document_title: History of photography

question_text: when was the first black and white photo taken

text: History of photography

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The coining of the word "photography" is usually attributed to Sir John Herschel in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς (phōs), (genitive: phōtós) meaning "light", and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light".[3]

text: Early history of the camera[edit]

text: A natural phenomenon, known as camera obscura or pinhole image, can project a (reversed) image through a small opening onto an opposite surface. This principle may have been known and used in prehistoric times. The earliest known written record of the camera obscura is to be found in Chinese writings called Mozi, dated to the 4th century BCE. Until the 16th century the camera obscura was mainly used to study optics and astronomy, especially to safely watch solar eclipses without damaging the eyes. In the later half of the 16th century some technical improvements were developed: a (biconvex) lens in the opening (first described by Gerolamo Cardano in 1550) and a diaphragm restricting the aperture (Daniel Barbaro in 1568) gave a brighter and sharper image. In 1558 Giambattista della Porta advised using the camera obscura as a drawing aid in his popular and influential books. Della Porta's advice was widely adopted by artists and since the 17th century portable versions of the camera obscura were commonly used - first as a tent, later as boxes. The box type camera obscura was the basis for the earliest photographic cameras when photography was developed in the early 19th century.

text: Before 1700: Turin Shroud + light sensitive materials[edit]

text: The notion that light can affect various substances - for instance the suntanning of skin or fading of textile - must have been around since very early times. Ideas of fixing the image seen in mirrors or other ways of creating images automatically may also have been in people's mind long before anything like photography was developed.[4] However, there seem to be no historical records of any ideas even remotely resembling photography before 1725, despite early knowledge of light-sensitive materials and the camera obscura.[5]

text: It has been suggested that some lost type of photographic technology must have been applied before 1357: the Shroud of Turin contains an image that resembles a sepia photographic negative and is much clearer when it is converted to a positive image. The actual method that resulted in this image has not yet been conclusively identified. It first appeared in historical records in 1357 and radiocarbon dating tests indicate it was probably made between 1260 and 1390.[6] No other examples of detailed negative images from before the 19th century are known.[citation needed]

text: Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate and noted that it could blacken skin.[7] Silver nitrate would later be used as a light sensitive material in the photographic emulsion on photographic glass plates and film.

text: Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride, later used to make photographic paper.[8]

text: In 1614 Angelo Sala wrote in his paper Septem Planetarum terrestrium Spagirica recensio[9]: "When you expose powdered silver nitrate to sunlight, it turns black as ink". He also noted that paper wrapped around silver nitrate for a year had turned black.[10]

text: Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[8]

text: 1700 to 1802: Earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results[edit]

text: Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)[edit]

text: Around 1717[11] German polymath Johann Heinrich Schulze accidentally discovered that a slurry of chalk and nitric acid into which some silver particles had been dissolved was darkened by sunlight. After experiments with threads that had created lines on the bottled substance after he placed it in direct sunlight for a while, he applied stencils of words to the bottle. The stencils produced copies of the text in dark red, almost violet characters on the surface of the otherwise whitish contents. The impressions persisted until they were erased by shaking the bottle or until overall exposure to light obliterated them. Schulze named the substance "Scotophorus", when he published his findings in 1719. He thought the discovery could be applied to detect whether metals or minerals contained any silver and hoped that further experimentation by others would lead to some other useful results.[12][13] Schulze's process resembled later photogram techniques and is sometimes regarded as the very first form of photography.[14]

text: De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)[edit]

text: The early science fiction novel Giphantie[15] (1760) by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche described something quite similar to (colour) photography, a process that fixes fleeting images formed by rays of light:"They coat a piece of canvas with this material, and place it in front of the object to capture. The first effect of this cloth is similar to that of a mirror, but by means of its viscous nature the prepared canvas, as is not the case with the mirror, retains a facsimile of the image. The mirror represents images faithfully, but retains none; our canvas reflects them no less faithfully, but retains them all. This impression of the image is instantaneous. The canvas is then removed and deposited in a dark place. An hour later the impression is dry, and you have a picture the more precious in that no art can imitate its truthfulness."[16] De la Roche thus imagined a process that made use of a special substance in combination with the qualities of a mirror, rather than the camera obscura. The hour of drying in a dark place suggests he possibly thought about the light sensitivity of the material, but he attributes the effect to its viscous nature.

text: Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)[edit]

text: In 1777, the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was studying the more intrinsically light-sensitive silver chloride and determined that light darkened it by disintegrating it into microscopic dark particles of metallic silver. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride but not the dark particles. This discovery could have been used to stabilize or "fix" a camera image captured with silver chloride, but was not picked up by the earliest photography experimenters.[citation needed]

text: Scheele also noted that red light did not have much effect on silver chloride (a feature that would later be applied to be able to see while printing black and white photographs in darkrooms).[17]

text: Although Thomas Wedgwood felt inspired by Scheele's writings in general, he must have missed or forgotten these experiments: he found no method to fix the photogram and shadow images he managed to capture around 1800 (see below).[17]

text: Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)[edit]

text: Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) is believed to have been the first person to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He originally wanted to capture the images of a camera obscura, but found they were too faint to have an effect upon the silver nitrate solution that was advised to him as a light-sensitive substance. Wedgwood did manage to copy painted glass plates and captured shadows on white leather as well as on paper moistened with a silver nitrate solution. Attempts to preserve the results with their "distinct tints of brown or black, sensibly differing in intensity" failed. It is unclear when Wedgwood's experiments took place. He may have started before 1790; James Watt wrote a letter to Thomas Wedgwood's father Josiah Wedgwood to thank him "for your instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at home, I will make some experiments". This letter (now lost) is believed to have been written in 1790, 1791 or 1799. In 1802 an account by Humphry Davy detailing Wedgwood's experiments was published in an early journal of the Royal Institution with the title An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Davy added that the method could be used for objects that are partly opaque and partly transparent to create accurate representations of for instance "the woody fibres of leaves and the wings of insects". He also found that solar microscope images of small objects were easily captured on prepared paper. Davy, apparently unaware or forgetful about Scheele's discovery, concluded that substances should be found to get rid of (or deactivate) the unexposed particles in silver nitrate or silver chloride "to render the process as useful as it is elegant".[17] Wedgwood may have prematurely abandoned his experiments due to his frail and failing health. He died aged 34 in 1805.

