document_title: Mute swan

question_text: where do mute swans go in the winter

question_tokens: where do mute swans go in the winter

text: Mute swan

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: The mute swan was first formally described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin as Anas olor in 1789, and was transferred by Johann Matthäus Bechstein to the new genus Cygnus in 1803. Both cygnus and olor mean "swan" in Latin; cygnus is a variant form of cycnus, a borrowing from Greek κύκνος kyknos, a word of the same meaning.[5][6][7][8]

text: Despite its Eurasian origin, its closest relatives are the black swan of Australia and the black-necked swan of South America, not the other Northern Hemisphere swans.[2] The species is monotypic with no living subspecies.[2][4]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Mute swan subfossils, 6,000 years old, have been found in post-glacial peat beds of East Anglia, Great Britain.[9] They have been recorded from Ireland east to Portugal and Italy,[10] and from France, 13,000 BP (Desbrosse and Mourer-Chauvire 1972–1973).[full citation needed] The paleosubspecies Cygnus olor bergmanni, which differed only in size from the living bird, is known from fossils found in Azerbaijan.[citation needed]

text: Fossils of swan ancestors more distantly allied to the mute swan have been found in four U.S. states: California, Arizona, Idaho and Oregon.[11] The timeline runs from the Miocene to the late Pleistocene, or 10,000 BP. The latest find was in Anza Borrego Desert, a state park in California.[11] Fossils from the Pleistocene include Cygnus paloregonus from Fossil Lake, Oregon, Froman's Ferry, Idaho, and Arizona, referred to by Howard in The Waterfowl of the World as "probably the mute type swan".[12]

text: Description[edit]

text: Adults of this large swan typically range from 140 to 160 cm (55 to 63 in) long, although can range in extreme cases from 125 to 170 cm (49 to 67 in), with a 200 to 240 cm (79 to 94 in) wingspan.[13][14] Males are larger than females and have a larger knob on their bill. On average, this is the second largest waterfowl species after the trumpeter swan, although male mute swans can easily match or even exceed a male trumpeter in mass.[4][15] Among standard measurements of the mute swan, the wing chord measures 53–62.3 cm (20.9–24.5 in), the tarsus is 10–11.8 cm (3.9–4.6 in) and the bill is 6.9–9 cm (2.7–3.5 in).[4]

text: The mute swan is one of the heaviest flying birds. In several studies from Great Britain, males (known as cobs) were found to average from about 10.6 to 11.87 kg (23.4 to 26.2 lb), with a weight range of 9.2–14.3 kg (20–32 lb) while the slightly smaller females (known as pens) averaged about 8.5 to 9.67 kg (18.7 to 21.3 lb), with a weight range of 7.6–10.6 kg (17–23 lb).[4][16][17][18][19] While the top normal weight for a big cob is roughly 15 kg (33 lb), one unusually big Polish cob weighed almost 23 kg (51 lb) and this counts as the largest weight ever verified for a flying bird, although it has been questioned whether this heavyweight could still take flight.[20]

text: Young birds, called cygnets, are not the bright white of mature adults, and their bill is dull greyish-black, not orange, for the first year. The down may range from pure white to grey to buff, with grey/buff the most common. The white cygnets have a leucistic gene. Cygnets grow quickly, reaching a size close to their adult size in approximately three months after hatching. Cygnets typically retain their grey feathers until they are at least one year old, with the down on their wings having been replaced by Flight feathers earlier that year.

text: All mute swans are white at maturity, though the feathers (particularly on the head and neck) are often stained orange-brown by iron and tannins in the water.[21]

text: The morph immutabilis ("Polish swan") has pinkish (not dark grey) legs and dull white cygnets; as with white domestic geese, it is only found in populations with a history of domestication.[22] Polish swans carry a copy of a gene responsible for leucism.

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Mute swans nest on large mounds that they build with waterside vegetation in shallow water on islands in the middle or at the very edge of a lake. They are monogamous and often reuse the same nest each year, restoring or rebuilding it as needed. Male and female swans share the care of the nest, and once the cygnets are fledged it is not uncommon to see whole families looking for food.They feed on a wide range of vegetation, both submerged aquatic plants which they reach with their long necks, and by grazing on land. The food commonly includes agricultural crop plants such as oilseed rape and wheat, and feeding flocks in the winter may cause significant crop damage, often as much through trampling with their large webbed feet, as through direct consumption.[23]

text: Unlike black swans, mute swans are usually strongly territorial with just a single pair on smaller lakes, though in a few locations where a large area of suitable feeding habitat is found they can be colonial. The largest colonies have over 100 pairs, such as at the colony at Abbotsbury Swannery in southern England, and at the southern tip of Öland Island, Ottenby Preserve, in the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea, and can have nests spaced as little as 2 m (7 ft) apart.[22][24] Non-mated juveniles up to 3–4 years old commonly form larger flocks, which can total several hundred birds, often at regular traditional sites.[25] A notable flock of non-breeding birds is found on the River Tweed estuary at Berwick-upon-Tweed in northeastern England, with a maximum count of 787 birds.[26] A large population exists near the Swan Lifeline Station in Windsor, and live on the Thames in the shadow of Windsor Castle. Once the adults are mated they seek out their own territories and often live close to ducks and gulls, which may take advantage of the swan's ability to reach deep water weeds, which tend to spread out on the water surface.[citation needed]

text: The mute swan is less vocal than the noisy whooper and Bewick's swans; they do, however, make a variety of grunting, hoarse whistling, and snorting noises, especially in communicating with their cygnets, and usually hiss at competitors or intruders trying to enter their territory.[27] The most familiar sound associated with mute swan is the vibrant throbbing of the wings in flight which is unique to the species, and can be heard from a range of 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1 mi), indicating its value as a contact sound between birds in flight.[22] Cygnets are especially vocal, and communicate through a variety of whistling and chirping sounds when content, as well as a harsh squawking noise when distressed or lost.

text: Mute swans can be very aggressive in defence of their nests and are highly protective of their mate and offspring. Most defensive attacks from a mute swan begin with a loud hiss and, if this is not sufficient to drive off the predator, are followed by a physical attack. Swans attack by smashing at their enemy with bony spurs in the wings, accompanied by biting with their large bill. The wings of the swan are very powerful, though not strong enough to break an adult man's leg, as said anecdotally.[28] Large waterfowl, such as Canada geese, (more likely out of competition than in response to potential predation) may be aggressively driven off, and mute swans regularly attack people who enter their territory.[29] The cob is responsible for defending the cygnets while on the water, and will sometimes attack small watercraft, such as canoes, that it feels are a threat to its young. The cob will additionally try and chase the predator out of his family territory, and will keep animals such as foxes and raptors at bay. In New York (outside its native range), the most common predators of cygnets are common snapping turtles.[29] Healthy adults are rarely preyed upon, though canids such as coyotes, felids such as lynxes, and bears can pose a threat to infirm ones (healthy adults can usually swim away from danger unless defending nests) and there are a few cases of healthy adults falling prey to golden eagles.[30][31] In England, there has been an increased rate of attacks on swans by out-of-control dogs, especially in parks where the birds are less territorial. This is considered criminal in British law, and the birds are placed under the highest protection due to their association with the Monarch.[32]

text: The familiar pose with neck curved back and wings half raised, known as busking, is a threat display. Both feet are paddled in unison during this display, resulting in more jerky movement.[33] The swans may also use the busking posture for wind-assisted transportation over several hundred meters, so-called windsurfing.[34][35]

text: Breeding[edit]

text: Mute swans lay from four to ten eggs, and the female broods for around 36 days. The cygnets do not reach the ability of flight before an age of 120 to 150 days: this limits the distribution of the species in the northern edge of its range, as the cygnets must learn to fly before the waters freeze.[citation needed]

