document_title: American football

question_text: what do they call american football in europe

question_tokens: what do they call american football in europe

text: American football

text: Etymology and names[edit]

text: In the United States, American Football is called "football."[7] The terms "gridiron" or "American football" are favored in English-speaking countries where other codes of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia.[8][9]

text: History[edit]

text:
Part of the American football series on
History of American football

• Origins of American football

• Early history of American football
• First game
• Walter Camp
• First pro player
• First pro league
• Modern history of American football

• Close relations:

• Medieval football
• Old division football
• Rugby football
• Association football
• Canadian football

• Black players in professional American football
• Homosexuality in American football
• Concussions in American football
• Rugby union comparison
• Rugby league comparison
• Canadian football comparison
• Pro Football Hall of Fame
• College Football Hall of Fame
• Years in American football

• NFL season-by-season
• College football season-by-season
• Glossary of American football

American football Portal

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text: Early history[edit]

text: American football evolved from the sports of association football (soccer) and rugby football. Rugby football, like American football, is a sport where two competing teams vie for control of a ball, which can be kicked through a set of goalposts or run into the opponent's goal area to score points.[10]

text: What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6, 1869 between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams. The game was played between two teams of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or batted with the feet, hands, head or sides, with the ultimate goal being to advance it into the opponent's goal. Rutgers won the game 6 goals to 4.[11][12] Collegiate play continued for several years in which matches were played using the rules of the host school. Representatives of Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19, 1873 to create a standard set of rules for all schools to adhere to. Teams were set at 20 players each, and fields of 400 by 250 feet (122 m × 76 m) were specified. Harvard abstained from the conference, as they favored a rugby-style game that allowed running with the ball.[12]

text: An 1875 Harvard-Yale game played under rugby-style rules was observed by two impressed Princeton athletes. These players introduced the sport to Princeton, a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to "selling refrigerators to Eskimos."[12] Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Columbia then agreed to intercollegiate play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system.[13] These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, although Yale did not join until 1879. Yale player Walter Camp, now regarded as the "Father of American Football",[13][14] secured rule changes in 1880 that reduced the size of each team from 15 to 11 players and instituted the snap to replace the chaotic and inconsistent scrum.[13]

text: Evolution of the game[edit]

text: The introduction of the snap resulted in unexpected consequences. Prior to the snap, the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position. However, a group of Princeton players realized that, as the snap was uncontested, they now could hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring. In 1881, both teams in a game between Yale-Princeton used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records. Each team held the ball, gaining no ground, for an entire half, resulting in a 0–0 tie. This "block game" proved extremely unpopular with the spectators and fans of both teams.[13]

text: A rule change was necessary to prevent this strategy from taking hold, and a reversion to the scrum was considered. However, Camp successfully proposed a rule in 1882 that limited each team to three downs, or tackles, to advance the ball five yards. Failure to advance the ball the required distance within those three downs would result in control of the ball being forfeited to the other team. This change effectively made American football a separate sport from rugby, and the resulting five-yard lines added to the field to measure distances made it resemble a gridiron in appearance. Other major rule changes included a reduction of the field size to 110 by 53.333 yards (100.584 m × 48.768 m), and the adoption of a scoring system that awarded four points for a touchdown, two for a safety and a goal following a touchdown, and five for a goal from field; additionally, tackling below the waist was legalized.[13] The last, and arguably most important innovation, which would at last make American football uniquely "American", was the legalization of interference, or blocking, a tactic which was highly illegal under the rugby-style rules.

text: Despite these new rules, football remained a violent sport. Dangerous mass-formations, which involved interlocking interference, like the flying wedge resulted in serious injuries and deaths.[15] A 1905 peak of 19 fatalities nationwide resulted in a threat by President Theodore Roosevelt to abolish the game unless major changes were made.[16] In response, sixty-two colleges and universities met in New York City to discuss rule changes on December 28, 1905, and these proceedings resulted in the formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, later named the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).[17]

text: The legal forward pass was introduced in 1906, although its impact was initially limited due to the restrictions placed on its use. Other rule changes introduced that year included the reduction of the time of play from 70 to 60 minutes and the increase of the distance required for a first down from 5 to 10 yards (9.1 m). To reduce infighting and dirty play between teams, the neutral zone was created along the width of the football.[18] Scoring was also adjusted: field goals were lowered to three points in 1909[14] and touchdowns were raised to six points in 1912.[19] The field was also reduced to 100 yards (91 m) long, but two 10-yard-long end zones were created, and teams were given four downs instead of three to advance the ball 10 yards (9.1 m).[20] The roughing-the-passer penalty was implemented in 1914, and eligible players were first allowed to catch the ball anywhere on the field in 1918.[21]

text: Professional era[edit]

text: On November 12, 1892, William "Pudge" Heffelfinger was paid $500 to play a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association in a match against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. This is the first recorded instance of a player being paid to participate in a game of American football, although many athletic clubs in the 1880s offered indirect benefits, such as helping players attain employment, giving out trophies or watches that players could pawn for money, or paying double in expense money. Despite these extra benefits, the game had a strict sense of amateurism at the time, and direct payment to players was frowned upon, if not outright prohibited.[22]

text: Over time, professional play became increasingly common, and with it came rising salaries and unpredictable player movement, as well as the illegal payment of college players who were still in school. The National Football League (NFL), a group of professional teams that was originally established in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, aimed to solve these problems. This new league's stated goals included an end to bidding wars over players, prevention of the use of college players, and abolition of the practice of paying players to leave another team.[23] By 1922, the NFL had established itself as the premier professional football league.[24]

text: The dominant form of football at the time was played at the collegiate level, but the upstart NFL received a boost to its legitimacy in 1925 when an NFL team, the Pottsville Maroons, defeated a team of Notre Dame all-stars in an exhibition game.[25] A greater emphasis on the passing game helped professional football to further distinguish itself from the college game during the late 1930s.[23] Football in general became increasingly popular following the 1958 NFL Championship game, a match between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants that is still referred to as the "Greatest Game Ever Played". The game, a 23–17 overtime victory by the Colts, was seen by millions of television viewers and had a major impact on the popularity of the sport. This, along with the innovations introduced by the new American Football League (AFL) in the early 1960s, helped football to become the most popular sport in the United States by the mid-1960s.[26]

text: The rival American Football League arose in 1960 and challenged the NFL's dominance. The AFL began in relative obscurity but eventually thrived, with an initial television contract with the ABC network. The AFL's existence forced the conservative NFL to expand to Dallas and Minnesota in an attempt to destroy the new league. Meanwhile, the AFL introduced many new features to Professional Football in the United States: official time on the scoreboard clock, rather than on a watch in the referee's pocket, as the NFL did; optional two-point conversions by pass or run after touchdowns; names on the jerseys of players; and several others, including expansion of the role of minority players, actively recruited by the league in contrast to the NFL. The AFL also signed several star college players that had also been drafted by NFL teams. Competition for players heated up in 1965, when the AFL New York Jets signed rookie Joe Namath to a then-record US$437,000 contract. A five-year, $40 million NBC television contract followed, which helped to sustain the young league. The bidding war for players ended in 1966, when NFL owners approached the AFL regarding a merger, and the two leagues agreed on one that would take full effect in 1970. This agreement provided for a common draft that would take place each year, and it instituted an annual World Championship game to be played between the champions of each league. That game began play at the end of the 1966 season. Once the merger was completed, it was no longer a championship game between two leagues, and reverted to the NFL championship game, which came to be known as the Super Bowl.[27]

text: College football maintained a tradition of postseason bowl games. Each bowl game would be associated with a particular conference, and earning a spot in a bowl game was the reward for winning a conference. This arrangement was profitable, but it tended to prevent the two top-ranked teams from meeting in a true national championship game, as they would normally be committed to the bowl games of their respective conferences. Several systems have been used since 1992 to determine a national champion of college football. The first was the Bowl Coalition, in place from 1992 to 1994. This was replaced in 1995 by the Bowl Alliance, which gave way in 1997 to the Bowl Championship Series (BCS).[28] The BCS arrangement proved to be controversial, and was replaced in 2014 by the College Football Playoff (CFP).[29][30]

text: Teams and positions[edit]

text: A football game is played between two teams of 11 players each.[31][32][33] Playing with more on the field is punishable by a penalty.[31][34][35] Teams may substitute any number of their players between downs;[36][37][38] this "platoon" system replaced the original system, which featured limited substitution rules, and has resulted in teams utilizing specialized offensive, defensive and special teams squads.[39]

text: Individual players in a football game must be designated with a uniform number between 1 and 99. NFL teams are required to number their players by a league-approved numbering system, and any exceptions must be approved by the Commissioner.[31] NCAA and NFHS teams are "strongly advised" to number their offensive players according to a league-suggested numbering scheme.[40][41]

