document_title: Pledge of Allegiance (United States)

question_text: words under god added to pledge of allegiance

root

text: Pledge of Allegiance (United States)

text: Recital[edit]

text: Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly-scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students cannot be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so.[10] In a number of states, state flag pledges of allegiance are required to be recited after this.[11]

tag: p

text: The United States Flag Code says:

text: The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag—"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation  under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."[12]—should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.[5]

text: Origins[edit]

text: Balch and Bellamy pledges[edit]

text: The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855–1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist,[13][14] and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850–1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:

text: We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!

text: Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school.[15] Balch's pledge, which predates Bellamy's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge.[16] Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[17] The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance" was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children's magazine The Youth's Companion as part of the National Public-School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools.[18] According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: 'Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain.'"[19]

text: Bellamy's original Pledge read:

text: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.[1][20]

text: The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity[18] but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.[21]

text: Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World's Fair), Illinois.[22]

text: Francis Bellamy's account[edit]

text: In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge, Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story ... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools."[17] James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse,"[17] so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892-93).[17]

text: As the World's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land ... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions."[17] Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but [he] also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States."[17] The publication's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools."[17] Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity."[17]

text: Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation."[17] Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison."[17] He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag," seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[17] After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word 'allegiance'. ... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that 'pledge' was a better school word than 'vow' or 'swear'; and that the first person singular should be used, and that 'my' flag was preferable to 'the.'"[17] Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic," choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands."[17] Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible."[17]

text: Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity"), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and … [that] equality was a dubious word."[17] Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. They involved the spirit of equality and fraternity."[17]

text: After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words 'to my flag' were changed to 'to the flag of the United States of America' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools."[17] Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition."[17]

text: Changes[edit]

text: In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance" as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:[16]

text: I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.

text: In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915's "Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution" and 1916's annual "National Report," the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge" with Bellamy's version under the heading "New Pledge."[23][24] However, the "Old Pledge" continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.

text: In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag" to be changed to "the Flag of the United States," so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America" were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:[25]

text: I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

text: Addition of "under God"[edit]

text: Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God" to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea.[26][27] He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948,[26] he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God" added. He said that the words came from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God", all the reporters' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom." Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.[26]

text: In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance.[28] In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God" after the words "one nation." Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.[29]

text: At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D-Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God" to the Pledge in 1953.[30]

text: Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln's pew, the church's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom." He argued that the nation's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life." He cited Lincoln's words "under God" as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.[citation needed]

text: President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R-Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[31] Eisenhower said:

text: From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.[32]

text: The phrase "under God" was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.[31]

text: On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.[29]

text: Even though the movement behind inserting "under God" into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin M. Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push-back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.[33]

text: Salute[edit]

text: Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.

text: In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand-over-the-heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942.[34] Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301(b)(1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.[35]

text: Music[edit]

text: A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag" was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God" was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[36]

text: The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.[37][38]

text: It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants". A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the  U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.[39]

text: Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).[40]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case—Jehovah's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry—could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:

text: If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.[41]

text: In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.[42]

text: Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.

text: One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance.[43][42] Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, cannot really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making.[44] Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting the phrase "under God" violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.[45]

text: In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God" meant "God willing", so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.[46][47]

text: Legal challenges[edit]

text: Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag.[48] They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.[49][50]

text: In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God" an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school-sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God."[51]

text: In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.[52] As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic" by a teacher.[53]

text: In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13-year-old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.[54]

text: On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District.[55][56] In a 2–1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature" and did not constitute an establishment of religion.[55] Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state-directed, teacher-led daily recitation in public schools of the amended 'under God' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution."[57]

text: On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary.[58][59] A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.[60][61]

text: In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts.[62] In May 2014, Massachusetts' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God" represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.[63]

text: In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "… the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who don't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message."[64] The case against the Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God" in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second-class citizens." In a twenty-one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under [the association members'] reasoning, the very constitution under which [the members] seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which [association members] do not and cannot advance here."[64] Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples" that do not allow it.[65][66] He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words 'under God' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words 'In God We Trust' from every coin in the land, than the words 'so help me God' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787.”


document_title: Sons of Anarchy (season 5)

question_text: who's doing the home invasions on sons of anarchy

question_tokens: who 's doing the home invasions on sons of anarchy

text: Sons of Anarchy (season 5)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Sons of Anarchy is the story of the Teller-Morrow family of Charming, California, as well as the other members of Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, Redwood Original (SAMCRO), their families, various Charming townspeople,  allied and rival gangs, associates, and law agencies that undermine or support SAMCRO's legal and illegal enterprises.

