document_title: Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)

question_text: who plays the voice of chip in beauty and the beast

text: Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In Rococo-era France, an enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a coldhearted prince, a rose for shelter. When he refuses, she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, and erases the castle from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will never lift unless he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.

text: Some years later, in the small town of Villeneuve, Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. Lost in the forest, Belle's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a birthday gift to Belle. Belle ventures out in search for him, and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice's place.

text: Belle befriends the castle's servants, who invite her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast, enraged, scares her into the woods. She is ambushed by a pack of wolves, but the Beast rescues her, and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses it to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realizes that she and her father were forced to leave her mother's deathbed when her mother succumbed to the plague.

text: In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage, and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the hermit Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston's crime but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.

text: After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle proves Maurice's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father, and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.

text: During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his spirit upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston, but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls, and the servants become inanimate. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle, and restoring the Beast's and servants' human forms and the villagers' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Emma Watson as Belle, a young benevolent bibliophile woman who develops feelings for the Beast and begins to see the humanity within him.

Daisy Duczmal portrays an infant Belle.

Dan Stevens as Prince Adam / The Beast, a cold-hearted prince who is transformed into a beast and forced to earn back his humanity by learning to truly love and be loved in return.[11][12]

Adam Mitchell[3] portrays the younger version of the prince.

Luke Evans as Gaston, a narcissistic and arrogant hunter and veteran of the French Royal Army who is willing to go as far as it takes to have Belle as his trophy wife.
Kevin Kline as Maurice, Belle's protective widowed father.[13]

Jolyon Coy portrays the young Maurice.

Josh Gad as LeFou, Gaston's flamboyant and long-suffering sidekick who bolsters his friend's ego but gets very little in return.[14]
Ewan McGregor as Lumière, the Beast's charismatic bouteiller who has been transformed into a candelabra.[15]
Stanley Tucci as Maestro Cadenza, the neurotic court composer and Madame de Garderobe's husband who has been transformed into a harpsichord.[16]
Audra McDonald as Madame de Garderobe, a world-renowned opera singer and Cadenza's wife who has been transformed into a wardrobe.[17]
Gugu Mbatha-Raw as Plumette, one of the castle maids and Lumière's lover who has been transformed into a feather duster.[18]
Ian McKellen as Cogsworth, the Beast's gruff but loyal majordomo and the head of the household staff who has been transformed into a mantel clock.[19]
Emma Thompson as Mrs. Potts, the castle's motherly head housekeeper who has been transformed into a teapot.[13]
Hattie Morahan as Agathe, an impoverished hermit and resident of Villeneuve who, in reality, is the enchantress responsible for cursing the Prince.[20] Morahan also narrates the prologue.

Rita Davies portrays the enchantress in her beggar woman form. The film was released posthumously after Davies' death.

Nathan Mack as Chip, Mrs. Potts' plucky son who has been transformed into a teacup.[21]
Adrian Schiller as Monsieur D'Arque, the sly warden of the local asylum who is bribed by Gaston to have Maurice institutionalized.[20]
Gerard Horan as Monsieur Jean Potts, an absent-minded potter and resident of Villeneuve who is later revealed to be Mrs. Potts' husband and Chip's father.
Haydn Gwynne as Clothilde, a fishmonger and resident of Villeneuve who is later revealed to be Cogsworth's wife.
Michael Jibson as the Tavern Keeper, the owner and keeper of Villeneuve's local tavern where Gaston and the village residents drink.
Ray Fearon as Père Robert, Villeneuve's local chaplain who encourages Belle to borrow the books in the chapel's meager library.
Sophie Reid, Rafaëlle Cohen, and Carla Nella as the Village Lasses, a trio of women who fawn over Gaston and have a jealousy for Belle.
Jimmy Johnston, Dean Street, and Alexis Loizon as Tom, Dick, and Stanley, a trio of men who serve as Gaston's henchmen.
Zoe Rainey as Belle's mother, Maurice's late wife who contracted the plague and died when Belle was an infant.
Clive Rowe as Cuisinier, the castle's head chef who has been transformed into a stove.
Gizmo as Frou-Frou, Maestro Cadenza's and Madame de Garderobe's pet Yorkshire Terrier who has been transformed into a footstool.
Thomas Padden as Chapeau, the prince's valet who has been transformed into a coat rack.
Tom Turner[4] as The King, the prince's father who, following his wife's death, raised his son to be just as selfish and arrogant as he was.
Harriet Jones as The Queen, the prince's mother who died of an illness when he was a child.
Dale Branston as Villeneuve's residential baker.
Chris Andrew Mellon as Nasty Headmaster, the unnamed headmaster of an all boys school in Villeneuve that disapproves of Belle teaching a young girl how to read.
Vivian Parry as the Village Lass' mother, an unnamed seamstress.

