document_title: News of the World

question_text: why did the news of the world shut down

question_tokens: why did the news of the world shut down

root

text: News of the World

text: History[edit]

text: 1843 to 1968[edit]

text: The newspaper was first published as The News of the World on 1 October 1843, by John Browne Bell in London.[12] Priced at three pence (equal to £1.13 today), even before the repeal of the Stamp Act (1855) or paper duty (1861), it was the cheapest newspaper of its time[13] and was aimed directly at the newly literate working classes. It quickly established itself as a purveyor of titillation, shock, and criminal news. Much of the source material came from coverage of vice prosecutions, including transcripts of police descriptions of alleged brothels, streetwalkers, and "immoral" women. In 1924 the newspaper sponsored the 1924 Women's Olympiad held at Stamford Bridge in London.

tag: p

text: Before long, the News of the World established itself as the most widely read Sunday paper, with initial sales of around 12,000 copies a week. Sales then suffered because the price was not cut following the abolition of newspaper taxes and the paper was soon no longer among the leading Sunday titles, selling around 30,000 by 1880, a greater number but a smaller proportion, as newspaper sales had grown hugely. The title was sold by the Bell family in 1891 to Henry Lascelles Carr who owned the Welsh Western Mail. As editor, he installed his nephew Emsley Carr, who held the post for 50 years. The real engine of the paper's now quick commercial success, however, was George Riddell, who reorganised its national distribution using local agents. Matthew Engel, in his book Tickle the Public: One Hundred Years of the Popular Press (Gollancz, 1996), says that the News of the World of the 1890s was "a very fine paper indeed". The paper was not without its detractors, though. As one writer later related:

text: Frederick Greenwood, editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, met in his club one day Lord Riddell, who died a few years ago, and in the course of conversation Riddell said to him, "You know, I own a paper."

text: "Oh, do you?" said Greenwood, "what is it?"

text: "It's called the News of the World—I'll send you a copy", replied Riddell, and in due course did so. Next time they met Riddell said, "Well Greenwood, what do you think of my paper?"

text: "I looked at it", replied Greenwood, "and then I put it in the waste-paper basket. And then I thought, 'If I leave it there the cook may read it'—so I burned it!"[14]

text: By 1912, the circulation was two million and around three million by the early 1920s. Sales reached four million by 1939. This success encouraged other similar newspapers, of which the Sunday People, the Daily Mail, the Daily Express and the Daily Mirror are still being published.

text: In 1928, the paper began printing in Manchester on the presses of the News Chronicle in Derby Street, moving in 1960 into Thomson House, Withy Grove (formerly known as Kemsley House) when the News Chronicle closed. The move to Thomson House led to the immediate closure of the Empire News, a paper printed there and mainly circulating in the North of England and Wales with a circulation of about 2.5 million. Officially the Empire News and News of the World merged but Thomson House was already printing the Sunday Pictorial (to become the Sunday Mirror) and Sunday Times and did not have any further capacity with the News of the World arriving.

text: The paper's motto was "All human life is there". The paper's name was linked with sports events as early as 1903 when the golfing tournament The News of the World Match Play Championship began (now under British PGA auspices). The News of the World Darts Championship existed from 1927 on a regional basis and became a national tournament from 1947 to 1990. There was also a News of the World Championship in snooker from 1950 to 1959 which eclipsed the official professionals' competition for a number of years. In athletics, the Emsley Carr Mile race was started in 1953 in memory of the former editor, and is still run annually. The paper's Football Annual was a long-standing publication, and a Household Guide and Almanac was also published at one time.

text: By 1950, the News of the World had become the biggest-selling newspaper in the world with a weekly sale of 8,441,000 and individual editions sold over 9 million copies.

text: The News Of The World was published on Saturday instead of Sunday at Christmas in 1966, 1977, 1983, 1988, 1994 and 2005. As that Sunday newspapers mostly hit shops on Saturday when Christmas Day is falling on Sunday.

text: Murdoch ownership[edit]

text: The newspaper passed into the hands of Rupert Murdoch's News Ltd. in 1969, following an acrimonious year-long struggle with Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press. Maxwell's Czech origin, combined with his political opinions, provoked a hostile response to his bid from the Carrs and from the editor of the News of the World, Stafford Somerfield, who declared in an October 1968 front page leading article attacking Maxwell[15] that the paper was "as British as roast beef and Yorkshire pudding".[16]

text: News Ltd. arranged to swap shares in some of its minor ventures with the Carrs and by December it controlled 40% of the NOTW stock. Maxwell had been supported by the Jackson family (25% shareholders), but Murdoch had gained the support of the Carr family (30%) and then-chairman William Carr.

text: In January 1969, Maxwell's bid was rejected at a shareholders' meeting where half of those present were company staff, temporarily given voting shares. It was Murdoch's first Fleet Street acquisition. Maxwell accused Murdoch of employing "the laws of the jungle" to acquire the paper and said he had "made a fair and bona fide offer... which has been frustrated and defeated after three months of [cynical] manoeuvring." Murdoch denied this, arguing the shareholders of the News of the World Group had "judged [his] record in Australia." Illness removed Sir William Carr from the chairmanship in June 1969, and Murdoch succeeded him.

text: Murdoch came under severe criticism in a television interview with David Frost after in late summer 1969 the newspaper published extracts from the memoirs of Christine Keeler, who had been a central figure of the Profumo scandal which had emerged to public scrutiny in 1963. Murdoch regretted agreeing to the interview with Frost.[17] In February 1970, Stafford Somerfield was sacked as editor after coming into conflict with Murdoch, whose takeover he had opposed.[18]

text: The newspaper often had to defend itself from libel charges and complaints to the Press Council (later the Press Complaints Commission) as a result of certain news-gathering techniques, such as entrapment, and contentious campaigns. Some of the best-known cases have been the "Bob and Sue" case with reporter Neville Thurlbeck, and various cases involving journalist Mazher Mahmood.[19][20]

text: From 1981 a magazine (Sunday) was included with the paper, and in 1984 the newspaper changed from broadsheet to tabloid format. The paper was printed in Hertfordshire, Liverpool, Dinnington near Sheffield, Portsmouth, Glasgow and Dublin, with a separate edition produced in Belfast. It was also printed at a number of sites abroad including Madrid, Brussels, Cyprus and Orlando in Florida, USA.

text: In 1985, the News of the World moved out of Thomson House when the building was bought by the tycoon Robert Maxwell (and renamed Maxwell House) and after a short spell on the Daily Express presses in Great Ancoats Street moved to a new plant at Knowsley on Merseyside.