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: The mute swan is found naturally mainly in temperate areas of Europe across western Asia, as far east as the Russian Maritimes, near Sidemi.[36]

text: It is partially migratory throughout northern latitudes in Europe and Asia, as far south as north Africa and the Mediterranean. It is known and recorded to have nested in Iceland and is a vagrant to that area, as well as to Bermuda, according to the UN Environment Programme chart of international status chart of bird species, which places it in 70 countries, breeding in 49 countries, and vagrant in 16 countries.[citation needed] While most of the current population in Japan is introduced, mute swans are depicted on scrolls more than a thousand years old, and wild birds from the mainland Asian population still occur rarely in winter. Natural migrants to Japan usually occur along with whooper and sometimes Bewick's swans.[citation needed]

text: The mute swan is protected in most of its range, but this has not prevented illegal hunting and poaching. It is often kept in captivity outside its natural range, as a decoration for parks and ponds, and escapes have happened. The descendants of such birds have become naturalised in the eastern United States and Great Lakes, much as the Canada goose has done in Europe.[citation needed]

text: World population[edit]

text: Native populations[edit]

text: The total native population of mute swans is about 500,000 birds at the end of the breeding season (adults plus young), of which 350,000 are in the former Soviet Union.[2] The largest single breeding concentration is 11,000 pairs in the Volga Delta.[3]

text: The population in the United Kingdom is about 22,000 birds, as of the 2006–2007 winter,[37] a slight decline from the peak of about 26,000-27,000 birds in 1990.[3] This includes about 5,300 breeding pairs, the remainder being immatures.[38] Other significant populations in Europe include 6,800-8,300 breeding pairs in Germany, 4,500 pairs in Denmark, 4,000-4,200 pairs in Poland, 3,000-4,000 pairs in the Netherlands, about 2,500 pairs in Ireland, and 1,200-1,700 pairs in Ukraine.[3]

text: For many centuries, mute swans in Britain were domesticated for food, with individuals being marked by nicks on their webs (feet) or beaks to indicate ownership. These marks were registered with the Crown and a Royal Swanherd was appointed. Any birds not so marked became Crown property, hence the swan becoming known as the "Royal Bird". It is quite possible that this domestication saved the swan from being hunted to extinction in Britain.[39][40][40]

text: Populations in western Europe were largely exterminated by hunting pressure in the 13th–19th centuries, with the exception of semi-domesticated birds maintained as poultry by large landowners. Better protection in the late 19th and early 20th centuries allowed birds to return to most or all of their former range.[41][42] More recently in the period from about 1960 up to the early 1980s, numbers declined significantly again in many areas, primarily due to lead poisoning from birds swallowing discarded fishing sinkers made from lead. After lead weights were replaced by other less toxic alternatives, mute swan numbers increased again rapidly.[3]

text: Introduced populations[edit]

text: Since being introduced into North America, the mute swan has increased greatly in number, to the extent that it is considered as an invasive species. Populations introduced into other areas remain small, with around 200 in Japan, fewer than 200 in New Zealand and Australia, and about 120 in South Africa.[2]

text: North America[edit]

text: The mute swan was introduced to North America in the late 19th century. Recently, it has been widely viewed as an invasive species because of its rapidly increasing numbers and its adverse effects on other waterfowl and native ecosystems. For example, a study of population sizes in the lower Great Lakes from 1971 to 2000 found that mute swan numbers were increasing at an average rate of at least 10% per year, doubling the population every seven to eight years.[43] Several studies have concluded that mute swans severely reduce densities of submerged vegetation where they occur.[44]

text: In 2003, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to "minimize environmental damages attributed to Mute Swans" by reducing their numbers in the Atlantic Flyway to pre-1986 levels, a 67% reduction at the time. According to a report published in the Federal Register of 2003[45] the proposal was supported by all thirteen state wildlife agencies which submitted comments, as well as by 43 bird conservation, wildlife conservation and wildlife management organisations. Ten animal rights organisations and the vast majority of comments from individuals were opposed. At this time mute swans were protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act due to a court order, but in 2005 the United States Department of the Interior officially declared them a non-native, unprotected species.[46] Mute swans are protected in some areas of the U.S. by local laws, as for example in Connecticut.[47]

text: The status of the mute swan as an introduced species in North America is disputed by the interest group "Save the Mute Swans".[48] They assert that mute swans are native in the region and therefore deserving of protection. They claim that mute swans had origins from Russia and cite historical sightings and fossil records. These claims have been rejected as specious by the U.S. Department of the Interior.[46]

text: Oceania[edit]

text: The mute swan had absolute protection in New Zealand under the Wildlife Act 1953 but this was changed in June 2010 to a lower level of protection. It still has protection, but is now allowed to be killed or held in captivity at the discretion of the Minister of Conservation.[49]

text: A small feral population exists in the vicinity of Perth, Australia, however is believed to number less than 100 individuals.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: A mute swan was shown on the 2004 commemorative Irish Euro coin to mark the accession of the 10 new member states which occurred during the Irish Presidency of the European Union.

text: The mute swan has been the national bird of Denmark since 1984. Prior to that, the skylark was considered Denmark's national bird (since 1960).

text: The fairy tale "The Ugly Duckling" by Hans Christian Andersen tells the story of a cygnet ostracised by his fellow barnyard fowl because of his perceived homeliness. To his delight (and to the surprise of others), he matures into a graceful swan, the most beautiful bird of all.

text: In the famous ballet Swan Lake, the main character, Princess Odette and her companions are turned into swans by a wicked spell.

text: Today, the British Monarch retains the right to ownership of all unmarked mute swans in open water, but Queen Elizabeth II only exercises her ownership on certain stretches of the Thames and its surrounding tributaries. This ownership is shared with the Vintners' and Dyers' Companies, who were granted rights of ownership by the Crown in the 15th century.[50]

text: The mute swans in the moat at the Bishops Palace at Wells Cathedral in Wells, England have for centuries been trained to ring bells via strings attached to them to beg for food. Two swans are still able to ring for lunch.[51]

text: The pair of swans in the Boston Public Garden are named Romeo and Juliet after the Shakespearean couple; however, it was found that both are female.[52]

text: Camille Saint-Saëns composed a movement called Le cygne in The Carnival of the Animals. It is played by solo cello and two pianos and represents a swan gliding over the water (cello) and the ripples it creates (pianos). Led Zeppelin's Jimmy Page also wrote an instrumental song called Swan Song in 1974.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Finding food underwater

Mute swan in flight

Flock in flight

Landing on water

Mute swan egg

1956 Finnish stamp with a mute swan

Four mute swans along the bank of the Etobicoke Creek.

