document_title: Space exploration

question_text: what was the first thing sent into space

question_tokens: what was the first thing sent into space

text: Space exploration

text: History of exploration in the 20th century[edit]

text: The highest known projectiles prior to the rockets of the 1940s were the shells of the Paris Gun, a type of German long-range siege gun, which reached at least 40 kilometers altitude during World War One.[6] Steps towards putting a human-made object into space were taken by German scientists during World War II while testing the V-2 rocket, which became the first human-made object in space on 3 October 1942 with the launching of the A-4. After the war, the U.S. used German scientists and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research. The first scientific exploration from space was the cosmic radiation experiment launched by the U.S. on a V-2 rocket on 10 May 1946.[7] The first images of Earth taken from space followed the same year[8][9] while the first animal experiment saw fruit flies lifted into space in 1947, both also on modified V-2s launched by Americans. Starting in 1947, the Soviets, also with the help of German teams, launched sub-orbital V-2 rockets and their own variant, the R-1, including radiation and animal experiments on some flights. These suborbital experiments only allowed a very short time in space which limited their usefulness.

text: First orbital flights[edit]

text: The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet uncrewed Sputnik 1 ("Satellite 1") mission on 4 October 1957. The satellite weighed about 83 kg (183 lb), and is believed to have orbited Earth at a height of about 250 km (160 mi). It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40 MHz), which emitted "beeps" that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the duration of radio beeps. The results indicated that the satellite was not punctured by a meteoroid. Sputnik 1 was launched by an R-7 rocket. It burned up upon re-entry on 3 January 1958.

text: The second one was Sputnik 2. Launched by the USSR on November 3, 1957, it carried the dog Laika, who became the first animal in orbit.

text: This success led to an escalation of the American space program, which unsuccessfully attempted to launch a Vanguard satellite into orbit two months later. On 31 January 1958, the U.S. successfully orbited Explorer 1 on a Juno rocket.

text: First human flights[edit]

text: The first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1 ("East 1"), carrying 27-year-old Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961. The spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and 48 minutes. Gagarin's flight resonated around the world; it was a demonstration of the advanced Soviet space program and it opened an entirely new era in space exploration: human spaceflight.

text: The U.S. first launched a person into space within a month of Vostok 1 with Alan Shepard's suborbital flight on Freedom 7. Orbital flight was achieved by the United States when John Glenn's Friendship 7 orbited Earth on 20 February 1962.

text: Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, orbited Earth 48 times aboard Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963.

text: China first launched a person into space 42 years after the launch of Vostok 1, on 15 October 2003, with the flight of Yang Liwei aboard the Shenzhou 5 (Divine Vessel 5) spacecraft.

text: First planetary explorations[edit]

text: The first artificial object to reach another celestial body was Luna 2 in 1959.[10] The first automatic landing on another celestial body was performed by Luna 9[11] in 1966. Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon.[12]

text: The first crewed landing on another celestial body was performed by Apollo 11 on 20 July 1969.

text: The first successful interplanetary flyby was the 1962 Mariner 2 flyby of Venus (closest approach 34,773 kilometers). The other planets were first flown by in 1965 for Mars by Mariner 4, 1973 for Jupiter by Pioneer 10, 1974 for Mercury by Mariner 10, 1979 for Saturn by Pioneer 11, 1986 for Uranus by Voyager 2, 1989 for Neptune by Voyager 2. In 2015, the dwarf planets Ceres and Pluto were orbited by Dawn and passed by New Horizons, respectively.

text: The first interplanetary surface mission to return at least limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of Venera 7 on Venus which returned data to Earth for 23 minutes. In 1975 the Venera 9 was the first to return images from the surface of another planet. In 1971 the Mars 3 mission achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds. Later much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over six years of Mars surface operation by Viking 1 from 1975 to 1982 and over two hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by Venera 13 in 1982, the longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission.

text: Key people in early space exploration[edit]

text: The dream of stepping into the outer reaches of Earth's atmosphere was driven by the fiction of Peter Francis Geraci[13][14][15] and H. G. Wells,[16] and rocket technology was developed to try to realize this vision. The German V-2 was the first rocket to travel into space, overcoming the problems of thrust and material failure. During the final days of World War II this technology was obtained by both the Americans and Soviets as were its designers. The initial driving force for further development of the technology was a weapons race for intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to be used as long-range carriers for fast nuclear weapon delivery, but in 1961 when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, the United States declared itself to be in a "Space Race" with the Soviets.

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert Goddard, Hermann Oberth, and Reinhold Tiling laid the groundwork of rocketry in the early years of the 20th century.

text: Wernher von Braun was the lead rocket engineer for Nazi Germany's World War II V-2 rocket project. In the last days of the war he led a caravan of workers in the German rocket program to the American lines, where they surrendered and were brought to the United States to work on their rocket development ("Operation Paperclip"). He acquired American citizenship and led the team that developed and launched Explorer 1, the first American satellite. Von Braun later led the team at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center which developed the Saturn V moon rocket.

text: Initially the race for space was often led by Sergei Korolyov, whose legacy includes both the R7 and Soyuz—which remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk. Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Soviet space program.

text: Kerim Kerimov was one of the founders of the Soviet space program and was one of the lead architects behind the first human spaceflight (Vostok 1) alongside Sergey Korolyov. After Korolyov's death in 1966, Kerimov became the lead scientist of the Soviet space program and was responsible for the launch of the first space stations from 1971 to 1991, including the Salyut and Mir series, and their precursors in 1967, the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188.[17][18]

text: Other key people[edit]

text:
Valentin Glushko was Chief Engine Designer for the Soviet Union. Glushko designed many of the engines used on the early Soviet rockets, but was constantly at odds with Korolyov.
Vasily Mishin was Chief Designer working under Sergey Korolyov and one of the first Soviets to inspect the captured German V-2 design. Following the death of Sergei Korolev, Mishin was held responsible for the Soviet failure to be first country to place a man on the Moon.
Robert Gilruth was the NASA head of the Space Task Force and director of 25 crewed space flights. Gilruth was the person who suggested to John F. Kennedy that the Americans take the bold step of reaching the Moon in an attempt to reclaim space superiority from the Soviets.
Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. was NASA's first flight director, who oversaw development of Mission Control and associated technologies and procedures.
Maxime Faget was the designer of the Mercury capsule; he played a key role in designing the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and contributed to the design of the Space Shuttle.
Susan Finley who designed the Deep Space Network, allowing communication from space to Earth.[19]

text: Targets of exploration[edit]

text: The Sun[edit]

text: Although the Sun will probably not be physically explored at all, the study of the Sun has nevertheless been a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface. The Sun generates most space weather, which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun, beginning with the Apollo Telescope Mount, have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective. Parker Solar Probe, planned for a 2018 launch, will approach the Sun to within 1/8th the orbit of Mercury.

