document_title: Buc-ee's

question_text: where is the first buc ee's located

question_tokens: where is the first buc ee 's located

text: Buc-ee's

text: History[edit]

text: Co-Founders "Beaver" Aplin and Don Wasek opened the first store, which is still open as of 2017, in Lake Jackson, Texas in 1982. Aplin formed the name Buc-ee's by combining his childhood nickname and the name of his Labrador Retriever, Buck.[citation needed]

text: Buc-ee's expanded and opened their first travel center in Luling, Texas in 2001. Buc-ee's are large stores (no 18 wheelers allowed) with fuel pumps that range from 80-120 fueling positions for gas and diesel (some stores include Ethanol Free and DEF) and a huge selection of beef jerky, pastries, fresh sandwiches, tacos, Dippin' Dots and homemade fudge.

text: In 2012, Buc-ee's opened its largest travel center in New Braunfels, Texas on Interstate 35. The New Braunfels store is the largest convenience store in the world at 68,000 square feet.Template:Https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444914904577623862863808508?mod=ITP AHED The store features 120 fueling positions, 83 toilets, 31 cash registers, 4 Icee machines, and 80 fountain dispensers. It also offers tubing and water gear for enjoying the nearby Guadalupe River.

text: The New Braunfels, Texas store was named the 2012 "Best Restroom in America" by Cintas.[3]

text: The first Buc-ee's in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex opened in Terrell, Texas on June 22, 2015. The travel center is located three miles west of Tanger Outlets on Interstate 20 (no 18 wheelers allowed).

text: The second Buc-ee's in the Metroplex opened on May 23, 2016. The location is located in far northern Fort Worth, across the street from Texas Motor Speedway.[4] The third DFW location is scheduled to open in Denton, Texas in 2018.

text: On March 8, 2016, Buc-ee's announced a possible first location outside of the state of Texas would be located in Baton Rouge, LA. The location was expected to open in early 2017, however, on October 4, 2016, Buc-ee's announced that the plans for the Baton Rouge location had been terminated.

text: On April 12, 2017, Buc-ee's announced that it will open their first convenience store/gas station outside of Texas in Daytona Beach, Florida. The travel center is scheduled to open in 2018 and will be located on the north side of LPGA Boulevard across from Tanger Outlets, just east of Interstate 95 and immediately west of Stonewood Grill & Tavern (formerly Vince Carter's). At 50,000 square feet with 120 fueling positions the Daytona Beach travel center will be the largest in Florida and the largest outside of Texas.[5]

text: In January 2018, Buc-ee's broke ground on second out of Texas location in Baldwin County Alabama, [6] At 50,000 square feet with 120 gas pumps, it will be the second Buc-ee's to be built outside of Texas and the first in Alabama. A few weeks after the Baldwin County location began construction, Buc-ee's announced that a second Southern Alabama location will be built in Mobile. [7]

text: Buc-ee's broke ground on another North-Texas location in Melissa, Texas on Monday, February 5, 2018. The store is located off New Davis Road and U.S. Highway 75. The store is expected to open in February 2019.[8]

text: Products[edit]

text: Buc-ee's offers products found at most convenience stores such as fuel, cigarettes, tobacco, chips, drinks, and soft drinks at their smaller neighborhood stores. Travel centers include a deli, coffee shop, exterior tunnel car washes, Texas-themed specialty gifts and food, and products catering to hunters and river rafters. All Buc-ee's are open 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.

text: Buc-ee's offers private labeled beef jerky, novelty candy, trail mixes, granola, pralines, jarred vegetables, preserves, and salsa. Their #1 branded product is caramel and butter-glazed corn puffs known as 'Beaver Nuggets.'

text: Lawsuits[edit]

text: In recent years, during the company's rapidly growing success, Buc-ee's has filed numerous lawsuits against other convenience store chains, most of them based out of Texas, for alleged trademark and trade dress infringement.

text: In 2014, Buc-ee's filed a lawsuit against Texas based convenience store chain "Frio Beaver.[9] Frio Beaver, a company with a logo also depicting a beaver in a yellow circle with a black outline, was accused of copying the iconic Buc-ee's beaver head logo, which the company is widely known for in Texas.

text: In 2016, Buc-cee's sued "Choke Canyon BBQ", another Texas convenience store, for copyright infringement and trade dressing.[10] Choke Canyon uses a logo of a grinning alligator in the middle of a yellow circle, which Buc-ee's claims is an attempt by the chain to resemble the Buc-ee's logo. Choke Canyon is also calling their new stores "Bucky's", and practically duplicating the look of the inside of a Buc-ee's store. [11]

text: In 2017, Buc-cee's again filed a lawsuit for breaking an agreement, this time against a Nebraska-based convenience store chain known as "Bucky's".[12] The two companies had agreed to remain in their respective states and expand only to states where the other did not operate.

text: There was also a non-logo related lawsuit filed in 2013 against "Chicks", a convenience store located in Bryan Texas, for trade dressing by allegedly copying Buc-ee's mega convenience store designs and layout.[13] The case was settled out of court.[9]

text: Buc-ee's also lost a Texas Employee Rentention Agreement Case on an appeal in 2017. A year after a trial court ordered a former employee pay Buc-ee's close to $100,000 in damages and attorney's fees for breaching an "Retention Agreement," a Texas court of appeals reversed the decision and ordered that Buc-ee's take nothing on its claims against the former employee. The court reasoned that the contract violated Texas' employment-at-will doctrine. It could only be valid if it met the requirements of an actual non-compete agreement, but as this did not meet Texas requirement for non-compete, the contract was not enforceable.[14]

text: Advertising[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Buc-ee's is known for posting billboards by Texas (and beginning in 2018, Florida and Alabama) interstate highways with simple and humorous slogans.

text:
"If It Harms Beavers, We're Against It!"
"Clean Restrooms, We Guaranpee It"
"No dancing the two-step in our restroom"
"It's A Beaver!"
"Restrooms So Clean, We Leave Mints on the Urinals"
"Ice, Beer, Jerky: The 3 Food Groups"
"The Top Two Reasons to Stop at Buc-ee's: #1 and #2"
"A Bigger Kolache I Never Sausage a Thing"
"Don't worry, P happy"
"Epic Flush"
"Don't stay thirsty my friends."
"Worth the Wait"
"The Eyes of Buc-ee's Are Upon You"
"Buy a gift, leave a gift."
"Don't pass our gas!"
"My overbite is sexy."


document_title: Oath of office of the President of the United States

question_text: when does the president take the oath of office

root

text: Text[edit]

text: Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:—"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."[2]

tag: p

text: Administration of the oath[edit]

text: While the Constitution does not mandate that anyone in particular should administer the presidential oath of office, it is typically administered by the Chief Justice. There have been several exceptions, however. George Washington was sworn into office during his first inauguration, on April 30, 1789, by Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston.[3][4] William Cranch, chief judge of the U.S. Circuit Court, administered the oath to Millard Fillmore on July 10, 1850, when he became president after the death of Zachary Taylor.[5] Upon being informed of Warren Harding's death, while visiting his family home in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, Calvin Coolidge was sworn in as president by his father, John Calvin Coolidge Sr., a notary public.[6][7] Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes administered the oath of office to Lyndon B. Johnson aboard Air Force One after John F. Kennedy's assassination on November 22, 1963. This was the first (and to date only) time a woman administered the oath of office. Overall, the presidential oath has been administered by 15 Chief Justices (one of whom—William Howard Taft—was also a former president), one Associate Justice, four federal judges, two New York state judges, and one notary public.