tag: ul

text: Cast notes[edit]

text: ^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.[22]

text: ^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.[22]

text: Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.[23]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical.[24][25] However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned".[26]

text: By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live-action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live-action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book.[27] In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos.[28] Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.[29]

text: Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old-school-musical approach. But initially, they said, 'We're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs.' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium—live-action—as a full-on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, 'No, no, no, we get it, let's pursue it that way.'"[30] Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It wasn't a musical at that time. But we just couldn't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again?"[31]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead.[32] She was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger.[31] Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively,[33][34] and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets.[11][35] The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.[14][13][17][19][18][15][16][36]

text: Susan Egan originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect".[37] Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.[38]

text: According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take-home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent's $759 million worldwide gross.[39]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015.[13][40][41] Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21.[42][43] Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.[44]

text: The Beast was portrayed with a “more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation", where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty-pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film". The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face" and "[capture the] thought that occurs to him" which gets "through [to] the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast.” The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.[6]

text: Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun" number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones's character, the Prince's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.[22]

text: Music[edit]

text: When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar-winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live-action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal", he says, "You look at the songs and there's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It's not just having real actors do it".[45]

text: Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight-forward, live-action, large-budget movie musical".[46] Menken returned to score the film's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice.[47] Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs.[48] However, an instrumental version of the song "Home", which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.[49]

text: On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion—singer of the original 1991 Beauty and the Beast duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson—that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever" to play over the end titles.[50] She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "[The] first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I'm making decisions on my own. It's a little bit harder. I couldn't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way". She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today". Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore" on January 26, 2017.[51][52][53][54]

text: The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song Beauty and the Beast recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend.[55][56] Grande and Legend's updated version of the Beauty and the Beast title song is faithful to the original, Grammy-winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film.[57]

text: Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of "Beauty and the Beast", which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film release.[58]

text: Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend's interpretation of the title song "Beauty and the Beast" on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since attained over 100 million video views on the Vevo video-hosting service.[58]

text: Release[edit]

text: On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017.[13] The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney's three-day D23 Expo in August 2015.[59]

text: The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom;[60] and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.

text: A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017.[61] The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.[citation needed]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Disney spent around $140 million for marketing the film worldwide.[62] Following an announcement on May 22, 2016,[63] Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day.[64] In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which topped the number of views seen in that amount of time in history, including for the teasers for other films distributed by Disney such as Avengers: Age of Ultron, Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Captain America: Civil War.[65] This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok and It.[66] The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016.[67] On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine for the week along with nine new photos as well.[68][69] One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster for the film.[70] On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released again on Good Morning America.[71] The trailer reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record as the trailer with the most views in one day, beating out Fifty Shades Darker.[72] This record has since been broken again by The Fate of the Furious.[73] A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards.[74] Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.[75] BMW and Mini partnered with the film to promote it globally; including teasers, a television commercial featuring Mini Hatch John Cooper Works, BMW M2, Mini Clubman, BMW M3 and BMW M4, online exclusives, in-store and in-theater advertisements.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu-ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017.[76] The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40% as many units as Beauty and the Beast.[77] The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release.[78] The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.4 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion.[a] With a production budget of $160 million, it is the second-most expensive musical ever made; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more.[4] In just ten days, it became the highest-grossing live-action musical of all time, beating the nine-year-old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second-biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney's Frozen (2013).[80] Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four-day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth-biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh-biggest for Disney.[81] This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title.[82] It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.[83][84]

text: Beauty and the Beast is the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time,[85] and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings.[86][87][88][89] On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty-ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty-ninth day of release.[90][91][92] It is currently the highest-grossing film of 2017,[93] the highest-grossing March release,[94] the highest-grossing remake of all-time,[95] and the fifth-biggest Disney film.[96] Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film.[95]

text: North America[edit]

text: In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango's pre-sales and became the fastest-selling family film in the company's history, topping the studio's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million.[97][98][99] By the time the film's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million.[100][101] It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live-action film (breaking Maleficent's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG-rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games).[102] An estimated 41% of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest—59%—came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 p.m.[103] The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.[104]

text: On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million).[105][106] It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that wasn't PG-13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live-action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million).[107] Unlike all previous four Disney live-action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2%, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles.[85] Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records.[108] This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer/spring opening, beating Batman v Superman,[109][110] the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory,[111] the biggest debut of all time for a female-fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire,[112] the biggest for a Disney live-action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland[112] and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson's highest-opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.[108]

text: It became the forty-third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three-day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second-biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second-highest-grossing musical, behind Grease's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978.[113] Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who don't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26% of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7% ($12.5 million) of the total weekend's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11% of the box office.[85] Seventy percent of the film's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60% through the weekend.[112] According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely" recommend it for families.[114][115] The film's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney's brand.[114][116]

text: On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72% earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11% K-12 and 15% colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second-biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million).[117] This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32% increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales.[118] It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth-biggest seven-day gross of all time.[119] In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48% earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth-biggest second weekend of all time, and the third-biggest for Disney.[120] In terms of percentage drop, its 48% decline is the third-smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens).[80] The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs.[121] As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark.[122] The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million).[123] On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so.[124] By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing-along versions. It earned $26.3 million (-48%) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (−8%) and Frozen (−2%) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing-alone versions were released.[125] Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson-starring new film The Circle.[126] That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six.[127] By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first (and currently only) film of 2017, the third female-fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.[128][129][130]

text: It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012),[131] the biggest musical film (both animated and live-action),[132] as well as the biggest film of 2017.[133]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: Internationally, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second-biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second-biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book.[134] In its second weekend, it fell just by 35% earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia.[135] It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends[136] before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.[137][92]

