document_title: Transfer window

question_text: when does the scottish football transfer window open

text: Transfer window

text: Current schedules and exceptions[edit]

text: FIFA regulates in general that there shall be two windows, a longer one (max. twelve weeks) in the break between seasons and a shorter one (max. one month) in the middle of a season. The specific periods depend on the league's season cycle and are determined by the national football authorities.[5]

text: Most major European leagues commence in the second half of the year (e.g. August or September) and stretch over two calendar years to the first half of the next year (e.g. May), resulting in a close season window in the Summer ending in August, and a mid-season window in January.

text: The periods are different when a league runs throughout a single calendar year, as in most Nordic countries due to weather constraints, Major League Soccer due to both weather and competition from other locally popular sports (most notably American football), or as the traditional season in the Southern Hemisphere. The first window generally opens from 1 March until midnight of 30 April, followed by the in-season window from 1 to 31 August.

text:
Pre-season window
Mid-season window
Associations

1 January – 31 March
15 July – 15 August
Norway[6]

1 January – 31 March
14 July – 13 August
Brazil[7]

6 January – 31 March
21 July – 18 August
Japan[8]

8 January – 31 March
15 July – 11 August
Sweden[9]

14 February – 8 May
10 July – 9 August
United States and Canada[10]

1 March – 30 April
1–31 August
Finland[11]

1 June – 31 August
1 January – 31 January
Albania[12]

1 June – 31 August
1 January – 2 February
France,[13] Germany,[14] Italy,[15] Spain[16]

9 June – 31 August 23:00 BST
1 January – 31 January 23:00 GMT
England[17]

9 June – 1 September
1 January – 1 February
Scotland[18]

11 June – 1 September
5–31 January
Turkey,[19] Denmark[20]

11 June – 2 September
3–31 January
Netherlands[21]

16 June – 8 September
25 January – 22 February
Bulgaria and Romania[22]

17 June – 6 September
28 January – 28 February
Russia[23][not in citation given]

27 July – 18 October
4 January – 2 February
Australia[24]

1 December – 31 January
1–30 June
Kenya[25]

1 December – 31 January
1–30 June
Ethiopia[citation needed]

text: Although, in England, the transfer window formally opens on 9 June, transfers between clubs in the same league can take place as soon as the last competitive fixtures for the season have been played. However, many transfers will not be completed until 1 July because many players' contracts expire on 30 June. International transfers into the English leagues (including the Premier League) cannot be made until the window has opened on 9 June. Outside of the transfer window, a club may still sign players on an emergency basis, usually if they have no goalkeeper available. Special dispensation from their competition's governing body, for example the Premier League, is required. The transfer window restriction does not apply to clubs below the National League division.[26]

text: If the last day of a transfer window is on a weekend, the deadline can be extended to the following Monday at the request of those involved for business reasons.[27] The first shift of the deadline since its inception took place in summer 2008, when the deadline was extended by 24 hours to fall on Monday 1 September at midnight.[28][29] The transfer deadline in England was similarly extended to 5 pm 1 September 2009, due to the August Bank Holiday. The German football league announced an extension of the January 2009 deadline to 2 February.[30]

text: Free agents can be signed by a club at any time during the season, if they had been released by their previous club before the end of the transfer window.[27] A club can request to sign a player on emergency basis, e.g. if several goalkeepers are injured at the same time.[27] Outside of the transfer window in England, once seven days have passed following the end of a transfer window, clubs from the English Football League (Regulation 53.3.4)[31] and (provided the player is not registered with a club from any league below the National League division) National League division[32] (Rule 6.6.4) can loan in players i) in the first half of the season, until 5.00pm on the fourth Thursday in November and ii) in the second half of the season, until 5.00pm on the fourth Thursday in March. An existing loan deal can be made permanent at any time outside the transfer window.[33]

text: The day upon which a window closes is known as transfer deadline day, and is usually one of the busiest days of the window, generating a flurry of transfers, often because a number of interdependent transfers are completed resembling a housing chain, generating much media interest.

