document_title: Globular cluster

question_text: in what part of the milky way galaxy do most globular star clusters live

question_tokens: in what part of the milky way galaxy do most globular star clusters live

text: Globular cluster

text: Observation history[edit]

text:
Early globular cluster discoveries

Cluster name
Discovered by
Year

M22
Abraham Ihle
1665

ω Cen
Edmond Halley
1677

M5
Gottfried Kirch
1702

M13
Edmond Halley
1714

M71
Philippe Loys de Chéseaux
1745

M4
Philippe Loys de Chéseaux
1746

M15
Jean-Dominique Maraldi
1746

M2
Jean-Dominique Maraldi
1746

text: The first known globular cluster, now called M22, was discovered in 1665 by Abraham Ihle, a German amateur astronomer.[11] However, given the small aperture of early telescopes, individual stars within a globular cluster were not resolved until Charles Messier observed M4 in 1764.[12] The first eight globular clusters discovered are shown in the table. Subsequently, Abbé Lacaille would list NGC 104, NGC 4833, M55, M69, and NGC 6397 in his 1751–52 catalogue. The M before a number refers to Charles Messier's catalogue, while NGC is from the New General Catalogue by John Dreyer.

text: When William Herschel began his comprehensive survey of the sky using large telescopes in 1782 there were 34 known globular clusters. Herschel discovered another 36 himself and was the first to resolve virtually all of them into stars. He coined the term "globular cluster" in his Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars published in 1789.[13]

text: The number of globular clusters discovered continued to increase, reaching 83 in 1915, 93 in 1930 and 97 by 1947. A total of 152 globular clusters have now been discovered in the Milky Way galaxy, out of an estimated total of 180 ± 20.[4] These additional, undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be hidden behind the gas and dust of the Milky Way.

text: Beginning in 1914, Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters, published in about 40 scientific papers. He examined the RR Lyrae variables in the clusters (which he assumed were Cepheid variables) and used their period–luminosity relationship for distance estimates. Later, it was found that RR Lyrae variables are fainter than Cepheid variables, which caused Shapley to overestimate the distances of the clusters.[14]

text: Of the globular clusters within the Milky Way, the majority are found in a halo around the galactic core, and the large majority are located in the celestial sky centered on the core. In 1918, this strongly asymmetrical distribution was used by Shapley to make a determination of the overall dimensions of the galaxy. By assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy's center, he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the Sun relative to the galactic center.[15] While his distance estimate was in significant error (although within the same order of magnitude as the currently accepted value), it did demonstrate that the dimensions of the galaxy were much greater than had been previously thought. His error was due to interstellar dust in the Milky Way, which absorbs and diminishes the amount of light from distant objects, such as globular clusters, that reaches the Earth, thus making them appear to be more distant than they are.

text: Shapley's measurements also indicated that the Sun is relatively far from the center of the galaxy, also contrary to what had previously been inferred from the apparently nearly even distribution of ordinary stars. In reality, most ordinary stars lie within the galaxy's disk and those stars that lie in the direction of the galactic centre and beyond are thus obscured by gas and dust, whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much further distances.

text: Classification[edit]

text: Shapley was subsequently assisted in his studies of clusters by Henrietta Swope and Helen Battles Sawyer (later Hogg). In 1927–29, Shapley and Sawyer categorized clusters according to the degree of concentration each system has toward its core. The most concentrated clusters were identified as Class I, with successively diminishing concentrations ranging to Class XII. This became known as the Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class (it is sometimes given with numbers [Class 1–12] rather than Roman numerals.)[16] In 2015, a new type of globular cluster was proposed on the basis of observational data, the dark globular clusters.[17]

text: Formation[edit]

text: The formation of globular clusters remains a poorly understood phenomenon and it remains uncertain whether the stars in a globular cluster form in a single generation or are spawned across multiple generations over a period of several hundred million years. In many globular clusters, most of the stars are at approximately the same stage in stellar evolution, suggesting that they formed at about the same time.[19] However, the star formation history varies from cluster to cluster, with some clusters showing distinct populations of stars. An example of this is the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) that exhibit a bimodal population. During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation.[20] This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared to the age of many globular clusters.[21] It has also been proposed that the reason for this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin. In the Antennae galaxy, for example, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clusters, regions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs, where many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge. Many of them present a significant range in ages, hence possibly metallicities, and their merger could plausibly lead to clusters with a bimodal or even multiple distribution of populations.[22]

text: Observations of globular clusters show that these stellar formations arise primarily in regions of efficient star formation, and where the interstellar medium is at a higher density than in normal star-forming regions. Globular cluster formation is prevalent in starburst regions and in interacting galaxies.[24] Research indicates a correlation between the mass of a central supermassive black holes (SMBH) and the extent of the globular cluster systems of elliptical and lenticular galaxies. The mass of the SMBH in such a galaxy is often close to the combined mass of the galaxy's globular clusters.[25]

text: No known globular clusters display active star formation, which is consistent with the view that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in the Galaxy, and were among the first collections of stars to form. Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters, such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way, may be the precursors of globular clusters.[26]

text: Composition[edit]

text: Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low-metal, old stars. The type of stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a volume of only a few million cubic parsecs. They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all of the gas and dust was long ago turned into stars.

text: Globular clusters can contain a high density of stars; on average about 0.4 stars per cubic parsec, increasing to 100 or 1000 stars per cubic parsec in the core of the cluster.[28] The typical distance between stars in a globular cluster is about 1 light year,[29] but at its core, the separation is comparable to the size of the Solar System (100 to 1000 times closer than stars near the Solar System).[30]

text: Globular clusters are not thought to be favorable locations for the survival of planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at 1 astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster such as 47 Tucanae would only survive on the order of 108 years.[31] There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar (PSR B1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M4, but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar.[32]

text: Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri in the Milky Way and G1 in M31, are extraordinarily massive, with several million solar masses (M☉) and multiple stellar populations. Both can be regarded as evidence that supermassive globular clusters are in fact the cores of dwarf galaxies that are consumed by the larger galaxies.[33] About a quarter of the globular cluster population in the Milky Way may have been accreted along with their host dwarf galaxy.[34]

text: Several globular clusters (like M15) have extremely massive cores which may harbor black holes,[35] although simulations suggest that a less massive black hole or central concentration of neutron stars or massive white dwarfs explain observations equally well.

text: Metallic content[edit]

text: Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars, which have a low proportion of elements other than hydrogen and helium when compared to Population I stars such as the Sun. Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as metals and to the proportions of these elements as the metallicity. These elements are produced by stellar nucleosynthesis and then are recycled into the interstellar medium, where they enter the next generation of stars. Hence the proportion of metals can be an indication of the age of a star, with older stars typically having a lower metallicity.[37]

text: The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff noticed that there appear to be two populations of globular clusters, which became known as Oosterhoff groups. The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars.[38] Both groups have weak lines of metallic elements. But the lines in the stars of Oosterhoff type I (OoI) cluster are not quite as weak as those in type II (OoII).[38] Hence type I are referred to as "metal-rich" (for example, Terzan 7[39]), while type II are "metal-poor" (for example, ESO 280-SC06[40]).