text: Mercury[edit]

text: Mercury remains the least explored of the Terrestrial planets. As of May 2013, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in March 2011, to further investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b).

text: A third mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2025, BepiColombo is to include two probes. BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the European Space Agency. MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10's flybys.

text: Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable.

text: Venus[edit]

text: Venus was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite one of the most hostile surface environments in the Solar System, has had more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other planet in the Solar System. The first successful Venus flyby was the American Mariner 2 spacecraft, which flew past Venus in 1962. Mariner 2 has been followed by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions using a Venus flyby to provide a gravitational assist en route to other celestial bodies. In 1967 Venera 4 became the first probe to enter and directly examine the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970, Venera 7 became the first successful lander to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface data. Starting in 1975 with the Soviet orbiter Venera 9 some ten successful orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were able to map the surface of Venus using radar to pierce the obscuring atmosphere.

text: Earth[edit]

text: Space exploration has been used as a tool to understand Earth as a celestial object in its own right. Orbital missions can provide data for Earth that can be difficult or impossible to obtain from a purely ground-based point of reference.

text: For example, the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1. These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical. Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: The Moon[edit]

text: The Moon was the first celestial body to be the object of space exploration. It holds the distinctions of being the first remote celestial object to be flown by, orbited, and landed upon by spacecraft, and the only remote celestial object ever to be visited by humans.

text: In 1959 the Soviets obtained the first images of the far side of the Moon, never previously visible to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the Ranger 4 impactor in 1962. Starting in 1966 the Soviets successfully deployed a number of landers to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moon's surface; just four months later, Surveyor 1 marked the debut of a successful series of U.S. landers. The Soviet uncrewed missions culminated in the Lunokhod program in the early 1970s, which included the first uncrewed rovers and also successfully brought lunar soil samples to Earth for study. This marked the first (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to Earth. Uncrewed exploration of the Moon continues with various nations periodically deploying lunar orbiters, and in 2008 the Indian Moon Impact Probe.

text: Crewed exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the Apollo 8 mission that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object was orbited by humans. In 1969, the Apollo 11 mission marked the first time humans set foot upon another world. Crewed exploration of the Moon did not continue for long, however. The Apollo 17 mission in 1972 marked the most recent human visit there, and the next, Exploration Mission 2, is due to orbit the Moon in 2021. Robotic missions are still pursued vigorously.

text: Mars[edit]

text: The exploration of Mars has been an important part of the space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia), the United States, Europe, Japan and India. Dozens of robotic spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been launched toward Mars since the 1960s. These missions were aimed at gathering data about current conditions and answering questions about the history of Mars. The questions raised by the scientific community are expected to not only give a better appreciation of the red planet but also yield further insight into the past, and possible future, of Earth.

text: The exploration of Mars has come at a considerable financial cost with roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failing before completing their missions, with some failing before they even began. Such a high failure rate can be attributed to the complexity and large number of variables involved in an interplanetary journey, and has led researchers to jokingly speak of The Great Galactic Ghoul[20] which subsists on a diet of Mars probes. This phenomenon is also informally known as the "Mars Curse".[21] In contrast to overall high failure rates in the exploration of Mars, India has become the first country to achieve success of its maiden attempt. India's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)[22][23][24] is one of the least expensive interplanetary missions ever undertaken with an approximate total cost of ₹450 Crore (US$73 million).[25][26] The first mission to Mars by any Arab country has been taken up by the United Arab Emirates. Called the Emirates Mars Mission, it is scheduled for launch in 2020. The uncrewed exploratory probe has been named "Hope Probe" and will be sent to Mars to study its atmosphere in detail.[27]

text: Phobos[edit]

text: The Russian space mission Fobos-Grunt, which launched on 9 November 2011 experienced a failure leaving it stranded in low Earth orbit.[28] It was to begin exploration of the Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a "trans-shipment point" for spaceships traveling to Mars.[29]

text: Jupiter[edit]

text: The exploration of Jupiter has consisted solely of a number of automated NASA spacecraft visiting the planet since 1973. A large majority of the missions have been "flybys", in which detailed observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit; such as in Pioneer and Voyager programs. The Galileo and Juno spacecraft are the only spacecraft to have entered the planet's orbit. As Jupiter is believed to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface, a landing mission is nearly impossible.

text: Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2 km/s,[30] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.[31] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.[30]

text: Jupiter has 69 known moons, many of which have relatively little known information about them.

text: Saturn[edit]

text: Saturn has been explored only through uncrewed spacecraft launched by NASA, including one mission (Cassini–Huygens) planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies. These missions consist of flybys in 1979 by Pioneer 11, in 1980 by Voyager 1, in 1982 by Voyager 2 and an orbital mission by the Cassini spacecraft, which lasted from 2004 until 2017.

text: Saturn has at least 62 known moons, although the exact number is debatable since Saturn's rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying sizes. The largest of the moons is Titan, which holds the distinction of being the only moon in the Solar System with an atmosphere denser and thicker than that of Earth. Titan holds the distinction of being the only object in the Outer Solar System that has been explored with a lander, the Huygens probe deployed by the Cassini spacecraft.

text: Uranus[edit]

text: The exploration of Uranus has been entirely through the Voyager 2 spacecraft, with no other visits currently planned. Given its axial tilt of 97.77°, with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness for long periods, scientists were not sure what to expect at Uranus. The closest approach to Uranus occurred on 24 January 1986. Voyager 2 studied the planet's unique atmosphere and magnetosphere. Voyager 2 also examined its ring system and the moons of Uranus including all five of the previously known moons, while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons.

