document_title: Skeleton in the closet (idiom)

question_text: where did the phrase skeletons in the closet come from

text: Skeleton in the closet (idiom)

text: Skeleton in the closet or skeleton in the cupboard is a colloquial phrase and idiom used to describe an undisclosed fact about someone which, if revealed, would have a negative impact on perceptions of the person; it hyperbolically evokes the idea of someone having had a (presumedly human) corpse concealed in their home so long that it had decomposed but for its bones. "Cupboard" is used in British English instead of the American English word "closet". It is known to have been used as a phrase, at least as early as November 1816, in the monthly British journal The Eclectic Review, page 468.[1] It is listed in both the Oxford English Dictionary, and Webster's Dictionary, under the word "skeleton". The "Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary" lists it under this but also as a separate idiom. In the most derisive of usage; murder, or significant culpability in a years-old disappearance or non-understood event (a mystery), may be implied by the phrase.


document_title: Gravitational wave

question_text: what is the wavelength of a gravity wave

question_tokens: what is the wavelength of a gravity wave

root

text: Gravitational wave

text: Introduction[edit]

text: In Einstein's general theory of relativity, gravity is treated as a phenomenon resulting from the curvature of spacetime. This curvature is caused by the presence of mass. Generally, the more mass that is contained within a given volume of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime will be at the boundary of its volume.[18] As objects with mass move around in spacetime, the curvature changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. In certain circumstances, accelerating objects generate changes in this curvature, which propagate outwards at the speed of light in a wave-like manner. These propagating phenomena are known as gravitational waves.

tag: p

text: As a gravitational wave passes an observer, that observer will find spacetime distorted by the effects of strain. Distances between objects increase and decrease rhythmically as the wave passes, at a frequency corresponding to that of the wave. This occurs despite such free objects never being subjected to an unbalanced force. The magnitude of this effect decreases in proportion to the inverse distance from the source.[19]:227 Inspiraling binary neutron stars are predicted to be a powerful source of gravitational waves as they coalesce, due to the very large acceleration of their masses as they orbit close to one another. However, due to the astronomical distances to these sources, the effects when measured on Earth are predicted to be very small, having strains of less than 1 part in 1020. Scientists have demonstrated the existence of these waves with ever more sensitive detectors. The most sensitive detector accomplished the task possessing a sensitivity measurement of about one part in 7022499999999999999♠5×1022 (as of 2012[update]) provided by the LIGO and VIRGO observatories.[20] A space based observatory, the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, is currently under development by ESA.

text: Gravitational waves can penetrate regions of space that electromagnetic waves cannot. They are able to allow the observation of the merger of black holes and possibly other exotic objects in the distant Universe. Such systems cannot be observed with more traditional means such as optical telescopes or radio telescopes, and so gravitational-wave astronomy gives new insights into the working of the Universe. In particular, gravitational waves could be of interest to cosmologists as they offer a possible way of observing the very early Universe. This is not possible with conventional astronomy, since before recombination the Universe was opaque to electromagnetic radiation.[21] Precise measurements of gravitational waves will also allow scientists to test more thoroughly the general theory of relativity.

text: In principle, gravitational waves could exist at any frequency. However, very low frequency waves would be impossible to detect and there is no credible source for detectable waves of very high frequency. Stephen Hawking and Werner Israel list different frequency bands for gravitational waves that could plausibly be detected, ranging from 10−7 Hz up to 1011 Hz.[22]

text: History[edit]

text: The possibility of gravitational waves was discussed in 1893 by Oliver Heaviside using the analogy between the inverse-square law in gravitation and electricity.[26] In 1905, Henri Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves (ondes gravifiques), emanating from a body and propagating at the speed of light, as being required by the Lorentz transformations[27] and suggested that, in analogy to an accelerating electrical charge producing electromagnetic waves, accelerated masses in a relativistic field theory of gravity should produce gravitational waves.[28][29] When Einstein published his general theory of relativity in 1915, he was skeptical of Poincaré's idea since the theory implied there were no "gravitational dipoles". Nonetheless, he still pursued the idea and based on various approximations came to the conclusion there must, in fact, be three types of gravitational waves (dubbed longitudinal-longitudinal, transverse-longitudinal, and transverse-transverse by Hermann Weyl).[29]

text: However, the nature of Einstein's approximations led many (including Einstein himself) to doubt the result. In 1922, Arthur Eddington showed that two of Einstein's types of waves were artifacts of the coordinate system he used, and could be made to propagate at any speed by choosing appropriate coordinates, leading Eddington to jest that they "propagate at the speed of thought".[30]:72 This also cast doubt on the physicality of the third (transverse-transverse) type (which Eddington showed always propagate at the speed of light regardless of coordinate system). In 1936, Einstein and Nathan Rosen submitted a paper to Physical Review in which they claimed gravitational waves could not exist in the full general theory of relativity because any such solution of the field equations would have a singularity. The journal sent their manuscript to be reviewed by Howard P. Robertson, who (anonymously) reported that the singularities in question were simply the harmless coordinate singularities of the employed cylindrical coordinates. Einstein, who was unfamiliar with the concept of peer review, angrily withdrew the manuscript, never to publish in Physical Review again. Nonetheless, his assistant Leopold Infeld, who had been in contact with Robertson, convinced Einstein that the criticism was correct, and the paper was rewritten with the opposite conclusion (and published elsewhere).[29][30]:79ff

text: In 1956, Felix Pirani remedied the confusion caused by the use of various coordinate systems by rephrasing the gravitational waves in terms of the manifestly observable Riemann curvature tensor. At the time this work was mostly ignored because the community was focused on a different question: whether gravitational waves could transmit energy. This matter was settled by a thought experiment proposed by Richard Feynman during the first "GR" conference at Chapel Hill in 1957. In short, his argument (known as the "sticky bead argument") notes that if one takes a rod with beads then the effect of a passing gravitational wave would be to move the beads along the rod; friction would then produce heat, implying that the passing wave had done work. Shortly after, Hermann Bondi (a former gravitational wave skeptic) published a detailed version of the "sticky bead argument".[29]

text: After the Chapel Hill conference, Joseph Weber started designing and building the first gravitational wave detectors now known as Weber bars. In 1969, Weber claimed to have detected the first gravitational waves, and by 1970 he was "detecting" signals regularly from the Galactic Center; however, the frequency of detection soon raised doubts on the validity of his observations as the implied rate of energy loss of the Milky Way would drain our galaxy of energy on a timescale much shorter than its inferred age. These doubts were strengthened when, by the mid-1970s, repeat experiments from other groups building their own Weber bars across the globe failed to find any signals, and by the late 1970s general consensus was that Weber's results were spurious.[29]

text: In the same period, the first indirect evidence for the existence of gravitational waves was discovered. In 1974, Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discovered the first binary pulsar (a discovery that earned them the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics). In 1979, results were published detailing measurement of the gradual decay of the orbital period of the Hulse-Taylor pulsar, which fitted precisely with the loss of energy and angular momentum in gravitational radiation predicted by general relativity.[29]

text: This indirect detection of gravitational waves motivated further searches despite Weber's discredited result. Some groups continued to improve Weber's original concept, while others pursued the detection of gravitational waves using laser interferometers. The idea of using a laser interferometer to detect gravitational waves seems to have been floated by various people independently, including M. E. Gertsenshtein and V. I. Pustovoit in 1962,[31] and Vladimir B. Braginskiĭ in 1966. The first prototypes were developed in the 1970s by Robert L. Forward and Rainer Weiss. In the decades that followed, ever more sensitive instruments were constructed, culminating in the construction of GEO600, LIGO, and Virgo.[29]

text:
After years of producing null results, LIGO made the first direct detection of gravitational waves on 14 September 2015. It was inferred that the signal, dubbed GW150914, originated from the merger of two black holes with masses 7001360000000000000♠36+5
−4 M⊙ and 7001290000000000000♠29+4
−4 M⊙, resulting in a 7001620000000000000♠62+4
−4 M⊙ black hole.[7][8][9]

text: A year earlier it appeared LIGO might have been beaten to the punch when the BICEP2 claimed that they had detected the imprint of gravitational waves in the cosmic microwave background. However, they were later forced to retract their result.[23][24][32][33]

text: In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Rainer Weiss, Kip Thorne and Barry Barish for their role in the detection of gravitational waves.[15][16][17]

text: Effects of passing[edit]

text: Gravitational waves are constantly passing Earth; however, even the strongest have a minuscule effect and their sources are generally at a great distance. For example, the waves given off by the cataclysmic final merger of GW150914 reached Earth after travelling over a billion light-years, as a ripple in spacetime that changed the length of a 4-km LIGO arm by a ten thousandth of the width of a proton, proportionally equivalent to changing the distance to the nearest star outside the Solar System by one hair's width.[34] This tiny effect from even extreme gravitational waves makes them only detectable on Earth by the most sophisticated detectors.