A family of Mute Swans on a small lake in Southern Michigan, USA.


document_title: Ages of consent in Oceania

question_text: what is the age of consent in nsw

question_tokens: what is the age of consent in nsw

root

text: Ages of consent in Oceania

text: Australia[edit]

text: Australia is a federation of States and Territories, with each State and Territory having the primary jurisdiction over age of consent issues within its territory. However, as a result of the international affairs power under Australia's constitution, a 1997 United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling has resulted in States repealing rules that differentiated between homosexual and heterosexual people on age of consent issues.

tag: p

text: Regulations by state[edit]

text:
State

Minimum age of consent

 New South Wales

16

 Queensland

16

 South Australia

17

 Tasmania

17

 Victoria

16

 Western Australia

16

 Northern Territory

16

 Australian Capital Territory

16

tag: table

text: Federal laws[edit]

text: Under federal legislation that applies to all Australians, it is an offence for an Australian citizen, resident or body corporate[1] while outside of Australia to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16[1] or to induce a child under the age of 16 to have sexual intercourse,[1] or be somehow involved in a similar sexual act.[1]

text: Sex between consenting adults (18 or over) in private, regardless of gender or sexual orientation can not be outlawed under section 4 of the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994.[2][3]

text: Australian Capital Territory[edit]

text: It is an offence in the Australian Capital Territory to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16.[4] However, it is a defence if the younger party was aged 10 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger party.[5] It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[6]

text: Coral Sea Islands Territory[edit]

text: The laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply to the Coral Sea Islands Territory.[7]

text: New South Wales[edit]

text: It is an offence in New South Wales to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16[8] or attempt such an offence.[9] It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[10]

text: Norfolk Island[edit]

text: It is an offence in Norfolk Island for a person to have sexual intercourse or commit an act of indecency with a person under the age of 16.[11][12][13] The Australian Government has proposed to introduce a new offence of sexual intercourse with a young person under special care based on the law in the Australian Capital Territory.[14]

text: Northern Territory[edit]

text: It is an offence in the Northern Territory to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16,[15]:s 127 or attempt such an offence.[15]:s 131 It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[15]:s 128

text: Queensland[edit]

text: It is an offence in Queensland to have carnal knowledge of a person under the age of 16. "Carnal knowledge" includes all types of sexual activity.[16] Legislation in September 2016 lowered and equalised the age of consent for anal sex to 16.[17]

text: South Australia[edit]

text: It is an offence in South Australia to engage in any activity which involves fellatio, cunnilingus or placing any part of the body within the labia majora, vagina or anus of a person under the age of 17 unless they are lawful spouses.[18] The Australian Marriage Act can permit someone who is 18 or over to marry a 16-year-old.[19] But, it is a defence if the person is 16 at the time of the offence and either the offender is under 17 years of age or believe on reasonable grounds that the other person is 17 or older.[20] It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[21]

text: Tasmania[edit]

text: It is an offence in Tasmania to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 17.[22] However, it is a defence if the younger person was aged 12 years or older and the older was not more than 3 years their senior or, if the younger person was of or above 15 years and the older was not more than 5 years their senior.[22][23]

text: Victoria[edit]

text: It is an offence in Victoria to sexually penetrate a person under the age of 16.[24] However, it is a defence if the younger party was aged 12 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger person, or they were married.[25] It is also an offence for a person having the care of a person under the age of 18 (guardian, teacher etc.) to sexually penetrate that person.[26] A person under the age of 18 is not allowed to work as a prostitute nor to be in a brothel.[27]

text: Western Australia[edit]

text: It is an offence in Western Australia to sexually penetrate a person under the age of 16.[28] It is also an offence for a person in a position of authority over a person under the age of 18 to have sex with that person.[29]

text: Clipperton Island (France)[edit]

text: The laws of France where applicable apply.[30] (These specify a general age of consent of 15.) See Ages of consent in Europe#France.

text: Cook Islands[edit]

text: It is an offence in the Cook Islands to have sexual intercourse with a girl under the age of 16,[31] (ss146 and 147). If the girl consented and is aged 12 or more, it is a defence if the offender is younger than the girl, or if he is under 21 of age and "had reasonable cause to believe, and did believe" that the girl was aged 16 or older. (These defenses do not apply if consent was obtained fraudulently.)

text: There is no minimum age of consent for boys with women, although sodomy is illegal at any age (s155) and also exist the sodomy crimes that apply we criminal codes (S154, S159)

text: 154. Indecency between males - (1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years who, bring a male,-

text: (a) Indecently assaults any other male; or

text: (b) Does any indecent act with or upon any other male; or

text: (c) Induces or permits any other male to do any indecent act with or upon him.

text: (2) No boy under the age of fifteen years shall be charged with committing or being a party to an offence against paragraph (b) or paragraph (c) of subsection (1) of this section, unless the other male was under the age of twenty-one years.

text: (3) It is not defence to a charge under this section that the other party consented.

text: 155. Sodomy - (1) Every one who commits sodomy is liable-

text: (a) Where the act of sodomy is committed on a female, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding fourteen years;

text: (b) Where the act of sodomy is committed on a male, and at the time of the act that male is under the age of fifteen years and the offender is of over the age of twenty-one years, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding fourteen years;

text: (c) In any other case, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years.

text: (2) This offence is complete upon penetration.

text: (3) Where sodomy is committed on any person under the age of fifteen years he shall not be charged with being a party to that offence, but he may be charged with being a party to an offence against section 154 of this Act in say case to which that section is applicable.

text: (4) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the other party consented.

text: 159. Keeping Place of resort for homosexual acts -Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years who-

text: (a) Keeps or manages, or acts or assists in the management of, say premises used as a place of resort for the commission of indecent acts between males; or

text: (b) Being the tenant, lessee, or occupier of any promises, knowingly permits the premises or any part thereof to be used as a place of resort for the commission of indecent acts between males; or

text: (c) Being the lessor or landlord of any premises, or the agent of the lessor or landlord, lets the premises or any part thereof with the knowledge that the premises are to be used as a place of resort for the commission of indecent acts between males, or that dome part thereof is to be so used, or is wilfully a party to the continued use of the premises or any part thereof as a place of resort for the commission of such acts as aforesaid.

text: More in line with the Criminal Code sections 152 and 153, the age of consent for same-sex men and women is begins, starting at 15 years

text: 152. Indecent act between woman and girl - (1) Every woman of or over the age of twenty-one years is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years who-

text: (a) Does any indecent act with or upon any girl under the age of fifteen years; or

text: (b) Induces or permits any girl under the age of fifteen years to do say indecent act with or upon her.

text: (2) The girl shall not be charged as a party to an offence committed with or upon her against this section.

text: (3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the girl consented.

text: 153. Indecency between man and boy - (1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years who, being a male-

text: (a) Indecently assaults any boy under the age of fifteen years; or

text: (b) Does any indecent act with or upon any boy under the age of fifteen years; or

text: (c) Induces or permits any boy under the age of fifteen years to do any indecent act with or upon him.

text: (2) No person under the age of twenty-one years shall be charged with committing or being a party to an offence against this section.

text: (3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the boy consented.

text: Easter Island (Chile)[edit]

text: Federated States of Micronesia[edit]

text: The states’ statutory rape laws apply to children age 13 and below in Yap and Kosrae and age 15 and below in Pohnpei.[32]  The age of consent in Chuuk state is 18.[33]

text: Fiji[edit]

text: Under the Crimes Act 2010 effective since 1 February 2010, the age of consent in Fiji is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.

text: French Polynesia (France)[edit]

text: Juan Fernández Islands (Chile)[edit]

text: Kiribati[edit]

text: The age of consent in Kiribati is 15 (sections 133, 134 & 135), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 153, 154 & 155). Furthermore, section 132 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 136 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.[34]

text: Marcus Island (Japan)[edit]

text: Marcus Island is administratively under the government of Tokyo. See Age of Consent in Japan.