text: In 2011 the then editor, Colin Myler, described his title as "the greatest newspaper in the world" as it won four awards at the British Press Awards. The main award was for News Reporter of the Year, going to Mazher Mahmood, the "fake sheikh" who hides his identity, for his expose of cricket corruption. The paper also won show-business reporter and magazine of the year. Some thought NOTW might have won the top award, Newspaper of the Year, if it were not for the phone-hacking saga. That was won by The Guardian, which had investigated the hacking scandal.[21]

text: End of publication[edit]

text: It was announced on 7 July 2011 that, after 168 years in print,[12] the newspaper would print its final edition on 10 July 2011 following revelations of the ongoing phone hacking scandal, with the loss of 200 jobs. The paper announced that all profits from the final edition – 74 pence out of the £1 cover price – would go to "good causes", and advertising space would be given to charities; the remaining 26 pence for each copy went to retailers selling the paper and to wholesalers.[22] Shutting the newspaper cost News Group Newspapers around £240m.[23]

text: Downing Street said it had no role in the decision.[24] James Murdoch has claimed that the company is fully co-operating with ongoing police investigations.[25]

text: The edition of 10 July 2011 of the News of the World carried its final headline, "Thank You & Goodbye", superimposed on top of a collage of past front pages. The back cover featured an out-of-context quote from George Orwell in 1946, and a recent quote from a NotW reader. The final edition also included a 48-page pullout documenting the history of the paper.[26] On 9 July 2011, after production of the final edition wrapped, editor Colin Myler led the staff out of the building, where he held a press conference thanking the staff and its readers, concluding, "In the best tradition, we are going to the pub."[27] In the paper's final editorial, the unsigned statement says that "Phones were hacked, and for that this newspaper is truly sorry... there is no justification for this appalling wrongdoing."[22] The final edition sold 3.8 million copies, about a million more than usual.

text: There was soon speculation that News International would launch a Sunday edition of The Sun to replace the News of the World, and it did, on 26 February 2012.[28] The domain names sunonsunday.co.uk, thesunonsunday.co.uk and thesunonsunday.com were registered on 5 July 2011 by News International Newspapers Limited.[29]

text: Editors[edit]

text: Notable contributors[edit]

text:
Norman Rae – Chief Reporter in 1950s – "legendary Fleet Street crime reporter... Norman Rae"[31]
Bob Bird – final Scottish News of the World editor
Victoria Newton – final deputy editor
Neville Thurlbeck – mainly responsible for the Beckham/Loos story[32]
Dan Wootton – showbusiness editor

tag: ul

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Imprisonment of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards (1967)[edit]

text: In early 1967, the newspaper ran a three-part feature entitled "Pop Stars and Drugs: Facts That Will Shock You". The series described alleged LSD parties hosted by the Moody Blues and attended by top stars including the Who's Pete Townshend and Cream's Ginger Baker, and alleged admissions of drug use by leading pop musicians. The first article targeted Donovan (who was raided and charged soon after); the second instalment (published on 5 February) targeted the Rolling Stones. A reporter who contributed to the story spent an evening at the exclusive London club Blaise's, where a member of the Rolling Stones allegedly took several Benzedrine tablets, displayed a piece of hashish and invited his companions back to his flat for a "smoke". The article claimed that the member was singer Mick Jagger, although the reporter had in fact been eavesdropping on guitarist Brian Jones.[33]

text: On 10 May 1967, Jagger, Keith Richards and their friend, art dealer Robert Fraser were arraigned in connection with the Redlands charges while bandmate Brian Jones' house was raided by police and he was arrested and charged with possession of cannabis.[34] Jagger and Richards were tried at the end of June. On 29 June Jagger was sentenced to three months' imprisonment for possession of four amphetamine tablets; Richards was found guilty of allowing cannabis to be smoked on his property and sentenced to one year in prison.[35][36] Both Jagger and Richards were imprisoned at that point, but were released on bail the next day pending appeal.[37]

text: The News of The World was rapidly identified by the hippy counterculture as the prime culprit for the imprisonments, which were seen as an attempt by the Establishment to send a collective message to a hedonistic young generation. International Times and activist/musician Mick Farren organised protests outside the Fleet Street offices of the newspaper. Protesters informed the paper's staff that their objective was ""freeing the fucking Stones and closing down the fucking News Of The World."" Farren later credited his colleague Sue Miles with identifying the paper as a target for protest because, as she put it, "they were the bastards who started this." (with their feature on drugs in music.) Farren reported that a second night of protests was seen off by officers from City of London Police who beat him up and made considerable arrests.[38]

text: Criticism of the sentences also came from the News Of The World's future sister publication, The Times which ran the famous editorial entitled "Who breaks a butterfly on a wheel?" in which conservative editor William Rees-Mogg surprised his readers by his unusually critical discourse on the sentencing, pointing out that Jagger had been treated far more harshly for a minor first offense than "any purely anonymous young man".[39] On 31 July, the appeals court overturned Richards' conviction, and Jagger's sentence was reduced to a conditional discharge.[40] Brian Jones' trial took place in November 1967; in December, after appealing the original prison sentence, Jones was fined £1000, put on three years' probation and ordered to seek professional help.[41]

text: Commenting on the eventual closure in 2011 of the newspaper against which he had led protests 44 years earlier, Farren was in triumphant mood. "The British counterculture and The News Of The World have had an adversarial relationship that goes back for almost half a century. I recall, way back in 1967, being beaten bloody by police outside the NOTW offices in London’s Fleet Street while protesting the newspaper’s part in the jailing of Keith Richards and Mick Jagger after the Redlands drug bust. And then there were the regular stamp-out-these-hippie-dope-fiends “exposés” that fueled the dangerous red-faced ire of all the saloon bar tweed blowhards who “only read the paper for the sports” and not the weekly catalogue of rape cases. And then, of course, the whole game was played all over again against John Rotten and his ilk in the punk era. Rupert Murdoch has closed down his disgusting organ and I hope its memory will yellow and decay. Unfortunately, I suspect the NOTW will soon be replaced by something equally loathsome like The Sunday Sun." [42]

text: "Chequebook" journalism[edit]

text: The paper became notorious for chequebook journalism,[43] as it was often discovered attempting to buy stories, typically concerning private affairs and relationships, of people closely involved with figures of public interest such as politicians, celebrities and high-profile criminals. With this intention, the paper on occasion paid key witnesses in criminal trials such as the 1966 Moors murders case,[44][45] and the 1999 trial of Gary Glitter on charges of assaulting an underage teenage fan.[46] See also Links to police corruption below.

text: Anti-paedophile campaign (2000)[edit]

text: The paper began a controversial campaign to name and shame alleged paedophiles in July 2000, following the abduction and murder of Sarah Payne in West Sussex. During the trial of her killer Roy Whiting, it emerged that he had a previous conviction for abduction and sexual assault against a child. The paper's decision led to some instances of action being taken against those suspected of being child sex offenders,[47] which included several cases of mistaken identity, including one instance where a paediatrician had her house vandalised[48] and another where a man was confronted because he had a neck brace similar to one a paedophile was wearing when pictured.[49][50] The campaign was labelled "grossly irresponsible" journalism by the then Chief Constable of Gloucestershire, Tony Butler.[51] The paper also campaigned for the introduction of 'Sarah's Law' to allow public access to the sex offender registry.