text: These two populations have been observed in many galaxies, especially massive elliptical galaxies. Both groups are nearly as old as the universe itself and are of similar ages, but differ in their metal abundances. Many scenarios have been suggested to explain these subpopulations, including violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy. In the Milky Way, the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the bulge.[41]

text: In the Milky Way it has been discovered that the large majority of the low metallicity clusters are aligned along a plane in the outer part of the galaxy's halo. This result argues in favor of the view that type II clusters in the galaxy were captured from a satellite galaxy, rather than being the oldest members of the Milky Way's globular cluster system as had been previously thought. The difference between the two cluster types would then be explained by a time delay between when the two galaxies formed their cluster systems.[42]

text: Exotic components[edit]

text: Globular clusters have a very high star density, and therefore close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often. Due to these chance encounters, some exotic classes of stars, such as blue stragglers, millisecond pulsars and low-mass X-ray binaries, are much more common in globular clusters. A blue straggler is formed from the merger of two stars, possibly as a result of an encounter with a binary system.[43] The resulting star has a higher temperature than comparable stars in the cluster with the same luminosity, and thus differs from the main sequence stars formed at the beginning of the cluster.[44]

text: Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s. The resolution requirements for this task, however, are exacting, and it is only with the Hubble space telescope that the first confirmed discoveries have been made. In independent programs, a 4,000 M☉ intermediate-mass black hole has been suggested to exist based on HST observations in the globular cluster M15 and a 20,000 M☉ black hole in the Mayall II cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy.[45] Both x-ray and radio emissions from Mayall II appear to be consistent with an intermediate-mass black hole.[46]

text: They are the first black holes discovered that were intermediate in mass between the conventional stellar-mass black hole and the supermassive black holes discovered at the cores of galaxies. The mass of these intermediate mass black holes is proportional to the mass of the clusters, following a pattern previously discovered between supermassive black holes and their surrounding galaxies.

text: Claims of intermediate mass black holes have been met with some skepticism. The heaviest objects in globular clusters are expected to migrate to the cluster center due to mass segregation. As pointed out in two papers by Holger Baumgardt and collaborators, the mass-to-light ratio should rise sharply towards the center of the cluster, even without a black hole, in both M15[47] and Mayall II.[48]

text: Color-magnitude diagram[edit]

text: The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR-diagram) is a graph of a large sample of stars that plots their visual absolute magnitude against their color index. The color index, B−V, is the difference between the magnitude of the star in blue light, or B, and the magnitude in visual light (green-yellow), or V. Large positive values indicate a red star with a cool surface temperature, while negative values imply a blue star with a hotter surface.

text: When the stars near the Sun are plotted on an HR diagram, it displays a distribution of stars of various masses, ages, and compositions. Many of the stars lie relatively close to a sloping curve with increasing absolute magnitude as the stars are hotter, known as main-sequence stars. However the diagram also typically includes stars that are in later stages of their evolution and have wandered away from this main-sequence curve.

text: As all the stars of a globular cluster are at approximately the same distance from us, their absolute magnitudes differ from their visual magnitude by about the same amount. The main-sequence stars in the globular cluster will fall along a line that is believed to be comparable to similar stars in the solar neighborhood. The accuracy of this assumption is confirmed by comparable results obtained by comparing the magnitudes of nearby short-period variables, such as RR Lyrae stars and cepheid variables, with those in the cluster.[50]

text: By matching up these curves on the HR diagram the absolute magnitude of main-sequence stars in the cluster can also be determined. This in turn provides a distance estimate to the cluster, based on the visual magnitude of the stars. The difference between the relative and absolute magnitude, the distance modulus, yields this estimate of the distance.[51]

text: When the stars of a particular globular cluster are plotted on an HR diagram, in many cases nearly all of the stars fall upon a relatively well-defined curve. This differs from the HR diagram of stars near the Sun, which lumps together stars of differing ages and origins. The shape of the curve for a globular cluster is characteristic of a grouping of stars that were formed at approximately the same time and from the same materials, differing only in their initial mass. As the position of each star in the HR diagram varies with age, the shape of the curve for a globular cluster can be used to measure the overall age of the star population.[52]

text: However, the above-mentioned historic process of determining the age and distance to globular clusters is not as robust as first thought, since the morphology and luminosity of globular cluster stars in color-magnitude diagrams are influenced by numerous parameters, many of which are still being actively researched. Certain clusters even display populations that are absent from other globular clusters (e.g., blue hook stars), or feature multiple populations. The historical paradigm that all globular clusters consist of stars born at exactly the same time, or sharing exactly the same chemical abundance, has likewise been overturned (e.g., NGC 2808).[53] Further, the morphology of the cluster stars in a color-magnitude diagram, and that includes the brightnesses of distance indicators such as RR Lyrae variable members, can be influenced by observational biases. One such effect is called blending, and it arises because the cores of globular clusters are so dense that in low-resolution observations multiple (unresolved) stars may appear as a single target. Thus the brightness measured for that seemingly single star (e.g., an RR Lyrae variable) is erroneously too bright, given those unresolved stars contributed to the brightness determined.[54][55] Consequently, the computed distance is wrong, and more importantly, certain researchers have argued that the blending effect can introduce a systematic uncertainty into the cosmic distance ladder, and may bias the estimated age of the Universe and the Hubble constant.

text: The most massive main-sequence stars will also have the highest absolute magnitude, and these will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage. As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will also enter the giant star stage. Thus the age of a single population cluster can be measured by looking for the stars that are just beginning to enter the giant star stage. This forms a "knee" in the HR diagram, bending to the upper right from the main-sequence line. The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the age of globular cluster, so an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude.

text: In addition, globular clusters can be dated by looking at the temperatures of the coolest white dwarfs. Typical results for globular clusters are that they may be as old as 12.7 billion years.[56] This is in contrast to open clusters which are only tens of millions of years old.

text: The ages of globular clusters place a bound on the age limit of the entire universe. This lower limit has been a significant constraint in cosmology. Historically, astronomers were faced with age estimates of globular clusters that appeared older than cosmological models would allow. However, better measurements of cosmological parameters through deep sky surveys and satellites such as the Hubble Space Telescope appear to have resolved this issue.[57]

text: Evolutionary studies of globular clusters can also be used to determine changes due to the starting composition of the gas and dust that formed the cluster. That is, the evolutionary tracks change with changes in the abundance of heavy elements. The data obtained from studies of globular clusters are then used to study the evolution of the Milky Way as a whole.[58]

text: In globular clusters a few stars known as blue stragglers are observed, apparently continuing the main sequence in the direction of brighter, bluer stars. The origins of these stars is still unclear, but most models suggest that these stars are the result of mass transfer in multiple star systems.[43]

text: Morphology[edit]

text: In contrast to open clusters, most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound for time periods comparable to the life spans of the majority of their stars. However, a possible exception is when strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of the stars.

text: After they are formed, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. As a result, the velocity vectors of the stars are steadily modified, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time. This is related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster as well as the number of stellar masses in the system.[60] The value of the relaxation time varies by cluster, but the mean value is on the order of 109 years.

text:
Ellipticity of globular clusters

Galaxy
Ellipticity[61]

Milky Way
0.07±0.04

LMC
0.16±0.05

SMC
0.19±0.06

M31
0.09±0.04

text: Although globular clusters generally appear spherical in form, ellipticities can occur due to tidal interactions. Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape, while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical.[62]

text: Radii[edit]

text: Astronomers characterize the morphology of a globular cluster by means of standard radii. These are the core radius (rc), the half-light radius (rh), and the tidal (or Jacobi) radius (rt). The overall luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance from the core, and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half.[63] A comparable quantity is the half-light radius, or the distance from the core within which half the total luminosity from the cluster is received. This is typically larger than the core radius.

text: Note that the half-light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight, so theorists will also use the half-mass radius (rm)—the radius from the core that contains half the total mass of the cluster. When the half-mass radius of a cluster is small relative to the overall size, it has a dense core. An example of this is Messier 3 (M3), which has an overall visible dimension of about 18 arc minutes, but a half-mass radius of only 1.12 arc minutes.[64]

text: Almost all globular clusters have a half-light radius of less than 10 pc, although there are well-established globular clusters with very large radii (i.e. NGC 2419 (Rh = 18 pc) and Palomar 14 (Rh = 25 pc)).[65]

text: Finally the tidal radius, or Hill sphere, is the distance from the center of the globular cluster at which the external gravitation of the galaxy has more influence over the stars in the cluster than does the cluster itself. This is the distance at which the individual stars belonging to a cluster can be separated away by the galaxy. The tidal radius of M3 is about 40 arc minutes,[66] or about 113 pc[67] at the distance of 10.4 kpc.