text: Option of taking an oath or an affirmation[edit]

text: The Constitutional language gives the option to "affirm" instead of "swear". While the reasons for this are not documented, it may relate to certain Christians, including Quakers, who apply this scripture literally: "But above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any other oath: but let your yea be yea; and your nay, nay; lest ye fall into condemnation" (James 5:12, KJV).[8] Franklin Pierce was the only president known to use the word "affirm" rather than "swear." Herbert Hoover is often listed to have used "affirm" as well, owing to his being a Quaker, but a newsreel taken of the ceremony indicates that the words used were "solemnly swear."[9] Richard Nixon, who was also a Quaker, also swore, rather than affirm.[10][11]

text: Forms of administering the oath[edit]

text: There have been two forms of administering, and taking, the oath of office.

text: Under the first form, now in disuse, the administrator articulated the constitutional oath in the form of a question, and modifying the wording from the first to the second person, as in, "Do you, George Washington, solemnly swear ..." and then requested an affirmation. At that point a response of "I do" or "I swear" completed the oath.[citation needed]

text: It is believed that this was the common procedure at least until the early 20th century. In 1881, the New York Times article covering the swearing in of Chester A. Arthur, reported that he responded to the question of accepting the oath with the words, "I will, so help me God."[12] In 1929, Time magazine reported that the Chief Justice began the oath uttering, "You, Herbert Hoover, do you solemnly swear ...",[13] Hoover replied with a simple "I do".[14]

text: Under the second, and current form, the administrator articulates the oath in the affirmative, and in the first person, so that the president takes the oath by repeating it verbatim.[citation needed] Franklin Roosevelt, in 1933, stood silent as Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes recited the entire oath, then repeated that oath from beginning to end himself.[15] By the time of Harry Truman's inauguration in 1949, the practice was for the Chief Justice to utter the oath in phrases, with the president-elect repeating those phrases, until the oath was completed.[16]

text: Use of Bibles[edit]

text: By convention, incoming presidents raise their right hand and place the left on a Bible or other book while taking the oath of office. In 1789, George Washington took the oath of office with an altar Bible borrowed from the St. John's Lodge No. 1, Ancient York Masons lodge in New York, and he kissed the Bible afterward.[17][18] Subsequent presidents up to and including Harry Truman, followed suit.[19] Dwight Eisenhower broke that tradition in 1953 when he said a prayer instead of kissing the Bible.[20]

text: Theodore Roosevelt did not use a Bible when taking the oath in 1901.[21] Both John Quincy Adams and Franklin Pierce [22] swore on a book of law, with the intention that they were swearing on the constitution.[23] Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in on a Roman Catholic missal on Air Force One.[24] Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, George H. W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald Trump each swore the oath on two Bibles.[21]

text: "So help me God"[edit]

text: It is uncertain how many presidents used a Bible or added the words "So help me God" at the end of the oath, or in their acceptance of the oath, as neither is required by law; unlike many other federal oaths which do include the phrase "So help me God."[25] There is currently debate as to whether or not George Washington, the first president, added the phrase to his acceptance of the oath. No contemporary sources mention Washington as adding a religious codicil to his acceptance.[26]

text: The historical debate over who first used "So help me God," is marred by ignoring the two forms of giving the oath. The first, now in disuse, is when the administrator articulates the constitutional oath in the form of a question, as in, "Do you George Washington solemnly swear...", requesting an affirmation. At that point a response of "I do" or "I swear" completes the oath. Without verbatim transcripts, the scant existing evidence shows this was the common procedure at least until the early 20th century. In 1865 the Sacramento Daily Union covered the second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln finished his oath with "So help me God," and he kissed the Bible.[27] However, the Daily Union's account seems embellished in a number of ways, and other newspaper accounts, published closer in time to the ceremony, do not mention Lincoln's uttering the phrase.[28] In 1881, the New York Times article covering the swearing in of Chester A. Arthur, reported that he responded to the question of accepting the oath with the words, "I will, so help me God".[12] In 1929, Time magazine reported that the Chief Justice began the oath uttering, "You, Herbert Hoover, do you solemnly swear..."[13] Hoover replied with a simple "I do".

text: A Federal lawsuit filed in the District of Columbia by Michael Newdow on December 30, 2008, contended the second, current form of administration, where both the chief justice and the president articulate the oath, appending "So help me God", to be a breach of the Constitutional instructions. The suit distinguishes between the words spoken by the administrator, which must conform to the exact 35 words of the Constitution, and the president, who has a right to add a personal prayer, such as "So help me God."[29]

text: Chief Justice Roberts' reply was that his "prompting" for these four extra-constitutional words were to be recited "after" the oath of office, and not as a part of the oath as claimed in the suit. After rendering the oath to President Barack Obama, Roberts prompted with a question "So help you God?", to which the president responded, "So help me God."[30]

text: The First Congress explicitly prescribed the phrase "So help me God" in oaths under the Judiciary Act of 1789 for all U.S. judges and officers other than the president. It was prescribed even earlier under the various first state constitutions[31] as well as by the Second Continental Congress in 1776.[32][33] Although the phrase is mandatory in these oaths, the said Act also allows for the option that the phrase be omitted by the officer, in which case it would be called an affirmation instead of an oath: "Which words, so help me God, shall be omitted in all cases where an affirmation is admitted instead of an oath."[34] In contrast, the oath of the president is the only oath specified in the Constitution. It does not include the closing phrase "So help me God", and it also allows for the optional form of an affirmation which is not considered an oath. In practice, however, most presidents, at least during the last century, have opted to take the oath (rather than an affirmation), to use a Bible to do so, and also to close the oath with the customary phrase.

text: The earliest known source indicating Washington added "So help me God" to his acceptance, not to the oath, is attributed to Washington Irving, aged six at the time of the inauguration, and first appears 65 years after the event.[35] The only contemporary account that repeats the oath in full, a report from the French consul, Comte de Moustier, states only the constitutional oath,[36] without reference to Washington's adding "So Help Me God" to his acceptance.

text: Evidence is lacking to support the claim that presidents between Washington and Abraham Lincoln used the phrase "So help me God." A contemporaneous newspaper account of Lincoln's 1865 inauguration states that Lincoln appended the phrase "So help me God" to the oath.[37] This newspaper report is followed by another account, provided later in the same year after Lincoln's death (April 15, 1865), that Lincoln said "So help me God" during his oath.[38] The evidence pertaining to the 1865 inauguration is much stronger than that pertaining to Lincoln's 1861 use of the phrase. Several sources claim that Lincoln said "So help me God" at his 1861 inauguration, yet these sources were not contemporaneous to the event.[39][40] During the speech, Lincoln stated that his oath was "registered in Heaven",[41] something some have taken as indicating he likely uttered the phrase "So help me God." Conversely, there was a claim made by A.M. Milligan (a Presbyterian minister who advocated for an official Christian U.S. government) that letters were sent to Abraham Lincoln asking him to swear to God during his inaugurations, and Lincoln allegedly wrote back saying that God's name was not in the Constitution, and he could not depart from the letter of that instrument.[42][43]

text: All federal judges and executive officers were required as early as 1789 by statute to include the phrase unless they affirmed, in which case the phrase must be omitted.[44] Given that nearly every president-elect since President Franklin D. Roosevelt has recited the codicil, it is likely that the majority of presidents-elect have uttered the phrase[45] (as well as some vice presidents, while taking their oaths). However, as President Theodore Roosevelt chose to conclude his oath with the phrase "And thus I swear," it seems that this current of tradition was not overwhelmingly strong even as recently as the turn of the twentieth century.

