document_title: Circular flow of income

question_text: in a circular flow diagram who pays for goods and services

text: Circular flow of income

text: Overview[edit]

text: The circular flow of income is a concept for better understanding of the economy as a whole and for example the National Income and Product Accounts (NIPAs). In its most basic form it considers a simple economy consisting solely of businesses and individuals, and can be represented in a so-called "circular flow diagram." In this simple economy, individuals provide the labour that enables businesses to produce goods and services. These activities are represented by the green lines in the diagram.[5]

text: Alternatively, one can think of these transactions in terms of the monetary flows that occur. Businesses provide individuals with income (in the form of compensation) in exchange for their labor. That income is spent on the goods and services businesses produce. These activities are represented by the blue lines in the diagram above.[5]

text: The circular flow diagram illustrates the interdependence of the “flows,” or activities, that occur in the economy, such as the production of goods and services (or the “output” of the economy) and the income generated from that production. The circular flow also illustrates the equality between the income earned from production and the value of goods and services produced.[5]

text: Of course, the total economy is much more complicated than the illustration above. An economy involves interactions between not only individuals and businesses, but also Federal, state, and local governments and residents of the rest of the world. Also not shown in this simple illustration of the economy are other aspects of economic activity such as investment in capital (produced—or fixed—assets such as structures, equipment, research and development, and software), flows of financial capital (such as stocks, bonds, and bank deposits), and the contributions of these flows to the accumulation of fixed assets.[5]

text: History[edit]

text: Cantillon[edit]

text: One of the earliest ideas on the circular flow was explained in the work of 18th century Irish-French economist Richard Cantillon,[3] who was influenced by prior economists, especially William Petty.[7] Cantillon described the concept in his 1730 Essay on the Nature of Trade in General, in chapter 11, entitled "The Par or Relation between the Value of Land and Labor" to chapter 13, entitled "The Circulation and Exchange of Goods and Merchandise, as well as their Production, are Carried On in Europe by Entrepreneurs, and at a Risk." Thornton eds. (2010) further explained:

text: Cantillon distinguished at least five types of economic agents: property owners, farmers, entrepreneurs, labors and artisans, as expressed in the contemporary diagram of the Cantillon’s Circular Flow Economy.[6]

text: Quesnay[edit]

text: François Quesnay further developed these concepts, and was the first to visualize these interactions over time in the so-called Tableau économique.[4] Quesnay believed that trade and industry were not sources of wealth, and instead in his 1758 book Tableau économique (Economic Table) argued that agricultural surpluses, by flowing through the economy in the form of rent, wages, and purchases were the real economic movers, for two reasons.

text:
First, regulation impedes the flow of income throughout all social classes and therefore economic development.
Second, taxes on the productive classes such as farmers should be reduced in favor of higher taxes for unproductive classes such as landowners, since their luxurious way of life distorts the income flow.

text: The model Quesnay created consisted of three economic agents: The "Proprietary" class consisted of only landowners. The "Productive" class consisted of all agricultural laborers. The "Sterile" class is made up of artisans and merchants. The flow of production and/or cash between the three classes started with the Proprietary class because they own the land and they buy from both of the other classes. Quesnay visualised the steps in the process in the Tableau économique.

text: Marx[edit]

text: In Marxian economics, economic reproduction refers to recurrent (or cyclical) processes[9] by which the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created.[10]

text: Economic reproduction involves the physical production and distribution of goods and services, the trade (the circulation via exchanges and transactions) of goods and services, and the consumption of goods and services (both productive or intermediate consumption and final consumption).

text: Karl Marx developed the original insights of Quesnay to model the circulation of capital, money, and commodities in the second volume of Das Kapital to show how the reproduction process that must occur in any type of society can take place in capitalist society by means of the circulation of capital.[11]

text: Marx distinguishes between "simple reproduction" and "expanded (or enlarged) reproduction".[12] In the former case, no economic growth occurs, while in the latter case, more is produced than is needed to maintain the economy at the given level, making economic growth possible. In the capitalist mode of production, the difference is that in the former case, the new surplus value created by wage-labour is spent by the employer on consumption (or hoarded), whereas in the latter case, part of it is reinvested in production.

text: Further developments[edit]

text: An important development was John Maynard Keynes' 1933 publication of the General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Keynes' assistant Richard Stone further developed the concept for the United Nations (UN) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to the systems, which is now used internationally.

text: The first to visualize the modern circular flow of income model was Frank Knight in 1933 publication of The Economic Organization.[13] Knight (1933) explained:

text: Knight pictured a circulation of money and circulation of economic value between people (individuals, families) and business enterprises as a group,[15] explaining: "The general character of an enterprise system, reduced to its very simplest terms, can be illustrated by a diagram showing the exchange of productive power for consumption goods between individuals and business units, mediated by the circulation of money, and suggesting the familiar figure of the wheel of wealth."[16]

text: Types of models[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Two sector model[edit]

text: In the basic circular flow of income, or two sector circular flow of income model, the state of equilibrium is defined as a situation in which there is no tendency for the levels of income (Y), expenditure (E) and output (O) to change, that is:

text: Y = E = O

text: This means that the expenditure of buyers (households) becomes income for sellers (firms). The firms then spend this income on factors of production such as labour, capital and raw materials, "transferring" their income to the factor owners. The factor owners spend this income on goods which leads to a circular flow of income.

text: This basic circular flow of income model consists of six assumptions:

text:
The economy consists of two sectors: households and firms.
Households spend all of their income (Y) on goods and services or consumption (C). There is no saving (S).
All output (O) produced by firms is purchased by households through their expenditure (E).
There is no financial sector.
There is no government sector.
There is no foreign sector

text: Three sector model[edit]

text: It includes household sector, producing sector and government sector. It will study a circular flow income in these sectors excluding rest of the world i.e. closed economy income. Here flows from household sector and producing sector to government sector are in the form of taxes. The income received from the government sector flows to producing and household sector in the form of payments for government purchases of goods and services as well as payment of subsidies and transfer payments. Every payment has a receipt in response of it by which aggregate expenditure of an economy becomes identical to aggregate income and makes this circular flow unending.

text: Four sector model[edit]

text: A modern monetary economy comprises a network of four sector economy these are:

text:
Household sector
Firms or Producing sector
Government sector
Financial sector.

text: Each of the above sectors receives some payments from the other in lieu of goods and services which makes a regular flow of goods and physical services. Money facilitates such an exchange smoothly. A residual of each market comes in capital market as saving which inturn is invested in firms and government sector. Technically speaking, so long as lending is equal to the borrowing i.e. leakage is equal to injections, the circular flow will continue indefinitely. However, this job is done by financial institutions in the economy.

text: Five sector model[edit]

text: In the five sector model the economy is divided into five sectors:[17]

text:
Household sector
Firms or Producing sector
Financial sector : banks and non-bank intermediaries who engage in the borrowing (savings from households) and lending of money
Government sector : consists of the economic activities of local, state and federal governments.
Rest of the world sector: transforms the model from a closed economy to an open economy.

text: The five sector model of the circular flow of income is a more realistic representation of the economy. Unlike the two sector model where there are six assumptions the five sector circular flow relaxes all six assumptions. Since the first assumption is relaxed there are three more sectors introduced.

text: Circular flow of income topics[edit]

text: Leakages and injections[edit]

text: In the five sector model, there are leakages and injections

text:
Leakage means withdrawal from the flow. When households and firms save part of their incomes it constitutes leakage. They may be in form of savings, tax payments, and imports. Leakages reduce the flow of income.
Injection means introduction of income into the flow. When households and firms borrow the savings, they constitute injections. Injections increase the flow of income. Injections can take the forms of investment, government spending and exports. As long as leakages are equal to injections, the circular flow of income continues indefinitely. Financial institutions or capital market play the role of intermediaries. This means that income individuals receive from businesses and the goods and services that are sold to them do not count as injections or leakages, as no new money is being introduced to the flow and no money is being taken out of the flow.

text: Leakages and injections can occur in the financial sector, government sector and overseas sector:

text: In terms of the circular flow of income model, the leakage that financial institutions provide in the economy is the option for households to save their money. This is a leakage because the saved money can not be spent in the economy and thus is an idle asset that means not all output will be purchased. The injection that the financial sector provides into the economy is investment (I) into the business/firms sector. An example of a group in the finance sector includes banks such as Westpac or financial institutions such as Suncorp.

text: The leakage that the Government sector provides is through the collection of revenue through Taxes (T) that is provided by households and firms to the government. This is a leakage because it is a leakage out of the current income thus reducing the expenditure on current goods and services. The injection provided by the government sector is Government spending (G) that provides collective services and welfare payments to the community. An example of a tax collected by the government as a leakage is income tax and an injection into the economy can be when the government redistributes this income in the form of welfare payments, that is a form of government spending back into the economy.