text: Mass segregation, luminosity and core collapse[edit]

text: In measuring the luminosity curve of a given globular cluster as a function of distance from the core, most clusters in the Milky Way increase steadily in luminosity as this distance decreases, up to a certain distance from the core, then the luminosity levels off. Typically this distance is about 1–2 parsecs from the core. However about 20% of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed "core collapse". In this type of cluster, the luminosity continues to increase steadily all the way to the core region.[68] An example of a core-collapsed globular is M15.

text: Core-collapse is thought to occur when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive companions. Over time, dynamic processes cause individual stars to migrate from the center of the cluster to the outside. This results in a net loss of kinetic energy from the core region, leading the remaining stars grouped in the core region to occupy a more compact volume. When this gravothermal instability occurs, the central region of the cluster becomes densely crowded with stars and the surface brightness of the cluster forms a power-law cusp.[69] (Note that a core collapse is not the only mechanism that can cause such a luminosity distribution; a massive black hole at the core can also result in a luminosity cusp.)[70] Over a lengthy period of time this leads to a concentration of massive stars near the core, a phenomenon called mass segregation.

text: The dynamical heating effect of binary star systems works to prevent an initial core collapse of the cluster. When a star passes near a binary system, the orbit of the latter pair tends to contract, releasing energy. Only after the primordial supply of binaries is exhausted due to interactions can a deeper core collapse proceed.[71][72] In contrast, the effect of tidal shocks as a globular cluster repeatedly passes through the plane of a spiral galaxy tends to significantly accelerate core collapse.[73]

text: The different stages of core-collapse may be divided into three phases. During a globular cluster's adolescence, the process of core-collapse begins with stars near the core. However, the interactions between binary star systems prevents further collapse as the cluster approaches middle age. Finally, the central binaries are either disrupted or ejected, resulting in a tighter concentration at the core.

text: The interaction of stars in the collapsed core region causes tight binary systems to form. As other stars interact with these tight binaries, they increase the energy at the core, which causes the cluster to re-expand. As the mean time for a core collapse is typically less than the age of the galaxy, many of a galaxy's globular clusters may have passed through a core collapse stage, then re-expanded.[74]

text: The Hubble Space Telescope has been used to provide convincing observational evidence of this stellar mass-sorting process in globular clusters. Heavier stars slow down and crowd at the cluster's core, while lighter stars pick up speed and tend to spend more time at the cluster's periphery. The globular star cluster 47 Tucanae, which is made up of about 1 million stars, is one of the densest globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere. This cluster was subjected to an intensive photographic survey, which allowed astronomers to track the motion of its stars. Precise velocities were obtained for nearly 15,000 stars in this cluster.[76]

text: A 2008 study by John Fregeau of 13 globular clusters in the Milky Way shows that three of them have an unusually large number of X-ray sources, or X-ray binaries, suggesting the clusters are middle-aged. Previously, these globular clusters had been classified as being in old age because they had very tight concentrations of stars in their centers, another test of age used by astronomers. The implication is that most globular clusters, including the other ten studied by Fregeau, are not in middle age as previously thought, but are actually in 'adolescence'.[77]

text: The overall luminosities of the globular clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy can be modeled by means of a gaussian curve. This gaussian can be represented by means of an average magnitude Mv and a variance σ2. This distribution of globular cluster luminosities is called the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF). (For the Milky Way, Mv = −7.20 ± 0.13, σ = 1.1 ± 0.1 magnitudes.)[78] The GCLF has also been used as a "standard candle" for measuring the distance to other galaxies, under the assumption that the globular clusters in remote galaxies follow the same principles as they do in the Milky Way.

text: N-body simulations[edit]

text: Computing the interactions between the stars within a globular cluster requires solving what is termed the N-body problem. That is, each of the stars within the cluster continually interacts with the other N−1 stars, where N is the total number of stars in the cluster. The naive CPU computational "cost" for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to N 2 (each of N objects must interact pairwise with each of the other N objects), so the potential computing requirements to accurately simulate such a cluster can be enormous.[79] An efficient method of mathematically simulating the N-body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdividing into small volumes and velocity ranges, and using probabilities to describe the locations of the stars. The motions are then described by means of a formula called the Fokker–Planck equation. This can be solved by a simplified form of the equation, or by running Monte Carlo simulations and using random values. However the simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces (such as from the Milky Way galaxy) must also be included.[80]

text: The results of N-body simulations have shown that the stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster, often forming loops and often falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass. In addition, due to interactions with other stars that result in an increase in velocity, some of the stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster. Over long periods of time this will result in a dissipation of the cluster, a process termed evaporation.[81] The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 1010 years.[60] In 2010 it became possible to directly compute, star by star, N-body simulations of a globular cluster over the course of its lifetime.[82]

text: Binary stars form a significant portion of the total population of stellar systems, with up to half of all stars occurring in binary systems. Numerical simulations of globular clusters have demonstrated that binaries can hinder and even reverse the process of core collapse in globular clusters. When a star in a cluster has a gravitational encounter with a binary system, a possible result is that the binary becomes more tightly bound and kinetic energy is added to the solitary star. When the massive stars in the cluster are sped up by this process, it reduces the contraction at the core and limits core collapse.[44]

text: The ultimate fate of a globular cluster must be either to accrete stars at its core, causing its steady contraction,[83] or gradual shedding of stars from its outer layers.[84]

text: Intermediate forms[edit]

text: The distinction between cluster types is not always clear-cut, and objects have been found that blur the lines between the categories. For example, BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster.[86]

text: In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy, which is, in several ways, very similar to globular clusters. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number to that found in globular clusters. The clusters share other characteristics with globular clusters such as stellar populations and metallicity. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger – several hundred light-years across – and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters. Parametrically, these clusters lie somewhere between a globular cluster and a dwarf spheroidal galaxy.[87]

text: How these clusters are formed is not yet known, but their formation might well be related to that of globular clusters. Why M31 has such clusters, while the Milky Way does not, is not yet known. It is also unknown if any other galaxy contains these types of clusters, but it would be very unlikely that M31 is the sole galaxy with extended clusters.[87]

text: Tidal encounters[edit]

text: When a globular cluster has a close encounter with a large mass, such as the core region of a galaxy, it undergoes a tidal interaction. The difference in the pull of gravity between the part of the cluster nearest the mass and the pull on the furthest part of the cluster results in a tidal force. A "tidal shock" occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy.

text: As a result of a tidal shock, streams of stars can be pulled away from the cluster halo, leaving only the core part of the cluster. These tidal interaction effects create tails of stars that can extend up to several degrees of arc away from the cluster.[88] These tails typically both precede and follow the cluster along its orbit. The tails can accumulate significant portions of the original mass of the cluster, and can form clumplike features.[89]

text: The globular cluster Palomar 5, for example, is near the apogalactic point of its orbit after passing through the Milky Way. Streams of stars extend outward toward the front and rear of the orbital path of this cluster, stretching out to distances of 13,000 light-years.[90] Tidal interactions have stripped away much of the mass from Palomar 5, and further interactions as it passes through the galactic core are expected to transform it into a long stream of stars orbiting the Milky Way halo.

text: Tidal interactions add kinetic energy into a globular cluster, dramatically increasing the evaporation rate and shrinking the size of the cluster.[60] Not only does tidal shock strip off the outer stars from a globular cluster, but the increased evaporation accelerates the process of core collapse. The same physical mechanism may be at work in dwarf spheroidal galaxies such as the Sagittarius Dwarf, which appears to be undergoing tidal disruption due to its proximity to the Milky Way.