text: Offensive unit[edit]

text: The role of the offensive unit is to advance the football down the field with the ultimate goal of scoring a touchdown.[42]

text: The offensive team must line up in a legal formation before they can snap the ball. An offensive formation is considered illegal if there are more than four players in the backfield or fewer than five players numbered 50–79 on the offensive line.[32][43][44] Players can temporarily line up in a position whose eligibility is different from what their number permits as long as they immediately report the change to the referee, who then informs the defensive team of the change.[45] Neither team's players, with the exception of the snapper, are allowed to line up in or cross the neutral zone until the ball is snapped. Interior offensive linemen are not allowed to move until the snap of the ball.[46]

text: The main backfield positions are the quarterback (QB), halfback/tailback (HB/TB) and fullback (FB). The quarterback is the leader of the offense. Either the quarterback or a coach calls the plays. Quarterbacks typically inform the rest of the offense of the play in the huddle before the team lines up. The quarterback lines up behind the center to take the snap and then hands the ball off, throws it or runs with it.[42]

text: The primary role of the halfback, also known as the tailback, is to carry the ball on running plays. Halfbacks may also serve as receivers. Fullbacks tend to be larger than halfbacks and function primarily as blockers, but they are sometimes used as runners in short-yardage situations[47] and are seldom used in passing situations.[48]

text: The offensive line (OL) consists of several players whose primary function is to block members of the defensive line from tackling the ball carrier on running plays or sacking the quarterback on passing plays.[47] The leader of the offensive line is the center (C), who is responsible for snapping the ball to the quarterback, blocking,[47] and for making sure that the other linemen do their jobs during the play.[49] On either side of the center are the guards (G), while tackles (T) line up outside the guards.

text: The principal receivers are the wide receivers (WR) and the tight ends (TE).[50] Wide receivers line up on or near the line of scrimmage, split outside the line. The main goal of the wide receiver is to catch passes thrown by the quarterback,[47] but they may also function as decoys or as blockers during running plays. Tight ends line up outside the tackles and function both as receivers and as blockers.[47]

text: Defensive unit[edit]

text: The role of the defense is to prevent the offense from scoring by tackling the ball carrier or by forcing turnovers (interceptions or fumbles).[42]

text: The defensive line (DL) consists of defensive ends (DE) and defensive tackles (DT). Defensive ends line up on the ends of the line, while defensive tackles line up inside, between the defensive ends. The primary responsibilities of defensive ends and defensive tackles is to stop running plays on the outside and inside, respectively, to pressure the quarterback on passing plays, and to occupy the line so that the linebackers can break through.[47]

text: Linebackers line up behind the defensive line but in front of the defensive backfield. They are divided into two types: middle linebackers (MLB) and outside linebackers (OLB). Linebackers are the defensive leaders and call the defensive plays. Their diverse roles include defending the run, pressuring the quarterback, and guarding backs, wide receivers and tight ends in the passing game.[51]

text: The defensive backfield, often called the secondary, consists of cornerbacks (CB) and safeties (S). Safeties are themselves divided into free safeties (FS) and strong safeties (SS).[47] Cornerbacks line up outside the defensive formation, typically opposite of a receiver so as to be able to cover him, while safeties line up between the cornerbacks but farther back in the secondary. Safeties are the last line of defense, and are responsible for stopping deep passing plays as well as running plays.[47]

text: Special teams unit[edit]

text: The special teams unit is responsible for all kicking plays. The special teams unit of the team in control of the ball will try and execute field goal (FG) attempts, punts and kickoffs, while the opposing team's unit will aim to block or return them.[42]

text: Three positions are specific to the field goal and PAT (point-after-touchdown) unit: the placekicker (K or PK), holder (H) and long snapper (LS). The long snapper's job is to snap the football to the holder, who will catch and position it for the placekicker. There is not usually a holder on kickoffs, because the ball is kicked off of a tee; however, a holder may be used in certain situations, such as if wind is preventing the ball from remaining upright on the tee. The player on the receiving team who catches the ball is known as the kickoff returner (KR).[52]

text: The positions specific to punt plays are the punter (P), long snapper, and gunner. The long snapper snaps the football directly to the punter, who then drops and kicks it before it hits the ground. Gunners line up split outside the line and race down the field, aiming to tackle the punt returner (PR) – the player that catches the punt.[53]

text: Rules[edit]

text: Scoring[edit]

text: In American football, the winner is the team that has scored the most points at the end of the game. There are multiple ways to score in a football game.

text: The touchdown (TD), worth six points, is the most valuable scoring play in American football. A touchdown is scored when a live ball is advanced into, caught in, or recovered in the end zone of the opposing team.[42] The scoring team then attempts a try or conversion, more commonly known as the point(s)-after-touchdown (PAT), which is a single scoring opportunity.

text: A PAT is most commonly attempted from the two- or three-yard line, depending on the level of play. If scored by a placekick or dropkick through the goal posts, it is worth one point, and is typically called the extra point.[54] Conversely, a team may elect to run a single play from scrimmage and attempt, once again, to achieve what would normally be considered a touchdown. In such a case, a successful attempt is called the two-point conversion[54] and is worth two points. For the 2015 season, the NFL adopted a rules on PATs that stated during an extra point the placekick must be hiked from the 15-yard line and on extra points if the kick is blocked and the opposing team returns it into the end zone or if during a two-point conversion the ball is fumbled or intercepted and returned to the end zone the opposing team will score two points. No points are awarded on a failed extra point or two-point conversion attempt.[55][56][57] In general, the extra point is almost always successful in professional play and is only slightly less successful at amateur levels, while the two-point conversion is a much riskier play with a higher probability of failure; accordingly, extra point attempts are far more common than two-point conversion attempts.[54]

text: A field goal (FG), worth three points, is scored when the ball is placekicked or dropkicked through the uprights and over the crossbars of the defense's goalposts.[58][59][60] After a PAT attempt or successful field goal the scoring team must kick the ball off to the other team.[61]

text: A safety is scored when the ball carrier is tackled in their own end zone. Safeties are worth two points, which are awarded to the defense.[42] In addition, the team that conceded the safety must kick the ball to the scoring team via a free kick.[62]

text: Field and equipment[edit]

text: Football games are played on a rectangular field that measures 120 yards (110 m) long and 53.33 yards (48.76 m) wide. Lines marked along the ends and sides of the field are known respectively as the end lines and sidelines, and goal lines are marked 10 yards (9.1 m) inward from each end line. Weighted pylons are placed on the inside corner of the intersections of the goal lines and end lines.

text: White markings on the field identify the distance from the end zone. Inbound lines, or hash marks, are short parallel lines that mark off 1 yard (0.91 m) increments. Yard lines, which can run the width of the field, are marked every 5 yards (4.6 m). A one yard wide is placed at each end of the field; this line is marked at the center of the two-yard line in professional play and at the three-yard line in college play. Numerals that display the distance from the closest goal line in yards are placed on both sides of the field every ten yards.[63][64][65]

text: Goalposts are located at the center of the plane of each of the two end lines. The crossbar of these posts is ten feet (3.0 meters) above the ground, with vertical uprights at the end of the crossbar 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) apart for professional and collegiate play and 23 feet 4 inches (7.11 m) apart for high school play.[66][67][68] The uprights extend vertically 35 feet on professional fields, a minimum of 10 yards on college fields, and a minimum of ten feet on high school fields. Goal posts are padded at the base, and orange ribbons are normally placed at the tip of each upright.[66][67][68]

text: The football itself is an oval ball, similar to the balls used in rugby or Australian rules football.[69] At all levels of play, the football is inflated to 12 1⁄2 to 13 1⁄2 pounds per square inch (psi) and weighs 14 to 15 ounces (397 to 425 grams);[68][70][71] beyond that, the exact dimensions vary slightly. In professional play the ball has a long axis of 11 to 11 1⁄4 inches, a long circumference of 28 to 28 1⁄2 inches, and a short circumference of 21 to 21 1⁄4 inches,[72] while in college and high school play the ball has a long axis of 10 7⁄8 to 11 7⁄16 inches, a long circumference of 27 3⁄4 to 28 1⁄2 inches, and a short circumference of 20 3⁄4 to 21 1⁄4 inches.[68][70]

text: Duration and time stoppages[edit]

text: Football games last for a total of 60 minutes in professional and college play and are divided into two-halves of 30 minutes and four-quarters of 15 minutes.[73][74] High school football games are 48 minutes in length with two-halves of 24 minutes and four-quarters of 12 minutes.[75] The two-halves are separated by a halftime period, and the first and third quarters are also followed by a short break.[73][74][76] Prior to the start of the game, the referee and team captains for each team meet at midfield for a coin toss. The visiting team is allowed to call 'heads' or 'tails'; the winner of the toss is allowed to decide between choosing whether to receive or kick off the ball or choosing which goal they want to defend, but they can also defer their choice until the second half. The losing team, unless the winning team decides to defer, is allowed to choose the option the winning team did not select, and receives the option to receive, kick, or select a goal to defend to begin the second half. Most teams choose to receive or defer, because choosing to kick the ball to start the game would allow the other team to choose which goal to defend.[77] Teams switch goals following the first and third quarters.[78] If a down is in progress when a quarter ends, play continues until the down is completed.[79][80][81]

