document_title: History of the petroleum industry in the United States

question_text: where was the first oil well drilled in the united states

text: 19th century[edit]

text: Before the Drake well[edit]

text: Native Americans had known of the oil in western Pennsylvania, and had made some use of it for many years before the mid-19th century. Early European explorers noted seeps of oil and natural gas in western Pennsylvania and New York. Interest grew substantially in the mid-1850s as scientists reported on the potential to manufacture kerosene from crude oil, if a sufficiently large oil supply could be found.

text: The Jesuit Relations of 1657 states:

text: As one approaches nearer to the country of the Cats, one finds heavy and thick water, which ignites like brandy, and boils up in bubbles of flame when fire is applied to it. It is, moreover, so oily, that all our Savages use it to anoint and grease their heads and their bodies.[2]

text: Salt was a valuable commodity, and an industry developed near salt springs in the Ohio River Valley, producing salt by evaporating brine from the springs. Salt wells were sunk at the salt springs to increase the supply of brine for evaporation. Some of the wells were hand-dug, but salt producers also learned to drill wells by percussion (cable tool) methods. In a number of locations in western Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky, oil and natural gas came up the wells along with the brine. The oil was mostly a nuisance, but some salt producers saved it and sold it as illuminating oil or medicine. In some locations, enough natural gas was produced to be used as fuel for the salt evaporating pans.[3] Early salt brine wells that produced byproduct oil included the Thorla-McKee Well of Ohio in 1814, a well near Burkesville, Kentucky, in 1828,[4] and wells at Burning Springs, West Virginia, by 1836.

text: The US natural gas industry started in 1821 at Fredonia, Chautauqua County, New York, when William Hart dug a well to a depth of 27 feet (8.2 m) into gas-bearing shale, then drilled a borehole 43 feet (13 m) further, and piped the natural gas to a nearby inn where it was burned for illumination. Soon many gas wells were drilled in the area, and the gas-lit streets of Fredonia became a tourist attraction.

text: Drake well, Titusville, Pennsylvania[edit]

text: On August 28, 1859, George Bissell and Edwin L. Drake made the first successful use of a drilling rig on a well drilled especially to produce oil, at a site on Oil Creek near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The Drake partners were encouraged by Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864), a chemistry professor at Yale, who tested a sample of the oil, and assured them that it could be distilled into useful products such as illuminating oil.

text: The Drake well is often referred to as the "first" commercial oil well, although that title is also claimed for wells in Azerbaijan, Ontario, West Virginia, and Poland, among others. However, before the Drake well, oil-producing wells in the United States were wells that were drilled for salt brine, and produced oil and gas only as accidental byproducts. An intended drinking water well at Oil Springs, Ontario found oil in 1858, a year before the Drake well, but it had not been drilled for oil. Historians have noted that the importance of the Drake well was not in being the first well to produce oil, but in attracting the first great wave of investment in oil drilling, refining, and marketing:

text: Appalachian Basin[edit]

text: The success of the Drake well quickly led to oil drilling in other locations in the western Appalachian mountains, where oil was seeping to the surface, or where salt drillers had previously found oil fouling their salt wells. During the American Civil War, the oil-producing region spread over much of western Pennsylvania, up into western New York state, and down the Ohio River valley into the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and the western part of Virginia (now West Virginia). The Appalachian Basin continued to be the leading oil-producing region in the United States through 1904.[6]

text: The first commercial oil well in New York was drilled in 1865. New York's (and Northwestern Pennsylvania) crude oil is very high in paraffin.[7]

text: The principal product of the oil in the 19th century was kerosene, which quickly replaced whale oil for illuminating purposes in the United States. Originally dealing in whale oil which was widely used for illumination, Charles Pratt (1830–1891) of Massachusetts was an early pioneer of the natural oil industry in the United States. He was founder of Astral Oil Works in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn, New York. Pratt's product later gave rise to the slogan, "The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil." He joined with his protégé Henry H. Rogers to form Charles Pratt and Company in 1867. Both companies became part of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil in 1874.

text: Lima-Indiana District[edit]

text: Mid-Continent[edit]

text: The Mid-continent area is an area generally including Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, North Louisiana and the part of Texas away from the Gulf Coast. The first commercially successful oil well drilled in Kansas was the Norman No. 1 near Neodesha, Kansas, on November 28, 1892.

text:
Corsicana, Texas, 1894, Texas, plus 44,000,000 barrels (7,000,000 m3)
McCamey, 1928, Baker No. 1., Texas.

text: Oklahoma[edit]

text: Oil was discovered at Bartlesville and Burbank in 1897. But the initial discoveries created no great excitement until the discovery gusher of the Glenn Pool in 1905. The Glenn discovery came when Gulf Coast production was declining rapidly, and the operators were eager for new areas to drill. The increased drilling resulted in major discoveries at Cushing in 1912 and Healdton in 1913.[8]

text:
Greater Seminole, 1926, Oklahoma, plus 200,000,000 barrels (32,000,000 m3)
Oklahoma City, No. 1 Discovery Well, 1928, Oklahoma. The Mary Sudik No. 1, "Wild Mary Sudik", gusher did not blow until March 25, 1930—she sprayed an estimated 3,000 barrels (480 m3) an hour (133 L/s) for the next 11 days.

text: East Texas[edit]

text: The largest oil field in the lower 48 states, the East Texas oil field, was not discovered until 1930, when wildcatter Columbus Marion Joiner (more commonly known as "Dad" Joiner) drilled the Daisy Bradford No. 3 well, in Rusk County, Texas.[9]

text: North Louisiana[edit]

text: In 1906, the Caddo-Pine Island Field in northern Caddo Parish, Louisiana was discovered, and a rush of leasing and drilling activity ensued. In 1908, the first natural gas pipeline was constructed to transport gas from Caddo-Pine Island to Shreveport, Louisiana. This was one of the earliest commercial uses of natural gas, which was commonly viewed as an undesirable by-product of oil production and often "flared" or burnt off at the well site.

text: Other innovations in the Caddo-Pine Island Field included the first over-water oil platform, which was constructed in the field on Caddo Lake in 1910. In that same year, a major oil pipeline was constructed from Caddo-Pine Island Field to a refinery built and operated by Standard Oil Company of Louisiana in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The refinery continues to operate today.

text: Other early petroleum discoveries in North Louisiana included the Bull Bayou Field, Red River Parish, Louisiana (1913), Monroe Gas Field, Ouachita Parish, Louisiana (1916), Homer Field, Claiborne Parish, Louisiana (1919) and Haynesville Field, Claiborne Parish, Louisiana (1921).[10]

text: California[edit]

text: Native Americans had known of the tar seeps in southern California for thousands of years, and used the tar to waterproof their canoes. Spanish settlers also knew of the seeps, such as at Rancho La Brea (Spanish for Tar Ranch) in present-day Los Angeles, from which the priests obtained tar to waterproof the roofs of the Los Angeles and San Gabriel missions.[11]

text: Despite the abundance of well-known seeps in southern California, the first commercial oil well in California was drilled in Humboldt County, northern California in 1865.[12]

text: Some attempts were made in the 1860s to exploit oil deposits under tar seeps in the Ventura Basin of Ventura County and northeastern Los Angeles county. The early efforts failed because of complex geology, and, more importantly, because the refining techniques then available could not manufacture high-quality kerosene from California crude oil, which differed chemically from Pennsylvania crude oil.[13] Most California crude oil in the early years was turned into the less lucrative products of fuel oil and asphalt.

text: Oil production in the Los Angeles Basin started with the discovery of the Brea-Olinda Oil Field in 1880, and continued with the development of the Los Angeles City Oil Field in 1893, the Beverly Hills Oil Field in 1900, the Salt Lake Oil Field in 1902, and many others. The discovery of the Long Beach Oil Field in 1921, which proved to be the world's richest in production per-acre of the time, increased the importance of the Los Angeles Basin as a worldwide oil producer. This increased again with the discovery of the Wilmington Oil Field in 1932, and the development of the Port of Los Angeles as a means of shipping crude oil overseas.[14]

text: Production in Santa Barbara County began in the 1890s with the development of the Summerland Oil Field, which included the world's first offshore oil wells. With the discovery of the Orcutt and Lompoc fields, northern Santa Barbara County became a regional center of production; towns such as Orcutt owe their existence to the quickly growing industry.[14]

text: Oil in the San Joaquin Basin was first discovered at the Coalinga field in 1890. By 1901, the San Joaquin Basin was the main oil-producing region of California, and it remains so in the 21st century, with huge oil fields including the Midway-Sunset, Kern River, and Belridge fields producing much of California's onshore oil.

text: Rocky Mountains[edit]

text: The first commercial oil well in the Rocky Mountains was drilled near Canon City, Colorado in 1862. The wells in the Canyon City-Florence field, drilled near surface oil seeps, produced from fractures in the Pierre Shale.

text:
Bighorn Basin
Denver Basin
Green River Basin
North Park (Colorado basin)
Paradox Basin
Piceance Basin
Powder River Basin
Raton Basin
San Juan Basin
Uinta Basin

text: Alaska[edit]

text: A Russian sea captain noted oil seeps along the shore of the Cook Inlet as early as 1853, and oil drilling began in 1898 in a number of locations along the southern coast of Alaska.[15] Production was relatively small, however, until huge discoveries were made on Alaska's remote North Slope.

text: Petroleum seeps on the North Slope have been known for many years, and in 1923, the federal government created US Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 to cover the presumed oil fields beneath the seeps. Some exploration drilling was done in the reserve during World War II and the 1950s, but the remote location deterred intensive exploration until the 1960s. The Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, the largest oil field in the United States in terms of total oil produced, was discovered in 1968. Production began in 1977, following completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Through 2005, the field has produced 13 billion barrels (2.1×10^9 m3) of oil (an average of 1.5 million barrels/day), and is estimated to contain another 2 billion barrels (320×10^6 m3) of economically recoverable oil.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Gulf Coast[edit]

text: Capt. Anthony Francis Lucas, an experienced mining engineer and salt driller, drilled a well to find oil at Spindletop Hill. On the morning of January 10, 1901, the little hill south of Beaumont, Texas began to tremble and mud bubbled up over the rotary table. A low rumbling sound came from underground, and then, with a force that shot 6 tons of 4-inch (100 mm) diameter pipe out over the top of the derrick, knocking off the crown block, the Lucas Gusher roared in and the Spindletop oil field was born. Spindletop became the focus of frenzied drilling; oil production from the field peaked in 1902 at 17,400,000 barrels (2,770,000 m3), but by 1905 production had declined 90% from the peak.[16]

text: Spindletop Hill turned out to be the surface expression of an underground salt dome, around which the oil accumulated. The Spindletop gusher started serious oil exploration of the Gulf Coast in Texas and Louisiana, an area that had previously been dismissed by oil men. Other salt dome mounds were quickly drilled, resulting in discoveries at Sour Lake (1902), Batson (1904) and Humble (1905).[17]

text: The Standard Oil Company was slow to appreciate the economic potential of the Spindletop oil field, and the Gulf Coast generally, which gave greater opportunity to others; Spindletop became the birthplace of oil giants Texaco and Gulf Oil. Although in 1899 Standard Oil controlled more than 85% of the oil production in the older oil regions in the Appalachian Basin and the Lima-Indiana trend, it never controlled more than 10% of the oil production in the new Gulf Coast province.[18]

text: Federal price regulation[edit]

text: By the Natural Gas Act of 1938, the federal government imposed price controls on natural gas in interstate commerce. The Federal Power Commission was mandated to set interstate gas prices at "just and reasonable" rates.[19] The FPC at first only regulated the price at which pipelines sold gas to utilities and industry, but later put limits on the wellhead price of gas sold to an interstate pipeline. Gas producers challenged the controls, but lost in the Supreme Court in Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Wisconsin (1954).