text: Phone hacking scandal[edit]

text: In 2006, reporters at the paper used private investigators to illegally gain access to hundreds of mobile phone voicemail accounts held by a variety of people of interest to the newspaper. In 2007 the paper's royal correspondent, Clive Goodman, pleaded guilty to illegal interception of personal communication and was jailed for four months; the paper's editor, Andy Coulson, had resigned two weeks earlier. In 2009/2010, further revelations emerged on the extent of the phone hacking, and how it was common knowledge within the News of the World and its News International parent. According to a former reporter at the paper, "Everyone knew. The office cat knew", about the illegal activities used to scoop stories.[52] On 17 January 2011, The Guardian reported that Glenn Mulcaire, a private investigator paid by the paper, testified that he had been asked by the newspaper's leadership to hack voicemail accounts on its behalf.[53] In April 2011, attorneys for the victims alleged that as many as 7,000 people had their phones hacked by the News of the World;[54] it was further revealed that the paper's owner, Rupert Murdoch, had attempted to pressure Prime Minister Gordon Brown and Labour Party MPs to "back away" from investigating the scandal.[55] Three journalists on the newspaper were initially arrested: Ian Edmondson and Neville Thurlbeck on 5 April[56] and James Weatherup on 14 April.[57] The newspaper "unreservedly" apologised for its phone hacking activities during April 2011.[58] On 4 July 2011, it was disclosed that potential evidence had been deleted in spring 2002 from the hacked voicemail account of Milly Dowler, then missing, but later found to have been murdered.[59]

text: 2006 reward for information on murders[edit]

text: On 13 December 2006, the newspaper announced that it was offering a record breaking reward of £250,000 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the person or persons responsible for the murders of five prostitutes around Ipswich, Suffolk. The reward went unclaimed; Steve Wright was arrested on suspicion of murder six days later following the use of unrelated information to link him to the murders. He was found guilty of all five murders at his trial 14 months later and sentenced to life imprisonment.

text: The Victoria Beckham 'kidnap plot'[edit]

text: In 2002, Mazher Mahmood, undercover reporter working for the News of the World, also known as the Fake Sheikh, allegedly exposed a plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham. Five men were arrested but the trial later collapsed when it emerged News of the World had paid its main witness Florim Gashi £10,000 to work with Mazher Mahmood. Florim Gashi later admitted working with Mahmood to set up the kidnap plot. This led to an investigation by Scotland Yard on News of the World called Operation Canopus.[60][61][62]

text: "Fake sheikh" cricket scandal[edit]

text: In August 2010, News of the World reporter and undercover journalist Mazher Mahmood posed as a "Fake Sheikh" to expose a cricket bookie named Mazhar Majeed who claimed Pakistani cricketers had committed spot-fixing during Pakistan's 2010 tour of England. In November 2011, Salman Butt and Mohammad Asif were found guilty by a London court on criminal charges relating to spot-fixing. Mohammad Amir and Mahjeed had entered guilty pleas on the same charges.[63]

text: Links to police corruption[edit]

text: In a September 2010 interview broadcast on 7 July 2011 on the BBC Radio 4 news programme The World at One, former News of the World features editor Paul McMullan made an admission relating to police corruption. He told of having used material obtained by a colleague's bribery of a police officer as the basis of a series of articles published over several years on Jennifer Elliott, the daughter of the actor Denholm Elliott. He stated, "The going rate for that kind of thing might have been two to five hundred pounds and that would have been authorised, and he [i.e., the police officer] would have been paid... and he would have been on the lookout for another story..." The articles described Elliott's destitute situation and stated that she had worked as a prostitute. Jennifer Elliott took her own life in 2003. In McMullan's opinion, the News of the World – specifically, his own articles – contributed significantly to her suicide.[64] In 2011, the paper knowingly used private investigators to gain stories from corrupt police officers.[65]

text: Libel actions[edit]

text:
In 1988 the parents of actor David Scarboro, who played Mark Fowler on the BBC soap opera EastEnders, commenced libel proceedings with solicitor Michael Shelton due to the hounding of Scarboro whilst he suffered from mental illness. During this time the News of the World and its sister paper The Sun published stories calling Scarboro a "zombie" as well as "Dracula" and purported that he took cocaine. According to the parents this escalated Scarboro's depression resulting in his suicide on 27 April 1988. Due to the suicide the libel action was forced to cease.[66]
In 2005, British television personality Ahmed Aghil won an apology from the News of the World in a libel case.[67]
In 2005, England footballer David Beckham and his wife Victoria brought a legal action against the paper seeking libel damages over an article that carried the headline "Posh and Becks on the Rocks"; suggesting that their marriage was under pressure. The legal action was withdrawn in 2006 and "resolved on a confidential basis", according to the couple's spokeswoman Jo Milloy.[68]
In April 2006, England footballer Wayne Rooney received £100,000 in damages from the publishers of the News of the World and its sister paper The Sun over articles falsely reporting he had slapped his fiancée Coleen McLoughlin.[69]
In June 2006, England footballer Ashley Cole received an estimated minimum £100,000 in damages from the publishers of the News of the World and its sister paper The Sun. The News of the World had published a false story about two footballers having a gay orgy with a DJ; while not naming any of them, it used a pixelated photograph of Cole to illustrate the story.[70]
In July 2006, Scottish politician Tommy Sheridan initiated a libel case against the News of the World in Edinburgh. Sheridan denied allegations, made by the newspaper in November 2004 and January 2005, that he had an affair, engaged in group sex and attended a swinger's club in Manchester. Sheridan won the case and was awarded £200,000 in damages. The newspaper appealed against the jury's decision,[71] and refused to pay out the money; Sheridan and his wife Gail were charged with perjury; the court case commenced on 4 October 2010. Charges against Gail Sheridan were dropped and she was acquitted on 17 December 2010.[72] Sheridan was subsequently convicted[73] on 23 December 2010. The case was the longest perjury trial in Scottish history.
In 2008 in the invasion of privacy case Mosley v News Group Newspapers Limited the President of the FIA Max Mosley challenged the News of the World which had alleged on 30 March 2008 that he had been involved in a sadomasochistic sex act involving several female prostitutes, when they published a video of the incident recorded by one of the women, and published details of the incident. The case resulted in Mosley being awarded £60,000 in damages.
In January 2010 Norwich City Football Club started legal proceedings against the News of the World after they published an article, "Canaries on Brink" on 24 January 2010 claiming that the club had begun the processes of going into administration.[74]
In February 2010, actor Brad Pitt and his partner, actress Angelina Jolie made plans to sue the News of the World after it published allegations about their relationship.[75]
In June 2011, the UK Press Complaint Commission (PCC) gave Yasir Hameed, a Pakistani cricketer, a victory by ordering the News of the World to remove a video and story about him from its website.[76]
Also in 2011, Polish footballer Artur Boruc won an out-of-court settlement against the News of the World after the newspaper made false allegations that he was unfaithful to his girlfriend. Boruc was paid £70,000 and a full apology was issued.[77]