text: Davy seems not to have continued the experiments. Although the journal of the small, infant Royal Institution probably reached its very small group of members, the article eventually must have been read by many more people. It was reviewed by David Brewster in the Edinburgh Magazine in December 1802, appeared in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803, was translated into French, and published in German in 1811. Readers of the article may have been discouraged to find a fixer, because the highly acclaimed scientist Davy had already tried and failed. Apparently the article was not noted by Niépce or Daguerre, and by Talbot only after he had developed his own processes.[17][18]

text: Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)[edit]

text: French balloonist/professor/inventor Jacques Charles is believed to have captured fleeting negative photograms of silhouettes on light sensitive paper at the start of the 19th century, prior to Westwood. Charles died in 1823 without documenting the process, but purportedly demonstrated it in his lectures at the Louvre. It was not publicized until François Arago mentioned it at his introduction of the details of the Daguerreotype to the world in 1839. He later wrote that the first idea of fixing the images of the camera obscura or the solar microscope with chemical substances belonged to Charles. Later historians probably only built on Arago's information and much later the unsupported year 1780 was attached to it.[19] Since Arago indicated the first years of the 19th century and a date prior to Wedgwood's process published in 1802, this would mean that Charles' demonstrations took place in 1800 or 1801 - assuming Arago was this accurate almost 40 years later.

text: 1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images[edit]

text: In 1816 Nicéphore Niépce, using paper coated with silver chloride, succeeded in photographing the images formed in a small camera, but the photographs were negatives, darkest where the camera image was lightest and vice versa, and they were not permanent in the sense of being reasonably light-fast; like earlier experimenters, Niépce could find no way to prevent the coating from darkening all over when it was exposed to light for viewing. Disenchanted with silver salts, he turned his attention to light-sensitive organic substances.[21]

text: The oldest surviving photograph of the image formed in a camera was created by Niépce in 1826 or 1827.[1] It was made on a polished sheet of pewter and the light-sensitive substance was a thin coating of bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum tar, which was dissolved in lavender oil, applied to the surface of the pewter and allowed to dry before use.[23] After a very long exposure in the camera (traditionally said to be eight hours, but now believed to be several days),[24] the bitumen was sufficiently hardened in proportion to its exposure to light that the unhardened part could be removed with a solvent, leaving a positive image with the light areas represented by hardened bitumen and the dark areas by bare pewter.[23] To see the image plainly, the plate had to be lit and viewed in such a way that the bare metal appeared dark and the bitumen relatively light.[21]

text: In partnership, Niépce in Chalon-sur-Saône and Louis Daguerre in Paris refined the bitumen process,[25] substituting a more sensitive resin and a very different post-exposure treatment that yielded higher-quality and more easily viewed images. Exposure times in the camera, although substantially reduced, were still measured in hours.[21]

text: 1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes[edit]

text: Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been, Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery that an invisibly slight or "latent" image produced on such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be "developed" to full visibility by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences,[26] and the news quickly spread.[27] At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens were shown only at Daguerre's studio, under his close supervision, to Academy members and other distinguished guests.[28] Arrangements were made for the French government to buy the rights in exchange for pensions for Niépce's son and Daguerre and present the invention to the world (with the exception of Great Britain, where an agent for Daguerre patented it) as a free gift.[29] Complete instructions were made public on 19 August 1839.[30] Known as the Daguerreotype process, it was the most common commercial process until the late 1850s. It was superseded by the collodion process.

text: After reading early reports of Daguerre's invention, Henry Fox Talbot, who had succeeded in creating stabilized photographic negatives on paper in 1835, worked on perfecting his own process. In early 1839, he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from his friend John Herschel, a polymath scientist who had previously shown that hyposulfite of soda (commonly called "hypo" and now known formally as sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts.[31] News of this solvent also benefited Daguerre, who soon adopted it as a more efficient alternative to his original hot salt water method.[32]

text: Talbot's early silver chloride "sensitive paper" experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more. In 1841, Talbot invented the calotype process, which, like Daguerre's process, used the principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible "latent" image to reduce the exposure time to a few minutes. Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in the camera and developed into a translucent negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, which could only be copied by rephotographing it with a camera, a calotype negative could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing. The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic processes, in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative. This was seen as a positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face[citation needed]. Talbot patented this process,[33] which greatly limited its adoption, and spent many years pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers. He attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent, earning himself the ill will of photographers who were using the related glass-based processes later introduced by other inventors, but he was eventually defeated. Nonetheless, Talbot's developed-out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its inventor.

text: In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[34] In 1847, Nicephore Niépce's cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor, published his invention of a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple and William Breed Jones of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid-1840s.[35]

text: 1850 to 1900[edit]

text: In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process.[36] Photographer and children's author Lewis Carroll used this process. (Carroll refers to the process as "Tablotype" [sic] in the story "A Photographer's Day Out")[37]

text: Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodion emulsions after Samman introduced the idea of adding dithionite to the pyrogallol developer.[citation needed] Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, that dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881 he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.[38]

text: Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary.The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern District of Louisiana.

text: Popularization[edit]

text: The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution.[citation needed] This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography.

text: Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by his Crimean war pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a record of landscapes and architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside became a sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.

text: In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington was advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10.[39] However, daguerreotypes were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.

text: Ultimately, the photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the Kodak Brownie.

text: Early Photography in India[edit]

text: Daguerreotype cameras were advertised in Calcutta a year after their invention in France — but photographic societies in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were beginning to pop up from the 1850s onward. [40] As the practice of photography evolved, a contrasting style developed alongside the predominantly European influence on the art form. This turn is most notable in the work of Raja Deen Dayal, India’s most celebrated 19th-century photographer, whose appointment as court photographer to the sixth Nizam of Hyderabad allowed him unique access to the inner circles of aristocratic life. [41]

text: Perhaps Mrs. E. Mayer holds the distinction of being the first professional woman photographer in India. She opened a studio in 7 Old Court House Street Corner to provide a rare treat to Indian women: to be photographed without fear or concern. [42]

text: Colour process[edit]

text: A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by Edmond Becquerel as early as 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured colors were so light-sensitive they would only bear very brief inspection in dim light.

text: The first durable color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green, and blue color filters and shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855.[43] The photographic emulsions then in use were insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell's method is now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s.

text: Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled their nearly identical ideas on the same day in 1869. Included were methods for viewing a set of three color-filtered black-and-white photographs in color without having to project them, and for using them to make full-color prints on paper.[44]

text: The first widely used method of color photography was the Autochrome plate, a process inventors and brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière began working on in the 1890s and commercially introduced in 1907.[45] It was based on one of Louis Ducos du Hauron's ideas: instead of taking three separate photographs through color filters, take one through a mosaic of tiny color filters overlaid on the emulsion and view the results through an identical mosaic. If the individual filter elements were small enough, the three primary colors of red, blue, and green would blend together in the eye and produce the same additive color synthesis as the filtered projection of three separate photographs.