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Charlie Hunnam as Jackson "Jax" Teller (13 episodes)
Katey Sagal as Gemma Teller Morrow (13 episodes)
Mark Boone Junior as Robert "Bobby Elvis" Munson (13 episodes)
Dayton Callie as Wayne Unser (9 episodes)
Kim Coates as Alex "Tig" Trager (13 episodes)
Tommy Flanagan as Filip "Chibs" Telford (13 episodes)
Ryan Hurst as Harry "Opie" Winston (4 episodes)
Theo Rossi as Juan-Carlos "Juice" Ortiz (13 episodes)
Maggie Siff as Tara Knowles-Teller (13 episodes)
Ron Perlman as Clarence "Clay" Morrow (13 episodes)

tag: ul

text: Special guest cast[edit]

text:
Jimmy Smits as Nero Padilla (12 episodes)
Rockmond Dunbar as Lieutenant Eli Roosevelt (8 episodes)
Harold Perrineau as Damon Pope (8 episodes)
Benito Martinez as Luis Torres (7 episodes)
Danny Trejo as Romero "Romeo" Parada (6 episodes)
Drea de Matteo as Wendy Case (4 episodes)
Donal Logue as Lee Toric (3 episodes)
Walton Goggins as Venus Van Dam ("Orca Shrugged")
Sonny Barger as Lenny "The Pimp" Janowitz ("Crucifixed")

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
David LaBrava as Happy Lowman (13 episodes)
Christopher Douglas Reed as Philip "Filthy Phil" Russell (12 episodes)
Chuck Zito as Frankie Diamonds (8 episodes)
Michael Marisi Ornstein as Chuck Marstein (8 episodes)
Winter Ave Zoli as Lyla Winston (7 episodes)
Chris Browning as GoGo (6 episodes)
Kurt Yaeger as Greg "The Peg" (6 episodes)
Wanda De Jesus as Carla (5 episodes)
Niko Nicotera as George "Rat Boy" Skogstorm (5 episodes)
Billy Brown as August Marks (5 episodes)
Reynaldo Gallegos as Fiasco (5 episodes)

McNally Sagal as Margaret Murphy (5 episodes)
Kurt Sutter as "Big" Otto Delaney (4 uncredited)
Robin Weigert as Ally Lowen (4 episodes)
Walter Wong as Chris "V-Lin" Von Lin (3 episodes)
Merle Dandridge as Rita Roosevelt (2 episodes)
Jeff Kober as Jacob Hale, Jr. (2 episodes)
Timothy V. Murphy as Galen O'Shay (2 episodes)
Kenneth Choi as Henry Lin (2 episodes)
Emilio Rivera as Marcus Alvarez (2 episodes)
Kristen Renton as Ima ("Authority Vested")
Michael Beach as T.O. Cross ("Crucifixed")

tag: table

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Rachel Miner as Dawn Trager (2 episodes)
Ashley Tisdale as Emma Jean (2 episodes)
Joel McHale as Warren (2 episodes)
Dave Navarro as Arcadio Nerona (2 episodes)
Mo McRae as Tyler Yost (2 episodes + 1 as co-star)
Marshall Allman as Devin Price ("Orca Shrugged")
Olivia Burnette as Homeless Woman ("J'ai Obtenu Cette")

text: Production[edit]

text: Although Sons of Anarchy is set in Northern California's Central Valley, it is filmed primarily at Occidental Studios Stage 5A in North Hollywood. Main sets located there include the clubhouse, St. Thomas Hospital, and Jax's house. The production rooms at the studio used by the writing staff also double as the Charming police station. External scenes are often filmed nearby in Sun Valley and Tujunga.[3]

text: On his Sons of Anarchy YouTube channel Sutterinksoa, Kurt Sutter has stated that he began writing scripts for season 5, episodes one and two as early as March 1, 2012. It was also announced that Chuck Zito would be joining the Sons cast as a Nomad traveling through Charming.[4] Another announced cast addition for season five is Jimmy Smits. Smits, known for his work in L.A. Law, NYPD Blue, The West Wing and Dexter, will play an escort service owner and former Latino gang member who becomes a mentor to Jax.[5] Harold Perrineau joined the cast in May as the villain Damon Pope.[6]