text: Calls to end the transfer window[edit]

text: Steve Coppell, former manager of Reading in England's Premier League, and others have called for the transfer window to be scrapped in favour of the previous system, where deals could be struck throughout the season until the closing weeks.[34] Coppell said that the transfer window breeds panic and encourages "scurrilous" transfer activity adding that "I cannot see the logic in a transfer window. It brings on a fire-sale mentality, causes unrest via the media and means clubs buy too many players" adding that "The old system, where if you had a problem you could look at loans or make a short-term purchase, was far better than this system we have at the moment".[35] Former England Manager Sven-Göran Eriksson has also questioned the value of the transfer window, commenting: "You do wonder at times if it is right to have a window, it was easier when it was open all the time and perhaps fairer for the players. I am sure much of the business being done on the last day is a little bit desperate and that is not right. I think it was better before, but then I am old". [36]

text: In January 2013 Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger asked for the January transfer window to be limited to two transfers per window and claimed it is "unfair" in its current form. He cited Newcastle United transfer activity as an example.[37] The following year, Wenger hit out at Manchester United's £37m purchase of Juan Mata from rivals Chelsea. Wenger argued that the transfer was unfair because United and Chelsea had already played each other twice during the season, but United would still have to play Arsenal, and said that "the rules should be adapted more for fairness".[38] Manchester City manager Manuel Pellegrini backed the sentiment of Wenger, disagreeing that a player "can go from one team to another team in the same league at this part of the year" and also said that the winter transfer window was unbalanced in favour of big clubs, saying "a club with money can take the best players from the other teams".[39][40]

text: Former Crystal Palace manager Alan Pardew questioned why the Premier League transfer window remains open after the start of the season after Arsenal made a bid for midfielder Yohan Cabaye during his time as Newcastle United manager in August 2013.[41]

text: In January 2015, FIFPro said that the current transfer window system is "failing football and its players", one of the main issues being that players are released from clubs without explanation or compensation.[42]


document_title: Endurance training

question_text: what effect will endurance training have on oxidative enzymes

root

text: Endurance training

text: Endurance in sports[edit]

text: Endurance training is essential for a variety of endurance sports. A notable example is distance running events (800 meters upwards to marathon and ultra-marathon) with the required degree of endurance training increasing with race distance. Two other popular examples are cycling (particularly road cycling) and competitive swimming. These three endurance sports are combined in triathlon. Other sports for which extensive amounts of endurance training are required include rowing and cross country skiing. Athletes can also undergo endurance training when their sport may not necessarily be an endurance sport in the whole sense but may still demand some endurance. For instance aerobic endurance is necessary (to varying extents) in racket sports, football, rugby, martial arts, basketball and cricket. Endurance exercise tends to be popular with non-athletes for the purpose of increasing general fitness or burning more calories to increase weight loss potential.

tag: p

text: Physiological effects[edit]

text: Long-term endurance training induces many physiological adaptations both centrally and peripherally mediated. Central cardiovascular adaptations include decreased heart rate, increased stroke volume of the heart,[2] increased blood plasma, without any major changes in red blood cell count, which reduces blood viscosity and increased cardiac output as well as total mitochondrial volume in the muscle fibers used in the training (i.e. the thigh muscles in runners will have more mitochondria than the thigh muscles of swimmers). Mitochondria increase in both number and size and there are similar increases in myoglobin and oxidative enzymes. Adaptations of the peripheral include capillarization, that is an increase in the surface area that both the venous and arterial capillaries supply. This also allows for increased heat dissipation during strenuous exercise. The muscles heighten their glycogen and fat storing capabilities in endurance athletes in order to increase the length in time in which they can perform work. Endurance training primarily work the slow twitch (type 1) fibers and develop such fibers in their efficiency and resistance to fatigue. Catabolism also improves increasing the athletes capacity to use fat and glycogen stores as an energy source. These metabolic processes are known as glycogenolysis, glycolysis and lipolysis. There is higher efficiency in oxygen transport and distribution. In recent years it has been recognized that oxidative enzymes such as succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) that enable mitochondria to break down nutrients to form ATP increase by 2.5 times in well trained endurance athletes[2] In addition to SDH, myoglobin increases by 75-80% in well trained endurance athletes.[2]

text: Risks of excessive endurance training[edit]

text: The potential for negative health effects from long-term, high-volume endurance training have begun to emerge in the scientific literature in recent years.[3][4][5] The known risks are primarily associated with training for and participation in extreme endurance events, and affect the cardiovascular system through adverse structural remodeling of the heart and the associated arteries, with heart-rhythm abnormalities perhaps being the most common resulting symptom.[6] Endurance exercise can also reduce testosterone levels.[7][8]

text: Methods and training plans[edit]