text: It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second-biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live-action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third-biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides.[138][139] In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).[134][135]

text: In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG-rated film, the biggest Disney live-action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth-biggest-ever overall with £19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£9.9 million).[140] This included the second-biggest Saturday ever (£7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens.[141] It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third-biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre).[142][135] In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15% on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions.[143][144][145] It earned around ₹1.5 crore (US$230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases—Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero—combined.[146] Disney reported a total of ₹9.26 crore (US$1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania.[147][148][149] In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.[150]

text: In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time—around two months—to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40–60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book.[151] The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country.[152] Although China has occasionally blocked gay-themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70% of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43% of all screenings in the country.[153] It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three-day total of $42.6 million, securing 60% of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million.[154][155] Either ways, it recorded the second-biggest opening for a Disney live-action film,[152] with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens.[134] Japan—a huge Disney market—served as the film's final market and opened there on April 21.[135] It debuted with a better-than-expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth-biggest ever in the country.[156][157] The two-day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen's previous record of $9.5 million.[158] Due to positive reviews, good word-of-mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9% increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends[159][160][161] and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh-biggest of all time.[162] It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.[163][164]

text: The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1).[134] It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews).[137][165] In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time—both local and foreign—with over $13.5 million.[166] In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest-grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows – Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen).[167] It is currently the eighth-biggest grosser with £70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there.[156][168] The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million).[163] In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second-highest-grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).[156][159][169]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for the faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, cast performances, visuals, Jacqueline Durran's costume designs, production design, Alan Menken's musical score and songs, though the designs of the Beast and the servants' household object forms received mixed reviews.[9][10] On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 301 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material."[170] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[171] In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[172][173]

text: Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It's a Michelin-triple-starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal-meth-like narcotic high that lasts about two hours." Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney.[174] Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it's an enraptured piece of old-is-new nostalgia." Gleiberman compared Steven's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau's original adaptation.[175] A. O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost didn't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy."[176] Likewise, The Washington Post's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn" while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done".[177] Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara's and Angela Lansbury's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast".[178] Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film doesn't try anything different, saying: "There's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it isn't a cartoon anymore), but it's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die-hards satisfied."[179] In her A- review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon's live-action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways."[180] James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling".[181]

text: Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song.[182] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift" while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action)."[183] Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy-Beautiful" as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming." and added that "it’s loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version."[184] The San Francisco Chronicle's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along" while referring the film as "beautiful" and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven's motion capture performance.[185] Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar-rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out-an-out, bells-and-whistles musical" while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad.[186] Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original" and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences.[187]

text: Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it’s so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it’s hard not to notice".[188] Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly." Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented" performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion-capture work of middling quality", though he praised Kline's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority".[189] Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey-glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails—the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version." In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation" in its attempt to emulate the animated film.[190][191]

text: Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B-, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great", he said the new songs were "not transporting". He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson's and Steven's performances as the "film’s stronger elements".[192] Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way" while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.[193]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

MTV Movie & TV Awards
May 7, 2017
Movie of the Year
Beauty and the Beast
Won
[194]

Best Actor in a Movie
Emma Watson

Best Kiss
Emma Watson and Dan Stevens
Nominated

Best Duo
Josh Gad and Luke Evans

Golden Trailer Awards
June 6, 2017
Best Animation/Family
Beauty and the Beast
[195]

Best Original Score

Best Animation/Family TV Spot

Best Fantasy Adventure TV Spot

International Online Cinema Awards (INOCA)
July 29, 2017
Best Production Design
[196]

Best Original Song
"Evermore" - Alan Menken and Tim Rice

Teen Choice Awards
August 13, 2017
Choice Movie: Fantasy
Beauty and the Beast
Won
[197]
[198]

Choice Movie: Fantasy Actor
Dan Stevens
Nominated

Choice Movie: Fantasy Actress
Emma Watson
Won

Choice Movie Villain
Luke Evans

Choice Movie Ship
Emma Watson and Dan Stevens

Choice Liplock

Choice Scene Stealer
Josh Gad
Nominated

Choice Hissy Fit
Luke Evans

Dan Stevens

Hollywood Film Awards
November 5, 2017
Costume Design Award
Jacqueline Durran
Won
[199]

Make-Up & Hair Styling Award
Jenny Shircore

Hollywood Post Alliance (HPA)
November 16, 2017
Outstanding Color Grading – Feature Film
Stefan Sonnenfeld
Nominated
[200]
[201]

Outstanding Visual Effects – Feature Film
Kyle McCulloch, Glen Pratt, Richard Hoover, Dale Newton, Neil Weatherley, and Framestore

Hollywood Music in Media Awards
Best Original Song - Animated Film
"How Does a Moment Last Forever" - Alan Menken and Tim Rice
[202]
[203]