text: With Dave Erickson's departure, Kurt Sutter remains the only writer to have been writing the series since the first season.[citation needed]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeU.S. viewers(millions)541"Sovereign"Paris BarclayKurt SutterSeptember 11, 2012 (2012-09-11)5WAB015.37[7]
Jax's sovereignty has a shaky start after the Niners attack one of SAMCRO's gun shipments. Gemma makes a new ally during a night of drinking. An irritated Tara has trouble ascending to her role as queen and mother. Clay attempts to get back into the club's good graces by revealing part of the truth about Piney's death. Damon Pope and his crew exact appalling revenge on Tig. Opie rebuffs Jax's offer to sit at the table. A series of home invasions rocks Charming, particularly an unsuspecting Unser.
552"Authority Vested"Peter WellerRegina CorradoSeptember 18, 2012 (2012-09-18)5WAB024.17[8]
Jax and Chibs hide out at Nero's brothel, while planning their next move. Tig and the club scour Oakland for Fawn. Clay makes a move that surprises Bobby and Opie. In the midst of chaos, Jax and Tara have a quick wedding ceremony. Nero begins to develop an alliance with Jax and a relationship with Gemma.
563"Laying Pipe"Adam ArkinKem Nunn & Liz Sagal & Kurt SutterSeptember 25, 2012 (2012-09-25)5WAB033.80[9]
As Jax, Chibs, Tig, and Opie struggle to stay alive during their jail time in County, Bobby learns from Luis that the cartel is looking to secure a backup plan. Gemma turns to an unlikely source as Tara continues to maneuver Thomas and Abel away from her. Meanwhile, Clay uses Nero's escort service to get a rise out of Gemma. Damon Pope gives Jax his terms and conditions, which could effectively change the entire dynamic of SAMCRO.
574"Stolen Huffy"Paris BarclayChris CollinsOctober 2, 2012 (2012-10-02)5WAB044.60[10]
The police raid of Nero's brothel leaves Nero and Carla without an office space. Meanwhile, Jax and Chibs try to protect the escort the Biz Lats believe is responsible. Wendy tries to come to honest terms with Tara, while Gemma makes a move to get Tara back on her side. Jax sees an opportunity to pull the club in a new direction. Opie's wake is held, with all of SAMCRO in attendance.
585"Orca Shrugged"Gwyneth Horder-PaytonRegina Corrado & Kurt SutterOctober 9, 2012 (2012-10-09)5WAB054.34[11]
The club votes on getting into the companion business with Nero. Meanwhile, Jax begins to build bridges by getting Jacob Hale's Charming Heights development back on track. The Gallindo/Irish Kings meeting finally happens. Gemma confronts her son over her relationship with Nero. Roosevelt's wife is accidentally shot when she is pushed to the floor during a home invasion. A transsexual hooker does a favour for SAMCRO.
596"Small World"Adam ArkinRoberto PatinoOctober 16, 2012 (2012-10-16)5WAB064.03[12]
Damon Pope gives Jax an offer to mule more drugs, bringing the Niners, Lin's Triad, and the Mayans together in an uneasy pact. As Roosevelt waits for the DNA under Rita's fingernails to be identified, he swears revenge on SAMCRO if they are found guilty. Gemma is forced to ask for Clay's help after Carla ends her relationship with Nero in a bloody manner. Jax learns the identity of the County Jail officer who led Opie to his death. Unser comes to a realization about his relationship with Gemma. Tara tries to convince Otto to reverse his testimony against the club. Clay endures another setback.
607"Toad's Wild Ride"Peter WellerKurt Sutter & Chris CollinsOctober 23, 2012 (2012-10-23)5WAB074.30[13]
As Jax and the club begin to connect the dots on the series of home invasions, the Nomads scramble to get out of Charming before they are found out. Meanwhile, Jax is forced to clean up one of his mother's messes. Clay uses Juice and Unser to tie up some loose ends. Jax's trust in Pope is further strained when two black gang members attack him and Chibs. Tara gives Gemma one more chance to be in her children's lives, which ends in tragedy when Gemma has a car accident while driving with the children.
618"Ablation"Karen GaviolaMike DanielsOctober 30, 2012 (2012-10-30)5WAB084.58[14]
In the aftermath of Gemma's car accident, Clay and Nero have different approaches to helping her out of trouble with Jax and Tara: Clay lies to Jax about the accident, while Nero advises Gemma to tell the truth. The Sons try to find out who was behind the attack on Jax and Chibs. They find Frankie, who confesses Clay was behind it, but he escapes at gunpoint with Nero's money. Nero gets Jax's permission to get back together with Gemma. Clay pressures Juice, who finally fills him in on all the secrets he's been hiding from the club. In return, Clay tells him about his involvement with the Nomad's attacks. Jax discovers Gemma was under the influence of pot while driving, and Tara banishes her after striking her. Meanwhile, Roosevelt promises to tell Jax the name of the rat who has been informing on them for the RICO case, in exchange for Frankie Diamonds. Jax devises a plan to trap Clay, which includes manipulating Gemma, who's Clay's weakness, and Jax tells Gemma if she wants back in the family's good graces, she has to get close to Clay and learn his dirty secrets.
629"Andare Pescare"Billy GierhartLiz Sagal & Kurt SutterNovember 6, 2012 (2012-11-06)5WAB093.96[15]
Jax and the club go on the hunt for Frankie Diamonds, while Clay and Juice follow up on their own lead in a race to get to him first.  Clay and Juice discover Frankie has sought the protection of his old Mafia allies. The club votes on Frankie's expulsion and execution, but Jax tells Bobby they can't kill Frankie and explains the deal with Roosevelt. During the trip to find Frankie, Clay manipulates Juice into going after Frankie on their own. Nero takes Gemma to meet his disabled son. Clay and Juice find Frankie first, but Jax arrives before Clay can kill him. However, the Mafia kills Frankie when they see he killed the Mafioso assigned to guard him. Gemma and Nero share a tender moment as he buries his half-sister Carla. Tara gets more than she bargained for when she makes a second attempt to get Otto to recant his RICO statement. After obtaining Tara's reassurances about Jax's offer, Gemma takes the first step toward getting close to Clay. Jax shows Roosevelt Frankie's corpse, and in exchange he gets confirmation about the Son who talked to the police. The episode ends with Jax following Juice.
6310"Crucifixed"Guy FerlandKem NunnNovember 13, 2012 (2012-11-13)5WAB104.58[16]
After confronting Juice about his betrayal of the club, Jax offers him a path to redemption. Avenging Opie's death proves difficult when one of the perpetrators turns up under the protection of the Grim Bastards, leading to a disagreement between Jax and Bobby. As Gemma attempts to get closer to Clay, Tara performs one last favour for Otto—with bloody results.
6411"To Thine Own Self"Paris BarclayMike Daniels & John Barcheski & Kurt SutterNovember 20, 2012 (2012-11-20)5WAB114.23[17]
Jax scrambles to put his affairs in order, while Nero handles business with his old crew.
6512"Darthy"Peter WellerChris Collins & Kurt SutterNovember 27, 2012 (2012-11-27)5WAB124.25[18]
Jax makes arrangements to take the club in a different direction. The Irish kidnap Wendy, and Nero gives Jax the $450,000 required to get her back. Jax shoots up Wendy with a speedball, in an attempt to stop her from pursuing custody of Abel.
6613"J'ai Obtenu Cette"Kurt SutterKurt Sutter & Chris CollinsDecember 4, 2012 (2012-12-04)5WAB134.66[19]
Clay and Juice are packing Clay's house, preparatory to Clay's move to Ireland. Jax strikes a new deal while ridding himself of old problems. Jax and Tig kill Pope and frame Clay for the murder with the help of Juice and Gemma. After killing Pope, Jax keeps his dealings going with Pope's second in command, August Marks. Bobby figures out what Jax has done and confronts him, then later on leaves his V.P. patch on the table. Tara is arrested for conspiracy to commit murder. Gemma arrives at Jax's house to console Jax.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Season five received favourable reviews and has a rating of 72 on the review aggregator site Metacritic.[20] Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the series by calling it a "richly detailed portrait of self-righteous villainy".[citation needed]