text: Common methods for training include periodization, intervals, hard easy, long slow distance, and in recent years high-intensity interval training. The periodization method is very common and was accredited to Tudor Bompa[9] and consists of blocks of time, generally 4–12 weeks each. The blocks are called preparation, base, build and race.[10] The goal of a structured training program with periodization is to bring the athlete into peak fitness at the time of a big race or event. Preparation as the name suggests lays the groundwork for heavier work to follow. For a runner contemplating a competitive marathon the preparation phase might consist of easier runs of 1–4 miles 3-4 times per week and including 2–3 days of core strengthening. In the base phase the athlete now works on building cardiovascular endurance by having several long runs staying in heart rate zone 1-2[clarification needed] every week and each week adding slightly more mileage (using 10% rule for safely increasing the mileage). Core strengthening is continued in the base period. Once the base phase is complete and the athlete has sufficient endurance, the build period is needed to give the athlete the ability to hold a faster pace for the race duration. The build phase is where duration of runs is traded for intensity or heart rate zones 3-5. An easy method to obtain intensity is interval training and interval training starts to happen in the build phase. Through interval training during the build phase the athlete can achieve higher lactate threshold and in some athletes VO2 max is increased. Because interval training is demanding on the body, a professional coach should be consulted. In the very least the athlete should do a warm up and active stretching before the interval session and static stretch or yoga after hard interval sessions. It is also advisable to have days of rest or easy workouts the day after interval sessions.[11] Finally the race phase of the periodization approach is where the duration of the workouts decreases but intense workouts remain so as to keep the high lactate threshold that was gained in the build phase. In Ironman training, the race phase is where a long "taper" occurs of up to 4 weeks for highly trained Ironman racers. A final phase is designated transition and is a period of time, where the body is allowed to recover from the hard race effort and some maintenance endurance training is performed so the high fitness level attained in the previous periods will not be lost.

text: Traditionally, strength training (the performance of exercises with resistance or added weight) was not deemed appropriate for endurance athletes due to potential interference in the adaptive response to the endurance elements of an athlete's training plan. There were also misconceptions regarding the addition of excess body mass through muscle hypertrophy (growth) associated with strength training, which could negatively effect endurance performance by increasing the amount of work required to be completed by the athlete. However, more recent and comprehensive research has proved that short-term (8 weeks) strength training in addition to endurance training is beneficial for endurance performance, particularly long-distance running.[12]

text: Devices to assess endurance fitness[edit]

text: The heart rate monitor is one of the relatively easy methods to assess fitness in endurance athletes. By comparing heart rate over time fitness gains can be observed when the heart rate decreases for running or cycling at a given speed. In cycling the effect of wind on the cyclists speed is difficult to subtract out and so many cyclists now use power meters built into their bicycles. The power meter allows the athlete to actually measure power output over a set duration or course and allows direct comparison of fitness progression.[13] In the 2008 Olympics Michael Phelps was aided by repeated lactate threshold measurement. This allowed his coaches to fine tune his training program so that he could recover between swim events that were sometimes several minutes apart.[14] Much similar to blood glucose for diabetes, lower priced lactate measurement devices are now available but in general the lactate measurement approach is still the domain of the professional coach and elite athlete.


document_title: Memorial Day

question_text: who changed the date of the day of the dead

text: Memorial Day

text: History[edit]

text: The practice of decorating soldiers' graves with flowers is an ancient custom.[5] Soldiers' graves were decorated in the U.S. before[6] and during the American Civil War.

text: Some believe that an annual cemetery decoration practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day" idea.[7] Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are still held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather, put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic-like "dinner on the grounds," the traditional term for a potluck meal at a church.[7]

text: On June 3, 1861, Warrenton, Virginia was the location of the first Civil War soldier's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper article in 1906.[8] In 1862, women in Savannah, Georgia decorated Confederate soldiers' graves according to the Savannah Republican.[9] The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania.[10] and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.[11]

text: In April 1865, following President Abraham Lincoln's assassination, commemorations were ubiquitous. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.[12]

text: A decoration day observance on May 1, 1865, in Charleston, South Carolina led historian David W. Blight to claim that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina",[13] based on accounts in the Charleston Daily Courier and coverage by the New-York Tribune. In 2012, Blight stated that he "has no evidence" that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country.[14] Accordingly, Snopes labeled the claim that the holiday began in Charleston "false."[15]

text: In 1868, General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of Union veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois, established Decoration Day as a time for the nation to decorate the graves of the Union war dead with flowers.[16] By the 20th century, various Union and Confederate memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service.[1]

text: On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official" birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York.[17] The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. Snopes and Live Science discredit the Waterloo account.[18][19]

text: In the North[edit]

text: On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day" to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, the veterans' organization for Union Civil War veterans.[7] With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier.[20][21][22]

text: The first northern Memorial Day was observed on May 30, 1868. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle.[23] According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North.[24]

text: The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869.[25] In 1871, Michigan made "Decoration Day" an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. The ceremonies were sponsored by the Women's Relief Corps, the women's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, DC.[26]

text: Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities" of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that the German and Irish soldiers had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood" on the battlefield.[27]

text: Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania has run annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation's oldest continuously running; however, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin predates Doylestown's by one year.[28][29]