text: The effects of a passing gravitational wave, in an extremely exaggerated form, can be visualized by imagining a perfectly flat region of spacetime with a group of motionless test particles lying in a plane (e.g., the surface of a computer screen). As a gravitational wave passes through the particles along a line perpendicular to the plane of the particles (i.e. following the observer's line of vision into the screen), the particles will follow the distortion in spacetime, oscillating in a "cruciform" manner, as shown in the animations. The area enclosed by the test particles does not change and there is no motion along the direction of propagation.[citation needed]

text: The oscillations depicted in the animation are exaggerated for the purpose of discussion — in reality a gravitational wave has a very small amplitude (as formulated in linearized gravity). However, they help illustrate the kind of oscillations associated with gravitational waves as produced by a pair of masses in a circular orbit. In this case the amplitude of the gravitational wave is constant, but its plane of polarization changes or rotates at twice the orbital rate, so the time-varying gravitational wave size, or 'periodic spacetime strain', exhibits a variation as shown in the animation.[35] If the orbit of the masses is elliptical then the gravitational wave's amplitude also varies with time according to Einstein's quadrupole formula.[3]

text: As with other waves, there are a number of characteristics used to describe a gravitational wave:

text:
Amplitude, h, the size of the wave — the fraction of stretching or squeezing in the animation. The amplitude here is roughly h = 0.5 (or 50%). Gravitational waves passing through the Earth show sextillion times this weakness (10−20). Also denoted as Wavelength, λ, the distance along the wave between points of maximum stretch or squeeze.
Frequency: Usually denoted f, this is the frequency with which the wave oscillates (1 divided by the amount of time between two successive maximum stretches or squeezes)
Speed: This is the speed at which a point on the wave (for example, a point of maximum stretch or squeeze) travels. For gravitational waves with small amplitudes, this wave speed is equal to the speed of light (c).

tag: ul

text: The speed, wavelength, and frequency of a gravitational wave are related by the equation c = λ f, just like the equation for a light wave. For example, the animations shown here oscillate roughly once every two seconds. This would correspond to a frequency of 0.5 Hz, and a wavelength of about 600 000 km, or 47 times the diameter of the Earth.

text: In the above example, it is assumed that the wave is linearly polarized with a "plus" polarization, written h+. Polarization of a gravitational wave is just like polarization of a light wave except that the polarizations of a gravitational wave are 45 degrees apart, as opposed to 90 degrees. In particular, in a "cross"-polarized gravitational wave, h×, the effect on the test particles would be basically the same, but rotated by 45 degrees, as shown in the second animation. Just as with light polarization, the polarizations of gravitational waves may also be expressed in terms of circularly polarized waves. Gravitational waves are polarized because of the nature of their source.

text: Sources[edit]

text: In general terms, gravitational waves are radiated by objects whose motion involves acceleration and its change, provided that the motion is not perfectly spherically symmetric (like an expanding or contracting sphere) or rotationally symmetric (like a spinning disk or sphere). A simple example of this principle is a spinning dumbbell. If the dumbbell spins around its axis of symmetry, it will not radiate gravitational waves; if it tumbles end over end, as in the case of two planets orbiting each other, it will radiate gravitational waves. The heavier the dumbbell, and the faster it tumbles, the greater is the gravitational radiation it will give off. In an extreme case, such as when the two weights of the dumbbell are massive stars like neutron stars or black holes, orbiting each other quickly, then significant amounts of gravitational radiation would be given off.

text: Some more detailed examples:

text:
Two objects orbiting each other, as a planet would orbit the Sun, will radiate.
A spinning non-axisymmetric planetoid — say with a large bump or dimple on the equator — will radiate.
A supernova will radiate except in the unlikely event that the explosion is perfectly symmetric.
An isolated non-spinning solid object moving at a constant velocity will not radiate. This can be regarded as a consequence of the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
A spinning disk will not radiate. This can be regarded as a consequence of the principle of conservation of angular momentum. However, it will show gravitomagnetic effects.
A spherically pulsating spherical star (non-zero monopole moment or mass, but zero quadrupole moment) will not radiate, in agreement with Birkhoff's theorem.

text: More technically, the third time derivative of the quadrupole moment (or the l-th time derivative of the l-th multipole moment) of an isolated system's stress–energy tensor must be non-zero in order for it to emit gravitational radiation. This is analogous to the changing dipole moment of charge or current that is necessary for the emission of electromagnetic radiation.

text: Binaries[edit]

text: Gravitational waves carry energy away from their sources and, in the case of orbiting bodies, this is associated with an inspiral or decrease in orbit.[37][38] Imagine for example a simple system of two masses — such as the Earth–Sun system — moving slowly compared to the speed of light in circular orbits. Assume that these two masses orbit each other in a circular orbit in the x–y plane. To a good approximation, the masses follow simple Keplerian orbits. However, such an orbit represents a changing quadrupole moment. That is, the system will give off gravitational waves.

text: In theory, the loss of energy through gravitational radiation could eventually drop the Earth into the Sun. However, the total energy of the Earth orbiting the Sun (kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy) is about 1.14×1036 joules of which only 200 watts (joules per second) is lost through gravitational radiation, leading to a decay in the orbit by about 1×10−15 meters per day or roughly the diameter of a proton. At this rate, it would take the Earth approximately 1×1013 times more than the current age of the Universe to spiral onto the Sun. This estimate overlooks the decrease in r over time, but the majority of the time the bodies are far apart and only radiating slowly, so the difference is unimportant in this example.[citation needed]

text: More generally, the rate of orbital decay can be approximated by[39]

text: where r is the separation between the bodies, t time, G the gravitational constant, c the speed of light, and m1 and m2 the masses of the bodies. This leads to an expected time to merger of [39]

text: Compact binaries[edit]

text: Compact stars like white dwarfs and neutron stars can be constituents of binaries. For example, a pair of solar mass neutron stars in a circular orbit at a separation of 1.89×108 m (189,000 km) has an orbital period of 1,000 seconds, and an expected lifetime of 1.30×1013 seconds or about 414,000 years. Such a system could be observed by LISA if it were not too far away. A far greater number of white dwarf binaries exist with orbital periods in this range. White dwarf binaries have masses in the order of the Sun, and diameters in the order of the Earth. They cannot get much closer together than 10,000 km before they will merge and explode in a supernova which would also end the emission of gravitational waves. Until then, their gravitational radiation would be comparable to that of a neutron star binary.

text: When the orbit of a neutron star binary has decayed to 1.89×106 m (1890 km), its remaining lifetime is about 130,000 seconds or 36 hours. The orbital frequency will vary from 1 orbit per second at the start, to 918 orbits per second when the orbit has shrunk to 20 km at merger. The majority of gravitational radiation emitted will be at twice the orbital frequency. Just before merger, the inspiral could be observed by LIGO if such a binary were close enough. LIGO has only a few minutes to observe this merger out of a total orbital lifetime that may have been billions of years. ln August 2017, LIGO and Virgo observed the first binary neutron star inspiral in GW170817, and 70 observatories collaborated to detect the electromagnetic counterpart, a kilonova in the galaxy NGC 4993, 40 megaparsec away, emitting a short gamma ray burst (GRB 170817A) seconds after the merger, followed by a longer optical transient (AT 2017gfo) powered by r-process nuclei. Advanced LIGO detector should be able to detect such events up to 200 megaparsec away. Within this range of the order 40 events are expected per year.[41]

text: Black hole binaries[edit]

text: Black hole binaries emit gravitational waves during their in-spiral, merger, and ring-down phases. The largest amplitude of emission occurs during the merger phase, which can be modeled with the techniques of numerical relativity.[42][43][44] The first direct detection of gravitational waves, GW150914, came from the merger of two black holes.

text: Supernovae[edit]

text: A supernova is a transient astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary stages of a massive star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion. This explosion can happen in one of many ways, but in all of them a significant proportion of the matter in the star is blown away into the surrounding space at extremely high velocities (up to 10% of the speed of light). Unless there is perfect spherical symmetry in these explosions (i.e., unless matter is spewed out evenly in all directions), there will be gravitational radiation from the explosion. This is because gravitational waves are generated by a changing quadrupole moment, which can happen only when there is asymmetrical movement of masses. Since the exact mechanism by which supernovae take place is not fully understood, it is not easy to model the gravitational radiation emitted by them.

text: Spinning neutron stars[edit]

text: As noted above, a mass distribution will emit gravitational radiation only when there is spherically asymmetric motion among the masses. A spinning neutron star will generally emit no gravitational radiation because neutron stars are highly dense objects with a strong gravitational field that keeps them almost perfectly spherical. In some cases, however, there might be slight deformities on the surface called "mountains", which are bumps extending no more than 10 centimeters (4 inches) above the surface,[45] that make the spinning spherically asymmetric. This gives the star a quadrupole moment that changes with time, and it will emit gravitational waves until the deformities are smoothed out.

text: Inflation[edit]

text: Many models of the Universe postulate that there was an inflationary epoch in the early history of the Universe when space expanded by a large factor in a very short amount of time. If this expansion was not symmetric in all directions, it may have emitted gravitational radiation detectable today as a gravitational wave background. This background signal is too weak for any currently operational gravitational wave detector to observe, and it is thought it may be decades before such an observation can be made.