text: The federal government had controlled the price of natural gas that crossed state lines, but not of gas produced and sold within a state. In the 1970s, the low interstate price set by the federal government caused supply shortages of gas in consuming states, because gas producers sold as much as they could of their product for higher prices in the local markets within gas-producing states. In the Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978, the federal government extended price controls to all natural gas in the country. At the same time, the government created a complex price system in which the price paid to the producer depended on the date the well was drilled, the depth of the well, the geological formation, the distance to other gas wells, and several other factors. The price system was an attempt to keep the average price low while encouraging new production.[20]

text: The last federal price controls on natural gas were removed by the Natural Gas Decontrol Act of 1989, which phased out the last remaining price control as of 1 January 1993.[21]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: North Dakota[edit]

text: As of December, 2012, North Dakota was producing oil at the rate of 750,000 barrels/day.[22]


document_title: The Birth of a Nation (2016 film)

question_text: where was the movie birth of a nation filmed at

root

text: The Birth of a Nation (2016 film)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Set against the antebellum South, The Birth of a Nation follows Nat Turner (Nate Parker), a literate slave preacher, whose financially strained owner, Samuel Turner (Armie Hammer), accepts an offer to use Nat's preaching to suppress the supposed unruly slaves of multiple southern plantations for profit. As he witnesses countless atrocities by white slave-owning southerners—against himself and his fellow slaves—Nat gathers trusted followers believing that God has selected him as his chosen instrument of freedom and orchestrates an uprising in the hopes of leading his people to freedom.

tag: p

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Nate Parker as Nat Turner[7]
Armie Hammer as Samuel Turner[7]
Mark Boone Junior as Rev. Walthall[7]
Colman Domingo as Hark Turner[7]
Aunjanue Ellis as Nancy Turner[7]
Dwight Henry as Isaac Turner[7]
Aja Naomi King as Cherry Turner[7]
Esther Scott as Bridget Turner[7]
Roger Guenveur Smith as Isaiah[7]
Gabrielle Union as Esther[7]
Penelope Ann Miller as Elizabeth Turner[7]
Jackie Earle Haley as Raymond Cobb[7]
Tony Espinosa as young Nat Turner[7]
Jayson Warner Smith as Hank Fowler[7]
Jason Stuart as Joseph Randall[7]
Steve Coulter as General Childs[7]

tag: ul

text: Title[edit]

text: The 2016 film uses the same title as "D. W. Griffith's 1915 KKK propaganda film in a very purposeful way", said The Hollywood Reporter.[8] Parker has said his film had the same title "ironically, but very much by design".[9] He told the magazine Filmmaker:

text: Griffith's film relied heavily on racist propaganda to evoke fear and desperation as a tool to solidify white supremacy as the lifeblood of American sustenance. Not only did this film motivate the massive resurgence of the terror group the Ku Klux Klan and the carnage exacted against people of African descent, it served as the foundation of the film industry we know today. I've reclaimed this title and re-purposed it as a tool to challenge racism and white supremacy in America, to inspire a riotous disposition toward any and all injustice in this country (and abroad) and to promote the kind of honest confrontation that will galvanize our society toward healing and sustained systemic change.[10]

text: Production[edit]

text:
I kind of sold this project to investors and cast on legacy. I honestly think this is a film that could start a conversation that can promote healing and systemic change in our country. There's so many things that are happening right now in 2015—100 years after the original Birth of a Nation film, here we are. I'd say that is what I hope sets my film apart, is that it's relevant now—that people will talk about this film with the specific intention of change.

Nate Parker, 2015[11]

tag: div

text: The Birth of a Nation is written, produced, and directed by Nate Parker, who also stars as Nat Turner. Parker wrote the screenplay, which was based on a story he co-wrote with Jean McGianni Celestin.[7] Parker learned about Turner from an African-American studies course at the University of Oklahoma. He began writing the screenplay for a Nat Turner film in 2009 and had a fellowship at a lab under the Sundance Institute. While he got writing feedback from filmmakers like James Mangold, he was told that a Nat Turner film could not be produced. The Hollywood Reporter said:

text: But what he heard instead were all the reasons a movie about Nat Turner wouldn't work: Movies with black leads don't play internationally; a period film with big fight scenes would be too expensive; it was too violent; it wouldn't work without a big box-office star leading it; Turner was too controversial—after all, he was responsible for the deaths of dozens of well-off white landowners.[8]

text: After Parker finished his acting role in Beyond the Lights in late 2013, he told his agents he would not continue acting until he had played Nat Turner in a film. He invested $100,000 of his money to hire a production designer and to pay for location scouting in Savannah, Georgia. He met with multiple financiers, and the first to invest in the film were retired basketball player Michael Finley (who had previously invested in the film The Butler) and active basketball player Tony Parker (no relation). Parker eventually brought together 11 groups of investors to finance 60% of the production budget, and producer Aaron L. Gilbert of Bron Studios joined to cover the remaining financing.[8]

text: In November 2014, development was underway, and Armie Hammer joined the cast.[12] By April 2015, Aja Naomi King and Gabrielle Union joined the cast.[13] In subsequent months, Penelope Ann Miller, Jackie Earle Haley, and Mark Boone Junior also joined.[14] Filming took place in Georgia in May 2015 and lasted 27 days.[8] Parker used the a cappella choir from Wiley College on the soundtrack. Parker had previously been part of a cast that portrayed historical figures from Wiley, in The Great Debaters.[15]

text: Release[edit]

text: The Birth of a Nation premiered in competition at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2016.[8] Before it screened, the audience gave a standing ovation to the introduction of Nate Parker.[16] After it premiered, Variety said it "received the most enthusiastic standing ovation at this year's Sundance Film Festival so far".[17] Following The Birth of a Nation's Sundance premiere, Fox Searchlight Pictures bought worldwide rights to the film in a $17.5 million deal. Competing deals also came from The Weinstein Company, Sony Pictures Entertainment, and Netflix. Variety said Fox Searchlight's deal was "the richest in Sundance history".[18]

text: A teaser trailer for the film was released in April 2016,[19] followed by an official trailer on June 21, 2016.[20] On July 6, the UK release date of January 20, 2017, was announced.[21] It was actually released in the UK on December 9th, 2016. A film poster with Parker in a noose made from an American flag was released on July 15.[22]

text: 20th Century Fox canceled the planned 2017 release of the film in Japan, Switzerland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Austria and Latin America following the disappointing results at the U.S. box office, which damaged the overall distribution budget for the film.[23]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In August 2016, media attention surrounding the film resurfaced 1999 alleged rape charges against Nate Parker and co-writer Jean McGianni Celestin. While students at Pennsylvania State University, Parker and Celestin were accused of raping a female student.[24] The woman went to a doctor, who concluded that she had been sexually assaulted, and local authorities taped a phone conversation between her and Parker in which Parker confirmed that it was he and Celestin who had sex with her.[25] Parker and Celestin denied the accusations and said that the sexual encounter was consensual. Parker was acquitted of all charges in 2001; Celestin was convicted of sexual assault, but the conviction was overturned on appeal in 2005.[26] A subsequent retrial did not take place.[27]

text: In a formal complaint filed against Penn State in 2002, the woman also stated that she was harassed by Parker and Celestin following her allegation; the harassment allegedly "included Parker and Celestin hiring a private investigator to publicly expose her as the accuser, and continued bullying by Parker and his friends outside buildings where she had class".[25][28] The university settled the complaint with the woman for $17,500.[29] The woman committed suicide in 2012, with her death certificate noting that she suffered from "major depressive disorder with psychotic features, PTSD due to physical and sexual abuse, polysubstance abuse".[24] The studio was reportedly taking a wait and see approach before marketing to church groups, college campuses, and Hollywood figures.[30]

text: Because The Birth of a Nation attracted increased scrutiny due to possible Oscar nominations, and the film itself depicts a fictional, brutal rape that does not appear in historical records,[31] there was significant press coverage[3][4] about damage control by Fox Searchlight Pictures, the studio releasing the film.[32] Interviews in Variety[33] and Deadline[34] were a focus, as was Parker's response to the event in an impassioned Facebook post.[35]

text: Writing in Variety, the sister of Parker's alleged victim stated:

text: As her sister, the thing that pains me most of all is that in retelling the story of the Nat Turner slave revolt, they invented a rape scene. The rape of Turner's wife is used as a reason to justify Turner's rebellion. This is fiction. I find it creepy and perverse that Parker and Celestin would put a fictional rape at the center of their film, and that Parker would portray himself as a hero avenging that rape. Given what happened to my sister, and how no one was held accountable for it, I find this invention self-serving and sinister, and I take it as a cruel insult to my sister's memory.[36]

text: Gabrielle Union, a rape survivor and one of the main stars of The Birth of a Nation, wrote in the Los Angeles Times:

text: As important and ground-breaking as this film is, I cannot take these allegations lightly. On that night, 17-odd years ago, did Nate have his date's consent? It's very possible he thought he did. Yet by his own admission he did not have verbal affirmation; and even if she never said "no", silence certainly does not equal "yes". Although it's often difficult to read and understand body language, the fact that some individuals interpret the absence of a "no" as a "yes" is problematic at least, criminal at worst.[37]

text: After having suffered significant negative publicity for his response to the past rape allegation, Parker chose to deflect the questions about his past legal problems while doing press for The Birth of a Nation at the Toronto International Film Festival.[38] Shortly thereafter, Parker and his handlers chose to cut press interviews short when similar questions came up about his involvement with the alleged rape and its impact on the marketing of the film.[39]

