document_title: Cloud computing

question_text: when was the first idea of cloud presented

question_tokens: when was the first idea of cloud presented

text: Cloud computing

text: History[edit]

text: While the term "cloud computing" was popularized with Amazon.com releasing its Elastic Compute Cloud product in 2006,[8] references to the phrase "cloud computing" appeared as early as 1996, with the first known mention in a Compaq internal document.[9]

text: The cloud symbol was used to represent networks of computing equipment in the original ARPANET by as early as 1977,[10] and the CSNET by 1981[11] — both predecessors to the Internet itself. The word cloud was used as a metaphor for the Internet and a standardized cloud-like shape was used to denote a network on telephony schematics. With this simplification, the implication is that the specifics of how the end points of a network are connected are not relevant for the purposes of understanding the diagram.[citation needed]

text: The term cloud was used to refer to platforms for distributed computing as early as 1993, when Apple spin-off General Magic and AT&T used it in describing their (paired) Telescript and PersonaLink technologies.[12] In Wired's April 1994 feature "Bill and Andy's Excellent Adventure II", Andy Hertzfeld commented on Telescript, General Magic's distributed programming language:

text: "The beauty of Telescript ... is that now, instead of just having a device to program, we now have the entire Cloud out there, where a single program can go and travel to many different sources of information and create sort of a virtual service. No one had conceived that before. The example Jim White [the designer of Telescript, X.400 and ASN.1] uses now is a date-arranging service where a software agent goes to the flower store and orders flowers and then goes to the ticket shop and gets the tickets for the show, and everything is communicated to both parties."[13]

text: Early history[edit]

text: During the 1960s, the initial concepts of time-sharing became popularized via RJE (Remote Job Entry);[14] this terminology was mostly associated with large vendors such as IBM and DEC. Full-time-sharing solutions were available by the early 1970s on such platforms as Multics (on GE hardware), Cambridge CTSS, and the earliest UNIX ports (on DEC hardware). Yet, the "data center" model where users submitted jobs to operators to run on IBM mainframes was overwhelmingly predominant.

text: In the 1990s, telecommunications companies, who previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service, but at a lower cost. By switching traffic as they saw fit to balance server use, they could use overall network bandwidth more effectively.[citation needed] They began to use the cloud symbol to denote the demarcation point between what the provider was responsible for and what users were responsible for. Cloud computing extended this boundary to cover all servers as well as the network infrastructure.[15] As computers became more diffused, scientists and technologists explored ways to make large-scale computing power available to more users through time-sharing.[citation needed] They experimented with algorithms to optimize the infrastructure, platform, and applications to prioritize CPUs and increase efficiency for end users.[16]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)

text: Since 2000, cloud computing has come into existence.

text: In August 2006, Amazon introduced its Elastic Compute Cloud.[8]

text: In April 2008, Google released Google App Engine in beta.[17]

text: In early 2008, NASA's OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds, and for the federation of clouds.[18]

text: By mid-2008, Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing "to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them"[19] and observed that "organizations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models" so that the "projected shift to computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas."[20]

text: In February 2010, Microsoft released Microsoft Azure, which was announced in October 2008.[21]

text: In July 2010, Rackspace Hosting and NASA jointly launched an open-source cloud-software initiative known as OpenStack. The OpenStack project intended to help organizations offering cloud-computing services running on standard hardware. The early code came from NASA's Nebula platform as well as from Rackspace's Cloud Files platform. As an open source offering and along with other open-source solutions such as CloudStack, Ganeti and OpenNebula, it has attracted attention by several key communities. Several studies aim at comparing these open sources offerings based on a set of criteria.[22][23][24][25][26][27][28]

text: On March 1, 2011, IBM announced the IBM SmartCloud framework to support Smarter Planet.[29] Among the various components of the Smarter Computing foundation, cloud computing is a critical part. On June 7, 2012, Oracle announced the Oracle Cloud.[30] This cloud offering is poised to be the first to provide users with access to an integrated set of IT solutions, including the Applications (SaaS), Platform (PaaS), and Infrastructure (IaaS) layers.[31][32][33]

text: In May 2012, Google Compute Engine was released in preview, before being rolled out into General Availability in December 2013.[34]

text: Similar concepts[edit]

text: The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies, without the need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims to cut costs, and helps the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT obstacles.[35] The main enabling technology for cloud computing is virtualization. Virtualization software separates a physical computing device into one or more "virtual" devices, each of which can be easily used and managed to perform computing tasks. With operating system–level virtualization essentially creating a scalable system of multiple independent computing devices, idle computing resources can be allocated and used more efficiently. Virtualization provides the agility required to speed up IT operations, and reduces cost by increasing infrastructure utilization. Autonomic computing automates the process through which the user can provision resources on-demand. By minimizing user involvement, automation speeds up the process, reduces labor costs and reduces the possibility of human errors.[35]

text: Users routinely face difficult business problems. Cloud computing adopts concepts from Service-oriented Architecture (SOA) that can help the user break these problems into services that can be integrated to provide a solution. Cloud computing provides all of its resources as services, and makes use of the well-established standards and best practices gained in the domain of SOA to allow global and easy access to cloud services in a standardized way.

text: Cloud computing also leverages concepts from utility computing to provide metrics for the services used. Such metrics are at the core of the public cloud pay-per-use models. In addition, measured services are an essential part of the feedback loop in autonomic computing, allowing services to scale on-demand and to perform automatic failure recovery. Cloud computing is a kind of grid computing; it has evolved by addressing the QoS (quality of service) and reliability problems. Cloud computing provides the tools and technologies to build data/compute intensive parallel applications with much more affordable prices compared to traditional parallel computing techniques.[35]

text: Cloud computing shares characteristics with:

text:
Client–server model—Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed application that distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service requestors (clients).[36]
Computer bureau—A service bureau providing computer services, particularly from the 1960s to 1980s.
Grid computing—"A form of distributed and parallel computing, whereby a 'super and virtual computer' is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers acting in concert to perform very large tasks."
Fog computing—Distributed computing paradigm that provides data, compute, storage and application services closer to client or near-user edge devices, such as network routers. Furthermore, fog computing handles data at the network level, on smart devices and on the end-user client side (e.g. mobile devices), instead of sending data to a remote location for processing.
Mainframe computer—Powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as: census; industry and consumer statistics; police and secret intelligence services; enterprise resource planning; and financial transaction processing.
Utility computing—The "packaging of computing resources, such as computation and storage, as a metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as electricity."[37][38]
Peer-to-peer—A distributed architecture without the need for central coordination. Participants are both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the traditional client–server model).
Green computing
Cloud sandbox—A live, isolated computer environment in which a program, code or file can run without affecting the application in which it runs.

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: Cloud computing exhibits the following key characteristics:

text:
Agility for organizations may be improved, as cloud computing may increase users' flexibility with re-provisioning, adding, or expanding technological infrastructure resources.
Cost reductions are claimed by cloud providers. A public-cloud delivery model converts capital expenditures (e.g., buying servers) to operational expenditure.[39] This purportedly lowers barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third party and need not be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is "fine-grained", with usage-based billing options. As well, less in-house IT skills are required for implementation of projects that use cloud computing.[40] The e-FISCAL project's state-of-the-art repository[41] contains several articles looking into cost aspects in more detail, most of them concluding that costs savings depend on the type of activities supported and the type of infrastructure available in-house.
Device and location independence[42] enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they use (e.g., PC, mobile phone). As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect to it from anywhere.[40]
Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to be installed on each user's computer and can be accessed from different places (e.g., different work locations, while travelling, etc.).
Multitenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users thus allowing for:

centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such as real estate, electricity, etc.)
peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer and pay for the resources and equipment to meet their highest possible load-levels)
utilisation and efficiency improvements for systems that are often only 10–20% utilised.[43][44]

Performance is monitored by IT experts from the service provider, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.[40][45][46]
Resource pooling is the provider’s computing resources are commingle to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to user demand. There is a sense of location independence in that the consumer generally have no control or knowledge over the exact location of the provided resource.[1]
Productivity may be increased when multiple users can work on the same data simultaneously, rather than waiting for it to be saved and emailed. Time may be saved as information does not need to be re-entered when fields are matched, nor do users need to install application software upgrades to their computer.[47]
Reliability improves with the use of multiple redundant sites, which makes well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.[48]
Scalability and elasticity via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in near real-time[49][50] (Note, the VM startup time varies by VM type, location, OS and cloud providers[49]), without users having to engineer for peak loads.[51][52][53] This gives the ability to scale up when the usage need increases or down if resources are not being used.[54]
Security can improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns can persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data, and the lack of security for stored kernels. Security is often as good as or better than other traditional systems, in part because service providers are able to devote resources to solving security issues that many customers cannot afford to tackle or which they lack the technical skills to address.[55] However, the complexity of security is greatly increased when data is distributed over a wider area or over a greater number of devices, as well as in multi-tenant systems shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. Private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.

text: The National Institute of Standards and Technology's definition of cloud computing identifies "five essential characteristics":

text: On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider.

text: Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).

text: Resource pooling. The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand.

text: Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time.

text: Service models[edit]

text: Though service-oriented architecture advocates "everything as a service" (with the acronyms EaaS or XaaS,[57] or simply aas), cloud-computing providers offer their "services" according to different models, of which the three standard models per NIST are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).[56] These models offer increasing abstraction; they are thus often portrayed as a layers in a stack: infrastructure-, platform- and software-as-a-service, but these need not be related. For example, one can provide SaaS implemented on physical machines (bare metal), without using underlying PaaS or IaaS layers, and conversely one can run a program on IaaS and access it directly, without wrapping it as SaaS.