text: Properties and behaviour[edit]

text: Energy, momentum, and angular momentum[edit]

text: Water waves, sound waves, and electromagnetic waves are able to carry energy, momentum, and angular momentum and by doing so they carry those away from the source. Gravitational waves perform the same function. Thus, for example, a binary system loses angular momentum as the two orbiting objects spiral towards each other—the angular momentum is radiated away by gravitational waves.

text: The waves can also carry off linear momentum, a possibility that has some interesting implications for astrophysics.[46] After two supermassive black holes coalesce, emission of linear momentum can produce a "kick" with amplitude as large as 4000 km/s. This is fast enough to eject the coalesced black hole completely from its host galaxy. Even if the kick is too small to eject the black hole completely, it can remove it temporarily from the nucleus of the galaxy, after which it will oscillate about the center, eventually coming to rest.[47] A kicked black hole can also carry a star cluster with it, forming a hyper-compact stellar system.[48] Or it may carry gas, allowing the recoiling black hole to appear temporarily as a "naked quasar". The quasar SDSS J092712.65+294344.0 is thought to contain a recoiling supermassive black hole.[49]

text: Redshifting and blueshifting[edit]

text: Like electromagnetic waves, gravitational waves should exhibit shifting of wavelength due to the relative velocities of the source and observer, but also due to distortions of space-time, such as cosmic expansion.[citation needed] This is the case even though gravity itself is a cause of distortions of space-time.[citation needed] Redshifting of gravitational waves is different from redshifting due to gravity.

text: Quantum gravity, wave-particle aspects, and graviton[edit]

text: In the framework of quantum field theory, the graviton is the name given to a hypothetical elementary particle speculated to be the force carrier that mediates gravity. However the graviton is not yet proven to exist, and no scientific model yet exists that successfully reconciles general relativity which describes gravity, and the Standard Model which describes all other fundamental forces. Attempts, such as quantum gravity, have been made, but are not yet accepted.

text: If such a particle exists, it is expected to be massless (because the gravitational force appears to have unlimited range) and must be a spin-2 boson. It can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field must couple to (interact with) the stress–energy tensor in the same way that the gravitational field does; therefore if a massless spin-2 particle were ever discovered, it would be likely to be the graviton without further distinction from other massless spin-2 particles.[50] Such a discovery would unite quantum theory with gravity.[51]

text: Significance for study of the early universe[edit]

text: Due to the weakness of the coupling of gravity to matter, gravitational waves experience very little absorption or scattering, even as they travel over astronomical distances. In particular, gravitational waves are expected to be unaffected by the opacity of the very early universe. In these early phases, space had not yet become "transparent," so observations based upon light, radio waves, and other electromagnetic radiation that far back into time are limited or unavailable. Therefore, gravitational waves are expected in principle to have the potential to provide a wealth of observational data about the very early universe.

text: Determining direction of travel[edit]

text: The difficulty in directly detecting gravitational waves, means it is also difficult for a single detector to identify by itself the direction of a source. Therefore, multiple detectors are used, both to distinguish signals from other "noise" by confirming the signal is not of earthly origin, and also to determine direction by means of triangulation. This technique uses the fact that the waves travel at the speed of light and will reach different detectors at different times depending on their source direction. Although the differences in arrival time may be just a few milliseconds, this is sufficient to identify the direction of the origin of the wave with considerable precision.

text: Only in the case of GW170814 were three detectors operating at the time of the event, therefore, the direction is precisely defined. The detection by all three instruments led to a very accurate estimate of the position of the source, with a 90% credible region of just 60 deg2, a factor 20 more accurate than before.[52]

text: Gravitational wave astronomy[edit]

text: This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (November 2017)

tag: table

text: This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: During the past century, astronomy has been revolutionized by the use of new methods for observing the universe. Astronomical observations were originally made using visible light. Galileo Galilei pioneered the use of telescopes to enhance these observations. However, visible light is only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and not all objects in the distant universe shine strongly in this particular band. More useful information may be found, for example, in radio wavelengths. Using radio telescopes, astronomers have found pulsars, quasars, and made other unprecedented discoveries of objects not formerly known to scientists. Observations in the microwave band led to the detection of faint imprints of the Big Bang, a discovery Stephen Hawking called the "greatest discovery of the century, if not all time". Similar advances in observations using gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and infrared light have also brought new insights to astronomy. As each of these regions of the spectrum has opened, new discoveries have been made that could not have been made otherwise. Astronomers hope that the same holds true of gravitational waves.[53]

text: Gravitational waves have two important and unique properties. First, there is no need for any type of matter to be present nearby in order for the waves to be generated by a binary system of uncharged black holes, which would emit no electromagnetic radiation. Second, gravitational waves can pass through any intervening matter without being scattered significantly. Whereas light from distant stars may be blocked out by interstellar dust, for example, gravitational waves will pass through essentially unimpeded. These two features allow gravitational waves to carry information about astronomical phenomena heretofore never observed by humans, and as such represent a revolution in astrophysics.[54]

text: The sources of gravitational waves described above are in the low-frequency end of the gravitational-wave spectrum (10−7 to 105 Hz). An astrophysical source at the high-frequency end of the gravitational-wave spectrum (above 105 Hz and probably 1010 Hz) generates[clarification needed] relic gravitational waves that are theorized to be faint imprints of the Big Bang like the cosmic microwave background.[55] At these high frequencies it is potentially possible that the sources may be "man made"[22] that is, gravitational waves generated and detected in the laboratory.[56][57]

text: A supermassive black hole, created from the merger of the black holes at the center of two merging galaxies detected by the Hubble Space Telescope, is theorized to have been ejected from the merger center by gravitational waves.[58][59]

text: Detection[edit]

text: Indirect detection[edit]

text: Although the waves from the Earth–Sun system are minuscule, astronomers can point to other sources for which the radiation should be substantial. One important example is the Hulse–Taylor binary — a pair of stars, one of which is a pulsar.[61] The characteristics of their orbit can be deduced from the Doppler shifting of radio signals given off by the pulsar. Each of the stars is about 1.4 M☉ and the size of their orbits is about 1/75 of the Earth–Sun orbit, just a few times larger than the diameter of our own Sun. The combination of greater masses and smaller separation means that the energy given off by the Hulse–Taylor binary will be far greater than the energy given off by the Earth–Sun system — roughly 1022 times as much.

text: The information about the orbit can be used to predict how much energy (and angular momentum) would be radiated in the form of gravitational waves. As the energy is carried off, the stars should draw closer to each other. This effect is called an inspiral, and it can be observed in the pulsar's signals. The measurements on the Hulse–Taylor system have been carried out over more than 30 years. The change in the orbital period matches the prediction from the gravitational radiation assumed by general relativity to within 0.2 percent. In 1993, Russell Hulse and Joe Taylor were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work, which was the first indirect evidence for gravitational waves. The lifetime of this binary system, from the present to merger is estimated to be a few hundred million years.[62]

text: Inspirals are very important sources of gravitational waves. Any time two compact objects (white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes) are in close orbits, they send out intense gravitational waves. As they spiral closer to each other, these waves become more intense. At some point they should become so intense that direct detection by their effect on objects on Earth or in space is possible. This direct detection is the goal of several large scale experiments.[63]

text: The only difficulty is that most systems like the Hulse–Taylor binary are so far away. The amplitude of waves given off by the Hulse–Taylor binary at Earth would be roughly h ≈ 10−26. There are some sources, however, that astrophysicists expect to find that produce much greater amplitudes of h ≈ 10−20. At least eight other binary pulsars have been discovered.[64]

text: Difficulties[edit]

text: Gravitational waves are not easily detectable. When they reach the Earth, they have a small amplitude with strain approximates 10−21, meaning that an extremely sensitive detector is needed, and that other sources of noise can overwhelm the signal.[65] Gravitational waves are expected to have frequencies 10−16 Hz < f < 104 Hz.[66]

text: Ground-based detectors[edit]

text: Though the Hulse–Taylor observations were very important, they give only indirect evidence for gravitational waves. A more conclusive observation would be a direct measurement of the effect of a passing gravitational wave, which could also provide more information about the system that generated it. Any such direct detection is complicated by the extraordinarily small effect the waves would produce on a detector. The amplitude of a spherical wave will fall off as the inverse of the distance from the source (the 1/R term in the formulas for h above). Thus, even waves from extreme systems like merging binary black holes die out to very small amplitudes by the time they reach the Earth. Astrophysicists expect that some gravitational waves passing the Earth may be as large as h ≈ 10−20, but generally no bigger.[67]

text: Resonant antennae[edit]

text: A simple device theorised to detect the expected wave motion is called a Weber bar — a large, solid bar of metal isolated from outside vibrations. This type of instrument was the first type of gravitational wave detector. Strains in space due to an incident gravitational wave excite the bar's resonant frequency and could thus be amplified to detectable levels. Conceivably, a nearby supernova might be strong enough to be seen without resonant amplification. With this instrument, Joseph Weber claimed to have detected daily signals of gravitational waves. His results, however, were contested in 1974 by physicists Richard Garwin and David Douglass. Modern forms of the Weber bar are still operated, cryogenically cooled, with superconducting quantum interference devices to detect vibration. Weber bars are not sensitive enough to detect anything but extremely powerful gravitational waves.[68]