Best Original Song - Sci-Fi, Fantasy, Horror Film
Won

"Evermore" - Alan Menken and Tim Rice
Nominated

Best Soundtrack Album
Beauty and the Beast

NAACP Image Awards
January 15, 2018
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
Audra McDonald
Pending
[204]

tag: table

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Gay character[edit]

text: Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment" in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston's friends.[205] Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I’m sort of sick of this. Because you've seen the movie—it's such a tiny thing, and it's been overblown." Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked-about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples—this is a celebration of everybody's individuality, and that's what’s exciting about it.”[206] GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry."[207]

text: In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film,[208] but instead it was given a 16+ rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults).[209] Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot.[210] In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment" scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored.[211][212][213] The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes.[214] The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element" was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film.[215][216] In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.[217]

text: There were also a number of boycotts against the film. A call to boycott on LifePetitions received over 129,000 signatures,[218] while the American Family Association featured a petition to boycott with the film, asking the public to help crowdfund a CGI version of Pilgrim's Progress instead.[219]

text: The film also received criticsm over its portrayal of LeFou, as many felt that it relied on stereotypes[220] and was used as a way of teasing LGBT+ viewers without providing adequate representation.[221] LeFou's status as a sidekick to the main villain brought about criticism over Disney's queercoding of villains in the past, and his infatuation with Gaston was seen as relying on a stereotype of gay men being predatory towards straight men.[222] Furthermore, the only gay interaction LeFou has is a three second clip of him dancing with another man at the end of the film. Many saw this as Disney cheating its LGBT+ audiences.[223]

text: Belle and the Beast's relationship[edit]

text: Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman,[224] but a debate questioning whether it is possible to fall in love with someone who is holding you prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted.[225] As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale.[226][227] Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with [Beast] constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought", also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets" before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.[228]

text: Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome", said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die.[229] Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers.[230][231] Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th-century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version.[232] Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.[233]

text: Notes[edit]

text: ^ Jump up to: a b Beauty and the Beast at Box Office Mojo. Retrieved August 14, 2017.


document_title: List of governors-general of India

question_text: first british viceroy as well as governor general of india

root

text: List of governors-general of India

text: The Regulating Act of 1773 created the office with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William, or Governor-General of Bengal to be appointed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company (EIC). The Court of Directors assigned a Council of Four (based in India) to assist The Governor General, and decision of council was binding on Governor General during 1773-1784.

tag: p

text: The Saint Helena Act 1833 (or Government of India Act 1833) re-designated the office with the title of Governor-General of India.

text: After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the company rule was brought to an end, and the British India along with princely states came under the direct rule of the Crown. The Government of India Act 1858 created the office of Secretary of State for India in 1858 to oversee the affairs of India, which was advised by a new Council of India with 15 members (based in London). The existing Council of Four was formally renamed as the Council of Governor General of India or Executive Council of India. The Council of India was later abolished by Government of India Act 1935.

text: Following the adoption of the Government of India Act of 1858, the Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation 'Viceroy', although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to Lord Canning as "first Viceroy and Governor-General", none of the Warrants appointing his successors referred to them as 'Viceroys', and the title, which was frequently used in Warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the Sovereign's representative. The Governor-General continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the Government of India continued to be vested in the Governor-General-in-Council.[1]

text: From the year 1858 onwards, the appointments of Governor-General of India were made by British Crown at the advice of Secretary of State for India. The office of Governor-General continued to exist as a ceremonial post in each of the new dominions until they adopted republican constitutions in 1950 and 1956 respectively..

text: List of Viceroys and Governor-Generals[edit]

text:
Name
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Term of office
Happenings
Appointer

Governors of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal), 1773–1833

Warren Hastings
(1732-1818)

20 October 1773
(originally joined on 28 April 1772)
1 February 1785

Regulating Act of 1773
Supreme Council Of Bengal
Asiatic Society of Bengal
Stopped Mughal pension to Shah Alam II
Stopped Diarchy in Bengal
New Sanskrit School by Jonathan Deccan
Moved Treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta
Bengal Gazette- First Indian newspaper published
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)
Second Anglo-Mysore war (1780–84)
First Rohilla War of 1773–1774
Second Rohilla War 1779
Experimentation on land settlements. (1772-five years settlement, changed to 1 year in 1776)
English Translation of Bhagwat Gita[2]

East India
Company

(1773–1858)

John Macpherson
(acting)
(1745–1821)

1 February 1785
12 September 1786

Charles Cornwallis, The Earl Cornwallis[3]
(1738–1805)

12 September 1786
28 October 1793

Established lower courts and appellate courts
Permanent Settlement in Bihar and Bengal in 1793
3rd Mysore war
Introduction of Cornwallis Code
Introduction of Civil Services in India

John Shore
(1751–1834)

28 October 1793
18 March 1798

Policy of Non-intervention
Charter Act of 1793
Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Marathas (1795)

Alured Clarke
(acting)
(1744–1832)

18 March 1793
18 May 1798

Richard Wellesley, Earl of Mornington [4]
(1760–1842)

18 May 1798
30 July 1805

Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance
Fourth Anglo Mysore War 1799
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)
Fort William College at Calcutta
Formation of Madras Presidency in 1801

The Marquess Cornwallis
(1738–1805)

30 July 1805
5 October 1805

George Barlow, Bt
(acting)
(1762–1847)

10 October 1805
31 July 1807

Sepoy mutiny at Vellore

The Lord Minto
(1751–1814)

31 July 1807
4 October 1813

Charter Act of 1813
Treaty of Amritsar, 1809 with Ranjit Singh

Francis Rawdon-Hastings, The Earl of Moira
[5]
(1754–1826)

4 October 1813
9 January 1823

Ended the policy of Non-intervention
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1816-1818)
1816,Treaty of Sagauli with Nepal
Creation of Bombay Presidency in 1818
Establishment of Ryotwari System in Madras and
Mahalwari System in Central India,Punjab And Western UP.