text: Games last longer than their defined length due to play stoppages – the average NFL game lasts slightly over three hours.[82] Time in a football game is measured by the game clock. An operator is responsible for starting, stopping and operating the game clock based on the direction of the appropriate official.[73][83] A separate clock, the play clock, is used to determine if a delay of game infraction has been committed. If the play clock expires before the ball has been snapped or free-kicked, a delay of game foul is called on the offense. The play clock is set to 40 seconds in professional and college football and to 25 seconds in high school play or following certain administrative stoppages in the former levels of play.[79][84][85]

text: Advancing the ball and downs[edit]

text: There are two main ways that the offense can advance the ball: running and passing. In a typical play, the quarterback calls the play, and the center passes the ball backwards and under their legs to the quarterback in a process known as the snap. The quarterback then either hands the ball off to a back, throws the ball or runs with it. The play ends when the player with the ball is tackled or goes out of bounds, or a pass hits the ground without a player having caught it. A forward pass can only be legally attempted if the passer is behind the line of scrimmage.[61] In the NFL, a down also ends if the runner's helmet comes off.[86]

text: The offense is given a series of four plays, known as downs. If the offense advances ten or more yards in the four downs, they are awarded a new set of four downs. If they fail to advance ten yards, possession of the football is turned over to the defense. In most situations, if the offense reaches their fourth down they will punt the ball to the other team, which forces them to begin their drive from further down the field; if they are in field goal range, they might also attempt to score a field goal.[61] A group of officials, the chain crew, keeps track of both the downs and the distance measurements.[87] On television, a yellow line is electronically superimposed on the field to show the first down line to the viewing audience.[88]

text: Kicking[edit]

text: There are two categories of kicks in football: scrimmage kicks, which can be executed by the offensive team on any down from behind or on the line of scrimmage,[91][92][93] and free kicks.[94][95][96] The free kicks are the kickoff, which starts the first and third quarters and overtime and follows a try attempt or a successful field goal, and the safety kick, which follows a safety.[92][97][98]

text: On a kickoff, the ball is placed at the 35-yard line of the kicking team in professional and college play and at the 40-yard line in high school play. The ball may be drop-kicked or place-kicked. If a place kick is chosen, the ball can be placed on the ground or on a tee, and a holder may be used in either case. On a safety kick, the kicking team kicks the ball from their own 20-yard line. They can punt, drop-kick or place-kick the ball, but a tee may not be used in professional play. Any member of the receiving team may catch or advance the ball, and the ball may be recovered by the kicking team once it has gone at least ten yards and has touched the ground or has been touched by any member of the receiving team.[99][100][101]

text: The three types of scrimmage kicks are place kicks, drop kicks, and punts. Only place kicks and drop kicks can score points.[58][59][60] The place kick is the standard method used to score points,[89] because the pointy shape of the football makes it difficult to reliably drop kick.[89][90] Once the ball has been kicked from a scrimmage kick, it can be advanced by the kicking team only if it is caught or recovered behind the line of scrimmage. If it is touched or recovered by the kicking team beyond this line, it becomes dead at the spot where it was touched.[102][103][104] The kicking team is prohibited from interfering with the receiver's opportunity to catch the ball, and the receiving team has the option of signaling for a fair catch. This prohibits the defense from blocking into or tackling the receiver, but the play ends as soon as the ball is caught and the ball may not be advanced.[105][106][107]

text: Officials and fouls[edit]

text: Officials are responsible for enforcing game rules and monitoring the clock. All officials carry a whistle and wear black-and-white striped shirts and black hats except for the referee, whose hat is white. Each carries a weighted yellow flag that is thrown to the ground to signal that a foul has been called. An official who spots multiple fouls will throw their hat as a secondary signal.[108] The seven officials on the field are each tasked with a different set of responsibilities:[108]

text:
The referee is positioned behind and to the side of the offensive backs. The referee is charged with oversight and control of the game and is the authority on the score, the down number, and any and all rule interpretations in discussions between the other officials. The referee announces all penalties and discusses the infraction with the offending team's captain, monitors for illegal hits against the quarterback, makes requests for first-down measurements, and notifies the head coach whenever a player is ejected. The referee positions themselves to the passing arm side of the quarterback. In most games, the referee is responsible for spotting the football prior to a play from scrimmage.
The umpire is positioned in the defensive backfield, except in the NFL, where the umpire is positioned lateral to the referee on the opposite side of the formation. The umpire watches play along the line of scrimmage to make sure that no more than 11 offensive players are on the field prior to the snap and that no offensive linemen are illegally downfield on pass plays. The umpire monitors the contact between offensive and defensive linemen and calls most of the holding penalties. The umpire records the number of timeouts taken and the winner of the coin toss and the game score, assists the referee in situations involving possession of the ball close to the line of scrimmage, determines whether player equipment is legal, and dries wet balls prior to the snap if a game is played in rain.
The back judge is positioned deep in the defensive backfield, behind the umpire. The back judge ensures that the defensive team has no more than 11 players on the field and determines whether catches are legal, whether field goal or extra point attempts are good, and whether a pass interference violation occurred. The back judge is also responsible for the play clock, the time between each play, when a visible play clock is not used.
The head linesman is positioned on one end of the line of scrimmage. The head linesman watches for any line-of-scrimmage and illegal use-of-hands violations and assists the line judge with illegal shift or illegal motion calls. The head linesman also rules on out-of-bounds calls that happen on their side of the field, oversees the chain crew and marks the forward progress of a runner when a play has been whistled dead.

tag: ul

text:
The side judge is positioned twenty yards downfield of the head linesman. The side judge mainly duplicates the functions of the field judge. On field goal and extra point attempts, the side judge is positioned lateral to the umpire.
The line judge is positioned on the end of the line of scrimmage, opposite the head linesman. He or she supervises player substitutions, the line of scrimmage during punts, and game timing. The line judge notifies the referee when time has expired at the end of a quarter and notifies the head coach of the home team when five minutes remain for halftime. In the NFL, the line judge also alerts the referee when two minutes remain in the half. If the clock malfunctions or becomes inoperable, the line judge becomes the official timekeeper.
The field judge is positioned twenty yards downfield from the line judge. The field judge monitors and controls the play clock, counts the number of defensive players on the field, and watches for offensive pass interference and illegal use-of-hands violations by offensive players. The field judge also makes decisions regarding catches, recoveries, the ball spot when a player goes out of bounds, and illegal touching of fumbled balls that have crossed the line of scrimmage. On field goal and extra point attempts, the field judge is stationed under the upright opposite the back judge.
The center judge is an eighth official used in the top level of college football. The center judge stands lateral to the referee, the same way the umpire does in the NFL. The center judge is responsible for spotting the football after each play, and has many of the same responsibilities as the referee, except announcing penalties.

text: Another set of officials, the chain crew, are responsible for moving the chains. The chains, consisting of two large sticks with a 10-yard-long chain between them, are used to measure for a first down. The chain crew stays on the sidelines during the game, but if requested by the officials they will briefly bring the chains on to the field to measure. A typical chain crew will have at least three people – two members of the chain crew will hold either of the two sticks, while a third will hold the down marker. The down marker, a large stick with a dial on it, is flipped after each play to indicate the current down, and is typically moved to the approximate spot of the ball. The chain crew system has been used for over 100 years and is considered to be an accurate measure of distance, rarely subject to criticism from either side.[87]

text: Safety[edit]

text: Football is a full-contact sport, and injuries are relatively common. Most injuries occur during training sessions, particularly ones that involve contact between players.[109] To try to prevent injuries, players are required to wear a set of equipment. At a minimum players must wear a football helmet and a set of shoulder pads, but individual leagues may require additional padding such as thigh pads and guards, knee pads, chest protectors, and mouthguards.[110][111][112] Most injuries occur in the lower extremities, particularly in the knee, but a significant number also affect the upper extremities. The most common types of injuries are strains, sprains, bruises, fractures, dislocations, and concussions.[109]