text: The main leakage from this sector are imports (M), which represent spending by residents into the rest of the world. The main injection provided by this sector is the exports of goods and services which generate income for the exporters from overseas residents. An example of the use of the overseas sector is Australia exporting wool to China, China pays the exporter of the wool (the farmer) therefore more money enters the economy thus making it an injection. Another example is China processing the wool into items such as coats and Australia importing the product by paying the Chinese exporter; since the money paying for the coat leaves the economy it is a leakage.

text:
LEAKAGES
INJECTIONS

Saving (S)
Investment (I)

Taxes (T)
Government Spending (G)

Imports (M)
Exports (X)

text: The state of equilibrium[edit]

text: In terms of the five sector circular flow of income model the state of equilibrium occurs when the total leakages are equal to the total injections that occur in the economy. This can be shown as:

text: OR

text: This can be further illustrated through a fictitious economy where:

text:
S + T + M = I + G + X
$100 + $150 + $50 = $50 + $100 + $150
$300 = $300

text: Therefore, since the leakages are equal to the injections the economy is in a stable state of equilibrium. This state can be contrasted to the state of disequilibrium where unlike that of equilibrium the sum of total leakages does not equal the sum of total injections. By giving values to the leakages and injections the circular flow of income can be used to show the state of disequilibrium. Disequilibrium can be shown as:

text: Therefore, it can be shown as one of the below equations where:

text: $150 (S) + $250 (T) + $150 (M) > $75 (I) + $200 (G) + $150 (X)

text: Or

text: Total Leakages < Total injections

text: The effects of disequilibrium vary according to which of the above equations they belong to.

text: If S + T + M > I + G + X the levels of income, output, expenditure and employment will fall causing a recession or contraction in the overall economic activity. But if S + T + M < I + G + X the levels of income, output, expenditure and employment will rise causing a boom or expansion in economic activity.

text: To manage this problem, if disequilibrium were to occur in the five sector circular flow of income model, changes in expenditure and output will lead to equilibrium being regained. An example of this is if:

text: S + T + M > I + G + X the levels of income, expenditure and output will fall causing a contraction or recession in the overall economic activity. As the income falls households will cut down on all leakages such as saving, they will also pay less in taxation and with a lower income they will spend less on imports. This will lead to a fall in the leakages until they equal the injections and a lower level of equilibrium will be the result.

text: The other equation of disequilibrium, if S + T + M < I + G + X in the five sector model the levels of income, expenditure and output will greatly rise causing a boom in economic activity. As the households income increases there will be a higher opportunity to save therefore saving in the financial sector will increase, taxation for the higher threshold will increase and they will be able to spend more on imports. In this case when the leakages increase they wisituation will be a higher level of equilibrium.

text: Significance of study of circular flow of income[edit]

text: The book A General Approach to Macroeconomic Policy [18][citation needed] identifies four possible areas of significance:

text:
Measurement of National Income - National income is an estimation of aggregation of any of economic activity of the circular flow. It is either the income of all the factors of production or the expenditure of various sectors of economy. However, aggregate amount of each of the activity is identical to each other.
Knowledge of Interdependence - Circular flow of income signifies the interdependence of each of activity upon one another. If there is no consumption, there will be no demand and expenditure which in fact restricts the amount of production and income.
Unending Nature of Economic Activities - It signifies that production, income and expenditure are of unending nature, therefore, economic activities in an economy can never come to a halt. National income is also bound to rise in future.
Injections and Leakages

text: Circular flow diagram as a subsystem of the environment[edit]

text: The circular flow diagram is an abstraction of the economy as a whole. The diagram suggests that the economy can reproduce itself. The idea is that as households spend money of goods and services from firms, the firms have the means to purchase labor from the households, which the households to then purchase goods and services. Suggesting that this process can and will continuously go on as a perpetual motion machine. However, according to the Laws of Thermodynamics perpetual motion machines do not exist.[19] The First Laws says matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed, and the Second Laws says that matter and energy move from a low entropy, useful, state towards a less useful higher entropy state.[20] Thus, no system can continue without inputs of new energy that exit as high entropy waste. Just as no animal can live on its own waste, no economy can recycle the waste it produces without the input of new energy to reproduce itself. The economy therefore cannot be the whole. It must be a subsystem of the larger ecosystem.[19]

text: The abstraction ignores the linear throughput of matter and energy that must power the continuous motion of money, goods and services, and factors of production. Matter and energy enter the economy in the form of low entropy natural capital, such as solar energy, oil wells, fisheries, and mines. These materials and energy are used by households and firms a like to create products and wealth. After the material are used up the energy and matter leaves the economy in the form of high entropy waste that is no longer valuable to the economy. The natural materials that power the motion of the circular flow of the economy come from the environment, and the waste must be absorbed by the larger ecosystem in which the economy exists.[21]

text: This is not to say that the circular flow diagram isn't useful in understanding the basics of an economy, such as leakages and injections. However, it cannot be ignored that the economy intrinsically requires natural resources and the creation of waste that must be absorbed in some manner. The economy can only continuing churning if it has matter and energy to power it and the ability to absorb the waste it creates. This matter and low entropy energy and the ability to absorb waste exists in a finite amount, and thus there is a finite amount of inputs to the flow and outputs of the flow that the environment can handle, implying there is a sustainable limit to motion, and therefore growth, of the economy.[19]


document_title: 800 Words

question_text: when is series 3 of 800 words being aired

root

text: 800 Words

text: Production[edit]

text: The series was first announced on 29 October 2014 with the Channel Seven 2015 highlights.[1] The CEO of South Pacific Pictures, Kelly Martin said "Seven loved the scripts from the start and we're thrilled to have this project underway. It enables South Pacific Pictures to broaden our horizons and it'll open up some great opportunities for our local actors and crew."[2] Of the series' tone, the Program Chief of Seven, Tim Ross stated, "If you think this show has a bit of the same feel and vibe as Packed to the Rafters, you're dead right — and we make no apologies for that."[3] Filming for the series began on 2 March 2015.[4]

tag: p

text: On 19 October 2015, the Seven Network and South Pacific Pictures renewed the show for a second season.[5] It premiered on 23 August 2016 in Australia.[6] On January 24, 2017, the Seven Network announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.[7] It screened from 12 September 2017[8] with a mid-season finale after 8 episodes.[9]

text: In December of 2017, the Seven network announced the show has been renewed for a fourth season[10].

text: Plot[edit]

text: George Turner is a popular columnist for a top selling Sydney newspaper, writing a weekly column which he insists must be exactly 800 words. After his wife dies, he buys - over the internet and unseen - a house in a (fictional) small New Zealand seaside town called Weld, where his parents took him on holiday as a child. He then has to break the news to his two teenage children, Shay and Arlo. But the colourful and inquisitive locals in Weld ensure Turner's dream of a fresh start does not go exactly to plan.[4]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Erik Thomson as George Turner[4]
Melina Vidler as Shay Turner[4]
Benson Jack Anthony as Arlo Turner[4]
Rick Donald as Woody; an Australian expat builder who moved to Weld for the surf.[4]
Bridie Carter as Jan; George's former boss and editor in Sydney[4]
Emma Leonard as Tracey; an Australian expat and Shay and Arlo's form teacher at Weld High School.[4]
Michelle Langstone as Fiona; the owner-operator of the Weld Boat Club and a volunteer ambulance driver.[11]
Anna Jullienne as Katie; a part-Maori artist and owner of the Weld arts and crafts gallery.[11]
Cian Elyse White as Hannah; a surfer who works part-time at the Weld Boat Club and the local surf shop.[11]

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Jonathan Brugh as Monty McNamara; a real estate agent who sold George his new home in Weld and a volunteer firefighter.[12][13]
Peter Elliott as Bill "Big Mac" McNamara, the financial king-pin of Weld and father to Bill Jr, Monty and Robbie.[12]
Paul Glover as Bill McNamara, Jr.
Manon Blackman as Lindsay McNamara, Bill Jr.'s daughter.[12][13]
Olivia Tennet as Siouxsie; Monty's daughter and secretary.[12]
John Leigh as Constable Tom; Weld's local police officer and photographer.[12]
Alex Tarrant as Ike, one of Zac's children and love interest of Shay[4]
Reon Bell as Billy, Katie and Zac's son[12]
Rob Williams as Zac; Katie's ex-partner and father to Ike, Hannah, and Billy.
Renee Lyons as Brenda.
Jesse Griffin as Sean.
David Fane as Smiler.
Tandi Wright as Laura Turner; deceased wife of George and mother to Shay and Arlo.
Jackie van Beek as Gloria; production manager of the local newspaper, News of the Weld (Season 2)
Millen Baird as Robert "Robbie" McNamara; Fiona's ex. (Season 2)
Ditch Davey as Terry Turner; George's younger brother who is a chef. (Season 2)
Jamaica Vaughan as Emma; Fiona's niece and summer love interest of Arlo (Season 2)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
8
15 September 2015 (2015-09-15)
3 November 2015 (2015-11-03)

2
16
8
23 August 2016 (2016-08-23)
4 October 2016 (2016-10-04)

8
31 January 2017 (2017-01-31)
21 March 2017 (2017-03-21)

3
16
8
12 September 2017 (2017-09-12)
24 October 2017 (2017-10-24)

8
18 July 2018 (NZ) (18 July 2018 (NZ))
2018 (2018)

tag: table

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
Episode
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Aus. viewers
(millions)

1
Episode 1
Pino Amenta
James Griffin
15 September 2015 (2015-09-15)
1.22[14]

Following the death of his wife, column writer George Turner breaks the news to his two teenaged children that they will be moving from Sydney to Weld, New Zealand. They arrive in the small coastal town to a half-finished home, nosy neighbors and run-away sculptures.