text: Marshall Islands[edit]

text: The age of consent in Marshall Islands is 16. Section 152(A) of the Criminal Code provides that anyone engaging in sexual penetration with a person under 16 is liable to imprisonment for up to 25 years.[35]

text: Nauru[edit]

text: In Nauru it is an offence under the Crimes Act 2016, Division 7.3 to engage in sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16.[36] Consent is not a defence unless the younger party was aged 13 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger person.[36]

text: New Caledonia (France)[edit]

text: New Caledonia  has a civil law system based on French law; the 1988 Matignon Accords grant substantial autonomy to the islands.[30]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: It is an offence in New Zealand to have a sexual connection with a person under the age of 16.[37] It is a defence if due diligence had been undertaken by the defendant to ascertain the victim's age, had reasonable grounds to believe the victim was aged 16 or over and consent was given.[38] Further it is an offence for a person to have a sexual connection with a person under the age of 18 if the defendant is in a guardianship role (parent, stepparent, foster parent, guardian, uncle, aunt or other members of extended family, whanau or other power or authority or responsibility for care or upbringing).[39] The age of consent for girls had earlier been 12 years, and was progressively raised to 16 years in the late 19th century.

text: The age of consent for prostitution in New Zealand is higher. Although prostitution is legal, under the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 it is illegal to procure or receive sexual services from any person under 18.[40]

text: New Zealand has had a uniform and equal age of consent of 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender since the passage of the Homosexual Law Reform Act in 1986. All territories of New Zealand have legalized homosexuality in 2007 (except for the Cook Islands as shown below) LGBT rights in New Zealand under the Niue Amendment Act 2007.[41]

text: . Contraceptives in New Zealand are not age restricted and are available to people under 16. A teen 12 years or older can be prosecuted for a consensual relationship with a teen under 16 (both parties if both are 12 years or older), although this is extremely rare. Even with a complaint, it is still up to police discretion and if the age difference is small it is rarely prosecuted, with family group conferences being the more likely option.[42] There was an attempt to formalise this under law in 2004, however this was abandoned after a public outcry. Before 2005, there was no law in New Zealand prohibiting any form of sexual relationship between adult women and male minors.[43]

text: The sexual abuse of boys of any age, including rape, by adult women was fully legal in New Zealand until around 2007. This is despite New Zealand having been party to international conventions against the exploitation of children since the 1980s. In 2003, swimming instructor Stacey Margaret Friel, 21, was reported to have had sex with a 13-year-old boy, but faced no charges at the time due to the lack of laws against sexual abuse of boys by women. Since the loophole in the laws was closed there have been a number of cases of women being prosecuted for sexual abuse of young boys, including a woman who gave birth to the child of an 11-year-old boy whom she had allegedly raped.[44]

text: Tokelau[edit]

text:
The age of consent is 16. Section 19 of the Crimes, Procedures and Evidence Rules, 2003 (CPER) reads: "1) A person who has carnal knowledge of another— [..] (i)(II)if the victim is under the age of 16 years, whether the victim consented or not [...] commits an offence." Section 21 reads:
"(1) A person who indecently assaults another commits an offence. (2) Where the victim is a mental defective or under the age of 16 years it is no defence to a charge under this rule that the person consented to the offence, or that the person charged believed that the person assaulted was sane or not under the age of 16 years as the case may be."[45]

text: Niue[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The age of consent in Niue is 16.

text: Okinotori Islands (Japan)[edit]

text: The Okinotori Islands are administratively under the government of Tokyo. See Age of Consent in Japan.

text: Palau[edit]

text: The age of consent in Palau is 17.[46] There is a close in age exemption allowing 15 and 16 year-olds to have sex with partners less than 5 years older. Article § 1602 reads: a)  A person commits the offense of sexual assault in the first degree if: (...) (3) The person knowingly engages in sexual penetration with a person who is at least fifteen years old but less than seventeen years old; provided that: (A) The person is not less than five years older than the minor; and (B) The person is not legally married to the minor".[47]

text: Papua (Indonesia)[edit]

text: The age of consent in Indonesia Ages of consent in Asia.

text: Papua New Guinea[edit]

text: In Papua New Guinea it is unlawful to have carnal knowledge of a girl under the age of 16.[48] If the victim is aged 12 or more, it is a defence if the defendant "believed, on reasonable grounds" that the girl was aged 16 or older. It is a crime for any person to indecently deal with a boy under the age of 14 (section 211), and boys under the age of 17 are not deemed able to consent to acts by another male that, but for their consent, would be indecent assaults (section 243). Also having or allowing carnal knowledge "against the order of nature" is illegal at any age, as are acts of "gross indecency" between males (sections 210 and 212).

text: Pitcairn Island (United Kingdom)[edit]

text: The current age of consent appears to be 16, as a 1999 case involved a New Zealand tourist convicted of "unlawful carnal knowledge" of a girl of 15 (this will be confirmed once The Pitcairn Constitution Order 2010 comes into effect). However the Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004 involved mostly charges of rape or sexual assault, not "underage sex" (and some "gross indecency with a child under 14" charges), although it was claimed during the trial that (presumably consensual) "underage sex" with girls from the age of 12 was normal on Pitcairn.

text: Samoa[edit]

text: The age of consent in Samoa is 16, per Section 59. Sexual conduct with young person under 16, of the Crime Act 2013.[49] Homosexual acts are illegal regardless of age (Section 67. Sodomy).[49]

text: Solomon Islands[edit]

text: The age of consent in the Solomon Islands is 15 (sections 141, 142 & 143), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 160, 161 & 162). Further, section 140 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 144 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.[50]

text: Tonga[edit]

text: The age of consent in Tonga is 15.[51]

text: Section 121

tag: ul

text: Carnal knowledge of child or young person

text: (2) Any person who carnally knows any young person under the age of 15 years shall be liable on conviction thereof to imprisonment for 5 years

text: Section 124

text: Indecent assault

text: (5) A  young  person  under  the  age  of 15 years  cannot  in  law  give  any consent  which  would  prevent  an  act  being  an  indecent  assault for  the purposes of this section.

text: Tuvalu[edit]

text: The age of consent in Tuvalu is 15 (sections 133, 134 & 135), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 153, 154 & 155). Further, section 132 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 136 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.[52]

text: United States (Hawaii and Pacific Territories)[edit]

text: Hawaii[edit]

text: The age of consent in Hawaii is 16 years old. There is however a close in age exemption, which allows those aged 14 and 15 to consent to sex with those less than five years older.[53]

text: American Samoa[edit]

text: It is an offence in American Samoa to engage in sexual acts with a person under the age of 16.[54]

text: Guam[edit]

text: The age of consent in Guam is 16.

text: § 25.25. Third Degree Criminal Sexual Conduct.[55]

text:
(a) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct in the third degree if
the person engages in sexual penetration with another person and if any of
the following circumstances exists:

text:
(1) that other person is at least fourteen (14) years of age and
under sixteen (16) years of age

text: Northern Mariana Islands[edit]

text: The age of consent in the Northern Mariana Islands is 16, according to Sections 1306-1309 of the Commonwealth Code.[56]  There a close-in-age exemption permitting minors aged 13–15 to engage in sexual activity with those less than three years older. Under the same provisions, it is also illegal for any person aged 16 or older to aid, encourage, induce or causes minors under 13 to engage in any sexual activity, or minors aged 13–15 to engage in sexual activity with persons older than them by three years or more.

text: The age of consent rises to 18 when the older partner - being age 18 or older - is the parent, stepparent, adopted parent, or legal guardian of the younger person, or when the older partner has or occupies a position of authority over the younger person.  This does not apply for minors aged 16 or 17 as long as the older partner is less than three years older and is not the younger person's parent, stepparent, adopted parent or legal guardian.  According to section 1317, a position of authority "means an employer, youth leader, scout leader, coach, teacher, counselor, school administrator, religious leader, doctor, nurse, psychologist, guardian ad litem, babysitter, or a substantially similar position, and a police officer or probation officer other than when the officer is exercising custodial control" over a person under 18.