text: Orbits[edit]

text: There are many globular clusters with a retrograde orbit round the Milky Way Galaxy.[91] A hypervelocity globular cluster was discovered around Messier 87 in 2014, having a velocity in excess of the escape velocity of M87.[92]

text: Planets[edit]

text: Astronomers are searching for exoplanets of stars in globular star clusters.[93]

text: In 2000, the results of a search for giant planets in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae were announced. The lack of any successful discoveries suggests that the abundance of elements (other than hydrogen or helium) necessary to build these planets may need to be at least 40% of the abundance in the Sun. Terrestrial planets are built from heavier elements such as silicon, iron and magnesium. The very low abundance of these elements in globular clusters means that the member stars have a far lower likelihood of hosting Earth-mass planets, when compared to stars in the neighborhood of the Sun. Hence the halo region of the Milky Way galaxy, including globular cluster members, are unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets.[94]

text: In spite of the lower likelihood of giant planet formation, just such an object has been found in the globular cluster Messier 4. This planet was detected orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system PSR B1620-26. The eccentric and highly inclined orbit of the planet suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster, then was later "exchanged" into its current arrangement.[95] The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems, some of which break loose to become free floating planets. Even close orbiting planets can become disrupted, potentially leading to orbital decay and an increase in orbital eccentricity and tidal effects.[96]


document_title: Clash of the Titans (1981 film)

question_text: who played calibos in clash of the titans 1981

root

text: Clash of the Titans (1981 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: King Acrisius of Argos imprisons his daughter Danaë, jealous of her beauty. When the god Zeus impregnates her, Acrisius banishes his daughter and his newborn grandson Perseus to sea in a wooden chest. In retribution, Zeus kills Acrisius and orders Poseidon to release the last of the Titans, a gigantic sea monster called the Kraken, to destroy Argos. Meanwhile, Danaë and Perseus safely float to the island of Seriphos where Perseus grows to adulthood.

tag: p

text: Calibos, evil son of the sea goddess Thetis, is a young man engaged to marry Princess Andromeda, the beautiful daughter of Queen Cassiopeia and heiress to the rich city of Joppa; but for committing several atrocities against Zeus, including hunting and destroying Zeus's sacred flying horses (excepting only Pegasus), Zeus transforms Calibos into a deformed monstrous creature. In revenge, Thetis transports an adult Perseus from Seriphos to an abandoned amphitheater in Joppa, where he is befriended by an elderly poet named Ammon and learns that Andromeda is under a curse and cannot marry unless her suitor successfully answers a riddle whose failures are burned at the stake. In order to aid his son, Zeus sends Perseus a god-crafted helmet from Athena which makes its wearer invisible, a magical sword from Aphrodite, and a shield from Hera. Perseus, wearing the helmet, captures Pegasus and follows Calibos' giant vulture that is carrying Andromeda's soul to learn the next riddle. Perseus is nearly killed by Calibos but manages to sever one of Calibos' hands, losing his helmet in the process.

text: Perseus befriends Thallo and presents himself as suitor and correctly answers the riddle, presenting the severed hand of Calibos. Perseus wins Andromeda's hand in marriage. Finding that Thetis cannot act against Perseus, Calibos instead demands that she takes vengeance on Joppa. At the wedding, Queen Cassiopeia compares Andromeda's beauty to that of Thetis herself, whereupon Thetis demands Andromeda be sacrificed to the Kraken on pain of Joppa's destruction.

text: Perseus seeks a way to defeat the Kraken, while Pegasus is captured by Calibos and his men. Zeus commands Athena to give Perseus her owl Bubo; but she orders Hephaestus to build a golden replica of Bubo instead, who leads Perseus to the Stygian Witches. By taking their magic eye Perseus forces them to reveal that the only way to defeat the Kraken is by using the head of Medusa, who lives on an island in the River Styx at the edge of the Underworld. The next day, the group continues on their journey without Andromeda and Ammon, who return to Joppa.

text: On the Gorgon's island with three soldiers by his side, Perseus fights Medusa's guardian, a two-headed dog named Dioskilos, who kills one of his companions but Perseus intervenes in the nick of time and kills the beast. Perseus leads his two remaining allies into the Gorgon's lair. His two other companions die on encounter with Medusa herself; she shoots one of the soldiers with an arrow and turns the other to stone. Perseus uses the reflective underside of his shield to deceive Medusa, decapitates her, and collects her head; but the shield is dissolved by her caustic blood. As Perseus and his party set to return, Calibos enters their camp, forces Bubo into the water, scares the horses away, and punctures the cloak carrying Medusa's head, causing her blood to spill and produce three giant scorpions called Scorpiochs. The scorpions attack and Thallo is able to kill one of them, but he and his fighting companion are both killed by Calibos himself. Perseus slays the other two scorpions and thereafter kills Calibos and grieves Thallo's death.

text: Weakened by his struggle, Perseus sends Bubo to rescue Pegasus, who is being held prisoner by Calibos' henchmen. Bubo succeeds in his task and manages to destroy Calibos' camp as well. Perseus reaches the amphitheater in Joppa, but collapses unconscious from exhaustion. Andromeda is shackled to the sea cliffs outside Joppa, and the Kraken itself is summoned. Bubo diverts the Kraken's attention until Perseus, whose strength was secretly re-restored by Zeus before the Kraken was released, appears on Pegasus. In the subsequent battle, Perseus petrifies the Kraken with Medusa's head, causing it to crumble to pieces. He then tosses the head into the sea, frees Andromeda, and marries her.

text: The gods predict that Perseus and Andromeda will live happily, rule wisely, and produce children, and Zeus forbids the other gods to pursue vengeance against them. The constellations of Perseus, Andromeda, Pegasus, and Cassiopeia are created in their honor.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Harry Hamlin as Perseus
Judi Bowker as Andromeda
Burgess Meredith as Ammon
Maggie Smith as Thetis
Siân Phillips as Cassiopeia
Claire Bloom as Hera
Ursula Andress as Aphrodite
Laurence Olivier as Zeus
Pat Roach as Hephaestus
Susan Fleetwood as Athena
Tim Pigott-Smith as Thallo
Jack Gwillim as Poseidon
Neil McCarthy as Calibos
Vida Taylor as Danaë
Donald Houston as Acrisius
Flora Robson, Anna Manahan and Freda Jackson as the Stygian Witches

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: In 1978, Andor Films submitted a copy of the script to the British Board of Film Classification, seeking advice on how to secure either a "U" or an "A" certificate. The draft script included scenes which the BBFC considered would not be acceptable under those certificates, including the Kraken tearing Pegasus to pieces and Andromeda being naked during the climax of the film. Changes to the script and, on submission, some cuts to Perseus' final battle with Calibos were made and the film secured the "A" certificate: "Those aged 5 and older admitted, but not recommended for children under 14 years of age".[7]

text: Ray Harryhausen used the special effects technique of stop motion animation to create the various creatures in Clash of the Titans, including Calibos, his vulture, Pegasus, Bubo the mechanical owl, Dioskilos, Medusa, the Scorpiochs, and the Kraken. Harryhausen was also co-producer of the film, and retired from filmmaking shortly after the movie was released, making this his last main feature film. Despite the mechanical owl Bubo's similarities to the droid R2-D2 of the 1977 film Star Wars, Harryhausen claimed that Bubo was created before Star Wars was released.[8] The BBFC, reviewing the film for certification in 1981, said that Harryhausen's effects were well done and would give entertainment to audiences of all ages, but might appear a little "old hat" to those familiar with Star Wars and Superman.[7]

text: Columbia Pictures were initially set to distribute the film having made most of Harryhausen and producer Charles H. Schneer's films, but after a change of guard at the studio, they dropped the project during pre-production, leading to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to pick it up instead.

text: Stars Harry Hamlin and Ursula Andress were romantically involved at the time of production. Their son, Dimitri, was born in 1980 after filming was completed, and their relationship ended in 1982.

text: Jack Gwillim, who appeared as Poseidon, had earlier played the role of King Aeëtes in the original Jason and the Argonauts in 1963.

text: The film's screenwriter, Beverley Cross, was married to Maggie Smith, who played Thetis, until his death in 1998. Cross worked with producer Charles H. Schneer before, writing the screenplay for Schneer's production of Jason and the Argonauts.

text: Reception[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2017)

text: Clash of the Titans was released on June 12, 1981. By the time it finished its theatrical run, it had grossed $41,000,000 in North America.[9] The film has a 66% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[10] In a book published in 2000, Stephen R. Wilk suggested that "most people today who are aware of the story of Perseus and Medusa owe their knowledge to the 1981 film Clash of the Titans."[11]

text: Locations[edit]

text:
The karst area in El Torcal de Antequera, Spain appears in the visit to the Stygian witches.