text: MiniGRAIL is a spherical gravitational wave antenna using this principle. It is based at Leiden University, consisting of an exactingly machined 1,150 kg sphere cryogenically cooled to 20 millikelvins.[69] The spherical configuration allows for equal sensitivity in all directions, and is somewhat experimentally simpler than larger linear devices requiring high vacuum. Events are detected by measuring deformation of the detector sphere. MiniGRAIL is highly sensitive in the 2–4 kHz range, suitable for detecting gravitational waves from rotating neutron star instabilities or small black hole mergers.[70]

text: There are currently two detectors focused on the higher end of the gravitational wave spectrum (10−7 to 105 Hz): one at University of Birmingham, England,[71] and the other at INFN Genoa, Italy. A third is under development at Chongqing University, China. The Birmingham detector measures changes in the polarization state of a microwave beam circulating in a closed loop about one meter across. Both detectors are expected to be sensitive to periodic spacetime strains of h ~ 6987200000000000000♠2×10−13 /√Hz, given as an amplitude spectral density. The INFN Genoa detector is a resonant antenna consisting of two coupled spherical superconducting harmonic oscillators a few centimeters in diameter. The oscillators are designed to have (when uncoupled) almost equal resonant frequencies. The system is currently expected to have a sensitivity to periodic spacetime strains of h ~ 6983200000000000000♠2×10−17 /√Hz, with an expectation to reach a sensitivity of h ~ 6980199999999999999♠2×10−20 /√Hz. The Chongqing University detector is planned to detect relic high-frequency gravitational waves with the predicted typical parameters ~1011 Hz (100 GHz) and h ~10−30 to 10−32.[72]

text: Interferometers[edit]

text: A more sensitive class of detector uses laser interferometry to measure gravitational-wave induced motion between separated 'free' masses.[73] This allows the masses to be separated by large distances (increasing the signal size); a further advantage is that it is sensitive to a wide range of frequencies (not just those near a resonance as is the case for Weber bars). After years of development the first ground-based interferometers became operational in 2015. Currently, the most sensitive is LIGO — the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory. LIGO has three detectors: one in Livingston, Louisiana, one at the Hanford site in Richland, Washington and a third (formerly installed as a second detector at Hanford) that is planned to be moved to India. Each observatory has two light storage arms that are 4 kilometers in length. These are at 90 degree angles to each other, with the light passing through 1 m diameter vacuum tubes running the entire 4 kilometers. A passing gravitational wave will slightly stretch one arm as it shortens the other. This is precisely the motion to which an interferometer is most sensitive.

text: Even with such long arms, the strongest gravitational waves will only change the distance between the ends of the arms by at most roughly 10−18 m. LIGO should be able to detect gravitational waves as small as h ~ 6978500000000000000♠5×10−22. Upgrades to LIGO and Virgo should increase the sensitivity still further. Another highly sensitive interferometer, KAGRA, is under construction in the Kamiokande mine in Japan. A key point is that a tenfold increase in sensitivity (radius of 'reach') increases the volume of space accessible to the instrument by one thousand times. This increases the rate at which detectable signals might be seen from one per tens of years of observation, to tens per year.[74]

text: Interferometric detectors are limited at high frequencies by shot noise, which occurs because the lasers produce photons randomly; one analogy is to rainfall—the rate of rainfall, like the laser intensity, is measurable, but the raindrops, like photons, fall at random times, causing fluctuations around the average value. This leads to noise at the output of the detector, much like radio static. In addition, for sufficiently high laser power, the random momentum transferred to the test masses by the laser photons shakes the mirrors, masking signals of low frequencies. Thermal noise (e.g., Brownian motion) is another limit to sensitivity. In addition to these 'stationary' (constant) noise sources, all ground-based detectors are also limited at low frequencies by seismic noise and other forms of environmental vibration, and other 'non-stationary' noise sources; creaks in mechanical structures, lightning or other large electrical disturbances, etc. may also create noise masking an event or may even imitate an event. All these must be taken into account and excluded by analysis before detection may be considered a true gravitational wave event.

text: Einstein@Home[edit]

text: The simplest gravitational waves are those with constant frequency. The waves given off by a spinning, non-axisymmetric neutron star would be approximately monochromatic: a pure tone in acoustics. Unlike signals from supernovae of binary black holes, these signals evolve little in amplitude or frequency over the period it would be observed by ground-based detectors. However, there would be some change in the measured signal, because of Doppler shifting caused by the motion of the Earth. Despite the signals being simple, detection is extremely computationally expensive, because of the long stretches of data that must be analysed.

text: The Einstein@Home project is a distributed computing project similar to SETI@home intended to detect this type of gravitational wave. By taking data from LIGO and GEO, and sending it out in little pieces to thousands of volunteers for parallel analysis on their home computers, Einstein@Home can sift through the data far more quickly than would be possible otherwise.[75]

text: Space-based interferometers[edit]

text: Space-based interferometers, such as LISA and DECIGO, are also being developed. LISA's design calls for three test masses forming an equilateral triangle, with lasers from each spacecraft to each other spacecraft forming two independent interferometers. LISA is planned to occupy a solar orbit trailing the Earth, with each arm of the triangle being five million kilometers. This puts the detector in an excellent vacuum far from Earth-based sources of noise, though it will still be susceptible to heat, shot noise, and artifacts caused by cosmic rays and solar wind.

text: Using pulsar timing arrays[edit]

text: Pulsars are rapidly rotating stars. A pulsar emits beams of radio waves that, like lighthouse beams, sweep through the sky as the pulsar rotates. The signal from a pulsar can be detected by radio telescopes as a series of regularly spaced pulses, essentially like the ticks of a clock. Gravitational waves affect the time it takes the pulses to travel from the pulsar to a telescope on Earth. A pulsar timing array uses millisecond pulsars to seek out perturbations due to gravitational waves in measurements of pulse arrival times at a telescope, in other words, to look for deviations in the clock ticks. In particular, pulsar timing arrays can search for a distinct pattern of correlation and anti-correlation between the signals over an array of different pulsars (resulting in the name "pulsar timing array"). Although pulsar pulses travel through space for hundreds or thousands of years to reach us, pulsar timing arrays are sensitive to perturbations in their travel time of much less than a millionth of a second.

text: Globally there are three active pulsar timing array projects. The North American Nanohertz Gravitational Wave Observatory uses data collected by the Arecibo Radio Telescope and Green Bank Telescope. The Parkes Pulsar Timing Array at the Parkes radio-telescope has been collecting data since March 2005. The European Pulsar Timing Array uses data from the four largest telescopes in Europe: the Lovell Telescope, the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope, the Effelsberg Telescope and the Nancay Radio Telescope. (Upon completion the Sardinia Radio Telescope will be added to the EPTA also.) These three projects have begun collaborating under the title of the International Pulsar Timing Array project.

text: Primordial[edit]

text: Primordial gravitational waves are gravitational waves observed in the cosmic microwave background. They were allegedly detected by the BICEP2 instrument, an announcement made on 17 March 2014, which was withdrawn on 30 January 2015 ("the signal can be entirely attributed to dust in the Milky Way"[60]).

text: LIGO and Virgo observations[edit]

text: On 11 February 2016, the LIGO collaboration announced the first observation of gravitational waves, from a signal detected at 09:50:45 GMT on 14 September 2015[76] of two black holes with masses of 29 and 36 solar masses merging about 1.3 billion light-years away. During the final fraction of a second of the merger, it released more than 50 times the power of all the stars in the observable universe combined.[77] The signal increased in frequency from 35 to 250 Hz over 10 cycles (5 orbits) as it rose in strength for a period of 0.2 second.[8] The mass of the new merged black hole was 62 solar masses. Energy equivalent to three solar masses was emitted as gravitational waves.[78] The signal was seen by both LIGO detectors in Livingston and Hanford, with a time difference of 7 milliseconds due to the angle between the two detectors and the source. The signal came from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere, in the rough direction of (but much further away than) the Magellanic Clouds.[7] The confidence level of this being an observation of gravitational waves was 99.99994%.[78]

text: Since then LIGO and Virgo have reported more gravitational wave observations from merging black hole binaries.