text: Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)[edit]

text: "Infrastructure as a service" (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high-level APIs used to dereference various low-level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc. A hypervisor, such as Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, Oracle VM, KVM, VMware ESX/ESXi, or Hyper-V, LXD, runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements. Linux containers run in isolated partitions of a single Linux kernel running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the underlying Linux kernel technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers. Containerisation offers higher performance than virtualization, because there is no hypervisor overhead. Also, container capacity auto-scales dynamically with computing load, which eliminates the problem of over-provisioning and enables usage-based billing.[58] IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block storage, file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.[59]

text: The NIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls)."[56]

text: IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure.[60][unreliable source?] In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed.[61][62][63][64]

text: Platform as a service (PaaS)[edit]

text: The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as:[56]

text: The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.

text: PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including operating system, programming-language execution environment, database, and web server. Application developers can develop and run their software solutions on a cloud platform without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS offers like Microsoft Azure, Oracle Cloud Platform and Google App Engine, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. The latter has also been proposed by an architecture aiming to facilitate real-time in cloud environments.[65][need quotation to verify] Even more specific application types can be provided via PaaS, such as media encoding as provided by services like bitcodin.com[66] or media.io.[67]

text: Some integration and data management providers have also embraced specialized applications of PaaS as delivery models for data solutions. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform as a Service). iPaaS enables customers to develop, execute and govern integration flows.[68] Under the iPaaS integration model, customers drive the development and deployment of integrations without installing or managing any hardware or middleware.[69] dPaaS delivers integration—and data-management—products as a fully managed service.[70] Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer, manages the development and execution of data solutions by building tailored data applications for the customer. dPaaS users retain transparency and control over data through data-visualization tools.[71] Platform as a Service (PaaS) consumers do not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but have control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.

text: A recent specialized PaaS is the Blockchain as a Service (BaaS), that some vendors such as IBM Bluemix and Oracle Cloud Platform have already included in their PaaS offering.[72][73]

text: Software as a service (SaaS)[edit]

text: The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as:[56]

text: The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.

text: In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases. Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee.[74] In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet changing work demand.[75] Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that any machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization.

text: The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user,[76] so prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point.[77] Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users' data on the cloud provider's server. As a result,[citation needed] there could be unauthorized access to the data.[citation needed]

text: Mobile "backend" as a service (MBaaS)[edit]

text: In the mobile "backend" as a service (m) model, also known as backend as a service (BaaS), web app and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their applications to cloud storage and cloud computing services with application programming interfaces (APIs) exposed to their applications and custom software development kits (SDKs). Services include user management, push notifications, integration with social networking services[78] and more. This is a relatively recent model in cloud computing,[79] with most BaaS startups dating from 2011 or later[80][81][82] but trends indicate that these services are gaining significant mainstream traction with enterprise consumers.[83]

text: Serverless computing[edit]

text: Serverless computing is a cloud computing code execution model in which the cloud provider fully manages starting and stopping virtual machines as necessary to serve requests, and requests are billed by an abstract measure of the resources required to satisfy the request, rather than per virtual machine, per hour.[84] Despite the name, it does not actually involve running code without servers.[84] Serverless computing is so named because the business or person that owns the system does not have to purchase, rent or provision servers or virtual machines for the back-end code to run on.

text: Deployment models[edit]

text: Private cloud[edit]

text: Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third-party, and hosted either internally or externally.[56] Undertaking a private cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. It can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities. Self-run data centers[85] are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management,[86] essentially "[lacking] the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept".[87][88]

text: Public cloud[edit]

text: A cloud is called a "public cloud" when the services are rendered over a network that is open for public use. Public cloud services may be free.[89] Technically there may be little or no difference between public and private cloud architecture, however, security consideration may be substantially different for services (applications, storage, and other resources) that are made available by a service provider for a public audience and when communication is effected over a non-trusted network. Generally, public cloud service providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Oracle, Microsoft and Google own and operate the infrastructure at their data center and access is generally via the Internet. AWS, Oracle, Microsoft, and Google also offer direct connect services called "AWS Direct Connect", "Oracle FastConnect", "Azure ExpressRoute", and "Cloud Interconnect" respectively, such connections require customers to purchase or lease a private connection to a peering point offered by the cloud provider.[40][90]

text: Hybrid cloud[edit]

text: Hybrid cloud is a composition of two or more clouds (private, community or public) that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed and/or dedicated services with cloud resources.[56] Gartner defines a hybrid cloud service as a cloud computing service that is composed of some combination of private, public and community cloud services, from different service providers.[91] A hybrid cloud service crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that it can't be simply put in one category of private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another cloud service.

text: Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store sensitive client data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a business intelligence application provided on a public cloud as a software service.[92] This example of hybrid cloud extends the capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business service through the addition of externally available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption depends on a number of factors such as data security and compliance requirements, level of control needed over data, and the applications an organization uses.[93]

text: Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing resources to meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud.[94] This capability enables hybrid clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds.[56] Cloud bursting is an application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. A primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model is that an organization pays for extra compute resources only when they are needed.[95] Cloud bursting enables data centers to create an in-house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud resources from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands.[96] The specialized model of hybrid cloud, which is built atop heterogeneous hardware, is called "Cross-platform Hybrid Cloud". A cross-platform hybrid cloud is usually powered by different CPU architectures, for example, x86-64 and ARM, underneath. Users can transparently deploy and scale applications without knowledge of the cloud's hardware diversity.[97] This kind of cloud emerges from the raise of ARM-based system-on-chip for server-class computing.

text: Others[edit]

text: Community cloud[edit]

text: Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether managed internally or by a third-party, and either hosted internally or externally. The costs are spread over fewer users than a public cloud (but more than a private cloud), so only some of the cost savings potential of cloud computing are realized.[56]

text: Distributed cloud[edit]

text: A cloud computing platform can be assembled from a distributed set of machines in different locations, connected to a single network or hub service. It is possible to distinguish between two types of distributed clouds: public-resource computing and volunteer cloud.

text:
Public-resource computing—This type of distributed cloud results from an expansive definition of cloud computing, because they are more akin to distributed computing than cloud computing. Nonetheless, it is considered a sub-class of cloud computing, and some examples include distributed computing platforms such as BOINC and Folding@Home.
Volunteer cloud—Volunteer cloud computing is characterized as the intersection of public-resource computing and cloud computing, where a cloud computing infrastructure is built using volunteered resources. Many challenges arise from this type of infrastructure, because of the volatility of the resources used to built it and the dynamic environment it operates in. It can also be called peer-to-peer clouds, or ad-hoc clouds. An interesting effort in such direction is Cloud@Home, it aims to implement a cloud computing infrastructure using volunteered resources providing a business-model to incentivize contributions through financial restitution.[98]

text: Multicloud[edit]

text: Multicloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services in a single heterogeneous architecture to reduce reliance on single vendors, increase flexibility through choice, mitigate against disasters, etc. It differs from hybrid cloud in that it refers to multiple cloud services, rather than multiple deployment modes (public, private, legacy).[99][100][101]

text: Big Data cloud[edit]

text: The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the data is in the cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data originates in the cloud and with the advent of bare-metal servers, the cloud has become[102] a solution for use cases including business analytics and geospatial analysis.[103] Solutions range from Hadoop hosting in the cloud to end-to-end analytics.[104]

text: HPC cloud[edit]

text: HPC cloud refers to the use of cloud computing services and infrastructure to execute high-performance computing (HPC) applications [105]. These applications consume considerable amount of computing power and memory and are traditionally executed on clusters of computers. Various vendors offer servers that can support the execution of these applications [106] [107] [108] [109]. In HPC cloud, the deployment model allows all HPC resources to be inside the cloud provider infrastructure or different portions of HPC resources to be shared between cloud provider and client on-premise infrastructure. The adoption of cloud to run HPC applications started mostly for applications composed of independent tasks with no inter-process communication. As cloud providers began to offer high-speed network technologies such as InfiniBand, multiprocessing tightly coupled applications started to benefit from cloud as well.

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Cloud architecture,[110] the systems architecture of the software systems involved in the delivery of cloud computing, typically involves multiple cloud components communicating with each other over a loose coupling mechanism such as a messaging queue. Elastic provision implies intelligence in the use of tight or loose coupling as applied to mechanisms such as these and others.

text: Cloud engineering[edit]

text: Cloud engineering is the application of engineering disciplines to cloud computing. It brings a systematic approach to the high-level concerns of commercialization, standardization, and governance in conceiving, developing, operating and maintaining cloud computing systems. It is a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from diverse areas such as systems, software, web, performance, information, security, platform, risk, and quality engineering.

text: Security and privacy[edit]

text: Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is in the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or even delete information.[111] Many cloud providers can share information with third parties if necessary for purposes of law and order even without a warrant. That is permitted in their privacy policies, which users must agree to before they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy include policy and legislation as well as end users' choices for how data is stored.[111] Users can encrypt data that is processed or stored within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access.[112][111]

text: According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure Interfaces and API's, Data Loss & Leakage, and Hardware Failure—which accounted for 29%, 25% and 10% of all cloud security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider platform being shared by different users there may be a possibility that information belonging to different customers resides on same data server. Additionally, Eugene Schultz, chief technology officer at Emagined Security, said that hackers are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate the cloud. "There are some real Achilles' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the bad guys to get into". Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single attack—a process he called "hyperjacking". Some examples of this include the Dropbox security breach, and iCloud 2014 leak.[113] Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over 7 million of its users passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by Bitcoins (BTC). By having these passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have this data be indexed by search engines (making the information public).[113]

text: There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can the cloud provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question of ownership.[114] Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than having the equipment off site and under someone else's control (public cloud). This delivers great incentive to public cloud computing service providers to prioritize building and maintaining strong management of secure services.[115] Some small businesses that don't have expertise in IT security could find that it's more secure for them to use a public cloud. There is the risk that end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a cloud service (persons sometimes don't read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just click "Accept" without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is becoming popular and required for some services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple's Siri or Google Now). Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for the owner, however public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money investment from the user.[116]

text: Limitations and disadvantages[edit]

text: According to Bruce Schneier, "The downside is that you will have limited customization options. Cloud computing is cheaper because of economics of scale, and — like any outsourced task — you tend to get what you get. A restaurant with a limited menu is cheaper than a personal chef who can cook anything you want. Fewer options at a much cheaper price: it's a feature, not a bug." He also suggests that "the cloud provider might not meet your legal needs" and that businesses need to weigh the benefits of cloud computing against the risks.[117] In cloud computing, the control of the back end infrastructure is limited to the cloud vendor only. Cloud providers often decide on the management policies, which moderates what the cloud users are able to do with their deployment.[118] Cloud users are also limited to the control and management of their applications, data and services.[119] This includes data caps, which are placed on cloud users by the cloud vendor allocating certain amount of bandwidth for each customer and are often shared among other cloud users.[119]

text: Privacy and confidentiality are big concerns in some activities. For instance, sworn translators working under the stipulations of an NDA, might face problems regarding sensitive data that are not encrypted.[120]

text: Cloud computing is beneficial to many enterprises; it lowers costs and allows them to focus on competence instead of on matters of IT and infrastructure. Nevertheless, cloud computing has proven to have some limitations and disadvantages, especially for smaller business operations, particularly regarding security and downtime. Technical outages are inevitable and occur sometimes when cloud service providers become overwhelmed in the process of serving their clients. This may result to temporary business suspension. Since this technology's systems rely on the internet, an individual cannot be able to access their applications, server or data from the cloud during an outage.