text: Oath mishaps[edit]

text:
In 1909, when President William Howard Taft was sworn in, Chief Justice Melville Fuller misquoted the oath, but the error was not publicized at the time. The mistake was similar to the one Taft himself would make twenty years later when swearing in President Hoover. Recalling the incident, Taft wrote, "When I was sworn in as president by Chief Justice Fuller, he made a similar slip," and added, "but in those days when there was no radio, it was observed only in the Senate chamber where I took the oath."[13]
In 1929, Taft, later the Chief Justice, garbled the oath when he swore in President Herbert Hoover using the words "preserve, maintain, and defend the Constitution", instead of "preserve, protect, and defend". The error was picked up by schoolgirl Helen Terwilliger on the radio. Taft eventually acknowledged his error, but did not think it was important, and Hoover did not retake the oath. In Taft's view, his departure from the text did not invalidate the oath.[13][46][47]
In 1945, President Harry S. Truman's bare initial caused an unusual slip when he first became president and took the oath. At a meeting in the Cabinet Room, Chief Justice Harlan Stone, apparently mistaken about the meaning of Truman's middle initial (which is not an abbreviation but rather the whole middle name in itself), began reading the oath by saying "I, Harry Shipp Truman...", Truman responded: "I, Harry S Truman,..."[48]
In both his 1953 and 1957 inaugurations, Dwight D. Eisenhower read the line "the office of President of the United States" as "the office of the President of the United States," even as Chief Justices Fred Vinson (in 1953) and Earl Warren (in 1957) said the line correctly.
In 1965, Chief Justice Earl Warren prompted Lyndon Johnson to say, "the Office of the Presidency of the United States".[49]
In 1973, President Richard Nixon added the word "and" between "preserve" and "protect", resulting in "preserve and protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Nixon had recited the line correctly during his first inauguration.
In 2009, Chief Justice John G. Roberts, while administering the oath to Barack Obama, incorrectly recited part of the oath. Roberts prompted, "That I will execute the Office of President to the United States faithfully." Obama stopped at "execute," and waited for Roberts to correct himself. Roberts, after a false start, then followed Obama's "execute" with "faithfully", which results in "execute faithfully," which is also incorrect. Obama then repeated Roberts' initial, incorrect prompt, with the word "faithfully" after "United States."[50][51] The oath was re-administered the next day by Roberts at the White House.[52][53]

tag: ul

text: List of oath takings[edit]

text: Since the office of president of the United States came into existence in 1789 there have been 58 inaugural ceremonies to mark the commencement of a new four-year presidential term, plus an additional nine marking the start of a partial presidential term following the intra-term death or resignation of an incumbent president. With the 2017 inauguration of Donald Trump, the oath has been taken 75 different times by 44 persons. This numerical discrepancy results chiefly from two factors: a president must take the oath at the beginning of each term of office, and, because Inauguration Day has sometimes fallen on a Sunday, five presidents have taken the oath privately before the public inaugural ceremonies. In addition, three have repeated the oath as a precaution against potential later constitutional challenges.[54]

text:
Date
Type
Event[a]
Location
Oath administered by

000000001789-04-30-0000April 30, 1789
(Thursday)
Public
washingtona !First inauguration of George Washington
Balcony,
Federal Hall
New York, New York
livingston !Robert Livingston,
Chancellor of New York

000000001793-03-04-0000March 4, 1793
(Monday)
Public
washingtonb !Second inauguration of George Washington
Senate Chamber,
Congress Hall
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
cushing !William Cushing,
Associate Justice, U.S. Supreme Court

000000001797-03-04-0000March 4, 1797
(Saturday)
Public
adamsa !Inauguration of John Adams
House Chamber,
Congress Hall
ellsworth !Oliver Ellsworth,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001801-03-04-0000March 4, 1801
(Wednesday)
Public
jeffersona !First inauguration of Thomas Jefferson
Senate Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
Washington, D.C.
marshalla !John Marshall,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001805-03-04-0000March 4, 1805
(Monday)
Public
jeffersonb !Second inauguration of Thomas Jefferson
Senate Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
marshallb !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001809-03-04-0000March 4, 1809
(Saturday)
Public
madisona !First inauguration of James Madison
House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
marshallc !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001813-03-04-0000March 4, 1813
(Thursday)
Public
madisonb !Second inauguration of James Madison
House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
marshalld !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001817-03-04-0000March 4, 1817
(Tuesday)
Public
monroea !First inauguration of James Monroe
Front steps,
Old Brick Capitol
marshalle !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001821-03-05-0000March 5, 1821[b]
(Monday)
Public
monroeb !Second inauguration of James Monroe
House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
marshallf !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001825-03-04-0000March 4, 1825
(Friday)
Public
adamsq !Inauguration of John Quincy Adams
House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
marshallg !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001829-03-04-0000March 4, 1829
(Wednesday)
Public
jacksona !First inauguration of Andrew Jackson
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
marshallh !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001833-03-04-0000March 4, 1833
(Monday)
Public
jacksonb !Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson
House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
marshalli !John Marshall,
Chief Justice

000000001837-03-04-0000March 4, 1837
(Saturday)
Public
vanburen !Inauguration of Martin Van Buren
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneya !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001841-03-04-0000March 4, 1841
(Thursday)
Public
harrisonw !Inauguration of William Henry Harrison
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneyb !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice

000000001841-04-06-0000April 6, 1841[c]
(Tuesday)
Private
tyler !Inauguration of John Tyler
Brown’s Indian Queen Hotel,
Washington, D.C.
crancha !William Cranch
Chief Judge, U.S. Circuit Court of the District of Columbia

000000001845-03-04-0000March 4, 1845
(Tuesday)
Public
polk !Inauguration of James K. Polk
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneyc !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice

000000001849-03-05-0000March 5, 1849[b]
(Monday)
Public
taylor !Inauguration of Zachary Taylor
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneyd !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice

000000001850-07-10-0000July 10, 1850[d]
(Wednesday)
Public
fillmore !Inauguration of Millard Fillmore
House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
cranchb !William Cranch
Circuit Court Judge

000000001853-03-04-0000March 4, 1853
(Friday)
Public
pierce !Inauguration of Franklin Pierce
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneye !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice

000000001857-03-04-0000March 4, 1857
(Wednesday)
Public
buchanan !Inauguration of James Buchanan
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneyf !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice

000000001861-03-04-0000March 4, 1861
(Monday)
Public
lincolna !First inauguration of Abraham Lincoln
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tanneyg !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice

000000001865-03-04-0000March 4, 1865
(Saturday)
Public
lincolnb !Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
chasea !Salmon P. Chase,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001865-04-15-0000April 15, 1865
(Saturday)
Private
johnsona !Inauguration of Andrew Johnson
Kirkwood House Hotel,
Washington, D.C.
chaseb !Salmon P. Chase,
Chief Justice

000000001869-03-04-0000March 4, 1869
(Thursday)
Public
granta !First inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
chasec !Salmon P. Chase,
Chief Justice

000000001873-03-04-0000March 4, 1873
(Tuesday)
Public
grantb !Second inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
chased !Salmon P. Chase
Chief Justice

000000001877-03-03-0000March 3, 1877[55][b]
(Saturday)
Private
hayes !Inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes
Red Room,
White House
waitea !Morrison Waite,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001877-03-05-0000March 5, 1877[b]
(Monday)
Public
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol

000000001881-03-04-0000March 4, 1881
(Friday)
Public
garfield !Inauguration of James A. Garfield
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
waiteb !Morrison Waite,
Chief Justice