text: Images of Uranus proved to have a very uniform appearance, with no evidence of the dramatic storms or atmospheric banding evident on Jupiter and Saturn. Great effort was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet. The magnetosphere of Uranus, however, proved to be completely unique and proved to be profoundly affected by the planet's unusual axial tilt. In contrast to the bland appearance of Uranus itself, striking images were obtained of the Moons of Uranus, including evidence that Miranda had been unusually geologically active.

text: Neptune[edit]

text: The exploration of Neptune began with the 25 August 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, the sole visit to the system as of 2014. The possibility of a Neptune Orbiter has been discussed, but no other missions have been given serious thought.

text: Although the extremely uniform appearance of Uranus during Voyager 2's visit in 1986 had led to expectations that Neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena, the spacecraft found that Neptune had obvious banding, visible clouds, auroras, and even a conspicuous anticyclone storm system rivaled in size only by Jupiter's small Spot. Neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in the Solar System, measured as high as 2,100 km/h.[32] Voyager 2 also examined Neptune's ring and moon system. It discovered 900 complete rings and additional partial ring "arcs" around Neptune. In addition to examining Neptune's three previously known moons, Voyager 2 also discovered five previously unknown moons, one of which, Proteus, proved to be the last largest moon in the system. Data from Voyager 2 supported the view that Neptune's largest moon, Triton, is a captured Kuiper belt object.[33]

text: Other objects in the Solar System[edit]

text: The dwarf planet Pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times) and small mass (making capture into orbit very difficult at present). Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturn's moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.[34]

text: Pluto continues to be of great interest, despite its reclassification as the lead and nearest member of a new and growing class of distant icy bodies of intermediate size (and also the first member of the important subclass, defined by orbit and known as "plutinos"). After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed New Horizons was granted funding from the United States government in 2003.[35] New Horizons was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. Its closest approach to Pluto was on 14 July 2015; scientific observations of Pluto began five months prior to closest approach and continued for 16 days after the encounter.

text: Asteroids and comets[edit]

text: Until the advent of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery. Several asteroids have now been visited by probes, the first of which was Galileo, which flew past two: 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed by 243 Ida in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileo's planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost. The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the NEAR Shoemaker probe in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object. The dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid 4 Vesta, two of the three largest asteroids, were visited by NASA's Dawn spacecraft, launched in 2007.

text: Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer conducted the first comet fly-by (21P/Giacobini-Zinner) before joining the Halley Armada studying the famous comet. The Deep Impact probe smashed into 9P/Tempel to learn more about its structure and composition and the Stardust mission returned samples of another comet's tail. The Philae lander successfully landed on Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko in 2014 as part of the broader Rosetta mission.

text: Hayabusa was an unmanned spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to return a sample of material from the small near-Earth asteroid 25143 Itokawa to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa was launched on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in mid-September 2005. After arriving at Itokawa, Hayabusa studied the asteroid's shape, spin, topography, color, composition, density, and history. In November 2005, it landed on the asteroid to collect samples. The spacecraft returned to Earth on 13 June 2010.

text: Deep space exploration[edit]

text: Deep space exploration is the branch of astronomy, astronautics and space technology that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space.[36] Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti-matter, nuclear power and beamed propulsion.[37] The latter, beamed propulsion, appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available, since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes.[38]

text:
Chandra, Hubble, and Spitzer image NGC 1952

Star cluster Pismis 24 and NGC 6357

Whirlpool Galaxy (Messier 51)

text: Future of space exploration[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the 2000s, several plans for space exploration were announced; both government entities and the private sector have space exploration objectives. China has announced plans to have a 60-ton multi-module space station in orbit by 2020.

text: The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 provided a re-prioritized list of objectives for the American space program, as well as funding for the first priorities. NASA proposes to move forward with the development of the Space Launch System (SLS), which will be designed to carry the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, as well as important cargo, equipment, and science experiments to Earth's orbit and destinations beyond. Additionally, the SLS will serve as a back up for commercial and international partner transportation services to the International Space Station. The SLS rocket will incorporate technological investments from the Space Shuttle program and the Constellation program in order to take advantage of proven hardware and reduce development and operations costs. The first developmental flight is targeted for the end of 2017.[39]

text: AI in space exploration[edit]

text: The idea of using high level automated systems for space missions has become a desirable goal to space agencies all around the world. Such systems are believed to yield benefits such as lower cost, less human oversight, and ability to explore deeper in space which is usually restricted by long communications with human controllers.[40]

text: Autonomous system[edit]

text: Autonomy is defined by three requirements:[40]

text:
Being able to sense the world and their state, make decisions, and carry them out on their own
Can interpret the given goal as a list of actions to take
Fail flexibly

tag: ol

text: Benefits[edit]

text: Autonomous technologies would be able to perform beyond predetermined actions. They would analyze all possible states and events happening around them and come up with a safe response. In addition, such technologies can reduce launch cost and ground involvement. Performance would increase as well. Autonomy would be able to quickly respond upon encountering an unforeseen event, especially in deep space exploration where communication back to Earth would take too long.[40]

text: NASA's Autonomous Science Experiment[edit]

text: NASA began its autonomous science experiment (ASE) on Earth Observing 1 (EO-1) which is NASA's first satellite in the new millennium program Earth-observing series launched on 21 November 2000. The autonomy of ASE is capable of on-board science analysis, replanning, robust execution, and later the addition of model-based diagnostic. Images obtained by the EO-1 are analyzed on-board and downlinked when a change or an interesting event occur. The ASE software has successfully provided over 10,000 science images.[40]

text: Asteroids in space exploration[edit]

text: An article in science magazine Nature suggested the use of asteroids as a gateway for space exploration, with the ultimate destination being Mars.[41] In order to make such an approach viable, three requirements need to be fulfilled: first, "a thorough asteroid survey to find thousands of nearby bodies suitable for astronauts to visit"; second, "extending flight duration and distance capability to ever-increasing ranges out to Mars"; and finally, "developing better robotic vehicles and tools to enable astronauts to explore an asteroid regardless of its size, shape or spin."[41] Furthermore, using asteroids would provide astronauts with protection from galactic cosmic rays, with mission crews being able to land on them in times of greater risk to radiation exposure.[42]

text: Rationales[edit]

text: The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos, is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as NASA spin-offs), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program.[43] It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate a lot of revenue.[44] As well, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering.[45]

text: Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to mankind and that staying on Earth will lead to extinction. Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen Hawking, renowned British theoretical physicist, said that "I don't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I'm an optimist. We will reach out to the stars."[46]

text: NASA has produced a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space exploration.[47]

text: Overall, the public remains largely supportive of both crewed and uncrewed space exploration. According to an Associated Press Poll conducted in July 2003, 71% of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is "a good investment", compared to 21% who did not.[48]

text: Arthur C. Clarke (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non-fiction semi-technical monograph Interplanetary Flight.[49] He argued that humanity's choice is essentially between expansion off Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation and death.