text: Emerging trends[edit]

text: Cloud computing is still a subject of research.[121] A driving factor in the evolution of cloud computing has been chief technology officers seeking to minimize risk of internal outages and mitigate the complexity of housing network and computing hardware in-house.[122] Major cloud technology companies invest billions of dollars per year in cloud Research and Development. For example, in 2011 Microsoft committed 90 percent of its $9.6 billion R&D budget to its cloud.[123] Research by investment bank Centaur Partners in late 2015 forecasted that SaaS revenue would grow from $13.5 billion in 2011 to $32.8 billion in 2016.[124]


document_title: List of U.S. state abbreviations

question_text: what is the 2 letter postal code for nebraska

root

text: List of U.S. state abbreviations

text: Table[edit]

text: This table includes abbreviations for three independent nations related to the United States through Compacts of Free Association, and other comparable postal abbreviations, including those now obsolete.

tag: p

text:
Codes and abbreviations for U.S. states, territories, and other regions

Codes:

    ISO
ISO 3166 codes (2-letter, 3-letter, and 3-digit codes from ISO 3166-1; 2+2-letter codes from ISO 3166-2)

    ANSI
2-letter and 2-digit codes from the ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009

    USPS
2-letter codes used by the United States Postal Service

    USCG
2-letter codes used by the United States Coast Guard (red text shows differences between ANSI and USCG)

Abbreviations:

    GPO
Older variable-length official US Government Printing Office abbreviations

    AP
Abbreviations from the AP Stylebook (red text shows differences between GPO and AP)

Name and status of region

ISO

ANSI

USPS

USCG

GPO

AP

Otherabbreviations

 United States of America
Federal state
USUSA840
US
00

U.S.
U.S.
U.S.A.

 Alabama
State
US-AL
AL
01
AL
AL
Ala.
Ala.

 Alaska
State
US-AK
AK
02
AK
AK
Alaska
Alaska
Alas.

 Arizona
State
US-AZ
AZ
04
AZ
AZ
Ariz.
Ariz.
Az.

 Arkansas
State
US-AR
AR
05
AR
AR
Ark.
Ark.

 California
State
US-CA
CA
06
CA
CF
Calif.
Calif.
Ca., Cal.

 Colorado
State
US-CO
CO
08
CO
CL
Colo.
Colo.
Col.

 Connecticut
State
US-CT
CT
09
CT
CT
Conn.
Conn.
Ct.

 Delaware
State
US-DE
DE
10
DE
DL
Del.
Del.
De.

 District of Columbia
Federal district
US-DC
DC
11
DC
DC
D.C.
D.C.
Wash. D.C.

 Florida
State
US-FL
FL
12
FL
FL
Fla.
Fla.
Fl., Flor.

 Georgia
State
US-GA
GA
13
GA
GA
Ga.
Ga.
Geo.

 Hawaii
State
US-HI
HI
15
HI
HA
Hawaii
Hawaii
H.I.

 Idaho
State
US-ID
ID
16
ID
ID
Idaho
Idaho
Id., Ida.

 Illinois
State
US-IL
IL
17
IL
IL
Ill.
Ill.
Il., Ills., Ill's

 Indiana
State
US-IN
IN
18
IN
IN
Ind.
Ind.
In.

 Iowa
State
US-IA
IA
19
IA
IA
Iowa
Iowa
Ia., Ioa.[1]

 Kansas
State
US-KS
KS
20
KS
KA
Kans.
Kan.
Ks., Ka.

 Kentucky
State (Commonwealth)
US-KY
KY
21
KY
KY
Ky.
Ky.
Ken., Kent.

 Louisiana
State
US-LA
LA
22
LA
LA
La.
La.

 Maine
State
US-ME
ME
23
ME
ME
Maine
Maine
Me.

 Maryland
State
US-MD
MD
24
MD
MD
Md.
Md.

 Massachusetts
State (Commonwealth)
US-MA
MA
25
MA
MS
Mass.
Mass.

 Michigan
State
US-MI
MI
26
MI
MC
Mich.
Mich.

 Minnesota
State
US-MN
MN
27
MN
MN
Minn.
Minn.
Mn.

 Mississippi
State
US-MS
MS
28
MS
MI
Miss.
Miss.

 Missouri
State
US-MO
MO
29
MO
MO
Mo.
Mo.

 Montana
State
US-MT
MT
30
MT
MT
Mont.
Mont.

 Nebraska
State
US-NE
NE
31
NE
NB
Nebr.
Neb.

 Nevada
State
US-NV
NV
32
NV
NV
Nev.
Nev.
Nv.

 New Hampshire
State
US-NH
NH
33
NH
NH
N.H.
N.H.

 New Jersey
State
US-NJ
NJ
34
NJ
NJ
N.J.
N.J.
N.Jersey

 New Mexico
State
US-NM
NM
35
NM
NM
N. Mex.
N.M.
New M.

 New York
State
US-NY
NY
36
NY
NY
N.Y.
N.Y.
N. York

 North Carolina
State
US-NC
NC
37
NC
NC
N.C.
N.C.
N. Car.

  North Dakota
State
US-ND
ND
38
ND
ND
N. Dak.
N.D.
NoDak

 Ohio
State
US-OH
OH
39
OH
OH
Ohio
Ohio
O., Oh.

 Oklahoma
State
US-OK
OK
40
OK
OK
Okla.
Okla.
Ok.

 Oregon
State
US-OR
OR
41
OR
OR
Oreg.
Ore.
Or.

 Pennsylvania
State (Commonwealth)
US-PA
PA
42
PA
PA
Pa.
Pa.
Penn., Penna.

 Rhode Island
State
US-RI
RI
44
RI
RI
R.I.
R.I.
R.I. & P.P., R. Isl.

 South Carolina
State
US-SC
SC
45
SC
SC
S.C.
S.C.
S. Car.

 South Dakota
State
US-SD
SD
46
SD
SD
S. Dak.
S.D.
SoDak

 Tennessee
State
US-TN
TN
47
TN
TN
Tenn.
Tenn.

 Texas
State
US-TX
TX
48
TX
TX
Tex.
Texas
Tx.

 Utah
State
US-UT
UT
49
UT
UT
Utah
Utah
Ut.

 Vermont
State
US-VT
VT
50
VT
VT
Vt.
Vt.

 Virginia
State (Commonwealth)
US-VA
VA
51
VA
VA
Va.
Va.
Virg.

 Washington
State
US-WA
WA
53
WA
WN
Wash.
Wash.
Wa., Wn.[2]

 West Virginia
State
US-WV
WV
54
WV
WV
W. Va.
W.Va.
W.V., W. Virg.

 Wisconsin
State
US-WI
WI
55
WI
WS
Wis.
Wis.
Wi., Wisc.

 Wyoming
State
US-WY
WY
56
WY
WY
Wyo.
Wyo.
Wy.

 American Samoa
Insular area (Territory)
ASASM016US-AS
AS
60
AS
AS
A.S.

 Guam
Insular area (Territory)
GUGUM316US-GU
GU
66
GU
GU
Guam

 Northern Mariana Islands
Insular area (Commonwealth)
MPMNP580US-MP
MP
69
MP
CM
M.P.

CNMI[3]

 Puerto Rico
Insular area (Territory)
PRPRI630US-PR
PR
72
PR
PR
P.R.

 U.S. Virgin Islands
Insular area (Territory)
VIVIR850US-VI
VI
78
VI
VI
V.I.

U.S.V.I.