text: Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface. Then through the use of a rolling press, five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains, enabling every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing the illusion that the colors are merged together. The final step was adding a coat of the light capturing substance silver bromide after which a color image could be imprinted and developed. In order to see it, reversal processing was used to develop each plate into a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary projector. One of the drawbacks of the technology is an exposure time of at least a second was required during the day in bright light and the worse the light is, the time required quickly goes up. An indoor portrait required a few minutes with the subject not being able to move or else the picture would come out blurry. This was because the grains absorbed the color fairly slowly and that a filter of a yellowish-orange color was added to the plate to keep the photograph from coming out excessively blue. Although necessary, the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed. Another drawback was that the film could only be enlarged so much until the many dots that make up the image become apparent.[45][46]

text: Competing screen plate products soon appeared and film-based versions were eventually made. All were expensive and until the 1930s none was "fast" enough for hand-held snapshot-taking, so they mostly served a niche market of affluent advanced amateurs.

text: A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green, and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image. Maxwell's method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s and beyond, and Polachrome, an "instant" slide film that used the Autochrome's additive principle, was available until 2003, but the few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.

text: Development of digital photography[edit]

text: In 1957, a team led by Russell A. Kirsch at the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a binary digital version of an existing technology, the wirephoto drum scanner, so that alphanumeric characters, diagrams, photographs and other graphics could be transferred into digital computer memory. One of the first photographs scanned was a picture of Kirsch's infant son Walden. The resolution was 176x176 pixels with only one bit per pixel, i.e., stark black and white with no intermediate gray tones, but by combining multiple scans of the photograph done with different black-white threshold settings, grayscale information could also be acquired.[47]

text: The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the image-capturing optoelectronic component in first-generation digital cameras. It was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs as a memory device. The lab was working on the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed "Charge 'Bubble' Devices". The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor. It was Dr. Michael Tompsett from Bell Labs however, who discovered that the CCD could be used as an imaging sensor. The CCD has increasingly been replaced by the active pixel sensor (APS), commonly used in cell phone cameras. These mobile phone cameras are used by billions of people worldwide, dramatically increasing photographic activity and material and also fueling citizen journalism.

text:
1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image-capturing CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns.[48]
1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors
1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world's first megapixel sensor.

text: The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today sites and apps such as Flickr, Picasa, Instagram, Imgur and PhotoBucket are used by many millions of people to share their pictures.


document_title: Java syntax

question_text: what is the use of + in java

question_tokens: what is the use of + in java

root

text: Java syntax

text: Basics[edit]

text: Identifier[edit]

text: An identifier is the name of an element in the code. There are certain standard naming conventions to follow when selecting names for elements. Identifiers in Java are case-sensitive.

tag: p

text: An identifier can contain:

text:
Any Unicode character that is a letter (including numeric letters like Roman numerals) or digit.
Currency sign (such as $).
Connecting punctuation character (such as _).

tag: ul

text: An identifier cannot:

text:
Start with a digit.
Be equal to a reserved keyword, null literal or boolean literal.

text: Keywords[edit]

text:
abstract
continue
for
new
switch

assert[Note 1]
default
goto[Note 2]
package
synchronized

boolean
do
if
private
this

break
double
implements
protected
throw

byte
else
import
public
throws

case
enum[Note 3]
instanceof
return
transient

catch
extends
int
short
try

char
final
interface
static
void

class
finally
long
strictfp[Note 4]
volatile

const[Note 2]
float
native
super
while

tag: table

text:
Jump up ^ Keyword was introduced in J2SE 1.4
^ Jump up to: a b Keyword is not used
Jump up ^ Keyword was introduced in J2SE 5.0
Jump up ^ Keyword was introduced in J2SE 1.2

tag: ol

text: Literals[edit]

text:
Integers

binary (introduced in Java SE 7)
0b11110101 (0b followed by a binary number)

octal
0365 (0 followed by an octal number)

hexadecimal
0xF5 (0x followed by a hexadecimal number)

decimal
245 (decimal number)

Floating-point values

float
23.5F, .5f, 1.72E3F (decimal fraction with an optional exponent indicator, followed by F)

0x.5FP0F, 0x.5P-6f (0x followed by a hexadecimal fraction with a mandatory exponent indicator and a suffix F)

double
23.5D, .5, 1.72E3D (decimal fraction with an optional exponent indicator, followed by optional D)

0x.5FP0, 0x.5P-6D (0x followed by a hexadecimal fraction with a mandatory exponent indicator and an optional suffix D)

Character literals

char
'a', 'Z', '\u0231' (character or a character escape, enclosed in single quotes)

Boolean literals

boolean
true, false

null literal

null reference
null

String literals

String
"Hello, World" (sequence of characters and character escapes enclosed in double quotes)

Characters escapes in strings

Unicode character
\u3876 (\u followed by the hexadecimal unicode code point up to U+FFFF)

Octal escape
\352 (octal number not exceeding 377, preceded by backslash)

Line feed
\n

Carriage return
\r

Form feed
\f

Backslash
\\

Single quote
\'

Double quote
\"

Tab
\t

Backspace
\b

text: Integer literals are of int type by default unless long type is specified by appending L or l suffix to the literal, e.g. 367L. Since Java SE 7, it is possible to include underscores between the digits of a number to increase readability; for example, a number 145608987 can be written as 145_608_987.

text: Variables[edit]

text: Variables are identifiers associated with values. They are declared by writing the variable's type and name, and are optionally initialized in the same statement by assigning a value.

text: Multiple variables of the same type can be declared and initialized in one statement using comma as a delimiter.

text: Code blocks[edit]

text: The separators { and } signify a code block and a new scope. Class members and the body of a method are examples of what can live inside these braces in various contexts.

text: Inside of method bodies, braces may be used to create new scopes, as follows:

text: Comments[edit]

text: Java has three kinds of comments: traditional comments, end-of-line comments and documentation comments.

text: Traditional comments, also known as block comments, start with /* and end with */, they may span across multiple lines. This type of comment was derived from C and C++.

text: End-of-line comments start with // and extend to the end of the current line. This comment type is also present in C++ and in modern C.

text: Documentation comments in the source files are processed by the Javadoc tool to generate documentation. This type of comment is identical to traditional comments, except it starts with /** and follows conventions defined by the Javadoc tool. Technically, these comments are a special kind of traditional comment and they are not specifically defined in the language specification.

text: Program structure[edit]

text: Java applications consist of collections of classes. Classes exist in packages but can also be nested inside other classes.