text: In an open letter, former members of the Penn State student body and staff who were present during Celestin and Parker's trial defended both men's innocence of the 1999 accusations. The group made allegations of police intimidation and a hostile racial climate on campus at the time; both Parker and Celestin are black while their accuser was a white female. The group wrote in The Root:

text: Misinformation suggests that a spiral into depression was triggered by the alleged incident in 1999. However, court records and testimony by medical professionals revealed a history of chronic depression that dated back to childhood and the use of antidepressant medication that preceded this event.[40]

text: Several celebrities have come out in support of Parker, including Harry Belafonte,[41] Hal Holbrook,[42] Harvey Weinstein,[43] Al Sharpton,[44] Anthony Anderson,[45] and Sheryl Underwood.[46]

text: Holbrook wrote a letter to The New York Times defending Parker and the film.[42] In his letter, Holbrook stated:

text: I am finding it hard to accept the apparent rebuff at the box office of "The Birth of a Nation," particularly after seeing the film last weekend. It is an exceptional piece of artistry and a vital portrait of our American experience in trying to live up to ideals we say we have. No one should miss it — no one who respects our country and its long struggle to define itself. I am sorry about the conflict with Nate Parker's past, but let's try for some honesty here. If you want to make a list of the directors and actors who have rather public indiscretions, and who have in some cases been acquitted of them, start counting. What troubles me is this: Are we being particular here with this extraordinary film because it’s about the racist curse we are struggling to erase from our country and its director is black? The curse is there. Go look at it. Do we have the courage to do that? It's a fine work.[42]

text: The film suffered from vote brigading on IMDB, possibly as a result of the controversy surrounding the alleged rape.[47] As of 11 April 2017[update] it holds an IMDB rating of 6.2/10.[48]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In the United States and Canada, The Birth of a Nation was projected to gross around $10 million in its opening weekend. It went on to open to $7.1 million, finishing 6th at the box office. African-Americans made up 60% of the first weekend audience.[49] In its second weekend the film dropped 61.2%, grossing just $2.7 million and finishing 10th at the box office.[50]

text: Despite making back nearly twice its budget, the film was considered a financial disappointment.[51][52] In assessing the mediocre[53][54] opening weekend of The Birth of a Nation, The Washington Post reported, "While some moviegoers may have been put off by the controversy, middling reviews for the movie itself probably didn’t help. Meanwhile, historic dramas can be a hard sell: It's possible a lot of multiplex visitors just plain weren't interested."[55] Adding to the film's problems, "Several prominent feminists decried Parker's defiant response to the [rape] scandal and pledged to boycott the film, which drew a protest vigil at Hollywood's ArcLight Cinemas."[56][57]

text: Gabrielle Union, one of the main stars of the film, told Essence that she understood why some film-goers were avoiding the film and stated that she, as a rape survivor, could not sell it to anyone who chose to avoid the film due to the controversy.[58] She said, "As a rape survivor and as an advocate, I cannot shy away from this responsibility because the conversation got difficult. I don’t want to put myself above anyone's pain or triggers. Every victim or survivor, I believe you. I support you. I support you if you don't want to see the film. I absolutely understand and respect that. I can't sell the film."[59]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 216 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Birth of a Nation overpowers its narrative flaws and uneven execution through sheer conviction, rising on Nate Parker's assured direction and the strength of its vital message."[60] Metacritic gave the film a normalized score of 69 out of 100, based on 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[61] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[62]

text: Justin Chang at Variety compared The Birth of a Nation to 12 Years a Slave, saying: "Parker's more conventionally told but still searingly impressive debut feature pushes the conversation further still: A biographical drama steeped equally in grace and horror, it builds to a brutal finale that will stir deep emotion and inevitable unease." He concluded, "The Birth of a Nation exists to provoke a serious debate about the necessity and limitations of empathy, the morality of retaliatory violence, and the ongoing black struggle for justice and equality in this country. It earns that debate and then some."[7]

text: The Hollywood Reporter's Todd McCarthy said, "The film vividly captures an assortment of slavery’s brutalities while also underlining the religious underpinnings of Turner's justifications for his assaults on slaveholders." He added, "The film offers up more than enough in terms of intelligence, insight, historical research and religious nuance as to not at all be considered a missed opportunity; far more of the essentials made it into the film than not, its makers' dedication and minute attention are constantly felt and the subject matter is still rare enough onscreen as to be welcome and needed, as it will be the next time and the time after that."[63]

text: Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune was critical of Parker's direction, saying, "one of the drawbacks, ironically, is Parker's own performance. Even the rape victims of the screenplay have a hard time getting their fair share of the screen time; everything in the story, by design, keeps the focus and the anguished close-ups strictly on Parker. He's a good actor, but not much of a director; the visual style and approach of The Birth of a Nation tries a little of everything, and often too much of everything."[64]

text: In its October 10 issue, The New Yorker ran two reviews, "The Cinematic Merits and Flaws of Nate Parker's The Birth of a Nation", by Richard Brody,[65] and "The Birth of a Nation Isn't Worth Defending", by Vinson Cunningham.[66]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)

African-American Film Critics Association
February 8, 2017
Top 10 Films
The Birth of a Nation
6th Place
[67]

Austin Film Critics Association
December 28, 2016
Best First Film
The Birth of a Nation
Nominated
[68][69]

BET Awards
June 25, 2017
Best Movie
The Birth of a Nation
Nominated
[70]

Best Actress
Gabrielle Union
Nominated

Black Reel Awards
February 16, 2017
Outstanding Actor
Nate Parker
Nominated
[71]

Outstanding Director
Nate Parker
Nominated

Outstanding Screenplay, Adapted or Original
Nate Parker
Nominated

Outstanding Ensemble
The cast of The Birth of a Nation
Nominated

Outstanding Breakthrough Performance, Female
Aja Naomi King
Nominated

Outstanding Original Score
Henry Jackman
Nominated

Directors Guild of America Awards
February 4, 2017
Outstanding Directing – First-Time Feature Film
Nate Parker
Nominated
[72]

NAACP Image Awards
February 11, 2017
Outstanding Motion Picture
The Birth of a Nation
Nominated
[73]

Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture
Nate Parker
Nominated

Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
Aja Naomi King
Nominated

Outstanding Independent Picture
The Birth of a Nation
Nominated

Outstanding Directing in a Motion Picture
Nate Parker
Nominated

Outstanding Writing in a Motion Picture
Nate Parker
Nominated

Satellite Awards
February 19, 2017
Best Film Editing
Steven Rosenblum
Nominated
[74]

Sundance Film Festival
January 29, 2016
Audience Award: U.S. Dramatic
Nate Parker
Won
[75][76]

U.S. Grand Jury Prize: Dramatic
Won

tag: table


document_title: Financial Ombudsman Service

question_text: who sets the rules of the financial services ombudsman scheme

text: Financial Ombudsman Service

text: Overview[edit]

text: The Financial Ombudsman Service can deal with complaints from consumers about most financial matters including, for example: banking, insurance, mortgages, pensions, savings and investments, credit cards and store cards, loans and credit, hire purchase and pawnbroking, financial advice, stocks, shares, unit trusts and bonds.

text: From November 2009 money-transfer operators also came under the ombudsman's remit.

text: Before the ombudsman can step in, the consumer must first give the business they are unhappy with the opportunity to look into the complaint itself - before the ombudsman service can make a decision on the dispute. The business has a maximum of 8 weeks to resolve the complaint. If they do not resolve it within 8 weeks or the consumer is not happy with the response then they can refer the complaint to the ombudsman service.[5]

text: The ombudsman has the authority to request or require a company to offer financial compensation, correct a consumer's credit file, or offer an apology, as a means of dispute resolution.[6]

text: Processes[edit]

text: The ombudsman makes decisions on the basis of what it believes is fair and reasonable in the particular circumstances of each case. In making decisions on individual complaints, the law [7][8] requires the ombudsman to take into account: relevant law and regulations; regulator's rules, guidance and standards; codes of practice; and (where appropriate) what he/she considers to have been good industry practice at the relevant time.[9]

text: Funding[edit]

text: The Financial Ombudsman Service is funded by the UK's financial services sector through a combination of statutory levies and case fees.[10][11] These are paid by financial businesses that are regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) or licensed by the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) and are automatically covered by law by the ombudsman service. The payment of these statutory levies and fees are not optional and are payable whether or not a complaint is upheld by the Financial Ombudsman Service. The service is free to consumers. Between 2006 and 2009 the ombudsman service made use of case-handling services provided by Deloitte LLP, to handle the growing volumes of work generated by payment protection insurance complaints.

text: Impartiality[edit]

text: The Financial Ombudsman Service publishes the proportion of complaints it upholds in favour of consumers. Across all complaints in 2013/2014 the ombudsman found 58% in favour of consumers.[12]

text: The ombudsman was set up by parliament to be an impartial and independent body, though its decisions can be criticised by the side that loses.[13][14][15] [16] [17][18]

text: Independent commentators acknowledge that the ombudsman service is a valuable free service for consumers - although those who feel they have "lost" a complaint might understandably feel let down and want to question the ombudsman's impartiality.[19][20] Some consumers have questioned the amount of redress awarded by the ombudsman [21] while many businesses expect the ombudsman to apply the compensation cap rigidly and lobbied against the increase (in January 2012) from £100,000 to £150,000 in the maximum compensation the ombudsman can tell a business to pay.[22]

text: Various websites have been set up to complain about the Financial Ombudsman's partiality - usually by people who disagree with particular ombudsman decisions.[23][24]

text: Complaints-handling performance of individual financial companies[edit]

text: Since September 2009 the Financial Ombudsman Service has been publishing complaints data on its website every six months about named individual businesses. The data provided relates to businesses which have 30 or more new cases, or 30 or more resolved cases, in each six-month period. The data shows the number of new complaints, and the proportion of complaints upheld in favour of consumers.

text: The complaints data shows that:[25]

text:
just under 200 businesses (out of more than 100,000 covered by the ombudsman service) together generate around 90% of the complaints workload,
the number of complaints relating to each individual business ranges from 30 to over 45,000,
the proportion of cases upheld in favour of the consumer varies substantially from business to business – between 3% and 100%.
the most complained about financial product is currently PPI, followed by complaints about Payday Loans.

text: Budget and staffing levels[edit]

text: The entire ombudsman staff in 2007 (including substantial number of ancillary staff) was 960. They managed to handle 627,814 initial enquiries and close 111,673 cases which had been sent to for adjudication. The BBC reported in September 2007 that the ombudsman planned to reduce staff numbers to 600, reflecting the decline in mortgage endowment complaints.[26] By December 2009 ombudsman staff had increased to over 1,000 - reflecting a substantially increased workload of 200,000 cases. Currently there are 4,500 people working at the ombudsman – reflecting a substantially increased workload of over half a million cases last year (2014/2015).