text: Topics[edit]

text: Spaceflight[edit]

text: Spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space.

text: Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.

text: A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.

text: Satellites[edit]

text: Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.

text: Commercialization of space[edit]

text: Current examples of the commercial use of space include satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio. Space tourism is the recent phenomenon of space travel by individuals for the purpose of personal pleasure.

text: Private spaceflight companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin, and commercial space stations such as the Axiom Space and the Bigelow Commercial Space Station have dramatically changed the landscape of space exploration, and will continue to do so in the near future.

text: Alien life[edit]

text: Astrobiology is the interdisciplinary study of life in the universe, combining aspects of astronomy, biology and geology.[50] It is focused primarily on the study of the origin, distribution and evolution of life. It is also known as exobiology (from Greek: έξω, exo, "outside").[51][52][53] The term "Xenobiology" has been used as well, but this is technically incorrect because its terminology means "biology of the foreigners".[54] Astrobiologists must also consider the possibility of life that is chemically entirely distinct from any life found on Earth.[55] In the Solar System some of the prime locations for current or past astrobiology are on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan.[56]

text: Living in space[edit]

text: Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, would be the permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth, especially of natural satellites or planets such as the Moon or Mars, using significant amounts of in-situ resource utilization.

text: To date, the longest human occupation of space is the International Space Station which has been in continuous use for 17 years, 229 days. Valeri Polyakov's record single spaceflight of almost 438 days aboard the Mir space station has not been surpassed. Long-term stays in space reveal issues with bone and muscle loss in low gravity, immune system suppression, and radiation exposure.

text: Many past and current concepts for the continued exploration and colonization of space focus on a return to the Moon as a "stepping stone" to the other planets, especially Mars. At the end of 2006 NASA announced they were planning to build a permanent Moon base with continual presence by 2024.[57]

text: Beyond the technical factors that could make living in space more widespread, it has been suggested that the lack of private property, the inability or difficulty in establishing property rights in space, has been an impediment to the development of space for human habitation. Since the advent of space technology in the latter half of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky, with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of national territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies has been specifically proscribed by the Outer Space Treaty, which had been, as of 2012[update], ratified by all spacefaring nations.[58]


document_title: List of NASCAR Manufacturers' champions

question_text: how many races has toyota won in nascar

question_tokens: how many races has toyota won in nascar

root

text: List of NASCAR Manufacturers' champions

text: Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series[edit]

text: Representation[edit]

text: In the beginning, teams received little support from the car companies themselves, but by the mid 1960s, teams began creating partnerships with American manufacturers to provide factory support. Chrysler, Ford and General Motors were the primary, if not only, competitors for much of NASCAR's history. Plymouth achieved some success during the 1960s, but abandoned the sport in 1977. In the next decade, Ford's Mercury brand left, as did Chrysler's remaining brand in Dodge. General Motors had been using four different brands in NASCAR up to 1991, but within three years, Buick and Oldsmobile were no longer represented on the grid. Pontiac survived until 2004, leaving only Chevrolet as the lone General Motors division. However, in 2007 when Japanese manufacturer Toyota joined, becoming the first new manufacturer since 1971. Chrysler's Dodge brand returned after a 15-year hiatus in 2001, but departed after 2012, leaving just Chevrolet, Ford and Toyota.

tag: p

text: Chevrolet is the most successful manufacturer, having won 779 races and 39 manufacturers championships. Ford is second with 658 victories and 15 manufacturers championships, while Dodge is third in wins with 217, Plymouth is fourth with 190, and Pontiac is ranked fifth with 155. Toyota currently ranks 7th all time, with 115 victories. (Wins as of 4/23/18)

text:
Manufacturer
Model
Years active
Cha.

Alfa Romeo
Alfa Romeo Giulietta
1962[3]
0

American Motors
Nash Ambassador
early 1950s

Hudson Hornet
3

AMC Matador
1971–1978
0

Aston Martin
Unknown model
1953

Austin-Healey
Austin-Healey Sprite
1961–1962

Chrysler
DeSoto
1952, 1959
0

Dodge Coronet
1953–1957, 1965–1968
2

Dodge 440
1964

Dodge Charger
Dodge Charger Daytona
1966–1977, 2005–2007

Dodge Magnum
1978–1980

Dodge Mirada
1981–1985

Dodge Intrepid
2001–2004

Dodge Avenger
2007 (COT)

Dodge Charger R/T
2008–2012

Chrysler 300
1954–1956
0

Chrysler Imperial
1981–1985

Plymouth Belvedere
1959–1967
1

Plymouth Road Runner
Plymouth Superbird
1968–1974

Plymouth Savoy
1950s

Ford Motor Company
Ford Fairlane
1955–1959, 1966–1967
15

Ford Fusion
2006–present

Ford Galaxie
1960–1966

Ford Taurus
1998–2005

Ford Torino
Ford Torino Talladega
1968–1977

Ford Thunderbird
1959–1960, 1977–1997

Mercury Monterey
1950s–1962
0

Mercury Marauder
1963–1966

Mercury Comet
Mercury Cyclone
1966–1967

Mercury Cyclone
Mercury Montego
1968–1980

Mercury Cougar
1970s-1980s

Lincoln
1949–1957
0

Edsel
1959

General Motors
Buick Regal
1981–1985, 1988–1991
2

Buick Century
1976–1980

Buick Gran Sport
1970s

Buick LeSabre
1986–1987

Buick Somerset
1980s

Cadillac
1949–1955
0

Chevrolet Bel Air
1955–1958
39

Chevrolet Chevelle
Chevrolet Malibu
1964–1980

Chevrolet Chevelle Laguna
1973–1977

Chevrolet Impala
1979–1980, 2010–2012[4]