2
Episode 2
Pino Amenta
Maxine Fleming and James Griffin
22 September 2015 (2015-09-22)
1.19[15]

Having written a column in the previous episode that referred to Weld as a "dead-end" town, George faces the full wrath of the locals. This causes friction for everyone, including Shay and Arlo, who struggle to fit in at school.

3
Episode 3
Mike Smith
James Griffin
29 September 2015 (2015-09-29)
1.17[16]

After refusing to reveal the cause of his wife's death, rumors run wild in Weld about George, and his concerns about the school bus driver exacerbate things. He traces the lies back to their source while Shay makes new connections with a local.

4
Episode 4
Mike Smith
Maxine Fleming and James Griffin
6 October 2015 (2015-10-06)
1.06[17]

George considers the women of Weld and whether he is ready for romance after the death of his wife. He and Arlo learn more about the salacious history of Weld, while Shay's anxiety about her family affects her new relationship.

5
Episode 5
Mike Smith
Tim Balme
13 October 2015 (2015-10-13)
1.08[18]

The late Laura Turner's birthday approaches and her husband and children disagree on how to mark the day. George relives unpleasant memories from his childhood time in Weld, and Shay fights to protect a local camp ground from development.

6
Episode 6
Mike Smith
Natalie Medlock and James Griffin
20 October 2015 (2015-10-20)
1.02[19]

Truths are revealed when George and Arlo play detective on two fronts: the case of the missing statue head and Shay's love life.

7
Episode 7
Pino Amenta
Maxine Fleming and James Griffin
27 October 2015 (2015-10-27)
1.03[20]

Shay faces the legal and emotional consequences of her actions alone, despite offers of help from George and everyone else in town. George realizes his own limitations as a parent and writes an unusually personal column, leading Shay to a life-changing decision.

8
Episode 8
Pino Amenta
James Griffin
3 November 2015 (2015-11-03)
1.15[21]

Efforts to save the campground heat up. Jan arrives in town and helps George deal with the fallout from Shay's departure, with unexpected results.

text: Season 2 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
Episode
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Aus. viewers
(millions)

Part 1

9
Episode 1
Mike Smith
Tim Balme and James Griffin
23 August 2016 (2016-08-23)
0.88[22]

While the rest of the town prepares for Guy Fawkes Night, George and Arlo enact a plan to get Shay back to Weld. Jan, Lindsay and Shay all make decisions about where they really belong.

10
Episode 2
Mike Smith
Tim Balme
30 August 2016 (2016-08-30)
0.74[23]

The limits of friendship are tested when Woody produces an invoice for George. Despite his best efforts, George finds himself employed several times over.

11
Episode 3
Michael Hurst
Maxine Fleming
6 September 2016 (2016-09-06)
0.79[24]

The discovery of a crash site reveals truths to Lindsay about her family and to George about pitfalls to avoid when you're the editor of a small town paper.

12
Episode 4
Michael Hurst
Kate McDermott
13 September 2016 (2016-09-13)
0.62[25]

When George's dream Weld house comes up for sale, he considers another move. Shay's boyfriend from Sydney makes an unexpected appearance, much to everyone's chagrin.

13
Episode 5
Murray Keane
Sarah-Kate Lynch and James Griffin
20 September 2016 (2016-09-20)
0.59[26]

George and Katie find the post-date rumor mill more difficult to navigate than the date itself. The campground development takes an unexpected turn.

14
Episode 6
Murray Keane
James Griffin
27 September 2016 (2016-09-27)
0.70[27]

An accident lands Woody in the hospital and sends George on a crusade against the summer people. Shay, Tracey and Arlo make new strides in their love lives.

15
Episode 7
Mike Smith
James Griffin
4 October 2016 (2016-10-04)
0.80[28]

As the one-year anniversary of Laura's death approaches, her parents arrive in Weld and a fight about what to do with her ashes erupts. Fiona gets surprising news.

16
Episode 8
Mike Smith
Kate McDermott
4 October 2016 (2016-10-04)
0.73[28]

A game of cricket marks the end of some relationships in Weld, and the beginning of others.

Part 2

17
Episode 9
Michael Hurst
Kate McDermott
31 January 2017 (2017-01-31)
0.80[29]

While Fiona tries to end her marriage, George deals with the consequences of their public kiss around town. Meanwhile, Jan finds it more difficult to keep her secret.

18
Episode 10
Michael Hurst
Michael Beran & James Griffin
7 February 2017 (2017-02-07)
0.74[30]

George and Fiona throw a dinner party for the couples of Weld, which turns into an ever escalating comedy of errors. Arlo takes on new responsibilities at the restaurant.

19
Episode 11
Caroline Bell-Booth
Sarah-Kate Lynch & Kate McDermott
14 February 2017 (2017-02-14)
0.65[31]

Arlo makes a surprising decision about his academic future, and Shay wonders what she will do with her own, while George worries about them both. Fiona wonders where she fits into the Turner family.

20
Episode 12
Caroline Bell-Booth
Tim Balme
21 February 2017 (2017-02-21)
0.72[32]

George and Fiona have a weekend away; while Shay's mural and Arlo's attempt at a quiet night with Emma go up in flames. Jan's secret comes out, and it is more complicated than anyone could have imagined.

21
Episode 13
Michael Hurst
James Griffin
28 February 2017 (2017-02-28)
0.64[33]

Fiona and George struggle to find time to process Jan's news. Shay and Arlo's relationships suffer in the face of art fraud and distance. An unexpected Turner arrives in Weld.

22
Episode 14
Michael Hurst
Sarah-Kate Lynch
7 March 2017 (2017-03-07)
0.59[34]

Terry charms Arlo and all of Weld with his plans for a new restaurant, and George has trouble convincing them his brother is not as trustworthy as he seems.

23
Episode 15
Mike Smith
Michael Beran & James Griffin
14 March 2017 (2017-03-14)
0.59[35]

George works on an article about Terry's restaurant, and the changes that he sees in Weld since it opened. Katie has second thoughts about the art deception, and Shay has a decision to make.

24
Episode 16
Mike Smith
James Griffin
21 March 2017 (2017-03-21)
0.68[36]

George tries desperately to clean up Terry's mess in Weld, while finally coming to understand his brother. Shay deals with the consequences of her own actions.

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
Episode
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Aus. viewers
(millions)

Part 1

25
Episode 1
Mike Smith
Tim Balme
12 September 2017 (2017-09-12)
0.70[37]

Weld mounts operation search and rescue for Ike, Zac and Steve. George contemplates possible fatherhood while comforting Shay. Jan goes into labour but there are more than paternity complications.

26
Episode 2
Mike Smith
Kate McDermott
19 September 2017 (2017-09-19)
0.63[38]

It's D-day for George and the two other prospective fathers. Shay struggles with the fallout from the sea rescue and there's a major surprise at Woody and Tracey's engagement party.

27
Episode 3
Michael Hurst
James Griffin
26 September 2017 (2017-09-26)
0.59[39]

George is recruited as a reluctant accomplice in a secret mission involving Woody's past. Shay goes to the dark side after suffering from a broken heart and Katie resurrects a teaching career.

28
Episode 4
Michael Hurst
Sarah-Kate Lynch & James Griffin
3 October 2017 (2017-10-03)
0.62[40]

George gets an unlikely message from beyond the grave whilst Woody's top secret divorce plan unravels. Meanwhile, Hannah has a challenge convincing Constable Tom she'd be a top cop.

29
Episode 5
Caroline Bell-Booth & Chris Bailey
Tim Balme
10 October 2017 (2017-10-10)
0.58[41]

George's fears about Operation Quickie Divorce are realised when Woody discovers something that can't be hidden.