U.S. Minor Outlying Islands
Insular areas
UMUMI581US-UM
UM
74

   Baker Island
   island
UM-81

81

XB[4]

   Howland Island
   island
UM-84

84

XH[4]

   Jarvis Island
   island
UM-86

86

XQ[4]

   Johnston Atoll
   atoll
UM-67

67

XU[4]

   Kingman Reef
   atoll
UM-89

89

XM[4]

   Midway Islands
   atoll
UM-71

71

QM[4]

   Navassa Island
   island
UM-76

76

XV[4]

   Palmyra Atoll[5]
   atoll[5]
UM-95

95

XL[4]

   Wake Island
   atoll
UM-79

79

QW[4]

 Micronesia
Freely associated state
FMFSM583
FM
64
FM

 Marshall Islands
Freely associated state
MHMHL584
MH
68
MH

 Palau
Freely associated state
PWPLW585
PW
70
PW

U.S. Armed Forces – Americas[6]
US military mail code

AA

U.S. Armed Forces – Europe[7]
US military mail code

AE

U.S. Armed Forces – Pacific[8]
US military mail code

AP

 Northern Mariana Islands
Obsolete postal code[9]

CM

Panama Canal Zone
Obsolete postal code
PZPCZ594

CZ

 Nebraska
Obsolete postal code[10]

NB

Philippine Islands
Obsolete postal code
PHPHL608[11]

PI

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
Obsolete postal code
PCPCI582

TT

tag: table

text: History[edit]

text: As early as October  1831, the United States Post Office recognized common abbreviations for states and territories. However, they only accepted these abbreviations because of their popularity, preferring that patrons spell names out in full to avoid confusion.[12]

text: The traditional abbreviations for U.S. states and territories, widely used in mailing addresses prior to the introduction of two-letter U.S. postal abbreviations, are still commonly used for other purposes (such as legal citation), and are still recognized (though discouraged) by the Postal Service.[13]

text: Modern two-letter abbreviated codes for the states and territories originated in October 1963, with the issuance of Publication 59: Abbreviations for Use with ZIP Code, three months after the Post Office introduced ZIP codes in July 1963. The purpose, rather than to standardize state abbreviations per se, was to make room in a line of no more than 23 characters for the city, the state, and the ZIP code.[12]

text: Since 1963, only one state abbreviation has changed. Originally Nebraska was "NB"; but, in November 1969, the Post Office changed it to "NE" to avoid confusion with New Brunswick in Canada.[12]

text: The two-letter postal abbreviation system is complicated by the fact that several state names begin with the same letter (e.g., eight state names begin with M and eight begin with N, four "New" and two "North"). To avoid duplications, some abbreviations are not intuitive.

text: Prior to 1987, when the U.S. Secretary of Commerce approved the two-letter codes for use in government documents,[14] the United States Government Printing Office (GPO) suggested its own set of abbreviations, with some states left unabbreviated. Today, the GPO supports United States Postal Service standard.[15]

text: Current use of traditional abbreviations[edit]

text: The Associated Press Stylebook, the usage guide for most United States newspapers, counsels the use of abbreviations for most state names, when appended to a city name (for example, "Santa Ana, Calif."). AP suggests spelling out the names of Alaska, Hawaii, and all states with five or fewer letters; and, unlike the old GPO recommendations, AP suggests spelling out the names of all non-state territories, with the exception of the District of Columbia (D.C.). Legal citation manuals, such as The Bluebook and The ALWD Citation Manual, typically use these "traditional abbreviations" or variants thereof.

text: Codes for states and territories[edit]

text: ISO standard 3166[edit]

text: ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009[edit]

text: The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established alphabetic and numeric codes for each state and outlying areas in ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009. ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009 replaced the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) standards FIPS 5-2, FIPS 6-4, and FIPS 10-4. The ANSI alphabetic state code is the same as the USPS state code except for U.S. Minor Outlying Islands, which have an ANSI code "UM" but no USPS code—and U.S. Military Mail locations, which have USPS codes ("AA", "AE", "AP") but no ANSI code.

text: Postal codes[edit]

text: The United States Postal Service has established a set of uppercase abbreviations to help process mail with optical character recognition and other automated equipment.[16] There are also official USPS abbreviations for other parts of the address, such as street designators (street, avenue, road, etc.).

text: These postal abbreviations are distinguished from traditional abbreviations such as Calif., Fla., or Tex. The Associated Press Stylebook states that in contexts other than mailing addresses, the traditional state abbreviations should be used.[17] However, the Chicago Manual of Style now recommends use of the uppercase two-letter abbreviations, with the traditional forms as an option.[18]

text: The postal abbreviation is the same as the ISO 3166-2 subdivision code for each of the fifty states.

text: These codes do not overlap with the 13 Canadian subnational postal abbreviations. The code for Nebraska changed from NB to NE in November 1969 to avoid a conflict with New Brunswick.[12] Canada likewise chose MB for Manitoba to prevent conflict with various U.S. states.

text: Coast Guard vessel prefixes[edit]

text: The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) uses a set of two-letter prefixes for vessel numbers;[19] 39 states and the District of Columbia have the same USPS and USCG abbreviations. USCG prefixes have also been established for five outlying territories; all are the same as the USPS abbreviations except the Mariana Islands. The twelve cases where USPS and USCG abbreviations differ are listed below and marked in red in the table above.

text:
Mis-matches between USPS and USCG codes

California

Colorado

Delaware

Hawaii

Kansas

Michigan

Mississippi

Massachusetts

Nebraska

Washington

Wisconsin

Mariana Islands

USPS

CA

CO

DE

HI

KS

MI

MS

MA

NE

WA

WI

MP

USCG

CF

CL

DL

HA

KA

MC

MI

MS

NB

WN

WS

CM


document_title: List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories

question_text: who has won most academy awards for best actress

text: The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has given Academy Awards to actors and actresses for their performances in films since its inception. Throughout the history of the Academy Awards, there have been actors and actresses who have received multiple Academy Awards for Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actor, or Best Supporting Actress.[1] The only restriction is that actors cannot receive multiple nominations for the same performance.[2] This rule was implemented after Barry Fitzgerald received a Best Actor and a Best Supporting Actor nomination for his performance in Going My Way.[3]

text: As of 2018[update], 41 actors and actresses have received two or more Academy Awards in acting categories. Katharine Hepburn leads the way with four Best Actress awards.[4] Five have won three Academy Awards: Ingrid Bergman (two Best Actress awards and one Best Supporting Actress award),[5] Walter Brennan (three Best Supporting Actor awards),[6] Jack Nicholson (two Best Actor awards and one Best Supporting Actor award),[7] Meryl Streep (two Best Actress awards and one Best Supporting Actress award), and Daniel Day-Lewis (three Best Actor awards). Brennan was the first to receive three or more Academy Awards in 1940, followed by Hepburn in 1968, Bergman in 1974, Nicholson in 1997, Streep in 2011, and most recently Day-Lewis in 2012. Of the six, only Nicholson, Streep, and Day-Lewis are still living.

text: While there is no restriction on a performer winning the Best Actor/Actress and Best Supporting Actor/Actress awards in the same year for two different roles in two different movies, this had yet to happen.

text:
Actor/Actress
Best Actor/Actress Awards
Best Supporting Actor/Actress Awards
Total awards
Total nominations

Hepburn, KatharineKatharine Hepburn
Morning Glory (1933)
Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967)
The Lion in Winter (1968)
On Golden Pond (1981)

4
12

Day-Lewis, DanielDaniel Day-Lewis
My Left Foot (1989)
There Will Be Blood (2007)
Lincoln (2012)

3
6

Streep, MerylMeryl Streep
Sophie's Choice (1982)
The Iron Lady (2011)
Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)
3
21

Nicholson, JackJack Nicholson
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975)
As Good as It Gets (1997)
Terms of Endearment (1983)
3
12

Bergman, IngridIngrid Bergman
Gaslight (1944)
Anastasia (1956)
Murder on the Orient Express (1974)
3
7

Brennan, WalterWalter Brennan

Come and Get It (1936)
Kentucky (1938)
The Westerner (1940)
3
4

Davis, BetteBette Davis
Dangerous (1935)
Jezebel (1938)

2
10

Tracy, SpencerSpencer Tracy
Captains Courageous (1937)
Boys Town (1938)

2
9

Brando, MarlonMarlon Brando
On the Waterfront (1954)
The Godfather (1972)

2
8

Lemmon, JackJack Lemmon
Save the Tiger (1973)
Mister Roberts (1955)
2
8

Washington, DenzelDenzel Washington
Training Day (2001)
Glory (1989)
2
8

Blanchett, CateCate Blanchett
Blue Jasmine (2013)
The Aviator (2004)
2
7

De Niro, RobertRobert De Niro
Raging Bull (1980)
The Godfather Part II (1974)
2
7

Fonda, JaneJane Fonda
Klute (1971)
Coming Home (1978)

2
7

Hoffman, DustinDustin Hoffman
Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)
Rain Man (1988)

2
7

Caine, MichaelMichael Caine

Hannah and Her Sisters (1986)
The Cider House Rules (1999)
2
6

Lange, JessicaJessica Lange
Blue Sky (1994)
Tootsie (1982)
2
6

Smith, MaggieMaggie Smith
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1969)
California Suite (1978)
2
6

Cooper, GaryGary Cooper
Sergeant York (1941)
High Noon (1952)

2
5

de Havilland, OliviaOlivia de Havilland
To Each His Own (1946)
The Heiress (1949)

2
5

Hackman, GeneGene Hackman
The French Connection (1971)
Unforgiven (1992)
2
5

Hanks, TomTom Hanks
Philadelphia (1993)
Forrest Gump (1994)

2
5

March, FredricFredric March
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931)
The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)

2
5

McDormand, FrancesFrances McDormand
Fargo (1996)
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017)

2
5

Penn, SeanSean Penn
Mystic River (2003)
Milk (2008)

2
5

Taylor, ElizabethElizabeth Taylor
Butterfield 8 (1960)
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966)

2
5

Foster, JodieJodie Foster
The Accused (1988)
The Silence of the Lambs (1991)

2
4

Jackson, GlendaGlenda Jackson
Women in Love (1970)
A Touch of Class (1973)

2
4

Quinn, AnthonyAnthony Quinn

Viva Zapata! (1952)
Lust for Life (1956)
2
4

Winters, ShelleyShelley Winters

The Diary of Anne Frank (1959)
A Patch of Blue (1965)
2
4

Douglas, MelvynMelvyn Douglas

Hud (1963)
Being There (1979)
2
3

Field, SallySally Field
Norma Rae (1979)
Places in the Heart (1984)

2
3

Robards, JasonJason Robards

All the President's Men (1976)
Julia (1977)
2
3

Ustinov, PeterPeter Ustinov

Spartacus (1960)
Topkapi (1964)
2
3

Wiest, DianneDianne Wiest

Hannah and Her Sisters (1986)
Bullets over Broadway (1994)
2
3

Hayes, HelenHelen Hayes
The Sin of Madelon Claudet (1931)
Airport (1970)
2
2

Leigh, VivienVivien Leigh
Gone with the Wind (1939)
A Streetcar Named Desire (1951)