text: Repeated concussions (and possibly sub-concussive head impacts[113]) can increase a person's risk in later life for chronic traumatic encephalopathy and mental health issues such as dementia, Parkinson's disease, and depression.[114] Concussions are often caused by helmet-to-helmet or upper-body contact between opposing players, although helmets have prevented more serious injuries such as skull fractures.[115] Various programs are aiming to reduce concussions by reducing the frequency of helmet-to-helmet hits; USA Football's "Heads Up Football" program is aiming to reduce concussions in youth football by teaching coaches and players about the signs of a concussion, the proper way to wear football equipment and ensure it fits, and proper tackling methods that avoid helmet-to-helmet contact.[116] However, a study in the Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine found that Heads Up Football was ineffective; the same study noted that more extensive reforms implemented by Pop Warner Little Scholars and its member teams were effective in significantly reducing concussion rates.[117]

text: Leagues and tournaments[edit]

text: The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are the most popular football leagues in the United States.[118] The National Football League was founded in 1920[119] and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States.[120] The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 during the 2011 NFL Season.[121] The NFL championship game is called the Super Bowl, and is among the biggest events in club sports worldwide.[122] It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy.[123]

text: College football is the third-most popular sport in the United States, behind professional baseball and professional football.[124] The NCAA, the largest collegiate organization, is divided into three Divisions: Division I, Division II and Division III.[125] Division I football is further divided into two subdivisions: the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS).[126] The champions of each level of play are determined through NCAA-sanctioned playoff systems; while the champion of Division I-FBS was historically determined by various polls and ranking systems, the subdivision adopted a four-team playoff system in 2014.[127]

text: High school football is the most popular sport in the United States played by boys; over 1.1 million boys participated in the sport from 2007 to 2008 according to a survey by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). The NFHS is the largest organization for high school football, with member associations in all 50 states as well as the District of Columbia. USA Football is the governing body for youth and amateur football,[128] and Pop Warner Little Scholars is the largest organization for youth football.[129]

text: Rival professional leagues[edit]

text: Several professional football leagues have been formed as rival leagues to the NFL. The most successful rival league was the American Football League (AFL), which existed from 1960 to 1969. The AFL became a significant rival in 1964 before signing a five-year, US$36 million television deal with NBC. AFL teams began to sign NFL players to contracts, and the league's popularity grew to challenge that of the NFL. The two leagues merged in the 1970 season, and all AFL teams joined the NFL. An earlier league, the All-America Football Conference, was in play from 1946 to 1949. After the league dissolved, two AAFC teams, the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers, became members of the NFL; another member, the Baltimore Colts joined the league, but folded after just a year in the NFL.[130]

text: Other attempts to start rival leagues have been far less successful. The World Football League (WFL) played for two seasons, in 1974 and 1975, but faced monetary issues so severe that the league could not pay its players. In its second and final season the WFL attempted to establish a stable credit rating, but the league disbanded before its second season could be completed.[131] The United States Football League (USFL) operated for three seasons from 1983 to 1985 but collapsed due to poor business decisions and monetary problems. A subsequent USD $1.5 billion antitrust lawsuit against the NFL was successful in court, but the league was awarded only three dollars in damages.[132] The XFL was created in 2001 by Vince McMahon and lasted for only one season. Despite television contracts with NBC and UPN and high expectations, the XFL suffered from poor television ratings and a low quality of play.[133] The United Football League (UFL) began in 2009, but folded after suspending its 2012 season, due to financial issues.[134]

text: International play[edit]

text: American football leagues exist throughout the world, but the game has yet to achieve the international success and popularity of baseball and basketball.[135] NFL Europa, the developmental league of the NFL, operated from 1991 to 1992 and then from 1995 to 2007. At the time of its closure, NFL Europa had five teams based in Germany and one in the Netherlands.[136]

text: The European Football League (EFL), run by the European Federation of American Football (EFAF), is an annual invitational tournament between the champions or co-champions of competitions run by EFAF members. The league's championship game is the Eurobowl.[137] Other EFAF tournaments include the EFAF Cup, played between the top teams from national leagues in a similar manner to the UEFA Cup,[138] the Atlantic Cup, played between teams from the Atlantic region of Europe,[139] and the Challenge Cup, played between teams from newer federations that are not eligible to play in the EFL or EFAF Cup.[140] American football federations are also present in Asia, Oceania, and Pan America, and a total of 64 national football federations exist as of July 2012.[141] The International Federation of American Football (IFAF), an international body composed of American football federations, runs tournaments such as the IFAF World Championship, which is held every four years since 1999, the IFAF Women's World Championship, the IFAF U-19 World Championship and the Flag Football World Championship. The IFAF also organizes the annual International Bowl game.[142] At the international level, Canada, Mexico, and Japan are considered to be second-tier, while Austria, Germany, and France would rank among a third tier. All of these countries rank far below the United States, which is dominant at the international level.[141]

text: Football is not an Olympic sport, but it was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Summer Olympics.[1] The IFAF has received provisional recognition from the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and a vote on making it an Olympic sport could be held as early as 2017.[143] Several major obstacles hinder the IFAF goal of achieving status as an Olympic sport, such as the predominant participation of men in international play and the short three-week Olympic schedule. Large team sizes are an additional difficulty, due to the Olympics' set limit of 10,500 athletes and coaches. American football also has the issue of global visibility. Nigel Melville, the CEO of USA Rugby, noted that "American football is recognized globally as a sport, but it's not played globally." In order to solve these concerns, major effort has been put into promoting flag football, a modified version of American football, at the international level.[141]

text: Popularity and cultural impact[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: "Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam.[144] In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time.[145] Professional football is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees.[146] Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1 million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1 million participants in high school and 34,000 in college.[147] The Super Bowl is the most popular single-day sporting event in the United States,[27] and is among the biggest club sporting events in the world in terms of TV viewership.[122] The NFL makes approximately $10 billion annually.[148] Super Bowl games account for seven of the top eight most-watched broadcasts in American history; Super Bowl XLIX was watched by a record 114.4 million Americans.[149]

text: American football also plays a significant role in American culture. The Super Bowl is considered a de facto national holiday,[150] and in parts of the country like Texas, the sport has been compared to a religion.[151][152] Football is also linked to other holidays; New Year's Day is traditionally the date for several college football bowl games, including the Rose Bowl. However, if New Year's Day is on a Sunday, the bowl games are moved to another date to not conflict with the typical NFL Sunday schedule.[153] Thanksgiving football is an American tradition,[154] hosting many high school, college, and professional games.[155] Steve Deace of USA Today wrote that Americans are passionate about football "because it embodies everything we love about American exceptionalism. Merit is rewarded, not punished. Masculinity is celebrated, not feminized. People of various beliefs and backgrounds – a melting pot, if you will – must unify for a common goal for the team to be successful".[156] Implicit rules such as playing through pain and sacrificing for the better of the team are promoted in football culture.[157]

text: The safety of the sport has also sparked national controversy in American popular culture.[158] It is often received as "overly aggressive", and defamiliarized in popular culture.[159] The 2015 film Concussion aimed to shed light on the sport's safety, specifically in the NFL by having Will Smith portray Dr. Bennet Omalu, a neuropathologist who was the first to discover and publish findings of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).

text: Other countries[edit]

text: In Canada, the game has a significant following – according to a 2013 poll, 21% of respondents said they followed the NFL "very closely" or "fairly closely", making it the third-most followed league behind the National Hockey League (NHL) and Canadian Football League (CFL).[160] American football also has a long history in Mexico, which was introduced to the sport in 1896. American football was the second-most popular sport in Mexico in the 1950s, with the game being particularly popular in colleges.[161] The Los Angeles Times notes that the NFL claims over 16 million fans in Mexico, which places the country third behind the US and Canada.[162] American football is played in Mexico both professionally and as part of the college sports system.[163] The top American football competition in Mexico is the recently created Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional (Professional American Football League). At the collegiate level there is the Liga Mayor of the ONEFA, a college championship founded in 1930. There is also the CONADEIP Premier Conference, another college competition founded in 2010. American football is the fifth most popular sport in Mexico and the country has the highest rating of the NFL outside the United States.

text: Japan was introduced to the sport in 1934 by Paul Rusch, a teacher and Christian missionary who helped establish football teams at three universities in Tokyo. Play was halted during World War II, but began to grow in popularity again after the war. As of 2010[update], there are more than 400 high school football teams in Japan, with over 15,000 participants, and over 100 teams play in the Kantoh Collegiate Football Association (KCFA).[164] The college champion plays the champion of the X-League (a semi-pro league where teams are financed by corporations) in the Rice Bowl to determine Japan's national champion.[165]

text: Europe is a major target for expansion of the game by football organizers. In the United Kingdom in the 1980s, the sport was fairly popular, with the 1986 Super Bowl being watched by over 4 million people (about 1 out of every 14 Britons). The sport's popularity faded over the 1990s, coinciding with the establishment of the Premier League. According to BBC America, there is a "social stigma" surrounding American football in the UK, with many Brits feeling the sport has no right to call itself 'football' due to the small emphasis on kicking.[166] Nonetheless, the sport has retained a following in the United Kingdom; the NFL operates a media network in the country, and since 2007 has hosted the NFL International Series in London. Super Bowl viewership has also rebounded, with over 4.4 million Britons watching Super Bowl XLVI.[167]

text: The sport is played in European countries such as Switzerland, which has American football clubs in every major city,[168] and Germany, where the sport has around 45,000 registered amateur players.[163] In Europe, almost all nations have their own leagues, highlighting its importance those of Austria (Austrian Football League), Germany (German Football League), Great Britain (BAFA National Leagues), France (Ligue Élite de Football Américain) and Italy (Italian Football League). But in these countries American football has not yet reached the same level of popularity it has, for example, in North America. There are national teams of Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain and Sweden.