000000001881-09-20-0000September 20, 1881[56][e]
(Tuesday)
Private
arthur !Inauguration of Chester A. Arthur
Chester A. Arthur Home,
New York, New York
brady !John R. Brady,
Justice of the New York Supreme Court

000000001881-09-22-0000September 22, 1881[e]
(Thursday)
Public
The Vice President's Room,
U.S. Capitol
waitec !Morrison Waite
Chief Justice

000000001885-03-04-0000March 4, 1885
(Wednesday)
Public
clevelanda !First inauguration of Grover Cleveland
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
waited !Morrison Waite,
Chief Justice

000000001889-03-04-0000March 4, 1889
(Monday)
Public
harrisonb !Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
fullera !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001893-03-04-0000March 4, 1893
(Saturday)
Public
clevelandb !Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
fullerb !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice

000000001897-03-04-0000March 4, 1897
(Thursday)
Public
mckinleya !First inauguration of William McKinley
Front of original Senate Wing
U.S. Capitol
fullerc !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice

000000001901-03-04-0000March 4, 1901
(Monday)
Public
mckinleyb !Second inauguration of William McKinley
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
fullerd !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice

000000001901-09-14-0000September 14, 1901
(Saturday)
Private
rooseveltta !First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
Ainsley Wilcox Home,
Buffalo, New York
hazel !John R. Hazel,
Judge, U.S. District Court for the Western District of New York

000000001905-03-04-0000March 4, 1905
(Saturday)
Public
roosevelttb !Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
fullere !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice

000000001909-03-04-0000March 4, 1909
(Thursday)
Public
taft !Inauguration of William Howard Taft
Senate Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
fullerf !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice

000000001913-03-04-0000March 4, 1913
(Tuesday)
Public
wilsona !First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
whitea !Edward D. White,
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001917-03-04-0000March 4, 1917[57]
(Sunday)
Private
wilsonb !Second inauguration of Woodrow Wilson
The President's Room,
U.S. Capitol
whiteb !Edward D. White
Chief Justice

000000001917-03-05-0000March 5, 1917[b]
(Monday)
Public
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol

000000001921-03-04-0000March 4, 1921
(Friday)
Public
harding !Inauguration of Warren G. Harding
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
whitec !Edward D. White
Chief Justice

000000001923-08-03-0000August 3, 1923[58][f]
(Friday)
Private
coolidgea !First inauguration of Calvin Coolidge
Coolidge Homestead,
Plymouth Notch, Vermont
coolidge !John Calvin Coolidge
Notary public

000000001923-08-21-0000August 21, 1923[58][f]
(Tuesday)
Private
Willard Hotel
Washington, D.C.
hoehling !Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr.
Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia

000000001925-03-04-0000March 4, 1925
(Wednesday)
Public
coolidgeb !Second inauguration of Calvin Coolidge
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
tafta !William Howard Taft
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001929-03-04-0000March 4, 1929
(Monday)
Public
hoover !Inauguration of Herbert Hoover
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
taftb !William H. Taft
Chief Justice

000000001933-03-04-0000March 4, 1933
(Saturday)
Public
rooseveltfa !First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
hughesa !Charles E. Hughes
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001937-01-20-0000January 20, 1937
(Wednesday)
Public
rooseveltfb !Second inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
hughesb !Charles E. Hughes
Chief Justice

000000001941-01-20-0000January 20, 1941
(Monday)
Public
rooseveltfc !Third inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
hughesc !Charles E. Hughes
Chief Justice

000000001945-01-20-0000January 20, 1945
(Saturday)
Public
rooseveltfd !Fourth inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt
South Portico,
White House
stonea !Harlan F. Stone
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001945-04-12-0000April 12, 1945
(Thursday)
Private
trumana !First inauguration of Harry S. Truman
Cabinet Room,
White House
stoneb !Harlan F. Stone
Chief Justice

000000001949-01-20-0000January 20, 1949
(Thursday)
Public
trumanb !Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
vinsona !Fred M. Vinson
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001953-01-20-0000January 20, 1953
(Tuesday)
Public
eisenhowera !First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
vinsonb !Fred M. Vinson
Chief Justice

000000001957-01-20-0000January 20, 1957
(Sunday)
Private
eisenhowerb !Second inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
East Room,
White House
warrena !Earl Warren
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001957-01-21-0000January 21, 1957[g]
(Monday)
Public
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol

000000001961-01-20-0000January 20, 1961
(Friday)
Public
kennedy !Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
warrenb !Earl Warren
Chief Justice

000000001963-11-22-0000November 22, 1963
(Friday)
Private
johnsonla !First inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson
Air Force One,
Dallas Love Field,
Dallas, Texas
hughes !Sarah T. Hughes
Judge, U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Texas

000000001965-01-20-0000January 20, 1965
(Wednesday)
Public
johnsonlb !Second inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
warrenc !Earl Warren
Chief Justice

000000001969-01-20-0000January 20, 1969
(Monday)
Public
nixona !First inauguration of Richard Nixon
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
warrend !Earl Warren
Chief Justice

000000001973-01-20-0000January 20, 1973
(Saturday)
Public
nixonb !Second inauguration of Richard Nixon
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
burgera !Warren Burger
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001974-08-09-0000August 9, 1974
(Friday)
Public
ford !Inauguration of Gerald Ford
East Room,
White House
burgerb !Warren Burger
Chief Justice

000000001977-01-20-0000January 20, 1977
(Thursday)
Public
carter !Inauguration of Jimmy Carter
East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
burgerc !Warren Burger
Chief Justice

000000001981-01-20-0000January 20, 1981
(Tuesday)
Public
reagana !First inauguration of Ronald Reagan
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
burgerd !Warren Burger
Chief Justice

000000001985-01-20-0000January 20, 1985
(Sunday)
Private
reaganb !Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan
Entrance Hall,
White House
burgere !Warren Burger
Chief Justice

000000001985-01-21-0000January 21, 1985[g]
(Monday)
Public
Rotunda,
U.S. Capitol

000000001989-01-20-0000January 20, 1989
(Friday)
Public
bushh !Inauguration of George H. W. Bush
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
rehnquista !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice of the United States

000000001993-01-20-0000January 20, 1993
(Wednesday)
Public
clintona !First inauguration of Bill Clinton
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
rehnquistb !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice

000000001997-01-20-0000January 20, 1997
(Monday)
Public
clintonb !Second inauguration of Bill Clinton
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
rehnquistc !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice

000000002001-01-20-0000January 20, 2001
(Saturday)
Public
bushwa !First inauguration of George W. Bush
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
rehnquistd !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice

000000002005-01-20-0000January 20, 2005
(Thursday)
Public
bushwb !Second inauguration of George W. Bush
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
rehnquiste !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice

000000002009-01-20-0000January 20, 2009
(Tuesday)
Public
obamaa !First inauguration of Barack Obama
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
robertsa !John Roberts
Chief Justice of the United States

000000002009-01-21-0000January 21, 2009[59][h]
(Wednesday)
Private
Map Room,
White House

000000002013-01-20-0000January 20, 2013[60]
(Sunday)
Private
obamab !Second inauguration of Barack Obama
Blue Room,
White House
robertsb !John Roberts
Chief Justice

000000002013-01-21-0000January 21, 2013[g]
(Monday)
Public
West Front,
U.S. Capitol

000000002017-01-20-0000January 20, 2017
(Friday)
Public
trump !Inauguration of Donald Trump
West Front,
U.S. Capitol
robertsc !John Roberts
Chief Justice