2
2

Rainer, LuiseLuise Rainer
The Great Ziegfeld (1936)
The Good Earth (1937)

2
2

Spacey, KevinKevin Spacey
American Beauty (1999)
The Usual Suspects (1995)
2
2

Swank, HilaryHilary Swank
Boys Don't Cry (1999)
Million Dollar Baby (2004)

2
2

Waltz, ChristophChristoph Waltz

Inglourious Basterds (2009)
Django Unchained (2012)
2
2


document_title: Love Island (series 1)

question_text: who does lauren get with in love island

question_tokens: who does lauren get with in love island

text: Love Island (series 1)

text: Production[edit]

text: The first one-minute trailer for the series aired on 12 May 2015, confirming that the series would begin in June.[8] Pictures of the villa were unveiled on 5 June 2015.[9] The villa is located in Mallorca with 69 cameras watching the Islander's every move. It only includes double beds forcing them to share with each other, but has a special Hideaway bedroom for couples to spend the night away from the others.[10]

text: Islanders[edit]

text: The Islanders for the first series were revealed on 2 June 2015, just days before the launch.[11] However, throughout the series, more Islanders entered the villa to find love. Some Islanders were dumped from the island for either failing to couple up, some were voted off by their fellow Islanders, and others for receiving the least votes in public eliminations. The series was won by Jess and Max on 15 July 2015 after receiving 42% of the final vote, beating Hannah and Jon who received 36%, Lauren and Josh with 12%, and finally Cally and Luis who just received 10%.[12]

text:
Islander
Age
Hometown
Entered
Status
Ref

Jess Hayes
22
Oxford
Day 1
Winner (Day 41)
[13]

Max Morley
22
Huddersfield
Day 14
Winner (Day 41)
[14]

Hannah Elizabeth
25
Liverpool
Day 1
Runner-up (Day 41)
[15]

Jon Clark
25
Essex
Day 1
Runner-up (Day 41)
[16]

Josh Ritchie
20
Bolton
Day 1
Third place (Day 41)
[17]

Lauren Richardson
26
East London
Day 1
Third place (Day 41)
[18]

Cally Jane Beech
23
Hull
Day 21
Dumped (Day 41)
[19]

Luis Morrison
20
London
Day 1
Dumped (Day 41)
[20]

Jordan Ring
31
Gloucester
Day 1
Dumped (Day 35)
[21]

Zoe Basia Brown
24
South London
Day 1
Dumped (Day 35)
[22]

Ben Porter
24
Wakefield
Day 32
Dumped (Day 33)
[23]

Poppy Farnan
22
Cheshire
Day 32
Dumped (Day 33)
[24]

Naomi Ball
23
East London
Day 7
Dumped (Day 28)
[25]

Travis Almond
22
Essex
Day 21
Dumped (Day 28)
[19]

Omar Sultani
22
Warwickshire
Day 1
Dumped (Day 21)
[26]

Bethany Rogers
19
Leeds
Day 14
Dumped (Day 21)
[27]

Daisy Muller
24
Birmingham
Day 7
Dumped (Day 19)
[28]

Chris Williamson
27
Newcastle
Day 1
Dumped (Day 19)
[29]

Chris Baxter
20
London
Day 11
Dumped (Day 14)
[30]

Danielle Pyne
23
London
Day 1
Dumped (Day 14)
[31]

Rachel Christie
26
London
Day 1
Dumped (Day 11)
[32]

John Alberti
29
Manchester
Day 3
Dumped (Day 6)
[33]

Tony Alberti
29
Manchester
Day 3
Dumped (Day 6)
[33]

text: Coupling[edit]

text: The couples were chosen shortly after the Islanders entered the villa. After all of the boys entered, the girls were asked to choose a boy to pair up with. Jon was paired with Hannah, Chris was paired with Danielle, Omar and Rachel paired up, Josh and Lauren coupled up, whilst Jess paired herself with Jordan and Luis got with Zoe. They were competing in their pairs for £50,000.[34] However, throughout the series the couples swapped and changed as the islanders re-coupled.

text:
Day 1
Day 6
Day 11
Day 33
Final

Jess
Jordan
Josh
Omar
Max
Winner
(Day 41)

Max
Not in Villa
Jess
Winner
(Day 41)

Hannah
Jon
Jon
Jon
Jon
Runner-up
(Day 41)

Jon
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Runner-up
(Day 41)

Josh
Lauren
Jess
Naomi
Lauren
Third place
(Day 41)

Lauren
Josh
Chris W
Luis
Josh
Third place
(Day 41)

Cally
Not in Villa
Luis
Fourth place
(Day 41)

Luis
Zoe
Danielle
Lauren
Cally
Fourth place
(Day 41)

Jordan
Jess
Zoe
Daisy
Zoe
Dumped
(Day 35)

Zoe
Luis
Jordan
Chris W
Jordan
Dumped
(Day 35)

Ben
Not in Villa
Dumped
(Day 33)

Poppy
Not in Villa
Dumped
(Day 33)

Naomi
Not in Villa
Josh
Dumped
(Day 28)

Travis
Not in Villa
Dumped
(Day 28)

Omar
Rachel
Rachel
Jess
Dumped
(Day 21)

Bethany
Not in Villa
Dumped
(Day 21)

Daisy
Not in Villa
Jordan
Dumped
(Day 19)

Chris W
Danielle
Lauren
Zoe
Dumped
(Day 19)

Chris B
Not in Villa
Danielle
Dumped
(Day 14)

Danielle
Chris W
Luis
Chris B
Dumped
(Day 14)

Rachel
Omar
Omar
Dumped
(Day 11)

John
Not in Villa
Dumped
(Day 6)

Tony
Not in Villa
Dumped
(Day 6)

Notes
1
2
3
none

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^Note 1 : On Day 2, after Jess and Jordan won a challenge they were given the opportunity to swap two couples. Jess decided to couple up with Josh, leaving Jordan in a new couple with Lauren.
^Note 2 : On Day 8, the Islanders were told that they were all single, but new girls Daisy and Naomi would get the chance to couple up with a boy of their choice after going on three dates. Daisy chose Jordan, and Naomi chose Josh respectively.
^Note 3 : On Day 15, the Islanders were told that once again they were all single, unless they wanted to announce that they are officially boyfriend and girlfriend. The only couples to do this were Hannah and Jon, and Naomi and Josh.

tag: ul

text: Guests[edit]

text: During the series a number of guests entered the villa.

text:
On 25 June 2015 it was announced that Calum Best would be returning to the series.[35] On Day 24, he briefly entered to take the boys on a night out in Magaluf.[36] This was Calum's third appearance on the show having previously appeared on the original series in 2005 where he finished in third place. He later returned for 2006 series where he was voted the winner alongside Bianca Gascoigne.
On 12 July 2015, it was announced that Mark Wright would be briefly entering the villa.[37] He entered on Day 38 to become the DJ for Lauren's birthday party, he departed shortly after the party.[38]

text: Weekly summary[edit]

text: The main events in the Love Island villa are summarised in the table below.

text:
Week 1
Entrances

On Day 1, Chris W, Danielle, Hannah, Jess, Jon, Jordan, Josh, Lauren, Luis, Omar, Rachel and Zoe entered the villa.
On Day 3, John and Tony entered the villa.[39]
On Day 7, Daisy and Naomi entered the villa.[40]

Coupling

On Day 1, the Islanders coupled up for the first time. After all of the boys entered, the girls were asked to choose a boy to pair up with. Jon was paired with Hannah, Chris was paired with Danielle, Omar and Rachel paired up, Josh and Lauren coupled up, whilst Jess paired herself with Jordan and Luis got with Zoe.[41]
On Day 2, after Jess and Jordan won a challenge they were given the opportunity to swap two couples. Jess decided to couple up with Josh, leaving Jordan in a new couple with Lauren.
On Day 6, the Islanders were told that they had to re-couple. Hannah and Jon, Omar and Rachel, and Jess and Josh remained with each other, whilst Jordan coupled with Zoe, Luis paired with Danielle, and Chris W chose Lauren. As John and Tony remained single, they were dumped from the island.

Challenges

On Day 2, Rachel and Omar hosted "Getting Intimate", where members of each couple stood at opposite ends of the pool and were asked questions about their partner. Every correct answer moved them a step towards their partner. The winning couple was the pair that met in the middle first. This was Jordan and Jess.
On Day 3, the girls took part in "The Perfect Man" where they had to choose the best abs, guns, legs, face and heart from cutouts of the boys.
On Day 5, the boys competed in the "Mega LADS Championship" where they took part in a number of LAD related tasks. The girls then decided that Luis was the overall winner.

Dates

On Day 3, Hannah and Jon left the villa to go on a date.
On Day 3, shortly after entering, John and Tony each chose a girl they'd like to date in the Hideaway. John chose Jess, and Tony chose Danielle. At the end of the date, each girl was given the option to stay the night. They both declined and returned to the villa.
On Day 4, Zoe and Rachel both dated their partners; Luis and Omar, and then dated John and Tony. After the dates the girls were given the option of who the spend the night with. They chose John and Tony respectively.[42]

Exits

On Day 6, John and Tony were eliminated after failing to couple up.

Week 2
Entrances

On Day 11, Chris B entered the villa.[43]
On Day 14, Bethany and Max entered the villa.[44]

Coupling

On Day 8, the Islanders were told that they were all single, but new girls Daisy and Naomi would get the chance to couple up with a boy of their choice after going on three dates. Daisy chose Jordan, and Naomi chose Josh respectively.[45]
On Day 11, the Islanders were asked to couple up again, apart from Naomi and Josh, and Daisy and Jordan who were already coupled up. Newest Islander Chris B got first pick and chose Danielle, whilst Omar chose Jess, Luis paired with Lauren, and Chris W coupled with Zoe. Hannah and Jon also remained a couple. After failing to couple up with anybody, Rachel was dumped from the island.[46]

Challenges

On Day 11, to decide the re-coupling order, the boys took part in "Heart Makers" where they had to solve an equation to unlock a chest, then complete a puzzle that was inside.
On Day 13, the couples had to transfer cocktails from one large fishbowl to another small fishbowl using only their mouths. Jon and Hannah won the challenge and were rewarded with messaged from home.

