lion, and dolphin shows and zoological displays featuring various other marine animals. The parks' icon is Shamu, the orca.[42] Parks include:

text:
SeaWorld San Diego, San Diego, California; home of Corky II, Orkid, Ulises, Nakai, Kalia, Ikaika, Keet, Shouka, Makani, and Amaya
SeaWorld Orlando, Orlando, Florida; home of Katina, Trua, Nalani, Kayla, Malia, and Makaio
SeaWorld San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas; home of Kyuquot, Tuar, Takara, Sakari, and Kamea

text: There was also a fourth park named SeaWorld Ohio, but the park closed in 2001.

text: Miami Seaquarium[edit]

text: The Miami Seaquarium is an aquarium located on Virginia Key in Biscayne Bay near downtown Miami, Florida. A subsidiary of the privately held Wometco Enterprises, the Seaquarium was the first major marine park attraction in South Florida, opening in 1955. In addition to marine mammals, the Miami Seaquarium houses fish, sharks, sea turtles, birds and reptiles.[43] It is home to Lolita (aka Tokitae), the oldest killer whale in captivity.[44]

text: Marineland Canada[edit]

text: Marineland is a privately held themed amusement and animal exhibition park in the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Owing to its proximity to the falls and other natural park areas and its blend of animal attractions and rides, it is one of the main tourist destinations in Niagara Falls, in Ontario, Canada.[45] It currently only holds Kiska.

text: Marineland (Antibes)[edit]

text: Marineland is an animal exhibition park in Antibes, France, founded in 1970. It receives more than 1,200,000 visitors per year, and is the only French sea park featuring two cetacean species: killer whales and dolphins. The park is a subsidiary of Parques Reunidos, a Spanish group with properties in Europe, Argentina and the US. It currently holds Inouk (M), Wikie (F), Moana (M), and Keijo (M) and owns Shouka (F), who is at SeaWorld San Diego.

text: Loro Parque[edit]

text: Loro Parque (Spanish for "parrot park") is a zoo located on the outskirts of Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife. The park has the world's largest indoor penguin exhibition, the longest shark tunnel in Europe, and is one of only two parks in Europe to house killer whales.[46]

text: In February 2006, Loro Parque received four young killer whales; two males, Keto (born in 1995) and Tekoa (born in 2000), and two females, Kohana (2002) and Skyla (2004) on loan from SeaWorld. Sea World has sent its own professionals, including trainers, curators & veterinarians, to supplement the staff at Loro Parque.  In 2004 and 2005, before the killer whales were brought to Loro Parque, eight animal trainers from the park were sent to Sea World parks in Texas and Florida for training. However, only half of these trainers are currently employed in Orca Ocean, Loro Parque's facility for the killer whales. None of the subsequent employees hired have been sent to Sea World parks for training.[47]  On December 24, 2009, orca trainer Alexis Martinez, age 29, was killed during a Christmas show rehearsal when he was attacked by one of the killer whales, presumably Keto, resulting in his drowning. He had worked at Loro Parque since 2004. From this date the trainers no longer enter the water with the orcas during live shows. In December of 2017, SeaWorld announced that the orcas they loaned to Loro Parque now belonged to the Spanish amusement park.

text: Mundo Marino[edit]

text: Mundo Marino, located south of Buenos Aires in the coastal town of San Clemente del Tuyú, Argentina, is the largest aquarium in South America. Mundo Marino is home to one male killer whale, Kshamenk, that was stranded, or force-stranded, in 1992.[48] Kshamenk is estimated to have been around 4 1/2 years old when captured.

text: Other marine exhibitions[edit]

text:
Kamogawa SeaWorld, Kamogawa, Chiba, Japan; home of Lovey, Lara, Earth, and Luna
Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan; home of Ran II, Stella, and Lynn
Moskvarium, Moscow, Russia; home of Narnia, Nord, and Juliet
TINRO Center, Vladivostok, Russia; home of three-four unnamed orcas, one male and two females
Chimelong Ocean Kingdom, Henqin, Zhuhai, China; home of four unnamed orcas, two of which are male, the other two are unknown genders
It is unknown where TIN-OO-C1306 currently resides, he/she may be with Chimelong Ocean Kingdom, the TINRO Center, or at another park.

text: Captivity conditions[edit]

text: Tank size and water conditions[edit]

text: Legal requirements for tank size vary greatly from country to country. In the US, the minimum enclosure size is set by the Code of Federal Regulations, 9 C.F.R. 3.104, under the Specifications for the Humane Handling, Care, Treatment, and Transportation of Marine Mammals.[49] In 9 CFR 3.104, Table III classifies killer whales as Group I cetaceans with an average length of 24 feet (7.3 m). Based on length, Table I states up to two killer whales may be held in a pool with a minimum horizontal dimension (the diameter of a circular pool of water) of twice that length or 48 feet (15 m) and a minimum depth of 12 feet (3.7 m), giving a minimum volume of 21,700 cubic feet (615 m3) for two killer whales. Each additional killer whale requires a pool with an additional 10,900 cubic feet (308 m3) of volume. 9 CFR 3.104 also requires a minimum of 680 square feet (63 m2) surface area per killer whale in Table IV (the example with a cylindrical tank 48 feet (15 m) in diameter for two whales provides 905 square feet (84.1 m2) of surface area per killer whale). Swiss regulations require a larger minimum volume: 400 square metres (4,300 sq ft) × 4 metres (13 ft) deep for two killer whales, or 1,600 cubic metres (57,000 cu ft). The Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums (AMMPA) goes further, and recommends 1,918 cubic metres (67,700 cu ft) for two killer whales.[50] The US exhibitors of captive killer whales belong to the AMMPA, but exhibitors in other countries do not.[51]

text: The tanks in most marine parks are considerably larger than the minimum sizes required by regulations. However, the Miami Seaquarium  has been criticized for the small size of the tank holding their sole killer whale, Lolita, which is less than two of her body lengths wide at any point. Building a new tank would be costly and there is little prospect of replacing the aging Lolita.[52]

text: Nutrition and medical care[edit]

text: On average, an adult killer whale in the wild may eat about three to four percent of their body weight daily,[53] or as much as 227 kg (500 lb) of food for a six-ton male. Their diet in the wild depends on what is available, and may include fish, walruses, seals, sea lions, penguins, squid, sea turtles, sharks and whales.[54] According to SeaWorld, each of their adult orcas receives 140 to 240 pounds of food per day, primarily herring, capelin, salmon and mackerel. To maintain their alertness, the killer whales are fed at sporadic intervals throughout the day (as would happen in the wild) and feeding is often combined with training and shows. Each batch of fish is carefully tested to determine its nutritive composition, and each killer whale's weight, activity and health is carefully monitored to determine any special dietary requirements.[55]

text: Killer whales have been the subject of extensive medical research since their first capture, and much is known about prevention and treatment of the common viral and bacterial infections, including vaccination and use of antibiotics and other medicines.[56] Allometric principles and therapeutic drug monitoring are used to accurately determine the doses and avoid toxicity.[57]

text: Training[edit]

text: Whales are trained using a system of reward (called "positive reinforcement" by trainers) by giving the killer whale food or other reinforcement when they are successful, and withholding it when they are not.[58] Secondary reinforcement—things not essential to life, such as play time, tactile rewards and fun games—can also be used as rewards.[59]

text: Issues with captivity[edit]

text: The practice of keeping killer whales in captivity is controversial, and organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society campaign against the captivity of killer whales. Orcas in captivity may develop physical pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 80–90% of captive males.

text: The captive environment bears little resemblance to their wild habitat, and the social groups that the killer whales are put into are foreign to those found in the wild.[2] Critics claim that captive life is stressful due to small tanks, false social groupings and chemically altered water. Captive killer whales have been observed acting aggressively toward themselves, other killer whales, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress.[citation needed]

text: Disease and lifespan[edit]

text: The lifespan of killer whales in captivity versus wild killer whales is disputed.  Several studies published in scientific journals show that the average mortality rate for captive killer whales is approximately three times higher than in the wild.[60] A 2015 study in the Journal of Mammalogy, authored by SeaWorld's vice-president of theriogenology, Todd Robeck,[61][62] concluded that the life expectancy for killer whales born at SeaWorld is the same as those in the wild.[63] In the wild, female killer whales have a typical lifespan of 60–80 years, and a maximum recorded lifespan of 103 years.[64]  The average lifespan for males in the wild is 30 years, but some live up to 50–60 years.[65] The 2015 study has been criticised by Trevor Willis, senior lecturer in marine biology at the University of Portsmouth, who stated that the study is misleading, "clearly wrong" and indicative of "poor practice".  He stated that it is misleading in two ways: "First, it compares two completely different circumstances: the controlled environment of a swimming pool, with highly trained vets on hand; and the wild ocean. "There are no predators in a swimming pool. Second, and in the absence of any other information, it appears they’ve looked at the survival rate of calves in the first two years of life and extrapolated it out 50 years into the future." He also stated that no captive orca has lived for 55.8 years,[61] the recorded average life expectancy of adult orcas at SeaWorld.[62]

text: SeaWorld San Antonio's 14-year-old Taku, born in captivity, died suddenly on October 17, 2007. Trainers were notified that Taku had been acting differently a week before his death. The necropsy determined that Taku had died from a sudden case of pneumonia, a common illness among captive orcas.[66][67] It was also discovered that Taku was infected by the West nile virus, transmitted by mosquitos.[68]

text: The shallowness of orca tanks forces orcas to spend a lot of time at the surface. So much time at the surface leads to prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays. Prolonged exposure to the surface and UV rays is attributed to sunburns and the development of cataracts in orcas in captivity. Orcas in the wild would live at higher latitudes, meaning less intense sun, and spend more time in deeper, darker waters.[69] While it is uncertain the effects of prolonged UV exposure to orcas' skin, since captive orca necropsies are extremely secretive,[70] it seems logical that prolonged exposure to UV rays on unprotected skin would have the same negative effects such as melanoma (skin cancer) on orcas as it does on humans.