ZZZDate
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tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Inaugurations sort alphabetically by president's last name.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Term began Sunday, March 4.
Jump up ^ Term began when President Harrison died on April 4.
Jump up ^ Term began when President Taylor died on July 9.
^ Jump up to: a b Term began when President Garfield died on September 19.
^ Jump up to: a b Term began when President Harding died on August 2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Term began Sunday, January 20.
Jump up ^ Term began on January 20, despite the oath mishap.

tag: ol


document_title: Settlement of the Americas

question_text: when did the ice-free corridor open in north america allowing one path for human migration from asia

text: Settlement of the Americas

text: The environment during the latest Pleistocene[edit]

text: For an introduction to the radiocarbon dating techniques used by archaeologists and geologists, see radiocarbon dating.

text: Emergence and submergence of Beringia[edit]

text: During the Wisconsin Glaciation, varying portions of the Earth's water were stored as glacier ice. As water accumulated in glaciers, the volume of water in the oceans correspondingly decreased, resulting in lowering of global sea level. The variation of sea level over time has been reconstructed using oxygen isotope analysis of deep sea cores, the dating of marine terraces, and high resolution oxygen isotope sampling from ocean basins and modern ice caps. A drop of eustatic sea level by about 60 m to 120 m lower than present-day levels, commencing around 30,000 years BP, created Beringia, a durable and extensive geographic feature connecting Siberia with Alaska.[7] With the rise of sea level after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the Beringian land bridge was again submerged. Estimates of the final re-submergence of the Beringian land bridge based purely on present bathymetry of the Bering Strait and eustatic sea level curve place the event around 11,000 years BP (Figure 1). Ongoing research reconstructing Beringian paleogeography during deglaciation could change that estimate and possible earlier submergence could further constrain models of human migration into North America.[7]

text: Glaciers[edit]

text: The onset of the Last Glacial Maximum after 30,000 years BP saw the expansion of alpine glaciers and continental ice sheets that blocked migration routes out of Beringia. By 21,000 years BP, and possibly thousands of years earlier, the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets coalesced east of the Rocky Mountains, closing off a potential migration route into the center of North America.[8][9][10] Alpine glaciers in the coastal ranges and the Alaskan Peninsula isolated the interior of Beringia from the Pacific coast. Coastal alpine glaciers and lobes of Cordilleran ice coalesced into piedmont glaciers that covered large stretches of the coastline as far south as Vancouver Island and formed an ice lobe across the Straits of Juan de Fuca by 15,000 14C years BP (18,000 cal years BP).[11][12] Coastal alpine glaciers started to retreat around 19,000 cal years BP [13] while Cordilleran ice continued advancing in the Puget lowlands up to 14,000 14C years BP (16,800 cal years BP)[12] Even during the maximum extent of coastal ice, unglaciated refugia persisted on present-day islands, that supported terrestrial and marine mammals.[10] As deglaciation occurred, refugia expanded until the coast became ice-free by 15,000 cal years BP.[10] The retreat of glaciers on the Alaskan Peninsula provided access from Beringia to the Pacific coast by around 17,000 cal years BP.[14] The ice barrier between interior Alaska and the Pacific coast broke up starting around 13,500 14C years (16,200 cal years) BP.[11] The ice-free corridor to the interior of North America opened between 13,000 and 12,000 cal years BP.[8][9][10] Glaciation in eastern Siberia during the LGM was limited to alpine and valley glaciers in mountain ranges and did not block access between Siberia and Beringia.[7]

text: Climate and biological environments[edit]

text: The paleoclimates and vegetation of eastern Siberia and Alaska during the Wisconsin glaciation have been deduced from high resolution oxygen isotope data and pollen stratigraphy.[7][15][16] Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, climates in eastern Siberia fluctuated between conditions approximating present day conditions and colder periods. The pre-LGM warm cycles in Arctic Siberia saw flourishes of megafaunas.[7] The oxygen isotope record from the Greenland Ice Cap suggests that these cycles after about 45k years BP lasted anywhere from hundreds to between one and two thousand years, with greater duration of cold periods starting around 32k cal years BP.[7] The pollen record from Elikchan Lake, north of the Sea of Okhotsk, shows a marked shift from tree and shrub pollen to herb pollen prior to 26k 14C years BP, as herb tundra replaced boreal forest and shrub steppe going into the LGM.[7] A similar record of tree/shrub pollen being replaced with herb pollen as the LGM approached was recovered near the Kolyma River in Arctic Siberia.[16] The abandonment of the northern regions of Siberia due to rapid cooling or the retreat of game species with the onset of the LGM has been proposed to explain the lack of archaeosites in that region dating to the LGM.[16][17] The pollen record from the Alaskan side shows shifts between herb/shrub and shrub tundra prior to the LGM, suggesting less dramatic warming episodes than those that allowed forest colonization on the Siberian side. Diverse, though not necessarily plentiful, megafaunas were present in those environments. Herb tundra dominated during the LGM, due to cold and dry conditions.[15]

text: Coastal environments during the Last Glacial Maximum were complex. The lowered sea level, and an isostatic bulge equilibrated with the depression beneath the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, exposed the continental shelf to form a coastal plain.[18] While much of the coastal plain was covered with piedmont glaciers, unglaciated refugia supporting terrestrial mammals have been identified on Haida Gwaii, Prince of Wales Island, and outer islands of the Alexander Archipelago.[15] The now-submerged coastal plain has potential for more refugia.[15] Pollen data indicate mostly herb/shrub tundra vegetation in unglaciated areas, with some boreal forest towards the southern end of the range of Cordilleran ice.[15] The coastal marine environment remained productive, as indicated by fossils of pinnipeds.[18] The highly productive kelp forests over rocky marine shallows may have been a lure for coastal migration.[19][20] Reconstruction of the southern Beringian coastline also suggests potential for a highly productive coastal marine environment.[20]

text: Environmental changes during deglaciation[edit]

text: Pollen data indicate a warm period culminating between 14k and 11k 14C years BP (17k-13k cal years BP) followed by cooling between 11k-10k 14C years BP (13k-11.5k cal years BP).[18] Coastal areas deglaciated rapidly as coastal alpine glaciers, then lobes of Cordilleran ice, retreated. The retreat was accelerated as sea levels rose and floated glacial termini. Estimates of a fully ice-free coast range between 16k[18] and 15k[10] cal years BP. Littoral marine organisms colonized shorelines as ocean water replaced glacial meltwater. Replacement of herb/shrub tundra by coniferous forests was underway by 12.4k 14C years BP (15k cal years BP) north of Haida Gwaii. Eustatic sea level rise caused flooding, which accelerated as the rate grew more rapid.[18]

text: The inland Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets retreated more slowly than did the coastal glaciers. Opening of an ice-free corridor did not occur until after 13k to 12k cal years BP.[8][9][10] The early environment of the ice-free corridor was dominated by glacial outwash and meltwater, with ice-dammed lakes and periodic flooding from the release of ice-dammed meltwater.[8] Biological productivity of the deglaciated landscape was gained slowly.[10] The earliest possible viability of the ice-free corridor as a human migration route has been estimated at 11.5k cal years BP.[10]

text: Birch forests were advancing across former herb tundra in Beringia by 14.3ka 14C years BP (17k cal years BP) in response to climatic amelioration, indicating increased productivity of the landscape.[16]

text: Chronology and sources of migration[edit]

text: The archaeological community is in general agreement that the ancestors of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas of historical record entered the Americas at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), shortly after 20,000 years ago, with ascertained archaeological presence shortly after 16,000 years ago.