text: Home media release[edit]

text: The fifth season was released on DVD and Blu-ray in region 1 on August 27, 2013.[21]


document_title: Crested Butte, Colorado

question_text: where is crested butte colorado on the map

text: Crested Butte, Colorado

text: History[edit]

text: The East River Valley where Crested Butte is located was once used as a summer residence by the Ute people. However, they were quickly displaced when European-Americans first entered the area. The first white people to explore the valley were beaver trappers, shortly followed by surveyors. Captain John Gunnison, after whom Gunnison County is named, was one of the early explorers to enter the area.

text: In the 1860s and 1870s coal and silver mines began to open in the surrounding area, and many little mining towns formed. However, when silver mining began to decline, many of these towns failed. Crested Butte, however, was in a better position to survive because it served as a supply town to the surrounding area.

text: Another industry that served to support Crested Butte was ranching.

text: When the coal mines closed, the town began to shrink, and eventually the local high school was closed. Students had to travel to Gunnison to go to high school. The town did not revive until a ski area was built on Crested Butte Mountain in the 1960s. From the 1960s to 1990, the Crested Butte public school only facilitated K-5 students, while 6th grade and higher attended school in Gunnison. In 1990 Crested Butte offered middle school in the railroad depot building. In 1992 a new middle school was completed which allowed the public school to facilitate grades K through 8. Finally in 1997, a new facility for the Crested Butte Community School was completed. This included the addition of a public high school so that the school now serves students in grades K-12.

text: In 1993 the Crested Butte Academy opened in Crested Butte, bringing a private high school into town. However, on 9 July 2008, the academy was closed permanently due to financial difficulties that had plagued its entire existence.[10]

text: Since the 1970s, several companies have attempted to mine molybdenum on Mount Emmons (called the "Red Lady") near Crested Butte. In 1977 W Mitchell was elected mayor of Crested Butte and led a campaign which stopped AMAX (now Freeport-McMoRan) from building a billion-dollar molybdenum mine on Mount Emmons. Because of his battle against the anticipated environmental impact, Mitchell is known as the man who "saved a mountain".[citation needed] The same year, 1977, saw the formation of the High Country Citizens' Alliance (HCCA), an environmental organization dedicated to protecting natural resources within the Upper Gunnison River Valley.[11]