text: According to Section 1310, affirmative defenses for the crimes outlined in Sections 1306-1309 exists for consensual activity between legal spouses and for cases where the defendant reasonably believed that a minor age 13 or older was of legal age.

text:
Sections 1303 and 1304 of the Commonwealth Code also criminalize sexual activity with persons aged 18 or 19, if they are "committed to the custody of the Department of Public
Health and Environmental Services under the Commonwealth’s civil or criminal laws, and the offender is the legal guardian of the person".

text: Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument[edit]

text: Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island, are under the jurisdiction of the US Federal Government Department of the Interior, as part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. As such, all US Federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.

text: Midway Atoll[edit]

text: Midway Atoll is under the jurisdiction of the US Federal Government Department of the Interior (administered as a National Wildlife Refuge). As such, all US Federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.

text: Vanuatu[edit]

text:
Since 1 January 2007 under the Criminal Consolidation Act 2006, the age of consent on Vanuatu is 15 for heterosexual conduct and 18 for homosexual conduct.[57][58] Article 97 reads: (...) (2) No person shall have sexual intercourse with any child under the age of 15 years but of or over the age of 13 years. (3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the child consented or that the person charged believed that the child was of or over the age in question.
[59]
Article 99 reads: No person shall commit any homosexual act with a person of the same sex under 18 years of age, whether or not that person consents. [59]

text: Wallis and Futuna (France)[edit]

text: The laws of France where applicable apply.[30] See Ages of consent in Europe#France.


document_title: List of South American cities by elevation

question_text: what is the highest city in south america

text: This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (April 2010)

text:
Ranked
Town / City
Country
Height (m)
Height (ft)
Comments

1
La Rinconada
 Peru
5101
16728
Highest city in the world, 30 000 inhabitants.[1]

2
Parinacota
 Chile
4400
14435
Highest settlement in Chile.

3
Mina Pirquitas
 Argentina
4340
14240
Highest settlement in Argentina.

4
Cerro de Pasco
 Peru
4330
14232
Highest city of over 50,000 inhabitants (70,000).

5
Colquechaca
 Bolivia
4170
13680
Highest town in Bolivia.

6
El Alto
 Bolivia
4150
13615

7
Potosí
 Bolivia
4090
13420

8
Viacha
 Bolivia
3871
12700

9
Juliaca
 Peru
3824
12546

10
Puno
 Peru
3819
12530

11
La Oroya
 Peru
3745
12287

12
Oruro
 Bolivia
3706
12158

13
Huancavelica
 Peru
3676
12060

14
La Paz
 Bolivia
3690
11975
Highest capital in the world

15
Sicuani
 Peru
3548
11640

16
Apartaderos
 Venezuela
3505
11502
Highest town in Venezuela. 3,360 m. according to Google Maps.

17
Cusco
 Peru
3399
11151

18
Vetas
 Colombia
3350
10990
Highest town in Colombia. 3,230 m. according to Google Maps.

19
Papallacta
 Ecuador
3300
10826
Highest town in Ecuador. According to other sources is Zumbahua at 3,510 m.

20
Huancayo
 Peru
3259
10659

21
Tarma
 Peru
3053
10016

22
Huaraz
 Peru
3052
10006

23
Tulcán
 Ecuador
2980
9776

24
Andahuaylas
 Peru
2926
9599

25
Ipiales
 Colombia
2898
9507

26
Quito
 Ecuador
2850
9350

27
Tunja
 Colombia
2820
9310

28
Ayacucho
 Peru
2761
9058

29
Riobamba
 Ecuador
2754
9035

30
Cajamarca
 Peru
2750
9022

31
Latacunga
 Ecuador
2750
9022

32
Sucre
 Bolivia
2750
9022

33
Bogotá
 Colombia
2640
8661

34
Duitama
 Colombia
2590
8497

35
Ambato
 Ecuador
2577
8454

36
Cochabamba
 Bolivia
2574
8445
Seat of the South American Parliament

37
Sogamoso
 Colombia
2569
8428

38
Cuenca
 Ecuador
2560
8398

39
Chiquinquirá
 Colombia
2556
8386

40
San Juan de Pasto
 Colombia
2527
8290


document_title: Morse code

question_text: what is dash dot dash in morse code

question_tokens: what is dash dot dash in morse code

text: Morse code

text: Development and history

text: Beginning in 1836, the American artist Samuel F. B. Morse, the American physicist Joseph Henry, and Alfred Vail developed an electrical telegraph system. This system sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, and the silence between them. Around 1837, Morse, therefore, developed an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code. Around the same time, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1833) as well as Carl August von Steinheil (1837) had already used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraphs.

text: In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England began using an electrical telegraph that also used electromagnets in its receivers. However, in contrast with any system of making sounds of clicks, their system used pointing needles that rotated above alphabetical charts to indicate the letters that were being sent. In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer. This machine was based on their 1840 telegraph and worked well; however, they failed to find customers for this system and only two examples were ever built.[2]

text: On the other hand, the three Americans' system for telegraphy, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.

text: The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail in 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in the English language by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper in Morristown.[3] The shorter marks were called "dots", and the longer ones "dashes", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shorter sequences of dots and dashes. This code was used since 1844 and became known as Morse landline code or American Morse code.

text: In the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. The telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses. It was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught as a language that is heard, instead of one read from a page.[4]

text: To reflect the sounds of Morse code receivers, the operators began to vocalize a dot as "dit", and a dash as "dah". Dots which are not the final element of a character became vocalized as "di". For example, the letter "c" was then vocalized as "dah-di-dah-dit".[5][6] Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as "iddy-umpty", and a dash as "umpty", leading to the word "umpteen".[7]

text: The Morse code, as it is used internationally today, was derived from a much refined proposal which became known as "Hamburg alphabet" by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848. It was adopted by the Deutsch-Österreichischer Telegraphenverein (German-Austrian Telegraph Society) in 1851. This finally led to the International Morse code in 1865.

text: In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication, before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables and radio circuits. In aviation, Morse code in radio systems started to be used on a regular basis in the 1920s. Although previous transmitters were bulky and the spark gap system of transmission was difficult to use, there had been some earlier attempts. In 1910, the US Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.[8] That same year, a radio on the airship America had been instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.[9] Zeppelin airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting during World War I,[10] and ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation.[10] Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use of radiotelegraphy. However, there was little aeronautical radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s, there was no radio system used by such important flights as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in 1927. Once he and the Spirit of St. Louis were off the ground, Lindbergh was truly alone and incommunicado. On the other hand, when the first airplane flight was made from California to Australia in 1928 on the Southern Cross, one of its four crewmen was its radio operator who communicated with ground stations via radio telegraph.

text: Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons which transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code. Aeronautical charts show the identifier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map.

text: Radiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital during World War II, especially in carrying messages between the warships and the naval bases of the belligerents. Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio telegraphy, using encrypted messages because the voice radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and their security. Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used by warplanes, especially by long-range patrol planes that were sent out by those navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships.

text: In addition, rapidly moving armies in the field could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy because they moved more rapidly than telegraph and telephone lines could be erected. This was seen especially in the blitzkrieg offensives of the Nazi German Wehrmacht in Poland, Belgium, France (in 1940), the Soviet Union, and in North Africa; by the British Army in North Africa, Italy, and the Netherlands; and by the U.S. Army in France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945.