Chevrolet Impala SS (COT)
2007–2009

Chevrolet Lumina
1989–1994

Chevrolet Monte Carlo
Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS
1971–1988, 1995–2007

Chevrolet SS
2013–2017

Chevrolet Camaro ZL1
2018–present

Chevrolet Beretta
1980s

Oldsmobile 88
1949–1960
1

Oldsmobile Cutlass
Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme
Oldsmobile 442
1960s–1994

Oldsmobile Delta 88
1986–1987

Pontiac Catalina
1959–1963
1

Pontiac Firebird
1970

Pontiac Grand Prix
1981–2004

Pontiac Le Mans
1970s

Pontiac Tempest
1960s

Pontiac GTO
1960s

Jaguar
Jaguar XK120
1953–1956
0

Kaiser-Frazer
Henry J
1949–1954

MG Motor
MG T-type
1954

MG MGA
1960–1963

Packard
Unknown model
1950–1956

Porsche
Porsche 356
1953–1954

Studebaker
Unknown model
1950–1962

Toyota
Toyota Camry
2007–present
2

Triumph Motor Company
Unknown model
1960
0

Tucker
1948 Tucker Sedan
1950

Volkswagen
Volkswagen Beetle
1953

Willys
Unknown model
1952–1954

tag: table

text: Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, by season[edit]

text:
Season
Manufacturer
Wins
Notes

1952
Hudson
27

1953
22

1954
17

1955
Oldsmobile
10
Chrysler had 27 wins, but lost the points title

1956
Ford
14
Chrysler had 22 wins, but lost the points title

1957
26

1958
Chevrolet
25

1959
16
Ford also had 16 wins, but lost the points title

1960
13
Ford had 15 wins, but lost the points title

1961
11
Pontiac had 30 wins, but lost the points title

1962
Pontiac
22

1963
Ford
23

1964
30

1965
48
Ford ran unopposed most of the season due to a boycott by Chrysler Corp.

1966
10
Plymouth had 31 wins and Dodge had 18; both lost the points title

1967
10
Plymouth had 31 wins, but lost the points title

1968
21

1969
26

1970
Dodge
17
Plymouth had 21 wins, but lost the points title

1971
Plymouth
22

1972
Chevrolet
10

1973
7
Mercury had 11 wins, but lost the points title

1974
12

1975
Dodge
14

1976
Chevrolet
13

1977
21

1978
10
Oldsmobile had 11 wins, but lost the points title

1979
18

1980
22

1981
Buick
22

1982
25

1983
Chevrolet
15

1984
21

1985
14
Ford also had 14 wins, but lost the points title

1986
18

1987
15

1988
8
Ford had 9 wins, but lost the points title

1989
13

1990
13

1991
11

1992
Ford
16

1993
Chevrolet
9
Pontiac had 11 wins, but lost the points title

1994
Ford
20

1995
Chevrolet
21

1996
17[1]

1997
Ford
19[5]

1998
Chevrolet
16[6]

1999
Ford
13[7]

2000
14[8]

2001
Chevrolet
16[9]

2002
Ford
14[10]

2003
Chevrolet
19[11]

2004
22[12]

2005
17[13]

2006
23[14]

2007
26[15]
Modern Era record for wins in a season

2008
11[16]

2009
11[17]

2010
18
Won championship after the 2010 Pepsi Max 400

2011
18

2012
15
The Penske Miller Lite Dodge driven by Brad Keselowski won the driver's championship

2013
17

2014
20[18]

2015
15

2016
Toyota
16
Chevrolet streak ended as Toyota won its first manufacturer's title

2017
16

text: Championship winners (totals)[edit]

text:
Manufacturer
Total
Wins

Chevrolet
39

Ford
15

Hudson
3

Toyota
2

Dodge
2

Buick
2

Plymouth
1

Pontiac
1

Oldsmobile
1


document_title: List of Florida's highest points

question_text: what is the highest point in the state of florida

text: List of Florida's highest points

text: This list of Florida's highest points the state of Florida includes natural and manmade points.

text: Most of the state's highest named points are in Holmes, Walton, and Washington counties, in the sub-Piedmont highlands of northern Florida. The highest points in peninsular Florida are found along the Lake Wales Ridge, running through the central portion of the peninsula, and the Brooksville Ridge, which parallels the northwestern coast of the peninsula.

text: Geographic points (permanent earthworks) of human origin are also included, designated as "N/A, Artificial".

text:
Point
Elevation (ft)
Range/Region
County
Geographic Coordinates

Britton Hill
345 feet (105 m)
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°59′18″N 86°16′55″W / 30.988333°N 86.281944°W / 30.988333; -86.281944 (Britton Hill)

Oak Hill
331
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°41′46″N 85°27′51″W / 30.696143°N 85.464037°W / 30.696143; -85.464037 (Oak Hill)

High Hill
323
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′53″N 85°29′07″W / 30.731389°N 85.485278°W / 30.731389; -85.485278 (High Hill)

Falling Waters Hill
318
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′53″N 85°32′06″W / 30.73131°N 85.535°W / 30.73131; -85.535 (Falling Waters Hill)

Sugarloaf Mountain
312
Lake Wales Ridge
Lake County
28°38′58″N 81°43′59″W / 28.649441°N 81.733132°W / 28.649441; -81.733132 (Sugarloaf Mountain)

Unnamed Peak south of Camp Lake
310
Lake Wales Ridge
Lake County
28°35′55″N 81°43′46″W / 28.598709°N 81.729345°W / 28.598709; -81.729345 (Unnamed Peak south of Camp Lake)

Unnamed Peak east of Jacks Lake
307
Lake Wales Ridge
Lake County
28°33′22″N 81°43′06″W / 28.55622°N 81.71830°W / 28.55622; -81.71830 (Unnamed Peak east of Jacks Lake)