text: The original Namu developed a bacterial infection which damaged his nervous system, causing him to become nonresponsive to people. During his illness he charged full-speed into the wire mesh of his pen, thrashed violently for a few minutes and then died.[71]

text: Dorsal fin collapse[edit]

text: Most captive male killer whales, and some females, have a dorsal fin that is partially or completely collapsed to one side. Several hypotheses exist as to why this happens. A dorsal fin is held erect by collagen, which normally hardens in late adolescence.

text: Scientists from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) have reported that "the collapsed dorsal fins commonly seen in captive killer whales do not result from a pathogenic condition, but are instead thought to most likely originate from an irreversible structural change in the fin's collagen over time. Possible explanations for this include: (1) alterations in water balance caused by the stresses of captivity dietary changes, (2) lowered blood pressure due to reduced activity patterns, or (3) overheating of the collagen brought on by greater exposure of the fin to the ambient air."[72] According to SeaWorld's website, another reason for the fin to bend may be the greater amount of time that captive whales spend at the surface, where the fin is not supported by water pressure.[73] The Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society says that dorsal fin collapse is largely explained by captive killer whales swimming in small circles due to the inadequate space in which they have to swim.[74] SeaWorld, however, claims that "Neither the shape nor the droop of a whale's dorsal fin are indicators of a killer whale's health or well-being."[73]

text: Collapsed or collapsing dorsal fins are rare in most wild populations and usually result from a serious injury to the fin, such as from being shot or colliding with a vessel.[72] After the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, the dorsal fins of two male resident killer whales who had been exposed to the oil collapsed, and the animals subsequently died. In 2002, the dorsal fin of a stranded killer whale showed signs of collapse after three days but regained its natural upright appearance as soon as the orca resumed strong normal swimming upon release.[72]

text: It has been reported that seven out of the 30 (23%) wild adult male killer whales from New Zealand waters have bent dorsal fins,[75][73][76] though this figure includes a variety of dorsal fin abnormalities, including rippled or twisted fins, in addition to simple one-sided collapse.[75] The New Zealand study noted that, in addition to the high prevalence of dorsal fin deformities, two of the 30 adult males in this population also had prolific body scarring that was consistent with bite marks from other killer whales.[75] The prevalence of dorsal fin deformities is 4.7% among adult male orcas in British Columbia and 0.57% in Norway.[75] Amongst the well-studied wild killer whales off the coast of British Columbia, the total rate of dorsal fin collapse is around 1%.[77][78]

text: Attacks on humans[edit]

text: Two recorded instances include a boy charged while swimming in Helm Bay (in southeast Alaska) and orcas trying to tip ice floes on which a dog team and photographer of the Terra Nova Expedition were standing.[79] In the case of the boy in Alaska, the boy was splashing in a region frequented by harbor seals, leading to speculation that the killer whales misidentified him as prey and aborted their attack. In the case of the Terra Nova expedition, there is speculation that the seal-like barking of the sled dogs may have triggered the killer whales' hunting curiosity.

text: Killer whales in the wild, however, are much less likely to attack people than are their captive counterparts, who have been known to attack either their handlers or intruders. Following one such attack on a trainer in 2006, ABC News reported that captive killer whales have attacked nearly two dozen people since the 1970s.[80] Studies of killer whales in the wild have identified at least two categories, based on their territorial range. Those living in a limited area, such as Puget Sound or the Strait of Juan de Fuca, are termed "resident" whales, while "transient" whales roam the oceans at will. These "transient" types have to be more aggressive, in order to assert themselves in a wide range of territories and to prey on a variety of different species. This increased aggressiveness does not disappear in captivity.[81] Furthermore, captivity itself has been asserted to aggravate aggressive behavior, resulting in a "cetacean equivalent of anxiety disorder."[82]

text: Captive killer whale attacks on humans seem to fall mostly into the categories of: biting during feeding, ramming in the water, and holding under water. Killer whales biting trainers during feeding or shows is generally the mildest form of attack seen, but can escalate to an animal dragging the trainer underwater and holding them there until they lose consciousness or drown. Trainers who have had killer whales ram into them in the water tend to suffer from a range of injuries including internal bleeding, broken bones, ruptured organs, and heart attack.[83]

text: Tilikum, a male killer whale, has been involved in the death of three individuals since his capture near Iceland in November 1983.  In 1991, Tilikum and two other killer whales grabbed 20-year-old trainer Keltie Byrne in their mouths and tossed her to each other, drowning Byrne.[84][85] On July 5, 1999, Daniel P. Dukes visited SeaWorld and stayed after the park closed, evading security so as to enter a killer whale tank.[86]  He was found dead the next day, floating in Tilikum's pool.  He died due to a combination of hypothermia[dubious  – discuss], trauma, and drowning but Dukes was covered in bruises, abrasions and bite marks, and his scrotum had been ripped open,[87] indicating that Tilikum had toyed with the victim.  It is unclear whether Tilikum actually caused the man's death.[88] On February 24, 2010, after a noontime performance at Sea World, Orlando, Florida, Tilikum killed trainer Dawn Brancheau during a training session with the whale.[89]  This latest incident with Tilikum reawakened a heated discussion about the effect of captivity on the killer whale's behavior.[90]  In May 2012, Occupational Safety and Health Administration administrative law judge Ken Welsch faulted SeaWorld for the death of Dawn Brancheau and introduced regulations requiring a physical barrier between trainers and killer whales.[91]

text: Kasatka, a female killer whale who was captured off the coast of Iceland in October 1978 at the age of one year, has shown aggression toward humans. Kasatka tried to bite a trainer during a show in 1993, and again in 1999.[92] On November 30, 2006, Kasatka grabbed a trainer and dragged him underwater during their show. The trainer suffered puncture wounds to both feet and a torn metatarsal ligament in his left foot.[93][94][95]

text: On Christmas Eve of 2009, 29-year-old Alexis Martínez of Loro Parque, Tenerife, Spain was killed by a whale named Keto. After spending two and a half minutes at the bottom of the 12-meter-deep main pool, his body was retrieved but he could not be revived. The park initially characterized the death as an "accident" and claimed that the body showed no signs of violence, but the subsequent autopsy report stated that Martinez died due to grave injuries sustained by an orca attack, including multiple compression fractures, tears to vital organs, and the bite marks of the animal on his body.[96] During the investigation into the death of Alexis Martinez, it came to light that the park had also mischaracterized to the public a 2007 incident with Tekoa, the other male, and claimed it was also an accident rather than an attack.[97]

text: Aggression between captive orcas[edit]

text: One infamous incident of killer whale aggression took place in August 1989, when the dominant female Icelandic killer whale at SeaWorld San Diego, Kandu V, attempted to "rake" a female newcomer named Corky. Raking is a way orcas show dominance by forcefully scratching at another with their teeth. Kandu charged at Corky, attempting to rake her, missed and continued swimming into the back pool, where she ended up ramming the wall, rupturing an artery in her jaw. The crowd was quickly ushered out of the stadium. Forty-five minutes later Kandu V sank to the bottom of the pool and died.[98][99]

text: Kanduke, a male captured from T pod in British Columbia, Canada in August 1975, often fought with a younger Icelandic male named Kotar. The aggression became increasingly serious, leading to an incident in which Kotar bit a part of Kanduke's genitals and caused an infection. It is not known if such serious aggression and injury would occur in the open seas.[100]

text: Early pregnancy and related issues[edit]

text: Captive killer whales often give birth at a much younger age than in the wild, sometimes as young as age seven. The young mothers may have difficulty raising their offspring. The calves have a relatively low survival rate, though some have lived into adulthood.