text: Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence."[11] In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, "What hath God wrought", and the prosign "SK".[12]

text: As of 2015, the United States Air Force still trains ten people a year in Morse.[13] The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any radio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of 500 kHz.[14] However, the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.[15] Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this Call sign or as KSM. Similarly, a few US Museum ship stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts.[16]

text: User proficiency

text: Morse code speed is measured in words per minute (wpm) or characters per minute (cpm). Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers of dots and dashes. Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters. For this reason, a standard word is helpful to measure operator transmission speed. "PARIS" and "CODEX" are two such standard words.[17] Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ("copy") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 wpm.

text: In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standard Prosigns for Morse code and the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse code communications protocol.

text: International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 wpm.[18] William Pierpont N0HFF also notes that some operators may have passed 100 wpm.[18] By this time, they are "hearing" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35 wpm in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dot durations versus 60 dot durations) and different interword gaps (5 dot durations versus 7 dot durations) may have been used when determining such speed records. For example, speeds run with the CODEX standard word and the PARIS standard may differ by up to 20%.

text: Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 wpm.[19] Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10 wpm with endorsements as high as 40 wpm, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5 wpm.

text: International Morse Code

text: Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years—longer than any other electrical coding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes, International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris and was later made the standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States and Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used except in historical re-enactments.

text: Aviation

text: In aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure that the stations the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations all transmit a short set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, the VOR based at Manchester Airport in England is abbreviated as "MCT", and MCT in Morse code is transmitted on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T code (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) or the code may be removed which tells pilots and navigators that the station is unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used.[20][21] In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters.

text: Amateur radio

text: International Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio operators, in the mode commonly referred to as "continuous wave" or "CW". (This name was chosen to distinguish it from the damped wave emissions from spark transmitters, not because the transmission is continuous.) Other keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such as frequency shift keying.

text: The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003, the International Telecommunication Union mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.[23] Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements.[24]

text: Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute (wpm) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the HF bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 wpm level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to five wpm.[25] Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses.

text: While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands—LF, MF, HF, VHF, and UHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only.

text: The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbreviations for typical message components. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as "seek you" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). OM (old man), YL (young lady) and XYL ("ex-YL" – wife) are common abbreviations. YL or OM is used by an operator when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. QTH is "location" ("My QTH" is "My location"). The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.

text: Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic keyers (known as "bugs") and of fully automatic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals.

text: Other uses

text: Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon the CODEX standard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. The First Class license required 20 WPM code group and 25 WPM text code proficiency, the others 16 WPM code group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM code text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.) Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued. This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license. For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16 WPM codegroup and 20 WPM text tests. However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirement.

text: Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification.[26] Warships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.

text: ATIS (Automatic Transmitter Identification System) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions.

text: Applications for the general public

text: An important application is signalling for help through SOS, "▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods. SOS is not three separate characters, rather, it is a prosign SOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters.[27]

text: Some Nokia mobile phones offer an option[citation needed] to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone "▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄" (representing SMS or Short Message Service). In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code.[28]

text: Morse code as an assistive technology

text: Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to communicate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing morse or votem, Newell and Nabarro, 1968.

text: Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube ("sip-and-puff" interface). An important advantage of Morse code over row column scanning is that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it appears faster than scanning.

text: People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. people who are also deaf or blind) can receive Morse through a skin buzzer.[citation needed].

text: In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST,[29] an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published in QST, [30] [31] Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks.

text: Representation, timing, and speeds

text:
A sample Morse code transmission

The text "Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit." sent as Morse code at 13 wpm.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Morse code A through Z

"A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z" in Morse code at 8 wpm.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see Wikipedia Media help.

text: International Morse code is composed of five elements:[1]

text:
short mark, dot or "dit" (▄▄▄▄): "dot duration" is one time unit long
longer mark, dash or "dah" (▄▄▄▄▄▄): three time units long
inter-element gap between the dots and dashes within a character: one dot duration or one unit long
short gap (between letters): three time units long
medium gap (between words): seven time units long

tag: ol

text: Transmission

text: Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car horn. Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for a dash.

text: Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Historians have called it the first digital code. Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be made from a combination of the following five-bit strings:

text:
short mark, dot or "dit" (▄▄▄▄): 1
longer mark, dash or "dah" (▄▄▄▄▄▄): 111
intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character): 0
short gap (between letters): 000
medium gap (between words): 0000000

text: Note that the marks and gaps alternate: dots and dashes are always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps are always separated by a dot or a dash.

text: Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or shorter dashes or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their "fist", and experienced operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a "good fist". A "poor fist" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code.

text: Cable code

text: The very long time constants of 19th and early 20th century submarine communications cables required a different form of Morse signalling. Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time.[32]

text: Timing

text: Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase "MORSE CODE", in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where – represents dahs and · represents dits:

text: Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with = representing "signal on", and . representing "signal off", each for the time length of exactly one dit:

text: Spoken representation

text: Morse code is often spoken or written with "dah" for dashes, "dit" for dots located at the end of a character, and "di" for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:

text: is orally:

text: Dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit.

text: There is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving.

text: Speed in words per minute

text: All Morse code elements depend on the dot length. A dash is the length of 3 dots, and spacings are specified in number of dot lengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify the dot duration as, for example, 50 milliseconds.

text: Specifying the dot duration is, however, not the common practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have different dot lengths. It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines the dot duration in milliseconds.

text: Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to a dot duration is useful. A simple way to do this is to choose a dot duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose a dot rate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute.

text: The typical word thus determines the dot length. It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There are two common typical words: "PARIS" and "CODEX". PARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such as "e" and "t". CODEX offers a word rate that is typical of 5-letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the word PARIS as a standard, the number of dot units is 50 and a simple calculation shows that the dot length at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the word CODEX with 60 dot units, the dot length at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds.

text: Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with the dot length, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards.

text: For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.[33] The Commission specifies that a word is 5-characters long. The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.[34] The word per minute rate would be close to the PARIS standard, and the code groups per minute would be close to the CODEX standard.

text: While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.[35]

text: A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text. For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test.[15]

text: Based upon a 50 dot duration standard word such as PARIS, the time for one dot duration or one unit can be computed by the formula:

text: Where: T is the unit time, or dot duration in milliseconds, and W is the speed in wpm.

text: High-speed telegraphy contests are held; according to the Guinness Book of Records in June 2005 at the International Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy in Primorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov of Belarus transmitted 230 morse code marks of mixed text in one minute.[36]

text: Farnsworth speed

text: Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: a character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute.

text: Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method of learning Morse code.

text: Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code

text: Some methods of teaching Morse code use a dichotomic search table.

text: Link budget issues

text: Morse Code cannot be treated as a classical radioteletype (RTTY) signal when it comes to calculating a link margin or a link budget for the simple reason of it possessing variable length dots and dashes as well as variant timing between letters and words. For the purposes of Information Theory and Channel Coding comparisons, the word PARIS is used to determine Morse Code's properties because it has an even number of dots and dashes.

text: Morse Code, when transmitted essentially, creates an AM signal (even in on/off keying mode), assumptions about signal can be made with respect to similarly timed RTTY signalling. Because Morse code transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication.

text: Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice communication, typically 100–150 Hz, compared to the roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at a lower data rate.

text: Morse code is usually heard at the receiver as a medium-pitched on/off audio tone (600–1000 Hz), so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The transmitted power is concentrated into a limited bandwidth so narrow receiver filters can be used to suppress interference from adjacent frequencies. The audio tone is usually created by use of a beat frequency oscillator.