text: There remain uncertainties regarding the precise dating of individual sites and regarding conclusions drawn from population genetics studies of contemporary Native Americans. It is also an open question whether this post-LGM migration represented the first peopling of the Americas, or whether there had been an earlier, pre-LGM migration which had reached South America as early as 40,000 years ago.

text: Chronology[edit]

text: In the early 21st century, the models of the chronology of migration are divided into two general approaches.[21][22]

text: The first is the short chronology theory, that the first migration occurred after the Last Glacial Maximum, which went into decline after about 19,000 years ago,[13] and was then followed by successive waves of immigrants.[23]

text: The second theory is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the Americas at a much earlier date, possibly before 40,000 years ago,[24][25][26] followed by a much later second wave of immigrants.[22][27]

text: The Clovis First theory, which dominated thinking on New World anthropology for much of the 20th century, was challenged by the secure dating of archaeosites in the Americas to before 13kya in the 2000s.[28][29][8][9][10] The "short chronology" scenario, in the light of this, refers to a peopling of the Americas shortly after 19,000 years ago, while the "long chronology" scenario permits pre-LGM presence, by around 40 kya.

text: Archaeological evidence[edit]

text: Pre-Last Glacial Maximum migration across Beringia into the Americas has been proposed to explain purported pre-LGM ages of archaeosites in the Americas such as Bluefish Caves[25] and Old Crow Flats[26] in the Yukon Territory, and Meadowcroft Rock Shelter in Pennsylvania.[22][27] The earlier 14C date from a bone artifact at the Old Crow Flats site has been supplanted by an Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 14C date that indicates a Holocene age.[31]

text: Pre-LGM human presence in South America rests partly on the chronology of the controversial Pedra Furada rock shelter in Piauí, Brazil. A 2003 study dated evidence for the controlled use of fire to before 40 kya.[32] Additional evidence has been adduced from the morphology of Luzia Woman fossil, which was described as Australoid. This interpretation was challenged in a 2003 review which concluded the features in question could also have arisen by genetic drift.[33]

text: The interpretations of butcher marks and the geologic association of bones at the Bluefish Cave and Old Crow Flats sites have been called into question.[34] The ages of the earliest positively identified artifacts at the Meadowcroft site are constrained by a compiled age estimate from 14C in the range of 12k-15k 14C years BP (13.8k-18.5k cal years BP).[28][35] The Meadowcroft Rockshelter site and the Monte Verde site in southern Chile, with a date of 14.8k cal years BP,[29] are the archaeosites in the Americas with the oldest dates that have gained broad acceptance.

text: Stones described as probable tools, hammerstones and anvils, have been found in southern California, at the Cerutti Mastodon site, that are associated with a mastodon skeleton which appeared to have been processed by humans. The mastodon skeleton was dated by thorium-230/uranium radiometric analysis, using diffusion–adsorption–decay dating models, to 130.7 ± 9.4 thousand years ago.[36] No human bones were found, and the claims of tools and bone processing have been described as "not plausible".[37]

text: The Yana River Rhino Horn site (RHS) has dated human occupation of eastern Arctic Siberia to 27k 14C years BP (31.3k cal years BP).[38] That date has been interpreted by some as evidence that migration into Beringia was imminent, lending credence to occupation of Beringia during the LGM.[39][40] However, the Yana RHS date is from the beginning of the cooling period that led into the LGM.[7] But, a compilation of archaeosite dates throughout eastern Siberia suggest that the cooling period caused a retreat of humans southwards.[16][17] Pre-LGM lithic evidence in Siberia indicate a settled lifestyle that was based on local resources, while post-LGM lithic evidence indicate a more migratory lifestyle.[17]

text: The oldest archaeosite on the Alaskan side of Beringia date to 12k 14C years BP (14k cal years BP).[16][31] It is possible that a small founder population had entered Beringia before that time. However, archaeosites that date closer to the Last Glacial Maximum on either the Siberian or the Alaskan side of Beringia are lacking.

text: Genomic age estimates[edit]

text: Studies of Amerindian genetics have used high resolution analytical techniques applied to DNA samples from modern Native Americans and Asian populations regarded as their source populations to reconstruct the development of human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups (yDNA haplogroups) and human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups (mtDNA haplogroups) characteristic of Native American populations.[24][39][40] Models of molecular evolution rates were used to estimate the ages at which Native American DNA lineages branched off from their parent lineages in Asia and to deduce the ages of demographic events. One model (Tammetal 2007) based on Native American mtDNA Haplotypes (Figure 2) proposes that migration into Beringia occurred between 30k and 25k cal years BP, with migration into the Americas occurring around 10k to 15k years after isolation of the small founding population.[39] Another model (Kitchen et al. 2008) proposes that migration into Beringia occurred approximately 36k cal years BP, followed by 20k years of isolation in Beringia.[40] A third model (Nomatto et al. 2009) proposes that migration into Beringia occurred between 40k and 30k cal years BP, with a pre-LGM migration into the Americas followed by isolation of the northern population following closure of the ice-free corridor.[24] Evidence of Australoid admixture in Amazonian populations was found by Skoglund and Reich (2016).[41]

text: A study of the diversification of mtDNA Haplogroups C and D from southern Siberia and eastern Asia, respectively, suggests that the parent lineage (Subhaplogroup D4h) of Subhaplogroup D4h3, a lineage found among Native Americans and Han Chinese,[42][43] emerged around 20k cal years BP, constraining the emergence of D4h3 to post-LGM.[44] Age estimates based on Y-chromosome micro-satellite diversity place origin of the American Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA) at around 10k to 15k cal years BP.[45] Greater consistency of DNA molecular evolution rate models with each other and with archaeological data may be gained by the use of dated fossil DNA to calibrate molecular evolution rates.[42]

text: Source populations[edit]

text: There is general agreement among anthropologists that the source populations for the migration into the Americas originated from an area somewhere east of the Yenisei River. The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Native American populations has long been recognized, along with the presence of Haplogroup X.[46] As a whole, the greatest frequency of the four Native American associated haplogroups occurs in the Altai-Baikal region of southern Siberia.[47] Some subclades of C and D closer to the Native American subclades occur among Mongolian, Amur, Japanese, Korean, and Ainu populations.[46][48]

text: Human genomic models[edit]

text: The development of high-resolution genomic analysis has provided opportunities to further define Native American subclades and narrow the range of Asian subclades that may be parent or sister subclades. For example, the broad geographic range of Haplogroup X has been interpreted as allowing the possibility of a western Eurasian, or even a European source population for Native Americans, as in the Solutrean hypothesis, or suggesting a pre-Last Glacial Maximum migration into the Americas.[46] The analysis of an ancient variant of Haplogroup X among aboriginals of the Altai region indicates common ancestry with the European strain rather than descent from the European strain.[47] Further division of X subclades has allowed identification of Subhaplogroup X2a, which is regarded as specific to Native Americans.[39][43] With further definition of subclades related to Native American populations, the requirements for sampling Asian populations to find the most closely related subclades grow more specific. Subhaplogroups D1 and D4h3 have been regarded as Native American specific based on their absence among a large sampling of populations regarded as potential descendants of source populations, over a wide area of Asia.[39] Among the 3764 samples, the Sakhalin - lower Amur region was represented by 61 Oroks.[39] In another study, Subhaplogroup D1a has been identified among the Ulchis of the lower Amur River region(4 among 87 sampled, or 4.6%), along with Subhaplogroup C1a (1 among 87, or 1.1%).[48] Subhaplogroup C1a is regarded as a close sister clade of the Native American Subhaplogroup C1b.[48] Subhaplogroup D1a has also been found among ancient Jōmon skeletons from Hokkaido[49] The modern Ainu are regarded as descendants of the Jōmon.[49] The occurrence of the Subhaplogroups D1a and C1a in the lower Amur region suggests a source population from that region distinct from the Altai-Baikal source populations, where sampling did not reveal those two particular subclades.[48] The conclusions regarding Subhaplogroup D1 indicating potential source populations in the lower Amur[48] and Hokkaido[49] areas stand in contrast to the single-source migration model.[24][39][40]