text: Corky (II), a female from the A5 Pod in British Columbia, Canada became the first killer whale to become pregnant in captivity, giving birth on February 28, 1977. The calf died after 18 days. Corky went on to give birth six more times, but the longest surviving calf, Kiva, lived only 47 days.[101] SeaWorld has attracted criticism over its continued captivity of Corky II from the Born Free Foundation, which wants her returned to the wild.[102]

text: A killer whale named Katina, captured near Iceland at about three years of age in October 1978, became pregnant in early spring of 1984 at SeaWorld San Diego and gave birth in September 1985 to a female named Kalina. Although ten years was an extremely young age for a killer whale to become a mother, Kalina was the first killer whale calf to be successfully born and raised in captivity.[103] In turn, Kalina gave birth at only seven and a half years of age to her first calf, a male named Keet.[35]

text: Gudrun was an Icelandic female caught in the 1970s. In 1993, she gave birth to Nyar, a female who was both mentally and physically ill, and who Gudrun tried to drown during several shows. Nyar died from an illness a few months later. Gudrun died in 1996 from stillbirth complications.[104][105]

text:
Taima is a transient/Icelandic hybrid female killer whale born in captivity to Gudrun in 1989.[106] Trainers believe that Gudrun's behavior towards Nyar may have confused Taima, as she may have learned by example that this was how to raise a calf. In May 1998, Taima gave birth to a male calf named Sumar. They were separated when he was about eight months old because of the aggression between them. On one occasion while performing, Taima started biting Sumar and throwing him out of the pool onto the trainer's platform. She then slid out herself, and continued to bite him. In November 2000, Taima gave birth to a male named Tekoa. The two were separated after only nine months due to aggression between them.[107][108] On March 12, 2007, Taima gave birth to her third calf, Malia. Taima seemed to be a better mother this time, and no notable occurrences of aggression were reported; this may be in part due to the fact that Kalina acted as "aunt" to Malia and helped Taima to look after her. Kalina was a very experienced mother and would often be kept with Malia, while Taima was given time with her mate, Tilikum.
Taima died in 2010 during the birthing process of her fourth calf.  The calf, fathered by Tilikum, was stillborn.

text: Kayla, a killer whale born in captivity, gave birth to her first calf on October 9, 2005, a female named Halyn. Kayla rejected her calf, perhaps because she had never been exposed to a young calf before and did not know how to deal with it. Halyn was moved to a special animal care facility to be hand raised. Halyn died unexpectedly on June 15, 2008.[109]

text: On October 13, 2010, Kohana, an eight-year-old female killer whale, gave birth to a male calf at Loro Parque's "Orca Ocean" exhibit after a four-hour labor. The calf weighed about 150 kilograms (330 lb), and was two meters (6 ft 7 in) long. Kohana has yet to establish a "maternal bond" with her calf, forcing trainers to take the first steps in hand rearing him. The outcome of this pregnancy was not considered surprising, since Kohana was separated from her own mother, Takara, at three years of age, and was never able to learn about maternal care, compounded by the fact that she spent the formative years of her life surrounded by the three other juvenile killer whales at Loro Parque.


document_title: Since You Been Gone

question_text: who wrote since you've been gone rainbow

question_tokens: who wrote since you 've been gone rainbow

root

text: Since You Been Gone

text:
"Since You Been Gone"

Single by Rainbow

from the album Down to Earth

A-side
"Since You Been Gone"

B-side
"Bad Girl"

Released
August 1979 (1979-08)

Format
7" single

Label
Polydor

Songwriter(s)
Russ Ballard

Producer(s)
Roger Glover

tag: table

text:
"Since You Been Gone"

Song by Cherie & Marie Currie

from the album Messin' with the Boys

Released
1979

Length
3:41

Label
Capitol Records

Songwriter(s)
Russ Ballard

text: "Since You Been Gone" is a rock song written by former Argent guitarist Russ Ballard, and first released on his 1976 album, Winning. It was produced by Roger Glover.[1]

tag: p

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: Rainbow's cover version, with Graham Bonnet on lead vocals, was a Top 10 single in the United Kingdom and was named the 82nd best hard rock song of all time by VH1.[2] Rainbow's version was used in a 2009 T-Mobile commercial filmed at Liverpool Street station in London, England.[citation needed]

text: Other cover versions include those by South African all-girl band Clout on their 1978 album, Substitute, aka Clout, and Head East on their eponymous 1978 album, reaching #46 on the Billboard Hot 100. Former Runaways vocalist Cherie Currie recorded the song as a duet with her sister, Marie Currie, on their 1980 album Messin' with the Boys. Their version reached #95 on the Billboard Hot 100.[3]

text: Alcatrazz, also fronted by Graham Bonnet, covered the song on their album Live Sentence with Yngwie Malmsteen on guitar, and yet another Bonnet fronted outfit, Impellitteri, recorded it for their 1988 debut album Stand in Line.

text: Brian May of Queen performed the song live on the Back to the Light tour in 1993 and it appears on the Live at the Brixton Academy multi-format release.


document_title: Diamond mining in India

question_text: which foreign traveller discussed diamond mines of india

text: Diamond mining in India

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient times[edit]

text: Diamond mining as an industry appears to have originated between 800 and 600 B.C. in India.[2]

text: Accounts of early Indian diamond mining that reached Europe were often mixed with myths. Around 400 B.C., the Greek physician Ctesias published Indika, a compilation of travelers' tales about India (he himself had never been to India). He described incredibly rich diamond deposits guarded by griffins. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History (79 A.D.), correctly described diamonds being washed from river gravel in India.

text: Medieval period (1200 to 1800 A.D.)[edit]

text: Diamonds were reported from numerous places across India, but most of the diamond mining took place by placer mining in the drainages of the Pennar and Krishna rivers in modern Andhra Pradesh state. Placer mining took place along the Krishna River for 300 km below Sangram. The most intensive mining was in a 60 km zone along the river, from the Kollur Mine to Paritala. This area was the source of many legendary gems, including the Koh-i-noor, Nizam, Hope, Regent, Great Mogul, and Orlov diamonds.[3]

text: India's unique status as a producer of diamonds continued to fascinate Europeans. Marco Polo traveled along the coast of India in 1292, and recorded tales he heard about diamonds being found in deep mountain valleys made nearly inaccessible by heat, lack of water, and venomous snakes.[4] The French traveler Jean Baptiste Tavernier visited the Krishna River diggings in 1665, and estimated that about 60,000 people were mining diamonds.

text: The town of Karwan, near the fortress city of Golkonda, now a suburb of Hyderabad, became the world's largest diamond-cutting and diamond-trading center. Golconda was not close to diamond mines, but owed its status as a diamond center to its location on a major trade route from the mines to the south and east. The diamonds became known as Golconda Diamonds, and in Europe, the word Golconda came to mean a place of great wealth.

text: India continued to be the world's leading source - and nearly the only source - of diamonds until diamonds were discovered in Brazil in 1726. At first, Brazilian diamonds were reputed to be inferior, and did not command as high a price as the Indian article. To obtain better prices, Portuguese traders began shipping Brazilian diamonds through Goa, and then to Europe to be sold as genuine Golconda diamonds. Indian diamond mining declined rapidly in the 1700s, due to a combination of exhaustion of known deposits and competition from Brazil.[5]

text: Diamond mining in the Panna region around 1675 AD was initiated during the rule of Chhatrasal, the Bundela ruler.[6]. Diamond mining has continued in Panna region.[7]

text: Recent mining in Panna region (Bundelkhand)[edit]

text: As of 2017, there was one industrial-scale diamond mine in India, the Majhgawan mine, near the town of Panna, Madhya Pradesh. The deposit is in a kimberlite or lamproite pipe 6.5 ha in area, and yields 10 carats to the ton. Mining is done by an open pit, which was 85 m deep as of 2011. Exploration drilling has established that the pipe continues down to at least 330 m.[8] The mine is owned by the National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC), employs 199 people, and has a productive capacity of 84,000 carats per year. The mine began regular production in 1967, and to date, has yielded slightly more than a million carats of diamonds.[9]

text: There are also numerous artisanal-scale mines. In the Panna mining district, the Madhya Pradesh government leases 8x8m plots to individuals, who wash the gravel for diamonds. All diamonds found are required to be handed over to the government diamond office in Panna, which markets the gems, and gives the sales proceeds to the finders, less taxes and 11.5 percent royalty. In 2016, there were officially 952 artisanal mines, which yielded 835 carats of diamonds. However, there is an unknown number of small illegal mines, and an unknown amount of diamonds sold on the black market.[10]

text: The Rio Tinto Group discovered the Bunder diamond deposit in 2004 in Chhatarpur district near Buxwaha. The deposit is in an ecologically sensitive area. In February 2017, Rio Tinto quit work on the project, and gave the deposit and all on-site equipment to the state government of Madya Pradesh.[11]


document_title: List of Call of Duty media

question_text: the newest call of duty for xbox 360

question_tokens: the newest call of duty for xbox 360

text: List of Call of Duty media

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Title

Details

Call of DutyOriginal release date(s):NA: October 29, 2003[1]EU: November 7, 2003

Release years by system:2003 – Microsoft Windows  2004 – OS X, N-Gage[2]  2009 – Xbox Live Arcade, PlayStation Network

Notes:
First game in the series.