text: The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called "QRP operation", from the Q-code for "reduce power").

text: The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders called ARRL Farnsworth Spacing[37] that is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorse[38] have implemented the standard.

text: Learning methods

text: People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes, and spaces within each symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. "Russ" Farnsworth, also known by his call sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give "thinking time" to make the sound "shape" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity.

text: Another popular teaching method is the Koch method, named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered.

text: In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.[citation needed]

text: Mnemonics

text: Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages. Baden-Powell included one in the Girl Guides handbook[39] in 1918.

text: In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance, "Q" in Morse is dah-dah-di-dah, which can be memorized by the phrase "God save the Queen", and the Morse for "F" is di-di-dah-dit, which can be memorized as "Did she like it."

text: A well-known Morse code rhythm from the Second World War period derives from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, the opening phrase of which was regularly played at the beginning of BBC broadcasts. The timing of the notes corresponds to the Morse for "V"; di-di-di-dah and stood for "V for Victory" (as well as the Roman numeral for the number five).[40][41]

text: Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-English variants

text:
Category
Character
Code

Letters
A, a

· −

Letters
B, b

− · · ·

Letters
C, c

− · − ·

Letters
D, d

− · ·

Letters
E, e

·

Letters
F, f

· · − ·

Letters
G, g

− − ·

Letters
H, h

· · · ·

Letters
I, i

· ·

Letters
J, j

· − − −

Letters
K, k

Prosign for "Invitation to transmit"

− · −

Letters
L, l

· − · ·

Letters
M, m

− −

Letters
N, n

− ·

Letters
O, o

− − −

Letters
P, p

· − − ·

Letters
Q, q

− − · −

Letters
R, r

· − ·

Letters
S, s

· · ·

Letters
T, t

−

Letters
U, u

· · −

Letters
V, v

· · · −

Letters
W, w

· − −

Letters
X, x

− · · −

Letters
Y, y

− · − −

Letters
Z, z

− − · ·

Numbers
0

− − − − −

Numbers
1

· − − − −

Numbers
2

· · − − −

Numbers
3

· · · − −

Numbers
4

· · · · −

Numbers
5

· · · · ·

Numbers
6

− · · · ·

Numbers
7

− − · · ·

Numbers
8

− − − · ·

Numbers
9

− − − − ·

Punctuation
Period [.]

· − · − · −

Punctuation
Comma [,]

− − · · − −

Punctuation
Question Mark [?]

· · − − · ·

Punctuation
Apostrophe [']

· − − − − ·

Punctuation
Exclamation Point [!]

KW digraph

− · − · − −

Punctuation
Slash/Fraction Bar [/]

− · · − ·

Punctuation
Parenthesis (Open)

− · − − ·

Punctuation
Parenthesis (Close)

− · − − · −

Punctuation
Ampersand (or "Wait") [&]

AS digraph
Prosign for "Wait"
Not in ITU-R recommendation

· − · · ·

Punctuation
Colon [:]

− − − · · ·

Punctuation
Semicolon [;]

− · − · − ·

Punctuation
Double Dash [=]

− · · · −

Punctuation
Plus sign [+]

· − · − ·

Punctuation
Hyphen, Minus Sign [-]

− · · · · −

Punctuation
Underscore [_]

Not in ITU-R recommendation

· · − − · −

Punctuation
Quotation mark ["]

· − · · − ·

Punctuation
Dollar sign [$]

SX digraph
Not in ITU-R recommendation

· · · − · · −

Punctuation
At Sign [@]

AC digraph

· − − · − ·

Prosigns
End of work

· · · − · −

Prosigns
Error

· · · · · · · ·

Prosigns
Invitation to Transmit

Also used for K

− · −

Prosigns
Starting Signal

− · − · −

Prosigns
New Page Signal

AR digraph
Message separator
Single-line display may use printed "+"

· − · − ·

Prosigns
Understood

Also used for Ŝ

· · · − ·

Prosigns
Wait

also used for Ampersand [&]

· − · · ·

Non-English extensions
À, à

Shared by À, Å

· − − · −

Non-English extensions
Ä, ä

Shared by Ä, Æ, Ą

· − · −

Non-English Extensions
Å, å

Shared by À, Å

· − − · −

Non-English extensions
Ą, ą

Shared by Ä, Æ, Ą

· − · −

Non-English extensions
Æ, æ

Shared by Ä, Æ, Ą

· − · −

Non-English extensions
Ć, ć

Shared by Ć, Ĉ, Ç

− · − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ĉ, ĉ

Shared by Ć, Ĉ, Ç

− · − · ·

Non-English Extensions
Ç, ç

Shared by Ć, Ĉ, Ç

− · − · ·

Non-English extensions
CH, ch

Shared by CH, Ĥ, Š

− − − −

Non-English extensions
Đ, đ

Shared by Đ, É, Ę
Not to be confused with Eth (Ð, ð)

· · − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ð, ð

Not to be confused with D with stroke (Đ, đ)

· · − − ·

Non-English extensions
É, é

Shared by Đ, É, Ę

· · − · ·

Non-English extensions
È, è

Shared by È, Ł

· − · · −

Non-English extensions
Ę, ę

Shared by Đ, É, Ę

· · − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ĝ, ĝ

− − · − ·

Non-English extensions
Ĥ, ĥ

Shared by CH, Ĥ, Š

− − − −

Non-English extensions
Ĵ, ĵ

· − − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ł, ł

Shared by È, Ł

· − · · −

Non-English extensions
Ń, ń

Shared by Ń, Ñ

− − · − −

Non-English extensions
Ñ, ñ

Shared by Ń, Ñ

− − · − −

Non-English extensions
Ó, ó

Shared by Ó, Ö, Ø

− − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ö, ö

Shared by Ó, Ö, Ø

− − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ø, ø

Shared by Ó, Ö, Ø

− − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ś, ś

· · · − · · ·

Non-English extensions
Ŝ, ŝ

Prosign for "Understood"

· · · − ·

Non-English extensions
Š, š

Shared by CH, Ĥ, Š

− − − −

Non-English extensions
Þ, þ

· − − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ü, ü

Shared by Ü, Ŭ

· · − −

Non-English extensions
Ŭ, ŭ

Shared by Ü, Ŭ

· · − −

Non-English extensions
Ź, ź

− − · · − ·

Non-English extensions
Ż, ż

− − · · −

text: Prosigns

text: Prosigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes in communications protocol status or white space text formatting actions.

text: Symbol representations

text: The symbols !, $ and & are not defined inside the ITU recommendation on Morse code, but conventions for them exist. The @ symbol was formally added in 2004.

text: There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark (!), although the KW digraph (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company (a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment).

text: While Morse code translation software prefers the Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in North America and the Caribbean continue to prefer the older MN digraph (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) carried over from American landline telegraphy code.

text:
The ITU has never codified formal Morse Code representations for currencies as the ISO 4217 Currency Codes are preferred for transmission.
The $ sign code was represented in the Phillips Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as SX.

text: The representation of the & sign given above, often shown as AS, is also the Morse prosign for wait. In addition, the American landline representation of an ampersand was similar to "ES" (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) and hams have carried over this usage as a synonym for "and" (WX HR COLD ES RAINY, "the weather here is cold & rainy").

text:
On May 24, 2004 — the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission — the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the @ ("commercial at" or "commat") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC digraph (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄).
This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent "A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter "a" inside a swirl represented by a "C".[42] The new character facilitates sending email addresses by Morse code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I.