text: In Brazil, American football audience increased 800% between 2013 and 2016, according to ESPN, which is, along to Esporte Interativo, the responsible to the transmission in the country. Brazil's audience is the 3rd of the world, behind only Mexico and United States. NFL leaders visited Maracanã Stadium, in Rio de Janeiro, to verify the field. Rumors were that a Pro Bowl edition could be held there. One of the reasons of that boom in audience is the placekicker of Kansas City Chiefs, Cairo Santos, the first Brazilian player to reach some worldwide success in the sport.[169] Also, the sport is already one of the most played around the country, with approximately 130 teams. The Superliga Nacional de Futebol Americano (National American Football Superleague) is a recently created Brazilian American football league, created and organized by the Confederação Brasileira de Futebol Americano (pt) (Brazilian Confederation of American Football). To 2017, a strongest league will get start in June, including 32 teams around the country, in 4 conferences. In 2017, the famous soccer team Cruzeiro Esporte Clube joined with the 2016 America Cup's champion BH Eagles Futebol Americano, to create the Sada Cruzeiro Futebol Americano. The recent born team already won his state championship, and for the Brazilian top league already has signed with former NFL's player Nic Harris.

text: In other countries of South America there was a very important evolution with regard to American Football, since 2006 when has begun the practice of this sport in Argentina. Currently there are three American Football Leagues in that country: Football Americano Argentina, located in Buenos Aires, which has six teams; Córdoba Football Americano, located in Córdoba, with three teams; Rosario Football League, located in Rosario, also with three teams. In addition there are teams in the formation stage in several provinces, such as in the province of Santa Fe.

text: In Colombia the FECOFA (Colombian Federation of American Football) was created. Recently it formalized a strategic alliance with FLAG FOOTBALL COLOMBIA to join efforts and work together looking for the growth and development of American football in all its modalities.

text: Variations and related sports[edit]

text: Canadian football, the predominant form of football in Canada, is closely related to American football – both sports developed from rugby, and the two sports are considered to be the chief variants of gridiron football.[170] Although the two games share a similar set of rules, there are several key rule differences: for example, in Canadian football the field measures 150 by 65 yards (137 by 59 m), including two 20-yard end zones (for a distance between goal lines of 110 yards),[171] teams have three downs instead of four, there are twelve players on each side instead of eleven,[172] fair catches are not allowed, and a rouge, worth a single point is scored if the offensive team kicks the ball out of the defense's end zone.[173] The Canadian Football League (CFL) is the major Canadian league and is the second-most popular sporting league in Canada, behind only the National Hockey League.[173]

text: A major variant of football is arena football, played by the Arena Football League (AFL).[174] Arena football has eight-player teams and uses an indoor field 50 yards (46 m) in length, excluding end zones, and 28.3 yards (25.9 m) wide. Punting is illegal, and kickoffs are attempted from the goal line. Large overhead nets deflect forward passes and kicks that hit them, and deflected kicks are live balls that may be recovered by either team.[175]

text: Below the Arena Football League are what New York Times writer Mike Tanier described as the "most minor of minor leagues:" indoor football leagues. Like in arena football, teams in indoor football leagues play in arenas, but games are only attended by a small number of fans, and most players are semi-professional athletes. Indoor football leagues are unstable, with franchises regularly moving from one league to another or merging with other teams, and teams or entire leagues dissolving entirely. The Indoor Football League, National Arena League, Champions Indoor Football and American Arena League are examples of prominent indoor leagues that are active as of 2017.[176]

text: There are several non-contact variants of American football, such as flag football.[177] In flag football the ballcarrier is not tackled; instead, defenders aim to pull a flag tied around their waist.[178] Another variant, touch football, simply requires the ballcarrier to be touched to be considered downed. A game of touch football may require that the player be touched with either one or two hands to be considered down, depending on the rules used.[179]


document_title: Pop Goes the Weasel

question_text: origins of nursery rhymes pop goes the weasel

root

text: Pop Goes the Weasel

text: Lyrics[edit]

text: There are many different versions of the lyrics to the song. In England, most share the basic verse:

tag: p

text:
Pop Goes the Weasel

Tune for Pop Goes the Weasel

Problems playing this file? See media help.

tag: table

text: Often a second verse is added:

text: And:

text: Origins[edit]

text: The tune appears to have begun as dance music, to which words were later added. A music sheet acquired by the British Library in 1853 describes a dance, "Pop! Goes the Weasel", as "An Old English Dance, as performed at Her Majesty's & The Nobilities Balls, with the Original Music". It had a tune very similar to that used today but only the words "Pop! Goes the Weasel".[1][2] The dance became extremely popular, and featured on stage[3] as well as in dance-halls.[4] By September of the same year the title was being used as a scornful riposte[5] and soon words were added to an already well-known tune.[6] The song is mentioned in November, 1855 in a Church of England pamphlet[7] where it is described as a universally popular song played in the streets on barrel organs, but with "senseless lyrics": the use of alternative, more wholesome words is suggested. The following verse had been written by 1856 when it was quoted in a performance at the Theatre Royal:

text: Additional verses related to both traditions are:

text: American versions[edit]

text:
Pop Goes the Weasel

Tune for Pop Goes the Weasel by Nicolas Gasparini (myuu)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: The song seems to have crossed the Atlantic in the 1850s where U.S. newspapers soon afterwards call it "the latest English dance", and the phrase "Pop! goes the weasel" soon took hold.[8] The remaining words were still unstable in Britain, and as a result some of the U.S. lyrics are significantly different and may have an entirely different source, but use the same tune.[8] The following lyric was printed in Boston in 1858:

text: In 1901 in New York the opening lines were:

text: The most common recent version was not recorded until 1914. In addition to the three verses above, American versions often include some of the following:

text: Contemporary verses in the United States include these, the first three being sung one after the other with the third getting the 'closing' version of the tune.

text: There are numerous American versions[10] as printed in Vance Randolph, Ozark Folksongs, Volume III, pp. 368–369. Randolph's #556, the A text. Collected 1926 from Mrs. Marie Wilbur of Pineville, Missouri.

text: Meaning and interpretations[edit]

text: Perhaps because of the obscure nature of the various lyrics there have been many suggestions for what they mean, particularly the phrase "Pop! goes the weasel", including: that it is a tailor's flat iron, a dead weasel, a hatter's tool, a spinner's weasel used for measuring in spinning,[8][11] a piece of silver plate, or that 'weasel and stoat' is Cockney rhyming slang for "throat", as in "Get that down yer Weasel" meaning to eat or drink something. An alternative meaning involves pawning one's coat in order to buy food and drink, as "weasel" is rhyming slang for "coat"[12] and "pop" is a slang word for "pawn".[13]

text: The Weasel was the dole in Britain.

text: A spinner's weasel consists of a wheel which is revolved by the spinner in order to measure off thread or yarn after it has been produced on the spinning wheel. The weasel is usually built so that the circumference is six feet, so that 40 revolutions produces 80 yards of yarn, which is a skein. It has wooden gears inside and a cam, designed to cause a popping sound after the 40th revolution, telling the spinner that she has completed the skein.[11][14][15][16]

text: Other than correspondences, none of these theories has any additional evidence to support it, and some can be discounted because of the known history of the song.[1] Iona and Peter Opie observed that, even at the height of the dance craze in the 1850s, no-one seemed to know what the phrase meant.[1]

text: The "Eagle" in the song's third verse probably refers to The Eagle freehold pub at the corner of Shepherdess Walk and City Road mentioned in the same verse.[17][18] The Eagle was an old pub in City Road, London, which was rebuilt as a music hall in 1825, demolished in 1901, and then rebuilt as a public house.[19] This public house bears a plaque with this interpretation of the nursery rhyme and the pub's history.

text: As a singing game[edit]

text: In Britain the rhyme has been played as a children's game since at least the late 19th century. The first verse quoted above is sung, while several rings are formed and they dance around. One player more than the number of rings are designated as "weasels", all but one standing in the rings. When the "Pop! goes the weasel" line is reached they have to rush to a new ring before anyone else can. The one that fails is eliminated and the number of circles is reduced by one until there is only one weasel left.[1] This is basically the American game of musical chairs: music is played as players circle a row of chairs, one fewer chairs than players, while music plays. When the music stops, the players vie for the available chairs, and the player left standing is "out".