Dates

On Day 8, as the new girls, Daisy and Naomi dated three boys each before being asked to couple with one of them. Daisy dated Chris W, Jordan and Omar before coupling with Jordan, whilst Naomi dated Chris W, Josh and Luis before coupling with Josh.
On Day 11, Jon and Hannah spent the night in the Hideaway.
On Day 12, Chris W and Zoe left the villa to go on a date.

Exits

On Day 11, Rachel was eliminated after failing to couple up.
On Day 14, Chris B and Danielle were eliminated after being chosen by Power Couple Hannah and Jon.[47]

Week 3
Entrances

On Day 21, Cally and Travis entered the villa, as chosen by the Islanders on Day 20.[48]

Coupling

On Day 15, the Islanders were told that once again they were all single, unless they wanted to announce that they are officially boyfriend and girlfriend. The only couples to do this were Hannah and Jon, and Naomi and Josh.

Challenges

On Day 15, the Islanders took part in a game of "Truth or Dare".
On Day 16, the Islanders took part in "Kissing Contest" where the girls had to individually kiss each of the boys and then rate them. Jordan won the contest.
On Day 17, Jon and Hannah competed against Naomi and Josh in the "Compatibility Test".
On Day 19, the Islanders took part in "Love is Blind" where the boys had to instruct the girls round an obstacle course whilst they were blindfolded. Luis and Lauren won this challenge and were rewarded with a phone call from home.
On Day 20, the girls took part in a video call with three potential new boys and had to choose one of them to become and new Islander. They chose Travis. Following this, the boys took part in a video call with another three potential new girls, then chose Cally to enter the villa. These then entered on Day 21.

Dates

On Day 16, after winning the kissing challenge, Jordan was rewarded with a date with the girl of his choice. He chose with Zoe.
On Day 16, as new Islanders, Bethany and Max were given the opportunity to go on a date with a fellow Islander. Bethany chose to date Luis, whilst Max chose Zoe.
On Day 18, Hannah and Jon left the villa to go on a shopping date.

Exits

On Day 19, the girls were asked to vote for the male Islander they wanted to eliminate, and the boys were asked to vote for the female Islander they wanted to dump. They chose Chris W and Daisy.[49]
On Day 21, Bethany and Omar were dumped from the island after receiving the least amount of votes to stay in the villa from the public.[50]

Week 4
Challenges

On Day 24, Lauren hosted "In Hot Water" as the Islanders had to work out who said what about each other.
On Day 24, Calum Best entered the villa to take the boys on a night out in Magaluf whilst the girls had strippers to entertain them back at the villa.[36]
On Day 25, the girls were shown footage from the boys night out in Magaluf and had to guess what happened next, whilst the boys had to do the same with videos from the girl's night in with the strippers.[51]
On Day 26, the Islanders took part in "Take a Selfie" where they had to guess what the public thought of them by working out who is the most and least from each category. To lock in their answer they had to take a selfie with that chosen filter.
On Day 27, the couples took part in a general knowledge quiz called "Pied Off" where each incorrect answer meant a pie to the face.

Dates

On Day 22, as new Islanders, Cally and Travis were given the opportunity to go on a date with a fellow Islander. Cally chose to date Luis, whilst Travis chose Lauren.
On Day 26, Lauren and Josh, and Jess and Travis left the villa to go on a double date.

Exits

On Day 28, Naomi and Travis were eliminated after receiving the least public votes.

Week 5
Entrances

On Day 32, Ben and Poppy entered the villa after being chosen by the Islanders. They were instantly given a secret mission to couple up with somebody at the next re-coupling or they would be eliminated.[52]

Coupling

On Day 33, the Islanders coupled up for the final time. Hannah and Jon remained together, whilst Jordan coupled up with Zoe for the second time. Max paired with Jess, Luis went with Cally and Josh with Lauren. After failing to couple up, Ben and Poppy failed their secret mission and were dumped from the island.

Challenges

On Day 29, Cally and Luis hosted a White Party in the villa.
On Day 30, Max and Josh cooked dinner for five potential new Islanders, including Jordan's ex-girlfriend.[53]
On Day 32, the Islanders were asked to collect a number of items to build a "relation ship". The winners were the couple who made their boat float.[54]
On Day 33, the couples took part in "Bucking Hell" and had to compete to stay on a Mechanical bull whilst hitting a number of targets.[55]
On Day 34, the boys got a lie detector test with the girls asking the questions.[56]

Dates

On Day 31, Lauren and Jess speed dated five potential new Islanders, including John and Tony who returned hoping for another chance. Omar also returned to be the waiter for the dates.[57]
On Day 32, as new Islanders, Ben and Poppy were given the opportunity to go on a date with a fellow Islander. Ben chose to date Lauren, whilst Poppy chose Josh.[58]
On Day 33, Jess and Max left the villa to go on a horse riding date.

Punishments

On Day 35, Jon was given a warning for pulling the sheets off Luis and Cally's bed exposing them.

Exits

On Day 33, Ben and Poppy were eliminated after failing their secret mission.
On Day 35, Jordan and Zoe were eliminated after receiving the most public votes to dump.[59]

Week 6
Entrances

On Day 37, the Islander's friends and family briefly entered the villa.[60]

Challenges

On Day 36, the remaining couples were told they'd go head-to-head against each other in a number of challenges to win a special prize.[61]
On Day 37, the Islanders were told there are 4 keys and 4 hearts hidden in the villa for them to find. The girl's heart must match the boy's lock, and it would then decide the teams for the next challenge where they had to mark body parts with paint based on the Latin word for them.
On Day 38, the couples had their parenting skills tested by looking after dolls.[62] Any couple who failed the challenge would not be invited to Lauren's birthday party. Mark Wright entered the host the party.[38]
On Day 40, the girls left the villa to go wedding dress shopping, whilst the boys stayed in to write vows. The couples then hosted their own ceremony.
On Day 41, winners Max and Jess were asked if they were in their couple for "Love" or "Money". If both chose Love they would share the £50,000 prize, however if both chose Money they would receive nothing. If one chose Love and the other chose Money then Love would receive nothing but Money would receive the whole £50,000. The pair both chose Love and ultimately earned £25,000 each.

Exits

On Day 41, Luis and Cally left the villa in fourth place, whilst Lauren and Josh finished third. Max and Jess were then voted the winners, leaving Hannah and Jon as runners-up.[63]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Official ratings are taken from BARB but do not include +1.[64] Because the Saturday episodes are weekly catch-up episodes rather than nightly highlights, these are not included in the overall averages.

text:
Viewers (millions)

Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6

Sunday
0.64
0.43
0.54
0.55
0.60
0.67

Monday
0.49
0.46
0.55
0.62
0.75
0.61

Tuesday
0.38
0.47
0.56
0.70
0.59
0.60

Wednesday
0.39
0.49
0.54
0.62
0.61
0.91

Thursday
0.41
0.40
0.56
0.56
0.74

Weekly average
0.46
0.45
0.55
0.61
0.66
0.70

Running average
0.46
0.46
0.49
0.52
0.55
0.57

Series average
0.57


document_title: A Sound of Thunder

question_text: a sound of thunder what is the sound of thunder at the end of the story

text: A Sound of Thunder

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: In the year 2055, time travel has become a practical reality, and the company Time Safari Inc. offers wealthy adventurers the chance to travel back in time to hunt extinct species such as dinosaurs. A hunter named Eckels pays $10,000 to join a hunting party that will travel back 66 million years to the Late Cretaceous period, on a guided safari to kill a Tyrannosaurus rex. As the party waits to depart, they discuss the recent presidential elections in which an apparently fascist candidate, Deutscher, has been defeated by the more moderate Keith, to the relief of many concerned. When the party arrives in the past, Travis (the hunting guide) and Lesperance (Travis's assistant) warn Eckels and the two other hunters, Billings and Kramer, about the necessity of minimizing the events they change before they go back, since tiny alterations to the distant past could snowball into catastrophic changes in history. Travis explains that the hunters are obliged to stay on a levitating path to avoid disrupting the environment, that any deviation will be punished with hefty fines, and that prior to the hunt, Time Safari scouts had been sent back to select and tag their prey, which would have died within minutes anyway, and whose death has been calculated to have minimal effect on the future.

text: Although Eckels is initially excited about the hunt, when the monstrous Tyrannosaurus approaches, he loses his nerve. Travis tells him he cannot leave, but Eckels panics, steps off the path and stumbles into the forest. Eckels hears shots, and on his return, he sees that the two guides have killed the dinosaur, and shortly afterward the falling tree that would have killed the T. rex has landed on top of it. Realizing that Eckels has fallen off the path, Travis threatens to leave him in the past unless he removes the bullets from the dinosaur's body, as they cannot be left behind. Eckels obeys, but Travis remains furious, threatening on the return trip to shoot him.

text: Upon returning to 2055, Eckels notices subtle changes – English words are now spelled and spoken strangely, people behave differently, and Eckels discovers that Deutscher has won the election instead of Keith. Looking at the mud on his boots, Eckels finds a crushed butterfly, whose death has apparently set in motion a series of subtle changes that have affected the nature of the alternative present to which the safari has returned. He frantically pleads with Travis to take him back into the past to undo the damage, but Travis had previously explained that the time machine cannot return to any point in time that it has already visited (so as to prevent any paradoxes). Travis raises his gun, and there is "a sound of thunder".