text: Main method[edit]

text: Every Java application must have an entry point. This is true of both graphical interface applications and console applications. The entry point is the main method. There can be more than one class with a main method, but the main class is always defined externally (for example, in a manifest file). The method must be static and is passed command-line arguments as an array of strings. Unlike C++ or C#, it never returns a value and must return void.

text: Packages[edit]

text: Packages are a part of a class name and they are used to group and/or distinguish named entities from other ones. Another purpose of packages is to govern code access together with access modifiers. For example, java.io.InputStream is a fully qualified class name for the class InputStream which is located in the package java.io.

text: A package is declared at the start of the file with the package declaration:

text: Classes with the public modifier must be placed in the files with the same name and java extension and put into nested folders corresponding to the package name. The above class myapplication.mylibrary.MyClass will have the following path: "myapplication/mylibrary/MyClass.java".

text: Import declaration[edit]

text: Type import declaration[edit]

text: A type import declaration allows a named type to be referred to by a simple name rather than the full name that includes the package. Import declarations can be single type import declarations or import-on-demand declarations. Import declarations must be placed at the top of a code file after the package declaration.

text: Import-on-demand declarations are mentioned in the code. A "type import" imports all the types of the package. A "static import" imports members of the package.

text: Static import declaration[edit]

text: This type of declaration has been available since J2SE 5.0. Static import declarations allow access to static members defined in another class, interface, annotation, or enum; without specifying the class name:

text: Import-on-demand declarations allow to import all the fields of the type:

text: Enum constants may also be used with static import. For example, this enum is in the package called screen:

text: It is possible to use static import declarations in another class to retrieve the enum constants:

text: Operators[edit]

text: Operators in Java are similar to those in C++. However, there is no delete operator due to garbage collection mechanisms in Java, and there are no operations on pointers since Java does not support them. Another difference is that Java has an unsigned right shift operator (>>>), while C's right shift operator's signedness is type-dependent. Operators in Java cannot be overloaded.

text:
Precedence
Operator
Description
Associativity

1
()
Method invocation
Left-to-right

[]
Array access

.
Class member selection

2
++ --
Postfix increment and decrement[1]

3
++ --
Prefix increment and decrement
Right-to-left

+ -
Unary plus and minus

! ~
Logical NOT and bitwise NOT

(type) val
Type cast

new
Class instance or array creation

4
* / %
Multiplication, division, and modulus (remainder)
Left-to-right

5
+ -
Addition and subtraction

+
String concatenation

6
<< >> >>>
Bitwise left shift, signed right shift and unsigned right shift

7
< <=
Relational “less than” and “less than or equal to”

> >=
Relational “greater than” and “greater than or equal to”

instanceof
Type comparison

8
== !=
Relational “equal to” and “not equal to”

9
&
Bitwise and logical AND

10
^
Bitwise and logical XOR (exclusive or)

11
|
Bitwise and logical OR (inclusive or)

12
&&
Logical conditional-AND

13
||
Logical conditional-OR

14
c ? t : f
Ternary conditional (see ?:)
Right-to-left

15
=
Simple assignment

+= -=
Assignment by sum and difference

*= /= %=
Assignment by product, quotient, and remainder

<<= >>= >>>=
Assignment by bitwise left shift, signed right shift and unsigned right shift

&= ^= |=
Assignment by bitwise AND, XOR, and OR

text: Control structures[edit]

text: Conditional statements[edit]

text: if statement[edit]

text: if statements in Java are similar to those in C and use the same syntax:

text: if statement may include optional else block, in which case it becomes an if-then-else statement:

text: Like C, else-if construction does not involve any special keywords, it is formed as a sequence of separate if-then-else statements:

text: Also, note that the ?: operator can be used in place of simple if statement, for example

text: switch statement[edit]

text: Switch statements in Java can use byte, short, char, and int (note: not long) primitive data types or their corresponding wrapper types. Starting with J2SE 5.0, it is possible to use enum types. Starting with Java SE 7, it is possible to use Strings. Other reference types cannot be used in switch statements.

text: Possible values are listed using case labels. These labels in Java may contain only constants (including enum constants and string constants). Execution will start after the label corresponding to the expression inside the brackets. An optional default label may be present to declare that the code following it will be executed if none of the case labels correspond to the expression.

text: Code for each label ends with the break keyword. It is possible to omit it causing the execution to proceed to the next label, however, a warning will usually be reported during compilation.

text: Iteration statements[edit]

text: Iteration statements are statements that are repeatedly executed when a given condition is evaluated as true. Since J2SE 5.0, Java has four forms of such statements.

text: while loop[edit]

text: In the while loop, the test is done before each iteration.

text: do ... while loop[edit]

text: In the do ... while loop, the test is done after each iteration. Consequently, the code is always executed at least once.

text: for loop[edit]

text: for loops in Java include an initializer, a condition and a counter expression. It is possible to include several expressions of the same kind using comma as delimiter (except in the condition). However, unlike C, the comma is just a delimiter and not an operator.

text: Like C, all three expressions are optional. The following loop is infinite:

text: Enhanced for loop[edit]

text: Enhanced for loops have been available since J2SE 5.0. This type of loop uses built-in iterators over arrays and collections to return each item in the given collection. Every element is returned and reachable in the context of the code block. When the block is executed, the next item is returned until there are no items remaining. Unlike C#, this kind of loop does not involve a special keyword, but instead uses a different notation style.

text: Jump statements[edit]

text: Labels[edit]

text: Labels are given points in code used by break and continue statements. Note that the Java goto keyword cannot be used to jump to specific points in the code.

text: break statement[edit]

text: The break statement breaks out of the closest loop or switch statement. Execution continues in the statement after the terminated statement, if any.

text: It is possible to break out of the outer loop using labels:

text: continue statement[edit]

text: The continue statement discontinues the current iteration of the current control statement and begins the next iteration. The following while loop in the code below reads characters by calling getChar(), skipping the statements in the body of the loop if the characters are spaces:

text: Labels can be specified in continue statements and break statements:

text: return statement[edit]

text: The return statement is used to end method execution and to return a value. A value returned by the method is written after the return keyword. If the method returns anything but void, it must use the return statement to return some value.

text: return statement ends execution immediately, except for one case: if the statement is encountered within a try block and it is complemented by a finally, control is passed to the finally block.

text: Exception handling statements[edit]

text: try-catch-finally statements[edit]

text: Exceptions are managed within try ... catch blocks.

text: The statements within the try block are executed, and if any of them throws an exception, execution of the block is discontinued and the exception is handled by the catch block. There may be multiple catch blocks, in which case the first block with an exception variable whose type matches the type of the thrown exception is executed.