text: In the South[edit]

text: The U.S. National Park Service[30] and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to the ladies of Columbus, Georgia.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37] On April 25, 1866, women in Columbus, Mississippi laid flowers on the graves of both the Union and Confederate dead in the city's cemetery.[38] The early southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries.[39]

text: Historians acknowledge the Ladies Memorial Association played a key role in these rituals of preservation of Confederate "memory."[40] Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks."[41]

text: In 1868, some southerners appended the label "Confederate" to what they originally called "Memorial Day" after northerners co-opted the holiday.[42] The tradition of observances were linked to the South, they served as the prototype for the national day of memory embraced by the nation in 1868.[30][43]

text: By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate south.[39] Changes in the ceremony's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate.[44]

text: At Gettysburg[edit]

text: Starting in 1868, the ceremonies and Memorial Day address at Gettysburg National Park became nationally known. In July 1913, veterans of the United States and Confederate armies gathered in Gettysburg to commemorate the fifty-year anniversary of the Civil War's bloodiest and most famous battle.[45]

text: The four-day "Blue-Gray Reunion" featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House after the War.[citation needed] James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address.[citation needed] Heflin was a noted orator; His choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers.[citation needed]

text: Since the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg occurred on November 19, that day (or the closest weekend) has been designated as their own local memorial day that is referred to as Remembrance Day.[46]

text: Name and date[edit]

text: The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day" to "Memorial Day," which was first used in 1882.[47] Memorial Day did not become the more common name until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967.[48] On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three-day weekend.[49] The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971.[49] After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress' change of date within a few years.

text: Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocate returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in a 2002 Memorial Day Address:

text: Changing the date merely to create three-day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.[50]

text: Starting in 1987 Hawaii's Senator Daniel Inouye, a World War II veteran, introduced a measure to return Memorial Day to its traditional date. Inouye continued introducing the resolution until his death in 2012.[51]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half-staff position, where it remains only until noon.[52] It is then raised to full-staff for the remainder of the day.[53]

text: The half-staff position remembers the more than one million men and women who gave their lives in service of their country. At noon, their memory is raised by the living, who resolve not to let their sacrifice be in vain, but to rise up in their stead and continue the fight for liberty and justice for all.

text: The National Memorial Day Concert takes place[when?] on the west lawn of the United States Capitol.[54] The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.

text: For many Americans, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities all over the country.[according to whom?] Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the National Guard and other servicemen participating along with veterans and military vehicles from various wars.[citation needed]

text: One of the longest-standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911.[55] Originally it was held on Memorial Day itself, and since 1974 it runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. Since 1961 NASCAR's Coca-Cola 600 has been held during Memorial Day weekend, and has also been held on the previous Sunday since 1974.[citation needed] Since 1976 The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend.[citation needed] The final of the NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship is held on Memorial Day.[citation needed]

text: In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3:00 PM.[56]

text: Poppies[edit]

text: In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields". Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers' graves in Flanders.

text: In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.[57]

text: As civil religious holiday[edit]

text: Scholars,[58][59][60][61] following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion" – one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint – that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.[62]

text: Memorial Day has been called a "modern cult of the dead". It incorporates Christian themes of sacrifice while uniting citizens of various faiths.[63]

text: In film, literature, and music[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text:
Memorial Day (2012) is a war film starring James Cromwell, Jonathan Bennett, and John Cromwell.
Logan Lucky (2017) starring Channing Tatum

tag: ul

text: Music[edit]

text: Charles Ives's symphonic poem Decoration Day depicted the holiday as he experienced it in his childhood, with his father's band leading the way to the town cemetery, the playing of "Taps" on a trumpet, and a livelier march tune on the way back to the town. It is frequently played with three other Ives works based on holidays, as the second movement of A Symphony: New England Holidays.

text: Poetry[edit]

text: Poems commemorating Memorial Day include:

text:
Michael Anania's "Memorial Day" (1994)[64]
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "Decoration Day" (1882)[65]
Joyce Kilmer's "Memorial Day"

text: Observance dates (1971–present)[edit]