text: Staffing levels at the Financial Ombudsman Service fluctuate - as does the budget year-on-year - to match the volume of disputes it is dealing with. The number of staff required - and forecasts for complaints volumes and workload - are consulted on publicly each year in the ombudsman's corporate plan and budget.[27][28]

text: Status of Ombudsman decisions[edit]

text: Around 90% of the disputes that the Financial Ombudsman Service resolves are settled at earlier informal stages, without the intervention of an ombudsman. An ombudsman's decision is the final stage of the Financial Ombudsman Service's process.[29] If the consumer with the complaint accepts a final decision, it is binding on both parties and enforceable in court.[30][31][32]

text: But if the consumer chooses not to accept an ombudsman's decision, their legal rights remain unaffected and they can take the matter to court instead – subject to any requirements set by the courts. However, independent commentators generally recommend that consumers should use the ombudsman service rather than the courts [33][34][35][36] as the outcome of court cases can be unexpected, disappointing and costly.[37]

text: However, there have been judicial reviews against the ombudsman, brought by financial services companies who have to accept the ombudsman's decisions which are binding in law. For example, in January 2011 the British Bankers Association – on behalf of a number of high-street banks – brought a judicial review against the ombudsman and the FSA on the approach to PPI complaints handling. The High Court rejected the banks' challenge and endorsed the approach taken by the ombudsman and the FSA.[38] The difficulty in winning a judicial review is that the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 [39] which led to the establishment of the Financial Ombudsman Service requires the ombudsman to make decisions "by reference to what is, in the opinion of the ombudsman, fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case".[40]

text: In a judicial review of an ombudsman's decision brought by an independent financial adviser (IFA), the judge further clarified that the ombudsman is "free to make an award different from that which a court applying the law would make".[41] This means that a litigant has to surmount the very high hurdle of proving that the entirety of the ombudsman's decision was so unfair that no right minded person would have made a similar decision. This is referred to as the Wednesbury unreasonableness principle which applies to any application for judicial review under made due to the irrationality of the decision.

text: Accountability[edit]

text: The board of the Financial Ombudsman Service[42] is appointed by the Financial Conduct Authority – and the appointment of the chairman is approved by HM Treasury. The board's role includes guarding the independence of the ombudsman - from undue influence by the financial services industry and trade bodies, regulators, consumer groups and government. Board members are non-executive - they have no involvement in individual complaints.

text: The ombudsman can be asked to appear before the Parliamentary Treasury Select Committee who can be contacted by the consumer's MP.

text: In November 2011 the Financial Ombudsman Service became covered by the Freedom of Information Act. The ombudsman's website has a page of information on this subject

text: Consumer satisfaction surveys - and surveys of businesses covered by the ombudsman - are conducted by the Financial Ombudsman Service on an ongoing basis. The results are published annually in the ombudsman's annual review.[43][44]

text: Customers of the Financial Ombudsman Service - both consumers and businesses - can seek redress from the Independent Assessor [45] if they are unhappy with the level of service they have received.[46]

text: The Independent Assessor is appointed by the board of the Financial Ombudsman Service. The current holder of the post is Amerdeep Somal, who has held several similar posts.[47]

text: The Independent Assessor reports formally to the board of the Financial Ombudsman Service - which publishes a report in full each year as part of the Financial Ombudsman Service's annual review.[48][49][50][51][52][53]

text: Triennial reviews[edit]

text: The non-executive board of the Financial Ombudsman Service commissions three-yearly external reviews of the service.[citation needed]

text: Chief ombudsmen[edit]

text:
Walter Merricks, 2000–2009
Natalie Ceeney, 2010–2013
Caroline Wayman, 2014 to present

text: Criticism[edit]

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2015)

text:
Employees have left overwhelmingly negative reviews on Glassdoor (with an average rating of 1.9 out of 5), blaming a decline in quality on recent changes in the way the organisation is structured.[54][55]
Timeliness - In the years since the ombudsman service was created, some consumers, businesses and commentators have suggested that the ombudsman takes too long to look at some complaints. In previous years, the ombudsman has seen complaints about some topical financial matters take longer to resolve than others (notably, mortgage endowments and payment protection insurance (PPI) due to the sheer volume of complaints received by the service.[56] The ombudsman’s published annual review (2012/2013) showed 58% of all disputes were sorted out within six months – and 43% of non-PPI cases within three months.[57]
Questions as to their impartiality[58] due to the manner in which they're funded by the financial services, and that many employees have worked for financial services firms, mostly as solicitors who make up 38% of their brethren.[59][60] Though the ombudsman service currently upholds over 49% of complaints in favour of the consumer, there have been complaints that the awards are inadequate.[61]
As an ombudsman's decision is the final stage in the service's process, consumers who remain unhappy would need to pursue their complaint through the court.[62] (However no alternative has been suggested.)
Lack of fifteen-year long-stop: There is no fifteen-year "long-stop" rule in the complaints-handling rules made under the Financial Services and Markets Act. In its policy statement published in January 2003 – and following subsequent reviews – the Financial Services Authority (FSA) set out why there is no fifteen-year limitation period in the complaints-handling rules, stating: "We do not consider it is in the interests of consumers to rule out the possibility of complaints being dealt with outside the 15-year period that would apply to court cases. Nor do we consider this necessary to prevent hardship to firms."

text: International Network of Financial Services Ombudsman Schemes[edit]

text: The UK Financial Ombudsman Service is a member of the International Network of Financial Services Ombudsman Schemes, a global association whose members operate as out-of-court dispute resolution mechanisms in the financial sector.

text: Other members include:

text:
Financial Ombudsman Service (Australia)
Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments (Canada)
Financial Services Ombudsman's Bureau of Ireland
Ombudsman for Banking Services (South Africa)

text: A list of all members can be found at the International Network's website.


document_title: Human mission to Mars

question_text: when is the first mission to mars planned

question_tokens: when is the first mission to mars planned

text: Human mission to Mars

text: Travel to Mars[edit]

text: The energy needed for transfer between planetary orbits, or "∆V", is lowest at intervals fixed by the synodic period. For Earth / Mars trips, this is every 26 months (2 years and 2 months),[1] so missions are typically planned to coincide with one of these launch windows. The energy needed in the low-energy windows varies on roughly a 15-year cycle[1] with the easiest windows needing only half the energy of the peaks.[2] In the 20th century, there was a minimum in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows and another low in 1986 and 1988, then the cycle repeated.[1]

text: Several types of mission plans have been proposed, such as the opposition class and conjunction class,[2] or the Crocco flyby.[3] The lowest energy transfer to Mars is a Hohmann transfer orbit; a mission to Mars using Hohmann transfer involves an approximately 9 month travel time from Earth to Mars, about five hundred days at Mars to wait for the transfer window to Earth, and a Hohmann transfer of about 9 months to return to Earth.

text: Shorter Mars mission plans have round-trip flight times of 400 to 450 days,[4] but requiring a higher energy. A fast Mars mission of 245 days round trip could be possible with on-orbit staging.[5] In 2014 ballistic capture was proposed, which may reduce fuel cost and provide more flexible launch windows compared to the Hohmann.[6]

text: In the Crocco grand tour, a crewed spacecraft would get a flyby of Mars and Venus for under a year in space.[7] Some flyby mission architectures can also be extended to include a style of Mars landing with a flyby excursion lander spacecraft.[8] Proposed by R. Titus in 1966, it involved extending a flyby mission with a short stay lander.[8] Basically, a short stay lander-ascent vehicle would separate from a "parent" Earth-Mars transfer prior to its flyby of Mars.[8] The Ascent-Descent lander would arrive sooner and either go into orbit around Mars or land, and depending on the design offer perhaps 10–30 days before it needed to launch itself back to the main transfer vehicle.[8] (see also Mars flyby).

text: Challenges[edit]

text: Logistical[edit]

text: The estimated cost of sending humans to Mars is roughly 500 billion U.S. dollars, though the actual costs are likely to be more.[9] The largest limiting factor for sending humans to Mars is funding. In the late 1950s, rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States stimulated a national priority to send humans to the Moon. Under the current global geopolitical climate, however, government funding of these programs has decreased. Recent participation of private companies in space travel and participation by new nations such as India[10] may present new opportunities.

text: Critics argue the immediate benefits of establishing a human presence on Mars are more esoteric than practical. Yet proponents of human space exploration contend that while the short term benefits will be academic, the symbolism of establishing a presence in space may garner public interest to join the cause and spark global cooperation. Furthermore, experts maintain that a long-term investment will be necessary for humanity’s survival.[9]

text: Physical[edit]

text: There are several key physical challenges for human missions to Mars:[14]

text: Health threat from cosmic rays and other ionizing radiation.[15][16][17] In May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible mission to Mars may involve great radiation risk based on energetic particle radiation measured by the RAD on the Mars Science Laboratory while traveling from the Earth to Mars in 2011–2012. The calculated radiation dose was 0.66 sieverts round-trip. The agency's career radiation limit for astronauts is 1 sievert.[11][12][13][18] In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month.[19]

text:
Negative effects of a prolonged weightlessness environment on human health, including eyesight visual impairment.[20][21][22] (Depends on mission and spacecraft design).
Psychological effects of isolation from Earth and, by extension, the lack of community due to impossibility of real-time connections with Earth. (Compare Hermit).
Social effects of several humans living under cramped conditions for more than one Earth year, possibly two or three years, on the mission to Mars, and a comparable length of time on the return to Earth. (Depends on spacecraft and mission design).
Inaccessibility of terrestrial medical facilities.
Potential failure of propulsion or life-support equipment.