text: Java SE 7 also introduced multi-catch clauses besides uni-catch clauses. This type of catch clauses allows Java to handle different types of exceptions in a single block provided they are not subclasses of each other.

text: If no catch block matches the type of the thrown exception, the execution of the outer block (or method) containing the try ... catch statement is discontinued, and the exception is passed up and outside the containing block (or method). The exception is propagated upwards through the call stack until a matching catch block is found within one of the currently active methods. If the exception propagates all the way up to the top-most main method without a matching catch block being found, a textual description of the exception is written to the standard output stream.

text: The statements within the finally block are always executed after the try and catch blocks, whether or not an exception was thrown and even if a return statement was reached. Such blocks are useful for providing clean-up code that is guaranteed to always be executed.

text: The catch and finally blocks are optional, but at least one or the other must be present following the try block.

text: try-with-resources statements[edit]

text: try-with-resources statements are a special type of try-catch-finally statements introduced as an implementation of the dispose pattern in Java SE 7. In a try-with-resources statement the try keyword is followed by initialization of one or more resources that are released automatically when the try block execution is finished. Resources must implement java.lang.AutoCloseable. try-with-resources statements are not required to have a catch or finally block unlike normal try-catch-finally statements.

text: throw statement[edit]

text: The throw statement is used to throw an exception and end the execution of the block or method. The thrown exception instance is written after the throw statement.

text: Thread concurrency control[edit]

text: Java has built-in tools for multi-thread programming. For the purposes of thread synchronization the synchronized statement is included in Java language.

text: To make a code block synchronized, it is preceded by the synchronized keyword followed by the lock object inside the brackets. When the executing thread reaches the synchronized block, it acquires a mutual exclusion lock, executes the block, then releases the lock. No threads may enter this block until the lock is released. Any non-null reference type may be used as the lock.

text: assert statement[edit]

text: assert statements have been available since J2SE 1.4. These types of statements are used to make assertions in the source code, which can be turned on and off during execution for specific classes or packages. To declare an assertion the assert keyword is used followed by a conditional expression. If it evaluates to false when the statement is executed, an exception is thrown. This statement can include a colon followed by another expression, which will act as the exception's detail message.

text: Primitive types[edit]

text: Primitive types in Java include integer types, floating-point numbers, UTF-16 code units and a boolean type. There are no unsigned types in Java except char type, which is used to represent UTF-16 code units. The lack of unsigned types is offset by introducing unsigned right shift operation (>>>), which is not present in C++. Nevertheless, criticisms have been levelled about the lack of compatibility with C and C++ this causes.[2]

text:
Primitive Types

Type Name
Wrapper class
Value
Range
Size
Default Value

byte
java.lang.Byte
integer
−128 through +127
8-bit (1-byte)
0

short
java.lang.Short
integer
−32,768 through +32,767
16-bit (2-byte)
0

int
java.lang.Integer
integer
−2,147,483,648 through +2,147,483,647
32-bit (4-byte)
0

long
java.lang.Long
integer
−9,223,372,036,854,775,808 through
+9,223,372,036,854,775,807
64-bit (8-byte)
0

float
java.lang.Float
floating point number
±1.401298E−45 through ±3.402823E+38
32-bit (4-byte)
0.0f[3]

double
java.lang.Double
floating point number
±4.94065645841246E−324 through
±1.79769313486232E+308
64-bit (8-byte)
0.0

boolean
java.lang.Boolean
Boolean
true or false
1-bit (1-bit)
false

char
java.lang.Character
UTF-16 code unit (BMP character
or a part of a surrogate pair)
'\u0000' through '\uFFFF'
16-bit (2-byte)
'\u0000'

text: char does not necessarily correspond to a single character. It may represent a part of a surrogate pair, in which case Unicode code point is represented by a sequence of two char values.

text: Boxing and unboxing[edit]

text: This language feature was introduced in J2SE 5.0. Boxing is the operation of converting a value of a primitive type into a value of a corresponding reference type, which serves as a wrapper for this particular primitive type. Unboxing is the reverse operation of converting a value of a reference type (previously boxed) into a value of a corresponding primitive type. Neither operation requires an explicit conversion.

text: Example:

text: Reference types[edit]

text: Reference types include class types, interface types, and array types. When the constructor is called, an object is created on the heap and a reference is assigned to the variable. When a variable of an object gets out of scope, the reference is broken and when there are no references left, the object gets marked as garbage. The garbage collector then collects and destroys it some time afterwards.

text: A reference variable is null when it does not reference any object.

text: Arrays[edit]

text: Arrays in Java are created at runtime, just like class instances. Array length is defined at creation and cannot be changed.

text: Initializers[edit]

text: Multi-dimensional arrays[edit]

text: In Java, multi-dimensional arrays are represented as arrays of arrays. Technically, they are represented by arrays of references to other arrays.

text: Due to the nature of the multi-dimensional arrays, sub-arrays can vary in length, so multi-dimensional arrays are not bound to be rectangular unlike C:

text: Classes[edit]

text: Classes are fundamentals of an object-oriented language such as Java. They contain members that store and manipulate data. Classes are divided into top-level and nested. Nested classes are classes placed inside another class that may access the private members of the enclosing class. Nested classes include member classes (which may be defined with the static modifier for simple nesting or without it for inner classes), local classes and anonymous classes.

text: Declaration[edit]

text:
Top-level class

class Foo {
    // Class members
}

Inner class

class Foo { // Top-level class
    class Bar { // Inner class
    }
}

Nested class

class Foo { // Top-level class
    static class Bar { // Nested class
    }
}

Local class

class Foo {
    void bar() {
        class Foobar {// Local class within a method
        }
    }
}

Anonymous class

class Foo {
    void bar() {
        new Object() {// Creation of a new anonymous class extending Object
        };
    }
}

text: Instantiation[edit]

text: Non-static members of a class define the types of the instance variables and methods, which are related to the objects created from that class. To create these objects, the class must be instantiated by using the new operator and calling the class constructor.

text: Accessing members[edit]

text: Members of both instances and static classes are accessed with the . operator.

text:
Accessing an instance member
Instance members can be accessed through the name of a variable.

text:
Accessing a static class member
Static members are accessed by using the name of the class or any other type. This does not require the creation of a class instance. Static members are declared using the static modifier.

text: Modifiers[edit]

text: Modifiers are keywords used to modify declarations of types and type members. Most notably there is a sub-group containing the access modifiers.

text:
abstract - Specifies that a class only serves as a base class and cannot be instantiated.
static - Used only for member classes, specifies that the member class does not belong to a specific instance of the containing class.
final - Classes marked as final cannot be extended from and cannot have any subclasses.
strictfp - Specifies that all floating-point operations must be carried out conforming to IEEE 754 and forbids using enhanced precision to store intermediate results.