text:
Year
Memorial Day

1972
2000
2028
2056
2084

May 29

1973
2001
2029
2057
2085

May 28

1974
2002
2030
2058
2086

May 27

1975
2003
2031
2059
2087

May 26

1976
2004
2032
2060
2088
2100
May 31

1977
2005
2033
2061
2089
2101
May 30

1978
2006
2034
2062
2090
2102
May 29

1979
2007
2035
2063
2091
2103
May 28

1980
2008
2036
2064
2092
2104
May 26

1981
2009
2037
2065
2093
2105
May 25

1982
2010
2038
2066
2094
2106
May 31

1983
2011
2039
2067
2095
2107
May 30

1984
2012
2040
2068
2096
2108
May 28

1985
2013
2041
2069
2097
2109
May 27

1986
2014
2042
2070
2098
2110
May 26

1987
2015
2043
2071
2099
2111
May 25

1988
2016
2044
2072

2112
May 30

1989
2017
2045
2073

2113
May 29

1990
2018
2046
2074

2114
May 28

1991
2019
2047
2075

2115
May 27

1992
2020
2048
2076

2116
May 25

1993
2021
2049
2077

2117
May 31

1994
2022
2050
2078

2118
May 30

1995
2023
2051
2079

2119
May 29

1996
2024
2052
2080

2120
May 27

1997
2025
2053
2081

2121
May 26

1998
2026
2054
2082

2122
May 25

1971
1999
2027
2055
2083

2123
May 31

tag: table


document_title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

question_text: which industrialist set up hindustan aircraft limited in association with the state of mysore

text: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: History[edit]

text: HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft in Bangalore in 1940 on 23 December 1940. Hindustan Aircraft Company was incorporated under the Mysore Companies Act as a private Ltd Company. Walchand–Tulsidas-Khatau Ltd was the Managing agency. Its first directors were: Walchand Hirachand, Chairman, Tulsidas Khilachand, Dharmsey Mularaj Khatau, A.N.Raghavachar (Mysore State representative), Venkatanaranappa (Mysore State representative). Company’s office was opened at a bungalow called "Eventide" on Domlur Road.The initiative was actively encouraged by the Kingdom of Mysore, especially by its Young Maharaja, H.H.Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar and the Diwan, Sir Mirza Ismail. Walchand had first approached share holders of his own company, The Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd, for diversifying but was refused. He then wrote to the Rulers of Baroda, Gwalior and Bhavanagar without success. Only Maharaja of Mysore responded favourably by agreeing to invest 25 lakhs and gave initial 700 acres of land free.

text: The organisation and equipment for the factory at Bangalore was set up by William D. Pawley of the Intercontinental Aircraft Corporation of New York, who had already established Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) in partnership with Chinese Nationalist government. Pawley obtained a large number of machine-tools and equipment from the United States.

text: The Indian Government bought a one-third stake in the company and by April 1941 by investing 25 lakhs as it believed this to be a strategic imperative. The decision by the government was primarily motivated to boost British military hardware supplies in Asia to counter the increasing threat posed by Imperial Japan during Second World War. The Kingdom of Mysore supplied two directors, Air Marshal John Higgins was resident director. The first aircraft built was a Harlow PC-5[3] On 2 April 1942, the government announced that the company had been nationalised when it had bought out the stakes of Seth Walchand Hirachand and other promoters so that it could act freely. The Mysore Kingdom refused to sell its stake in the company but yielded the management control over to the Indian Government.

text: In 1943 the Bangalore factory was handed over to the United States Army Air Forces but still using Hindustan Aircraft management. The factory expanded rapidly and became the centre for major overhaul and repair of American aircraft and was known as the 84th Air Depot. The first aircraft to be overhauled was a Consolidated PBY Catalina followed by every type of aircraft operated in India and Burma. When returned to Indian control two years later the factory had become one of the largest overhaul and repair organisations in the East. In the post war reorganisation the company built railway carriages as an interim activity.

text: After India gained independence in 1947, the management of the company was passed over to the Government of India.

text: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 1 October 1964 when Hindustan Aircraft Limited joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur (at the time manufacturing HS748 under licence) and the group recently set up to manufacture MiG-21 under licence, with its new factories planned in Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad.[4] Though HAL was not used actively for developing newer models of fighter jets, except for the HF-24 Marut, the company has played a crucial role in modernisation of the Indian Air Force. In 1957 company started manufacturing Bristol Siddeley Orpheus jet engines under licence at new factory located in Bangalore.

text: During the 1980s, HAL's operations saw a rapid increase which resulted in the development of new indigenous aircraft such as the HAL Tejas and HAL Dhruv. HAL also developed an advanced version of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21, known as MiG-21 Bison, which increased its life-span by more than 20 years. HAL has also obtained several multimillion-dollar contracts from leading international aerospace firms such as Airbus, Boeing and Honeywell to manufacture aircraft spare parts and engines.

text: By 2012, HAL was reportedly bogged down in the details of production and has been slipping on its schedules.[5] On 1 April 2015, HAL reconstituted its Board with Mr. TS Raju as CMD, Mr. S Subrahmanyan as Director (Operations), Mr. VM Chamola as Director (HR), CA Ramana Rao as Director (Finance) and Mr. D K Venkatesh as Director (Engineering & R&D). There are two Govt. nominees in the Board and six independent Directors.