text: Some of these issues were estimated statistically in the HUMEX study.[23] Ehlmann and others have reviewed political and economic concerns, as well as technological and biological feasibility aspects.[24] While fuel for roundtrip travel could be a challenge, methane and oxygen can be produced using Martian H2O (preferably as water ice instead of liquid water) and atmospheric CO2 with mature technology.[25]

text: Planetary protection[edit]

text: Robotic spacecraft to Mars are required to be sterilized, to have at most 300,000 spores on the exterior of the craft—and more thoroughly sterilized if they contact "special regions" containing water,[26][27] as otherwise there is a risk of contaminating not only the life-detection experiments but possibly the planet itself.[28]

text: It is impossible to sterilize human missions to this level, as humans are host to typically a hundred trillion microorganisms of thousands of species of the human microbiota, and these cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but it is a major challenge in the event of a hard landing (i.e. crash).[29] There have been several planetary workshops on this issue, but with no final guidelines for a way forward yet.[30] Human explorers would also be vulnerable to back contamination to Earth if they become carriers of microorganisms.[31]

text: Mission proposals[edit]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Over the last century, a number of mission concepts for such an expedition have been proposed. David Portree's history volume Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000 discusses many of these.[1]

text: Wernher von Braun proposal (1947 through 1950s)[edit]

text: Wernher von Braun was the first person to make a detailed technical study of a Mars mission.[1][33] Details were published in his book Das Marsprojekt (1952, published in English as The Mars Project in 1962[34]) and several subsequent works.[35] Willy Ley popularized a similar mission in English in the book The Conquest of Space (1949), featuring illustrations by Chesley Bonestell. Von Braun's Mars project envisioned nearly a thousand three-stage vehicles launching from Earth to ferry parts for the Mars mission to be constructed at a space station in Earth orbit.[33][36] The mission itself featured a fleet of ten spacecraft with a combined crew of 70 heading to Mars, bringing three winged surface excursion ships that would land horizontally on the surface of Mars. (Winged landing was considered possible because at the time of his proposal, the Martian atmosphere was believed to be much denser than was later found to be the case.)

text: In the 1956 revised vision of the Mars Project plan, published in the book The Exploration of Mars by Wernher Von Braun and Willy Ley, the size of the mission was trimmed, requiring only 400 launches to put together two ships, still carrying a winged landing vehicle.[37] Later versions of the mission proposal, featured in the Disney "Man In Space" film series,[38] showed nuclear-powered ion-propulsion vehicles for the interplanetary cruise.

text: U.S. proposals (1950s, 1960s, and 1970s)[edit]

text: In 1962, Aeronutronic Ford,[39] General Dynamics and the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company made studies of Mars mission designs as part of NASA Marshall Spaceflight Center "Project EMPIRE".[33] These studies indicated that a Mars mission (possibly including a Venus fly-by) could be done with a launch of eight Saturn V boosters and assembly in low Earth orbit, or possibly with a single launch of a hypothetical "post Saturn" heavy-lift vehicle. Although the EMPIRE missions were only studies, and never proposed as funded projects, these were the first detailed analyses of what it would take to accomplish a human voyage to Mars using data from actual NASA spaceflight, and laid much of the basis for future studies, including significant mission studies by TRW, North American, Philco, Lockheed, Douglas, and General Dynamics, along with several in-house NASA studies.[33]

text: Following the success of the Apollo Program, von Braun advocated a manned mission to Mars as a focus for NASA's manned space program.[40] Von Braun's proposal used Saturn V boosters to launch nuclear-powered (NERVA) upper stages that would power two six-crew spacecraft on a dual mission in the early 1980s. The proposal was considered by (then president) Richard Nixon but passed over in favor of the Space Shuttle.

text: In 1975, von Braun discussed the mission architecture that emerged from these Apollo-era studies in a recorded lecture and while doing so suggested that multiple Shuttle launches could instead be configured to lift the two Nuclear Thermal Rocket engine equipped spacecrafts in smaller parts, for assembly in-orbit.[41]

text: Soviet mission proposals (1956 through 1969)[edit]

text: The Martian Piloted Complex or "'MPK'" was a proposal by Mikhail Tikhonravov of the Soviet Union for a manned Mars expedition, using the (then proposed) N-1 rocket, in studies from 1956 to 1962. The Soviets sent many probes to Mars with some noted success stories including Mars atmospheric entry, but the ratio was low and their space program struggled through disasters like the lost Salyut 1 crew and explosions of their N-1 rocket (see Mars 3)

text: Heavy Interplanetary Spacecraft (known by the Russian acronym TMK) was the designation of a Soviet Union space exploration proposal in the 1960s to send a manned flight to Mars and Venus (TMK-MAVR design) without landing. The TMK spacecraft was due to launch in 1971 and make a three-year-long flight including a Mars fly-by at which time probes would have been dropped. The project was never completed because the required N1 rocket never flew successfully. The Mars Expeditionary Complex, or "'MEK"' (1969) was another Soviet proposal for a Mars expedition that would take a crew from three to six to Mars and back with a total mission duration of 630 days.

text: Case for Mars (1981–1996)[edit]

text: Following the Viking missions to Mars, between 1981 and 1996 a series of conferences named The Case for Mars were held at the University of Colorado at Boulder. These conferences advocated human exploration of Mars, presented concepts and technologies, and held a series of workshops to develop a baseline concept for the mission. The baseline concept was notable in that it proposed use of in-situ resource utilization to manufacture rocket propellant for the return trip using the resources of Mars. The mission study was published in a series of proceedings volumes[42][43] published by the American Astronautical Society. Later conferences in the series presented a number of alternative concepts, including the "Mars Direct" concept of Robert Zubrin and David Baker; the "Footsteps to Mars" proposal of Geoffrey A. Landis,[44] which proposed intermediate steps before the landing on Mars, including human missions to Phobos; and the "Great Exploration" proposal from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, among others.

text: NASA Space Exploration Initiative (1989)[edit]

text: In response to a presidential initiative, NASA made a study of a project for human lunar- and Mars exploration as a proposed follow-on to the International Space Station project. This resulted in a report, called the 90-day study,[45] in which the agency proposed a long-term plan consisting of completing the Space Station as "a critical next step in all our space endeavors," returning to the moon and establishing a permanent base, and then sending astronauts to Mars. This report was widely criticized as too elaborate and expensive, and all funding for human exploration beyond Earth orbit was canceled by Congress.[46]

text: Mars Direct (early 1990s)[edit]

text: Because of the greater distance, the Mars mission would be much more risky and expensive than past Moon flights. Supplies and fuel would have to be prepared for a 2-3 year round trip and the spacecraft would need at least partial shielding from ionizing radiation. A 1990 paper by Robert Zubrin and David A. Baker, then of Martin Marietta, proposed reducing the mission mass (and hence the cost) by using in situ resource utilization to manufacture propellant from the Martian Atmosphere.[47][48] This proposal drew on concepts developed by the former "Case for Mars" conference series. Over the next decade, Zubrin developed it into a mission concept, Mars Direct, which he presented in a book, The Case for Mars (1996). The mission is advocated by the Mars Society, which Zubrin founded in 1998, as practical and affordable.

text: International Space University (1991)[edit]

text: In 1991 in Toulouse, France, the International Space University studied an international human Mars mission.[49] They proposed a crew of 8 traveling to Mars in a nuclear-powered vessel with artificial gravity provided by rotation.[49] On the surface, 40 tonne habitats pressurized to 10 psi (69 kPa) were powered by a 40 kW photovoltaic array.[49]

text: NASA Design reference missions (1990s)[edit]

text: In the 1990s NASA developed several conceptual level human Mars exploration architectures. One of these was NASA Design reference mission 3.0 (DRM 3.0) to stimulate further thought and concept development.

text: Selected other US/NASA studies (1988–2009):[50]

text:
1988 "Mars Expedition"
1989 "Mars Evolution"
1990 "90-Day Study"
1991 "Synthesis Group"
1995 "DRM 1"
1997 "DRM 3"[51]
1998 "DRM 4"
1999 "Dual Landers"

tag: ol

text: 21st century[edit]

text: NASA Design reference missions (2000+)[edit]

text: The NASA Mars Design Reference Missions consisted of a series of conceptual design studies for human Mars missions, continued in the 21st century Selected other US/NASA plans (1988–2009):[50]

text:
2000 SERT (SSP)
2001 DPT/NEXT
2002 NEP Art. Gravity
2009 DRA 5[52]

text: MARPOST (2000–2005)[edit]

text: The Mars Piloted Orbital Station (or MARPOST) is a Russian proposed manned orbital mission to Mars, using a nuclear reactor to run an electric rocket engine. Proposed in October 2000 by Yuri Karash from the Russian Academy of Cosmonautics as the next step for Russia in space along with the Russian participation in the International Space Station, a 30-volume draft project for MARPOST was confirmed as of 2005.[53] Design for the ship was proposed to be ready in 2012, and the ship itself in 2021.[54]

text: ESA Aurora programme (2001+)[edit]

text: The European Space Agency had a long-term vision of sending a human mission to Mars in 2033.[55] Laid out in 2001, the project's proposed timeline would begin with robotic exploration, a proof of concept simulation of sustaining humans on Mars, and eventually a manned mission; however, objections from the participating nations of ESA and other delays have put the timeline into question. Nevertheless, a spawn of this programme, ExoMars, delivered an orbiter to Mars in 2016

text: ESA/Russia plan (2002)[edit]

text: Another proposal for a joint ESA mission with Russia is based on two spacecraft being sent to Mars, one carrying a six-person crew and the other the expedition's supplies. The mission would take about 440 days to complete with three astronauts visiting the surface of the planet for a period of two months. The entire project would cost $20 billion and Russia would contribute 30% of these funds.[56]

text: USA Vision for Space Exploration (2004)[edit]

text: Project Constellation included an Orion Mars Mission. (Then United States President) George W. Bush announced an initiative of manned space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the Vision for Space Exploration. It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012[57] and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010–2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others.[58] On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037.[59] The needed funds were to be generated by diverting $11 billion[60] from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.

text: NASA has also discussed plans to launch Mars missions from the Moon to reduce traveling costs.[61]

text: Mars Society Germany – European Mars Mission (EMM) (2005)[edit]

text: The Mars Society Germany proposed a manned Mars mission using several launches of an improved heavy-lift version of the Ariane 5. Roughly 5 launches would be required to send a crew of 5 on a 1200 days mission, with a payload of 120,000 kg (260,000 lb). Total project was estimated to cost 10 to 15 billion Euros.[62]

text: China National Space Administration (CNSA) (2006)[edit]

text: Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, said on July 20, 2006 that China would start deep space exploration focusing on Mars over the next five years, during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006–2010) Program period.[63] The first uncrewed Mars exploration program could take place between 2014–2033, followed by a crewed phase in 2040–2060 in which crew members would land on Mars and return home.[64] The Mars 500 study of 2011 prepared for this manned mission.