text: On 16 October 2017 the LIGO and Virgo collaborations announced the first ever detection of gravitational waves originating from the coalescence of a binary neutron star system. The observation of this GW170817 transient, which occurred on 17 August 2017, allowed for constraining the masses of the neutron stars involved between 0.86 and 2.26 solar masses. Further analysis allowed a greater restriction of the mass values to the interval, to 1.17–1.60 solar masses, with the total system mass measured to be 2.73–2.78 solar masses. The inclusion of the Virgo detector in the observation effort allowed for an improvement of the localization of the source by a factor of 10. This in turn facilitated the electromagnetic follow-up of the event. In contrast to the case of binary black hole mergers, binary neutron star mergers were expected to yield an electromagnetic counterpart, that is, a light signal associated with the event. A gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) was detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, occurring 1.7 seconds after the gravitational wave transient. The signal, originating near the galaxy NGC 4993, was associated with the neutron star merger. This was corroborated by the electromagnetic follow-up of the event (AT 2017gfo), involving 70 telescopes and observatories and yielding observations over a large region of the electromagnetic spectrum which further confirmed the neutron star nature of the merged objects and the associated kilonova.[13][79]

text: In fiction[edit]

text: An episode of the Russian science-fiction novel Space Apprentice by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky shows the experiment monitoring the propagation of gravitational waves at the expense of annihilating a chunk of asteroid 15 Eunomia the size of Mount Everest.[80]

text: In Stanislaw Lem's Fiasco, a "gravity gun" or "gracer" (gravity amplification by collimated emission of resonance) is used to reshape a collapsar, so that the protagonists can exploit the extreme relativistic effects and make an interstellar journey.

text: In Greg Egan's Diaspora, the analysis of a gravitational wave signal from the inspiral of a nearby binary neutron star reveals that its collision and merger is imminent, implying a large gamma-ray burst is going to impact the Earth.


document_title: The Good Fight

question_text: who plays luca's mother on the good fight

question_tokens: who plays luca 's mother on the good fight

text: The Good Fight

text: Premise[edit]

text: A year after the finale of The Good Wife, an enormous financial scam destroys the reputation of young lawyer Maia and wipes out the savings of her mentor, Diane Lockhart. The two are forced out of Lockhart, Deckler, Gussman, Lee, Lyman, Gilbert-Lurie, Kagan, Tannebaum, & Associates and join Diane's former employee Lucca Quinn at Reddick, Boseman, & Kolstad, a prestigious African American–owned firm making waves by taking on Illinois police brutality cases. In season two, Diane becomes a name partner at the firm, which takes the name Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.

text: The show primarily deals with the storylines of its three female leads – Diane, Lucca, and Maia – and contains considerable political and social commentary, exploring topical issues such as the alt-right, the Me Too movement, online harassment, and fake news. As well as starting again in a new firm with its own office politics to deal with, longtime Democrat Diane must navigate a world she hardly recognizes, becoming increasingly troubled by Trump-era politics and the actions of his administration. Lucca Quinn, a former employee of Diane's, has found firm footing at Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart and is a rising star on the partner track, balancing her dedication to her work and a romantic entanglement with US Attorney Colin Morello, a frequent opposing counsel. Meanwhile Maia, Diane's goddaughter, is trying to get her legal career off to a good start, while coming under pressure from the FBI over alleged involvement with her father's Ponzi scheme.

text: Like The Good Wife, the show makes use of an extensive cast of supporting characters, including a recurring stable of opposing counsel, clients, police officers, FBI agents, judges, and politicians. Many are played by well-known guest stars.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Christine Baranski as Diane Lockhart, who loses her savings after an enormous financial scam and joins Reddick, Boseman & Kolstad one of Chicago's pre-eminent law firms.[6] In season two, Diane becomes a name partner in the renamed Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.
Rose Leslie as Maia Rindell, Diane's goddaughter, who joins Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart as an associate just after passing the bar exam. She is Amy's girlfriend.[7]
Erica Tazel as Barbara Kolstad (season 1; guest star season 2), a name partner at Reddick, Boseman & Kolstad who leaves the firm at the beginning of the second season.[8]
Cush Jumbo as Lucca Quinn, an associate who works with Diane and Maia at Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.[9]
Delroy Lindo as Adrian Boseman, an attorney who offers Diane a job at his law firm following her financial troubles,[10] and a name partner at Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.
Sarah Steele as Marissa Gold, Diane Lockhart's assistant, who finds she has a knack for investigating.[11]
Justin Bartha as Colin Morrello, a successful lawyer in the US Attorney's office and a rival and potential love interest of Lucca.[12]
Nyambi Nyambi as Jay DiPersia (season 2; recurring season 1), an investigator for Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.[13]
Michael Boatman as Julius Cain (season 2; recurring season 1), a managing partner for Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart, and Diane's former partner at Lockhart/Gardner.[14]
Audra McDonald as Liz Lawrence (née Reddick) (season 2), a former U.S. Attorney and the ex-wife of name partner Adrian Boseman, who comes to the firm as name partner following her father's death.[15]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Paul Guilfoyle as Henry Rindell, Maia's father, who is a wildly successful financial advisor, phenomenally wealthy and universally loved. He, Lenore, and Maia are the unofficial First Family of Chicago.[16] He is arrested for running a giant Ponzi scheme with Diane as one of his victims.
Bernadette Peters as Lenore Rindell, Maia's mother who comes from a tough working-class background and is a natively brilliant financial whiz. She, Henry, and Maia are the unofficial First Family of Chicago.[16]
Gary Cole as Kurt McVeigh, Diane Lockhart's estranged husband.[17]
Zach Grenier as David Lee,[18] a name partner at Diane Lockhart's former law firm.
Jerry Adler as Howard Lyman,[18] a geriatric partner at Diane Lockhart's former firm, and now judge, who shows chauvinistic and stereotyping tendencies.[19]
Carrie Preston as Elsbeth Tascioni, a quirky yet smart lawyer.[20]
Heléne Yorke as Amy Breslin, an assistant state attorney and Maia's girlfriend.[21]
Chalia La Tour as Yesha Mancini, an attorney who represented Maia in her legal issues stemming from her father's arrest.[22]
Matthew Perry as Mike Kresteva, a lawyer who, after losing the 2012 Illinois gubernatorial election to Peter Florrick, now works for the US Department of Justice, in charge of an investigation encompassing Diane Lockhart and senior staff at Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.[23]
Christine Lahti as Andrea Stevens, a high-powered lawyer from Los Angeles who often appears opposite Reddick, Boseman in cases involving film and television
John Benjamin Hickey as Neil Gross, owner of Internet firm Chumhum
Andrea Martin as Francesca Lovatelli, Colin Morello's mother and a controlling influence in his bid to join Congress
Margo Martindale as Ruth Eastman, consultant for the Democratic National Committee
Tim Matheson as Tully, a left-wing protester who has a sexual relationship with Diane
Alan Alda as Solomon Waltzer, a renowned lawyer at a national firm who uses dishonest tactics to achieve his aims
Rob McClure as Judge Trig Mullaney, an unintelligent recent Trump appointee to the judiciary with very little understanding of the law

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Greta Lee as Amber Wood-Lutz, a young lawyer at a rival firm whose beaming smile obscures her sneaky tactics in court
Denis O'Hare as Judge Abernathy, a judge whose strong liberal and socialist leanings leads him to overcompensate in favor of conservative litigants
Bebe Neuwirth as Judge Claudia Friend, a no-nonsense judge with a pragmatic approach
Jane Lynch as Madeline Starkey, a relentless FBI agent with a quirky personal style who believes Maia to be complicit in her father's scheming
Dylan Baker as Colin Sweeney, a client of the firm and a likely serial killer who has gotten away with many of his crimes
Becky Ann Baker as Alma Hoff, a principled lawyer at a rival firm
Mamie Gummer as Nancy Crozier, a tough rival trial attorney who charms judges with her sweet-as-pie trial routine
Christian Borle as Carter Schmidt, a challenging rival attorney
Kurt Fuller as Judge Dunaway, a stern but fair judge who had little time for Diane's partners at her old firm
Louis Gossett Jr. as Carl Reddick, a name partner at Reddick, Boseman who has semi-retired. He dies before season two.
Jayne Houdyshell as Renee, a friend of Diane's at a rival firm who cuts ties with Diane after the Rindell scandal
Megan Hilty as Holly Westfall, a ballistics expert and Kurt's former protégée with whom he had an affair while married to Diane
Nikki M. James as Monica Timmons, a young African American lawyer who sued Diane's old firm for racial bias in hiring
Jason Biggs as Dylan Stack, a wealthy tech entrepreneur involved in the creation of Bitcoin, wanted by US officials
Kevin Pollak as Judge Kyle Gallo
Rob Reiner as Judge Josh Brickner
F. Murray Abraham as Burl Preston, a condescending LA lawyer who mainly represents film studios and the rich and famous
Mike Colter as Lemond Bishop, Chicago's top drug lord and a kingpin of crime, who retains Diane as his lawyer after he is released from prison
Wallace Shawn as Charles Lester, Lemond Bishop's terrifying personal lawyer and fixer who is known for making witnesses disappear
Judith Light as Deidre Quinn, Lucca's mother
Matt Walsh as Judge Oliver Walenstadt

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired110February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)April 16, 2017 (2017-04-16)213March 4, 2018 (2018-03-04)May 27, 2018 (2018-05-27)