30
Episode 6
Caroline Bell-Booth
Natalie Medlock & Kate McDermott & James Griffin
17 October 2017 (2017-10-17)
0.51[42]

George longs for solitude but his plan to get rid of his unwanted guests backfires. Woody's relationship with Tracey is on the rocks whilst struggling in his new unexpected role.

31
Episode 7
Helena Brooks
Pip Hall & James Griffin & Kate McDermott
24 October 2017 (2017-10-24)
0.57[43]

George enjoys having the house to himself and declares war on punctuation. Woody fears for his safety at his stag party.

32
Episode 8
Helena Brooks
Kate McDermott
24 October 2017 (2017-10-24)
0.52[43]

George helps Monty write the best man speech and ponders his own wedding.

text: Release[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The series premiered in Australia on 15 September 2015 on the Seven Network[44] and premiered in New Zealand on 5 November 2015 on TV One.[45] In the United States, the series premiered on Acorn TV in 2016[46] and PBS in March 2017. The series premiered in Finland on YLE TV1 in June 2017.[47] In the UK, the first two series were broadcast on BBC One in April and May 2018.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Season one[48] along with part one[49] and two[50] of season two are available on iTunes in Australia.

text:
Title
Set details
DVD release dates
Special features

Region 1[51]
Region 2[52]
Region 4

Australia[53]
New Zealand[54]

800 Words

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

13 December 2016 (2016-12-13)
31 December 2017 (2017-12-31)
4 November 2015 (2015-11-04)
18 December 2015 (2015-12-18)

Behind-the-Scenes Featurette

800 Words – Season 2 Volume 1

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

18 April 2017 (2017-04-18)
N/A
12 October 2016 (2016-10-12)
N/A

Behind-the-Scenes Featurette

800 Words – Season 2 Volume 2

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

22 August 2017 (2017-08-22)
N/A
5 April 2017 (2017-04-05)
N/A

Behind-the-Scenes Featurettes: Melina's Tour of Weld; Interview with Erik Thomson

800 Words – Season 2

Discs: 4[A]
Episodes: 16

N/A
31 December 2018 (2018-12-31)
N/A
11 May 2017 (2017-05-11)

800 Words – Season 3 Volume 1

Discs: 2
Episodes: 8

TBA
TBA
7 March 2018 (2018-03-07)
TBA

text: Compilations[edit]

text:
Title
Set details
DVD release dates
Special features

Region 2[55]
Region 4

Australia[56]

800 Words – Complete Seasons 1&2

Discs: 6[B]
Episodes: 24

31 December 2018 (2018-12-31)
5 April 2017 (2017-04-05)

Region 4:

Romance and Women of Weld
Melina's Tour of Weld
Interview with Erik Thomson

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ 2 discs in the UK.
Jump up ^ 4 discs in the UK.

tag: ol

text: Viewership[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Overnight ratings
Consolidated ratings
Total
viewers
Ref(s)

Viewers
Rank
Viewers
Rank

1
Episode 1
15 September 2015
1,219,000
2
131,000
1
1,350,000
[14][57]

2
Episode 2
22 September 2015
1,192,000
1
217,000
1
1,409,000
[15][58]

3
Episode 3
29 September 2015
1,170,000
1
233,000
1
1,403,000
[16][59]

4
Episode 4
6 October 2015
1,055,000
2
254,000
1
1,309,000
[17][60]

5
Episode 5
13 October 2015
1,082,000
1
225,000
1
1,307,000
[18][61]

6
Episode 6
20 October 2015
1,019,000
2
235,000
1
1,254,000
[19][62]

7
Episode 7
27 October 2015
1,027,000
3
219,000
1
1,246,000
[20][63]

8
Episode 8
3 November 2015
1,151,000
6
165,000
4
1,316,000
[21][64]

text: Season 2 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Overnight ratings
Consolidated ratings
Total
viewers
Ref(s)

Viewers
Rank
Viewers
Rank

1
Episode 1
23 August 2016
877,000
7
164,000
4
1,041,000
[22][65]

2
Episode 2
30 August 2016
742,000
11
209,000
6
951,000
[23][66]

3
Episode 3
6 September 2016
793,000
11
238,000
3
1,031,000
[24][67]

4
Episode 4
13 September 2016
618,000
14
228,000
8
846,000
[25][68]

5
Episode 5
20 September 2016
592,000
14
221,000
9
813,000
[26][69]

6
Episode 6
27 September 2016
695,000
12
175,000
7
870,000
[27][70]

7
Episode 7
4 October 2016
800,000
9
192,000
4
992,000
[28][71]

8
Episode 8
4 October 2016
728,000
10
169,000
8
897,000
[28][71]

9
Episode 9
31 January 2017
797,000
9
211,000
4
1,008,000
[29][72]

10
Episode 10
7 February 2017
737,000
10
198,000
7
935,000
[30][73]

11
Episode 11
14 February 2017
647,000
12
207,000
7
854,000
[31][74]

12
Episode 12
21 February 2017
718,000
11
176,000
7
894,000
[32][75]

13
Episode 13
28 February 2017
639,000
11
207,000
8
846,000
[33][76]

14
Episode 14
7 March 2017
594,000
13
225,000
7
819,000
[34][77]

15
Episode 15
14 March 2017
591,000
12
210,000
9
801,000
[35][78]

16
Episode 16
21 March 2017
681,000
11
212,000
7
893,000
[36][79]

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Overnight ratings
Consolidated ratings
Total
viewers
Ref(s)

Viewers
Rank
Viewers
Rank

1
Episode 1
12 September 2017
696,000
10
159,000
7
855,000
[37][80]

2
Episode 2
19 September 2017
633,000
10
146,000
8
779,000
[38][81]

3
Episode 3
26 September 2017
587,000
11
163,000
8
750,000
[39][82]

4
Episode 4
3 October 2017
624,000
10
150,000
8
774,000
[40][83]

5
Episode 5
10 October 2017
580,000
12
172,000
9
752,000
[41][84]

6
Episode 6
17 October 2017
513,000
15
193,000
9
706,000
[42][85]

7
Episode 7
24 October 2017
567,000
13
171,000
9
738,000
[43][86]

8
Episode 8
24 October 2017
516,000
14
197,000
11
713,000
[43][86]

text: Remake[edit]

text: On 8 January 2018, Zomer in Zeeland (translated: Summer in Zeeland) premiered on the Dutch channel SBS6. The show stars Daniël Boissevain as Sjors Mulder, Pip Pellens as his daughter Fenna Mulder and Tonko Bossen as his son Jurgen Mulder. The remake follows the same storyline, but changes the setting to the Dutch province of Zeeland, after which the country of New Zealand was named.


document_title: History of the compass

question_text: when were the first magnetic compasses used by chinese ships

text: History of the compass

text: Navigation prior to the compass[edit]

text: Prior to the introduction of the compass, geographical position and direction at sea were primarily determined by the sighting of landmarks, supplemented with the observation of the position of celestial bodies.[6] On cloudy days, the Vikings may have used cordierite or some other birefringent crystal to determine the sun's direction and elevation from the polarization of daylight; their astronomical knowledge was sufficient to let them use this information to determine their proper heading.[7] The invention of the compass enabled the determination of heading when the sky was overcast or foggy, and when landmarks were not in sight. This enabled mariners to navigate safely far from land, increasing sea trade, and contributing to the Age of Discovery.[8][9]

text: Geomancy and feng shui[edit]

text: The compass was invented in China during the Han Dynasty between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD, where it was called the "south-governor" (sīnán 司南).[2] The magnetic compass was not, at first, used for navigation, but for geomancy and fortune-telling by the Chinese. The earliest Chinese magnetic compasses were possibly used to order and harmonize buildings in accordance with the geomantic principles of feng shui. These early compasses were made with lodestone, a form of the mineral magnetite that is a naturally occurring magnet and aligns itself with the Earth’s magnetic field.[6] People in ancient China discovered that if a lodestone was suspended so it could turn freely, it would always point toward the magnetic poles. Early compasses were used to choose areas suitable for building houses and to search for rare gems. Compasses were later adapted for navigation during the Song Dynasty in the 11th century.[1]

text: Based on Krotser and Coe's discovery of an Olmec hematite artifact in Mesoamerica, radiocarbon dated to 1400–1000 BC, astronomer John Carlson has hypothesized that the Olmec might have used the geomagnetic lodestone earlier than 1000 BC for geomancy, a method of divination, which if proven true, predates the Chinese use of magnetism for feng shui by a millennium.[10] Carlson speculates that the Olmecs used similar artifacts as a directional device for astronomical or geomantic purposes but does not suggest navigational usage. The artifact is part of a polished hematite bar with a groove at one end, possibly used for sighting. Carlson's claims have been disputed by other scientific researchers, who have suggested that the artifact is actually a constituent piece of a decorative ornament and not a purposely built compass.[11] Several other hematite or magnetite artifacts have been found at pre-Columbian archaeological sites in Mexico and Guatemala.[12][13]