text: Access modifiers[edit]

text: The access modifiers, or inheritance modifiers, set the accessibility of classes, methods, and other members. Members marked as public can be reached from anywhere. If a class or its member does not have any modifiers, default access is assumed.

text: The following table shows whether code within a class has access to the class or method depending on the accessing class location and the modifier for the accessed class or class member:

text:
Modifier
Same class or nested class
Other class inside the same package
Extended Class inside another package
Non-extended inside another package

private
yes
no
no
no

default (package private)
yes
yes
no
no

protected
yes
yes
yes
no

public
yes
yes
yes
yes

text: Constructors and initializers[edit]

text: A constructor is a special method called when an object is initialized. Its purpose is to initialize the members of the object. The main differences between constructors and ordinary methods are that constructors are called only when an instance of the class is created and never return anything. Constructors are declared as common methods, but they are named after the class and no return type is specified:

text: Initializers are blocks of code that are executed when a class or an instance of a class is created. There are two kinds of initializers, static initializers and instance initializers.

text: Static initializers initialize static fields when the class is created. They are declared using the static keyword:

text: A class is created only once. Therefore, static initializers are not called more than once. On the contrary, instance initializers are automatically called before the call to a constructor every time an instance of the class is created. Unlike constructors instance initializers cannot take any arguments and generally they cannot throw any checked exceptions (except in several special cases). Instance initializers are declared in a block without any keywords:

text: Since Java has a garbage collection mechanism, there are no destructors. However, every object has a finalize() method called prior to garbage collection, which can be overridden to implement finalization.

text: Methods[edit]

text: All the statements in Java must reside within methods. Methods are similar to functions except they belong to classes. A method has a return value, a name and usually some parameters initialized when it is called with some arguments. Similar to C++, methods returning nothing have return type declared as void. Unlike in C++, methods in Java are not allowed to have default argument values and methods are usually overloaded instead.

text: A method is called using . notation on an object, or in the case of a static method, also on the name of a class.

text: The throws keyword indicates that a method throws an exception. All checked exceptions must be listed in a comma-separated list.

text: Lambda expressions[edit]

text: Modifiers[edit]

text:
abstract - Abstract methods can be present only in abstract classes, such methods have no body and must be overridden in a subclass unless it is abstract itself.
static - Makes the method static and accessible without creation of a class instance. However static methods cannot access non-static members in the same class.
final - Declares that the method cannot be overridden in a subclass.
native - Indicates that this method is implemented through JNI in platform-dependent code. Actual implementation happens outside Java code, and such methods have no body.
strictfp - Declares strict conformance to IEEE 754 in carrying out floating-point operations.
synchronized - Declares that a thread executing this method must acquire monitor. For synchronized methods the monitor is the class instance or java.lang.Class if the method is static.
Access modifiers - Identical to those used with classes.

text: Varargs[edit]

text: This language feature was introduced in J2SE 5.0. The last argument of the method may be declared as a variable arity parameter, in which case the method becomes a variable arity method (as opposed to fixed arity methods) or simply varargs method. This allows one to pass a variable number of values, of the declared type, to the method as parameters - including no parameters. These values will be available inside the method as an array.

text: Fields[edit]

text: Fields, or class variables, can be declared inside the class body to store data.

text: Fields can be initialized directly when declared.

text: Modifiers[edit]

text:
static - Makes the field a static member.
final - Allows the field to be initialized only once in a constructor or inside initialization block or during its declaration, whichever is earlier.
transient - Indicates that this field will not be stored during serialization.
volatile - If a field is declared volatile, it is ensured that all threads see a consistent value for the variable.

text: Inheritance[edit]

text: Classes in Java can only inherit from one class. A class can be derived from any class that is not marked as final. Inheritance is declared using the extends keyword. A class can reference itself using the this keyword and its direct superclass using the super keyword.

text: If a class does not specify its superclass, it implicitly inherits from java.lang.Object class. Thus all classes in Java are subclasses of Object class.

text: If the superclass does not have specified a constructor without parameters the subclass must especify in its constructors what constructor of the superclass to use. For example:

text: Overriding methods[edit]

text: Unlike C++, all non-final methods in Java are virtual and can be overridden by the inheriting classes.

text: Abstract classes[edit]

text: An Abstract Class is a class that is incomplete, or to be considered incomplete. Normal classes may have abstract methods, that is, methods that are declared but not yet implemented, only if they are abstract classes. A class C has abstract methods if any of the following is true:

text:
C explicitly contains a declaration of an abstract method.
Any of C's superclasses has an abstract method and C neither declares nor inherits a method that implements it.
A direct superinterface of C declares or inherits a method (which is therefore necessarily abstract) and C neither declares nor inherits a method that implements it.
A subclass of an abstract class that is not itself abstract may be instantiated, resulting in the execution of a constructor for the abstract class and, therefore, the execution of the field initializers for instance variables of that class.

text: Output:

text: Enumerations[edit]

text: This language feature was introduced in J2SE 5.0. Technically enumerations are a kind of class containing enum constants in its body. Each enum constant defines an instance of the enum type. Enumeration classes cannot be instantiated anywhere except in the enumeration class itself.

text: Enum constants are allowed to have constructors, which are called when the class is loaded:

text: Enumerations can have class bodies, in which case they are treated like anonymous classes extending the enum class:

text: Interfaces[edit]

text: Interfaces are data structures that contain member definitions and not actual implementation. They are useful to define a contract between members in different types that have different implementations. Every interface is implicitly abstract. The only modifier allowed to use with interfaces apart from access modifiers is strictfp, which has the same effect as for classes.

text: Implementing an interface[edit]

text: An interface is implemented by a class using the implements keyword. It is allowed to implement more than one interface, in which case they are written after implements keyword in a comma-separated list. Class implementing an interface must override all its methods, otherwise it must be declared as abstract.

text: Inheritance[edit]

text: Interfaces can inherit from other interfaces just like classes. Unlike classes it is allowed to inherit from multiple interfaces. However, it is possible that several interfaces have a field with the same name, in which case it becomes a single ambiguous member, which cannot be accessed.

text: Annotations[edit]

text: Annotations in Java are a way to embed metadata into code. This language feature was introduced in J2SE 5.0.

text: Annotation types[edit]

text: Java has a set of predefined annotation types, but it is allowed to define new ones. An annotation type declaration is a special type of an interface declaration. They are declared in the same way as the interfaces, except the interface keyword is preceded by the @ sign. All annotations are implicitly extended from java.lang.annotation.Annotation and cannot be extended from anything else.