The Azure Window in Gozo, Malta, appears in the battle against the Kraken.

text: Other locations include:

text:
Cornwall, United Kingdom.
The Albert R. Broccoli 007 Stage, at Pinewood Studios, United Kingdom.
Paestum, Italy

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The four-issue comic book mini-series Wrath of the Titans (2007), released by TidalWave Productions as part of their Ray Harryhausen Signature Series, picked up the story 5 years after the events of the film.[12]

text: The 3D remake Clash of the Titans (2010) and its sequel Wrath of the Titans (2012) were released by the property's current rights holder Warner Bros.[13][14][15]


document_title: List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan

question_text: who was the third prime minister of pakistan

text: List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan

text: Key[edit]

text:
Key for Prime Ministers' list

Symbol/Colours
Meaning

A
Caretaker Prime Minister

Muslim League/Pakistan Muslim League

Awami League

Republican Party

Pakistan Peoples Party

National Peoples Party

Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Pakistan Muslim League (Q)

Independent

Position abolished/vacant

text: Prime Ministers[edit]

text:
List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan

[hide]No.
Portrait
Name
(Birth–death)
Took office
Left office
Tenure
Elections
Political party
(Alliance)
Note(s)

1

Liaquat Ali Khan[18][19]
(1895–1951)
14 August 1947
16 October 1951
(assassinated)
4 Years,
2 Months,
2 Days,
—
Muslim League

Liaquat Ali Khan was appointed as the first Prime Minister of Pakistan by the Governor-General in 1947. He was assassinated in 1951, and Khawaja Nazimuddin took the office.[4][20]

16 October 1951 – 17 October 1951

2

Khawaja Nazimuddin[2]
(1894–1964)
17 October 1951
17 April 1953
1 Year,
6 Months,
—
Muslim League

Nazimuddin became Prime Minister of Pakistan after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951.[20] He left the office when governor general Malik Ghulam Muhammad dissolved his government in 1953.[2]

3

Muhammad Ali Bogra[5]
(1909–63)
17 April 1953
12 August 1955
2 Years,
3 Months,
26 Days,
—
Muslim League

A relatively unknown personality to Pakistani politics, Bogra replaced Khwaja Nazimuddin as Prime Minister. Iskander Mirza, the then-governor general, dismissed his government in 1955.[2]

4

Chaudhry Muhammad Ali[5]
(1905–80)
12 August 1955
12 September 1956
1 Year,
1 Month,
—
Muslim League

Ali took office after in 1955. He resigned from the post in 1956, due to the conflicts with the governor general.[2]

5

Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy[2]
(1892–1963)
12 September 1956
17 October 1957
1 Year,
1 Month,
5 Days,
—
Awami League

Suhrawardy held the post for more than a year. He subsequently resigned in 1957, due to differences with Iskander Mirza.[2]

6

Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar[2][5]
(1898–1968)
17 October 1957
16 December 1957
1 Month,
29 Days,
—
Muslim League

Chundrigar was appointed by Iskander Mirza after the resignation of Suhrawardy. He remained prime minister for almost two months. Chundrigar resigned from the post in December 1957.[2]

7

Feroz Khan Noon[2]
(1893–1970)
16 December 1957
7 October 1958
9 Months,
21 Days,
—
Republican Party

Noon was elected as the seventh Prime Minister of Pakistan. He was dismissed during the 1958 Pakistani coup d'état.[21]

7 October 1958 – 7 December 1971

8

Nurul Amin[2]
(1893–1974)
7 December 1971
20 December 1971
13 Days,
7 December 1970
Pakistan Muslim League

Amin was appointed by Yahya Khan as the eighth Prime Minister of Pakistan; he was also the first and the only Vice President of Pakistan from 1970 to 1972, leading Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.[2]

20 December 1971 – 14 August 1973

9

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto[2][22]
(1928–79)
14 August 1973
5 July 1977
3 Years,
10 Months,
21 Days,
14 August 1973
Pakistan People's Party

Bhutto resigned as president to become the Prime Minister after the 1973 Constitution was promulgated, which established a parliamentary system of government. He was deposed in the 1977 Pakistani coup d'état by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in July 1977.[8][23]

5 July 1977 – 24 March 1985

10

Muhammad Khan Junejo[5]
(1932–93)
24 March 1985
29 May 1988
3 Years,
2 Months,
5 Days,
28 February 1985
Pakistan Muslim League
(Independent)

Junejo was elected as the tenth Prime Minister of Pakistan in non-party based elections in 1985, therefore he was elected on an Independent ticket but he served the Pakistan Muslim League while before entering in office and during office. He was dismissed by the president after Eighth Amendment to the Constitution.[2]

29 May 1988 – 2 December 1988

11

Benazir Bhutto[19]
(1953–2007)
2 December 1988
6 August 1990
1 Year,
8 Months,
4 Days,
16 November 1988
Pakistan People's Party

Bhutto became the first woman in Pakistan to head a major political party, in 1982. Six years later, she became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim state.[9][24]

A

Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi[25]
(1931–2009)
6 August 1990
6 November 1990
3 Months,
—
National Peoples Party

Jatoi was appointed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan as a caretaker Prime Minister.[2]

12

Nawaz Sharif[10]
(1949–)
6 November 1990
18 April 1993
2 Years,
5 Months,
12 Days,
24 October 1990
Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Sharif was elected as the 12th Prime Minister of Pakistan on 1 November 1990.[26] President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved his government in April 1993, which was later on reinstated by the Supreme Court of Pakistan.[10]

A

Balakh Sher Mazari[2]
(1928–)
18 April 1993
26 May 1993
1 Month,
8 Days,
—
Pakistan People's Party

Appointed by the President Khan as a caretaker Prime Minister, Mazari's term ended when the Supreme Court overturned the Presidential order and restored Sharif's government.[2]

(12)

Nawaz Sharif[10]
(1949–)
26 May 1993
18 July 1993
1 Month,
22 Days,
—
Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Sharif survived a serious constitutional crisis when President Khan attempted to dismiss him under article 58-2b, in April 1993, but he successfully challenged the decision in the Supreme Court.[10] Sharif resigned from the post negotiating a settlement that resulted in the removal of President as well, in July 1993.[27]

A

Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi[2]
(1930–2016)
18 July 1993
19 October 1993
3 Months,
1 Day,
—
Independent

After Sharif's resignation in July 1993, Qureshi was appointed as the caretaker Prime Minister.