text: Currently the rights for Mount Emmons molybdenum are owned by U.S. Energy Corp. On 25 April 2011, Thomson Creek Metals announced that it had terminated its option agreement with U.S. Energy Corp. to acquire an interest in the Mount Emmons molybdenum project.[12] Although US Energy continued to maintain its commitment to moving the project forward on its own behalf,[13] the withdrawal of Thomson Creek Metals was heralded as a major victory in the town of Crested Butte in its battle against the proposed molybdenum mine.[14]

text: Activities[edit]

text: Winter[edit]

text: The primary winter activity in Crested Butte is skiing or snowboarding at nearby Crested Butte Mountain Resort in Mount Crested Butte. Backcountry skiing in the surrounding mountains is some of the best in Colorado. The mountain, Crested Butte, rises to 12,162 feet (3,707 m) above sea level. The ski area base is at 9,375 feet (2,858 m). 14 lifts serve 1,058 acres (4.28 km2) of terrain. 448 acres (1.81 km2) of the terrain are double black diamond runs. The large amount of extreme skiing terrain at Crested Butte has attracted the US Extreme Skiing Championships and the X Games. The longest run on Mount Crested Butte is 2.6 miles (4.2 km).

text: The town of Crested Butte itself has a Nordic Center which has an ice skating rink as well as many miles of groomed cross-country skiing trails.

text: Summer[edit]

text: Crested Butte is one of the locations that claims to have created the sport of mountain biking. The Mountain Bike Hall of Fame used to be located in Crested Butte before moving to Fairfax, California, in 2014. Other popular summer activities in Crested Butte include hiking, backpacking, rock climbing, whitewater rafting and kayaking, four wheeling, disc golf, and fishing.

text: Festivals[edit]

text: Crested Butte hosts a number of unique festivals and parades throughout the year. These include Torchlight, New Years, Winter Carnival, Butte Bash College Ski Week and Mardi Gras during the winter months; Extreme Board Fest, Slushuck and Flauschink during spring; the Crested Butte Bike Week, Crested Butte Music Festival, Crested Butte International Film Festival, 4th of July,[15] the Crested Butte Wildflower Festival, Alpenglow Concert Series, Festival of the Arts and Ball Bash during summer; and Fall Fest, Vinotok [16] and Paragon Peoples' Fair during fall.

text: Geography[edit]

text: Crested Butte is located in north-central Gunnison County on the west side of the valley of the Slate River, along Coal Creek. Colorado State Highway 135 runs south from Crested Butte 27 miles (43 km) to Gunnison, the county seat. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town of Crested Butte has a total area of 0.85 square miles (2.2 km2), all of it land.[7] Crested Butte lies at an elevation of 8,885 feet (2,708 m) above sea level.[17]

text: Crested Butte is served by the Gunnison-Crested Butte Regional Airport in Gunnison.

text: Climate[edit]

text: Climate type is dominated by the winter season, a long, bitterly cold period with short, clear days, relatively little precipitation mostly in the form of snow, and low humidity. The Köppen Climate Classification sub-type for this climate is "Dfc" (Continental Subarctic Climate).[18]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Crested Butte, Colorado (Elevation 8,885ft)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
59
(15)
52
(11)
58
(14)
72
(22)
80
(27)
89
(32)
95
(35)
91
(33)
87
(31)
78
(26)
69
(21)
60
(16)
95
(35)

Average high °F (°C)
27.8
(−2.3)
31.4
(−0.3)
38.1
(3.4)
47.2
(8.4)
59.1
(15.1)
70.2
(21.2)
76.0
(24.4)
73.9
(23.3)
66.7
(19.3)
56.2
(13.4)
40.9
(4.9)
30.1
(−1.1)
51.5
(10.8)

Average low °F (°C)
−4.4
(−20.2)
−1.3
(−18.5)
7.1
(−13.8)
18.3
(−7.6)
27.7
(−2.4)
33.2
(0.7)
38.5
(3.6)
37.7
(3.2)
30.2
(−1)
20.9
(−6.2)
8.7
(−12.9)
−2.1
(−18.9)
17.9
(−7.8)

Record low °F (°C)
−43
(−42)
−47
(−44)
−32
(−36)
−17
(−27)
−1
(−18)
15
(−9)
17
(−8)
17
(−8)
3
(−16)
−26
(−32)
−28
(−33)
−39
(−39)
−47
(−44)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
2.69
(68.3)
2.35
(59.7)
2.29
(58.2)
1.79
(45.5)
1.42
(36.1)
1.28
(32.5)
1.99
(50.5)
2.10
(53.3)
2.01
(51.1)
1.53
(38.9)
1.71
(43.4)
2.30
(58.4)
23.46
(595.9)