Call of Duty: United OffensiveOriginal release date(s):NA: September 14, 2004EU: September 24, 2004

Release years by system:2004 – Microsoft Windows, OS X

Notes:
Expansion pack of Call of Duty.

Call of Duty: Finest HourOriginal release date(s):NA: November 16, 2004

Release years by system:2004 – PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, Xbox

Notes:
First Call of Duty game to be released on home consoles.

Call of Duty 2Original release date(s):NA: October 25, 2005EU: October 25, 2005

Release years by system:2005 – Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360 2006 – OS X, Mobile phones

Notes:
First Call of Duty game for the Xbox 360.

Call of Duty 2: Big Red OneOriginal release date(s):NA: November 1, 2005

Release years by system:2005 – Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox

Notes:
Second and last Call of Duty game for the Nintendo GameCube.

Call of Duty 3Original release date(s):NA: November 7, 2006EU: November 10, 2006

Release years by system:2006 –PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, Xbox, Xbox 360

Notes:
First Call of Duty game for the PlayStation 3 and Wii and last for the Xbox.

Call of Duty: Roads to VictoryOriginal release date(s):NA: March 14, 2007EU: March 30, 2007

Release years by system:2007 – PlayStation Portable

Notes:
Only Call of Duty game for the PlayStation Portable.

Call of Duty 4: Modern WarfareOriginal release date(s):NA: November 6, 2007EU: November 9, 2007

Release years by system:2007 – PlayStation 3, Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS  2008 – OS X  2009 – Wii[3]

Notes:
First Call of Duty game to be rated Mature by the ESRB.

Call of Duty: World at WarOriginal release date(s):NA: November 11, 2008[5]AU: November 12, 2008[4]EU: November 14, 2008[5]

Release years by system:2008 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Wii, Xbox 360

Notes:
First Call of Duty game to be rated 18+ by PEGI.

Call of Duty: World at WarOriginal release date(s):NA: November 11, 2008AU: November 12, 2008EU: November 14, 2008

Release years by system:2008 – Nintendo DS

Call of Duty: World at War – Final FrontsOriginal release date(s):NA: November 11, 2008EU: November 14, 2008

Release years by system:2008 – PlayStation 2

Notes:
Last Call of Duty game for the PlayStation 2.

Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2Original release date(s):NA: November 10, 2009[6]

Release years by system:2009 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360

Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: MobilizedOriginal release date(s):November 10, 2009

Release years by system:2009 – Nintendo DS

Call of Duty: ZombiesOriginal release date(s):WW: November 16, 2009

Release years by system:2009 – iOS

Call of Duty: Black OpsOriginal release date(s):November 9, 2010

Release years by system:2010 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii  2012 – OS X

Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3Original release date(s):November 8, 2011

Release years by system:2011 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii

Notes:
Last Call of Duty game on the Nintendo Wii and DS.

Call of Duty: Black Ops – ZombiesOriginal release date(s):December 1, 2011

Release years by system:2011 – iOS

Call of Duty: Black Ops IIOriginal release date(s):November 13, 2012

Release years by system:2012 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360,  Wii U, Xbox one

Notes:
First Call of Duty game on the Wii U.

Call of Duty: Black Ops: DeclassifiedOriginal release date(s):November 13, 2012

Release years by system:2012 – PlayStation Vita

Notes:
First Call of Duty game on the PlayStation Vita.

Call of Duty: Strike TeamOriginal release date(s):September 5, 2013

Release years by system:2013 - [Mobile]

Call of Duty: GhostsOriginal release date(s):[7]November 5, 2013

Release years by system:2013 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Wii U
[7]

Notes:
First Call of Duty game for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and only one since Modern Warfare to be rated 16+ by PEGI.

Call of Duty: Advanced WarfareOriginal release date(s):[8]November 4, 2014

Release years by system:2014 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One[8]

Notes:
First Call of Duty game to be rated 18+ by PEGI since Black Ops II.

Call of Duty: Black Ops IIIOriginal release date(s):November 6, 2015

Release years by system:2015 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One

Notes:
Last Call of Duty game to be released on 7th generation consoles.

Call of Duty: Infinite WarfareOriginal release date(s):November 4, 2016

Release years by system:2016 – Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 4, Xbox One

Call of Duty: WWIIOriginal release date(s):November 3, 2017

Release years by system:2017 – Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One

Call of Duty: Black Ops 4Original release date(s):October 12, 2018

Release years by system:2018 – Microsoft Windows, Xbox One, PlayStation 4

text: By platform[edit]

text:
Titles in the Call of Duty series by platform

Title

Computer

Console

Handheld

Microsoft Windows

OS X

GameCube / Wii / Wii U

PlayStation 2 / 3 / 4

Xbox / 360 / One

N-Gage / Mobile phone

Nintendo DS

PlayStation Portable / Vita

Call of Duty

Yes[a]

Yes[a]

No

PSN

XBLA

N-Gage

No

No

Finest Hour

No

No

GameCube

PS2

Xbox

No

No

No

Call of Duty 2

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

X360

Mobile

Yes

Yes

Big Red One

No

No

GameCube

PS2

Xbox

No

No

No

Call of Duty 3

No

No

Wii

PS2, PS3

X360

No

No

PSP[b]

Modern Warfare

Yes

Yes

Wii[c]

PS3

X360

No

Yes

No

World at War

Yes

No

Wii

PS2,[d] PS3

X360

iOS[e]

Yes

No

Modern Warfare 2

Yes

Yes

No

PS3

X360

No

Yes[f]

No

Black Ops

Yes

Yes

Wii

PS3

X360

iOS[g]

Yes

No

Modern Warfare 3

Yes

Yes

Wii

PS3

X360

No

Yes[h]

No

Black Ops II

Yes

No

Wii U

PS3

X360

No

No

PSV[i]

Strike Team

No

No

No

No

No

iOS, Android

No

No

Ghosts

Yes

No

Wii U

PS3, PS4

X360, XONE

No

No

No

Advanced Warfare

Yes

No

No

PS3, PS4

X360, XONE

No

No

No

Black Ops III

Yes

No

No

PS3, PS4

X360, XONE

No

No

No

Infinite Warfare

Yes

No

No

PS4

XONE

No

No

No

Modern Warfare Remastered

Yes

No

No

PS4

XONE

No

No

No

WWII

Yes

No

No

PS4

XONE

No

No

No

Black Ops 4

Yes

No

No

PS4

XONE

No

No

No

Notes:

^ Jump up to: a b Call of Duty: United Offensive, an expansion pack for Call of Duty, was also released

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Roads to Victory, based on Call of Duty 3

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Reflex, containing fewer features than its other console counterparts

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: World at War – Final Fronts, containing a different storyline than World at War while retaining the World War II setting

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Zombies, based on the "Zombies" mode of World at War

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized, containing a different storyline than Modern Warfare 2

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Black Ops – Zombies, based on the "Zombies" mode of Black Ops

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 – Defiance, containing a different storyline than Modern Warfare 3

Jump up ^ Marketed as Call of Duty: Black Ops: Declassified, containing a different storyline than Black Ops II

text: Printed media[edit]

text:
Title

Release date

ISBN

Media type

Modern Warfare 2: Ghost

November 11, 2009

—

Comic book series

Notes:
A six-part mini-series set prior to Modern Warfare 2, written by David Lapham with art by Kevin West and Frederic Dallocchio[9]

text: Films[edit]

text:
Title

Release date

ISBN

Media type

Find Makarov: Operation Kingfish

September 2, 2011

—

Short film

Notes:
A fan made prequel to Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 which was first shown at Call of Duty XP. The video was produced by We Can Pretend,  visual effects by The Junction, and was endorsed by Activision.[10]


document_title: Ovulation

question_text: where does the secondary oocyte go after ovulation

text: Ovulation

text: In humans[edit]

text: In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28-day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase.[3][4][5][6] The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6[7] days, but with substantial variation between females and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95% prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5[7] days.

text: The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).[8] In the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6–12 days later.[9]

text: Follicular phase[edit]

text: The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.[10][11]

text: For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of a hyaluronic acid-rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.[12][13]

text: An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.[citation needed]

text: Ovulation[edit]

text: Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary via the oviduct.[14]

text: Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the stigma. The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube (also called the oviduct). After entering the oviduct, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward the uterus.[8]

text: By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation.[15] Approximately 1-2% of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.[8]

text: The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.[citation needed]

text: Luteal phase[edit]

text: The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one-quarter to one-half degree Celsius (one-half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.[16]

text: Clinical presentation[edit]

text: The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.