text: Pop recording[edit]

text: A pop version of the song was recorded in 1938 by The Merry Macs on Decca Records (Decca 64413-A) and again in 1961 by British singer Anthony Newley, also on the Decca label (Decca F11362), and reached number 12 in the UK singles chart. The tune is prominently used in numerous Three Stooges episodes.

text: Other uses[edit]

text: The melody of "Pop Goes the Weasel" was used as a leitmotif in several episodes of the 1960s science fiction series The Prisoner, particularly in the series' penultimate episode "Once Upon a Time" in which the lead character, under an intense form of interrogation, obsessively sings the song, with "POP" identified as a meme representing the directive "protect other people."[20]

text: A few verses of Les bibittes by Karo are sung to the tune of Pop Goes The Weasel.

text: An episode of Thomas the Tank Engine uses the tune in a taunting song aimed at Diesel: Pop Goes the Diesel.

text: In 1973, Sesame Street had an animated cartoon short based on the song that has the monkey and the weasel in the song, as the monkey is shown chasing the weasel, but it had them switch their body parts as part of a series of "What if..." cartoons directed, produced, designed, and animated by Cliff Roberts.


document_title: The Greatest Showman

question_text: who wrote the songs in the greatest showman

text: The Greatest Showman

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the late 19th century, P. T. Barnum and his troupe perform a show at the circus ("The Greatest Show"). In a flashback to Barnum's childhood where he and his father Philo, a tailor, work for the Hallett family, he becomes infatuated with their daughter, Charity. Though Charity is being sent to finishing school, Barnum reassures her they will not be separated. The two keep in touch through letters until they meet again in adulthood ("A Million Dreams"), eventually marrying and raising two daughters, Caroline and Helen, in New York City ("A Million Dreams" reprise). They live a humble life; though Charity is happy, Barnum dreams of more.

text: Barnum loses his job as a clerk at a shipping company after the company goes bankrupt. Taking a risky bet, he takes out a large loan from a bank, deceiving the bank into accepting his former employer's lost ships as collateral. He uses this loan to buy Barnum's American Museum in downtown Manhattan, an attraction showcasing various wax models. Initially, sales are slow; on the suggestion of his children to showcase something "alive", Barnum searches for "freaks" to serve as performers for his museum ("Come Alive"). This attracts a large audience despite protests and poor reviews, prompting Barnum to rename his venture "Barnum's Circus".

text: Searching for ways to further his reputation amongst the upper class, Barnum meets playwright Phillip Carlyle and convinces him to join his venture ("The Other Side"). Carlyle is enchanted with Anne Wheeler, an African-American trapeze artist, but he hides his feelings. During a trip, Carlyle arranges for Barnum and his troupe to meet Queen Victoria. Afterwards, Barnum meets Jenny Lind, a famed Swedish singer, whom he convinces to perform in America, with him serving as her manager. Lind's first American performance is a rousing success ("Never Enough"). While Barnum gains favor with the aristocratic patrons, he begins to distance himself from his original troupe, refusing to socialize with them. Dejected, they decide to stand against their local harassers ("This Is Me").

text: Carlyle and Wheeler attend the theatre together one night, only to run into Carlyle's parents, who insult Wheeler's lowly status, causing her to leave. Carlyle chases her and tries to convince her that they can be together, but she rejects him despite her feelings towards him ("Rewrite the Stars"). As Barnum takes Lind on a US tour, Charity feels isolated from her husband as she stays home with their daughters ("Tightrope"). While on tour, Lind begins falling in love with Barnum, but when he refuses her advances, she calls off the tour and kisses him at the end of her last show, which is photographed by the press ("Never Enough" reprise). Barnum returns home to find his circus on fire, caused by a fight between the protesters and the troupe. Carlyle, who had tried to save Anne not knowing she had already escaped, is rescued by Barnum amid the chaos but suffers severe burns. Most of the sets and props are destroyed. Word of Lind's cancellation and Barnum's public intimacy also reaches New York, resulting in his mansion being foreclosed upon and Charity taking Caroline and Helen to her parents' home.

text: Depressed, Barnum retreats to a local bar, where his troupe find him there and explain that their own mothers were ashamed of them, and how unimpressed they are with him for giving up on them too, thinking that maybe he is a fraud, which causes him to realize the circus was for his friends and family rather than for himself. Meanwhile, the injured Carlyle wakes in a hospital with Anne by his side and they share a kiss ("From Now On").

text: Barnum leaves and finds his estranged wife, and they decide to mend their relationship. Faced with the financial difficulty of rebuilding the circus, the recovering Carlyle steps in, offering to use his earnings from his share of the circus's profits to rebuild it under the condition of becoming partners, which Barnum happily accepts. As rebuilding the circus in its original location would be too expensive, Barnum rebuilds it as an open-air tent circus by the docks. The revamped circus is a huge success, and Barnum gives full control of the show to Carlyle so he can focus on his family ("The Greatest Show" reprise).

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Hugh Jackman as P. T. Barnum, an ambitious showman and entrepreneur.

Ellis Rubin as Young P. T. Barnum

Ziv Zaifman provides Young P. T. Barnum's singing voice.

Zac Efron as Phillip Carlyle, a playwright who becomes Barnum's partner. His character is partly based on James Anthony Bailey.
Michelle Williams as Charity Hallett-Barnum, the wife of P.T. Barnum.

Skylar Dunn as Young Charity

Rebecca Ferguson as Jenny Lind, a famous Swedish singer known as the "Swedish Nightingale".

Loren Allred provides Lind's singing voice.[8][9]

Zendaya as Anne Wheeler, an acrobat, trapeze artist, W.D.'s younger sister and Phillip Carlyle's love interest. Her character is partly based on Ruth Louisa McCaddon.
Keala Settle as Lettie Lutz, a bearded lady. She is a composite character partly based on Josephine Clofullia and Annie Jones.
Yahya Abdul-Mateen II as W. D. Wheeler, an acrobat and Anne's brother.
Natasha Liu Bordizzo as Deng Yan, a Chinese acrobat and blade-specialist.
Paul Sparks as James Gordon Bennett, the founder, editor and publisher of the New York Herald.
Sam Humphrey as Charles Stratton, a dwarf performer who is also known by his stage name, General Tom Thumb.

James Babson provides Stratton's speaking and singing voice.

Austyn Johnson as Caroline Barnum, one of Barnum's daughters.
Cameron Seely as Helen Barnum, one of Barnum's daughters.
Eric Anderson as Mr. O'Malley, a former thief whom Barnum employs at his circus to handle different tasks like staffing the front of the house, selling tickets, reading the reviews, fending off the protestors, producing the posters and promotional materials, and distributing the circus posters on everything.
Daniel Everidge as The Lord of Leeds, a heavyweight man who is based on Teodulo Valenzuela.
Timothy Hughes as the Strongman, a man with enhanced strength who is based on Angus MacAskill.
Shannon Holtzapffel as Prince Constantine, the Tattooed Man who is based off George Costentenus.
Luciano Acuna Jr. as Walter, the Dog Boy who is based off of Fedor Jeftichew.
Danial Son and Yusaku Komori as Chang and Eng Bunker, the "Siamese Twins."
Jonathan Redavid as Frank Lentini, the Three-Legged Man.
Nick Jantz as Jeff Harris, the Juggler.
Kenneth Chan as the Human Cannonball
Martha Nichols as Woman in Gold, a woman in gold clothing with gold spots on her.
Jeremy Hudson as The Elephant-Skinned Man, a man who is based off of Ralph Krooner. He was credited as "Dancer Oddity #3."[10]
Taylor James as Blockhead, a man with facial piercing that is based off of Melvin Burkhart. He is credited as "Dancing Oddity #4."[10]
Chelsea Caso as Tattoo Lady, a woman covered in tattoos who is based off of Nora Hildebrant. She is credited as "Dancing Oddity #5."[10]
Caoife Coleman and Mishay Petronelli as the Albino Twins. They were credited as "Dancer Oddity #6" and "Dancer Oddity #7."
Khasan Brasilford as Albino Man, a white-haired man in white clothes. He was credited as "Ensemble Dancer #1."[10]
Alex Wong as Oriental Man, a man dressed in an oriental outfit. He was credited as "Ensemble Dancer #2."[10]
Julius Rubio as Golden Boy, a man in gold clothing with gold spots on him. He was credited as "Ensemble Dancer #2."[10]
Vincent-Oliver Noiseux as Devil Boy, a performer with horns. He was credited as "Ensemble Dancer #4."[10]
Dean Walters and Jessica Castro as the Voodoo Twins. They are credited as "Ensemble Dancer #5" and "Ensemble Dancer" #6.[10]
Najla Gilam as Snake Dancer, a snake charmer who is based off of Nala Damajanti. She was credited as "Ensemble Dancer #7."[10]
Damian Young as Mr. Winthrop
Tina Benko as Mrs. Winthrop
Gayle Rankin as Queen Victoria.
Will Swenson as Philo Barnum, a tailor and the father of P. T. Barnum.
Fredric Lehne as Benjamin Hallett, father of Charity and abusive father-in-law of Barnum.
Kathryn Meisle as Hannah Hallett, mother of Charity and mother-in-law of Barnum.
Shuler Hensley as Lead Protestor
James Andrew O'Connor as Fireman