text: Awards[edit]

text: British Press Awards:[78]

text:
"Newspaper of the Year" (2005)
"Scoop of the Year" (2000, 'Archer quits'; 2005, 'Beckham's secret affair'; 2011, 'Cricket corruption'[79])
"Front Page of the Year" (2004, 'Huntley in his cell')
"Reporter of the Year" (Gary Jones, 1995,[80] Mazher Mahmood, 1999,[81] 2011[82])


document_title: Athletics abbreviations

question_text: what does j mean in track and field

question_tokens: what does j mean in track and field

text: Athletics abbreviations

text: Times and marks[edit]

text: Almost all races record a time.  Evolving since experiments in the 1930s, to their official use at the 1968 Summer Olympics and official acceptance in 1977, fully automatic times have become common.  As this evolution has occurred, the rare early times were specified as FAT times.  As they are now commonplace, automatic times are now expressed using the hundredths of a second.  Hand times (watches operated by human beings) are not regarded as accurate and thus are only accepted to the accuracy of a tenth of a second even when the watch displays greater accuracy.  If the mark was set before 1977, a converted time to the tenth was recorded for record purposes, because they did not have a system to compare between the timing methods.  Frequently in those cases there is a mark to the 100th retained for that race.  Over this period of evolution, some reports show hand times also followed with an "h" or "ht" to distinguish hand times.

text: With two different timing methods came the inevitable desire to compare times.  Track and Field News initiated adding .24 to hand times as a conversion factor.  Many electronic hand stopwatches display times to the hundredth.  Frequently those readings are recorded, but are not accepted as valid (leading to confused results).  Some low level meets have even hand timed runners and have switched places according to the time displayed on the stopwatch.  All of this is, of course, wrong.  Hand times are not accurate enough to be accepted for record purposes for short races.  Human reaction time is not perfectly identical between different human beings.  Hand times involve human beings reacting, pushing the stopwatch button when they see the smoke or hear the sound of the Starting pistol, then reacting (possibly anticipating) the runner crossing the finish line.  The proper procedure for converting hand times would be to round any hundredths up to the next higher even tenth of a second and then add the .24 to get a time for comparison purposes only.[1]  But many meets displayed the converted marks accurate to the hundredth making the results look like they were taken with fully automatic timing.  In these cases, some meets have displayed a 4 or a 0 in the hundredths column for all races.  When detected, reports of these times are followed by a "c" or ' to indicate converted times.

text: Road race times are only considered accurate to a full second.  To distinguish a full second time with hours, from a minute time with hundredths of a second, colons are used to separate hours from minutes, and minutes from seconds.  A period is used to separate seconds from hundredths of a second.

text: Transponder timing is becoming more common.  The RFID detection system times the transponder chip, usually located on a runner's shoe as opposed to the official timing of the torso.  Accurate to a full second, this is not significant, but in breaking microscopic ties, the data does not correspond to timing rules.  Most road races cannot fit all participants onto the start line.  Depending on the size of the field, some athletes could be several city blocks away from the start line and in the large crowd, could take minutes to get across the line.  Results frequently indicate two times, the "gun time" would be the official time from the firing of the starting gun, but the mat time shows the time the shoe crossed a sensing mat at the start line to the time the shoe crossed the sensing mat at the finish line.

text: Occasionally, when breaking ties using photo finish, times are displayed to the thousandth of a second.  These times to the thousandth are not used for record purposes but times to the thousandth can be used to break ties between adjacent heats.  Rules specify if a tie is broken this way, that all heats involved are recorded with the same timing system.

text: Records[edit]

text:
Most records are subject to ratification by the governing body for that record.  On the world level, that is the IAAF.  Each body has their own procedure for ratifying the records: for example, USATF, the governing body for the United States, only ratifies records once a year at their annual meeting at the beginning of December.
Until a record is ratified, it is regarded as "Pending" which is sometimes indicated by a following P

text:
WR = World Record
OR = Olympic Record
CR = Championship Record
GR = Games Record
AR = Area (or continental) Record
ER = European Record
NR = National Record (for a specific country)
MR = Meet Record
DLR = Diamond League Record

text: When a J is added, it indicates a junior record (if a junior does not reach their 20th birthday in the calendar year of the mark)

text:
WJR = World Junior Record
AJR = Area (or continental) Junior Record
NJR = National Junior Record (for a specific country)
# = indicates a record has not been accepted, or there is some sort of irregularity with a result
X = indicates the athlete has been disqualified after the performance (usually, this is for  taking performance-enhancing drugs)

text: Bests[edit]

text: Some records are ratified or tracked, but they are not to the same standard of quality or accuracy as a record.  The term is "bests."  IAAF lists bests for the Youth division and for road racing records such as the marathon.  It also tracks athlete personal achievements as bests.  A Y indicates Youth.  A youth athlete has not reached or will not reach their 18th birthday in the calendar year of competition.

text:
WYB = World Youth Best (the best mark achieved by an athlete in the youth age category)
WB = World Best (the best mark recorded for a non-IAAF world record event)
PB = Personal Best (the best mark achieved by an athlete on a personal level)
SB = Season's Best (the best mark achieved by an athlete on a personal level within a given season)
WL = World Leader (the best mark achieved worldwide within a given season)

text: Circumstances and conditions[edit]

text:
A = a mark set at altitude
w = a wind assisted mark
NWI = No Wind Information

text: For events where wind assistance is a factor (outdoor races 220 yards or less, Long Jump and Triple Jump),  the wind reading is usually reported in metres per second or "m/s"

text:
a = in a road race, indicates a course that has conditions that assist the athlete (downhill, favoring wind, point to point)
+ = indicates a time was taken at an intermediate distance in a longer race
c = indicates a converted mark
DNF = Did not finish
DNS = Did not start
DQ = Disqualified
i = indoors
n = non-winning time
h = hand timed
Mx = mixed gender race
NH = No height
NM = No mark
NT = No time
ND = No distance[2]
AC = Also competed
Q = automatic qualifier in a major competition  See Qualifying standards in athletics
q = secondary qualifier, by next best time or distance to complete the prescribed field size, rather than achieving a place or measurement goal
Wo = women only race
y = race measurement was in yards

text: Disqualifications[edit]

text: Athlete disqualifications often reference the IAAF rule number under which the athlete was disqualified.