(11)

Benazir Bhutto[9][19]
(1953–2007)
19 October 1993
5 November 1996
3 Years,
17 Days,
6 October 1993
Pakistan People's Party

Bhutto was re-elected for a second term, in 1993. She survived an attempted coup d'état in 1995. Bhutto's government was dismissed by president Farooq Leghari in November 1996.[28][29]

A

Malik Meraj Khalid[30]
(1916–2003)
5 November 1996
17 February 1997
3 Months,
12 Days,
—
Independent

Khalid was appointed as a caretaker Prime Minister after the dismissal of Bhutto's government in November 1996.[2]

(12)

Nawaz Sharif[10]
(1949–)
17 February 1997
12 October 1999
2 Years,
7 Months,
25 Days.
3 February 1997
Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Sharif was re-elected as Prime Minister with an exclusive mandate from all over Pakistan for a non-consecutive second term, in February 1997.[11][31] His government was deposed by General Pervez Musharraf in October 1999, and Martial law was imposed in the entire country.[12][32]

12 October 1999 – 23 November 2002

13

Zafarullah Khan Jamali[5]
(1944–)
23 November 2002
26 June 2004
1 Year,
7 Months,
3 Days,
10 October 2002
Pakistan Muslim League (Q)

Jamali was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan in November 2002. He continued the foreign and economic policies of Pervez Musharraf but could not complete his term and resigned from the post in June 2004.[15]

26 June 2004 – 30 June 2004

14

Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain[33]
(1946–)
30 June 2004
26 August 2004
1 Month,
27 Days,
—
Pakistan Muslim League (Q)

Parliament elected Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain as the Prime Minister and to serve a 50-day period before the Shaukat Aziz, permanently replaces him.[33]

26 August 2004 – 28 August 2004

15

Shaukat Aziz[34]
(1949–)
28 August 2004
15 November 2007
3 Years,
2 Months,
18 Days,
—
Pakistan Muslim League (Q)

Aziz took the office of Prime Minister of Pakistan in August 2004. He left the office at the end of the parliamentary term, in November 2007, and became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan who left the seat after completion of parliamentary term.[35]

15 November 2007 – 16 November 2007

A

Muhammad Mian Soomro[36]
(1950–)
16 November 2007
24 March 2008
4 Months,
8 Days,
—
Pakistan Muslim League (Q)

Soomro took the office as caretaker Prime Minister in November 2007.[36]

16

Yousaf Raza Gillani[37]
(1952–)
25 March 2008
19 June 2012
4 Years,
2 Months,
25 Days.
18 February 2008
Pakistan People's Party

Gillani was elected as prime minister in March 2008. He was disqualified from his seat in the parliament in April 2012 by the Supreme Court for contempt of court.[38]

19 June 2012 – 22 June 2012

17

Raja Pervaiz Ashraf[39]
(1950–)
22 June 2012
24 March 2013
9 Months,
2 Days,
—
Pakistan People's Party

Ashraf assumed the post of Prime Minister in June 2012, after Yousaf Raza Gillani was disqualified over contempt of court charges.[16]

24 March 2013 – 25 March 2013

A

Mir Hazar Khan Khoso[40]
(1929–)
25 March 2013
5 June 2013
2 Months,
11 Days,
—
Independent

Khoso was appointed by the Election Commission of Pakistan on 24 March,[41] and took oath on 25 March 2013.[42]

(12)

Muhammad Nawaz Sharif[10]
(1949–)
5 June 2013
28 July 2017
4 Years,
1 Month,
23 Days,
11 May 2013
Pakistan Muslim League (N)

On 5 June 2013, Sharif took office for a third non-consecutive term.[13][14] He took oath under Asif Ali Zardari, the then-president of Pakistan.[43]

28 July 2017 – 1 August 2017

18

Shahid Khaqan Abbasi
(1958–)
1 August 2017
Incumbent
_
—
Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Parliament elected Shahid Khaqan Abbasi as the Prime Minister after the disqualification of Nawaz Sharif.[44]


document_title: Nurse (Romeo and Juliet)

question_text: who plays the nurse in romeo and juliet

question_tokens: who plays the nurse in romeo and juliet

text: Nurse (Romeo and Juliet)

text: Origins[edit]

text: The Nurse is a character in Arthur Brooke's poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, as Shakespeare's main source text. She is like family to the Capulets. The Nurse plays a similar role in the poem by Brooke, though she is less critical of Paris and is banished for the events that took place.[1]

text: Role in the play[edit]

text: The Nurse is sent by Juliet in act two, scene four to seek out Romeo the night after their first kiss and exchange of vows. The Nurse finds Romeo and soon after returns to Juliet with news of Romeo's continued affection. It is because of the Nurse's approval that Juliet ultimately decides to go through with marrying Romeo.

text: Later, the Nurse is overcome with grief at the death of Tybalt, and she runs to Juliet and cries, "He's dead, he's dead, he's dead! We are undone, lady, we are undone! Alack the day, he's gone, he's killed, he's dead!"[2] The Nurse is the one to deliver the news of Romeo's banishment to Juliet; in spite of Tybalt's murder coming from Romeo's hands, Juliet bids the Nurse to seek out Romeo for her at Friar Lawrence's cell for one final night with him before he flees to Mantua.

text: When Juliet learns that her parents expect her to marry Paris, the Nurse urges the girl to go ahead with the marriage. Even though Juliet was already married to Romeo, the Nurse felt that Juliet would never see her husband again. Following this, Juliet feels betrayed and decides never to share any more of her secrets with the Nurse.

text: The Nurse discovers Juliet under the spell of Friar Lawrence's potion in act four, scene five, and the grief of her death as seriously as she mourned Tybalt. She is, finally, present at the real deathbed of Romeo, Juliet, and Paris, though speechless. Indeed, she loses perhaps the dearest friends of anyone, having suffered through the deaths of her husband, Susan, Tybalt, Romeo, and Juliet.

text: The nurse has the third largest number of lines in the original play; only the eponymous characters have more lines.[3]

text: Literary interpretations[edit]

text: In 2014, Simon & Schuster published Juliet's Nurse (ISBN 9781476757445), a novel by historian and former college professor Lois Leveen imagining the fourteen years leading up to the events in the play from the point of view of the nurse.[3]

text: Analysis[edit]

text: In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character that uses it. Friar Lawrence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech.[4]

text: Friar Lawrence agrees to marry Romeo to Juliet in an attempt to mend the dispute between the two families; the Nurse sees their union as one of legitimate romance. The Nurse recognises that Juliet shows no interest in Paris' courting and is the only member of the older generation to take Juliet's feelings into consideration…that is, until she suddenly betrays Juliet's trust by saying that she should marry Paris. Only to the nurse does Juliet confide her feelings about both Paris and Romeo. The formal language Juliet uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo.[5]

text: The Nurse also admits to being something of a fool, proclaiming, "were not I thine [Juliet's] only nurse, I would say thou hadst suck'd wisdom from thy teat."[6] She is implied to be ugly by Mercutio, who urges the Nurse's servant Peter to fetch her fan quickly, "to hide her face; for her fan's the fairer face." Mercutio also mentions her age, calling her an "ancient lady" as he exits from the same scene. Some illustrations even depict her as an obese or big boned woman, because of how Mercutio insults her. He calls "A sail! A sail!" Meaning he thinks that the nurse is as big as a ship.

text: The Nurse is also a frequent user of malapropisms. Her view of romance is very pragmatic, much like Mercutio's views. When Juliet says that marriage is an honour she did not yet think of, the nurse laughs and exclaims, what an honour it is. The nurse's humour is very crude, which is shown when she makes a rude joke about the way Juliet will 'fall down' when she is older.

text: The Nurse's given name may be Angelica. In Act 4, scene 4, Lord Capulet, alone with the Nurse and Lady Capulet, tells "good Angelica" to order baked meats for Juliet's upcoming wedding to Count Paris. It is unclear from the text whether he is addressing the Nurse or Lady Capulet.

text: Performance history[edit]

text: A short sample of famous Nurses follows:

text:
Miriam Margolyes in Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet.
Pat Heywood in Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 film.
Edna May Oliver in the 1936 film.
Flora Robson in the 1954 film.
Debbie Rochon in Tromeo & Juliet.
Chita Rivera (as Anita) the Nurse role in West Side Story (1957 Original Broadway Cast)
Rita Moreno (as Anita) the Nurse role in "West Side Story (film)"
Karen Olivo (as Anita) the Nurse role in West Side Story (2009 Revival Original Broadway Cast)