text: Subhaplogroup D4h3 has been identified among Han Chinese.[42][43] Subhaplogroup D4h3 from China does not have the same geographic implication as Subhaplotype D1a from Amur-Hokkaido, so its implications for source models are more speculative. Its parent lineage, Subhaplotype D4h, is believed to have emerged in east Asia, rather than Siberia, around 20k cal years BP.[44] Subhaplogroup D4h2, a sister clade of D4h3, has also been found among Jōmon skeletons from Hokkaido.[50] D4h3 has a coastal trace in the Americas.[43]

text: The contrast between the genetic profiles of the Hokkaido Jōmon skeletons and the modern Ainu illustrates another uncertainty in source models derived from modern DNA samples:[49]

text: However, probably due to the small sample size or close consanguinity among the members of the site, the frequencies of the haplogroups in Funadomari skeletons were quite different from any modern populations, including Hokkaido Ainu, who have been regarded as the direct descendant of the Hokkaido Jomon people.

text: The descendants of source populations with the closest relationship to the genetic profile from the time when differentiation occurred are not obvious. Source population models can be expected to become more robust as more results are compiled, the heritage of modern proxy candidates becomes better understood, and fossil DNA in the regions of interest is found and considered.

text: HTLV-1 genomics[edit]

text: The Human T cell Lymphotrophic Virus 1 (HTLV-1) is a virus transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids and from mother to child through breast milk. The mother-to-child transmission mimics a hereditary trait, although such transmission from maternal carriers is less than 100%.[51] The HTLV virus genome has been mapped, allowing identification of four major strains and analysis of their antiquity through mutations. The highest geographic concentrations of the strain HLTV-1 are in sub-Saharan Africa and Japan.[52] In Japan, it occurs in its highest concentration on Kyushu.[52] It is also present among African descendants and native populations in the Caribbean region and South America.[52] It is rare in Central America and North America.[52] Its distribution in the Americas has been regarded as due to importation with the slave trade.[53]

text: The Ainu have developed antibodies to HTLV-1, indicating its endemicity to the Ainu and its antiquity in Japan.[54] A subtype "A" has been defined and identified among the Japanese (including Ainu), and among Caribbean and South American isolates.[55] A subtype "B" has been identified in Japan and India.[55] In 1995, Native Americans in coastal British Columbia were found to have both subtypes A and B.[56] Bone marrow specimens from an Andean mummy about 1500 years old were reported to have shown the presence of the A subtype.[57] The finding ignited controversy, with contention that the sample DNA was insufficiently complete for the conclusion and that the result reflected modern contamination.[58] However, a re-analysis indicated that the DNA sequences were consistent with, but not definitely from, the "cosmopolitan clade" (subtype A).[58] The presence of subtypes A and B in the Americas is suggestive of a Native American source population related to the Ainu ancestors, the Jōmon.

text: Physical anthropology[edit]

text: Paleoamerican skeletons in the Americas such as Kennewick Man (Washington State), Hoya Negro skeleton (Yucatán), Luzia Woman and other skulls from the Lagoa Santa site (Brazil), Buhl Woman (Idaho), Peñon Woman III,[59] two skulls from the Tlapacoya site (Mexico City),[59] and 33 skulls from Baja California[60] have exhibited craniofacial traits distinct from most modern Native Americans, leading physical anthropologists to the opinion that some Paleoamericans were of an Australoid rather than Siberian origin.[61] The most basic measured distinguishing trait is the dolichocephaly of the skull. Some modern isolates such as the Pericúes of Baja California and the Fuegians of Tierra del Fuego exhibit that same morphological trait.[60] Other anthropologists advocate an alternative hypothesis that evolution of an original Beringian phenotype gave rise to a distinct morphology that was similar in all known Paleoamerican skulls, followed by later convergence towards the modern Native American phenotype.[62][63] Resolution of the issue awaits the identification of a Beringian phenotype among paleoamerican skulls or evidence of a genetic clustering among examples of the Australoid phenotype.

text: A report published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology in January 2015 reviewed craniofacial variation focussing on differences between early and late Native Americans and explanations for these based on either skull morphology or molecular genetics. Arguments based on molecular genetics have in the main, according to the authors, accepted a single migration from Asia with a probable pause in Berengia, plus later bi-directional gene flow. Studies focussing on craniofacial morphology have argued that Paleoamerican remains have "been described as much closer to African and Australo-Melanesians populations than to the modern series of Native Americans", suggesting two entries into the Americas, an early one occurring before a distinctive East Asian morphology developed (referred to in the paper as the "Two Components Model". A third model, the "Recurrent Gene Flow" [RGF] model, attempts to reconcile the two, arguing that circumarctic gene flow after the initial migration could account for morphological changes. It specifically re-evaluates the original report on the Hoya Negro skeleton which supported the RGF model, the authors disagreed with the original conclusion which suggested that the skull shape did not match those of modern Native Americans, arguing that the "skull falls into a subregion of the morphospace occupied by both Paleoamericans and some modern Native Americans."[64][65]

text: Stemmed points[edit]

text: Stemmed points are a lithic technology distinct from Beringian and Clovis types. They have a distribution ranging from coastal east Asia to the Pacific coast of South America.[19] The emergence of stemmed points has been traced to Korea during the upper Paleolithic.[66] The origin and distribution of stemmed points have been interpreted as a cultural marker related to a source population from coastal east Asia.[19]

text: Migration routes[edit]

text: Interior route[edit]

text: Historically, theories about migration into the Americas have centered on migration from Beringia through the interior of North America. The discovery of artifacts in association with Pleistocene faunal remains near Clovis, New Mexico in the early 1930s required extension of the timeframe for the settlement of North America to the period during which glaciers were still extensive. That led to the hypothesis of a migration route between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets to explain the early settlement. The Clovis site was host to a lithic technology characterized by spear points with an indentation, or flute, where the point was attached to the shaft. A lithic complex characterized by the Clovis Point technology was subsequently identified over much of North America and in South America. The association of Clovis complex technology with late Pleistocene faunal remains led to the theory that it marked the arrival of big game hunters that migrated out of Beringia then dispersed throughout the Americas, otherwise known as the Clovis First theory.