text: Annotations may have the same declarations in the body as the common interfaces, in addition they are allowed to include enums and annotations. The main difference is that abstract method declarations must not have any parameters or throw any exceptions. Also they may have a default value, which is declared using the default keyword after the method name:

text: Usage of annotations[edit]

text: Annotations may be used in any kind of declaration, whether it is package, class (including enums), interface (including annotations), field, method, parameter, constructor, or local variable. Also they can be used with enum constants. Annotations are declared using the @ sign preceding annotation type name, after which element-value pairs are written inside brackets. All elements with no default value must be assigned a value.

text: Besides the generic form, there are two other forms to declare an annotation, which are shorthands. Marker annotation is a short form, it is used when no values are assigned to elements:

text: The other short form is called single element annotation. It is used with annotations types containing only one element or in the case when multiple elements are present, but only one elements lacks a default value. In single element annotation form the element name is omitted and only value is written instead:

text: Generics[edit]

text: Generics, or parameterized types, or parametric polymorphism is one of the major features introduced in J2SE 5.0. Before generics were introduced, it was required to declare all the types explicitly. With generics it became possible to work in a similar manner with different types without declaring the exact types. The main purpose of generics is to ensure type safety and to detect runtime errors during compilation. Unlike C#, information on the used parameters is not available at runtime due to type erasure.[4]

text: Generic classes[edit]

text: Classes can be parameterized by adding a type variable inside angle brackets (< and >) following the class name. It makes possible the use of this type variable in class members instead of actual types. There can be more than one type variable, in which case they are declared in a comma-separated list.

text: It is possible to limit a type variable to a subtype of some specific class or declare an interface that must be implemented by the type. In this case the type variable is appended by the extends keyword followed by a name of the class or the interface. If the variable is constrained by both class and interface or if there are several interfaces, the class name is written first, followed by interface names with & sign used as the delimiter.

text: When a variable of a parameterized type is declared or an instance is created, its type is written exactly in the same format as in the class header, except the actual type is written in the place of the type variable declaration.

text: Since Java SE 7, it is possible to use a diamond (<>) in place of type arguments, in which case the latter will be inferred. The following code in Java SE 7 is equivalent to the code in the previous example:

text: When declaring a variable for a parameterized type, it is possible to use wildcards instead of explicit type names. Wildcards are expressed by writing ? sign instead of the actual type. It is possible to limit possible types to the subclasses or superclasses of some specific class by writing the extends keyword or the super keyword correspondingly followed by the class name.

text: Generic methods and constructors[edit]

text: Usage of generics may be limited to some particular methods, this concept applies to constructors as well. To declare a parameterized method, type variables are written before the return type of the method in the same format as for the generic classes. In the case of constructor, type variables are declared before the constructor name.

text: Generic interfaces[edit]

text: Interfaces can be parameterized in the similar manner as the classes.


document_title: Withdrawn Canadian banknotes

question_text: when did 2 dollar bill stop circulating canada

text: Withdrawn Canadian banknotes

text: Current issues[edit]

text: The Bank of Canada, Canada's sole issuer of bank notes, currently issues five different denominations ($5, $10, $20, $50 and $100). Smaller denominations have been replaced by coins, and larger ones are felt to be no longer required in an era of electronic transmission of most large transactions. Despite competition from some more valuable foreign notes (most notably, the 500 euro banknote), there are no plans to re-issue Canadian banknotes larger than $100.

text: Defunct currency[edit]

text: Notes issued by these former issuing authorities are considered to be withdrawn from circulation:

text:
Colonial governments, prior to each province or dominion entering confederation.
The Dominion of Canada between 1870 and 1935, which issued notes in denominations of 25¢, $1, $2, $4, $5, $50, $100, $500, and $1,000
Canadian chartered banks, from pre-Confederation to 1944.
Further information: Canadian chartered bank notes

text: Bank of Canada notes[edit]

text: All Bank of Canada notes issued prior to the current Frontier Series are being withdrawn from circulation.[1] The following Bank of Canada denominations included in previous series have been permanently retired:

text: The $25 note was issued only in 1935, to commemorate the silver jubilee of King George V. As with other 1935 issues, separate English and French versions were printed. This was a limited release that was never printed in large quantities. The note was coloured an appropriate royal purple; both the King & his consort Queen Mary were featured, with Windsor Castle appearing on the back. The $25 note was withdrawn from circulation in 1937.[2]

text: The $500 denomination was included only in the 1935 series. No note of this denomination has been printed since. The note was coloured sepia, or burnt sienna; the face featured Sir John A. Macdonald, and the back depicted a fertility allegory. The $500 note was withdrawn from circulation in 1938.[2]

text: There had been two previous printings of the $500 note by the Dominion of Canada, one in 1925 featuring King George V, and one in 1911 picturing Queen Mary. Of the latter, only three are known to still exist, one of which sold for US$322,000 in a Heritage auction in October 2008.[3] It is unlikely that further 1911 notes survived the Depression.

text: Printing of the $1 note ceased in 1989 after the release of the loonie (in 1987) had been implemented. These notes are virtually never seen in circulation today. The most recent banknote series that included the $1 note was the Scenes of Canada, with the $1 note released in 1974, coloured green and black. The face featured a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II; the back featured an image of Parliament Hill from across the Ottawa River, with log driving activities taking place on the water.

text: Printing of the $2 note ceased on February 18, 1996, with the release of the toonie, a coin that replaced it. These notes are virtually never seen in circulation today. The most recent banknote series that included the two-dollar note was the Birds of Canada series in 1986, in which the two was a terra cotta colour. The face featured a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II; the back featured a meadow scene with two robins. Prior to the withdrawal of the $1 note, the $2 was not as widely circulated and was difficult to find in some regions, Alberta in particular. After the $1 note was withdrawn, the $2 was much more widely circulated.

text: Printing of the $1,000 note ceased in 2000. The denomination was withdrawn on the advice of the Solicitor General and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), as it was often used for money laundering and organized crime.[4] The Bank of Canada has requested that financial institutions return $1,000 notes for destruction.[5] The most recent issue of this denomination was in 1992 as part of the Birds of Canada series. It was pink in colour, featuring Queen Elizabeth II on the face, and two pine grosbeaks on the back.

text: Status of withdrawn banknotes[edit]

text: Currency withdrawn from circulation remains legal tender, but this does not obligate any creditor to accept it as a medium of exchange.[6] Withdrawn currency is usually exchanged at commercial bank branches, though some banks require that exchangers be bank customers. The bank then returns the withdrawn currency, together with worn out currency, to the Bank of Canada for destruction.