Danley Hill
305
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°58′25″N 86°11′46″W / 30.97351°N 86.196°W / 30.97351; -86.196 (Danley Hill)

Clay Hill (Pasco County High Point)
301
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°25′38″N 82°15′42″W / 28.42723°N 82.26164°W / 28.42723; -82.26164 (Pasco County High Point)

Polk County High Point
300+
Lake Wales Ridge
Polk County
27°48′32″N 81°32′18″W / 27.8089°N 81.538405°W / 27.8089; -81.538405 (Polk County High Point)

Orange Hill
300+
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°40′26″N 85°30′34″W / 30.67385°N 85.50937°W / 30.67385; -85.50937 (Orange Hill)

Hickory Hill
300
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°17′03″N 82°10′29″W / 28.28404°N 82.17478°W / 28.28404; -82.17478 (Hickory Hill)

Iron Mountain
295
Lake Wales Ridge
Polk County
27°56′09″N 81°34′38″W / 27.93583°N 81.577359°W / 27.93583; -81.577359 (Iron Mountain)

Mount Pleasant
295
Northern Florida Highlands
Gadsden County
30°39′25″N 84°41′28″W / 30.657°N 84.691°W / 30.657; -84.691 (Mount Pleasant)

Sandy Mountain
295
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°39′45″N 86°17′02″W / 30.6624°N 86.284°W / 30.6624; -86.284 (Sandy Mountain)

Mud Hill
285
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°37′05″N 85°37′13″W / 30.61810°N 85.62017°W / 30.61810; -85.62017 (Mud Hill)

Hudson Hill
282
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°51′28″N 85°56′19″W / 30.85784°N 85.93856°W / 30.85784; -85.93856 (Hudson Hill)

Sexton Hill
282
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°36′40″N 85°34′12″W / 30.61110°N 85.56991°W / 30.61110; -85.56991 (Sexton Hill)

Fox Hill
276
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°49′26″N 86°17′36″W / 30.82387°N 86.29327°W / 30.82387; -86.29327 (Fox Hill)

Weaver Hill
276
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°37′08″N 85°38′16″W / 30.61889°N 85.63783°W / 30.61889; -85.63783 (Weaver Hill)

Sand Mountain
272
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°33′33″N 85°31′34″W / 30.559167°N 85.526111°W / 30.559167; -85.526111 (Sand Mountain)

Unnamed Peak southeast of Brooksville
270+
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°30′08″N 82°21′38″W / 28.50213°N 82.36059°W / 28.50213; -82.36059 (Unnamed Peak southeast of Brooksville)

Chinsegut Hill
269
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°37′09″N 82°21′52″W / 28.619158°N 82.364537°W / 28.619158; -82.364537 (Chinsegut Hill)

Chalk Hill
269
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°34′23″N 85°33′30″W / 30.57297°N 85.55826°W / 30.57297; -85.55826 (Chalk Hill)

Munden Hill
262
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°32′39″N 82°18′20″W / 28.54415°N 82.30550°W / 28.54415; -82.30550 (Munden Hill)

Tate Hill
262
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°51′30″N 85°55′41″W / 30.85829°N 85.92819°W / 30.85829; -85.92819 (Tate Hill)

Brownell Hill
259
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°49′41″N 85°55′37″W / 30.82797°N 85.92681°W / 30.82797; -85.92681 (Brownell Hill)

Reynolds Hill
256
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°50′29″N 85°57′20″W / 30.84150°N 85.95555°W / 30.84150; -85.95555 (Reynolds Hill)

Frazee Hill
251
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°23′47″N 82°12′36″W / 28.39627°N 82.21006°W / 28.39627; -82.21006 (Frazee Hill)

Bunker Hill
249
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°47′45″N 85°58′25″W / 30.79597°N 85.97360°W / 30.79597; -85.97360 (Bunker Hill)

Corbett Hill
249
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′18″N 85°37′59″W / 30.97157°N 85.63318°W / 30.97157; -85.63318 (Corbett Hill)

Le Heup Hill
243
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°18′49″N 82°12′04″W / 28.313523°N 82.201174°W / 28.313523; -82.201174 (Le Heup Hill)

Nursery Hill
243
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°19′03″N 82°11′58″W / 28.31746°N 82.19935°W / 28.31746; -82.19935 (Nursery Hill)

Murphy Hill
243
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′24″N 85°34′33″W / 30.97330°N 85.57594°W / 30.97330; -85.57594 (Murphy Hill)

Ray Hill
240+
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°39′34″N 85°57′30″W / 30.65949°N 85.95832°W / 30.65949; -85.95832 (Ray Hill)

Balcom Hill
240
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′59″N 85°33′47″W / 30.98304°N 85.56316°W / 30.98304; -85.56316 (Balcom Hill)

Riley Hill
240
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′32″N 85°33′49″W / 30.97562°N 85.56367°W / 30.97562; -85.56367 (Riley Hill)

Jackson Hill
236
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°50′39″N 85°56′26″W / 30.84429°N 85.94066°W / 30.84429; -85.94066 (Jackson Hill)

McIntosh Hill
233
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′48″N 85°35′00″W / 30.94663°N 85.58341°W / 30.94663; -85.58341 (McIntosh Hill)

Nancy Padgett Hill
233
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°48′30″N 85°59′49″W / 30.80833°N 85.99707°W / 30.80833; -85.99707 (Nancy Padgett Hill)

Citrus County High Point
230+
Brooksville Ridge
Citrus County
28°53′40″N 82°26′41″W / 28.894434°N 82.444612°W / 28.894434; -82.444612 (Citrus County High Point)

Coates Hill
230
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°59′15″N 85°41′16″W / 30.98743°N 85.68764°W / 30.98743; -85.68764 (Coates Hill)

Marsh Hill
230
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′41″N 85°35′50″W / 30.94463°N 85.59715°W / 30.94463; -85.59715 (Marsh Hill)

Texas Hill
230
Northern Florida Highlands
Jefferson County
30°33′24″N 83°52′19″W / 30.55653°N 83.87184°W / 30.55653; -83.87184 (Texas Hill)

Mount Trashmore
225
N/A, Artificial
Broward County
26°17′01″N 80°09′42″W / 26.28349°N 80.16166°W / 26.28349; -80.16166 (Mt Trashmore)