Average snowfall inches (cm)
39.9
(101.3)
34.5
(87.6)
31.3
(79.5)
17.6
(44.7)
6.5
(16.5)
0.7
(1.8)
0
(0)
0
(0)
1.3
(3.3)
7.7
(19.6)
23.8
(60.5)
34.3
(87.1)
197.5
(501.7)

Source: The Western Regional Climate Center[19]

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1890
857

—

1900
988

15.3%

1910
904

−8.5%

1920
1,213

34.2%

1930
1,251

3.1%

1940
1,145

−8.5%

1950
730

−36.2%

1960
289

−60.4%

1970
372

28.7%

1980
959

157.8%

1990
878

−8.4%

2000
1,529

74.1%

2010
1,487

−2.7%

Est. 2016
1,604
[5]
7.9%

U.S. Decennial Census[20]

text: As of the census[21] of 2000, there were 1,529 people, 692 households, and 253 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,183.1 people per square mile (843.4/km²). There were 930 housing units at an average density of 1,327.9 per square mile (513.0/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 97.19% White, 0.26% African American, 0.92% Native American, 0.72% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.46% from other races, and 0.46% from two or more races. 2.75% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

text: There were 692 households out of which 19.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.9% were married couples living together, 5.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 63.3% were non-families. 28.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 1.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.69.

text: In the town, the population was spread out with 13.5% under the age of 18, 11.5% from 18 to 24, 55.6% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 1.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 124.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 131.9 males.

text: The median income for a household in the town was $41,250, and the median income for a family was $49,118. Males had a median income of $27,386 versus $23,073 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,789. 11.4% of the population and 2.7% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 3.5% of those under the age of 18 and 0.0% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Crested Butte was the setting and main filming location for the Walt Disney ski movie Snowball Express starring Dean Jones and Harry Morgan. 1970s musicians Brewer & Shipley wrote and performed a song called "Crested Butte" dedicated to the town. Crested Butte is the birthplace and hometown of Heidi Montag of MTV's The Hills. It is also the town Bud Light took over for a weekend in 2014 and renamed "Whatever, USA".

text: Crested Butte was the site for other films in the 1970s, including Snowbeast (1977), The Further Adventures of the Wilderness Family (1978), and Mountain Family Robinson (1979), and Ink (2009).[22]

text: James Cameron's movie Avatar has very tangible parallels to Crested Butte with regard to both mining issues and environmental coexistence. One of the people who led the fight against the proposed molybdenum mine on Mount Emmons in the late 1970s, former mayor W Mitchell, uses a wheelchair, just like the protagonist in Cameron's film.[23] This original article was written by David J. Rothman who is a local of Crested Butte. James Cameron has spent a lot of time at his wife Suzy Amis's cabin in Crested Butte.[24]

text: Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem is set in Gunnison County. "CRESTED BUTTE" is given as the destination of the bus in which Dallas Howard arrives at Gunnison at the beginning of the movie.

text: In 2014, Powder Magazine's "Ski Town Throw Down" voted Crested Butte as the number 1 ski town in the United States.[citation needed]


document_title: Superior olivary complex

question_text: auditory cells in the superior olivary nucleus receive their input from the

text: Superior olivary complex

text: Physiology[edit]

text: The superior olivary nucleus plays a number of roles in hearing. The medial superior olive (MSO) is a specialized nucleus that is believed to measure the time difference of arrival of sounds between the ears (the interaural time difference or ITD). The ITD is a major cue for determining the azimuth of sounds, i.e., localising them on the azimuthal plane – their degree to the left or the right.

text: The lateral superior olive (LSO) is believed to be involved in measuring the difference in sound intensity between the ears (the interaural level difference or ILD). The ILD is a second major cue in determining the azimuth of high-frequency sounds.

text: Relationship to auditory system[edit]

text: The superior olivary complex is generally located in the pons, but in humans extends from the rostral medulla to the mid-pons[1] and receives projections predominantly from the anteroventral cochlear nucleus via the trapezoid body, although the posteroventral nucleus projects to the SOC via the intermediate acoustic stria. The SOC is the first major site of convergence of auditory information from the left and right ears.[2]

text: Primary nuclei[edit]

text: The superior olivary complex is divided into three primary nuclei, the MSO, LSO, and the Medial nucleus of the trapezoid body, and several smaller periolivary nuclei.[3] These three nuclei are the most studied, and therefore best understood. Typically, they are regarded as forming the ascending azimuthal localization pathway.