text: Females near ovulation experience changes in the cervical mucus, and in their basal body temperature. Furthermore, many females experience secondary fertility signs including Mittelschmerz (pain associated with ovulation) and a heightened sense of smell, and can sense the precise moment of ovulation.[17][18]

text: Many females experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation.[19] One study concluded that females subtly improve their facial attractiveness during ovulation.[20]

text: Symptoms related to the onset of ovulation, the moment of ovulation and the body's process of beginning and ending the menstrual cycle vary in intensity with each female but are fundamentally the same. The charting of such symptoms — primarily basal body temperature, mittelschmerz and cervical position — is referred to as the sympto-thermal method of fertility awareness, which allow auto-diagnosis by a female of her state of ovulation. Once training has been given by a suitable authority, fertility charts can be completed on a cycle-by-cycle basis to show ovulation. This gives the possibility of using the data to predict fertility for natural contraception and pregnancy planning.

text: The moment of ovulation has been photographed.[21]

text: Disorders[edit]

text: Disorders of ovulation are classified as menstrual disorders and include oligoovulation and anovulation:

text:
Oligoovulation is infrequent or irregular ovulation (usually defined as cycles of greater than 36 days or fewer than 8 cycles a year)
Anovulation is absence of ovulation when it would be normally expected (in a post-menarchal, premenopausal female). Anovulation usually manifests itself as irregularity of menstrual periods, that is, unpredictable variability of intervals, duration, or bleeding. Anovulation can also cause cessation of periods (secondary amenorrhea) or excessive bleeding (dysfunctional uterine bleeding).

tag: ul

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed the following classification of ovulatory disorders:[22]

text:
WHO group I: Hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal axis failure
WHO group II: Hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal axis dysfunction. WHO group II is the most common cause of ovulatory disorders, and the most common causative member is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).[23]
WHO group III: Ovarian failure
WHO group IV: Hyperprolactinemia

text: Induction and suppression[edit]

text: Induced ovulation[edit]

text: Ovulation induction is a promising assisted reproductive technology for patients with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and oligomenorrhea. It is also used in in vitro fertilization to make the follicles mature before egg retrieval. Usually, ovarian stimulation is used in conjunction with ovulation induction to stimulate the formation of multiple oocytes.[24] Some sources[24] include ovulation induction in the definition of ovarian stimulation.

text: A low dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) may be injected after completed ovarian stimulation. Ovulation will occur between 24–36 hours after the HCG injection.[24]

text: By contrast, induced ovulation in some animal species occurs naturally, ovulation can be stimulated by coitus.[25]

text: Suppressed ovulation[edit]

text: Contraception can be achieved by suppressing the ovulation.[citation needed]

text: The majority of hormonal contraceptives and conception boosters focus on the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle because it is the most important determinant of fertility. Hormone therapy can positively or negatively interfere with ovulation and can give a sense of cycle control to the female.[citation needed]

text: Estradiol and progesterone, taken in various forms including combined oral contraceptive pills, mimics the hormonal levels of the menstrual cycle and engage in negative feedback of folliculogenesis and ovulation.[citation needed]


document_title: In the Heart of the Sea (film)

question_text: where was in the heart of the sea filmed

text: In the Heart of the Sea (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1850, author Herman Melville visits innkeeper Thomas Nickerson, the last survivor of the sinking of the whaleship Essex, offering money in return for his story. Nickerson initially refuses, but finally agrees when his wife intervenes.

text: The story turns to 1820: a whaling company in Nantucket has refitted the Essex to participate in the lucrative whale oil trade, and 14-year-old Nickerson signs on as a cabin boy. The owners hire veteran whaler Owen Chase as first mate, though he is disappointed not to receive a captain's commission. The captain is George Pollard, an inexperienced mariner from an established whaling family who envies Chase's skill and popularity. Chase and Pollard clash, leading Pollard to sail into a storm against Chase's advice. The two agree to put their differences aside, rather than risking their reputations by returning to port without profit, and soon, the crew kills their first bull sperm whale.

text: Three months pass with no further successes, and Pollard realizes that the Atlantic Ocean holds no sighting of whales. The Essex sails past Cape Horn to the Pacific, hoping for better luck in catching one. In Atacames, Ecuador, the officers meet a Spanish captain who tells them his crew found the bountiful "Offshore Grounds" 2,000 miles to the west, but claims that a vengeful "white whale" destroyed his ship, killing six of his men. Denying the story as a myth, Pollard and Chase lead the expedition west. They find the undisturbed grounds, but when they launch the whaling boats, the white whale, a massive albino bull sperm whale attacks, damaging the boats and turning on the ship.

text: Chase harpoons it from the Essex's deck, but the whale staves the ship in half, killing two men. The crew abandons the sinking Essex in the three intact whaling boats, and must sail hundreds of miles to shore with very limited supplies. The whale follows and attacks again, but they escape to the tiny Henderson Island. While gathering food, Chase discovers the corpses of earlier castaways, and concludes that the crew will soon die on the island before another ship passes by. Four men decide to stay, while the rest set sail again on the boats with hopes to find land. Soon after, one of the men dies, and the remaining crew reluctantly decide to cannibalize him.

text: The older Nickerson is overcome by emotion and stops his story; however, when his wife comforts him, he feels encouraged enough to finish. Back in the 1820s, the three boats separate and one is lost. The other two further resort to cannibalism to survive, with Pollard's cousin Henry Coffin sacrificing himself.

text: The whale returns, and Chase gets into position for a final attack. The whale breaches for a moment, allowing Chase to observe a portion of his previously thrown harpoon still embedded in the whale's skull. Chase hesitates, and stares into the whale's left eye. He decides not to attack. Following this encounter, the whale swims away peacefully, and is never seen again.

text: A passing ship rescues Pollard's boat, but Chase's boat continues to drift with no food or water. Finally, with the survivors on the verge of death, they reach land. The survivors return to Nantucket and finally reunite with their distraught families. The ship's owners ask Pollard and Chase to cover up the story to protect the industry, but after Chase refuses to go along, Pollard reveals the truth in the inquiry.

text: Nickerson relates that Chase continued sailing the seas and became a merchant captain, while Pollard led another expedition to kill the whale, but the ship wrecked and he was forced to retire. Melville departs, to compose his novel, Moby-Dick, beginning by writing its first line: "Call me Ishmael".

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Chris Hemsworth as Owen Chase, the first mate[4]
Benjamin Walker as Captain George Pollard Jr.
Cillian Murphy as Matthew Joy, the second mate[4]
Tom Holland as young Thomas Nickerson, the cabin boy
Brendan Gleeson[4] as old Thomas Nickerson
Ben Whishaw as Herman Melville[4]
Michelle Fairley as Mrs. Nickerson
Gary Beadle as William Bond
Frank Dillane as Henry Coffin
Edward Ashley as Barzallai Ray
Charlotte Riley as Peggy Gardner Chase[5]
Donald Sumpter as Paul Macy
Brooke Dimmock as Phoebe Chase
Jamie Sives as Isaac Cole
Joseph Mawle as Benjamin Lawrence
Paul Anderson as Caleb Chappel
Luca Tosi as William Wright[6]

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Chris Hemsworth was cast to play the lead, Owen Chase, in June 2012.[7] Tom Holland won the role of young Nickerson in April 2013.[8] Cillian Murphy signed on as Matthew Joy in June. Before Benjamin Walker was set to play the Captain, other actors that were considered included Benedict Cumberbatch, Tom Hiddleston, and Henry Cavill.[9] The film was in development back in 2000, with Barry Levinson set to direct for Miramax Films.[10]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography began in September 2013 in London and at Leavesden Studios in Hertfordshire, England.[11][12] It was also shot on location on the island of La Gomera (plus some scenes on Lanzarote) in the Canary Islands, Spain.[13] For the storm scenes, the production team built a water tank at Leavesden Studios, where a deck was built on top of a gimbal to mimic the pitch of a storm. To get the right effect, 500 gallons of icy water were poured from cannons.[14]

text: During one point of filming, the cast and crew were forced to retreat to their hotel by a storm off the Canary Islands, which turned into a rare flash flood. The production shut down for a day and a half, expanding the shoot to 73 days, exactly as filmmakers expected.[15]

text: In an interview with Jimmy Kimmel, Hemsworth stated that to prepare for the role of starving sailors, the cast were on a diet of 500–600 calories a day to lose weight.[16] Hemsworth also had to drop his weight from 215 to 175 pounds to play Owen, saying that In the Heart of the Sea is "physically and emotionally the hardest movie that I've been a part of... Losing the weight to this length, I just never want to do it again, but it had such an emotional effect on us... in some small way, we felt like we were doing what these men went through justice."[14]