Greer Hill
223
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°17′48″N 82°11′20″W / 28.29674°N 82.18899°W / 28.29674; -82.18899 (Greer Hill)

Crater Hill
220
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′52″N 85°36′13″W / 30.94780°N 85.60367°W / 30.94780; -85.60367 (Crater Hill)

Kirk Hill
213
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°35′05″N 82°18′27″W / 28.58479°N 82.30763°W / 28.58479; -82.30763 (Kirk Hill)

Brown Hill
213
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′20″N 85°35′29″W / 30.97230°N 85.59142°W / 30.97230; -85.59142 (Brown Hill)

Smothers Hill
213
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°54′44″N 85°35′26″W / 30.91211°N 85.59049°W / 30.91211; -85.59049 (Smothers Hill)

Taylor Hill
213
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°57′21″N 85°38′40″W / 30.95571°N 85.64441°W / 30.95571; -85.64441 (Taylor Hill)

Bailey Hill
210
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°36′07″N 82°28′44″W / 28.60203°N 82.47889°W / 28.60203; -82.47889 (Bailey Hill)

Stokes Hill
203
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′25″N 85°36′43″W / 30.94037°N 85.61195°W / 30.94037; -85.61195 (Stokes Hill)

Blackburn Hill
200
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′27″N 85°39′18″W / 30.94090°N 85.65497°W / 30.94090; -85.65497 (Blackburn Hill)

Sixteenth Hill
200
Northern Florida Highlands
Jackson County
30°44′29″N 84°56′13″W / 30.74141°N 84.93707°W / 30.74141; -84.93707 (Sixteenth Hill)

Saddle Hill
194
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°46′49″N 85°55′17″W / 30.78023°N 85.92128°W / 30.78023; -85.92128 (Saddle Hill)

Big Hill
190
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°40′57″N 85°46′28″W / 30.68247°N 85.77443°W / 30.68247; -85.77443 (Big Hill)

Bunker Hill
186
Lake Wales Ridge
Osceola County
28°19′20″N 81°35′56″W / 28.32219°N 81.59901°W / 28.32219; -81.59901 (Bunker Hill)

Dykes Hill
184
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′12″N 85°58′33″W / 30.60331°N 85.97576°W / 30.60331; -85.97576 (Dykes Hill)

McKinnon Hill
184
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′10″N 85°57′30″W / 30.60286°N 85.95837°W / 30.60286; -85.95837 (McKinnon Hill)

Tucker Hill
180
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°35′35″N 82°17′49″W / 28.59294°N 82.29703°W / 28.59294; -82.29703 (Tucker Hill)

Worley Hill
180
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°53′12″N 85°36′46″W / 30.88665°N 85.61269°W / 30.88665; -85.61269 (Worley Hill)

Laurel Hill
177
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°35′32″N 85°55′48″W / 30.59221°N 85.93006°W / 30.59221; -85.93006 (Laurel Hill)

Big Hill
174
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′02″N 85°57′02″W / 30.60059°N 85.95057°W / 30.60059; -85.95057 (Big Hill)

Hudson Hill
174
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°34′14″N 85°40′53″W / 30.57050°N 85.68130°W / 30.57050; -85.68130 (Hudson Hill)

Morrison Hill
174
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°45′33″N 85°57′30″W / 30.75919°N 85.95845°W / 30.75919; -85.95845 (Morrison Hill)

Hunter Hill
171
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′04″N 85°56′27″W / 30.60105°N 85.94092°W / 30.60105; -85.94092 (Hunter Hill)

Nearing Hill
164
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°45′22″N 85°33′15″W / 30.75599°N 85.55430°W / 30.75599; -85.55430 (Nearing Hill)

Haddock Hill
161
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°38′00″N 85°39′30″W / 30.63345°N 85.65836°W / 30.63345; -85.65836 (Haddock Hill)

Poplar Head Hill
161
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′47″N 85°39′07″W / 30.72986°N 85.65196°W / 30.72986; -85.65196 (Poplar Head Hill)

Sheep Hill
161
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°43′29″N 85°55′03″W / 30.72481°N 85.91750°W / 30.72481; -85.91750 (Sheep Hill)

Long Pond Hill
154
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°43′38″N 85°58′08″W / 30.72715°N 85.96899°W / 30.72715; -85.96899 (Long Pond Hill)

Sand Hill
154
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°46′58″N 85°32′56″W / 30.78272°N 85.54886°W / 30.78272; -85.54886 (Sand Hill)

Reynold Hill
151
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°54′09″N 85°53′34″W / 30.90246°N 85.89269°W / 30.90246; -85.89269 (Reynold Hill)

Saint Paul Hill
148
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°40′54″N 85°56′32″W / 30.68170°N 85.94215°W / 30.68170; -85.94215 (Saint Paul Hill)

Scrub Hill
144
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°34′23″N 86°08′41″W / 30.57316°N 86.14470°W / 30.57316; -86.14470 (Scrub Hill)

Hickory Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Jackson County
30°37′01″N 84°56′03″W / 30.61696°N 84.93420°W / 30.61696; -84.93420 (Hickory Hill)

Hicks Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°51′51″N 85°35′13″W / 30.86408°N 85.58695°W / 30.86408; -85.58695 (Hicks Hill)

Mill Spring Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°50′59″N 85°53′36″W / 30.84965°N 85.89340°W / 30.84965; -85.89340 (Mill Spring Hill)

Old Hammock Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°57′09″N 85°40′51″W / 30.95260°N 85.68097°W / 30.95260; -85.68097 (Old Hammock Hill)

Steep Hollow Hill
128
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°41′33″N 85°50′53″W / 30.69246°N 85.84819°W / 30.69246; -85.84819 (Steep Hollow Hill)

Hogan Hill
108
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′11″N 85°56′01″W / 30.60308°N 85.93371°W / 30.60308; -85.93371 (Hogan Hill)

Crawford Hill
105
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°35′45″N 85°55′36″W / 30.59587°N 85.92665°W / 30.59587; -85.92665 (Crawford Hill)

Bess Nook
92
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′07″N 85°44′03″W / 30.71855°N 85.73426°W / 30.71855; -85.73426 (Bess Nook)