text: Recent radiocarbon dating of Clovis sites has yielded ages of 11.1k to 10.7k 14C years BP (13k to 12.6k cal years BP), somewhat later than dates derived from older techniques.[67] The re-evaluation of earlier radiocarbon dates led to the conclusion that no fewer than 11 of the 22 Clovis sites with radiocarbon dates are "problematic" and should be disregarded, including the type site in Clovis, New Mexico. Numerical dating of Clovis sites has allowed comparison of Clovis dates with dates of other archaeosites throughout the Americas, and of the opening of the ice-free corridor. Both lead to significant challenges to the Clovis First theory. The Monte Verde site of Southern Chile has been dated at 14.8k cal years BP.[29] The Paisley Cave site in eastern Oregon yielded a 14C date of 12.4k years (14.5k cal years) BP, on a coprolite with human DNA and 14C dates of 11.3k-11k (13.2k-12.9k cal years) BP on horizons containing western stemmed points.[68] Artifact horizons with non-Clovis lithic assemblages and pre-Clovis ages occur in eastern North America, although the maximum ages tend to be poorly constrained.[28][35]

text: Geological findings on the timing of the ice-free corridor also challenge the notion that Clovis and pre-Clovis human occupation of the Americas was a result of migration through that route following the Last Glacial Maximum. Pre-LGM closing of the corridor may approach 30k cal years BP and estimates of ice retreat from the corridor are in the range of 12 to 13k cal years BP.[8][9][10] Viability of the corridor as a human migration route has been estimated at 11.5k cal years BP, later than the ages of the Clovis and pre-Clovis sites.[10] Dated Clovis archaeosites suggest a south-to-north spread of the Clovis culture.[8]

text: Pre-Last Glacial Maximum migration into the interior has been proposed to explain pre-Clovis ages for archaeosites in the Americas,[22][27] although pre-Clovis sites such as Meadowcroft Rock Shelter,[28][35] Monte Verde,[29] and Paisley Cave have not yielded confirmed pre-LGM ages.

text: The interior route is consistent with the spread of the Na Dene language group and Subhaplogroup X2a into the Americas after the earliest paleoamerican migration.[43]

text: Pacific coastal route[edit]

text: Pacific models propose that people first reached the Americas via water travel, following coastlines from northeast Asia into the Americas. Coastlines are unusually productive environments because they provide humans with access to a diverse array of plants and animals from both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. While not exclusive of land-based migrations, the Pacific 'coastal migration theory' helps explain how early colonists reached areas extremely distant from the Bering Strait region, including sites such as Monte Verde in southern Chile and Taima-Taima in western Venezuela. Two cultural components were discovered at Monte Verde near the Pacific coast of Chile. The youngest layer is radiocarbon dated at 12,500 radiocarbon years (~14,000 cal BP)[citation needed] and has produced the remains of several types of seaweeds collected from coastal habitats. The older and more controversial component may date back as far as 33,000 years, but few scholars currently accept this very early component.[citation needed]

text: As the chronology of deglaciation in the interior and coastal regions of North America became better understood, the coastal migration hypothesis was advanced by Knute Fladmark as an alternative to the ice-free corridor hypothesis.[69] Debate on coastal versus interior migration for initial settlement has centered on evidence for chronology of initial settlement of Beringia,[16][31] interior North America,[8] the Pacific coast of the Americas,[29] and timing of the opening of coastal versus interior migration routes indicated by geological evidence.[8][10] Complicating the debate has been the absence of archaeological data from the coastal and interior migration routes from the periods when the initial migration is proposed to have occurred. A recent variation of the coastal migration hypothesis is the marine migration hypothesis, which proposes that migrants with boats settled in coastal refugia during deglaciation of the coast.[19][20] The proposed use of boats adds a measure of flexibility to the chronology of coastal migration, as a continuous ice-free coast (16k-15k cal years BP) would no longer be required. A coastal east Asian source population is integral to the marine migration hypothesis.[19][20]

text: In 2014, the autosomal DNA of a toddler from Montana, dated at 10.7k 14C years (12.5-12.7 cal years) BP was sequenced.[70] The DNA was taken from a skeleton referred to as Anzick-1, found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. The analysis yielded identification of the mtDNA as belonging to Subhaplogroup D4h3a, a rare subclade of D4h3 occurring along the west coast of the Americas, as well as geneflow related to the Siberian Mal'ta population. The data indicate that Anzick-1 is from a population directly ancestral to present South American and Central American Native American populations. Anzick-1 is less closely related to present North American Native American populations. D4h3a has been identified as a clade associated with coastal migration.[43]

text: The problems associated with finding archaeological evidence for migration during a period of lowered sea level are well known.[19][71] Sites related to the first migration are usually submerged, so the location of such sites is obscured. Certain types of evidence dependent on organic material, such as radiocarbon dating, may be destroyed by submergence. Wave action can destroy site structures and scatter artifacts along a prograding shoreline. Additionally, Pacific coastal conditions tend to be unstable due to steep unstable terrain, earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes. Strategies for finding earliest migration sites include identifying potential sites on submerged paleoshorelines, seeking sites in areas uplifted either by tectonics or isostatic rebound, and looking for riverine sites in areas that may have attracted coastal migrants.[19][71] Otherwise, coastal archaeology is dependent on secondary evidence related to lifestyles and technologies of maritime peoples from sites similar to those that would be associated with the original migration.

text: Other coastal models, dealing specifically with the peopling of the Pacific Northwest and California coasts, have been advocated by archaeologists Knut Fladmark, Roy Carlson, James Dixon, Jon Erlandson, Ruth Gruhn, and Daryl Fedje. In a 2007 article in the Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Erlandson and his colleagues proposed a corollary to the coastal migration theory—the "kelp highway hypothesis"—arguing that productive kelp forests supporting similar suites of plants and animals would have existed near the end of the Pleistocene around much of the Pacific Rim from Japan to Beringia, the Pacific Northwest, and California, as well as the Andean Coast of South America. Once the coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia had deglaciated about 16,000 years ago, these kelp forest (along with estuarine, mangrove, and coral reef) habitats would have provided an ecologically similar migration corridor, entirely at sea level, and essentially unobstructed.

text: A 2016 DNA analysis of plants and animals suggest a coastal route was feasible.[72][73]

text: East Asians: Paleoindians of the coast[edit]

text: The boat-builders from Southeast Asia (Austronesian peoples) may have been one of the earliest groups to reach the shores of North America.[74][75][76] One theory suggests people in boats followed the coastline from the Kurile Islands to Alaska down the coasts of North and South America as far as Chile.[5] 62[10] 54, 57. The Haida nation on the Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia may have originated from these early Asian mariners between 25,000 and 12,000 years ago. Early watercraft migration would also explain the habitation of coastal sites in South America such as Pikimachay Cave in Peru by 20,000 years ago (disputed) and Monte Verde in Chile by 13,000 years ago [6 30; 8 383].

text: 'There was boat use in Japan 20,000 years ago,' says Jon Erlandson, a University of Oregon anthropologist. 'The Kurile Islands (north of Japan) are like stepping stones to Beringia,' the then continuous land bridging the Bering Strait. Migrants, he said, could have then skirted the tidewater glaciers in Canada right on down the coast. [7 64]'

text: Problems with evaluating coastal migration models[edit]

text: The coastal migration models provide a different perspective on migration to the New World, but they are not without their own problems. One such problem is that global sea levels have risen over 120 metres (390 ft)[77] since the end of the last glacial period, and this has submerged the ancient coastlines that maritime people would have followed into the Americas. Finding sites associated with early coastal migrations is extremely difficult—and systematic excavation of any sites found in deeper waters is challenging and expensive. On the other hand, there is evidence of marine technologies found in the hills of the Channel Islands of California, circa 10,000 BCE.[78] If there was an early pre-Clovis coastal migration, there is always the possibility of a "failed colonization". Another problem that arises is the lack of hard evidence found for a "long chronology" theory. No sites have yet produced a consistent chronology older than about 12,500 radiocarbon years (~14,500 calendar years)[citation needed], but research has been limited in South America related to the possibility of early coastal migrations.

text: Y-DNA among South American and Alaskan natives[edit]

text: The micro-satellite diversity and distribution of a Y lineage specific to South America suggest that certain Amerindian populations became isolated after the initial colonization of their regions.[79] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, but are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA and autosomal DNA (atDNA) mutations.[80][81][82] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[83][84]

text: Other hypotheses[edit]

text: There exists a number of theories for pre-Columbian trans-oceanic migrations into the Americas.