text: This is typically written in the format (false start as example): DQ R162.7[3]

text:
40.1 – Doping violation during or in connection with the championships
40.8 – Prior doping violation leading to suspension during the period of the championships
41.1 – Doping violation by one or more relay team members
142.4 – Failure to participate honestly with bona fide effort
144.2 – Giving or receiving assistance (e.g. pacing, use of electronic devices)
145.2 – Acting in an unsporting or improper manner (unsportsmanlike conduct)
149 - Entry to championships on the grounds of invalid performances
162.7 – False start
163.2 – Jostling or obstructing another athlete on the track
163.3 – Running out of lane
163.5 – Running out of lane (before 800 m breakline)
168.6 – Knocking down hurdle out of lane
168.7 – Illegal hurdle clearance and/or deliberately knocking down hurdle
170.6 – Baton not carried by hand; gloves or substances worn to give a better grip of the baton
170.6c – Dropped baton not retrieved by the athlete who dropped it
170.7 – Baton not passed within take-over zone
170.8 – Obstructing another team by athlete without baton
170.11 – Unverified team composition or running order
170.17 – Outgoing runner in 4x400m relay begins running and/or breaks from lane too early
218.4 – Illegal change of position by waiting relay runner (indoor events)
230.6a – Failure to comply with definition of race walking according to three different judges
240.8e – Illegal action by person authorised to hand refreshment to athlete
240.8f – More than two team officials stationed behind drinks table and/or running beside an athlete while taking on refreshment or water

text: Initialisms[edit]

text: Organising bodies[edit]

text: The various organizing bodies of the sport are abbreviated into alphabet soup.

text:
AAA = Amateur Athletic Association of England – England
AAA = Asian Athletics Association
AAU = Amateur Athletic Union USA amateur sports umbrella governing body formed 1887 until broken up in 1979 – USA
AK = Athletics Kenya – Kenya
ANA = Authorised Neutral Athletes
ANZ = Athletics New Zealand – New Zealand
APA = Association of Panamerican Athletics – North and South America
ARAF = All-Russia Athletic Federation – Russia
BAAA = Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations – Bahamas
BFLA = Belarus Athletic Federation – Belarus
CAA = Confederation of African Athletics
CACAC = Central American and Caribbean Athletic Confederation – Central America and Caribbean
CBAt = Confederação Brasileira de Atletismo – Brasil
CISM = International Military Sports Council – Military athletics
CONSUDATLE = Confederación Sudamericana de Atletismo – South America
CTAA = Chinese Taipei Athletics Association – Taiwan
DAF = Danish Athletics Federation – Denmark
DLFV = 1949–1990 during the existence of East Germany
DLV = Deutscher Leichtathletik-Verband – Germany
EAA or EA = European Athletic Association/European Athletics
EAF = Ethiopian Athletic Federation – Ethiopia
EKJL = Eesti Kergejõustikuliit – Estonia
FCA = Federación Cubana de Atletismo – Cuba
FFA = Fédération française d'athlétisme – France
FIDAL = Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera – Italy
FISU = International University Sports Federation – Student athletics
IAAF = International Association of Athletics Federations – World
IAU = International Association of Ultrarunners
IOC = International Olympic Committee – Olympics
IPC = International Paralympic Committee – Paralympic athletics
JAAA = Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association – Jamaica
JAAF = Japan Association of Athletics Federations – Japan
KNAU = Royal Dutch Athletics Federation – Netherlands
OAA = Oceania Athletics Association
NACAC = North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association – North America
NCAA = National Collegiate Athletic Association – USA Colleges and Universities
NFHS = National Federation of State High School Associations – USA High Schools
RFEA = Real Federación Española de Atletismo – Spain
TAC = The Athletics Congress, predecessor to USA Track & Field 1979–1992 – USA
UKA = UK Athletics – United Kingdom
USATF = USA Track & Field – USA
WAVA = 1977–2001 World Association of Veteran Athletes – World Masters (athletes over age 35)
WMA = since 2001 World Masters Athletics – World Masters (athletes over age 35)
WMRA = World Mountain Running Association

text: Publications and statisticians[edit]

text:
ARRS = Association of Road Racing Statisticians
ATFS = Association of Track and Field Statisticians
AW = Athletics Weekly
NUTS = National Union of Track Statisticians – United Kingdom
T&FN = Track & Field News

text: Events[edit]

text: Due to the large number of athletics events that are regularly contested, presentations of results and statistics often use abbreviations to refer to the events, rather than the full form.

text:
CE = Combined events
DMR = Distance medley relay
DT = Discus throw
HJ = High jump
HM = Half marathon
HT = Hammer throw
JT = Javelin throw
LJ = Long jump
mh = metres hurdles (e.g. 400mh for 400 metres hurdles)
PV = Pole vault
SMR = Sprint medley relay
SP = Shot put
SC, st. or s'chase = Steeplechase
TJ = Triple jump
WT = Weight throw
XC or CC = Cross country running

text: Competitions[edit]

text:
AAG = All-Africa Games
AfC = African Championships in Athletics
AsC = Asian Athletics Championships
CWG = Commonwealth Games
DL = IAAF Diamond League
EC or ECh = European Athletics Championships
ECCC = European Cross Country Championships
EIC = European Athletics Indoor Championships
EJC = European Athletics Junior Championships
EG = European Games
ETC = European Team Championships
ESAA = English Schools' Athletics Championships
ISTAF = Internationales Stadionfest Berlin
LYG = London Youth Games
OG = Olympic Games
WC or WCh = World Championships in Athletics
WHM = IAAF World Half Marathon Championships
WIC = IAAF World Indoor Championships
WJC = IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics
WXC = IAAF World Cross Country Championships
WYC = IAAF World Youth Championships in Athletics
PAG = Pan American Games
SAG = South Asian Games
SEAG = Southeast Asian Games


document_title: Chinese domination of Vietnam

question_text: who controlled vietnam for more than a thousand years

text: Chinese domination of Vietnam

text:
History of Vietnam

2879–258 BC
Hồng Bàng dynasty

2879–1913 BC
• Early Hồng Bàng

1912–1055 BC
• Mid Hồng Bàng

1054–258 BC
• Late Hồng Bàng

257–179 BC
Thục dynasty

207–111 BC
Triệu dynasty

111 BC–40 AD
1st Chinese domination

40–43
Trưng Sisters

43–544
2nd Chinese domination

544–602
Early Lý dynasty

602–938
3rd Chinese domination

939–967
Ngô dynasty

968–980
Đinh dynasty

980–1009
Early Lê dynasty

1009–1225
Later Lý dynasty

1225–1400
Trần dynasty

1400–1407
Hồ dynasty

1407–1427
4th Chinese domination

1407–1413
• Later Trần dynasty

1428–1788
Later Lê dynasty

1527–1592
• Mạc dynasty

1545–1787
• Trịnh lords

1558–1777
• Nguyễn lords

1778–1802
Tây Sơn dynasty

1802–1945
Nguyễn dynasty

1858–1954
French Indochina

1945
Empire of Vietnam

From 1945
Republic

1945–1976
• North Vietnam
(Democratic Republic of Vietnam)

1955–1975
• South Vietnam
(Republic of Vietnam)

1975–1976
• Viet Cong-occupied South Vietnam

From 1976
Unification of Vietnam

Further subjects[hide]