text: Medial superior olive (MSO)[edit]

text: The medial superior olive is thought to help locate the azimuth of a sound, that is, the angle to the left or right where the sound source is located. Sound elevation cues are not processed in the olivary complex. The fusiform cells of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), which are thought to contribute to localization in elevation, bypass the SOC and project directly to the inferior colliculus. Only horizontal data is present, but it does come from two different ear sources, which aids in the localizing of sound on the azimuth axis.[4] The way in which the superior olive does this is by measuring the differences in time between two ear signals recording the same stimulus. Traveling around the head takes about 700 μs, and the medial superior olive is able to distinguish time differences much smaller than this. In fact, it is observed that people can detect interaural differences down to 10 μs.[4] The nucleus is tonotopically organized, but the azimuthal receptive field projection is "most likely a complex, nonlinear map".[5]

text: The projections of the medial superior olive terminate densely in the ipsilateral central nucleus of the inferior colliculus (ICC). The majority of these axons are considered to be "round shaped" or type R. These R axons are mostly glutamatergic and contain round synaptic vesicles and form asymmetric synaptic junctions.[2]

text:
This is the largest of the nuclei and in human contains approximately 15,500 neurons.[1]
Each MSO receives bilateral inputs from the right and left AVCNs.
The output is via the ipsilateral lateral lemniscus to the inferior colliculus.
The MSO responds better to binaural stimuli.
The MSO's main function is detection of interaural time difference (ITD) cues to binaural lateralization.
The MSO is severely disrupted in the autistic brain.[6]

text: Lateral superior olive (LSO)[edit]

text: This olive has similar functions to the medial superior olive, but employs intensity to localize the sound source.[7] The LSO receives excitatory, glutamatergic input from spherical bushy cells in the ipsilateral cochlear nucleus and inhibitory, glycinergic input from the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB). The MNTB is driven by excitatory input from globular bushy cells in the contralateral cochlear nucleus. Thus, the LSO receives excitatory input from the ipsilateral ear and inhibitory input from the contralateral ear. This is the basis of ILD sensitivity. Projections from both cochlear nuclei are primarily high frequency, and these frequencies are subsequently represented by the majority of LSO neurons (>2/3 over 2–3 kHz in cat). It should be noted that the LSO does in fact encode frequency across the animals audible range (not just "high" frequency). Additional inputs derive from the ipsilateral LNTB (glycinergic, see below), which provide inhibitory information from the ipsilateral cochlear nucleus.[8] Another possibly inhibitory input derives from ipsilateral AVCN non-spherical cells. These cells are either globular bushy or multipolar (stellate). Either of these two inputs could provide the basis for ipsilateral inhibition seen in response maps flanking the primary excitation, sharpening the unit's frequency tuning.[9][10]

text: The LSO projects bilaterally to the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus (ICC). Ipsilateral projections are primarily inhibitory (glycinergic), and the contralateral projections are excitatory. Additional projection targets include the dorsal and ventral nuclei of the lateral lemniscus (DNLL & VNLL). The GABAergic projections from the DNLL form a major source of GABA in the auditory brainstem, and project bilaterally to the ICC and to the contralateral DNLL. These converging excitatory and inhibitory connections may act to decrease the level dependence of ILD sensitivity in the ICC compared to the LSO.

text: Additional projections form the lateral olivocochlear bundle (LOC), which innervates cochlear inner hair cells. These projections are thought to have a long time constant, and act to normalize the sound level detected by each ear in order to aid in sound localization.[11] Considerable species differences exist: LOC projection neurons are distributed within the LSO in rodents, and surround the LSO in predators (i.e. cat).

text: Medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB)[edit]

text:
The MNTB, in the trapezoid body, is composed of mainly neurons with round cell bodies which utilize glycine as a neurotransmitter.
The size of the MNTB is reduced in primates.[12][13][14]
Each MNTB neuron receives a large "calyx" type ending, the calyx of Held arising from the globular bushy cells in the contralateral AVCN.
There are two response types found: a ‘chopper type’ similar to spindle cells in the AVCN and a primary type which is similar to those of bushy cells in the AVCN.

text: Periolivary nuclei[edit]

text: The SOC is composed of between six and nine periolivary nuclei, depending upon the researcher cited, typically named based upon their location with regard to the primary nuclei. These nuclei surround each of the primary nuclei, and contribute to both the ascending and descending auditory systems. These nuclei also form the source of the olivocochlear bundle, which innervates the cochlea.[15] In the guinea pig, ascending projections to the inferior colliculi are primarily ipsilateral (>80%), with the largest single source coming from the SPON. Also, ventral nuclei (RPO, VMPO, AVPO, & VNTB) are almost entirely ipsilateral, while the remaining nuclei project bilaterally.[16]

text:
Name
Cat
Guinea Pig
Rat
Mouse

LSO
X
X
X
X

MSO
X
X
X
X

MNTB
X
X
X
X

LNTB
X
X
"LVPO"
X

ALPO
X
X

PVPO
X
X

PPO
X
X
"CPO"