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Arthur J. Roberts (February 1902). "The Sources of Romeo and Juliet". Modern Language Notes. Modern Language Notes, Vol. 17, No. 2. 17 (2): 41–44. doi:10.2307/2917639. JSTOR 2917639.
Jump up ^ Romeo and Juliet, Act 3, Scene 2
^ Jump up to: a b Simon & Schuster author page. Retrieved 19 April 2014 http://books.simonandschuster.com/Juliets-Nurse/Lois-Leveen/9781476757445
Jump up ^ Halio, 48–60.
Jump up ^ Halio, 20–30.
Jump up ^ Romeo and Juliet Act 1, Scene 3, Lines 67–68

tag: ol


document_title: La Bamba (film)

question_text: who played richie's brother in la bamba

question_tokens: who played richie 's brother in la bamba

text: La Bamba (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Richard Steven Valenzuela (Phillips) is a normal teenage boy who becomes a rock 'n' roll superstar under the stage name Ritchie Valens. He meets and falls in love with fellow high school student Donna Ludwig (von Zerneck), for whom he wrote a song that became a number two hit ("Donna"). However, Donna's father is shown as having issues with his daughter dating a Mexican-American, which causes friction between Ritchie and Donna. The movie also has several subplots, such as his relationship with his mother Connie Valenzuela (DeSoto) and half-brother Bob Morales (Esai Morales), and the jealousy Bob felt toward Ritchie's success.

text: In one scene, Bob wins an important art contest that helps promising cartoonists, only to throw away his prize because, in his mind, his mother does not seem to care enough. Bob resorts to drinking heavily and, at one point, leads him to yelling in a drunken rage in front of his mother's door, "I want to see my daughter!" in reference to the child he sired with Ritchie's first girlfriend Rosie (Peña).

text: However, when they get an opportunity, Ritchie and Bob sneak out for a good time. On one occasion, they take a road trip to Tijuana, visiting one of the local clubs where Ritchie discovers the song that would eventually become his signature song, "La Bamba".

text: The film also focuses on Ritchie's aviophobia (fear of flying), triggered by a recurring dream he has as a result of a midair collision between two planes that actually occurred directly over Ritchie's school, in which Ritchie's best friend was crushed to death by one of the fallen aircraft (Ritchie was absent from school that day to attend his grandfather's funeral). At first, Ritchie manages to avoid flying to his concerts and appearances; but he must eventually conquer his fear when invited to perform his song "Donna" on American Bandstand. Ritchie's record producer and manager, Bob Keane (Pantoliano), helps him by giving him a little vodka to calm his nerves during the flight to Philadelphia for the Bandstand appearance.

text: As Ritchie becomes more famous, his responsibilities change, and eventually he must join the ill-fated Winter Dance Party tour with Buddy Holly (Marshall Crenshaw) and "The Big Bopper" (Stephen Lee) after "La Bamba" and "Donna" reach the top of the Billboard charts.

text: Valens, Holly, and Bopper take off in an airplane during a snowstorm for their fateful flight on February 3, 1959 (the night that came to be known as "The Day the Music Died"). Before the ill-fated flight, Ritchie makes a call to his brother, wherein they patch up their differences. He even invites Bob to fly out to Chicago to join the tour for family support.

text: The next day, as Bob is fixing his mother's car, he hears the news bulletin on the radio that his brother's plane crashed without any survivors. Bob darts out of his driveway in an attempt to get to his mother before she hears the bad news through the radio. Unfortunately, by the time he gets there, she stands immobile. The news of Ritchie's death hits the Valenzuela family, Bob Keane, and Donna very hard. In the final scene, the cars to Ritchie's funeral are shown driving slowly into San Fernando Mission Cemetery and Bob is then seen walking across a bridge and screaming out Ritchie's name, remembering all the good times they had together (in flashback), accompanied by the Santo & Johnny instrumental "Sleep Walk."

text: Lou Diamond Phillips (as Valens) is then shown in an earlier scene performing Valens' version of "La Bamba" accompanied by the closing credits. In the movie David Hidalgo of Los Lobos provided the singing voice.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Lou Diamond Phillips as Ritchie Valens
Esai Morales as Roberto "Bob" Morales (Ritchie's half-brother)
Rosanna DeSoto as Connie Valenzuela (Ritchie's mother)
Danielle von Zerneck as Donna Ludwig
Elizabeth Peña as Rosie Morales
Joe Pantoliano as Bob Keane
Rick Dees as Ted Quillin
Marshall Crenshaw as Buddy Holly
Howard Huntsberry as Jackie Wilson
Brian Setzer as Eddie Cochran
Stephen Lee as The Big Bopper
Sam Anderson as Mr. Ludwig (Donna's father)

text: Also featured are several members of the Valenzuela family and director Luis Valdez's family, including:

text:
Concepcion Valenzuela (the real Connie Valenzuela, Ritchie's mother) as the elderly woman sitting next to Lou Diamond Phillips (as Ritchie) at a party
Daniel Valdez (Luis' brother) as Ritchie's Uncle Lelo

text: Distribution[edit]

text: The film opened in wide release in the United States on July 24, 1987. In Australia it opened on September 17, 1987.

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $5,698,884. La Bamba eventually grossed $52,678,820 in the United States in 12 weeks.[1]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Roger Ebert liked the film and the screenplay, writing, "This is a good small movie, sweet and sentimental, about a kid who never really got a chance to show his stuff. The best things in it are the most unexpected things: the portraits of everyday life, of a loving mother, of a brother who loves and resents him, of a kid growing up and tasting fame and leaving everyone standing around at his funeral shocked that his life ended just as it seemed to be beginning."[2]

text: Janet Maslin, writing for The New York Times, was impressed with Lou Diamond Phillips' performance, and wrote, "A film like this is quite naturally a showcase for its star, and as Valens, Lou Diamond Phillips has a sweetness and sincerity that in no way diminish the toughness of his onstage persona. The role is blandly written, but Mr. Phillips gives Valens backbone."[3]

text: The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 96% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 26 reviews."[4]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Wins

text: Broadcast Music Incorporated: BMI Film Music Award, Carlos Santana and Miles Goodman; 1988.

text: Nominations

text: Golden Globe Award: Best Motion Picture - Drama; 1988.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
La Bamba Soundtrack

Cover

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
June 30, 1987

Genre
Rock and roll, rockabilly

Label
Slash, Warner Bros.

text: Because the movie is a celebration of 1950s rock and roller Ritchie Valens, his music and the music of his contemporaries play a central part in the film.

text: An original motion picture soundtrack album was released on June 30, 1987 on Warner Bros. Records. The album contained 12 tracks. The first six songs consist of Los Lobos covers of Ritchie Valens' songs: "La Bamba", "Come On Let's Go", "Ooh My Head", "We Belong Together", "Framed", and "Donna".[5]

text: Other performers include: Howard Huntsberry, Marshall Crenshaw, Brian Setzer, and Bo Diddley performing a new version of his blues classic "Who Do You Love?".

text: Some songs like The Big Bopper's "Chantilly Lace" were omitted from the release. Other omitted songs were "Oh Boy", "Rip It Up", "The Paddi Wack Song" (written by Valens), and "Sleep Walk" by Santo & Johnny (used in the final and initial scenes).

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"La Bamba" - Los Lobos
"Come On, Let's Go!" - Los Lobos
"Ooh My Head" - Los Lobos
"We Belong Together" - Los Lobos
"Framed" - Los Lobos
"Donna" - Los Lobos

text:
"Lonely Teardrops" - Howard Huntsberry
"Crying, Waiting, Hoping" - Marshall Crenshaw
"Summertime Blues" - Brian Setzer
"Who Do You Love?" - Bo Diddley
"Charlena" - Los Lobos
"Goodnight, My Love" - Los Lobos

text:
Preceded by
Whitney by Whitney Houston
Billboard 200 number-one album
September 12–26, 1987
Succeeded by
Bad by Michael Jackson