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date11"Inauguration"Brooke KennedyPhil Alden Robinson and Robert King & Michelle KingFebruary 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)
This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Diane Lockhart, motivated by the inauguration of Donald Trump, plans for her retirement. Her goddaughter, Maia Rindell, secures an associate position at Diane's firm, having passed the bar examination. Maia accompanies Diane in the latter's final case regarding police brutality, where they meet head-to-head with Adrian Boseman, a name partner of an African-American-owned firm, and Lucca Quinn, Diane's former employee. While the case is still proceeding, Maia's father, Henry Rindell, is arrested for orchestrating an elaborate Ponzi scheme, and due to this, Diane, who is among his investors, finds herself broke and unable to follow through with her retirement, and is also unable to secure or re-secure her job at any firm, with her having already signed an exit agreement with her old firm, and the fact that she invited her colleagues and clients to invest in Henry's fund. To prevent her assets, and consequently, her husband Kurt McVeigh's, from being seized as evidence, she is advised to divorce him, given their separation after the discovery of his affair, but he refuses to file for divorce, still hoping for a reconciliation. Hearing Diane's trouble, Adrian offers her a junior partner position at his firm, which she accepts, and when Maia is fired, in part due to her father's financial scandal, Diane brings her along.
22"First Week"Allan ArkushRyan Pedersen & Joey ScavuzzoFebruary 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)
This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Maia Rindell arrives at her new firm trying to ignore multiple anonymous calls and texts from angry clients of her father, who swear revenge for the money he stole from them. She meets Julius Cain, a managing partner, and Lucca Quinn, a third year associate. Cain brings all the lower level associates to a local union headquarters to offer free legal advice as part of their retainer with the union. While there, Maia ends up taking the case of Frank Gwynn, a man who is unfairly having his wages garnished due to charges of theft from his place of work. Meanwhile, Diane is visited by Maia's mother, Lenore, who asks Diane to meet with her husband, Henry. Lenore claims that they are innocent of the charges, laying the blame on their business partner, Jax, Henry's brother.During arbitration, Maia loses the case, but Lucca steps in to accuse the company of false imprisonment, as they had detained Frank for seven hours to question him about the theft. When the firm decides that the case is too small to invest resources in, Lucca proposes that they open a class action lawsuit against multiple companies who have garnished wages after accusing their employees of theft. Meanwhile, Diane moves into her new office, assisted by Marissa Gold, who has been demoted at Diane's old firm. Marissa decides to help with the class action in hopes of being hired as Diane's new assistant. She tracks down multiple employees who have had their wages garnished and adds them to the suit. Grateful, Diane accepts Marissa as her new assistant. Diane meets with Henry in jail, who claims that Jax framed him to escape prosecution. Diane promises to look into the matter, and as they part ways, Henry mentions that Lenore has terminal breast cancer. At Frank's trial, the prosecution uncovers evidence that Frank had been involved in an earlier theft at a previous job, casting doubt on his story. Frank loses his case, and the loss causes the firm to pull out of the class action lawsuit.Maia learns of her mother's condition from Diane, and despite her lawyer's advice to stay away from her parents to avoid being caught up in their financial scandal, she visits her. However, Maia learns that her mother lied about the cancer so that she would come see her. Although angry at her mother, Diane advises Maia to forgive her, since she is obviously lonely with Henry in jail. Maia visits her mother to make amends, but discovers her mother carrying on an affair with her uncle Jax.
33"The Schtup List"Marta CunninghamTegan ShohetFebruary 26, 2017 (2017-02-26)
Barbara forces Diane and Lucca to work together on a case against assistant district attorney Colin Morello. The case involves a doctor who was arrested for performing surgery on a known terrorist. The partners have a meeting about their financial status and it turns out that a significant client has not paid their retainer this year. They are worried he may be moving firms now that Trump is in office. The firm investigator approaches Marissa to introduce himself. He is upset that she took it upon herself to round up the class action members last week. Maia visits her father in prison. She wants to warn him about her mother and Jax. The partners rush to find someone in their office who voted for Trump. Lucca has an unexpected run-in with Colin. Marissa works with the investigator to track down a crucial witness. The court rules in Diane and Lucca's favor, but the doctor is immediately arrested again. The partners make the individual who voted for Trump bid to the client. Maia visits her uncle where she finds evidence that could help her father. The court case turns again when a terrorist on the most wanted list gets involved.
44"Henceforth Known as Property"Alex ZakrzewskiJoey HartstoneMarch 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
Strange comments in elevators make Maia suspicious. She and Marissa discover someone has made a fake Twitter profile for her. Diane is handling a fertility case with a clinic that has closed and donated 11 of 12 eggs for research. The 12th egg has been fertilized and is being prepped for implantation. Diane brings suit before that can happen. Mike Kresteva, the head of a task force hoping to curb police brutality, stops by to meet with Adrian. Diane warns Adrian that Kresteva is not always straightforward. Maia and Marissa track down an old boyfriend of Maia's, who they think is responsible for the Twitter impersonation. Adrian, Diane and Lucca are served with subpoenas to testify before a grand jury being prosecuted by Kresteva. At Lucca's request, Colin speaks with his boss about Kresteva. With Marissa's help, Maia finds a way to retaliate against her old boyfriend. The fertility case has Diane and Barbara thinking back on what could have been. The two women bond for the first time while Diane considers reaching out to Kurt. Kresteva is undeterred and pushes forward with his intentions. The judge rules on the owner of the embryo.
55"Stoppable: Requiem for an Airdate"Ron UnderwoodMarcus DalzineMarch 12, 2017 (2017-03-12)
This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Adrian wants to take on another anti-Trump case as a strategy to attract clients from the entertainment industry. Kresteva approaches Maia about the fake news stories that were started about her. Surprisingly, Kresteva knows about Maia's visits to her father. Barbara asks Diane for her capital contribution, forcing Diane to reevaluate her expenses. Kurt visits Diane at the office, asking for help with a public speech. Diane helps him rewrite the speech and supports him by attending and watching him give the speech. The firm's partners interview attorneys to defend them against Kresteva. Lucca suggest Adrian employ an unorthodox lawyer. Diane runs into Neil Gross, who has some interesting news for her. Kresteva visits the prison, and soon after, Henry is out on bail. Maia happily meets him at home until she sees her parents acting like nothing has happened. Later, an attorney makes her question whether her father would turn on her. A potential attorney for the firm confronts Kresteva not once but twice, the second time in a very personal way that scares him somewhat. Colin stops by the courtroom to see Lucca in action. The two of them finally go on their date, where Lucca opens up about Alicia.
66"Social Media and Its Discontents"Jim McKayRobert King & Michelle KingMarch 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)
This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Neil Gross immediately puts the firm to work when he wants hate speech, and the people responsible for it, removed from his websites. Maia takes the assignment personally when the hate speech sounds like threats she has been getting. Colin talks to his supervisor again about Kresteva. Marissa thinks about getting into investigating. Maia's uncle stops by the office to see her. He warns her that her father is up to something. She reaches out to Elsbeth for advice. Things are heating up between Colin and Lucca until he asks her to go to dinner. After the firm decides to implement an appeals process for banned users, one such user has a field day presenting his narrative. Information from the firm's discussions about the appeals process is leaked. Online users use it to their advantage. Lucca arranges a date so that they'll run into Colin but it doesn't produce the results she's expecting. When she confronts him later, she's surprised again. Maia shows up for a meeting with her dad and finds a party in progress. She's nervous when he tries to speak with her in private. Marissa steps in when the investigator needs some help tracking down a very specific kind of online user. Not surprisingly, she's good at it. Elsbeth stops by to warn the firm about the newest fake news story. Julius makes a surprising decision about his future with the firm.
77"Not So Grand Jury"So Yong KimWilliam M. FinkelsteinMarch 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)
Lucca tells Maia about Colin's warning. Kresteva introduces his case to a Grand Jury. Evidence is seized from Elsbeth's office. Henry is approached by Kresteva about Maia lying to him. Henry wants to talk to his daughter and the two of them finally have an honest conversation. Elsbeth figures out a strategy and tries to get the firm on board. Mike scrambles to change course. The investigator takes a look at the schtup list Henry asked Maia to get for him. Colin is asked to represent Kresteva in a civil law suit brought by the firm. Things get awkward when Lucca takes second chair. The firm investigates and discovers who the real target of Kresteva's wrath is. Maia confronts her father about some new information. Colin and Lucca discuss the consequences of their relationship. Marissa and Jay analyze the schtup list, the former making a startling discovery. Diane faces her day in court but is surprised when an important witness' testimony is not what she is expecting.
88"Reddick v Boseman"Michael ZinbergKeith Josef AdkinsApril 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)
Carl Reddick returns to the firm and immediately starts criticizing how Adrian and Barbara have been running it. An old friend needs help with an eviction and Diane steps up. Lucca and Colin make plans to meet at an art gallery where they run into an unexpected female. What was supposed to be a simple eviction goes in a completely different direction when Diane shows up at Paul Johnson's door and he makes some shocking allegations. Shortly thereafter, his attorney contacts the firm. Marissa helps Jay investigate the allegations and finally wins him over. Henry tries to talk to Maia, calling her and Amy multiple times and even showing up at the office. The two of them finally get worried and rush off to find him. Lucca joins Colin at a birthday party. Things get complicated fast and Lucca bolts, as she tends to do. Maia is upset when Henry ends up in the hospital and Lenore shows up with Jax. Diane continues to go toe-to-toe with Paul's attorney until Marissa and Jay find the evidence they need to expose him. The firm votes on who should be the managing partner – Carl or Adrian. Lucca makes a decision about her relationship with Colin.
99"Self Condemned"Jim McKayWilliam M. FinkelsteinApril 9, 2017 (2017-04-09)
Lucca and Maia have a meeting with the FBI. Maia has offered to tell them everything she knows about the ponzi scheme as long as she's granted immunity. Diane and Adrian get wind of a new police brutality case but are surprised when they see the victim. Maia works with the FBI agent to recover memories from her teenage years that may shed light on who is behind the scheme. Diane and Adrian's victim is having a hard time finding sympathy in the justice system given his criminal history. Jay finds evidence to show that the police officer has a history of bad conduct. Maia struggles to remember key moments in her life and possibly the ponzi scheme. Diane and Adrian grow closer as friends and colleagues. Lucca offers guidance as Maia is confronted with uncomfortable truths about her past.
1010"Chaos"Robert KingRobert King & Michelle KingApril 16, 2017 (2017-04-16)
It's time for bi-annual reviews at Reddick, Boseman & Kolstad. Lucca gets good news while Maia has some mixed reviews. Diane gets a call that Kurt has been in an accident. A former client, Dylan Stack, returns. Henry meets with the Department of Justice but isn't offered the deal he was hoping for. He reaches out to a mysterious old friend for help. The firm finds out about a potential attack on the power grid and goes to the DOJ looking for an immunity deal. Things go awry when Lucca is arrested. Maia wants to be more assertive so she picks a partner to shadow for the day. Colin tries to resign but ends up being promoted. Marisa works with Jay to find the real person behind the cyber terrorism. Jay continues to be impressed by her investigative skills. Mr. Staples returns to cause more destruction. The city of Chicago has a blackout. Maia, Lenore and Henry enjoy a last meal together as a family, at least for a while. Diane and Kurt reconcile. Maia's dad flees after agreeing to a 35 year plea deal and Maia is arrested in connection with the ponzi scheme.