text: Early navigational compass[edit]

text: A number of early cultures used lodestones, suspended so they could turn, as magnetic compasses for navigation. Early mechanical compasses are referenced in written records of the Chinese, who began using it for navigation sometime between the 9th and 11th century, "some time before 1050, possibly as early as 850."[14][6] At present, according to Kreutz, scholarly consensus is that the Chinese invention used in navigation pre-dates the first European mention of a compass by 150 years.[15] The first recorded appearance of the use of the compass in Europe (1190)[16] is earlier than in the Muslim world (1232),[17][18] as a description of a magnetized needle and its use among sailors occurs in Alexander Neckam's De naturis rerum (On the Natures of Things), written in 1190.[16][19]

text: However, there are questions over diffusion. Some historians suggest that the Arabs introduced the compass from China to Europe.[20][21] Some suggested the compass was transmitted from China to Europe and the Muslim world via the Indian Ocean,[22] or was brought by the crusaders to Europe from China.[23] However, some scholars proposed an independent European invention of the compass:[24][25]

text: China[edit]

text: There is disagreement as to exactly when the compass was invented. These are noteworthy Chinese literary references in evidence for its antiquity:

text:
The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty (since about 206 BC).[1][2][27] The compass was used in Song Dynasty China by the military for navigational orienteering by 1040–44,[15][28][29] and was used for maritime navigation by 1111 to 1117.[30]
The earliest Chinese literature reference to magnetism lies in the 4th century BC writings of Wang Xu (鬼谷子): "The lodestone attracts iron."[31] The book also notes that the people of the state of Zheng always knew their position by means of a "south-pointer"; some authors suggest that this refers to early use of the compass.[1][32]
The first mention of a spoon, speculated to be a lodestone, observed pointing in a cardinal direction is a Chinese work composed between 70 and 80 AD (Lunheng), which records that "But when the south pointing spoon is thrown upon the ground, it comes to rest pointing at the south."[33] Within the text, the author Wang Chong describes the spoon as a phenomenon that he has personally observed.[34] Although the passage does not explicitly mention magnetism,[35] according to Chen-Cheng Yih, the "device described by Wang Chong has been widely considered to be the earliest form of the magnetic compass."[26]
The first clear account of magnetic declination occurs in the Kuan Shih Ti Li Chih Meng ("Mr. Kuan's Geomantic Instructor"), dating to 880.[36] Another text, the Chiu Thien Hsuan Nu Chhing Nang Hai Chio Ching ("Blue Bag Sea Angle Manual") from around the same period, also has an implicit description of magnetic declination. It has been argued that this knowledge of declination requires the use of the compass.[36]
A reference to a magnetized needle as a "mysterious needle" appears in 923–926 in the Chung Hua Ku Chin Chu text written by Ma Kao. The same passage is also attributed to the 4th-century AD writer Tshui Pao, although it is postulated that the former text is more authentic. The shape of the needle is compared to that of a tadpole, and may indicate the transition between "lodestone spoons" and "iron needles."[37]
The earliest reference to a specific magnetic direction finder device for land navigation is recorded in a Song Dynasty book dated to 1040–44. There is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night." The Wujing Zongyao (武經總要, "Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques") stated: "When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, and the directions of space could not be distinguished...they made use of the [mechanical] south-pointing carriage, or the south-pointing fish."[28] This was achieved by heating of metal (especially if steel), known today as thermoremanence, and would have been capable of producing a weak state of magnetization.[28] While the Chinese achieved magnetic remanence and induction by this time, in both Europe and Asia the phenomenon was attributed to the supernatural and occult, until about 1600 when William Gilbert published his De Magnete.[38]
The first incontestable reference to a magnetized needle in Chinese literature appears in 1088.[29] The Dream Pool Essays, written by the Song Dynasty polymath scientist Shen Kuo, contained a detailed description of how geomancers magnetized a needle by rubbing its tip with lodestone, and hung the magnetic needle with one single strain of silk with a bit of wax attached to the center of the needle. Shen Kuo pointed out that a needle prepared this way sometimes pointed south, sometimes north.
The earliest explicit recorded use of a magnetic compass for maritime navigation is found in Zhu Yu's book Pingchow Table Talks (萍洲可談; Pingzhou Ketan) and dates from 1111 to 1117: The ship's pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts; at night they steer by the stars , and in the daytime by the sun. In dark weather they look at the south pointing needle.[30]

text: Thus, the use of a magnetic compass by the military for land navigation occurred sometime before 1044, but incontestable evidence for the use of the compass as a maritime navigational device did not appear until 1117.

text: The typical Chinese navigational compass was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water.[39] According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song Dynasty and continuing Yuan Dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass.[40] Evidence of this is found in the Shilin guangji ("Guide Through the Forest of Affairs"), published in 1325 by Chen Yuanjing, although its compilation had taken place between 1100 and 1250.[40] The dry compass in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction.[40] Although the European compass-card in box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had in turn learned of it from Europeans),[41] the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century.[42] However, according to Kreutz there is only a single Chinese reference to a dry-mounted needle (built into a pivoted wooden tortoise) which is dated to between 1150 and 1250, and claims that there is no clear indication that Chinese mariners ever used anything but the floating needle in a bowl until the 16th century.[39]

text: The first recorded use of a 48 position mariner's compass on sea navigation was noted in The Customs of Cambodia by Yuan Dynasty diplomat Zhou Daguan, he described his 1296 voyage from Wenzhou to Angkor Thom in detail; when his ship set sail from Wenzhou, the mariner took a needle direction of “ding wei” position, which is equivalent to 22.5 degree SW. After they arrived at Baria, the mariner took "Kun Shen needle", or 52.5 degree SW.[43] Zheng He's Navigation Map, also known as the "Mao Kun Map", contains a large amount of detail "needle records" of Zheng He's expeditions.[44]

text: Medieval Europe[edit]

text: Alexander Neckam reported the use of a magnetic compass for the region of the English Channel in the texts De utensilibus and De naturis rerum,[46] written between 1187 and 1202, after he returned to England from France[47] and prior to entering the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester.[48] In his 1863 edition of Neckam's De naturis rerum, Thomas Wright provides a translation of the passage in which Neckam mentions sailors being guided by a compass' needle:

text: The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy whether they can no longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is wrapped up in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what point of the compass their ship's course is directed, they touch the magnet with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round in a circle until, when its motion ceases, its point looks direct to the north.[49]

text: Neckam's clear understanding of the mariner's compass in the late twelfth-century, and his description of its use in marine navigation, has cast doubt on whether the compass was, as Professor Derk Bodde has argued, one of 'China's gifts to the West'.[50] From Neckam's description, some scholars have suggested it is not unlikely that the compass was also 'invented' in Europe, independently of Eastern technologies.[51] This is further supported by Jacques de Vitry's mention of the compass being used at sea in 1218, which indicates a broader knowledge of the compass and its uses in Medieval Northern Europe:

text: An iron needle, after having been in contact with the loadstone, turns itself always toward the northern star, which, like the axis of the firmament, remains immoveable, while the others follow their course, so that it is very necessary to those who navigate the sea.[52]

text: Robert Southey suggested that the Siete Partidas contained a reference from the 1250s to the needle being used for navigation.[53]

text: In 1269 Petrus Peregrinus of Maricourt described a floating compass for astronomical purposes as well as a dry compass for seafaring, in his well-known Epistola de magnete.[46]

text: In the Mediterranean, the introduction of the compass, at first only known as a magnetized pointer floating in a bowl of water,[54] went hand in hand with improvements in dead reckoning methods, and the development of Portolan charts, leading to more navigation during winter months in the second half of the 13th century.[55][6] While the practice from ancient times had been to curtail sea travel between October and April, due in part to the lack of dependable clear skies during the Mediterranean winter, the prolongation of the sailing season resulted in a gradual, but sustained increase in shipping movement; by around 1290 the sailing season could start in late January or February, and end in December.[56] The additional few months were of considerable economic importance. For instance, it enabled Venetian convoys to make two round trips a year to the Levant, instead of one.[57]

text: At the same time, traffic between the Mediterranean and northern Europe also increased, with first evidence of direct commercial voyages from the Mediterranean into the English Channel coming in the closing decades of the 13th century, and one factor may be that the compass made traversal of the Bay of Biscay safer and easier.[58] However, critics like Kreutz have suggested that it was later in 1410 that anyone really started steering by compass.[59]

text: Muslim world[edit]