text: The One-Way Trip Option (2006); Mars to Stay (2006)[edit]

text: The idea of a one-way trip to Mars has been proposed several times. Space activist Bruce Mackenzie, for example, proposed a one-way trip to Mars in a presentation "One Way to Mars – a Permanent Settlement on the First Mission" at the 1998 International Space Development Conference,[65] arguing that since the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense without a return to Earth, the first mission to Mars should be a settlement, not a visit. In 2006, former NASA engineer James C. McLane III proposed a scheme to initially colonize Mars via a one-way trip by only one human. Papers discussing this concept appeared in The Space Review,[66] Harper's Magazine,[67] SEARCH Magazine[68] and The New York Times.[69]

text: Former Apollo astronaut Buzz Aldrin is a particularly outspoken promoter who has suggested in numerous forums "Forget the Moon, Let's Head to Mars!"[70] In June 2013, Aldrin wrote an opinion, published in The New York Times, supporting a manned mission to Mars and which viewed the moon "not as a destination but more a point of departure . . . "[71] In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a "master plan" for NASA consideration proposing astronauts with a "tour of duty of ten years" colonize Mars before the year 2040.[72]

text: NASA Design Reference Mission 5.0 (2007)[edit]

text: NASA released initial details of the latest version conceptual level human Mars exploration architecture in this presentation. The study further developed concepts developed in previous NASA DRM and updated it to more current launchers and technology.

text: NASA Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009)[edit]

text: NASA released an updated version of NASA DRM 5.0 in early 2009, featuring use of the Ares V launcher, Orion CEV, and updated mission planning. In this document.[73]

text: NASA Austere Human Missions to Mars (2009)[edit]

text: Extrapolated from the DRMA 5.0, plans for a manned Mars expedition with chemical propulsion. Austere Human Missions to Mars

text: USA's Mars orbit by the mid-2030s (2010)[edit]

text: In a major space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, former U.S. President Barack Obama predicted a manned Mars mission to orbit the planet by the mid-2030s, followed by a landing:

text: By the mid-2030s, I believe we can send humans to orbit Mars and return them safely to Earth. And a landing on Mars will follow. And I expect to be around to see it.

text: The United States Congress has mostly approved a new direction for NASA that includes canceling Bush's planned return to the Moon by 2020 and instead proposes asteroid exploration in 2025 (Asteroid Redirect Mission) and orbiting Mars in the 2030s.[74] The Asteroid Redirect Mission was cancelled in June 2017 and "closed out" in September of the same year.

text: Martian Frontier (2007–2011)[edit]

text: Mars 500, the longest high fidelity spaceflight simulation, ran from 2007 to 2011 in Russia and was an experiment to assess the feasibility of manned missions to mars.[75]

text: Russian mission proposals (2011)[edit]

text: A number of Mars mission concepts and proposals have been put forth by Russian scientists. Stated dates were for a launch sometime between 2016 and 2020. The Mars probe would carry a crew of four to five cosmonauts, who would spend close to two years in space.[citation needed]

text: In late 2011, Russian and European space agencies successfully completed the ground-based MARS-500.[76] The biomedical experiment simulating manned flight to Mars was completed in Russia in July 2000.[77]

text: 2-4-2 concept (2011–2012)[edit]

text: In 2011, Jean-Marc Salotti published a new proposal for a manned Mars mission, with a release in 2012.[78][79] The 2-4-2 concept is based on a reduction of the crew size to only 2 astronauts and the duplication of the entire mission. There are 2 astronauts in each space vehicle, there are 4 on the surface of Mars and there are 2 once again in each return vehicle. In addition, at every step of the mission, there are 2 astronauts ready to help the 2 others (2 for 2). This architecture simplifies the entry, descent and landing procedures, which are known to be very risky, thanks to a significant reduction of the size of the landing vehicles. It also avoids the assembly of huge vehicles in LEO. The author claims that his proposal is much cheaper than the NASA reference mission without compromising the risks and can be undertaken before 2030.

text: Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture for Human Exploration of Mars (2012)[edit]

text: In 2012, Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture for Human Exploration of Mars, with Artificial Gravity and Mini-Magnetosphere Crew Radiation Shield was released, laying out a possible design for a human Mars mission.[80] Components of the architecture include various spacecraft for the Earth-to-Mars journey, landing, and surface stay as well as return.[80] Some features include a several unmanned cargo landers assembled into a base on the surface of Mars.[80] The crew would land at this base in the "Mars Personnel Lander", which could also take them back into Mars orbit.[80] The design for the manned interplanetary spacecraft included artificial-gravity and an artificial magnetic field.[80] Overall, the architecture was modular and to allow for incremental R&D.[80]

text: Mars One (2012)[edit]

text: In 2012, a Dutch entrepreneur group began raising funds for a human Mars base to be established in 2023.[81] The mission is intended to be primarily a settlement mission with no return trip to Earth planned. Astronaut applications were invited from the public all over the world.

text: The initial plan included an orbiter and demonstration lander in 2018, followed by a rover in 2020, and the base components in 2024.[81] Mars One suggested it could use a SpaceX Heavy rocket to launch flight hardware.[81] The first crew of four astronauts were to land on Mars in 2025. Then, every two years, a new crew of four would arrive. The entire mission is to be filmed and broadcast as a media event. Revenues from broadcasting would help fund the program. In April 2015, Mars One’s CEO Bas Lansdorp admitted that their 12-year plan for landing humans on Mars by 2027 is mostly fiction.[82]

text: Inspiration Mars Foundation (2013)[edit]

text: In 2013, the Inspiration Mars Foundation founded by Dennis Tito revealed plans of a manned mission to fly by Mars in 2018 with support from NASA.[83][84] NASA refused to fund the mission.

text: Boeing Affordable Mission (2014)[edit]

text: On December 2, 2014, NASA's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the Boeing "Affordable Mars Mission Design"[clarification needed] including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in-transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return.[85][86] Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.[87]

text: NASA's Journey to Mars: Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration (2015)[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2018)

text: On October 8, 2015, NASA published its official plan for human exploration and colonization of Mars. The plan operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.[88]

text: The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant" phase. This phase continues using the International Space Station until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body.

text: The second stage, "Proving Ground," moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into cislunar space for most of its tasks. This is when NASA planned the now cancelled Asteroid Redirect Mission (for 2020), test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars.

text: Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources. The "Earth Independent" phase includes long term missions on the lunar surface with surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.[89]

text: In November 2015, Administrator Bolden of NASA reaffirmed the goal of sending humans to Mars.[90] He laid out 2030 as the date of a manned surface landing, and noted that planned 2020 Mars rover would support the human mission.[90] Also discussed was the use of robotics to prepare an underground habitat for the arriving people.[90] He noted the advantages of living underground on Mars, especially that it eliminates the need to construct above ground shielding.[90] The underground base would be prepared in advance by an armada of robots.[90] Top surface activity was not excluded however, just that the crew would "probably live underground for the most part".[90]

text: SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure (2016–17)[edit]

text: Since 2016, SpaceX publicly announced a comprehensive vision to begin the colonization of Mars, by proposing to develop a high-capacity transportation infrastructure.

text: ITS launch vehicle[edit]

text: In September 2016 at the International Astronautical Congress, Elon Musk announced the ITS launch vehicle design (informally discussed earlier as the Mars Colonial Transporter), that comprised a large reusable booster topped by a spaceship or a tanker for in-orbit refueling, as well as a propellant plant to be built on Mars, at a base referred to as Mars Base Alpha.[91] The aspirational objective is to advance the technology and infrastructure such that the first humans to Mars could potentially depart as early as 2024.[92][93][94][95][96][97]

text: BFR (Big Falcon Rocket)[edit]

text: On 29th September 2017, Elon Musk announced an updated vehicle design for the mars mission at the International Astronautical Congress. The replacement vehicle for this mission is called BFR (Big Falcon Rocket). BFR will provide the on-orbit activity like satellite delivery, servicing the International Space Station, Moon mission, as well as Mars mission. There are two phases for the human mission to Mars via BFR:

text:
In 2022, at least 2 BFR cargo vehicles will land on Mars.

They will confirm water resources and identify hazards.
They will place power, mining and life support infrastructure for future missions.

In 2024, 2 BFR crew vehicles will take the first people to Mars.

2 BFR cargo vehicles will bring more equipment and supplies.
They will place a propellant production plant.
They will build up a base to prepare for expansion.

text: Mars Base Camp (2016)[edit]

text: Mars Base Camp (MBC), an American spacecraft concept that proposes to send astronauts to Mars as early as 2028. The vehicle design, developed by Lockheed Martin,[98] would utilize both future and heritage concepts as well as the Orion MPCV built by NASA.

text: Deep Space Transport (2017)[edit]

text: The Deep Space Transport (DST) is a spacecraft meant to be launched on top of NASA's SLS launch vehicle in 2027. It was announced by NASA in March 2017.[99] Plans at present predict it to dock with the Deep Space Gateway (DSG) station, which would be in cis-lunar space after its construction from 2021 to 2026 as a manned lunar space station, the first of its kind, in 2027. Current plans show it to be sent with a crew of 4 to Mars in 2033. It would not, however, land, but merely remain in Martian orbit until there is a launch window for a return. The mission is expected to take about 2 years if all missions in the DSG and DST from 2021–2030 are successful. This mission would use only the SLS rocket for launches, with the Orion MPCV to be used as a spacecraft to transport the crew to and from the Earth and the DSG and DST.[100][101]

text: Current intentions by nations and space agencies[edit]

text: A number of nations and organizations have long-term intentions to send humans to Mars.

text:
The United States has robotic missions currently exploring Mars, with a sample-return planned for the future. The Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) is intended to serve as the launch/splashdown crew delivery vehicle, with a Deep Space Habitat module providing additional living-space for the 16-month-long journey. The first manned Mars Mission, which will include sending astronauts to Mars, orbiting Mars, and a return to Earth, is scheduled for the 2030s.[102][103][104] Technology development for US government missions to Mars is underway, but there is no well-funded approach to bring the conceptual project to completion with human landings on Mars by the mid-2030s, the stated objective.[105] NASA is under presidential orders to land humans on Mars by 2033, and NASA-funded engineers are studying a way to build potential human habitats there by producing bricks from pressurized Martian soil.[106]
The European Space Agency has a long-term goal to send humans but has not yet built a manned spacecraft. It has sent robotic probes like ExoMars in 2016 and plans to send the next probe in 2020.

text:
India successfully placed an unmanned Mars Orbiter Mission (also called Mangalyaan) satellite in Mars orbit in 2014.[107] ISRO plans a larger follow-up mission called Mangalyaan 2 between 2018 and 2020.[108][109] This mission will likely consist of a lander and a Mars rover.[110][111] No plans for an Indian human mission to Mars have been made public.
Japan has sent one robotic mission to Mars in 1998, the Nozomi, but it failed to achieve Mars orbit. JAXA has proposed a rover mission called MELOS for an engineering demonstration of precision landing, and to look for possible biosignatures on Mars in 2020 or 2022. No plans for a Japanese human mission to Mars have been made public.
China's first attempted mission to Mars, the Yinghuo-1 space probe, was lost with Russia's sample return mission to Phobos, Fobos-Grunt in 2011–2012. China plans to develop and launch an orbiter, lander and rover to Mars in July or August 2020[112][113] with a Long March 5 heavy lift rocket.[114][115][116] A crewed phase is planned for the 2040–2060 timeframe.[117]
Russia plans to send humans in the 2040–2045 timeframe.[118]

text: Technological innovations and hurdles[edit]

text: Significant technological hurdles need to be overcome for human spaceflight to Mars.