John Adam
(acting)
(1779–1825)

9 January 1823
1 August 1823

The Lord Amherst[6]
(1773–1857)

1 August 1823
13 March 1828

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26)
Treaty of Yandabo, 1826

William Butterworth Bayley
(acting)
(1782–1860)

13 March 1828
4 July 1828

Governors-General of India, 1833–1858

Lord William Bentinck
(1774–1839)

4 July 1828
20 March 1835

First Governor General of India
Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829
Charter Act, 1833
Saint Helena Act 1833
English Education Act 1835
Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata

East India
Company

(1773–1858)

Charles Metcalfe, Bt
(acting)
(1785–1846)

20 March 1835
4 March 1836

The Lord Auckland[7]
(1784–1849)

4 March 1836
28 February 1842

The Lord Ellenborough
(1790–1871)

28 February 1842
June 1844

William Wilberforce Bird
(acting)
(1784–1857)

June 1844
23 July 1844

Henry Hardinge[8]
(1785–1856)

23 July 1844
12 January 1848

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)
Treaty of Lahore

The Earl of Dalhousie[9]
(1812–1860)

12 January 1848
28 February 1856

Doctrine of Lapse
Charles Wood Despatch
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852)
First Railway line connecting Bombay and Thane
First telegraph Line was laid between Diamond Harbour to Calcutta.
Post Office Act, 1854
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856
Established Public Works Department
Engineering College was established at Roorkee

Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858–1947

The Viscount Canning[10]
(1812–1862)

28 February 1856
21 March 1862

University of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were set up in 1858
The revolt of 1857
The Government of India Act, 1858
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856

Victoria

(1858–1901)

The Earl of Elgin
(1811–1863)

21 March 1862
20 November 1863

Robert Napier
(acting)
(1810–1890)

21 November 1863
2 December 1863

William Denison
(acting)
(1804–1871)

2 December 1863
12 January 1864

Sir John Lawrence, Bt
(1811–1879)

12 January 1864
12 January 1869

Bhutan War
Establishment of Shimla as India's summer capital in 1863

The Earl of Mayo
(1822–1872)

12 January 1869
8 February 1872

Assassinated by a Pathan Sher Ali Afridi

Sir John Strachey
(acting)
(1823–1907)

9 February 1872
23 February 1872

The Lord Napier
(acting)
(1819–1898)

24 February 1872
3 May 1872

The Lord Northbrook
(1826–1904)

3 May 1872
12 April 1876

The Lord Lytton
(1831–1891)

12 April 1876
8 June 1880

Vernacular Press Act
Second Anglo-Afghan War
The Indians Act (1878)[11]

The Marquess of Ripon
(1827–1909)

8 June 1880
13 December 1884

First Factory Act (1881)
Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882)
Ilbert Bill

The Earl of Dufferin
(1826–1902)

13 December 1884
10 December 1888

Formation of Indian National Congress
Third Anglo-Burmese War

The Marquess of Lansdowne
(1845–1927)

10 December 1888
11 October 1894

The Earl of Elgin
(1849–1917)

11 October 1894
6 January 1899

The Lord Curzon of Kedleston[12]
(1859–1925)

6 January 1899
18 November 1905

Partition of Bengal (1905)
Second Delhi Darbar (1903)

The Earl of Minto
(1845–1914)

18 November 1905
23 November 1911

Edward VII

(1901–1910)

The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst
(1858–1944)

23 November 1911
4 April 1916

George V

(1910–1936)

The Lord Chelmsford
(1868–1933)

4 April 1916
2 April 1921

The Earl of Reading
(1860–1935)

2 April 1921
3 April 1926

The Lord Irwin
(1881–1959)
3 April 1926
18 April 1931

The Earl of Willingdon
(1866–1941)

18 April 1931
18 April 1936

The Marquess of Linlithgow
(1887–1952)

18 April 1936
1 October 1943

Edward VIII

(1936)

The Viscount Wavell
(1883–1950)

1 October 1943
21 February 1947

George VI

(1936–1950)

The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
(1900–1979)

21 February 1947
15 August 1947

Governors-General of the Dominion of India, 1947–1950

The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma[13]
(1900–1979)

15 August 1947
21 June 1948

George VI

(1936–1950)

C. Rajagopalachari
(1878–1972)

21 June 1948
26 January 1950


document_title: Sensitivity and specificity

question_text: how to calculate false positive rate from sensitivity and specificity

text: Sensitivity and specificity

text: Definitions[edit]

text:
Terminology and derivations
from a confusion matrix

(number of) positive samples (P)
(number of) negative samples (N)
(number of) true positive (TP)
eqv. with hit
(number of) true negative (TN)
eqv. with correct rejection
(number of) false positive (FP)
eqv. with false alarm, Type I error
(number of) false negative (FN)
eqv. with miss, Type II error

sensitivity or true positive rate (TPR)
eqv. with hit rate, recall

T
P
R

=

T
P

/

P
=

T
P

/

(

T
P

+

F
N

)