text: The earliest reference to a compass in the Muslim world occurs in a Persian talebook from 1232,[17][60] where a compass is used for navigation during a trip in the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.[4] The fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates that this early Chinese design has spread outside of China.[61] The earliest Arabic reference to a compass, in the form of magnetic needle in a bowl of water, comes from a work by Baylak al-Qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in Cairo.[17][62] Al-Qibjāqī described a needle-and-bowl compass used for navigation on a voyage he took from Syria to Alexandria in 1242.[17] Since the author describes having witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance in the Arab world accordingly.[17] Al-Qibjāqī also reports that sailors in the Indian Ocean used iron fish instead of needles.[25]

text: Late in the 13th century, the Yemeni Sultan and astronomer al-Malik al-Ashraf described the use of the compass as a "Qibla indicator" to find the direction to Mecca.[63] In a treatise about astrolabes and sundials, al-Ashraf includes several paragraphs on the construction of a compass bowl (ṭāsa). He then uses the compass to determine the north point, the meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), and the Qibla. This is the first mention of a compass in a medieval Islamic scientific text and its earliest known use as a Qibla indicator, although al-Ashraf did not claim to be the first to use it for this purpose.[46][64]

text: In 1300, an Arabic treatise written by the Egyptian astronomer and muezzin Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass used for determining qibla. Like Peregrinus' compass, however, Ibn Simʿūn's compass did not feature a compass card.[46] In the 14th century, the Syrian astronomer and timekeeper Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) invented a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of prayers.[65] Arab navigators also introduced the 32-point compass rose during this time.[66] In 1399, an Egyptian reports two different kinds of magnetic compass. One instrument is a “fish” made of willow wood or pumpkin, into which a magnetic needle is inserted and sealed with tar or wax to prevent the penetration of water. The other instrument is a dry compass.[25]

text: In the 15th century, the description given by Ibn Majid while aligning the compass with the pole star indicates that he was aware of magnetic declination. An explicit value for the declination is given by ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Wafāʾī (fl. 1450s in Cairo).[4]

text: Pre modern Arabic sources refer to the compass using the term ṭāsa (lit. "bowl") for the floating compass, or ālat al-qiblah ("qibla instrument") for a device used for orienting towards Mecca.[4]

text: Friedrich Hirth suggested that Arab and Persian traders, who learned about the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese, applied the compass for navigation before the Chinese did.[67] However, Needham described this theory as "erroneous" and "it originates because of a mistraslation" of the term chia-ling found in Zhu Yu's book Pingchow Table Talks.[68]

text: India[edit]

text: The development of the magnetic compass is highly uncertain. The compass is mentioned in fourth-century AD Tamil nautical books; moreover, its early name of macchayantra (fish machine) suggest a Chinese origin. In its Indian form, the wet compass often consisted of a fish-shaped magnet, float in a bowl filled with oil.[69][70] This fish shape was from a typical early Chinese design.[61]

text: Medieval Africa[edit]

text: There is evidence that the distribution of the compass from China likely also reached eastern Africa by way of trade through the end of the Silk Road that ended in East African centre of trade in Somalia and the Swahili city-state kingdoms.[71] There is evidence that Swahili maritime merchants and sailors acquired the compass at some point and used it for navigation.[72]

text: Dry compass[edit]

text: The dry mariner's compass consists of three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin enclosed in a little box with a glass cover and a wind rose, whereby "the wind rose or compass card is attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner that when placed on a pivot in a box fastened in line with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the ship changed direction, indicating always what course the ship was on".[3] Later, compasses were often fitted into a gimbal mounting to reduce grounding of the needle or card when used on the pitching and rolling deck of a ship.

text: While pivoting needles in glass boxes had already been described by the French scholar Peter Peregrinus in 1269,[73] and by the Egyptian scholar Ibn Simʿūn in 1300,[46] traditionally Flavio Gioja (fl. 1302), an Italian pilot from Amalfi, has been credited with perfecting the sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a compass card, thus giving the compass its familiar appearance.[74][6] Such a compass with the needle attached to a rotating card is also described in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy from 1380, while an earlier source refers to a portable compass in a box (1318),[75] supporting the notion that the dry compass was known in Europe by then.[39]

text: Bearing compass[edit]

text: A bearing compass is a magnetic compass mounted in such a way that it allows the taking of bearings of objects by aligning them with the lubber line of the bearing compass.[76] A surveyor's compass is a specialized compass made to accurately measure heading of landmarks and measure horizontal angles to help with map making. These were already in common use by the early 18th century and are described in the 1728 Cyclopaedia. The bearing compass was steadily reduced in size and weight to increase portability, resulting in a model that could be carried and operated in one hand. In 1885, a patent was granted for a hand compass fitted with a viewing prism and lens that enabled the user to accurately sight the heading of geographical landmarks, thus creating the prismatic compass.[77] Another sighting method was by means of a reflective mirror. First patented in 1902, the Bézard compass consisted of a field compass with a mirror mounted above it.[78][79] This arrangement enabled the user to align the compass with an objective while simultaneously viewing its bearing in the mirror.[78][80]

text: In 1928, Gunnar Tillander, a Swedish unemployed instrument maker and avid participant in the sport of orienteering, invented a new style of bearing compass. Dissatisfied with existing field compasses, which required a separate protractor in order to take bearings from a map, Tillander decided to incorporate both instruments into a single instrument. It combined a compass with a protractor built into the base. His design featured a metal compass capsule containing a magnetic needle with orienting marks mounted into a transparent protractor baseplate with a lubber line (later called a direction of travel indicator). By rotating the capsule to align the needle with the orienting marks, the course bearing could be read at the lubber line. Moreover, by aligning the baseplate with a course drawn on a map – ignoring the needle – the compass could also function as a protractor. Tillander took his design to fellow orienteers Björn, Alvid, and Alvar Kjellström, who were selling basic compasses, and the four men modified Tillander's design.[81] In December 1932, the Silva Company was formed with Tillander and the three Kjellström brothers, and the company began manufacturing and selling its Silva orienteering compass to Swedish orienteers, outdoorsmen, and army officers.[81][82][83][84]

text: Liquid compass[edit]

text: The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducing wear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir Edmund Halley at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1690.[85] However, as early liquid compasses were fairly cumbersome and heavy, and subject to damage, their main advantage was aboard ship. Protected in a binnacle and normally gimbal-mounted, the liquid inside the compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel. The first liquid mariner's compass believed practicable for limited use was patented by the Englishman Francis Crow in 1813.[86][87] Liquid-damped marine compasses for ships and small boats were occasionally used by the Royal Navy from the 1830s through 1860, but the standard Admiralty compass remained a dry-mount type.[88] In the latter year, the American physicist and inventor Edward Samuel Ritchie patented a greatly improved liquid marine compass that was adopted in revised form for general use by the United States Navy, and later purchased by the Royal Navy as well.[89]

text: Despite these advances, the liquid compass was not introduced generally into the Royal Navy until 1908. An early version developed by RN Captain Creak proved to be operational under heavy gunfire and seas, but was felt to lack navigational precision compared with the design by Lord Kelvin.[5][90] However, with ship and gun sizes continuously increasing, the advantages of the liquid compass over the Kelvin compass became unavoidably apparent to the Admiralty, and after widespread adoption by other navies, the liquid compass was generally adopted by the Royal Navy.[5]

text: Liquid compasses were next adapted for aircraft. In 1909, Captain F.O. Creagh-Osborne, Superintendent of Compasses at the Admiralty, introduced his Creagh-Osborne aircraft compass, which used a mixture of alcohol and distilled water to damp the compass card.[91][92] After the success of this invention, Capt. Creagh-Osborne adapted his design to a much smaller pocket model[93] for individual use[94] by officers of artillery or infantry, receiving a patent in 1915.[95]

text: In December 1932, the newly founded Silva Company of Sweden introduced its first baseplate or bearing compass that used a liquid-filled capsule to damp the swing of the magnetized needle.[81] The liquid-damped Silva took only four seconds for its needle to settle in comparison to thirty seconds for the original version.[81]

text: In 1933 Tuomas Vohlonen, a surveyor by profession, applied for a patent for a unique method of filling and sealing a lightweight celluloid compass housing or capsule with a petroleum distillate to dampen the needle and protect it from shock and wear caused by excessive motion.[96] Introduced in a wrist-mount model in 1936 as the Suunto Oy Model M-311, the new capsule design led directly to the lightweight liquid-filled field compasses of today.[96]

text: Gyrocompass[edit]

text: The first gyroscope for scientific use was made by the French physicist Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (1819–1868) in 1852, who also named the device, while researching in the same line that led him to use the eponymous pendulum, for which he was awarded a Copley Medal by the Royal Society. The gyrocompass was patented in 1885 by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos in The Netherlands after continuous spinning was made possible by small electric motors, which were in turn a technological outcome of the discovery of magnetic induction.[6] Yet only in 1906 was the German inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe (1872–1931) able to build the first practical gyrocompass. It had two major advantages over magnetic compasses: it indicated true north and was unaffected by ferromagnetic materials, such as the steel hull of ships. Thus, it was widely used in the warships of World War I and modern aircraft