text: Music[edit]

text: Roque Baños composed the film score.[17]

text: Release[edit]

text: For its release in the United States and Canada, the film was originally scheduled for March 13, 2015, but was later pushed back to December 11, in order to convert the film into 3D, as well as giving it higher chances of being an awards season contender.[18] Internationally, Warner Bros. decided to open the film early overseas—a week before its United States December 11 opening—to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Force Awakens, which began its theatrical overseas from December 16.[19] The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in North America.[20]

text: Home media[edit]

text: In the Heart of the Sea was released on DVD, Blu-ray & Blu-ray 3D on March 8, 2016. It was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on May 17, 2016.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In the Heart of the Sea was one of two flops released by Warner Bros in 2015, the other being Pan.[21] It grossed $25 million in North America and $68.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $93.9 million, against a production budget of $100 million.[3]

text: In the United States and Canada, the film opened on December 11, 2015 in 3,103 theaters, including a number of 3D and IMAX theaters.[22] Box Office Mojo projected an opening weekend gross of $18 million, noting that the film's only competition was with the holdover of The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2 (in its fourth weekend of play).[22] The film earned $3.8 million on its opening day, including $575,000 from its early Thursday night showings.[23] In its opening weekend, it earned $11.1 million, finishing below expectations and narrowly losing to Mockingjay – Part 2, which earned $11.4 million.[24] Many box office analysts said the low opening was because audiences' enthusiasm was focused on the arrival of Star Wars: The Force Awakens the following week.[22][25] Regarding the film's disappointing opening, Jeff Goldstein, Warner Bros. distribution executive vice president said, "We stand behind Ron and his vision for the story, we believe in him. He's a terrific filmmaker. But some movies work and unfortunately some movies don't."[26] In its third weekend the film was pulled from 72.3% of theaters (3,103 to 685), the 4th biggest drop in history at the time.[27]

text: In the Heart of the Sea was released internationally a week prior to its United States opening in 38 markets and grossed a total of $18.5 million with 3.3 million admissions on over 9,500 screens. 50% of the plays were in 3D with 156 IMAX theaters which accounted for 7% of the total opening.[28] It went No. 1 in Russia and the CIS ($2 million), Italy ($1.7 million) and several other Asian markets such as Thailand and Taiwan and No. 2 in South Korea with $2.6 million, behind local hit Inside Men, Mexico with $1.9 million, behind The Good Dinosaur and Brazil with $1.3 million, behind The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2.[28]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 42% based on 214 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The admirably old-fashioned In the Heart of the Sea boasts thoughtful storytelling to match its visual panache, even if it can't claim the depth or epic sweep to which it so clearly aspires."[29] Another review aggregator, Metacritic gives it an average score of 47 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[30] CinemaScore reports that mainstream audiences gave the film an average grade of "B+", on an A+ to F scale.[31]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominees
Result

2015
Heartland Film
Truly Moving Picture Award

Ron Howard, Imagine Entertainment, Warner Bros. Pictures

Won

2016
15th Visual Effects Society Awards [32]
Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Photoreal Feature

Jody Johnson, Leslie Lerman, Sean Stranks, Bryan Hirota, Mark Holt

Nominated

37th Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a Feature Film - Supporting Young Actor (14 - 21)

Tom Holland

Nominated

18th Teen Choice Awards [33]
Choice Movie: Action
N/A
Nominated

Choice Movie Actor: Action

Chris Hemsworth

Nominated

Choice Movie Actress: Action

Charlotte Riley

Nominated


document_title: Big Brother (U.S. TV series)

question_text: where is the big brother house located in usa

text: Big Brother (U.S. TV series)

text: History[edit]

text: Series[edit]

text: The series was bought by CBS in early 2000 for an estimated $20 million.[5] The United States version of the series officially premiered on July 5, 2000 when the original ten housemates entered the house.[6] Since its inception, the show has been hosted by television personality Julie Chen. It is produced by Allison Grodner and Rich Meehan for Fly on the Wall Entertainment and Endemol Shine North America (formerly Endemol USA).[7] The success of the series has spawned several spin-offs. The series airs once a year, during the summer, with the exception of the ninth season which aired in spring of 2008 and the Over the Top spinoff series broadcasting in fall 2016. Currently, 19 seasons of the show have aired, along with one digital season.[8] The show has aired a total of 545 episodes since it premiered, with the September 5, 2013 airing marking the 500th episode.[9] To date, there have been a total of 253 HouseGuests compete in the series. Upon entering the house, the HouseGuests who leave the house without permission are not allowed to return. Should a HouseGuest break the rules set in the house, they can be expelled from the house. To date, there have been a total of four HouseGuests expelled from the house because of acts of violence and/or rule-breaking. There have only been three HouseGuests who have voluntarily left the game for reasons relating to personal matters.

text: Companion shows[edit]

text: Since its premiere, there have been numerous companion programs to the show. In 2004, the web series House Calls: The Big Brother Talk Show (2004–08) began airing.[10] The series, which lasted for thirty minutes and aired on weeknights, allowed fans to call in and discuss the events of the game.[11] This made House Calls the first live Internet talk show produced exclusively for a television network.[12] The series was initially hosted by Gretchen Massey and Big Brother 3 (2002) HouseGuest Marcellas Reynolds during its first two seasons.[13] Beginning with the show's third season, a new co-host was featured on the series each day, with some returning more than once.[14] During the show's fifth and sixth seasons, each co-host was given a designated day of the week to host alongside Gretchen.[15] Following the show's sixth season, it was confirmed that it would not be renewed.[16]

text: Big Brother: After Dark, a second companion series, was debuted in 2007 and aired on Showtime Too nightly from 12 a.m. to 3 a.m. Eastern Time.[17] The series continued this schedule until 2013, when it was moved to TVGN (now Pop).[18][19]

text: Former HouseGuest Jeff Schroeder began hosting the Big Brother: Live Chat online discussion show in 2012, where he interviewed the HouseGuests both before they enter the house and following their evictions. He also performed post-finale backyard interviews with the cast.[20] On August 10, 2017, Schroeder announced that he was moving to Colorado and would no longer be able to do the interviews.[21]

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: There have been two spin-off editions of Big Brother. In October 2016, CBS premiered a spin-off web series, Big Brother: Over the Top, as an original series for CBS All Access. Unlike the flagship, television version, it was broadcast exclusively online with a shorter, 10-week season.[22][23]

text: The second spin-off, Celebrity Big Brother, is set to air in the winter of 2018 on CBS.

text: Though not an actual spin-off, the Canadian edition of the series is the first and currently only series to adopt the American format of Big Brother.[24]

text: Format[edit]

text: Big Brother is a game show in which a group of contestants, referred to as HouseGuests, live in a custom-built "house" (actually a set built on a CBS stage in Los Angeles, Stage 18 in recent editions), constantly under video surveillance.[25] While in the house, the contestants are completely isolated from the outside world, meaning no phone, television, internet, magazines, newspaper, or contact with those not in the house.[26] This rule could be broken, however, in the event of a medical injury, a family emergency or death.[27] The format of the series is mainly seen as a social experiment, and requires HouseGuests to interact with others who may have differing ideals, beliefs, and prejudices.[28][29] While a competition, the series allows viewers to witness the relationships formed in the house and the behavior of the HouseGuests.[30] Though locked in the house, the HouseGuests are free to quit the game, though will not be allowed entry back into the house.[31] Should a HouseGuest break the rules of the game, they could be expelled from the house, and unable to return.[32][33] The contestants compete for a grand prize of $500,000.[34][35]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: The premiere season used the original format of the series, which originated in the Netherlands. HouseGuests were required to nominate two of their fellow contestants for potential banishment, and the two with the most votes would be nominated.[36] Should multiple HouseGuests receive the most nominations, then more than two HouseGuests were marked for banishment.[37] This process was mandatory for all HouseGuests, and failure to comply could result in expulsion from the house.[38] The HouseGuests in these seasons were forbidden from discussing nominations, and doing so could result in punishment.[39][40] The public, through a vote conducted by phone, would vote to banish one of the nominated HouseGuests from the house, and the HouseGuest with the most votes from the viewers would be banished from the house.[41] When only three HouseGuests remained, the viewers would vote for which of them should win the series, and the HouseGuest with the most votes would become the winner.[37] The format, during that season, was plagued with a negative reception from both critics and viewers.[42]

text: Season 2–present[edit]