text: Entry into the thin and shallow Martian atmosphere will pose significant difficulties with re-entry and for a spacecraft of the weight needed to carry humans, along with life support, supplies and other equipment. Should a heat shield be used, it would need to be very large. Retro rockets could be used, but would add significant further weight.

text: A return mission to Mars will need to land a rocket to carry crew off the surface. Launch requirements mean that this rocket would be significantly smaller than an Earth-to-orbit rocket. Mars-to-orbit launch can also be achieved in single stage. Despite this, landing an ascent rocket on Mars will be difficult. Reentry for a large rocket will be difficult.

text: One of the medical supplies that may be needed is intravenous fluid, which is mostly water but contains other things so it can be added directly to the human blood stream. If it can be created on the spot from existing water then it could spare the weight of hauling earth-produced units, whose weight is mostly water.[120] A prototype for this capability was tested on the International Space Station in 2010.[120]

text: While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, a pure oxygen atmosphere was implicated in the Apollo 1 fire. As such, Mars habitats may have a need for additional gases. One possibility is to take nitrogen and argon from the atmosphere of Mars; however, they are hard to separate from each other.[121] As a result, a Mars habitat may use 40% argon, 40% nitrogen, and 20% oxygen.[121]

text: Another concept for breathing air is to use re-usable amine bead carbon dioxide scrubbers.[122] While one carbon dioxide scrubber filters the astronaut's air, the other is vented to the Mars atmosphere.[122]

text: Precursor missions[edit]

text: Some missions may be considered a "Mission to Mars" in their own right, or they may only be one step in a more in-depth program. An example of this is missions to Mars' moons, or flyby missions.

text: Manned flyby[edit]

text: An example of this is Inspiration Mars, which could be compared to the Manned Venus Flyby (NASA) mission proposal of the 1970s, but for Mars.

text: Missions to Deimos or Phobos[edit]

text: Many Mars mission concepts propose precursor missions to the moons of Mars, for example, a sample return mission to the Mars moon Phobos[123] – not quite Mars, but perhaps a convenient stepping stone to an eventual Martian surface mission. Lockheed Martin, as part of their "Stepping stones to Mars" project, called the "Red Rocks Project", proposed to explore Mars robotically from Deimos.[44][124][125]

text: Use of fuel produced from water resources on Phobos or Deimos has also been proposed.

text: Mars sample return missions[edit]

text: An unmanned Mars sample return mission (MSR) has sometimes been considered to be an essential precursor to crewed missions to Mars' surface by the 21st century.[126] The ESA noted that a sample return as being essential and could bridge the gap between robotic and human missions to Mars.[126] An example of a Mars sample return mission is Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars.[127] Mars sample return was the highest priority Flagship Mission proposed for NASA by the Planetary Decadal Survey 2013–2022: The Future of Planetary Science.[128] However, such missions have been hampered by complexity and expense, with one ESA proposal involving no less than five different unmanned spacecraft.[129]

text: A difficulty in sample return plans is the concern that, however remote, something could be brought back that could infect life on the Earth.[129] Regardless, a basic set of guidelines for extraterrestrial sample return have been laid out depending on the source of sample (e.g. asteroid, Moon, Mars surface, etc.)[130] Hardware and mission parameters are designed following planetary protection protocols so mission concepts can proceed forward in an orderly way without causing undue concern over remote chances.[130] The issue of sample protection is another factor that increases the difficulty of sample return, both to keep the sample from getting contaminated with Earth material or life, and achieving a rational approach to keeping the Mars sample from "contaminating" Earth.[129]

text: At the dawn of the 21st century, NASA crafted four potential pathways to Mars human missions.[131] Of those four, three included a Mars sample return as a prerequisite to human landing, however one did not.[131]

text: Crewed orbital missions[edit]

text: Landis[132] and Lupisella proposed to explore Mars via telepresence from human astronauts in orbit.[133]

text: A similar idea, was the proposed "Human Exploration using Real-time Robotic Operations" (HERRO) mission.[134][135]

text: Another proposed mission was the Russian Mars Piloted Orbital Station.


document_title: Responses to sneezing

question_text: how to say god bless you in indian

question_tokens: how to say god bless you in indian

text: Responses to sneezing

text: List of responses in other languages[edit]

text:
Language
Usual Responses and Notes
Response Meaning in English
Sneezer Reply and Pronunciation
Reply Meaning in English

Albanian
Shëndet (shuhn-det)
"Health!"
Faleminderit or Shëndet paç
"Thank you!" and "May you have health," respectively

Amharic
ይማርሽ (yimarish) for female or ይማርህ (yimarih) for male
"May God forgive you!"
ያኑሪሽ (yanurish) for female or ያኑርህ (yanurih) for male
"May you live for long."

Afrikaans
Gesondheid
"Health!"
Dankie
"Thank You"

Arabic (Islamic)
يرحمكم الله (yarhamkum Allah) if the sneezer says الحمدلله (Alhamdulillah), as an alternative interaction
فرج (Faraj), صحة (Sahha)

"God have mercy on you" if the sneezer says "All praise is for God."
Relief!", "Health!"

علينا و عليك (Alayna wa Alayk), شكراً (Shukran) or يهديكم الله و يصلح بالكم (Yahdeekum Allah wa youslah balakum) after the alternative interaction
"For you and me", "Thank you!" or "God guide you and set your affairs aright."

Armenian
առողջություն (aroghjootyoon)
"Health"
շնորհակալություն (shnorhakalutyun)
"Thank you"

Assamese
মঙ্গল হওক (môngôl hôwk)
"May good happen."
Unknown
Unknown

Azeri
Sağlam ol, or sometimes Afiat (see Persian)
"Be healthy."
Unknown
Unknown

Bangla
[Bangladesh] Yarhamukallah (আল্লাহ তোমার উপর রহম দান করুন)
[India] Jibah Jibah (জীবঃ জীবঃ),

"[Bangladesh] May Allah have mercy on you
[India] May you live long "

"Silence"
"Silence"

Basque
Doministiku, from Latin "dominus tecum"
"The Lord be with you."
Unknown
Unknown

Belarusian
будзь здаровы for both genders, orбудзь здароў (Budz zdarovy / budz zdarou) for male and будзь здаровая (Budz zdarovaja) for female
"Be healthy!" for each gender
дзякуй (dziakuj)
"Thank you."

Bosnian
Nazdravlje
"To your good health."
Hvala
"Thank you."

Breton
Doue d'ho pennigo.
"God will bless you."

Bulgarian
Наздраве (Nazdrave)
"To your health." or "Cheers."
Благодаря (Blagodarya)
"Thank you."

Burmese
Ta Baw Pout Pi Lar?
"Understood?" or "Got it?"
Hote, Pout Pi
"Yes or No."

Khmer
សុខភាព (sokhpheap)
"Health"
Unknown
N/A

Catalan
Jesús or Salut
"Jesus." or "Health!"
Gràcies
"Thank you."

Cantonese
'大吉利事/"好嘅". Sneezing in Southern Chinese culture means that someone is speaking ill behind your back.
"A great fortunate occurrence."/ "A good one. "
唔好意思
"Excuse me."

Chechen
Dukha vehil for male or Dukha yehil for female
"Live for a long time."
Dela reze hiyla
"Thank you, literally means "I wish God will bless you"."

Chinese
Chinese speakers do not typically comment on another person's sneeze, or sometimes 多保重 (duobaozhong).
"Take care"
不好意思 (bùhǎoyìsi)
"Excuse me."

Croatian
Nazdravlje or Istina!
"To your health." or "Truth!"
Hvala
"Thank you."

Czech
Na zdraví or Pozdrav Pánbůh or Je to pravda
"To your health." or "Bless God" or "It is true."
Ať slouží or Dejž to Pánbůh (in reply to Pozdrav Pánbůh)
"May it last." or "May God let it happen (bless you)"

Danish
Prosit
"May it help."
Tak
"Thank you."

Dutch
Gezondheid, or if the person has sneezed three times, (Drie keer) morgen mooi weer
"Health!", the equivalent of 'Gesundheit' said in English, or if the person has sneezed three times, "(Three times) the weather will be nice tomorrow."
Dank u (wel) formally, or Dank je (wel)
"Thank you."

English
(God) bless you
"(God) bless you"
Thank you
"Thank you"

Esperanto
Sanon
"Health!"
Dankon
"Thank you"

Estonian
Terviseks
"For your health."
Aitäh
"Thank you"

Faroese
Jesuspápi vælsigni teg! This can be shortened to Vælsigni teg!
"May Jesus bless you." or "Bless you."
Takk (fyri)!
"Thanks (for [it])!"

Finnish
Terveydeksi
"For health!"
Kiitos
"Thank you"

French
à tes / vos souhaits or Santé
Archaic: à tes / vos amours after the second sneeze, and qu'elles durent toujours after the third. More archaically, one can say Que dieu te/vous bénisse.

"To your wishes" or "health". Archaic: after the first sneeze, "To your loves." after the second, and "that they last forever" after the third. More archaically, the translation is "God bless you".
Merci or Merci, que les tiennes durent toujours after the second sneeze
"Thank you" or "Thanks, may yours last forever" after the second sneeze

Georgian
იცოცხლე (itsotskhle)
"Live long."
გმადლობთ (gmadlobt)
"Thank you."

German
1) Gesundheit!
2) Helf Gott!/Helfgott! (Southern Germany/Austria/Transylvanian-Saxon; archaic/mostly used by more or less religious elderly)[1][2]
3) Großwachsen! (Transylvanian-Saxon; from Romanian "Să creşti mare!"; used solely for children, usually after the usual "Gesundheit" for the first and/or second response)[3]

1) "Health!" (in the meaning of I wish you good health or I wish that you don't get sick)
2) "May God help you!"
3) "You shall grow tall!"

Danke (schön)
"Thank you (very much)."

Greek
στην υγεία σου (steen ygeia su) or γείτσες (geitses)
"To your health!" or "Healths!"
Ευχαριστώ (Efharisto)
"Thank You"

Gujarati
Ghanu Jivo
"May God bless you with a long life."
"Aabhar"
"Thank You"

Hawaiian
Kihe, a mauli ola, or simply Ola
"Sneeze, and you shall live", or simply "live"
Mahalo
"Thank You"

Hebrew
לבריאות (livri'oot or labri'oot)
"To your health!"
תודה (todah)
"Thank you!"