text: Non-navigational uses[edit]

text: Astronomy[edit]

text: Three compasses meant for establishing the meridian were described by Peter Peregrinus in 1269 (referring to experiments made before 1248)[97] Late in the 13th century, al-Malik al-Ashraf of Yemen wrote a treatise on astrolabes, which included instructions and diagrams on using the compass to determine the meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār) and Qibla.[46] In 1300, a treatise written by the Egyptian astronomer and muezzin Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass for use as a "Qibla indicator" to find the direction to Mecca. Ibn Simʿūn's compass, however, did not feature a compass card nor the familiar glass box.[46] In the 14th century, the Syrian astronomer and timekeeper Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) invented a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of salat prayers.[65]

text: Building orientation[edit]

text: Evidence for the orientation of buildings by the means of a magnetic compass can be found in 12th-century Denmark: one fourth of its 570 Romanesque churches are rotated by 5–15 degrees clockwise from true east-west, thus corresponding to the predominant magnetic declination of the time of their construction.[98] Most of these churches were built in the 12th century, indicating a fairly common usage of magnetic compasses in Europe by then.[99]

text: Mining[edit]

text: The use of a compass as a direction finder underground was pioneered in the Tuscan mining town Massa where floating magnetic needles were employed for tunnelling, and for defining the claims of the various mining companies, as early as the 13th century.[100] In the second half of the 15th century, the compass became standard equipment for Tyrolian miners. Shortly afterwards the first detailed treatise dealing with the underground use of compasses was published by a German miner Rülein von Calw (1463–1525).[101]

text: Sun compass[edit]

text: A sun compass uses the position of the Sun in the sky to determine the directions of the cardinal points, making allowance for the local latitude and longitude, time of day, equation of time, and so on. At fairly high latitudes, an analog-display watch can be used as a very approximate sun compass. A simple sundial can be used as a much better one. An automatic sun compass developed by Lt. Col. James Allason, a mechanised cavalry officer, was adopted by the British Army in India in 1938 for use in tanks and other armoured vehicles where the magnetic field was subject to distortion, affecting the standard issue prismatic compass. Cloudy skies prohibited its use in European theatres. A copy of the manual is preserved in the Imperial War Museum in London.[102]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lowrie, William (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-521-67596-3. Early in the Han Dynasty, between 300-200 BC, the Chinese fashioned a rudimentary compass out of lodestone... the compass may have been used in the search for gems and the selection of sites for houses... their directive power led to the use of compasses for navigation
^ Jump up to: a b c Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W. (1983). The Earth's magnetic field: Its history, origin and planetary perspective (2nd printing ed.). San Francisco: Academic press. p. 1. ISBN 0-12-491242-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Lane, p. 615
^ Jump up to: a b c d Schmidl, Petra G. (2014-05-08). "Compass". In Ibrahim Kalin. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–6. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c W. H. Creak: "The History of the Liquid Compass", The Geographical Journal, Vol. 56, No. 3 (1920), pp. 238-239
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Guarnieri, M. (2014). "Once Upon a Time, the Compass". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (2): 60–63. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2316044.
Jump up ^ Gábor Horváth; et al. (2011). "On the trail of Vikings with polarized skylight". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 366 (1565): 772–782. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0194.
Jump up ^ Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-87951-397-7.
Jump up ^ Bacon, Francis (1620). Novum Organum Scientiarum. It is well to observe the force and virtue of consequences of discoveries, and there are to be seen nowhere more conspicuously than in those three which were unknown to the ancients, and of which the origins, although recent, are obscure and inglorious; namely printing, gunpowder, and the magnet. For these three have changed the whole state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, insomuch that no empire, no secret, no star seems to have exerted greater power in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries... had done more to transform the modern world and mark it off from antiquity and the middle ages.
Jump up ^ John B. Carlson, "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy? Multidisciplinary Analysis of an Olmec Hematite Artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico", Science, New Series, Vol. 189, No. 4205 (5 September 1975), pp. 753-760 (1975)
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph; Lu Gwei-Djen (1985). Trans-Pacific Echoes and Resonances: Listening Once Again. World Scientific. p. 21.
Jump up ^ Guimarães, A. P. (2004). "Mexico and the early history of magnetism". Revista Mexicana de Fisica. 50: 51–53. Bibcode:2004RMxFE..50...51G.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 3". Dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 2015-06-06.
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-521-31560-9. the introduction of the mariner's compass on Chinese ships some time before 1050, possibly as early as 850
^ Jump up to: a b Kreutz, p. 367
^ Jump up to: a b Kreutz, p. 368
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kreutz, p. 370
Jump up ^ Kreutz, p. 369
Jump up ^ Lanza, Roberto; Meloni, Antonio (2006). The earth's magnetism an introduction for geologists. Berlin: Springer. p. 255. ISBN 978-3-540-27979-2.
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph. Cambridge University Press. University of California Press. p. 173. Thus the possibility presents itself that... it may have formed part of one of those transmissions from Asia which we find in so many fields of applied science
Jump up ^ McEachren, Justin W. General Science Quarterly, Volumes 5-6. University of California Press. p. 337. From the Chinese, the Arabs in all probability learned to use the magnetic needle, and in this round-about fashion it was brought to Europe
Jump up ^ Bentley, Jerry. Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. p. 637.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Principles of the Magnetic Methods in Geophysics", Alex A. Kaufman, Richard O. Hansen, Robert L. Kleinberg pg 149.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Early Arabic Sources on the Magnetic Compass" (PDF). Lancaster.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Selin, Helaine (1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 541. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2. The device described by Wang Chong has been widely considered to be the earliest form of the magnetic compass
Jump up ^ Li Shu-hua, p. 176
^ Jump up to: a b c Needham, p. 252
^ Jump up to: a b Li Shu-hua, p. 182f.
^ Jump up to: a b Colin A. Ronan; Joseph Needham (25 July 1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-521-31560-9.
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ Needham p. 190
Jump up ^ Needham p. 18
Jump up ^ Needham p. 18 "here the author is contrasting a fable which he did not believe with actual events he has seen with his own eyes"
Jump up ^ Li Shu-hua, p. 180
^ Jump up to: a b Needham, Joseph (1970). Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West. Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-0-521-07235-9. The geomantic book Kuan Shih Ti Li Chih Meng... has the first account of it... the Chiu Thien Hsuan Nu Chhing Nang Hai Chio Ching... includes an implicit reference to declination
Jump up ^ Needham p. 273-274
Jump up ^ Benjamin A. Elman (30 June 2009). On Their Own Terms: Science in China, 1550–1900. Harvard University Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-674-03647-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kreutz, p. 373
^ Jump up to: a b c Needham p. 255
Jump up ^ Needham, p. 289.
Jump up ^ Needham, p. 290
Jump up ^ Zhou
Jump up ^ Ma, Appendix 2
Jump up ^ MS. Ashmole 1522, fol. 186r, Bodleian Library.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Schmidl, Petra G. (1996–97). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass". Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. 1: 81–132.  http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4
Jump up ^ Neckam, Alexander (1863). Alexandri Neckam De Naturis Rerum Libri Duoi. Longman, Roberts, and Green. p. xi.
Jump up ^ Gutman, Oliver (2003). Liber Celi Et Mundi. BRILL. p. xx. ISBN 9789004132283. probably whilst teaching theology at Oxford before entering the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester in 1202
Jump up ^ T. Wright, (ed.) 'Preface', Alexandri Neckam De naturis rerum libri duo with the poem of the same author, De laudibus divinae sapientiae, (London, 1863), xxxiv. https://archive.org/details/alexandrineckam00neckgoog
Jump up ^ Professor Derk Bodde of Columbia University seems to maintain that whilst the mariner's compass was known to twelfth-century Europe, its application to navigation was not mentioned until the fifteenth century. This is easily dismissed by a wider reading of the period. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_gifts.htm#compass
Jump up ^ T. Wright, (ed.) 'Preface', Alexandri Neckam De naturis rerum libri duo with the poem of the same author, De laudibus divinae sapientiae, (London, 1863),xxxv
Jump up ^ T. Wright, (ed.) 'Preface', Alexandri Neckam De naturis rerum libri duo with the poem of the same author, De laudibus divinae sapientiae, (London, 1863),xxxv
Jump up ^ Southey, Robert (1812). Omniana. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. p. 210. There is a passage in the Partidas respecting the needle, which was written half a century before its supposed invention at Amalfi
Jump up ^ Kreutz, p. 368–369
Jump up ^ Lane, p. 606f.
Jump up ^ Lane, p. 608
Jump up ^ Lane, p. 608 & 610
Jump up ^ Lane, p. 608 & 613
Jump up ^ Kreutz, p. 372–373
Jump up ^ Jawāmeʿ al-ḥekāyāt wa-lawāmeʿ al-rewāyāt by Muhammad al-ʿAwfī
^ Jump up to: a b Needham p. 12-13 "...that the floating fish-shaped iron leaf spread outside China as a technique, we know from the description of Muhammad al' Awfi just two hundred years later"
Jump up ^ Kitāb Kanz al-tujjār fī maʿrifat al-aḥjār
Jump up ^ Savage-Smith, Emilie (1988). "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine". Isis. 79 (2): 246–266 [263]. doi:10.1086/354701.
Jump up ^ Schmidl, Petra G. (2007). "Ashraf: al‐Malik al‐Ashraf (Mumahhid al‐Dīn) ʿUmar ibn Yūsuf ibn ʿUmar ibn ʿAlī ibn Rasūl". In Thomas Hockey; et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 66–7. ISBN 9780387310220. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) (PDF version)
^ Jump up to: a b (King 1983, pp. 547–8)
Jump up ^ Tibbetts, G. R. (1973). "Comparisons between Arab and Chinese Navigational Techniques". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 36 (1): 97–108 [105–6]. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00098013.
Jump up ^ Hirth, Friedrich (1908). Ancient history of China to the end of the Chóu dynasty,. New York, The Columbia university press. p. 134.
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph (1962). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–80. ISBN 978-0-521-05802-5.
Jump up ^ Helaine Selin, ed. (2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Jump up ^ The American Journal of Science. Books.google.com. 1919. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
Jump up ^ Stockwell, Foster (2003). Westerners in China : a history of exploration and trade, ancient times through the present. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7864-1404-8.
Jump up ^ Bulliet, Richard W.; et al. The earth and its peoples : a global history (5th, Student ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-538-74438-6.
Jump up ^ Taylor
Jump up ^ Lane, p. 616
Jump up ^ Kreutz, p. 374
Jump up ^ "Hand Bearing Compass". West Coast Offshore Marine. 2009. Retrieved 2014-12-28.
Jump up ^ Frazer, Persifor, A Convenient Device to be Applied to the Hand Compass, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 22, No. 118 (Mar., 1885), p. 216
^ Jump up to: a b Jean-Patrick Donzey. "Bezard 1". Compass Museum. Retrieved 2016-08-02.
Jump up ^ Barnes, Scott, Churchill, James, and Jacobson, Cliff, The Ultimate Guide to Wilderness Navigation, Globe Pequot Press (2002), ISBN 1-58574-490-5, ISBN 978-1-58574-490-9, p. 27
Jump up ^ Barnes, p. 27
^ Jump up to: a b c d Litsky, Frank, Bjorn Kjellstrom, 84, Orienteer and Inventor of Modern Compass, Obituaries, The New York Times, 1 September 1995
Jump up ^ Seidman, p. 68
Jump up ^ Kjellström, Björn, 19th Hole: The Readers Take Over: Orienteering, Sports Illustrated, 3 March 1969
Jump up ^ Silva Sweden AB, Silva Sweden AB and Silva Production AB Become One Company: History, Press Release 28 April 2000
Jump up ^ Gubbins, David, Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, Springer Press (2007), ISBN 1-4020-3992-1, ISBN 978-1-4020-3992-8, p. 67
Jump up ^ Fanning, A.E., Steady As She Goes: A History of the Compass Department of the Admiralty, HMSO, Department of the Admiralty (1986), pp. 1-10
Jump up ^ Gubbins, p. 67
Jump up ^ Fanning, A.E., pp. 1-10
Jump up ^ Warner, Deborah, Compasses and Coils: The Instrument Business of Edward S. Ritchie, Rittenhouse, Vol. 9, No. 1 (1994), pp. 1-24
Jump up ^ Gubbins, p. 67: The use of parallel or multiple needles was by no means a new development; their use in dry-mount marine compasses was pioneered by navigation officers of the Dutch East India Company as early as 1649.
Jump up ^ Davis, Sophia, Raising The Aerocompass In Early Twentieth-century Britain, British Journal for the History of Science, published online by Cambridge University Press, 15 Jul 2008, pp. 1-22
Jump up ^ Colvin, Fred H., Aircraft Mechanics Handbook: A Collection of Facts and Suggestions from Factory and Flying Field to Assist in Caring for Modern Aircraft, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. (1918), pp. 347-348
Jump up ^ The Compass Museum, Article: Though the Creagh-Osborne was offered in a wrist-mount model, it proved too bulky and heavy in this form.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Henry A., Improvements in prismatic compasses with special reference to the Creagh-Osborne patent compass, Transactions of The Optical Society 16, London: The Optical Society (1915), pp. 17-43: The first liquid-damped compass compact enough for pocket or pouch was the Creagh-Osborne, patented in 1915 in Great Britain.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Henry A., pp. 17-43
^ Jump up to: a b [3]
Jump up ^ Taylor, p. 1f.
Jump up ^ Abrahamsen, N. (1992). "Evidence for Church Orientation by Magnetic Compass in Twelfth-Century Denmark". Archaeometry. 34 (2): 293–303. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1992.tb00499.x. See page 293.
Jump up ^ Abrahamsen, N. (1992). "Evidence for Church Orientation by Magnetic Compass in Twelfth-Century Denmark". Archaeometry. 34 (2): 293–303. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1992.tb00499.x. See page 303.
Jump up ^ Ludwig and Schmidtchen, p. 62–64
Jump up ^ Ludwig and Schmidtchen, p. 64
Jump up ^ Ringside Seat, by James Allason, Timewell Press, London 2007