VLPO
X

DPO
X
X
X

DLPO
X
X

VTB
X
X
"MVPO"
X

AVPO

X

VMPO
X
X

RPO

X
X

SPN
"DMPO"
X
X
X

text: Ventral nucleus of the trapezoid body (VNTB)[edit]

text:
The VNTB is a small nucleus located laterally to the MNTB, and ventral to the MSO.[17]
Made up of a heterogeneous population of cells, this nucleus projects to many auditory nuclei, and forms the medial olivocochlear bundle (MOC) which innervates cochlear outer hair cells.[18] These cells contain electromotile fibers, and act as mechanical amplifiers/attenuators within the cochlea.
The nucleus projects to both IC, with no cells projecting bilaterally.[19]

text: Lateral nucleus of the trapezoid body (LNTB)[edit]

text:
Located ventral to the LSO[17]
AVCN spherical bushy cells project collaterals bilaterally, and globular bushy cells project collaterals ipsilaterally to LNTB neurons.[20]
Cells are immunoreactive for glycine,[21] and are retrogradely labeled following injection of tritiated glycine into the LSO[8]
The nucleus projects to both IC, with few cells projecting bilaterally,[19] as well as the ipsilateral LSO.[8]
Large multipolar cells project to the cochlear nucleus, but not the IC, in both cat and guinea pig.[19][22]
Inputs are often via end-bulbs of Held, producing very fast signal transduction.

text: Superior periolivary nucleus (SPON) (dorsomedial periolivary nucleus (DMPO))[edit]

text:
Located directly dorsal to the MNTB[17]
In rat, SPON is a homogeneous GABAergic nucleus. These tonotopically organized neurons receive excitatory inputs from octopus and multipolar cells in the contralateral ventral cochlear nucleus,[23] a glycinergic (inhibitory) input from the ipsilateral MNTB, an unknown GABAergic (inhibitory) input, and project to the ipsilateral ICC.[24] Most neurons respond only at the offset of a stimulus, can phase lock to AM stimuli up to 200 Hz, and may form the basis for ICC duration selectivity.[25] Notably, SPON neurons do not receive descending inputs from the IC, and it does not project to the cochlea or cochlear nucleus as many periolivary nuclei do.[26]
In contrast, glycinergic projections to ipsilateral ICC are observed in guinea pigs and chinchillas, suggesting a species-related neurotransmitter difference.[27]
In guinea pig, round to oval multipolar cells project to both IC, with many cells projecting bilaterally. The more elongated cells that project to the cochlear nucleus to not project to the ICC. There appear to be to populations of cells, one that projects ipsilaterally, and one that projects bilaterally.[19]
The majority of information had come from rodent SPON, due to the nucleus' prominent size in these species, with very few studies have been done in cat DMPO,[28] none of which were extensive.

text: Dorsal periolivary nucleus (DPO)[edit]

text:
Located dorsal and medial to the LSO[17]
Contains both EE (excited by both ears) and E0 (excited by the contralateral ear only) units.[29]
Neurons are tonotopically organized, and high frequency.
May belong to a single nucleus along with the DLPO[30]
The nucleus projects to both IC, with no cells projecting bilaterally.[19]

text: Dorsolateral periolivary nucleus (DLPO)[edit]

text:
Located dorsal and lateral to the LSO[17]
Contains both EE (excited by both ears) and E0 (excited by the contralateral ear only) units.
Neurons are tonotopically organized, and low frequency.
May belong to a single nucleus along with the DPO
The nucleus projects to both IC, with few cells projecting bilaterally.[19]

text: Ventrolateral periolivary nucleus (VLPO)[edit]

text:
Located ventral to and within the ventral hillus of the LSO[17]
Contains both EI (excited by contralateral and inhibited by ipsilateral ear) and E0 (excited by the contralateral ear only) units.
Neurons are tonotopically organized, and high frequency.
Subdivided into the LNTB, PPO and ALPO [31]

text: Anterolateral periolivary nucleus (ALPO)[edit]

text:
The nucleus projects to both IC, with no cells projecting bilaterally.[19]
Large multipolar cells project to the cochlear nucleus, but not the IC, in both cat and guinea pig.[19][22]

text: Ventromedial periolivary nucleus (VMPO)[edit]

text:
Located between the MSO and MNTB.[17]
Sends projections to the ICC bilaterally.[19]
The nucleus projects to both IC, with no cells projecting bilaterally.[19]

text: Rostral periolivary nucleus (RPO) (anterior periolivary nucleus (APO))[edit]

text:
Located between the rostral pole of the MSO and the VNLL[17]
Sometimes called the Ventral Nucleus of the Trapezoid Body (VNTB)[17]

text: Caudal periolivary nucleus (CPO) (posterior periolivary nucleus (PPO))[edit]

text: Located between the caudal pole of the MSO and the facial nucleuss (7N)[17]

text: Posteroventral periolivary nucleus (PVPO)[edit]

text: Pathophysiology[edit]

text: An autopsy of a 21-year-old woman with autism, epilepsy and mental retardation found a near-complete absence of the superior olive.[32]