text: Non-Latin extensions

text: For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse code uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS maps hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Latin script and has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean. For Russian and Bulgarian, Russian Morse code is used to map the Cyrillic characters to four-element codes. Many of the characters are encoded the same way (A, O, E, I, T, M, N, R, K, etc.). Bulgarian alphabet contains 30 characters, which exactly match all possible combinations of 1, 2, 3, and 4 dots and dashes. Russian requires 1 extra character, "Ы" which is encoded with 5 elements.

text: Unusual variants

text: During early World War I (1914–1916), Germany briefly experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol. Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT, and standard Morse was restored by Spring 1916. Only a small percentage of Western Front (North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea) traffic was in 'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse during the entire war. In popular culture, this is mostly remembered in the book The Codebreakers by Kahn and in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whose SIGINT operators copied most of this Morse variant). Kahn's cited sources come from the popular press and wireless magazines of the time.[43]

text: Other forms of 'Fractional Morse' or 'Fractionated Morse' have emerged.[44]

text: Decoding software

text: Decoding software for Morse code ranges from software-defined wide-band radio receivers coupled to the Reverse Beacon Network,[45] which decodes signals and detects CQ messages on ham bands, to smartphone applications.[46]


document_title: Geothermal energy in the United States

question_text: where is geothermal energy used in the united states

text: Geothermal energy in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: According to archaeological evidence, geothermal resources have been in use on the current territory of the United States for more than 10,000 years. The Paleo-Indians first used geothermal hot springs for warmth, cleansing, and minerals.[1]

text: The first commercial geothermal power plant producing power to the U.S. utility grid opened at The Geysers in California in 1960, producing eleven megawatts of net power. The Geysers system continues to operate successfully today, and the complex has grown into the largest geothermal development in the world, with an output of 750 MW.[1]

text: The largest dry steam field in the world is the Geysers, 116 km (72 mi) north of San Francisco. It was here that Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power plant in the United States in 1960.[2] The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power.[3] The Geysers has 1517 megawatt (MW)[4] of active installed capacity with an average capacity factor of 63%.[5] Calpine Corporation owns 15 of the 18 active plants in the Geysers and is currently the United States' largest producer of geothermal energy.[6] Two other plants are owned jointly by the Northern California Power Agency and the City of Santa Clara's municipal Electric Utility (now called Silicon Valley Power). The remaining Bottle Rock Power plant owned by the US Renewables Group has only recently been reopened.[7] A nineteenth plant is now under development by Ram Power, formerly Western Geopower. Since the activities of one geothermal plant affects those nearby, the consolidation plant ownership at The Geysers has been beneficial because the plants operate cooperatively instead of in their own short-term interest. The Geysers is now recharged by injecting treated sewage effluent from the City of Santa Rosa and the Lake County sewage treatment plant. This sewage effluent used to be dumped into rivers and streams and is now piped to the geothermal field where it replenishes the steam produced for power generation.

text: Another major geothermal area is located in south central California, on the southeast side of the Salton Sea, near the cities of Niland and Calipatria, California. In 2001, there were 15 geothermal plants producing electricity in the area. CalEnergy owns about half of them and the rest are owned by various companies. Combined the plants have a capacity of about 570 MW. Hudson Ranch I geothermal plant, a 50 MW plant opened in May 2012, the first in the area in 20 years. A second similar plant is to open in 2013.[8]

text: The Basin and Range geologic province in Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, Arizona and western Utah is now an area of rapid geothermal development. Several small power plants were built during the late 1980s during times of high power prices. Rising energy costs have spurred new development. Plants in Nevada at Steamboat Springs, Brady/Desert Peak, Dixie Valley, Soda Lake, Stillwater and Beowawe now produce about 235 MW.

text: By state[edit]

text: Installed geothermal capacity in megawatts (MW) by state as of February 2013:[9]

text:
State
Capacity (MW)
Share of U.S total

California
2,732.2
80.7%

Nevada
517.5
15.3%

Utah
48.1
1.4%

Hawaii
38.0
1.1%

Oregon
33.3
1.0%

Idaho
15.8
0.5%

New Mexico[10]
4.0
0.1%

Alaska
0.7
<0.1%

Wyoming
0.3
<0.1%

Total
3,389.9
100%

text: Production and development[edit]

text: With 3,591 MW of installed geothermal capacity, the United States remains the world leader with 25% of the online capacity total.[11][12] The future outlook for expanded production from conventional and enhanced geothermal systems is positive as new technologies promise increased growth in locations previously not considered.[13]

text: As of August 2008, 103 new projects are under way in 13 U.S. states. When developed, these projects could potentially supply up to 3,979 MW of power, meeting the needs of about 4 million homes. At this rate of development, geothermal production in the United States could exceed 15,000 MW by 2025.[13]

text: The most significant catalyst behind new industry activity is the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This Act made new geothermal plants eligible for the full federal production tax credit, previously available only to wind power projects and certain kinds of biomass. It also authorized and directed increased funding for research by the Department of Energy, and enabled the Bureau of Land Management to address its backlog of geothermal leases and permits.[14]

text: In April 2008, exploratory drilling began at Newberry Volcano in Oregon.[15]

text: In 2009, investment bank Credit Suisse calculated that geothermal power costs 3.6 cents per kilowatt-hour, versus 5.5 cents per kilowatt-hour for coal, if geothermal receives loans with lower rates than offered by the market."[16]

text: Reliability[edit]

text: Unlike some other renewable power sources such as wind and solar, geothermal energy is dispatchable, meaning that it is both available whenever needed, and can quickly adjust output to match demand. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), of all types of new electrical generation plants, geothermal generators have the highest capacity factor, a measure of how much power a facility actually generates as a percent of its maximum capacity. The EIA rates new geothermal plants as having a 92% capacity factor, comparable to those of nuclear (90%), and higher than gas (87%), or coal (85%), and much higher than those of intermittent sources such as onshore wind (34%) or solar photovoltaic (25%).[17] While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available, for most intents and purposes, indefinitely.[1][dead link][18]

text: In 2008 the USDOE funded research in Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) to learn more about the fracture systems in geothermal reservoirs and better predict the results of reservoir stimulation. The DOE Geothermal Technologies Program (part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009) provided funding to establish the National Geothermal Data System (NGDS). Through the NGDS, many older paper archives and drill logs that are stored at state geological surveys are now being digitized and made available for free to the public.[19]

text: Environmental effects[edit]

text: The underground hot water and steam used to generate geothermal power may contain chemicals that could pollute the air and water if released at the surface.

text: Hydrogen sulfide, which is toxic in high concentrations, is sometimes found in geothermal systems.[20] Newer methods of generating geothermal power separate the hot steam collected underground from the steam used to power turbines, and substantially reduce the risk of releasing air-polluting contaminants.[21]

text: The water mixed with the steam contains dissolved salts that can damage pipes and harm aquatic ecosystems.[22] Some subsurface water associated with geothermal sources contain high concentrations of toxic elements such as boron, lead, and arsenic.

text: Injection of water in enhanced geothermal systems may cause induced seismicity. Earthquakes at the Geysers geothermal field in California, the largest being Richter magnitude 4.6, have been linked to injected water.[23]

text: "Possible effects include scenery spoliation, drying out of hot springs, soil erosion, noise pollution, and chemical pollution of the atmosphere and of surface- and groundwaters."[24]

text: Due to volcanic activities the Puna Geothermal Venture had to be closed and was effected by lava flows later.[25]