document_title: Greek words for love

question_text: what are the words for love in greek

question_tokens: what are the words for love in greek

text: Greek words for love

text: This article  possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Part of a series onLove
Types of love[show]
Affection
Bonding
Broken heart
Compassionate love
Conjugal love
Courtly love
courtship
troubadours
Falling in love
Free love
Friendship
romantic
Interpersonal relationship
Intimacy
Limerence
Love addiction
Love at first sight
Love triangle
Loving-kindness
Lovesickness
Lovestruck
Obsessive love
Passion
Platonic love
Puppy love
Relationship
Romance
Self-love
Amour de soi
Unconditional love
Unrequited love

Cultural views[hide]
Chinese
Ren
Greek
words for love
Agape
Eros
Philia
Storge
Xenia
Indian
Kama
Bhakti
Mettā
Islamic
Ishq
Jewish
Chesed
Latin
Amore
Charity

Related[show]
Biological basis
Love letter
Valentine's Day
Philosophy
Religious views
vte

text: The Greek language distinguishes at least four different ways as to how the word love is used.  Ancient Greek has four distinct words for love: agápe, éros,  philía, and storgē.  However, as with other languages, it has been difficult to separate the meanings of these words when used outside their respective contexts. Nonetheless, the senses in which these words were generally used are as follows:

text:
Agápe (ἀγάπη agápē[1]) means "love: esp. charity; the love of God for man and of man for God."[2] Agape is used in ancient texts to denote feelings for one's children and the feelings for a spouse, and it was also used to refer to a love feast.[3] Agape is used by Christians to express the unconditional love of God for his children.[4] This type of love was further explained by Thomas Aquinas as "to will the good of another."[5]
Éros (ἔρως érōs) means "love, mostly of the sexual passion."[6] The Modern Greek word "erotas" means "intimate love". Plato refined his own definition: Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Plato does not talk of physical attraction as a necessary part of love, hence the use of the word platonic to mean, "without physical attraction". In the Symposium, the most famous ancient work on the subject, Plato has Socrates argue that eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty, and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth, the ideal "Form" of youthful beauty that leads us humans to feel erotic desire – thus suggesting that even that sensually based love aspires to the non-corporeal, spiritual plane of existence; that is, finding its truth, just like finding any truth, leads to transcendence.[7] Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth through the means of eros.
Philia (φιλία philía) means "affectionate regard, friendship", usually "between equals".[8] It is a dispassionate virtuous love, a concept developed by Aristotle.[9] In his best-known work on ethics, Nicomachean Ethics, philia is expressed variously as loyalty to friends (specifically, "brotherly love"), family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Furthermore, in the same text philos denotes a general type of love, used for love between family, between friends, a desire or enjoyment of an activity, as well as between lovers.
Storge (στοργή storgē) means "love, affection" and "especially of parents and children".[10] It is the common or natural empathy, like that felt by parents for offspring.[11]  Rarely used in ancient works, and then almost exclusively as a descriptor of relationships within the family. It is also known to express mere acceptance or putting up with situations, as in "loving" the tyrant. This is also used when referencing the love for one's country or a favorite sports team.