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The story was aired on The Ray Bradbury Theater on October 8, 1989.[2]

text: A film adaptation starring Ben Kingsley, Edward Burns and Catherine McCormack was released in 2005.[3] Roger Ebert stated that while he "cannot endorse it, [he] can appreciate it" as a film that is bad because it "want[s] so much to be terrific that [it] explode[s] under the strain."[3]

text: A Game Boy Advance video game based on the film was also released. It was finished in time for the film's planned 2003 release, delayed along with it and ultimately released in February 2005.[4] Planned console ports were cancelled.

text: The story was parodied in the Time and Punishment section of The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror V".[5]

text: Influence[edit]

text: "A Sound of Thunder" is often miscredited as the origin of the term "butterfly effect", a concept of chaos theory in which the flapping of a butterfly's wings in one part of the world could create a hurricane on the opposite side of the globe. The term was actually introduced by meteorologist Edward Norton Lorenz in the 1960s. However, Bradbury's concept of how the death of a butterfly in the past could have drastic changes in the future is a representation of the butterfly effect, and used as an example of how to consider chaos theory and the physics of time travel.[6]


document_title: Uno Attack

question_text: how many of each card in uno attack

question_tokens: how many of each card in uno attack

text: Uno Attack

text: Mechanical Card Launcher[edit]

text: [original research?]

text: UNO Attack comes with a special mechanical card launcher that runs on 3 C batteries. The card shooter contains a receptacle where the deck of cards is placed, and a button on the front, known as the "Launcher Button". When the rules call for a player to "Hit" the card shooter, the player presses the button on the card shooter. An electronic chime sounds, and a random number of cards shoot out. As many as 12 cards have been known to shoot out.

text: At times, the shooter may not shoot out any cards, as it is designed not to do so every time. Numerous tests have shown that it will shoot out cards at least once every four button presses, however other tests have shown the shooter going as many as 10 passes without shooting cards.[citation needed] It has been known to rarely shoot out cards more than twice in succession.

text: Differences to Original Uno[edit]

text: In Uno Attack, there are a number of differences to the original card game.

text: The gameplay differences are as follows:

text:
When a player does not have a playable card in the original game, they are forced to draw a card. Uno Attack's rules call for the player to press the Launcher button once instead.
When a player plays their second-to-last card, thereby reducing their hand to one card, they must shout, "Uno!" If they do not, and another player catches it, they are forced to draw two penalty cards in the original game. Uno Attack, however, calls for the player to press the Launcher button twice instead. In addition, a player who calls "Uno!" when they have more than one card must hit the Launcher button twice as a penalty.
A player may choose not to play a playable card in their hand. If so, the player must hit the Launcher button once, rather than drawing a card as in the original. This is known as "Reneging."
Any player making a card suggestion to another player must hit the Launcher button four times, instead of drawing two penalty cards as in the original.
Pressing the Launcher button any number of times ends a player's turn.
If any cards are left sticking out of the Launcher after cards are shot out, the player who pressed the Launcher button must take these cards into their hand with the ones that managed to clear the launcher.
"Wild Draw-Four" is replaced by "Wild Hit Fire" and "Wild All Hit", in which the player who played that card gets to choose the color and the next player must hit the launcher button until it fires.

text: Cards[edit]

text: The cards included in the game are as follows:

text:
Two 1's, 2's, 3's, 4's, 5's, 6's, 7's, 8's, and 9's of each color (red, blue, green, and yellow).
Two "Reverses" of each color.
Two "Skips" of each color.
Two "Hit twos" of each color.
One "Discard all" of each color.
One "Trade Hands" of each color
Four "Wilds".
Two "Wild Hit-Fires".
Two "Wild All Hits".

text: Here is what each card means in detail:

text:
Reverse - Simply reverse direction of play. Play left becomes play right, and vice versa.
Skip - The next player to play loses his/her turn and is “skipped.”
Wild Card - This card can be played on any card. The person playing the card calls any color to continue play, including the one presently being played if desired. A Wild card can be played even if the player has another playable card in his/her hand.
Hit 2 - When this card is played, the next player must hit the Launcher button twice. His or her turn is then over; play continues with the next player.
Discard All - Play this card when a player wants to discard all of the cards in your hand of the same color. For example, if a yellow “7” is in the Discard pile, one may discard all the yellow cards in your hand, with a yellow Discard All card placed on top. (you may also discard a Discard All card on the top of another Discard All card.)
Trade Hands - The player who plays this card will exchange all cards with the other player that he or she chooses.
Wild Hit-Fire - When this card is played the player calls a color, then the next player in the direction of play must press the Launcher button until the Launcher shoots out cards. The activating player adds the Launched cards to his or her hand and forfeits his/her turn, then play continues as normal with the next player.
Wild All Hit - The player who plays this card chooses the color and all other players must press the Launcher button

text: Common variants[edit]

text: Modified Uno Attack: When a player has a specialty played, he or she has the opportunity to play the same specialty card. If the player cannot play the same specialty they press the button


document_title: Response to the State of the Union address

question_text: when did the state of the union response start

text: The response to the State of the Union address is a rebuttal speech, often brief, delivered by a representative (or representatives) of the opposition party following a presidential State of the Union address. When the president is a Democrat, the rebuttal is given by a Republican, and vice versa.

text: The practice began in 1966 when Republican U.S. Senator Everett Dirksen (Illinois) and U.S. Representative Gerald Ford (Michigan) appeared on TV to offer a response to the address by Democratic President Lyndon Johnson.[1] The opposition party's response has varied in format, ranging from a prerecorded 45-minute TV program in 1970[2] to a call-in show in 1972 where a panel of congressmen answered unrehearsed questions from callers.[1] Since the late 1980s, it usually has been a televised speech given soon after the State of the Union address.[1]

text: Three people have given both a response and a State of the Union address: Democrat Bill Clinton and Republicans Gerald Ford and George H. W. Bush.

text: List of responses[edit]

text:
Date
President
Response given by[1]

January 12, 1966
Lyndon Johnson
U.S. Senator Everett Dirksen (Illinois)
U.S. Representative Gerald Ford (Michigan)1

January 10, 1967
U.S. Senator Everett Dirksen (Illinois)
U.S. Representative Gerald Ford (Michigan)

January 17, 1968
U.S. Senators Howard Baker (Tennessee), Peter Dominick (Colorado), Robert Griffin (Michigan), Thomas Kuchel (California), George Murphy (California), Chuck Percy (Illinois), Hugh Scott (Pennsylvania), and John Tower (Texas)
U.S. Representatives George Bush (Texas), Gerald Ford (Michigan), Mel Laird (Wisconsin), Bob Mathias (California), Dick Poff (Virginia), Al Quie (Minnesota), Charlotte Reid (Illinois), and Bill Steiger (Wisconsin)

January 22, 1970
Richard Nixon
U.S. Senators Scoop Jackson (Washington), Mike Mansfield (Montana), Ed Muskie (Maine), and Bill Proxmire (Wisconsin)
U.S. Representatives Donald Fraser (Minnesota), John McCormack (Massachusetts), and Patsy Mink (Hawaii)2

January 22, 1971
U.S. Senator Mike Mansfield (Montana)

January 20, 1972
U.S. Senators Lloyd Bentsen (Texas), Frank Church (Idaho), Tom Eagleton (Missouri), and Bill Proxmire (Wisconsin)
U.S. Representatives Carl Albert (Oklahoma), Hale Boggs (Louisiana), John Brademas (Indiana), Martha Griffiths (Michigan), John Melcher (Montana), Ralph Metcalfe (Illinois), and Leonor Sullivan (Missouri)

January 20, 1974
U.S. Senator Mike Mansfield (Montana)

January 15, 1975
Gerald Ford
U.S. Senator Hubert Humphrey (Minnesota)
U.S. Representative Carl Albert (Oklahoma)

January 19, 1976
U.S. Senator Ed Muskie (Maine)

January 19, 1978
Jimmy Carter
U.S. Senator Howard Baker (Tennessee)
U.S. Representative John Rhodes (Arizona)

January 23, 1979
U.S. Senator Howard Baker (Tennessee)
U.S. Representative John Rhodes (Arizona)

January 23, 1980
U.S. Senator Ted Stevens (Alaska)
U.S. Representative John Rhodes (Arizona)

January 26, 1982
Ronald Reagan
U.S. Senators Robert Byrd (West Virginia), Alan Cranston (California), Gary Hart (Colorado), Bennett Johnston (Louisiana), Ted Kennedy (Massachusetts), Don Riegle (Michigan), Paul Sarbanes (Maryland), and Jim Sasser (Tennessee)
U.S. Representatives Al Gore (Tennessee), Tip O'Neill (Massachusetts)2

January 25, 1983
U.S. Senators Joe Biden (Delaware), Bill Bradley (New Jersey), Robert Byrd (West Virginia), and Paul Tsongas (Massachusetts)
U.S. Representatives Les AuCoin (Oregon), Tom Daschle (South Dakota), Bill Hefner (North Carolina), Barbara Kennelly (Connecticut), George Miller (California), Tip O'Neill (Massachusetts), Paul Simon (Illinois), and Tim Wirth (Colorado)2

January 25, 1984
U.S. Senators Max Baucus (Montana), Joe Biden (Delaware), David Boren (Oklahoma), Robert Byrd (West Virginia), Dee Huddleston (Kentucky), Carl Levin (Michigan), and Claiborne Pell (Rhode Island)
U.S. Representatives Barbara Boxer (California), Dante Fascell (Florida), Bill Gray (Pennsylvania), Tom Harkin (Iowa), and Tip O’Neill (Massachusetts)

February 6, 1985
Governor Bill Clinton (Arkansas), Governor Bob Graham (Florida)
U.S. Representative Tip O’Neill (Massachusetts)3

February 4, 1986
U.S. Senator George Mitchell (Maine)
Governor Chuck Robb (Virginia)
U.S. Representatives Tom Daschle (South Dakota) and Bill Gray (Pennsylvania)
Lieutenant Governor Harriett Woods (Missouri)

January 27, 1987
U.S. Senator Robert Byrd (West Virginia)
U.S. Representative Jim Wright (Texas)

January 25, 1988
U.S. Senator Robert Byrd (West Virginia)
U.S. Representative Jim Wright (Texas)