Skyline Drive
80
Atlantic Coastal Ridge
Martin County
27°15′09″N 80°14′00″W / 27.25251°N 80.23333°W / 27.25251; -80.23333 (Skyline Drive)

Slaughter Hill
79
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°51′46″N 85°52′47″W / 30.86271°N 85.87971°W / 30.86271; -85.87971 (Slaughter Hill)

Blue Mountain
56
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°20′50″N 86°12′11″W / 30.34736°N 86.20315°W / 30.34736; -86.20315 (Blue Mountain)

Red Hill
49
Northern Florida Highlands
Liberty County
30°13′20″N 85°03′59″W / 30.22216°N 85.06626°W / 30.22216; -85.06626 (Red Hill)


document_title: The Star-Spangled Banner

question_text: where did the melody of the star spangled banner come from

text: The Star-Spangled Banner

text: Early history[edit]

text: Francis Scott Key's lyrics[edit]

text: On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.

text: Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city's last line of defense.

text: During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort's smaller "storm flag" continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket[5] barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.

text: During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air".

text: Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star-Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.

text: Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry".

text: Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song". The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns",[6] was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War.  Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave" allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters."[7] Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812" and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery."[8] Clague writes that "For Key ... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection."[8] This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies.[8] Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery,"[9] Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African-Americans as well as whites. The term 'freemen,' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both."[10]

text: Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries)."[11]

text: John Stafford Smith's music[edit]

text: Key gave the poem to his brother-in-law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song", by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th-century gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.

text: On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven". The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner", although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry". Thomas Carr's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song".[12] The song's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.

text: By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné's The Children's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch.[13] An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men's votes tallied, measure by measure.[14]

text: National anthem[edit]

text: The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.

text: A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner" the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts." Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia." Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat."[15]

text: In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star-Spangled Banner".[16] In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star-Spangled Banner" be played at military[16] and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh-inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game,[17] though evidence shows that the "Star-Spangled Banner" was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.[18]

text: On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem.[19] The bill did not pass.[19] On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so.[19] On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem".[20]

text: In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem.[21] Five million people signed the petition.[21] The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930.[22] On the same day, Elsie Jorss-Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing.[23] The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote.[24] The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year.[25] The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931.[25] President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem of the United States of America.[1] As currently codified, the United States Code states that "[t]he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star-Spangled Banner is the national anthem."[26]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: Performances[edit]

text: This section may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (November 2012)

text: The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range – a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.

text: In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key [sic] wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner", and when, by the dawn's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.

text: Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip-synced.[citation needed] Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer(s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.[27]

text: "The Star-Spangled Banner" is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away" anthem being performed first) .[28][better source needed] It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada–US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.[29]

text: Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain's ally.[30] The following day at a St. Paul's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.[31]

text: 200th anniversary celebrations[edit]

text: The 200th anniversary of the "Star-Spangled Banner" occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10–16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry.[32] In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration[33] including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues-style rendition of the song[34] at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis.[35] This rendition started contemporary "Star-Spangled Banner" controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War-era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star-Spangled Banner" heard in the years since.[36] One week after Feliciano's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star-Spangled Banner" played at a medal ceremony.

text: Marvin Gaye gave a soul-influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All-Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix's version, which was a set-list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets' red glare", and "bombs bursting in air", it became a late-1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward, she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H. W. Bush.[37] Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star-Spangled Banner" in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose" on his 1986 solo album, Eat 'Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics.[38] A version of Aerosmith's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin'" on the Rockin' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).

text: In March 2005, a government-sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.[39]

text: Lyrics[edit]

text:
O say can you see, by the dawn's early light,
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming,
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;
O say does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines in the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner, O long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion,
A home and a country, should leave us no more?
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave,
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved homes and the war's desolation.
Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation!
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: 'In God is our trust.'
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave![40]

text: Additional Civil War period lyrics[edit]

text: In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.[41] added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.[42]

text:
When our land is illumined with Liberty's smile,
If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory,
Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile
The flag of her stars and the page of her story!
By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained,
We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained!
And the Star-Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave
While the land of the free is the home of the brave.

text: Alternative lyrics[edit]

text: In a version hand-written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight".[43]

text: References in film, television, literature[edit]

text: Several films have their titles taken from the song's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn's Early Light (2000[44] and 2005);[45] two made-for-TV features titled By Dawn's Early Light (1990[46] and 2000);[47] two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943[48] and 1990);[49] a feature (1977)[50] and a short (2005)[51] titled Twilight's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949,[52] 1986,[53] 2004,[54] and 2006).[55] A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation" from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.[56]

text: Customs and federal law[edit]

text: When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform" and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans" who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9/11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.[57][58][59]

text: Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.[60][61]

text: The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance.[62] For example, Jehovah's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision" that individual believers must make based on their "conscience."[63][64][65]

text: Protests[edit]

text: 1968 Olympics Black Power salute[edit]

text: The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200-meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". Each athlete raised a black-gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power" salute, but a "human rights salute". The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.[66]

text: 2016 protests[edit]

text: Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.[67]

text: NAACP call to remove the national anthem[edit]

text: In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star-Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said: "it's racist; it doesn't represent our community, it's anti-black."[68] The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:", which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.

text: Translations[edit]

text: As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German.[69] The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish-language version from 1919.[70] It has since been translated into Hebrew[71] and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants,[72] Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006),[73] French by Acadians of Louisiana,[74] Samoan,[75] and Irish.[76] The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.[77]

text: With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo[78][79][80] and Cherokee.[81]

text: Media[edit]

text:
The Star-Spangled Banner (1915)

A 1915 recording of the Star-Spangled Banner as sung by Margaret Woodrow Wilson, daughter of Woodrow Wilson

The Star-Spangled Banner (1942)

Fred Waring and His Pennsylvanians sing The Star-Spangled Banner in 1942

The Star-Spangled Banner (1953)

A 1953 instrumental recording by the United States Marine Corps band

The Star Spangled Banner (circa 2000)

An instrumental recording by the United States Navy Band.

Problems playing these files? See media help.

text:
Play media

(1944)

Play media

(1940)