text: Season 2 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitle [24]Directed byWritten byOriginal release date111"Day 408"Brooke KennedyRobert King & Michelle KingMarch 4, 2018 (2018-03-04)
After founding partner Carl Reddick dies, the partners work to ensure that all their clients remain on board and are surprised when they learn that a lucrative project involving the Obamas is in jeopardy after his death. At the end of her tether with politics and professional strains, and feeling her mortality following the deaths of several Chicago lawyers, Diane accepts the offer of psilocybin from a bartender, and starts microdosing to relax. Justice Department lawyer Liz Lawrence, Reddick's daughter and Boseman's ex-wife, leaves her job at the Department of Justice after she tweets a criticism of Donald Trump, and is criticised for it. To preclude Liz taking the Reddick name away and becoming a competitor, Diane recruits her to the firm. Maia learns some surprising facts about her father's past.
122"Day 415"Jim McKayWilliam FinkelsteinMarch 11, 2018 (2018-03-11)
Another Chicago lawyer is murdered, causing tensions at Reddick/Boseman. Liz has her first day at Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart and goes for a drink with Diane, where Diane confides that she feels as if she is going insane with all the problems of the world. Maia's trial takes an unwelcome turn when a surprise witness is called to testify against her. Lucca and Colin go head-to-head in court in the Rindell trial.
133"Day 422"James Whitmore Jr.Joey HartstoneMarch 18, 2018 (2018-03-18)
Marissa and Maia open a envelope to Diane, only to find a letter saying "Kill all lawyers", and a deadly chemical, ricin, fall out. Diane fears that she is the next target, causing her to microdose even more. Alone at home, she watches TV, only to find that every single channel is about Trump. She hears a story about the president adopting a pot-bellied pig named Petey. The firm represents a young woman who was assaulted while a contestant on a reality dating show. In court, Diane starts hysterically laughing. Adrian asks her how she is coping, after Liz told him that Diane is thinking of quitting the law, due to her inability to process the events that are constantly happening.
144"Day 429"Ron UnderwoodJonathan TolinsMarch 25, 2018 (2018-03-25)
Liz learns that her son's favourite teacher has been fired from the charter school he attends. The case goes to arbitration and though Liz initially suspects racism she learns his firing has more to do with standardized test scores. Lucca learns her younger brother is in trouble with the law again. She is surprised when she learns it is because he has created an app that helps convicts with their appeals process. After a party, Diane believes that she is going insane after she sleeps with the bartender. She tearfully collapses into Kurt's arms, repeatedly apologising to him but not saying what she has done, out of fear that he will leave her forever. Kurt tells her that he does not want to remain separated anymore, and is ready to move back in with her.
155"Day 436"Jim McKayMarcus DalzineApril 1, 2018 (2018-04-01)
Lucca and Maia are assigned separate ride-alongs with the police. Lucca's uneventful night turns surprisingly eventful after she realizes that the person behind a DUI is Francesa Lovatelli, Colin's mother. She calls Colin and Colin arrives at the police station. While there, Lucca tells him that she is 3 months pregnant and that it is his child. At the firm Diane and Adrian advise clients who are about to be sued over running a story about sexual harassment. In the course of the case Adrian bumps into a former student and is surprised by what she tells him about himself.
166"Day 443"Brooke KennedyJacquelyn ReingoldApril 8, 2018 (2018-04-08)
Adrian becomes a minor celebrity once he begins appearing as a pundit on a local talk show, but his tenure on air is short lived. Lucca officially informs the partners of her pregnancy, and insists it will not impact her work in any way. Lucca and Colin argue over the start date for a trial after Colin moves for a continuance to the week of Lucca's due date.
177"Day 450"Frederick E.O. ToyeTegan ShohetApril 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
Ruth Eastman, a Democratic National Committee consultant, films the firm's partners in highly confidential all-day sessions to find a law firm to take on the party's efforts to impeach Donald Trump should the Democrats take control of Congress. Liz and Diane's emotions run high, and their enthusiasm resonates with the DNC, who ultimately appoint Liz as co-counsel in any future proceedings. Diane argues with Julius, saying that the last few months have left her feeling deranged, as she is incapable of dealing with Trump. She angrily says that she has a gun in her desk and is very close to taking it to the streets. Adrian tries to talk to Diane, but they are interrupted by Liz. Marissa has bought a pack of cards from an Alt-Right website, which is called the Kill All The Lawyers Deck, featuring Chicago lawyers who are expected to be killed. Adrian, Liz and Diane are all on them. Meanwhile, Maia is allured by Ruth's assistant Carrine, and cheats on Amy. They sneak back to the office to have sex, and are unwittingly caught on tape by the DNC's cameras.
188"Day 457"Clark JohnsonAurin SquireApril 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)
The firm is suing the Chicago Police Department for the shooting of a black undercover cop by his white colleague. Kurt's ballistics evidence paints an open-and-shut case, but the defence uses dirty tactics – including micro-targeting jurors with fake news about the plaintiff and his legal team via Facebook – to try and avoid a payout. Diane's marriage to Kurt is also tested as the defence exploits Kurt's affair and subsequent lies to Diane in order to undermine both Diane and the firm's evidence. While investigating a separate case for Jay's friend Craig, Maia and Lucca determine that Diane's client worked with his shooter as crooked cops planting guns to frame at least 30 suspects, including Jay's friend. The firm is offered a significant payout from the Chicago PD to stop the reopening of these more than 30 cases, but amid the celebrations, Jay quits as lead investigator after the firm chooses the Chicago PD settlement over justice for Craig.
199"Day 464"Michael ZinbergRobert King & Michelle KingApril 29, 2018 (2018-04-29)
The firm is contacted by a student Dominika, who fears she is being deported to Russia because she is one of the prostitutes from the golden shower tape mentioned in the Steele dossier, and her existence would prove that Vladimir Putin has compromising material on President Trump. Meanwhile, Maia and Lucca bend ethical rules to support Craig's lawyer, but even with coaching he proves too inept to get the job done. When a white supremacist becomes the Republican senate candidate for Cook County, greater attention falls on Colin's campaign to become the Democratic candidate. The Democrats are concerned that Colin's prosecutorial history appears racially biased. Lucca suggests he uses an investigation into police corruption to overturn several black convictions and change his statistics, and as a result Craig's sentence is vacated. The FBI offer Dominika a deal, allowing her to stay if, she admits the tape is a fake.
2010"Day 471"Kevin Rodney SullivanWilliam FinkelsteinMay 6, 2018 (2018-05-06)
Boseman is shot by an unseen assailant from the office elevator, prompting Liz to illegally hand over the firm's client list to her husband, CPD Captain Lawrence, who immediately goes after two of Diane's longstanding clients – Chicago drug lord Lemond Bishop and wealthy killer Colin Sweeney. While the firm is reeling from the attack, Diane's white shoe firm rival Solomon attempts to poach her clients. This threat sharpens her sense of purpose. She vows to make her corner of the world sane again, throws away her psychedelics and begins to take control again. She takes the fight to Solomon, winning back her clients and taking one of his; the Cook County Democrats. Jay returns to the fold when he learns of Boseman's injury. He and Marissa to create a short list of angry ex-clients who might be responsible for the attack. Colin is selected as the Democratic candidate for Cook County congressman.
2111"Day 478"Brooke KennedyJonathan TolinsMay 13, 2018 (2018-05-13)
The firm works to challenge a gossip website that shames men accused of non-criminal sexual impropriety, stirring lively debates within the office. Jay is formally rehired by Diane but struggles to reconcile their evidence about Boseman's shooter with the police's suspect profile; he determines that the shooter was Whitehead, the crooked cop who helped frame his friend Craig, and he is arrested. With firms in DC anticipating Colin's election, Lucca begins receiving offers of employment from the capital, including an invitation to work for the Obamas. Diane learns her finances have made a full recovery, in part due to Trump's tax reliefs for the already-wealthy. Diane starts to learn aikido, in an attempt to calm herself. She asks Kurt whether or not he wants a divorce. Kurt tells her that they have never tried properly being married. He is going to get a job with the FBI in Chicago, and he wants to move in together, full-time. Diane is ready to accept this proposal and hugs him enthusiastically. The two kiss, just before Adrian makes a return to the office. He gives a speech about how Reddick/Boseman & Lockhart is a family, and how they all stick up for one another.
2212"Day 485"Ron UnderwoodJacquelyn Reingold & Marcus DalzineMay 20, 2018 (2018-05-20)
While working, Jay is arrested for driving while black and soon, immigration officers descend on his bail hearing to deport him to Nigeria. To shield him from federal powers under states' rights (Illinois is a sanctuary state), his sympathetic bail judge agrees to hold Jay in state court while the firm investigates. They soon learn that Jay's U.S. birth certificate is a fake and that he was born in Nigeria and moved to the states as a baby. Citing Jay's artwork as grounds for an "Einstein" visa, as well as the fact that First Lady Melania Trump was granted one for her nude modelling, the firm helps him avoid deportation. Meanwhile, one of Julius' Republican connections offers to make Jay's problem go away in exchange for taking Diane's blue chip tech giant client ChumHum to a Republican-backed firm, hoping ChumHum can help them hurt the Democrats. He is rebuffed, leading him to threaten Julius with open war against his firm on behalf of the Republicans and federal government.
2313"Day 492"Robert KingRobert & Michelle KingMay 27, 2018 (2018-05-27)
Diane is hounded by FBI officials over her connections to Tully – a radical left-wing activist she had been sleeping with – and her previous filmed remarks about President Trump on the DNC audition tapes. Diane thinks that she is being bugged, after the prosecutor plays her a tape of her and Tully talking in her bedroom. The FBI interrogate Kurt about the gun he gave Diane, by saying that it is part of his background check. Proving his love and loyalty to Diane, he orders them out of his house, but not before Patrick Baseheart tells him that Diane will be indicted. It becomes clear the federal government are set on prosecuting her to make an example of the firm. Fighting fire with fire, Boseman leaks false information to a Fox News journalist concerning a porn star who slept with the President, alleging she instead was having an affair with the federal prosecutor targeting Diane; the President, who reliably watches Fox & Friends, would be sure to fire him via a tweet within minutes. Meanwhile, Lucca gives birth to a healthy baby boy, who she names Joseph Quinn-Morrello, but her mother sows seeds of doubt in her mind about Colin.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In February 2016, Michelle and Robert King, when asked about a spin-off, stated that there was a possibility for a spin-off series.[25] In May 2016, CBS was in final negotiations to set up a spin-off featuring Christine Baranski reprising her role as Diane Lockhart, but which would air on CBS All Access instead of the network.[6] The spin-off was officially ordered to series on May 18, with Cush Jumbo returning as well.[9] In September 2016, it was confirmed that the 10 episode spin-off would premiere in February 2017, with the story picking up a year after the final episode of the original series and seeing Diane pushed out of her firm after a financial scam involving her mentee wipes out her savings, resulting in her move to Lucca Quinn's firm.[2] The series was initially planned to air in May 2017, but was moved to February 2017 after production delays forced CBS to postpone the premiere of the new series, Star Trek: Discovery.[3] After months of speculation, CBS revealed the title for the spin-off series, which was revealed to be The Good Fight, on October 31, 2016.[26] It was announced that The Good Fight would premiere on February 19, 2017.[1] CBS released the first trailer for the spinoff on December 18, 2016, featuring footage from the premiere and later episodes.[27]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In May 2016, CBS was in final negotiations with Christine Baranski to reprise her role as Diane Lockhart and Cush Jumbo to reprise her role as well.[6] After the series was picked up, it was announced that Jumbo would reprise her role as Lucca Quinn.[9] Deadline announced on September 17, 2016 that Sarah Steele had been added to the cast, returning as Marissa Gold and appearing as Diane Lockhart's secretary-turned-investigator.[11] On October 12, 2016, it was announced that former Game of Thrones star Rose Leslie had been cast to play a lead in the show, the role of Diane's goddaughter Maia who joins Diane's firm just after passing the bar.[7]