text: In March 2017, HAL Chairman and Managing Director T Suvarna Raju announced that the company had finalised plans for an indigenisation drive. The company plans to produce nearly 1,000 military helicopters, including Kamov 226, LCH (Light Combat Helicopter) ALH (Advanced Light Helicopter), and over 100 planes over the next 10 years. HAL will manufacture the Kamov 226T helicopter under a joint venture agreement with Russian defence manufacturers. The Kamov 226T will replace the country's fleet of Cheetah and Chetak helicopters. Over the next 5 years, HAL will carry out major upgrade of almost the entire fighter fleet of Indian Air Force including Su-30MKI, Jaguars, Mirage and Hawk jets to make them "more lethal". The company will also deliver 123 Tejas Light Combat Aircraft to the IAF from 2018–19, at a rate of 16 jets per year.[6]

text: Operations[edit]

text: One of the largest aerospace companies in Asia, HAL has annual turnover of over US$2 billion. More than 40% of HAL's revenues come from international deals to manufacture aircraft engines, spare parts, and other aircraft materials. A partial list of major operations undertaken by HAL includes the following:

text: International agreements[edit]

text:
The US$35 billion fifth-generation fighter jet programme with the Sukhoi Corporation of Russia.[7][8]
US$1 billion contract to manufacture aircraft parts for Boeing.[9]
Multi-role transport aircraft project with Ilyushin of Russia worth US$600 million.[10]
120 RD-33MK turbofan engines to be manufactured for MiG-29K by HAL for US$250 million.[11]
Contract to manufacture 1,000 TPE331 aircraft engines for Honeywell worth US$200,000 each (estimates put total value of deal at US$200 million).[12]
US$120 million deal to manufacture Dornier 228 for RUAG of Switzerland.[13]
Manufacture of aircraft parts for Airbus SAS worth US$150 million.[14]
US$100 million contract to export composite materials to Israel Aircraft Industries.[15]
US$65 million joint-research facility with Honeywell and planned production of Garrett TPE331 engines.[16]
US$50.7 million contract to supply Advanced Light Helicopter to Ecuadorian Air Force.[17] HAL will also open a maintenance base in the country.[18]
US$30 million contract to supply avionics for Malaysian Su-30MKM.[19]
US$20 million contract to supply ambulance version of HAL Dhruv to Peru.[20]
Contract of 3 HAL Dhruv helicopters from Turkey worth US$20 million.[21]
US$10 million order from Namibia for HAL Chetak and Cheetah helicopters.[22]
Supply of HAL Dhruv helicopters to Mauritius' National Police in a deal worth US$7 million.[23]
Unmanned helicopter development project with Israel Aircraft Industries.[24]

text: Domestic agreements[edit]

text:
220 Sukhoi Su-30MKI being manufactured at HAL's facilities in Nasik, Koraput and Bangalore. The total contract, which also involves Russia's Sukhoi Aerospace, is worth US$3.2 billion.
200 HAL Light Combat Helicopters for the Indian Air Force and 500 HAL Dhruv helicopters worth US$5.83 billion.
US$900 million aerospace hub in Andhra Pradesh.[25]
US$57 million upgrade of SEPECAT Jaguar fleet of the Indian Air Force.[26]
US$55 million helicopter simulator training facility in Bangalore in collaboration with Canada's CAE.[27]
64 MiG-29s to be upgraded by HAL and Russia's MiG Corporation in a programme worth US$960 million.[28]
Licensed production of 82 BAe Hawk 132.

text: In-house developed products[edit]

text: Agricultural aircraft[edit]

text: HA-31 Basant

text: Fighter aircraft[edit]

text:
HF-24 Marut — Mk1 and Mk1T
Tejas — Light Combat Aircraft
Su-30MKI — a derivative of the Sukhoi Su-27, co-developed with Sukhoi Corporation[citation needed]
FGFA — under joint development with Sukhoi Corporation
AMCA — India's indigenous stealth fighter (under development).