text: Production[edit]

text: The project was first announced in 2009, with Jackman already set for the title role.[11] In August 2011, Michael Gracey was chosen to direct.[12] In 2013, Fox hired lyricists Pasek and Paul to write the songs.[13]

text: On June 15, 2016, Zac Efron began negotiations to star in the film,[14] and in July 2016, Michelle Williams was cast.[15][16][17][18] The film was choreographed by Ashley Wallen.[19]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Rehearsals on the film began in October 2016 in New York City, and principal photography began on November 22, 2016.[20][21]

text: Post-production[edit]

text: In December 2017, it was reported that James Mangold, who had worked with Jackman on several projects (including 2017's Logan), had been brought in to serve as an executive producer during the film's post-production. In an interview, director Michael Gracey noted, "There were eight producers on this film, and it was amazing having one of them be a filmmaker."[22]

text: Music[edit]

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text: Benj Pasek and Justin Paul wrote nine songs.[23]

text:
"The Greatest Show" – Hugh Jackman, Keala Settle, Zac Efron, Zendaya
"A Million Dreams" – Ziv Zaifman, Jackman, Michelle Williams
"A Million Dreams" (Reprise) – Austyn Johnson, Cameron Seely, Jackman
"Come Alive" – Jackman, Settle, Daniel Everidge, Zendaya
"The Other Side" – Jackman & Efron
"Never Enough" – Loren Allred
"This Is Me" – Settle
"Rewrite the Stars" – Efron & Zendaya
"Tightrope" – Williams
"Never Enough" (Reprise) – Allred
"From Now On" – Jackman

tag: ol

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The soundtrack album is produced by Greg Wells, Justin Paul, and Benj Pasek, featuring eleven tracks performed by the cast. In the United Kingdom it became only the second album in 30 years to achieve 11 consecutive weeks at number 1.[24] The Greatest Showman now draws level with Adele's 21 for the longest unbroken run at the UK summit in the last 30 years. The cast album is now at 465,000 combined units, according to the Official Charts Company, made up of 197,000 physical copies, 107,000 downloads and 35% streaming.[25]

text: Release[edit]

text: The Greatest Showman held its premiere on December 8, 2017, aboard the RMS Queen Mary 2, while it was docked in New York City. The film was then released in the United States on December 20, 2017.[26][27] Like Disney's live-action Beauty and the Beast, a sing-along version of the film was released in the United Kingdom on February 23, 2018.[28] The film had a limited IMAX release on February 2.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On June 28, 2017, 20th Century Fox released the first international trailer to promote the film. On November 13, 2017, the second trailer was released.[29]

text: On December 17, 2017, Fox televised a live performance of "Come Alive" from Warner Bros. Studios during its live musical special A Christmas Story Live! (which was based on fellow Pasek and Paul work A Christmas Story: The Musical). The number featured the film's stars and a cast of 150 dancers.[30][31]

text: Home media[edit]

text: In the United States, the film was released via digital download on March 20, 2018, and was released on Blu-ray, DVD and 4K Ultra HD on April 10, 2018.[32] In the United Kingdom, the film was released first on digital download on April 27, 2018, while Blu-ray, 4K Ultra HD and DVD copies went on sale on May 14. These versions include the sing-along version, two hours of behind-the-scenes footage and music machine jukebox features.[33]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of June 12, 2018[update], The Greatest Showman has grossed $174 million in the United States and Canada, and $259.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $433.2 million, against a production budget of $84 million.[3] It is the third highest grossing musical ever in North America and globally, respectively, and Deadline Hollywood estimated the film would turn a profit between $50–100 million.[34]

text: In the United States and Canada, The Greatest Showman was released alongside Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, and was projected to gross around $21 million from 3,006 theaters over its first six days.[35][36] It took in $2 million on its first day and $2 million on its second. Over the three day weekend, it grossed $9 million (for a six-day total of $19 million), finishing fourth at the box office, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi, Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and Pitch Perfect 3.[37] In its second weekend, the film grossed $15.5 million, again finishing 4th at the box office.[38] The weekend-to-weekend increase of 76.3% marked the largest ever for a film playing in over 3,000 theaters, and the fourth biggest ever.[39][40] In its third week, the film dropped 11% to $14 million.[41]

text: The film made $13 million in its fourth weekend and $11 million in its fifth, finishing 4th and 5th at the box office, respectively.[42] The film continued to hold well in its sixth week of release, grossing $9.5 million and returning to 4th place,[43] and again finished fourth in its seventh week, this time grossing $7.8 million (a drop of just 18%).[44] It is the 13th highest-grossing film to never top the American box office.[45]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 56% based on 207 reviews, and an average rating of 6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The Greatest Showman tries hard to dazzle the audience with a Barnum-style sense of wonder – but at the expense of its complex subject's far more intriguing real-life story."[46] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[47] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while it earned a 70% "definite recommend" from comScore.[37]

text: Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a positive review, writing, "The Greatest Showman is a concoction, the kind of film where all the pieces click into place, yet at an hour and 45 minutes it flies by, and the link it draws between P.T. Barnum and the spirit of today is more than hype."[48] Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3/4 stars, saying, "With all that corn and cheese and old-timey sentiment, The Greatest Showman ends up scoring some very timely social arguments. P.T. Barnum himself would have approved the dramatic sleight of hand."[49] Steve Persall of Tampa Bay Times gave the film an 'A', and said, "The Greatest Showman is the feel-good movie the holiday season needs,"[50] while William Bibbiani of IGN gave The Greatest Showman a score of 7.9/10, and called the film, "wildly entertaining."[51]

text: Britton Peele of The Dallas Morning News said, "The story is interesting and the beats are well-acted, but it's the musical numbers that make The Greatest Showman."[52] Jackie K Cooper of HuffPost gave the film a score of 10/10 and wrote, "You will be overwhelmed by the music and magic that explode on the screen. The film has a message that should resonate with today's world concerning acceptance and courage."[53] Hugh Armitage of Digital Spy said, "The Greatest Showman is a broad and solid crowd-pleaser. An undemanding spectacle for all the family."[54] Alan Jones of Radio Times called it "A joyously uplifting potpourii of visual resplendence, stylish choreography and solid gold magic, one engineered to approximate the lavish spectacle the movie musical once offered."[55]

text: Sheila O'Malley of RogerEbert.com gave it 3.5/4, stating "The Greatest Showman is an unabashed piece of pure entertainment punctuated by memorable songs."[56] Douglas Davidson of CLTure called the film, "An undeniable spectacle with a infectious soundtrack, a movie that dazzles and delights."[57] James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film a 3/4 score, and said, "The film has show-stopping well-choreographed numbers with catchy tunes,"[58] and Calvin Wilson of St. Louis Post-Dispatch called the film "highly enjoyable."[59]

text: Carl Kozlowski of Pasadena Weekly gave the film an 'A', calling it "Groundbreaking & grandly innovative."[60] Sean P. Means of The Salt Lake Tribune gave The Greatest Showman 3.5/4 stars, stating, "A strong cast give emotional power to this romanticized, tune-filled biography."[61] Manuela Lazic of Little White Lies gave it 4/5, saying, "The Greatest Showman deserves to become a Christmas classic. The film's severe romanticism and ridiculous but affecting enthusiasm make it irresistibly life-affirming."[62] Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and called it, "A fantasia of song and dance, a joyous exercise in pure entertainment that is made for the holiday crowd."[63]

text: Conversely, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a negative review, criticizing the songs and characters and saying "There's idiotic, and there's magnificent, but The Greatest Showman is that special thing that happens sometimes. It's magnificently idiotic. It's an awful mess, but it's flashy. The temptation is to cover your face and watch it through your fingers, because it's so earnest and embarrassing and misguided – and yet it's well-made."[64] In a negative review for The Hollywood Reporter, David Rooney wrote "This ersatz portrait of American big-top tent impresario P.T. Barnum is all smoke and mirrors, no substance. It hammers pedestrian themes of family, friendship and inclusivity while neglecting the fundaments of character and story."[65]

text: Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 1.5 out of 4 stars, saying, "How do you cast a virtuoso Hugh Jackman as P.T. Barnum, spare no expense in production values, add a score by Oscar and Tony winners Benj Pasek and Justin Paul and still end up with the shrill blast of nothing that is The Greatest Showman? Ask first-time director Michael Gracey, who cut his teeth on commercials and music videos without ever mastering the crucial knack of building snippets of musical comedy and drama into a satisfying whole."[66] Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film's failures "are rooted in something deeper: a dispiriting lack of faith in the audience's intelligence, and a dawning awareness of its own aesthetic hypocrisy. You've rarely seen a more straight-laced musical about the joys of letting your freak flag fly."[67]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref(s)

AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards
February 5, 2018
Best Grownup Love Story
The Greatest Showman
Won
[68][69]

Academy Awards
March 4, 2018
Best Original Song
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[70][71]

Casting Society of America
January 18, 2018
Big Budget – Comedy
Bernard Telsey, Tiffany Little Canfield, Rori Bergman and Patrick Goodwin
Won
[72]

Costume Designers Guild
February 20, 2018
Excellence in Period Film
Ellen Mirojnick
Nominated
[73]

Critics' Choice Movie Awards
January 11, 2018
Best Song
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[74]

Dorian Awards
February 24, 2018
Campy Flick of the Year
The Greatest Showman
Nominated
[75]
[76]

Empire Awards
March 18, 2018
Best Costume Design
The Greatest Showman
Nominated
[77]
[78]

Best Make-up And Hairstyling
The Greatest Showman
Nominated

Georgia Film Critics Association
January 12, 2018
Best Original Song
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[79]

Golden Globe Awards
January 7, 2018
Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy
Hugh Jackman
Nominated
[80]

Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy
The Greatest Showman
Nominated

Best Original Song – Motion Picture
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Won

Golden Reel Awards
February 18, 2018
Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Musical
Jen Monnar, Jim Harrison, Jeff Carson, Peter Myles and Sheri Ozeki
Won
[81]

Guild of Music Supervisors Awards
February 8, 2018
Best Music Supervision for Film: Budgeted Over 25 Million Dollars
Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[82]

Best Song/Recording Created for a Film
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated

Heartland Film Festival
December 31, 2017
Truly Moving Picture Award
Michael Gracey
Won
[83]

Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild
February 24, 2018
Feature Motion Picture: Best Period and/or Character Makeup
Nicki Ledermann, Tania Ribalow and Sunday Englis
Nominated
[84]

Saturn Awards
June 27, 2018
Best Action or Adventure Film
The Greatest Showman
Pending
[85]

Best Costume Design
Ellen Mirojnick
Pending

Best Music
John Debney and Joseph Trapanese
Pending


document_title: Symmetry in biology

question_text: name two phyla of animals that are radially symmetrical

text: Symmetry in biology

text: Radial symmetry[edit]

text: Radially symmetric organisms resemble a pie where several cutting planes produce roughly identical pieces. Such an organism exhibits no left or right sides. They have a top and a bottom surface, or a front and a back.

text: Symmetry has been important historically in the taxonomy of animals; Georges Cuvier classified animals with radial symmetry in the taxon Radiata (Zoophytes),[1][2] which is now generally accepted to be a polyphyletic assemblage of different phyla of the Animal kingdom.[3] Most radially symmetric animals are symmetrical about an axis extending from the center of the oral surface, which contains the mouth, to the center of the opposite, aboral, end. Radial symmetry is especially suitable for sessile animals such as the sea anemone, floating animals such as jellyfish, and slow moving organisms such as starfish. Animals in the phyla Cnidaria and Echinodermata are radially symmetric,[4] although many sea anemones and some corals have bilateral symmetry defined by a single structure, the siphonoglyph.[5]

text: Many flowers are radially symmetric or actinomorphic. Roughly identical flower parts – petals, sepals, and stamens – occur at regular intervals around the axis of the flower, which is often the female part, with the carpel, style and stigma.[6]

text: Many viruses have radial symmetries, their coats being composed of a relatively small number of protein molecules arranged in a regular pattern to form polyhedrons, spheres, or ovoids. Most are icosahedrons.[7]

text: Special forms of radial symmetry[edit]

text: Tetramerism is a variant of radial symmetry found in jellyfish, which have four canals in an otherwise radial body plan.

text: Pentamerism (also called pentaradial and pentagonal symmetry) means the organism is in five parts around a central axis, 72° apart. Among animals, only the echinoderms such as sea stars, sea urchins, and sea lilies are pentamerous as adults, with five arms arranged around the mouth. Being bilaterian animals, however, they initially develop with mirror symmetry as larvae, then gain pentaradial symmetry later.[8]

text: Flowering plants show fivefold symmetry in many flowers and in various fruits. This is well seen in the arrangement of the five carpels (the botanical fruits containing the seeds) in an apple cut transversely.

text: Hexamerism is found in the corals and sea anemones (class Anthozoa) which are divided into two groups based on their symmetry. The most common corals in the subclass Hexacorallia have a hexameric body plan; their polyps have sixfold internal symmetry and the number of their tentacles is a multiple of six.

text: Octamerism is found in corals of the subclass Octocorallia. These have polyps with eight tentacles and octameric radial symmetry. The octopus, however, has bilateral symmetry, despite its eight arms.

text: Spherical symmetry[edit]

text: Spherical symmetry occurs in an organism if it is able to be cut into two identical halves through any cut that runs through the organism's center. Organisms which show approximate spherical symmetry include the freshwater green alga Volvox.[4]

text: Bilateral symmetry[edit]

text: In bilateral symmetry (also called plane symmetry), only one plane, called the sagittal plane, divides an organism into roughly mirror image halves. Thus there is approximate reflection symmetry. Internal organs are however not necessarily symmetric.

text: Animals that are bilaterally symmetric have mirror symmetry in the sagittal plane, which divides the body vertically into left and right halves, with one of each sense organ and limb group on either side. At least 99% of animals are bilaterally symmetric, including humans,[9][10][11] where facial symmetry influences people's judgements of attractiveness.[12]

text: When an organism normally moves in one direction, it inevitably has a front or head end. This end encounters the environment before the rest of the body as the organism moves along, so sensory organs such as eyes tend to be clustered there, and similarly it is the likely site for a mouth as food is encountered.[11] A distinct head, with sense organs connected to a central nervous system, therefore (on this view) tends to develop (cephalization). Given a direction of travel which creates a front/back difference, and gravity which creates a dorsal/ventral difference, left and right are unavoidably distinguished, so a bilaterally symmetric body plan is widespread and found in most animal phyla.[11][13] Bilateral symmetry also permits streamlining to reduce drag, and on a traditional view in zoology facilitates locomotion.[11] However, in the Cnidaria, different symmetries exist, and bilateral symmetry is not necessarily aligned with the direction of locomotion, so another mechanism such as internal transport may be needed to explain the origin of bilateral symmetry in animals.[11][14]

text: The phylum Echinodermata, which includes starfish, sea urchins and sand dollars, is unique among animals in having bilateral symmetry at the larval stage, but pentamerism (fivefold symmetry) as adults.[15]

text: Bilateral symmetry is not easily broken. In experiments using the fruit fly, Drosophila, in contrast to other traits (where laboratory selection experiments always yield a change), right- or left-sidedness in eye size, or eye facet number, wing-folding behavior (left over right) show a lack of response.[16]

text: Females of some species select for symmetry, presumed by biologists to be a mark (technically a "cue") of fitness. Female barn swallows, a species where adults have long tail streamers, prefer to mate with males that have the most symmetrical tails.[17]

text: Flowers in some families of flowering plants, such as the orchid and pea families, and also most of the figwort family,[18] are bilaterally symmetric (zygomorphic).[19]

text: Biradial symmetry[edit]

text: Biradial symmetry is a combination of radial and bilateral symmetry, as in the ctenophores. Here, the body components are arranged with similar parts on either side of a central axis, and each of the four sides of the body is identical to the opposite side but different from the adjacent side. This may represent a stage in the evolution of bilateral symmetry "from a presumably radially symmetrical ancestor."[14]

text: Asymmetry[edit]

text: Not all animals are symmetric. Many members of the phylum Porifera (sponges) have no symmetry, though some are radially symmetric.[20]

text: It is normal for essentially symmetric animals to show some measure of asymmetry. Usually in humans the left brain is structured differently to the right; the heart is positioned towards the left; and the right hand functions better than the left hand.[21] The scale-eating cichlid Perissodus microlepis develops left or right asymmetries in their mouths and jaws that allow them to be more effective when removing scales from the left or right flank of their prey.[22]

text: The approximately 400 species of flatfish also lack symmetry as adults, though the larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. Adult flatfish rest on one side, and the eye that was on that side has migrated round to the other (top) side of the body.[23]