text: The day after, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Delroy Lindo had been cast as "Robert" Boseman, an attorney who starts poaching Diane's associates and clients.[10] The first name of Lindo's character was changed to "Adrian".[28] Deadline reported on October 27, 2016 that the show had added Paul Guilfoyle and Bernadette Peters for recurring roles as Maia's parents. Guilfoyle would play Maia's father Henry, a wildly successful financial advisor who is phenomenally wealthy and universally loved. Peters' character Lenore was described as a woman who came from a tough working-class background and is a natively brilliant financial whiz.[16] It was announced on October 31, 2016 that Justified alum Erica Tazel had joined the cast as a series regular.[29]

text: On November 7, 2016, it was announced that Gary Cole would be reprising his role as Diane's husband Kurt McVeigh.[17] It was confirmed on November 11, 2016, that Zach Grenier, Jerry Adler, and Carrie Preston would be returning as guest stars, reprising their roles of David Lee, Howard Lyman, and Elsbeth Tascioni respectively.[18][20] On November 18, 2016, it was announced that Justin Bartha had been added as a series regular as Colin, a rising star in the US Attorney's office and love interest to Lucca.[12] On August 1, 2017, it was announced that Audra McDonald had been added to the main cast for season 2 as Liz Lawrence, reprising her role from The Good Wife season 4, and that Michael Boatman and Nyambi Nyambi had been promoted to main cast.[30]

text: International broadcast[edit]

text: On February 8, 2017, the series was picked up in Canada by Corus Entertainment to air on their cable channel, W Network; the U.S. broadcast premiere of the series would be simulcast by Corus' broadcast system Global.[31]

text: On March 2, 2017, Channel 4 confirmed it had acquired the UK broadcast rights for the series for its More4 channel following the success of progenitor series The Good Wife on that same channel.[32] The series debuted on More4 on March 30, 2017.

text: HBO Europe and HBO Nordic began streaming all 10 episodes of the first season on June 1, 2017, in Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland, while India's Zee Entertainment Enterprises took exclusive pay-TV rights to The Good Fight for its English-language general entertainment channel Zee Café, which was also the Indian home of The Good Wife.[33]

text: In Australia, SBS picked up the series which premiered on August 2, 2017.

text: In Southeast Asia, the series broadcasts on Star World but later moved to Fox Life starting from the second season.

text: In Greece the series first aired on Cosmote TV beginning in December 2017.

text: In Ireland, the series is aired on RTÉ2 beginning July 2018.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The Good Fight has received positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes awarded the series with a rating of 98% based on reviews from 50 critics and an average rating of 8.2 out of 10. The site's critical consensus reads: "An auspicious beginning for CBS All Access, The Good Fight solidly follows its predecessor while allowing for new storytelling styles, a wider narrative scope, and a chance for its lead to explore new territory with a relatable human struggle."[34] On Metacritic, the series received a score of 80 based on reviews from 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[35]

text: The Los Angeles Times suggested that Good Fight creators Robert and Michelle King "still had the Good Wife magic" and though Good Wife "had already [run] its course" after seasons 6 and 7 had received mediocre reviews, "they just needed a clean slate" to allow them to continue to mine more stories from that fictional universe.[36] In addition, unlike Good Wife which was centered around "romantic tension" and got bogged down in Alicia Florrick's (Julianne Margulies) love life, Good Fight was considered "refreshing for steering the story the other way" as relationships are "not the plot points that drive the story".[37] Good Fight is regarded as a rare successful example of a TV series spin-off, as other contemporary TV series are either reboots or remakes.[38]

text: Writing for Vox.com, Todd VanDerWerff praised the show's deft use of political themes, commenting that while The Good Wife was a commentary on "liberal hypocrisy" and the nature of moral compromise, The Good Fight stands out as a much more earnest "defence of liberal values", giving the show a compelling "reason to exist".[39]