{\displaystyle {\mathit {TPR}}={\mathit {TP}}/P={\mathit {TP}}/({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FN}})}

specificity (SPC) or true negative rate

S
P
C

=

T
N

/

N
=

T
N

/

(

T
N

+

F
P

)

{\displaystyle {\mathit {SPC}}={\mathit {TN}}/N={\mathit {TN}}/({\mathit {TN}}+{\mathit {FP}})}

precision or positive predictive value (PPV)

P
P
V

=

T
P

/

(

T
P

+

F
P

)

{\displaystyle {\mathit {PPV}}={\mathit {TP}}/({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FP}})}

negative predictive value (NPV)

N
P
V

=

T
N

/

(

T
N

+

F
N

)

{\displaystyle {\mathit {NPV}}={\mathit {TN}}/({\mathit {TN}}+{\mathit {FN}})}

fall-out or false positive rate (FPR)

F
P
R

=

F
P

/

N
=

F
P

/

(

F
P

+

T
N

)
=
1
−

S
P
C

{\displaystyle {\mathit {FPR}}={\mathit {FP}}/N={\mathit {FP}}/({\mathit {FP}}+{\mathit {TN}})=1-{\mathit {SPC}}}

false negative rate (FNR)

F
N
R

=

F
N

/

(

T
P

+

F
N

)
=
1
−

T
P
R

{\displaystyle {\mathit {FNR}}={\mathit {FN}}/({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FN}})=1-{\mathit {TPR}}}

false discovery rate (FDR)

F
D
R

=

F
P

/

(

T
P

+

F
P

)
=
1
−

P
P
V

{\displaystyle {\mathit {FDR}}={\mathit {FP}}/({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FP}})=1-{\mathit {PPV}}}

accuracy (ACC)

A
C
C

=
(

T
P

+

T
N

)

/

(

T
P

+

F
P

+

F
N

+

T
N

)

{\displaystyle {\mathit {ACC}}=({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {TN}})/({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FP}}+{\mathit {FN}}+{\mathit {TN}})}

F1 score
is the harmonic mean of precision and sensitivity

F
1

=
2

T
P

/

(
2

T
P

+

F
P

+

F
N

)

{\displaystyle {\mathit {F1}}=2{\mathit {TP}}/(2{\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FP}}+{\mathit {FN}})}

Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC)

T
P

×

T
N

−

F
P

×

F
N

(

T
P

+

F
P

)
(

T
P

+

F
N

)
(

T
N

+

F
P

)
(

T
N

+

F
N

)

{\displaystyle {\frac {{\mathit {TP}}\times {\mathit {TN}}-{\mathit {FP}}\times {\mathit {FN}}}{\sqrt {({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FP}})({\mathit {TP}}+{\mathit {FN}})({\mathit {TN}}+{\mathit {FP}})({\mathit {TN}}+{\mathit {FN}})}}}}

Informedness

T
P
R

+

S
P
C

−
1

{\displaystyle {\mathit {TPR}}+{\mathit {SPC}}-1}

Markedness

P
P
V

+

N
P
V

−
1

{\displaystyle {\mathit {PPV}}+{\mathit {NPV}}-1}

Sources: Fawcett (2006) and Powers (2011).[2][3]

text: Application to screening study[edit]

text: Imagine a study evaluating a new test that screens people for a disease. Each person taking the test either has or does not have the disease. The test outcome can be positive (classifying the person as having the disease) or negative (classifying the person as not having the disease). The test results for each subject may or may not match the subject's actual status. In that setting:

text:
True positive: Sick people correctly identified as sick
False positive: Healthy people incorrectly identified as sick
True negative: Healthy people correctly identified as healthy
False negative: Sick people incorrectly identified as healthy

text: In general, Positive = identified and negative = rejected. Therefore:

text:
True positive = correctly identified
False positive = incorrectly identified
True negative = correctly rejected
False negative = incorrectly rejected

text: Confusion matrix[edit]

text: Let us consider a group with P positive instances and N negative instances of some condition. The four outcomes can be formulated in a 2×2 contingency table or confusion matrix, as follows:

text:
True condition

Total population
Condition positive
Condition negative
Prevalence = Σ Condition positive/Σ Total population
Accuracy (ACC) = Σ True positive + Σ True negative/Σ Total population

Predicted
condition
Predicted condition
positive
True positive
False positive,
Type I error
Positive predictive value (PPV), Precision = Σ True positive/Σ Predicted condition positive
False discovery rate (FDR), probability of false alarm = Σ False positive/Σ Predicted condition positive

Predicted condition
negative
False negative,
Type II error
True negative
False omission rate (FOR) = Σ False negative/Σ Predicted condition negative
Negative predictive value (NPV) = Σ True negative/Σ Predicted condition negative

Click thumbnail for interactive chart:

True positive rate (TPR), Recall, Sensitivity, probability of detection = Σ True positive/Σ Condition positive
False positive rate (FPR), Fall-out= Σ False positive/Σ Condition negative
Positive likelihood ratio (LR+) = TPR/FPR
Diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) = LR+/LR−
F1 score = 2/1/Recall + 1/Precision