Champa dynasties (192–1832)
Funan (68–550)
Chenla (550–802)
Historical capitals
Prehistoric and ancient cultures
List of monarchs
Country's names
Economic history
Military history

v
t
e

tag: table

text: The Chinese domination of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Bắc thuộc, Hán tự: 北屬, "Belonging to the North (China)"[1][2][3]) began in 111 BC, and is usually considered to have ended in 938 AD. A fourth, relatively brief, 20-year punitive invasion by the Ming dynasty, 400 years later, is usually excluded by historians in discussion of the main, almost continuous, period of Chinese colonization from 111 BC to 938 AD, as is the brief occupation of northern Vietnam by Chinese forces at the end of the Second World War.

text:
First Chinese domination of Vietnam (111 BC–39 AD) Chinese incursions, followed by Chinese victory in the Han-Nanyue War (111 BC), established Chinese rule in Vietnam. This was briefly interrupted by the revolt of the Trưng Sisters (40–43 AD).
Second Chinese domination of Vietnam (43–544) ended by the revolt of Lý Nam Đế who led a rebellion taking advantage of internal disorder in China and the weakness of the waning Southern Liang dynasty. This secured 60 years of independence for Vietnam, but following regime change and consolidation of power in China, the new Sui dynasty sent an overwhelmingly large army south to reestablish control over northern Vietnam in 602.
Third Chinese domination of Vietnam (602–938) starting with the peaceful abdication by Lý's successor in the face of overwhelming Chinese numbers, and marked by entrenchment of mandarin administration. The period concluded with the internal collapse of China's Tang dynasty and Ngô Quyền's destruction of the Southern Han armada at the naval Battle of Bach Dang River (938).
Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (1407–1427) a 20-year occupation by the Ming dynasty army, from Vietnamese defeat in the Ming–Hồ War (1406–1407) to Vietnamese rebellion and Lê Lợi's defeat of the Chinese at the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động and Battle of Chi Lăng - Xương Giang (1427).

text: Geographical extent and impact[edit]

text: The four periods of Chinese colonization or occupation do not correspond to the modern borders of Vietnam but to Vietnam as a cultural entity. During the first three Chinese periods of domination, Vietnamese society was primarily in the northern part of modern Vietnam.[4][5] Ten centuries of Chinese colonization left a substantial demographic footprint, with settlement by large numbers of ethnic Chinese,[6][7] while opening up Vietnam for trade.[8] Against this the second period of Chinese colonization saw almost 500 years of revolt and war,[9] though the third period (603-939) was more harmonious.

text: In addition to administration, and making Chinese the language of administration, the long period of Chinese domination introduced Chinese techniques of dike construction, rice cultivation, and animal husbandry.[10][11] Chinese culture, having been established among the elite mandarin class, remained the dominant current among that elite for most of the next 1,000 years (939-1870s) until the loss of independence under French Indochina. This cultural affiliation to China remained true even when militarily defending Vietnam against attempted invasion, such as against the Mongol Kublai Khan. The only significant exceptions to this were the 7 years of the strongly anti-Chinese Hồ dynasty which banned the use of Chinese (among other actions triggering the fourth Chinese invasion), but then after the expulsion of the Ming the rise in vernacular chữ nôm literature.[12] Although 1,000 years of Chinese rule left many traces, the collective memory of the period reinforced Vietnam's cultural and later political independence.[13]


document_title: Bible

question_text: what type of paper was the bible written on

question_tokens: what type of paper was the bible written on

text: Bible

text: Etymology

text: The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koinē Greek: τὰ βιβλία, translit. ta biblia "the books" (singular βιβλίον, biblion).[9]

text:
Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe.[10]
Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια tà biblía tà ágia, "the holy books".[11]

text:
The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper" or "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book".
It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece.
The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books")[12] was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books (the Septuagint).[13][14] Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE.[9] The biblical scholar F.F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[15]

text: Textual history

text: By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the "scriptures" and they referred to them as "holy", or in Hebrew כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ (Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible" (in Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures" (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ).[16] The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by Stephen Langton and it was divided into verses in the 16th century by French printer Robert Estienne[17] and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in earlier oral traditions.

text: The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, and it is known as the Codex Vaticanus. The oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin (Vulgate) Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.[18]

text: Development

text:
Professor John K. Riches, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, says that "the biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and different communities through the ages",[19] and "the biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers – political, cultural, economic, and ecological – varied enormously".[20] Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, says that the Old Testament is "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."[21] He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind.
Parallel to the solidification of the Hebrew canon (c. 3rd century BCE), only the Torah first and then the Tanakh began to be translated into Greek and expanded, now referred to as the Septuagint or the Greek Old Testament.[22]

text: In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that:

text: Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, but the results have not been too encouraging. The period of transmission is short: less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Mark's Gospel. This means that there was little time for oral traditions to assume fixed form.[23]

text: The Bible was later translated into Latin and other languages. John Riches states that:

text: The translation of the Bible into Latin marks the beginning of a parting of the ways between Western Latin-speaking Christianity and Eastern Christianity, which spoke Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and other languages. The Bibles of the Eastern Churches vary considerably: the Ethiopic Orthodox canon includes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic texts, such as were found at Qumran and subsequently excluded from the Jewish canon. As a general rule, one can say that the Orthodox Churches generally follow the Septuagint in including more books in their Old Testaments than are in the Jewish canon.[23]

text: Hebrew Bible

text:
Tanakh
Torah  (Instruction)[show]Genesis
BereishitExodus
ShemotLeviticus
WayiqraNumbers
BemidbarDeuteronomy
Devarim

Nevi'im  (Prophets)[show]
Former
Joshua
YehoshuaJudges
ShofetimSamuel
ShemuelKings
Melakhim

Latter
Isaiah
YeshayahuJeremiah
YirmeyahuEzekiel
Yekhezqel

Minor

Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

Ketuvim  (Writings)[show]
Poetic
Psalms
TəhillîmProverbs
MishleiJob
Iyov

Five Megillot (Scrolls)
Song of Songs
Shir HashirimRuth
RutLamentations
EikhahEcclesiastes
QohelethEsther
Ester

Historical
Daniel
DaniyyelEzra–Nehemiah
EzraChronicles
Dibh're Hayyamim

vte

text: The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh. It defines the books of the Jewish canon, and also the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation.

text: The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century CE,[24] and the Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates from the 10th century.

text: The name Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ"ך) reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah ("Teaching"), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and Ketuvim ("Writings").

text: Torah

text: The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of Moses" or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll-cases".[25]

text: The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:

text:
Genesis, Beresheeth (בראשית)
Exodus, Shemot (שמות)
Leviticus, Vayikra (ויקרא)
Numbers, Bamidbar (במדבר)
Deuteronomy, Devarim (דברים)

text: The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob's children, the "Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.[26]

text: The Torah contains the commandments of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate among traditional scholars as to whether these were all written down at one time, or over a period of time during the 40 years of the wanderings in the desert, while several modern Jewish movements reject the idea of a literal revelation, and critical scholars believe that many of these laws developed later in Jewish history).[27][28][29][30] These commandments provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot).

text: Nevi'im

text:
Books of Nevi'im

Former Prophets

Joshua
Judges
Samuel
Kings

Latter Prophets (major)