text: Helicopters[edit]

text:
Dhruv — Advanced Light Helicopter
Light Combat Helicopter (under trial)
Light Utility Helicopter (under development)
Indian Multi-role Helicopter (under development)
Rudra - Attack helicopter

text: Engines[edit]

text:
GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri- co-developed with GTRE (DRDO) (under development; developed into following programmes)
PTAE-7- For indegeniously designed Lakshya PTA
GTSU-110 - for starting main engine GE404 or Kaveri of LCA Tejas
HAL/Turbomeca Shakti - co-developed with Turbomeca for HAL Dhruv Helicopter to be used in light utility helicopter
HAL HTFE-25[29]
HAL HTSE-1200 (under development)[30]

text: Trainer aircraft[edit]

text:
HT-2 - First company design to enter production.
HPT-32 Deepak - Basic trainer in service for more than three decades.
HJT-16 Kiran — Mk1, Mk1A and Mk2 - Turbojet trainers scheduled to be replaced with IJT like HJT-36 Sitara
HTT-34 - Turboprop version of HPT-32 Deepak
HTT-35 - Proposed replacement for HPT-32 basic trainer in the early 1990s; not pursued
HJT-36 Sitara — Intermediate jet trainer (under development) (Inducted as LSP[clarification needed] waiting further orders)
HAL HTT-40 Basic trainer (under development)[31] first prototype flew the first flight on 31 May 2016.[32]
HAL HJT 39 / CAT Advanced jet trainer (proposal)

text: Observation and reconnaissance aircraft[edit]

text: HAOP-27 Krishak

text: Transport and passenger aircraft[edit]

text:
Saras — under joint development with the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL)
HAL Multirole Transport Aircraft — under joint-development with Ilyushin Design Bureau
Indian Regional Jet (IRJ) of 70-100 seater capacity to be jointly developed with NAL.

text: Utility aircraft[edit]

text: HAL-26 Pushpak

text: Gliders[edit]

text:
HAL G-1 — HAL's first original design, dating from 1941. Only one was built.
Ardhra — training glider
Rohini

text: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles[edit]

text:
PTA Lakshya — UAV
PTA Lakshya 2 — UAV
NRUAV
Nishant UAV
Rustom H — Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UCAV Tejas - Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (under development)[33]

text: Notable people[edit]

text:
Kota Harinarayana
Kurt Tank
Roddam Narasimha
Vishnu Madav Ghatage

text: Licensed production[edit]

text:
Harlow PC-5 — first aircraft assembled by HAL
Percival Prentice — 66 built by HAL
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 — FL, M, Bis and Bison upgrades variants
Folland Gnat
HAL Ajeet — improved version of the Folland Gnat
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-27 — M variant
SEPECAT Jaguar— IS, IB and IM variants
BAE Hawk — scheduled production run of 42 aircraft
Sukhoi Su-30 — MKI variant
Dornier Do 228 — 117 built + fuselage, wings and tail unit for production of the upgraded Do 228 NG variant
Aerospatiale SA 315B Lama — HAL Cheetah, Lancer, Cheetal Variants
Aerospatiale SA 316B Alouette III — HAL Chetak, Chetan Variants
HAL HS 748 Avro — Modified for military usage, includes Series 2M variant with large freight door
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 811 — Engine for SEPECAT Jaguar
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 871 — Engine for BAE Hawk Mk 132
Garrett TPE331-5 — Engine for Dornier Do 228
Turbomeca TM 333 — Engine for HAL Dhruv

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
HAL licence manufactured MiG-27

HAL licence manufactured Jaguar IS

HAL overhauled Mirage 2000

Hawk production facility at HAL, Bangalore.


document_title: Blood sugar level

question_text: what is the normal level of glucose in blood

text: Blood sugar level

text: Units[edit]

text: The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol/L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated mM). In the United States, Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL (milligrams per decilitre).[4]

text: Since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL.[5]

text: Normal values in humans[edit]

text: Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level. The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L (79 to 110 mg/dL) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test).[6]

text: The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (70 to 100 mg/dL). The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL);[5] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day. Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/dL).[7] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/dL) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor).[8]

text: Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) or slightly more. For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/dL).[9]

text: The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar.[10] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it.

text: Animals[edit]

text: In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals.[11] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids. For serum glucose in mg/dL, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported.[12] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident.[13] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/dL.[14] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/dL.[15] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e. 88 to 218 mg/dL] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e. about 135 to 283 mg/dL] has been reported.[16]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important.

text: There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:

text:
catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose;[17]
and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose.

text: These hormones are secreted from pancreatic islets which are bundles of endocrine tissues. There are four types of pancreatic islets, alpha (A) cells, beta (B) cells, Delta (D) cells and F cells. Glucagon is secreted from alpha cells, while insulin is secreted by beta cells. Together they regulate the blood-glucose levels through negative feedback, a process where the end product of one reaction stimulates the beginning of another reaction. In blood-glucose levels, insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood. The lower blood-glucose level (a product of the insulin secretion) triggers glucagon to be secreted, and repeats the cycle.[18]

text: In order for blood glucose to be kept stable, modifications to insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol are made. Each of these hormones has a different responsibility to keep blood glucose regulated; when blood sugar is too high, insulin tells muscles to take up excess glucose for storage. Glucagon responds to too low of a blood glucose level; it informs the tissue to produce more glucose. Epinephrine prepares the muscles and respiratory system for activity in the case of a "fight and flight" response. Lastly, cortisol supplies the body with fuel in times of heavy stress.[19]

text: Abnormality in blood sugar levels[edit]

text: High blood sugar[edit]

text: If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many long-term health problems including heart disease, cancer,[20] eye, kidney, and nerve damage.[21]

text: Blood sugar levels above 300 can cause fatal reactions. Ketones will be very high (a magnitude higher than when eating a very low carbohydrate diet) initiating ketoacidosis. Mayo clinic recommends emergency room treatment above 300 mg/dL blood glucose.