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

France (SNEP)[6]
Gold
100,000*

United States (RIAA)[7]
2× Platinum
2,000,000^

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone


document_title: Team Umizoomi

question_text: who does the voice of milli in team umizoomi

text: Team Umizoomi

text: General characteristics[edit]

text: Each episode of Team Umizoomi feature each of the following:

text:
A task or quest to be completed, usually to assist a child in need. Completing the main task requires completion of several sub-tasks, and there are often unforeseen difficulties that must be surmounted. Each sub-task generally involves mathematical reasoning about patterns, sequences, counting, geometric shapes, or other mathematical concepts.
Breaking the fourth wall, where the characters on screen communicate directly to the child viewing the show and encourage him or her to participate with the show, though it's done more times than most Nick Jr. shows, a common fourth wall break in this show is at the beginning where someone asks "Do You Like...".
A mixture of live-action and animation. The team and the surroundings are animated, but the person being helped is often a real child, or sometimes an adult. In the city, or in other crowd scenes, other real people are shown in the background. In comparison to the regular people, the animated characters on the team are less than a foot tall. The live-action actors are uncredited.
Once the main task has been completed the team sings a song and performs a dance called the Crazy Shake, which involves shaking and wiggling back and forth quickly. The Crazy Shake was called the "Umi Shake" in the first season. The child viewing the show is encouraged to participate in the dance.
"How does it work? " In some episodes, a simple explanation is given of an everyday process, such as how milk gets from farm to market, or how packages are sorted at the post office, though in the latter, possibly to add more conflict to the episode that featured it, it's said that if a letter or package doesn't have enough stamps it gets dropped into the "Do Not Delivery" basket, whereas in real life, it would just get sent back to the sender.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Hosts[edit]

text:
Milli (voiced by Sophia Fox) – A girl who is Geo's older sister who has abilities related to patterns and measuring. If, while on an adventure, it is necessary to complete the next element in a pattern in order to accomplish something, Milli can change her pink dress to any pattern and can then project that pattern by singing "Pattern Power". Her ponytails can be used to measure things, which is initiated by singing "Milli Measure". She is 6 years old.
Geo (voiced by Ethan Kempner) – A boy who is Milli's younger brother who travels everywhere on his Super Skates while wearing a blue helmet and a matching shirt. He has abilities related to geometric shapes and wears a Shape Belt that can create objects by assembling shapes and then singing "Super Shapes". Often when Team Umizoomi is stuck and needs some type of vehicle to assist them Geo will figure out what they need, present a blueprint for the vehicle needed, and then interact with the child viewer to assemble shapes needed to fill in the blueprint. He also has a Shape Magnet to help him find shapes through obstacles and a Shape Splitter to help him split shapes. He is 5 years old.
Bot (voiced by Donovan Patton) – Bot is a green robot and friend of the siblings who likes to sing and dance with a fun-loving, childlike personality. His abilities are more functional than math-related. His arms and legs can be extended to reach things, by saying "Arms Extendo" or "Legs Extendo" and sometimes "Jaw EXTENDO!". He has a small receiver (like a satellite dish) on his head to receive calls (called the Umi Alarm). He also has a screen on the front (called a "Belly Belly Belly Screen" stylized as "Belly Belly, Belly Screen!") that they can view videos/pictures on as well as have a video call with someone who needs help. He also has a storage compartment on the back of his body, called a Bot-o-mat, which frequently is carrying whatever the team happens to need. In each episode, he is introduced, usually by Milli, as their "Best Robot Friend."
UmiCar (voiced by P.T. Walkley) – The team's beloved little yellow and orange car who drives the team wherever their help is needed. He is seen playing basketball with the team against the puppets. The UmiCar is adapted to fit the needs of the team by transforming or adding camouflage depending on the mission.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
DoorMouse (voiced by Joe Narcisco, and Chris Phillips) – The security mouse of Umi City and frenemy to Team Umizoomi. He often blocks the team's entry into parks or buildings, stating a key is needed for access. The team must then complete a math-related challenge to get the key back. Team Umizoomi have helped Door Mouse several times when he was sick or accidentally shot into space. Nevertheless, Door Mouse insists on Team Umizoomi's compliance with whatever minute bureaucratic impediments he is in charge of enforcing.
The Troublemakers (Little Trouble voiced by Nick Heatherington; Big Trouble voiced by Jason Harris) – The Troublemakers are a group of antagonists from the fourth season. Their only goals in life are to cause havoc, chaos, and trouble in Umi City, as well as defeat Team Umizoomi. They have a secret weapon named the Trouble Ray, which fulfills their malicious troublemaking ways, and a vehicle they call the TroubleTruck, which they use to get away. The Troublemakers are named Little Trouble and Big Trouble.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
19
January 25, 2010 (2010-01-25)
December 6, 2010 (2010-12-06)

2
20
October 18, 2010 (2010-10-18)
October 13, 2011 (2011-10-13)

3
19
October 14, 2011 (2011-10-14)
December 6, 2012 (2012-12-06)

4
20
February 4, 2013 (2013-02-04)
April 24, 2015 (2015-04-24)

text: UK Version[edit]

text: When the show aired on Nick Jr. UK, the show was redubbed using British voice actors, replacing the original American soundtrack.

text: Teresa Gallagher as Millie

text: Joanna Ruiz as Geo

text: Tom Eastwood as Bot

text: Toys and merchandising[edit]

text: Fisher Price released the first official "Team Umizoomi" toys in early 2012. The first products available included plush dolls, bath toys, and figurines featuring characters and vehicles from the show.[4]

text: DVD releases[edit]

text:
Title
Format
Description
Release Date

Team Umizoomi
DVD
Includes "The Rolling Toy Parade", "Kite Festival", "Wild West Toy Train Show", and "The Legend of the Blue Mermaind"
June 28, 2011

Team Umizoomi: Journey to Numberland
DVD
Includes the 2-part special "The King of Numbers!", "Picnic", and "The Dinosaur Museum Mishap"
September 6, 2011

Nickelodeon Favorites: Merry Christmas
DVD
Includes "Santa's Little Fixers", plus episodes from Dora the Explorer, Go, Diego, Go!, The Wonder Pets, Blue's Clues, and Ni Hao, Kai-lan
October 4, 2011

Nickelodeon Favorites: Dance to the Music
DVD
Includes "The Butterfly Dance Show", plus episodes from Dora the Explorer, Go, Diego, Go!, The Wonder Pets, Bubble Guppies, and Ni Hao, Kai-lan
February 28, 2012

Team Umizoomi: Umigames
DVD
Includes "Umi Sports Games", "Boardwalk Games", "Crazy Skates", and "Carnival"
June 5, 2012

Nickelodeon Let's Learn: ABC
DVD
Includes "To the Library", plus episodes from Blue's Clues, Ni Hao, Kai-lan, Dora the Explorer, Go, Diego, Go!, and The Wonder Pets
January 15, 2013

Nickelodeon Let's Learn: 1, 2, 3
DVD
Includes "Counting Comet" and "Super Soap!", plus episodes from Blue's Clues, Dora the Explorer, Go, Diego, Go!, and The Wonder Pets
January 15, 2013

Nickelodeon Favorites: Once Upon a Rhyme
DVD
Includes "The Umi City Treasure Hunt", plus episodes from Bubble Guppies, The Fresh Beat Band, Dora the Explorer, The Wonder Pets, and Blue's Room
April 30, 2013

Team Umizoomi: Animal Heroes
DVD
Includes "Purple Monkey Mission", "Buster the Lost Dog", "Cuckoo Bears", and "Animal School House!"
May 14, 2013

Nickelodeon Let's Learn: Colors
DVD
Includes "Kite Festival", plus episodes from Bubble Guppies, Blue's Clues, The Wonder Pets, and Dora the Explorer
July 23, 2013

Nickelodeon Favorites: Rootin' Tootin' Wild West
DVD
Includes "The Wild West Train Show", plus episodes from Dora the Explorer, Go, Diego, Go!, Bubble Guppies, The Wonder Pets, and The Fresh Beat Band
August 6, 2013

Bubble Guppies / Team Umizoomi: Into the Snow We Go!
DVD
Includes "A Sledding Snow Day" & "City of Lost Penguins", plus episodes from Bubble Guppies
October 15, 2013

text: Video games[edit]

text: These video games based on the show are all published by Take-Two Interactive's label, 2K Play.

text:
Title
System
Release date
Developer(s)
Publisher

Team Umizoomi & Dora's Fantastic Flight
Nintendo DS
000000002012-11-12-0000November 12, 2012
Black Lantern Studios
2K Play