Isaiah
Jeremiah
Ezekiel

Latter Prophets (Twelve minor)

Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

Hebrew Biblevte

text: Nevi'im (Hebrew: נְבִיאִים, translit. Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים, the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets).

text: The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the LORD God"[31] and believers in foreign gods,[32][33] and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers;[34][35][36] in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

text: Former Prophets

text: The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:

text:
Joshua's conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book of Joshua),
the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the Book of Judges),
the people's request to God to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies (in the Books of Samuel)
the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (Books of Kings)

text: Latter Prophets

text: The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the "major" prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, collected into a single book. The collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in the Christian Old Testament, one for each of the prophets:

text:
Hosea, Hoshea (הושע)
Joel, Yoel (יואל)
Amos, Amos (עמוס)
Obadiah, Ovadyah (עבדיה)
Jonah, Yonah (יונה)
Micah, Mikhah (מיכה)
Nahum, Nahum (נחום)
Habakkuk, Havakuk (חבקוק)
Zephaniah, Tsefanya (צפניה)
Haggai, Khagay (חגי)
Zechariah, Zekharyah (זכריה)
Malachi, Malakhi (מלאכי)

text: Ketuvim

text:
Books of the Ketuvim

Three poetic books

Psalms
Proverbs
Job

Five Megillot (Scrolls)

Song of Songs
Ruth
Lamentations
Ecclesiastes
Esther

Other books
Daniel
Ezra–Nehemiah (EzraNehemiah)
Chronicles

Hebrew Biblevte

text: Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.[37]

text: The poetic books

text: In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

text: These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

text: The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot)

text: The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.[38]

text: Other books

text: Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:

text:
Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).
The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

text: Order of the books

text: The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.

text: The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)

text:
Tehillim (Psalms) תְהִלִּים
Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) מִשְלֵי
Iyyôbh (Book of Job) אִיּוֹב

text: The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)

text:
Shīr Hashshīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשׁשִׁירִים (Passover)
Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Shābhû‘ôth)
Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.]
Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth)
Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Pûrîm)

text: Other books

text:
Dānî’ēl (Book of Daniel) דָּנִיֵּאל
‘Ezrā (Book of Ezra–Book of Nehemiah) עזרא
Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) דברי הימים

text: The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b–15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[39]

text: In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[40]

text: Canonization

text: The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.[38]

text: Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.[41] References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.

text: Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..."[42] For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[43]

text: Original languages

text: The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.[44]

text: Septuagint

text: The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE,[45][46][47] initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well.[48] It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.[49]

text: As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon.[50] Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.[citation needed]

text:
Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis.[51] Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.[47][52]
Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek – even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).[53]

text: The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament.[54] The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.[55]

text: Incorporations from Theodotion

text: In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text.[citation needed] The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing 'just' happened."[56] One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.[57]

text: The canonical Ezra–Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra–Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B" – the canonical Ezra–Nehemiah – is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.[56]

text: Final form

text: Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.

text: Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων – things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.[57]

text:
The Orthodox Old Testament[48][58][a]

Greek-based name

Conventional English name

Law

Γένεσις
Génesis
Genesis

Ἔξοδος
Éxodos
Exodus

Λευϊτικόν
Leuitikón
Leviticus

Ἀριθμοί
Arithmoí
Numbers

Δευτερονόμιον
Deuteronómion
Deuteronomy

History

Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ
Iêsous Nauê
Joshua

Κριταί
Kritaí
Judges

Ῥούθ
Roúth
Ruth

Βασιλειῶν Αʹ[b]
I Reigns
I Samuel

Βασιλειῶν Βʹ
II Reigns
II Samuel

Βασιλειῶν Γʹ
III Reigns
I Kings

Βασιλειῶν Δʹ
IV Reigns
II Kings

Παραλειπομένων Αʹ
I Paralipomenon[c]
I Chronicles

Παραλειπομένων Βʹ
II Paralipomenon
II Chronicles

Ἔσδρας Αʹ
I Esdras
1 Esdras

Ἔσδρας Βʹ
II Esdras
Ezra–Nehemiah

Τωβίτ[d]
Tobit
Tobit or Tobias

Ἰουδίθ
Ioudith
Judith

Ἐσθήρ
Esther
Esther with additions

Μακκαβαίων Αʹ
I Makkabaioi
1 Maccabees

Μακκαβαίων Βʹ
II Makkabaioi
2 Maccabees

Μακκαβαίων Γʹ
III Makkabaioi
3 Maccabees

Wisdom

Ψαλμοί
Psalms
Psalms

Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ
Psalm 151
Psalm 151

Προσευχὴ Μανάσση
Prayer of Manasseh
Prayer of Manasseh

Ἰώβ
Iōb
Job

Παροιμίαι
Proverbs
Proverbs

Ἐκκλησιαστής
Ekklesiastes
Ecclesiastes

Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων
Song of Songs
Song of Solomon or Canticles

Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος
Wisdom of Solomon
Wisdom

Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ
Wisdom of Jesus the son of Seirach
Sirach or Ecclesiasticus

Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος
Psalms of Solomon
Psalms of Solomon[59]

Prophets

Δώδεκα
The Twelve
Minor Prophets

Ὡσηέ Αʹ
I. Osëe
Hosea

Ἀμώς Βʹ
II. Amōs
Amos

Μιχαίας Γʹ
III. Michaias
Micah

Ἰωήλ Δʹ
IV. Ioël
Joel

Ὀβδίου Εʹ[e]
V. Obdias
Obadiah

Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ'
VI. Ionas
Jonah

Ναούμ Ζʹ
VII. Naoum
Nahum

Ἀμβακούμ Ηʹ
VIII. Ambakum
Habakkuk

Σοφονίας Θʹ
IX. Sophonias
Zephaniah

Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ
X. Angaios
Haggai

Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ
XI. Zacharias
Zachariah

Ἄγγελος ΙΒʹ
XII. Messenger
Malachi

Ἠσαΐας
Hesaias
Isaiah

Ἱερεμίας
Hieremias
Jeremiah

Βαρούχ
Baruch
Baruch

Θρῆνοι
Lamentations
Lamentations

Ἐπιστολή Ιερεμίου
Epistle of Jeremiah
Letter of Jeremiah

Ἰεζεκιήλ
Iezekiêl
Ezekiel

Δανιήλ
Daniêl
Daniel with additions

Appendix

Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα
IV Makkabees
4 Maccabees[f]

text: Christian Bibles

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text: A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.

text: Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay-Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Version, the English Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, and the English Standard Version.

text: Old Testament

text: The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.[citation needed]

text: Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

text: In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages.[citation needed] Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text.[citation needed] They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[60][61]

text: A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545–1563.[62][63] It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.[64]

text: Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.