text: The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition.[22] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.

text: Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.[23]

text: Low blood sugar[edit]

text: If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness.

text: Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/dL) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/dL) loss of consciousness and seizures. Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc.), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose – especially if levels are very low – in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs. This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples). In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia[dubious – discuss]. Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.

text: Glucose measurement[edit]

text: Sample source[edit]

text: Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood. But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels. Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, "the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%."[24][25][26]

text: Sample type[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum. Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels. Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood. To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.14[27] has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level.

text: Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation.[27] Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood. Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly. Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels. At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample. Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis. However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement. Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells.

text: To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted. Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein. Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/dL or more. The actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic.

text: Measurement techniques[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Two major methods have been used to measure glucose. The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced. Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5–15 mg/dL has been reported). The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error. The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase.[28] Average blood glucose concentrations can also be measured. This method measures the level of glycated hemoglobin, which is representative of the average blood glucose levels over the last, approximately, 120 days.[28]

text: In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied. Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged. Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label. Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete. Their error rates were, in any case, much higher. Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity.[29] More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes.

text: Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied. Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition. Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients. Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965[30] by Hans Renschler.

text:
I. CHEMICAL METHODS

A. Oxidation-reduction reaction

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ copper\ tartarate} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Reduction} }}\mathrm {Cuprous\ oxide} }

1. Alkaline copper reduction

Folin-Wu method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}+\mathrm {Phosphomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Phosphomolybdenum\ oxide} }

Blue end-product

Benedict's method

Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose

Nelson–Somogyi method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}+\mathrm {Arsenomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Arsenomolybdenum\ oxide} }

Blue end-product

Neocuproine method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}+\mathrm {Neocuproine} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}\mathrm {neocuproine\ complex} }

*
Yellow-orange color neocuproine[31]

Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi

Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct.
Excess I2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.

2. Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction

Hagedorn–Jensen

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ ferricyanide} \longrightarrow \mathrm {Ferrocyanide} }

Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction

B. Condensation

Ortho-toluidine method

Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid
Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color
This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic

Anthrone (phenols) method

Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid

II. ENZYMATIC METHODS

A. Glucose oxidase

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {O} _{2}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {glucose\ oxidase} }}{\textrm {D-glucono-1,5-lactone}}+\mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} }

Saifer–Gerstenfeld method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} +{\textit {O}}{\text{-dianisidine}}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {peroxidase} }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} +\mathrm {oxidized\ chromogen} }

Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid

Trinder method

uses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol
Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin
Inhibited by catalase

Kodak Ektachem

A dry chemistry method
Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film

Glucometer

Home monitoring blood glucose assay method
Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent

B. Hexokinase

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{\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}&\mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {ATP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Phosphorylation} }]{\mathrm {Hexokinase} +\mathrm {Mg} ^{2+}}}{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {ADP} \\&{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {NADP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\textrm {G-6PD}}}{\textrm {6-Phosphogluconate}}+\mathrm {NADPH} +\mathrm {H} ^{+}\\\end{alignedat}}}

NADP as cofactor
NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm
More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed

text: Clinical correlation[edit]

text: The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided. Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below. Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation.

text: The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load. In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes.

text: Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used. Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor. Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others. In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend. Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked. In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold.

text: Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective.[clarification needed]

text:
Causes of abnormal glucose levels

Persistent hyperglycemia
Transient hyperglycemia
Persistent hypoglycemia
Transient hypoglycemia

Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/dL

Diabetes mellitus
Pheochromocytoma
Insulinoma
Acute alcohol ingestion

Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome
Severe liver disease
Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease
Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents

Hyperthyroidism
Acute stress reaction
Hypopituitarism
Severe liver disease

Acromegaly
Shock
Galactosemia
Several glycogen storage diseases

Obesity
Convulsions
Ectopic insulin production from tumors
Hereditary fructose intolerance

text: Etymology and use of term[edit]

text: This section has no medical references for verification or relies exclusively on non-medical sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present. Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/table sugar/industrial sweeteners), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.). But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike. The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field.