text: Having spent millions on the series, CBS issued a second season of the series and announced that various changes would occur with the format.[43] The current format of the series is focused more on competition and strategy than the original series. At the start of each week in the house, the HouseGuests compete for the title of Head of Household.[44] The Head of Household for each week is given luxuries such as their own personal bedroom and free laundry service, but is responsible for nominating two HouseGuests for eviction. The Head of Household would not be able to compete in the following week's Head of Household competition, meaning that a HouseGuest could not hold the title for two weeks in a row, except for the final week or other stated circumstances.[45][46] [47] All HouseGuests excluding the Head of Household and nominees later vote to determine which of the two nominees should be evicted, and the nominated HouseGuest who received the most votes is evicted during a live episode. If there is a tie in the voting, the reigning Head of Household is required to make the tie-breaker decision.[48] Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the HouseGuests may discuss the nomination and eviction process openly and freely. The HouseGuests also competed in Have-Not competitions, in which the losers were required to solely eat slop for the rest of the week, as well as sleep in a special bedroom.[49] Upon reaching a point in the game, the evicted HouseGuests go on to become members of the Jury; the Jury is responsible for choosing who wins the series. The members of the Jury are not shown any Diary Room interviews or any footage that may include strategy or details regarding nominations.[50] Once only two HouseGuests remain, the members of the Jury cast their votes for who should win the series.[51]

text: To keep the series intriguing, each season typically features a new twist to change the format of the game. This began with Big Brother 3 (2002) and the "Expect the Unexpected" twist.[52] Other seasons feature smaller twists than have a smaller impact on the game, usually affecting that sole week. The most notable example of this is Pandora's Box, a twist that originated in Big Brother 11 (2009).[53] The twist sees the current Head of Household for that week being tempted by the box, and can choose to either open the box or leave it. Should a HouseGuest choose to open Pandora's Box, both good and bad consequences could be unleashed into the house; these can affect not only the Head of Household but the other housemates.[54][55]Similar formats are applied in later seasons, for example, the Den of Temptation introduced in season 19. Secret powers have also appeared in the past. Mike Malin was the first HouseGuest to receive a secret power, earning the Coup d'État during Big Brother: All-Stars (2006).[56] The Coup d'État allowed the holder to remove one or both nominees from the block on eviction night, as well as choose who is nominated in their place.[57] Malin chose not to use the power, and it subsequently returned during Big Brother 11 (2009) when Jeff Schroeder was given the power by the viewers.[58] Matt Hoffman was given a Diamond Power of Veto during Big Brother 12 (2010), which allowed him to remove one HouseGuest from the block and choose the replacement nominee.[59] During Big Brother 14 (2012), HouseGuest Ian Terry won a second Power of Veto, which could be used the same as the normal Power of Veto.[60]

text: There have been many seasons in which there has been a twist that allows an evicted HouseGuest to return to the game as if they never left. This happened by either a vote or by a competition. From season 18 onward this was referred to as the Battle Back Competition. After being evicted the HouseGuests remained sequestered either separately from each other or (if occurring post-jury) together in the jury house. Those who elected to leave sequester or who leave the game voluntarily were ineligible to return. In Big Brother 3, the first four evictees competed in a competition where they were asked questions about how much they would give up to re-enter the house. The two who gave up the most faced a vote of the house as to who would return. In Big Brother 6, three of the first four evictees were voted on by an America's Vote where the winner returned to the house. In Big Brother 9 and Big Brother 13, the first few evictees were also voted on by the public. Then a house vote was held on whether to bring back the most recent evictee or the person America chose known only to them as the "mystery HouseGuest". During Big Brother 18 and Big Brother 19 there was a competition to determine who would return to the house

text: Jessie Godderz has made the most Big Brother appearances in the show's history, appearing in seasons 10 and 11 as a HouseGuest and in seasons 12-14, 17 and 18 in a special guest appearance. Victor Arroyo became the first HouseGuest to reenter the house for a third time in the same season while Paul Abrahamian became the first HouseGuest to make it to the final two twice but still not win.

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Since its launch in the United States, Big Brother has aired on CBS.[61] The show is simulcast in Canada on Global.[62] The fourth and ninth seasons have both aired in the United Kingdom, the latter airing in the Spring season.[63] The first season featured a total of six episodes per week, though all future installments would air three nights per week.[64] Of these three episodes, the weekly eviction episode is the only one that is live; this is the only episode to feature host Julie Chen. This show generally airs on Thursdays.[65] To date, there have been a total of 558 episodes of the series to air.[66] With the exception of the ninth season, the series typically airs once a year during the Summer season.[67][68] The first fifteen seasons aired in standard definition, with the sixteenth season being the first to be produced in HD.[69][70] Before the series made the transfer, it was the last remaining regularly scheduled Primetime series to remain in standard definition.[71][72] CBS released the entire third season as a nine-disc set on Region 1 DVD.[73] This made it the first season to receive an official release, and has since become a rare item to find.[74] The fourth season saw the release of a two-disc highlights DVD, featuring previously unseen footage deemed too racy for the main broadcast.[75] To date, these are the only seasons to see a physical release. Beginning with the seventh season, all future seasons are available for purchase on digital retail sites.[76] With the fifteenth season, TVGN (now Pop) began airing re-runs of the series at later dates, making it the first season to be aired following its premiere; this continued with the sixteenth season.[77]

text: Subscribers to CBS All Access are able to stream the complete run of Big Brother, including the differently-formatted first season, and an episode of Big Brother 2 that did not air in most markets due to ongoing coverage of the September 11 attacks.

text: One of the main aspects of the series is the live feeds, in which viewers can view inside the house at any time.[78] The live feeds have been a part of the series since its inception, initially being offered as a free service during the first season.[79] From the second season onward, a subscription to the live feeds has been required, with the price ranging each year.[80] The first season's feeds were available on the show's official site, hosted by AOL.[81] From the second season to the fourteenth season, the feeds were available through RealNetworks either as a subscription or as a free addition for Gold members.[82] With the fifteenth season onward, the live feeds have aired on the official CBS website, again requiring a subscription from users.[83] Though advertised as being available at any time, the feeds are shut off during the weekly nomination ceremony, Power of Veto ceremony, and the competitions and evictions for that week; this is to provide suspense for the series.[84] Slanderous statements and singing of copyrighted music are also blocked for legal reasons.[85][86][87]

text: CBS is set to be premiering Celebrity Big Brother in the winter of 2018. It will be the first spin-off to air on the broadcast network, and the second season overall to air in the winter television season. The celebrity edition is expected to air in a concentrated run with fewer episodes. However, this edition will air multiple episodes each week and continue to have live feeds and the After Dark companion show as with the main edition.[3]

text: Competitions[edit]

text: Head of Household (HOH)[edit]

text: The Head of Household competition is held at the beginning of each week, and is most often performed on the live eviction episode.[88] Most often, the first Head of Household competition will require HouseGuests to participate either in pairs or in teams.[89] While the fourth, fifth, and eighth seasons had the HouseGuests competing in pairs,[90] the sixth, seventh, eleventh, twelfth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth editions all saw HouseGuests competing as part of a group.[91][92] The live Head of Household competitions are typically question based, and will see HouseGuests eliminated each round.[93] Competitions such as "Majority Rules" have been used numerous times, with the game being played in the fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth, tenth, and twelfth seasons;[94][95] a variation of the competition was used in the seventh season.[96] Some competitions will attempt to cause drama in the house, such as the "En Garde" Head of Household competition in which the winner of each round selected the next two to face off against one another.[97] This competition was later used in the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth seasons.[98][99] Various competitions throughout the season will be endurance, requiring HouseGuests to be the last one remaining in the competition.[100] Endurance competitions are often held after game changing announcements, such as when a previously evicted HouseGuest returns.[101] Various endurance competitions may have punished or reward contestants who either fall off first or last.[102] Skill based competitions also appear frequently throughout the season, some of which may last for numerous hours.[103] Skill competitions, such as the thirteenth season's "Big Brother Open", are finished during the live eviction broadcast.[104] The final Head of Household competition of each season features three rounds; the first is endurance, the second is skill, and the final is question based.[105] The record for most Head of Household competitions won in a single season is held by Drew Daniel, Janelle Pierzina, Hayden Moss, Rachel Reilly, Ian Terry, Aaryn Gries, Caleb Reynolds, Vanessa Rousso and Steve Moses in terms of reigns. Frankie Grande won HOH 5 times the sixteenth season, however he was dethroned twice due to the dual HoH twist that was in play during his season, and third reign was rewound due to the rewind button twist. This leaves Frankie with just two full reigns as HoH. Ian Terry has the record for most consecutive Head of Household wins, with four (winning at the Final 9, 7, 5 and 3 rounds) .[106] One of the Head of Household's duties is to nominate 2 people for eviction. Victoria from the sixteenth season holds the record for most times being nominated with nine.