False negative rate (FNR), Miss rate = Σ False negative/Σ Condition positive
True negative rate (TNR), Specificity (SPC) = Σ True negative/Σ Condition negative
Negative likelihood ratio (LR−) = FNR/TNR

text: Sensitivity[edit]

text: Sensitivity refers to the test's ability to correctly detect ill patients who do have the condition.[4] In the example of a medical test used to identify a disease, the sensitivity of the test is the proportion of people who test positive for the disease among those who have the disease. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

text: A negative result in a test with high sensitivity is useful for ruling out disease.[4] A high sensitivity test is reliable when its result is negative, since it rarely misdiagnoses those who have the disease. A test with 100% sensitivity will recognize all patients with the disease by testing positive. A negative test result would definitively rule out presence of the disease in a patient.

text: A positive result in a test with high sensitivity is not useful for ruling in disease. Suppose a 'bogus' test kit is designed to show only one reading, positive. When used on diseased patients, all patients test positive, giving the test 100% sensitivity. However, sensitivity by definition does not take into account false positives. The bogus test also returns positive on all healthy patients, giving it a false positive rate of 100%, rendering it useless for detecting or "ruling in" the disease.

text: Sensitivity is not the same as the precision or positive predictive value (ratio of true positives to combined true and false positives), which is as much a statement about the proportion of actual positives in the population being tested as it is about the test.

text: The calculation of sensitivity does not take into account indeterminate test results. If a test cannot be repeated, indeterminate samples either should be excluded from the analysis (the number of exclusions should be stated when quoting sensitivity) or can be treated as false negatives (which gives the worst-case value for sensitivity and may therefore underestimate it).

text: Specificity[edit]

text: Specificity relates to the test's ability to correctly reject healthy patients without a condition. Consider the example of a medical test for diagnosing a disease. Specificity of a test is the proportion of healthy patients known not to have the disease, who will test negative for it. Mathematically, this can also be written as:

text: A positive result in a test with high specificity is useful for ruling in disease. The test rarely gives positive results in healthy patients. A test with 100% specificity will read negative, and accurately exclude disease from all healthy patients. A positive result signifies a high probability of the presence of disease.[5]

text: A test with a higher specificity has a lower type I error rate.

text: Graphical illustration[edit]

text:
High sensitivity and low specificity

Low sensitivity and high specificity

text: Medical examples[edit]

text: In medical diagnosis, test sensitivity is the ability of a test to correctly identify those with the disease (true positive rate), whereas test specificity is the ability of the test to correctly identify those without the disease (true negative rate). If 100 patients known to have a disease were tested, and 43 test positive, then the test has 43% sensitivity. If 100 with no disease are tested and 96 return a negative result, then the test has 96% specificity. Sensitivity and specificity are prevalence-independent test characteristics, as their values are intrinsic to the test and do not depend on the disease prevalence in the population of interest.[6] Positive and negative predictive values, but not sensitivity or specificity, are values influenced by the prevalence of disease in the population that is being tested. These concepts are illustrated graphically in this applet Bayesian clinical diagnostic model which show the positive and negative predictive values as a function of the prevalence, the sensitivity and specificity.

text: Misconceptions[edit]

text: It is often claimed that a highly specific test is effective at ruling in a disease when positive, while a highly sensitive test is deemed effective at ruling out a disease when negative.[7][8] This has led to the widely used mnemonics SPIN and SNOUT, according to which a highly SPecific test, when Positive, rules IN disease (SP-P-IN), and a highly 'SeNsitive' test, when Negative rules OUT disease (SN-N-OUT). Both rules of thumb are, however, inferentially misleading, as the diagnostic power of any test is determined by both its sensitivity and its specificity.[9][10][11]

text: The tradeoff between Specificity and Sensitivity is explored in ROC analysis as a trade off between TPR and FPR (that is Recall and Fallout).[2] Giving them equal weight optimizes Informedness = Specificity+Sensitivity-1 = TPR-FPR, the magnitude of which gives the probability of an informed decision between the two classes (>0 represents appropriate use of information, 0 represents chance-level performance, <0 represents perverse use of information).[3]

text: Sensitivity index[edit]

text:
The sensitivity index or d' (pronounced 'dee-prime') is a statistic used in signal detection theory. It provides the separation between the means of the signal and the noise distributions, compared against the standard deviation of the noise distribution. For normally distributed signal and noise with mean and standard deviations

μ

S

{\displaystyle \mu _{S}}

 and

σ

S

{\displaystyle \sigma _{S}}

, and

μ

N

{\displaystyle \mu _{N}}

 and

σ

N

{\displaystyle \sigma _{N}}

, respectively, d' is defined as:

text: An estimate of d' can be also found from measurements of the hit rate and false-alarm rate. It is calculated as:

text: where function Z(p), p ∈ [0,1], is the inverse of the cumulative Gaussian distribution.

text: d' is a dimensionless statistic. A higher d' indicates that the signal can be more readily detected.

text: Worked example[edit]

text:
view
talk
edit

text:
Patients with bowel cancer
(as confirmed on endoscopy)

Condition positive
Condition negative

Fecal
occult
blood
screen
test
outcome
Test
outcome
positive
True positive
(TP) = 20
False positive
(FP) = 180
Positive predictive value
= TP / (TP + FP)
= 20 / (20 + 180)
= 10%