Sanskrit
शतम् जीवः (Shatam Jeevah), "चिरञ्जीवी भव"
"Live 100 years", "May you live long
"धन्यवादः, धन्यवादाः (Dhanyavaadah, Dhanyavaadaah)"
"Thanks"

Hungarian
Egészségedre!
"To your health!"
Köszönöm
"Thank you."

Igbo
Ndo
"Sorry."
Daalu
"Thank you."

Icelandic
Guð hjálpi þér! to first sneeze, styrki þig to second sneeze, og styðji to third sneeze.[4] This can be shortened to Hjálpi þér.
"God help you!" to first sneeze, "strengthen you" to second sneeze, "and support." to third sneeze. This can be shortened to "Bless you."
"Takk fyrir"
"Thank you"

Indonesian
Tuhan berkati
"God bless."
"Terima Kasih."
"Thank you."

Irish
Dia linn or Dia leat or Deiseal which may be a form of Dia seal
The first two both mean "God be with us." The last means "May it go right," but might be a form of "God with us for a while."
gabh mo leithscéal
"Excuse me."

Italian
Salute!
"Health!"
Grazie or (ironic) Che se ne va
The former meaning "Thank you", the latter (ironic) meaning "Which is going away"

Japanese
お大事に (Odaiji-ni) as assuming one got cold. Or, an Asian superstition says that if one sneezes, they are being talked about by someone, somewhere. Note, however, that it is very rare for anyone to acknowledge a sneeze in Japan, and it is customary not to say anything at all.
"Take care of yourself."
すみません (sumimasen) or 失礼しました (shitsurei shimashita)
"Sorry." or "Excuse me."

Kannada
ದೇವರು ಕಾಪಾಡಲಿ (devaru kaapadali)
"Let God protect you"
'ಧನ್ಯವಾದಗಳು'
"Thanks!"

Kazakh
Сау Болыңыз (Saw Bolıñız)
"Be healthy."
Рахмет!
"Thank you!"

Khmer
ស្បើយ (S'baoi)
"Fast recovery."
សាធុ (Satu)
"Amen"

Kirundi
Kira
"Be healthy."
Twese
"Us all."

Kinyarwanda
Urakire
"May you be healthy."
Twese
"Us all."

Korean
개취네쒜(gae-chwi-ne-sswe) or 에이쒜(e-i-sswe). However, in Korean culture, the practice of responding to someone's sneeze is rare. Only a small number of old people use these words.
These may be based on an onomatopœia of the sound of a sneeze

Kurdish
Kher be inshalla. Many times when one sneezes, they say that the thing they are about to do will not happen. So, a listener says Kher be.
"It will be a good thing, God willing," or the shorter version, "A good sign hopefully."
Unknown
Unknown

Kyrgyz
Ак чүч! [aqˈt͡ʃut͡ʃ].
This may be based on an onomatopœia of the sound of a sneeze, like the English "Atchoo."
Рахмат!, if the person who spoke after the sneeze is liked.
"Thank you."

Ladino
Vivas, or Crescas after a second sneeze.
"May you live," or "May you grow" after a second sneeze.
Unknown
Unknown

Latgalian
Veseleibā
"To your health."
Paldis
"Thank you."

Latvian
Uz veselību
"To your health."
Paldies
"Thank you."

Lithuanian
Į sveikatą {pronounced 'EE sweh kata'} [5]
"To your health."
Says Atsiprašau immediately; responds to a responder with Ačiū.
Says "Excuse me" immediately; responds to a responder with "Thank you."

Lojban
No set phrase, but one commonly says kanro .a'o (kanro aho) or .a'o do kanro.
"[hopefully] Health!" or "[said with hope] You are healthy," respectively.
Unknown
Unknown

Luganda
Bbuka
"Recover."
Unknown
Unknown

Macedonian
Hа здравје (na zdravye)
"To your health."
Здравје да имаш (zdravye da imash) or Благодарам(blagodaram) or Фала(fala)
"Have health yourself." or "Thank you." or "Thanks."

Malayalam
Depending on the religion, one would say Hari Krishna (ഹരി കൃഷ്ണാ ) or Eesho rakshikka (ഈശോ രക്ഷിക്ക)
Let Lord Krishna bless you or Jesus save you
നന്ദി
Thanks

Maltese
Evviva
"May he/she live." An alternate translation is "Long live _____."
Grazzi
"Thank you."

Marathi
सत्य आहे
"It's the Truth"
Unknown
Unknown

Mongolian
Бурхан өршөө (Burkhan örshöö)
"May god forgive you."
Unknown
Unknown

Navajo
T'áá bí ání
or Háíshį́į́ naa ntsékees / naa yáłti'

"That/the one said it" (lit. "S/he in particular said it") or "Someone is thinking of you / talking about you"
'Aoo' t'áá bí ání (in response to "Someone is thinking / talking about you")
"Yes, that/the one said it"

Nepali
"चिरञ्जीवी भव" (Chiranjeevi Bhawa)
"May you live long."
"धन्यवाद Dhan-ya-bad"
"Thank You"

Norwegian
Prosit
"To your health."
Takk
"Thank you."

Afaan Oromo
Gudadhu Huddu Sarre Dhungadhu
"Progress."
Galatoomi
"Thank you."

Pashto
صبر (Sah-bur).
"Patience"
مننه (Mah-nah-nah).
"Thank you."

Persian
عافیت باشه (Afiat Basheh).
"May Cleanliness/Purity be bestowed upon you or may it be for your health."
The sneezer will often say سلامت باشید (Salaamat Bashid).
The sneezer will say "Be healthy."

Polish
Na zdrowie! or Sto lat! or Zdrówko! (a diminutive form of "zdrowie" – health)
"To your health!" or "Live a hundred years!" or "[To your] health!"
Dziękuję / Dzięki.
Thank you / Thanks.

Portuguese
Saúde or Deus te crie or Santinho!
These mean, in order: "Health" or "May God raise you" or "Little Saint!"
obrigado/a or Amém
"Thank you" or "Amen."

Punjabi
ਵਾਹਿਗੁਰੂ (Waheguru) or ਤੇਰਾ ਭਲਾ ਹੋਵੇ!
"Glorious Lord" or "May you be blessed," respectively.
"Thanvaad"
"Thank you"

Romanian
1) Sănătate/Sănătos or Noroc
2) Să creşti mare! (for children; usually "Noroc" comes first, then "Sănătate" and as third option "Să creşti mare!")[6]

1) "To your health/Healthy" or "To your luck," respectively.
2) "May you grow up!"

Mulţumesc
Thank you

Russian
будь здоров (bood' zdorov) for male (informal) or будь здорова (bood' zdorova) for female (informal) or будьте здоровы (boot'tye zdorovy) for both genders (formal).
правду говорю (pravdu govor'u) if someone sneezes while talking.

"Be healthy."
"I'm telling the truth."

спасибо (spasiba)
"Thank you."

Serbian
1) Наздравље
2) Pis Maco mostly used with children

1) "To your health."
2) "go away kitten" as sound of sneezing often sounds like cat's cough

Хвала or less frequently Истина or Здравље да имаш.
"Thank you," or less frequently "It is true" or "Health you have".

Sinhala
ආයුබෝවන් Ayubowan
"Have a long life."
Thank you
"Thank you"

Slovak
Na zdravie
"To your health."
Ďakujem
"Thank you."

Slovenian
Na zdravje, Res je or the old-fashioned Bog pomagaj
"To your health","It is true" or "God help to you." Folk belief has it that a sneeze, which is involuntary, proves the truth of whatever was said just prior to it.
Hvala
"Thank you."

Spanish
In Latin America, Salud, or Dios te bendiga. In Spain, it can also be Jesús after the first, María after the second and y José after the third, while in Latin America, particularly in Colombia, it's replaced by salud after the first, dinero after the second and amor after the third.
"To your health", "Jesus", or "God bless you", or "Jesus" after the first, "Mary" after the second and "and Joseph" after the third in Spain, while in Latin America, they say health, money and love.
Gracias
"Thank you"

Kiswahili
Afya or often, no response
"Health"
Asante
"Thank you."

Swedish
Prosit
"Latin prōsit (“may it be good”), the third-person singular present active subjunctive of prōsum ("to be good"): literally "may it be good (for you)""
Tack
"Thank you."

Tamil
Needu valgha Also, Dheergayusu, Poornayusu, Sadayusu, ""Cheeranjeevi bhava""
"Live long." Different variations of long life after consecutive sneezes., "Live long"
"Nandri"
"Thank You"

Telugu
Chiranjeevi bhava or దీర్ఘాయుష్మాన్ భవ
"May you be blessed with a life without death." or "May you live long."
"ధన్యవాద"
"Thank You"

Turkish
Çok yaşa followed by Sağlıklı yaşa if a second sneeze occurs
"Live long, live healthy."
Sen de gör or Hep beraber or 'Siz de görün
"And I hope that you live to see it [my long life]," or "All together," or "And may you witness it [my long life]," respectively.

Ukrainian
будь здоровий (BООD' zdoh-RO-vyy) to an informal male sneezer, будь здорова (BООD' zdoh-RO-va) to an informal female sneezer, or будьте здорові (BООD'-te zdoh-RO-vee) to a formal sneezer. На здоров'я! (na zdoh-RO-v-ia). Правда (pra-vda) if person sneezes while other person's speech.
"Be healthy." "To your health!" "It is true."
дякую (DIA-koo-you)
"Thank you."

Urdu
yar-hum-o-kullah (First the person who sneezed says "Alhamdulillah", i.e., praise be to God)
"May God have mercy on you."
"Yah-de-kum-ullah."
"May God guide you to the right path."

Uzbek
Sogʻ boʻling or Salomat boʻling
"Be healthy."
Rahmat
"Thank you."

Vietnamese
Cơm muối
"Rice with salt."
Cảm ơn/ Cám ơn
"Thank you."

Welsh
Bendith or Bendith [Duw] arnat ti (familiar) or Bendith [Duw] arnoch chi (respectful)
"God's blessing on you."
"Diolch"
"Thank You"

Yiddish
זײַ געזונט (zay gezunt), or צו געזונט (tzu gezunt) after a second sneeze. Another response among Yiddish and Hebrew speaking Jews is אסותא (asute), from Aramaic.
"Be healthy," "to health," and "health," respectively.
A sneezer responds to his or her own sneeze with חיים (chaim) in another Jewish custom.
"Life."

Yoruba
kara o le (cara oh lay)
"Be healthy"
ose (oh shay)
"Thank you."