text: Power of Veto (POV)[edit]

text: The Power of Veto is a power first introduced in Big Brother 3.[107] During it's first season, it did not allow a nominated HouseGuest to use it on themselves.[108] The final Power of Veto that season was the Golden Power of Veto, and allowed a nominated HouseGuest to remove themself from the block.[109] Following this, the Golden Power of Veto was used in all subsequent seasons.[110][111] The Diamond Power of Veto, used in Big Brother 12 allowed one HouseGuest to remove themselves from the block,[112] as well as choose the replacement nominee only moments before the live eviction.[113] Power of Veto competitions differ drastically from the Head of Household competition, with PoV competitions being more skill based in nature.[114] Competitions such as the "Pop Goes the Veto!" competition, which required HouseGuest to find letter tiles and spell the longest word, have been used in numerous consecutive seasons.[115][116] Competitions such as the "Big Brother Boardwalk" competition see HouseGuests attempting to guess how much of an item there is; this is one of various competitions that do not require HouseGuests to compete in a physical based competition.[117][118] The "How Bad Do You Want It?" Power of Veto competition, first introduced in the seventh season, saw HouseGuests taking punishments in exchange for advancing in the competition.[119] Variations of this competition have been used in numerous subsequent seasons.[120] HouseGuests Janelle Pierzina, Daniele Donato & Paul Abrahamian currently hold the record for most Power of Veto wins in a single season, with five wins each.[121] HouseGuests James Zinkand, Frank Eudy, and Shane Meaney all hold the record for most consecutive Power of Veto wins, with three each.[122]

text: Food and luxury[edit]

text: Food and luxury competitions have been a part of the series since it first premiered. In early seasons, the losers of the food competition would be placed on a peanut butter and jelly diet, and would not be permitted to eat any other foods.[123] Beginning with Big Brother 7, the losers of the Have-Not competition were required to eat "Big Brother Slop" for food, sleep in the Have-Not bedroom, and take cold showers for the week.[124][125][126][127] Slop has proven to be an issue for some HouseGuests; Hypoglycemic HouseGuest Amanda Hansen fainted and had a seizure after only a few days of being on the slop diet,[124] while HouseGuest Allison Nichols had an allergic reaction to the slop (both of these cases occurred in Big Brother 9).[128][129] Both women were medically evacuated from the house, though they returned the following morning.[130] HouseGuests who choose to break the slop rule are punished by Big Brother. HouseGuest Jen Johnson from Big Brother 8 was the first HouseGuest to break the food restriction rules, and earned a penalty eviction vote for doing so; she was ultimately evicted that week.[131][132] Audrey Middleton from Big Brother 17 and Matt Clines from Big Brother 19 also broke the rules and earned a penalty vote and ultimately evicted. HouseGuests Jeff Schroeder and Kevin Campbell of Big Brother 11 also broke the rules, to a lesser degree, and earned an extra day on the slop diet.[133] The HouseGuests also frequently compete in luxury competitions during their time in the house. Most frequently, HouseGuests will compete for the right to watch a film or television show in the house.[134] When competitions for films or television shows occur, an actor or actress from the series may enter the house to host the competition or speak with the HouseGuests. Actors such as Jeremy Piven,[135] David Hasselhoff,[136] and Neil Patrick Harris have all entered the house to participate in luxury competitions or rewards.[137]

text: Battle of the Block[edit]

text: The Battle of the Block was first introduced during Big Brother 16, and was reintroduced during the premiere of Big Brother 17. Instead of the normal singular Head of Household (HOH), two HOHs were named for that week. Each would then nominate a pair of nominees. These two pairs of nominees would compete against each other in a competition. The winning pair was safe from eviction and dethroned the HOH that nominated, allowing for the other HOH to remain in power for the rest of the week. While the winning pair was safe from eviction for the rest of the week, the dethroned HOH was not. There were eight Battle of the Block competitions in season 16 and five in season 17.

text: Battle Back[edit]

text: The Battle Back Competition allows an evicted house guest to return into the house and play as if they had never left. This competition was first introduced in Season 18 and returned to play a role in Season 19 as well.

text: During Season 18, the first two evicted house guests battled one on one, and the winner went on to compete against the third. The winner of that matchup would face the next evicted HouseGuest, and the winner of the final match-up re-entered the game. Victor Arroyo was the winner. Also that season, jury members competed alongside the HouseGuests still in the game. The last HouseGuest standing became the new HoH while the last Jury member standing returned to the game. Victor won this Battle Back making him the first HouseGuest in Big Brother history to reenter the game in the same season for a third time. This version of the Battle Back did not return for season 19.

text: During Season 19, the four evicted house guests played against each other in one competition. The top two then played head-to-head, and the winner then had to face off against a member inside the house. If the evicted house guest won, they would re-enter the game. However, if the non-evicted house guest won, no one would re-enter the game and all four evicted house guests would be permanently eliminated. Cody Nickson beat Paul Abrahamian in the final round and reentered the game.

text: Series details and viewership[edit]

text:
Season
Launch date
Finale date
Days
HouseGuests
Winner
Final Vote
Runner-Up
Average
viewers
(millions)
Episodes

1
July 5, 2000
September 29, 2000
88
10
Eddie McGee
59–27–14%1
Josh Souza
9.10
70

2
July 5, 2001
September 20, 2001
82
12
Will Kirby
5–2
Nicole Schaffrich
7.90
30

3
July 10, 2002
September 25, 2002
Lisa Donahue
9–1
Danielle Reyes
8.70
33

4
July 8, 2003
September 24, 2003
13
Jun Song
6–1
Alison Irwin
8.80
33

5
July 6, 2004
September 21, 2004
14 !142
Drew Daniel
4–3
Michael "Cowboy" Ellis
8.30
31

6
July 7, 2005
September 20, 2005
80
14
Maggie Ausburn
4–3
Ivette Corredro
7.24
30

7
July 6, 2006
September 12, 2006
72
14 !14 (All Returnees)3
Mike "Boogie" Malin
6–1
Erika Landin
7.56
28

8
July 5, 2007
September 18, 2007
81
14
"Evel" Dick Donato
5–2
Daniele Donato
7.52
33

9
February 12, 2008
April 27, 2008
16
Adam Jasinski
6–1
Ryan Quicksall
6.56
33

10
July 13, 2008
September 16, 2008
71
13
Dan Gheesling
7–0
Memphis Garrett
6.72
29

11
July 9, 2009
September 15, 2009
73
13 !13 (1 Returnee)4
Jordan Lloyd
5–25
Natalie Martinez
7.19
30

12
July 8, 2010
September 15, 2010
75
13
Hayden Moss
4–3
Lane Elenburg
7.76
30

13
July 7, 2011
September 14, 2011
14 !14 (6 Returnees)
Rachel Reilly
4–3
Porsche Briggs
7.95
29

14
July 12, 2012
September 19, 2012
16 !16 (4 Returnees)
Ian Terry
6–1
Dan Gheesling
6.79
30

15
June 26, 2013
September 18, 2013
90
16
Andy Herren
7–2
GinaMarie Zimmerman
6.47
36

16
June 25, 2014
September 24, 2014
97
Derrick Levasseur
7–2
Cody Calafiore
6.41
40

17
June 24, 2015
September 23, 2015
98
17 !176
Steve Moses
6–3
Liz Nolan
6.18
40

18
June 22, 2016
September 21, 2016
99
16 (4 Returnees)
Nicole Franzel
5–4
Paul Abrahamian
5.78
42

19
June 28, 2017
September 20, 2017
92
17 (1 Returnee)7
Josh Martinez
5–4
6.06
39

20[4]
Summer 2018
Summer 2018

text:
Season
Launch date
Finale date
Days
HouseGuests
Winner
Final Vote
Runner-Up
Average
viewers
(millions)
Episodes

Over the Top
September 28, 2016
December 1, 2016
65
13 (1 Returnee)8
Morgan Willett
America's Vote1
Jason Roy
N/A
10

Celebrity Big Brother
Winter 2018
2018

text:
^1 For the first season of the main edition and the digital edition, the public voted to determine the winner between the three finalists. However, the voting percentages were not revealed for BBOTT.
^2 Thirteen HouseGuests were originally announced with a set of identical twins secretly playing as one HouseGuest. After surviving the first four evictions, the twins were allowed to compete as individuals.
^3 The 14 returning HouseGuests were chosen among 20 candidates—eight through public vote, and six by the producers.
^4 The returning HouseGuest was chosen among four candidates, determined by a competition.
^5 One of the HouseGuests was expelled from the house during the season. Due to this, their vote was instead decided by the American public.
^6 Sixteen HouseGuests were originally announced with a set of identical twins secretly playing as one HouseGuest. After surviving the first five evictions, the twins were allowed to compete as individuals.
^7 The returning HouseGuest entered the house as a result of an opening night twist.
^8 The returning HouseGuest was chosen among two candidates, determined by public vote. The candidates were from the main edition.

text: Controversy and criticism[edit]

text: Since its inception, Big Brother has been criticized following reports of "HIB" (Harassment, Intimidation, and Bullying),[138] violence in the house, obscene language,[139][140][141][142] breach of integrity,[143][144] and the physical and mental strain of appearing on the series.[145]