text: The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:[65]

text:
Tobit
Judith
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
Wisdom
Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)
Baruch
The Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Chapter 6)
Greek Additions to Esther (Book of Esther, chapters 10:4–12:6)
The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children verses 1–68 (Book of Daniel, chapter 3, verses 24–90)
Susanna (Book of Daniel, chapter 13)
Bel and the Dragon (Book of Daniel, chapter 14)

text: In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:[citation needed]

text:
3 Maccabees
1 Esdras
Prayer of Manasseh
Psalm 151

text: Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:[citation needed]

text: 2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles

text: There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.[citation needed]

text: The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:[citation needed]

text:
Psalms 151–155
The Apocalypse of Baruch
The Letter of Baruch

text: The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:[citation needed]

text:
Jubilees
Enoch
1–3 Meqabyan

text: and some other books.

text: The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.[citation needed]

text: Pseudepigraphal books

text: The term Pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. The "Old Testament" Pseudepigraphal works include the following:[66]

text:
3 Maccabees
4 Maccabees
Assumption of Moses
Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)
Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch)
Hebrew Book of Enoch (3 Enoch) (also known as "The Revelation of Metatron" or "The Book of Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest")
Book of Jubilees
Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch)
Letter of Aristeas (Letter to Philocrates regarding the translating of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek)
Life of Adam and Eve
Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
Psalms of Solomon
Sibylline Oracles
Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch)
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

text: Book of Enoch

text: Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired.[67] However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

text: The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.[68]

text: Denominational views of Pseudepigrapha

text: There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are "apocryphal" are otherwise considered genuine.

text: Role of the Old Testament in Christian theology

text: The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures."[69] He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings" of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3:15), and as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfillment in Jesus himself, generating the "new covenant" prophesied by Jeremiah.[70]

text: New Testament

text: The New Testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the Christian Bible. Jesus is its central figure.

text: The term "New Testament" came into use in the second century during a controversy among Christians over whether or not the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament.[71] Some other works which were widely read by early churches were excluded from the New Testament and relegated to the collections known as the Apostolic Fathers (generally considered orthodox) and the New Testament Apocrypha (including both orthodox and heretical works).

text: The New Testament is a collection of 27 books[72] of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). These books can be grouped into:

text:
The Gospels

Synoptic Gospels
Gospel According to Matthew
Gospel According to Mark
Gospel According to Luke
Gospel According to John
Narrative literature, account and history of the Apostolic age

Acts of the Apostles
Pauline Epistles

Epistle to the Romans
First Epistle to the Corinthians
Second Epistle to the Corinthians
Epistle to the Galatians
Epistle to the Ephesians
Epistle to the Philippians
Epistle to the Colossians
First Epistle to the Thessalonians
Second Epistle to the Thessalonians

Pastoral epistles

First Epistle to Timothy
Second Epistle to Timothy
Epistle to Titus
Epistle to Philemon
Epistle to the Hebrews
General epistles, also called catholic epistles

Epistle of James
First Epistle of Peter
Second Epistle of Peter
First Epistle of John
Second Epistle of John
Third Epistle of John
Epistle of Jude
Apocalyptic literature, also called Prophetical

Revelation, or the Apocalypse

text: The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Orthodox/Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.

text: Original language

text: The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek,[73][74] which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean[75][76][77][78] from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335–323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600).

text: Historic editions

text: The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived.[79] But historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions. There have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text – especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line – and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text.

text: The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.

text: Development of the Christian canons

text: The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity[vague] subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46, 51, or 54-book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.

text: The Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon – the number of books (though not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division – while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addition to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The Anglican Church also recognizes a longer canon.[citation needed] The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in Hebrew. Both Catholics and Protestants (as well as Greek Orthodox) have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.[80]

text: The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3:16, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God".[12]

text: Ethiopian Orthodox canon

text: The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.[81] The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament,[citation needed] also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.[citation needed]

text: Divine inspiration

text: The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness". (2 Timothy 3:16)[82] Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:

text:
the view of the Bible as the inspired word of God: the belief that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible[83]
the view that the Bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters
the view that the Bible represents the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans

text: Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."[70] Fundamentalist Christians are associated[by whom?] with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.[84]

text: Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts,[85][86] and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings.[87] In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."[88] Most evangelical biblical scholars[89][90][91] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture.[92] Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.[93]

text: Versions and translations

text: The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew, with some portions in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.[citation needed]

text: The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

text: The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.

text: According to the Latin Decretum Gelasianum (also known as the Gelasian Decree), thought to be of a 6th-century document[94][95] of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority (variously ascribed to Pope Gelasius I, Pope Damasus I, or Pope Hormisdas)[96][97][98] but reflecting the views of the Roman Church by that period,[99] the Council of Rome in 382 AD under Pope Damasus I (366–383) assembled a list of books of the Bible. Damasus commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the fourth century AD (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical).[100][101] In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church.

text: Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies.

text:
Bible translations, worldwide (as of October 2017)[102]

Number
Statistic

7,099
Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today

2,584
Number of translations into new languages currently in progress

1,521
Number of languages with a translation of the New Testament

670
Number of languages with a translation of the Bible (Protestant Canon)

text: Views

text: John Riches, professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:

text: It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self-interest, and narrow-mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty. ... It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict.[103]

text: Other religions

text: In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: tahrif); which necessitated the giving of the Qur'an to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to correct this deviation.

text: Members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the Bible. For example, Rastafaris view the Bible as essential to their religion[104] and Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts".[105]

text: Biblical studies

text: Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.[106]

text: Higher criticism

text: In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses . . ."[107]

text: Archaeological and historical research

text: Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures (or the "New Testament"). It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history.

text: The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.[108][109]

text: Bible Museum

text: Bible Museums of the United States

text: 1) On December 1, 2017, the Museum of the Bible opened in Washington D.C. The museum was said to be built for all guests to understand and appreciate the existence of the Bible. Furthermore, the museum seeks to disperse historical information regarding the Bible as well as portray the significance of the Bible in a neutral way.[110]

text: 2) Durham Bible Museum: The Durham Bible Museum is located in Houston Texas and is known for the collection of rare Bibles around the world. Furthermore, the Durham Museum is known to have many different Bibles of various languages.[111]

text: Image gallery

text:
Bibles

Old Bible from a Greek monastery

Imperial Bible, or Vienna Coronation Gospels from Wien (Austria), c 1500.

The Kennicott Bible, 1476

A Baroque Bible

The Bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of office during his first inauguration in 1861

A miniature Bible

1866 Victorian Bible

Shelves of the Bizzell Bible Collection at Bizzell Memorial Library

text: Illustrations

text:
Most old Bibles were illuminated, they were manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk."[112] By the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.[113]
Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators.[114] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.[115]

text: The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then – if the book was to be illustrated – it was sent to the illuminator."[112] In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation."[116]

text:
Bible illustrations

Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres, Christ with angels

Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible, 13th century

Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the center in green) sends Michal back to David.

Jephthah's daughter laments – Maciejowski Bible (France, ca. 1250)

Coloured version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther's 1534 translation of the Bible

An Armenian Bible, illuminated by Malnazar

Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible

Jonah being swallowed by the fish, Kennicott Bible, 1476