January 31, 1990
George H. W. Bush
U.S. Representative Tom Foley (Washington)

January 29, 1991
U.S. Senator George Mitchell (Maine)

January 28, 1992
U.S. Representative Tom Foley (Washington)

January 25, 1994
Bill Clinton
U.S. Senator Bob Dole (Kansas)

January 24, 1995
Governor Christine Todd Whitman (New Jersey)

January 23, 1996
U.S. Senator Bob Dole (Kansas)

February 4, 1997
U.S. Representative J. C. Watts (Oklahoma)

January 27, 1998
U.S. Senator Trent Lott (Mississippi)

January 19, 1999
U.S. Representatives Jennifer Dunn (Washington) and Steve Largent (Oklahoma)

January 27, 2000
U.S. Senators Susan Collins (Maine) and Bill Frist (Tennessee)

January 29, 2002
George W. Bush
U.S. Representative Dick Gephardt (Missouri)

January 28, 2003
Governor Gary Locke (Washington)

January 23, 2004
U.S. Senator Tom Daschle (South Dakota)
U.S. Representative Nancy Pelosi (California)

February 2, 2005
U.S. Senator Harry Reid (Nevada)
U.S. Representative Nancy Pelosi (California)

January 31, 2006
Governor Tim Kaine (Virginia)

January 23, 2007
U.S. Senator Jim Webb (Virginia)

January 28, 2008
Governor Kathleen Sebelius (Kansas)

January 27, 2010
Barack Obama
Governor Bob McDonnell (Virginia)

January 25, 2011
English: U.S. Representative Paul Ryan (Wisconsin)

Spanish: U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (Florida)

January 24, 2012
Governor Mitch Daniels (Indiana)

February 12, 2013
U.S. Senator Marco Rubio (Florida) – English and Spanish

January 28, 2014
English: U.S. Representative Cathy McMorris Rodgers (Washington)

Spanish: U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (Florida)

January 20, 2015
English: U.S. Senator Joni Ernst (Iowa)

Spanish: U.S. Representative Carlos Curbelo (Florida)

January 12, 2016
Governor Nikki Haley (South Carolina)

January 30, 2018
Donald Trump
English: U.S. Representative Joe Kennedy III (Massachusetts)

Spanish: State Delegate Elizabeth Guzmán (Virginia)

text:
1First organized, televised response to a presidential State of the Union message
2Denotes prerecorded program
3Randomly selected Democratic voters participated in this televised discussion

text: Non–State of the Union responses[edit]

text: In addition to responses to official State of the Union addresses, there have been five official responses to non–State of the Union speeches which were delivered soon after presidential inaugurations.

text:
Date
President
Address type
Response given by

February 9, 1989
George H. W. Bush
First address to joint session of Congress
U.S. Senator Lloyd Bentsen (Texas)
U.S. Representative Jim Wright (Texas)[1]

February 17, 1993
Bill Clinton
First address to joint session of Congress
U.S. Representative Bob Michel (Illinois)[1]

February 27, 2001
George W. Bush
First address to joint session of Congress
U.S. Senator Tom Daschle (South Dakota)
U.S. Representative Dick Gephardt (Missouri)[3]

February 24, 2009
Barack Obama
First address to joint session of Congress
Governor Bobby Jindal (Louisiana)[4]

February 28, 2017
Donald Trump
First address to joint session of Congress
English: Former Governor Steve Beshear (Kentucky)

Spanish: Activist Astrid Silva (Nevada)[5]


document_title: Ribbon (computing)

question_text: what is the function of ribbon in ms word

text: Ribbon (computing)

text: Early use[edit]

text: Use of a ribbon interface dates from the early 1990s in productivity software such as Microsoft Word and WordStar[1] as an alternative term for toolbar: It was defined as a portion of a graphical user interface consisting of a horizontal row of graphical control elements (e.g., including heterogeneously-sized buttons and drop-down lists bearing icons), typically user-configurable.[2][3][4]

text: A toolbar interface, called the "ribbon", has been a feature of Microsoft Word from the early DOS-based Word 5.5 (ca. 1990)[5] and the first Windows-based versions (activated by the "View | Ribbon" menu option[6]), for which early advertising referred to the use of "the Ribbon to replace an endless string of commands to let you format characters by eye instead of memory".[3]

text: Microsoft software[edit]

text: With the release of Microsoft Office 2007 came the "Fluent User Interface" or "Fluent UI", which replaced menus and customizable toolbars with a single "Office menu", a miniature toolbar known as "quick-access toolbar" and what came to be known as the ribbon: multiple tabs, each holding a toolbar bearing buttons and occasionally other controls. Toolbar controls have heterogeneous sizes and are classified in visually distinguishable groups.[7][8] The new design was intended to alleviate the problem of users not finding or knowing of the existence of available features in the Office suite.[9][10] The name "ribbon" was later purported to have originated from an early design idea by which commands were placed on a long pane that could be rolled like a medieval scroll; the name was retained after the scrolling mechanism was replaced by tabs.[11]

text: Microsoft applications implementing ribbons each have a different set of tabs which house user controls for that application. Within each tab, various related controls may be grouped together. Double-clicking the active tab or clicking the "Minimize" button hides the command panel, leaving only the tabs visible. Repeating this action reveals the pane.[12] The ribbon consolidates the functionality previously found in menus, toolbars and occasionally task panes into one area.[13]

text: In Microsoft Office 2007, only Word, Excel, Access and PowerPoint implemented ribbons. With the release of Microsoft Office 2010, however, ribbons were implemented in the rest of the Microsoft Office applications.[14][15] Microsoft Office 2010 added additional end-user customization support to its user interface.

text: Microsoft gradually implemented ribbons in other software. The fourth wave of Windows Live Essentials applications, including Mail, Photo Gallery, Movie Maker and Writer, featured a ribbon.[16] On Windows 7, Paint and WordPad feature ribbons.[17] On Windows 8, File Explorer followed suit. Ribbons also appeared in SQL Server Report Builder, Dynamics CRM 2011,[18] Microsoft WebMatrix, Microsoft Mathematics v4.0, Microsoft EMET 4.0 and Microsoft Message Analyzer. Internet Explorer, Notepad and Visual Studio, however, do not have a ribbon.

text: Other software developers[edit]

text: Since the introduction of ribbons in Microsoft Office 2007, there has been an increase in the use of this type of interface in applications created by other developers, especially those creating tools for Microsoft-related products. Microsoft facilitated the adoption with the releases of Windows 8, Windows 7 and the Windows Vista platform update, which included built-in ribbon framework APIs, introduced to allow developers to integrate a ribbon toolbar into their applications.[19] The Nielsen Norman Group published some examples in a 2008 GUI showcase report.[20][21]

text: In June 2008, Red Flag Software released RedOffice 4.0 beta, a Chinese fork of OpenOffice.org including a new user interface that used many ribbon ideas in its design.[22][23] In November 2008 Sun Microsystems started the project Renaissance to improve the user interface of OpenOffice.org.[24] So far the prototypes of the project are frequently seen as similar to ribbons, but this has resulted in some criticism from users.[25]

text: In July 2011, Avid Tech added a ribbon interface under Microsoft license to Version 7.0 of their Sibelius (scorewriter) music notation application, replacing the menu navigation system of previous versions.  This met with considerable user resistance,[26] however the ribbon interface has remained integral to the current GUI.

text: Reaction[edit]

text: Prior to Microsoft's introduction of ribbons in Office 2007, the user interface for its Office suites had barely changed since the introduction of Office 97 on 19 November 1996. (Office 2000 and Office 2003 released relatively minor upgrades compared to Office 97, which itself was considered to be something of a milestone compared to Office 95.)

text: Because of this, users became accustomed to this style of interface, which was common in many productivity products at the time.[citation needed] When Microsoft implemented ribbons, it was met with mixed reactions. Jeff Atwood thought the new system made menus obsolete as a cornerstone of the WIMP interface when it was first revealed in 2005.[27][28] Redmondmag.com reported that power users feel the ribbons take "too much time and patience to learn."[29] Richard Ericson from Computerworld noted that experienced users might find difficulties adapting to the new interface, and that some tasks take more key-presses or clicks to activate.[8] Though the ribbon can be hidden by double-clicking on the open tab, PC World wrote that the ribbons crowds the Office work area, especially for notebook users;[30] the customization options available in the original version didn't allow users to rearrange or remove the predefined commands, although it could be minimized.[31] Others have called its large icons distracting.[32] An online survey conducted by ExcelUser reports that a majority of respondents had a negative opinion of the change, with advanced users being "somewhat more negative" than intermediate users; the self-estimated reduction in productivity was an average of about 20%, and "about 35%" for people with a negative opinion.[33]

text: Other users claim that once the new interface is learned, the average user can create "professional-looking documents faster".[29] One study reported fairly good acceptance by users except highly experienced users and users of word processing applications with a classical WIMP interface, but was less convinced in terms of efficiency and organisation.[34]

text: The decision to abolish menus has been likened to the Coca-Cola company's infamous New Coke campaign in its abandonment of the existing user base.[35] Microsoft Office 2011 for the Macintosh, while employing the ribbon, also retains the menu system in the Mac menu bar.[36]

text: Patent controversy[edit]

text: Proponents of free software, such as KDE developer Jarosław Staniek,[37] have expressed beliefs that patents regarding ribbons cannot be acquired due to the ambiguity of prior art.[37] Staniek notes that the ribbon concept has historically appeared extensively as "tabbed toolbars" in applications such as Sausage Software's HotDog, Macromedia HomeSite, Dreamweaver  and Borland Delphi.[37] Lotus developed early ribbon UIs for its product eSuite. Screen shots are still available in an IBM redbook about eSuite (page 109ff).[38]

text: On February 13th 2018, a jury from the Northern District of California found that Corel Corporation had infringed on several Microsoft's Ribbon Design Patents and Ribbon Utility Patents regarding the Fluent UI.[39][40]