Test
outcome
negative
False negative
(FN) = 10
True negative
(TN) = 1820
Negative predictive value
= TN / (FN + TN)
= 1820 / (10 + 1820)
≈ 99.5%

Sensitivity
= TP / (TP + FN)
= 20 / (20 + 10)
≈ 67%

Specificity
= TN / (FP + TN)
= 1820 / (180 + 1820)
= 91%

text: Related calculations

text:
False positive rate (α) = type I error = 1 − specificity = FP / (FP + TN) = 180 / (180 + 1820) = 9%
False negative rate (β) = type II error = 1 − sensitivity = FN / (TP + FN) = 10 / (20 + 10) = 33%
Power = sensitivity = 1 − β
Likelihood ratio positive = sensitivity / (1 − specificity) = 0.67 / (1 − 0.91) = 7.4
Likelihood ratio negative = (1 − sensitivity) / specificity = (1 − 0.67) / 0.91 = 0.37

text: Hence with large numbers of false positives and few false negatives, a positive screen test is in itself poor at confirming the disorder (PPV = 10%) and further investigations must be undertaken; it did, however, correctly identify 66.7% of all cases (the sensitivity). However as a screening test, a negative result is very good at reassuring that a patient does not have the disorder (NPV = 99.5%) and at this initial screen correctly identifies 91% of those who do not have cancer (the specificity).

text: Estimation of errors in quoted sensitivity or specificity[edit]

text: Sensitivity and specificity values alone may be highly misleading. The 'worst-case' sensitivity or specificity must be calculated in order to avoid reliance on experiments with few results. For example, a particular test may easily show 100% sensitivity if tested against the gold standard four times, but a single additional test against the gold standard that gave a poor result would imply a sensitivity of only 80%. A common way to do this is to state the binomial proportion confidence interval, often calculated using a Wilson score interval.

text: Confidence intervals for sensitivity and specificity can be calculated, giving the range of values within which the correct value lies at a given confidence level (e.g., 95%).[14]

text: Terminology in information retrieval[edit]

text: In information retrieval, the positive predictive value is called precision, and sensitivity is called recall. Unlike the Specificity vs Sensitivity tradeoff, these measures are both independent of the number of true negatives, which is generally unknown and much larger than the actual numbers of relevant and retrieved documents. This assumption of very large numbers of true negatives versus positives is rare in other applications.[3]

text: The F-score can be used as a single measure of performance of the test for the positive class. The F-score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall:

text: In the traditional language of statistical hypothesis testing, the sensitivity of a test is called the statistical power of the test, although the word power in that context has a more general usage that is not applicable in the present context. A sensitive test will have fewer Type II errors.


document_title: Digestion

question_text: where is protein digested in the digestive system

text: Digestion

text: Digestive system

text: Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it.[2] In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.[3]

text: Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.

text: Secretion systems

text: Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.

text: Channel transport system

text: In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]. This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 – 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.[4]

text: Molecular syringe

text: A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.[5]

text: Conjugation machinery

text: The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor).[6] The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.[7]

text: The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

text: The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.

text: Release of outer membrane vesicles

text: In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles.[8][9]  Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials.  Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells.  While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.[10]

text: Gastrovascular cavity

text: The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body.  Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.

text: In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.[11]

text: Phagosome

text: A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis.  The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.[12]

text: Specialised organs and behaviours

text: To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.

text: Beaks

text: Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.

text: The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species.[13] The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.

text: Tongue

text: The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.

text: The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.

text: Teeth

text: Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

text: The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.

text: Crop

text: A crop, or croup, is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.[14]

text: Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.

text: Abomasum

text: Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore-stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material.  Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.

text: Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi-cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo-rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.

text: The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.  Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

text: Specialised behaviours

text: Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.[15]

text: Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).

text: Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

text: Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.

text: In earthworms

text: An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

text: Overview of vertebrate digestion

text: In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

text:
Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
Mechanical and chemical breakdown:  mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures,
Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and
Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

tag: ol

text: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

text: The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.

text: In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach.  Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches.  The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.[1]

text: Human digestion process

text: The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.[16]

text: Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.  The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

text: In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.

text: Neural and biochemical control mechanisms

text: Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.

text: The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.

text: The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid.  Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3.  Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.

text: The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

text: Breakdown into nutrients

text: This section needs expansion with: digestion of other substances. You can help by adding to it. (August 2011)

text: Protein digestion

text: Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids.  The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens.  For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin.  Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

text: Fat digestion

text: Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine.[17]  The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids.[17]  Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of  fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.[17]

text: Carbohydrate digestion

text: In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose.  This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.

text: Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose.  Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine.  Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods.  This is commonly known as lactose intolerance.  Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage;  more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.[18]

text: Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.

text: DNA and RNA digestion

text: DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.

text: Non-destructive digestion

text: Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B12) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups.  To digest vitamin B12 non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B12 molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.[19]

text: After the B12-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B12 molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF).  These B12-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B12-IF complexes in the blood.[20]

text: Digestive hormones

text: There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.

text:
Gastrin – is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH.
Secretin – is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver.  This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) – is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion.
Motilin – is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.

text: Significance of pH

text: Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.

text: The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.[citation needed]

text: In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.[citation needed]