text: Liabilities for outstanding provincial and Dominion of Canada notes was transferred to the Bank of Canada in 1935, and liability for chartered bank notes in 1950. As of December 31, 2016, the total value of provincial, Dominion, chartered bank, and discontinued Bank of Canada denominations still outstanding is $1.139 billion , of which more than $765 million is in $1,000 notes.[7] A liability for this amount remains on the Bank of Canada's books up to the present day.


document_title: Great Ocean Road

question_text: where does the great ocean road start and end

text: Great Ocean Road

text: General[edit]

text: The Great Ocean Road starts at Torquay and travels 244 kilometres westward to finish at Allansford near Warrnambool,[1] the largest city along the road.[2] The road is two lane (one in each direction), and is covered by a speed limit changing between 50 kilometres per hour and 100 kilometres per hour.

text: The road is considered a tourist attraction in the area,[3] in which much of the road hugs coastline affectionately known as the Surf Coast between Torquay and Cape Otway and the Shipwreck Coast further west of Cape Otway, providing visibility of Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean. The road traverses rainforests, as well as beaches and cliffs composed of limestone and sandstone, which is susceptible to erosion.[4][5] The road travels via Anglesea, Lorne, Apollo Bay, and Port Campbell, the latter being notable for its natural limestone and sandstone rock formations including Loch Ard Gorge, The Grotto, London Arch (formerly London Bridge) and The Twelve Apostles.[6] At the stretch of the Great Ocean Road nearer to Geelong, the road meanders along the coast, with tall, almost-vertical cliffs on the other side of it. Road signs put up along the road warn motorists of possible rockfalls, which have occurred before.

text: The city of Geelong, close to Torquay, experiences great benefit from Australian and international visitors to the road; with Geelong Otway Tourism affirming it as an invaluable asset.[7][8] The Royal Automobile Club of Victoria (RACV) listed the road as the state's top tourism experience in its Victoria 101 survey, based on spots recommended by members and the public on what they would recommend to visitors.[9] However, according to a survey performed by the Surf Coast Shire, residents have expressed concern that there are not enough safe crossings along the road.[10]

text: Great Ocean Road Marathon[edit]

text: A 45 kilometre section of the Great Ocean Road, between Lorne and Apollo Bay, is the location of the annual "Great Ocean Road Marathon".[11] First run in 2005, the current marathon record of two hours, 27 minutes and 42 seconds was set in 2011 by James Kipkelwon of Kenya who also won the event in 2012.[12]

text: Cadel Evans Great Ocean Road Race[edit]

text: In July 2014 former World Road Cycling Champion and Tour de France winner Cadel Evans announced that the Great Ocean Road would play host to the Cadel Evans Great Ocean Road Race in early 2015, including elite races for men and women and a mass participation People's Ride.[13]

text: History[edit]

text: The Great Ocean Road was first planned towards the end of the first world war, when chairman of the Country Roads Board, William Calder, asked the State War Council for funds to be provided for returned soldiers to work on roads in sparsely populated areas in the Western District.[14] By the time of World War I, the rugged south-west coast of Victoria was accessible only by sea or rough bush track.[15] Besides being dedicated as a memorial, it was also envisaged that the road would connect isolated settlements on the coast, and become a vital transport link for the timber industry and tourism.[16]

text: Surveying for the road, tentatively titled the South Coast Road, started in 1918 – with the road suggested to travel from Barwon Heads, follow the coast west around Cape Otway, and end near Warrnambool. In 1918, the Great Ocean Road Trust was formed as a private company, under the helm of president Howard Hitchcock. The company managed to secure £81,000 in capital from private subscription and borrowing, with Hitchcock himself contributing £3000. Money would be repaid by charging drivers a toll until the debt was cleared, and the road would then be gifted to the state.[17][18]

text: Construction effort[edit]

text: Construction on the road began on 19 September 1919, built by approximately 3,000 returned servicemen as a war memorial for fellow servicemen who had been killed in World War I. An advance survey team progressed through dense wilderness at approximately 3 kilometres a month. Construction was done by hand; using explosives, pick and shovel, wheel barrows, and some small machinery,[5][16] and was at times perilous, with several workers killed on the job; the final sections along steep coastal mountains being the most difficult to work on. Anecdotal evidence from ABC archives in 1982 suggested workers would rest detonators on their knees during travel, as it was the softest ride for them.[16]

text: The soldiers were paid 10 shillings and sixpence for eight hours per day, also working a half-day on Saturdays. They used tents for accommodation throughout, and made use of a communal dining marquee and kitchen; food costing up to 10 shillings a week. Despite the difficulty involved in constructing the road, the workers had access to a piano, gramophone, games, newspapers and magazines at the camps. Additionally, in 1924, the steamboat Casino became stranded near Cape Patton after hitting a reef, forcing it to jettison 500 barrels of beer and 120 cases of spirits. The workers obtained the cargo, resulting in an unscheduled two-week-long drinking break.[dubious – discuss]

text: Completion and early usage[edit]

text: On 18 March 1922 the section from Eastern View to Lorne was officially opened with celebrations. However it was then closed from 10 May 1922 for further work; opening again on 21 December along with tolls to recoup construction costs. The charge, payable at Eastern View, was two shillings for motor cars, and 10 shillings for wagons with more than two horses.[1]

text: In November 1932, the section from Lorne to Apollo Bay was finished, bringing the road to completion. The road was officially opened with Victoria's Lieutenant-Governor Sir William Irvine holding a ceremony near Lorne's Grand Pacific Hotel, and the road subsequently being acknowledged as the world's largest war memorial.[8] At the time, newspaper The Age commented – "In the face of almost insurmountable odds, the Great Ocean Road has materialised from a dream or 'wild-cat scheme', as many dubbed it, into concrete reality".[1] Hitchcock had however died of heart disease on 22 August 1932, before the road was completed, though his car was driven behind the governor's in the procession along the road during the opening ceremony.[17] A memorial was constructed in Hitchcock's name on the road at Mount Defiance, near Lorne, and he is still affectionately considered the Father of the Road.[19]

text:
In the face of almost insurmountable odds, the Great Ocean Road has materialised from a dream or 'wild-cat scheme', as many dubbed it, into concrete reality

Rood, David (10 April 2007). "Road's still great, 75 years on". The Age. Retrieved 26 June 2010.

tag: div

text: In its original state, the road was considered a formidable drive; fitting only a single vehicle comfortably at a time. Areas with sheer cliffs would be most hazardous, with only few places for drivers to pull over to allow others to proceed in the opposite direction.[15][20] On 2 October 1936, the road was handed to the State Government; with the deed for the road presented to the Victorian Premier at a ceremony at the Cathedral Rock toll gate. It was at this time that the tolls were also removed.[1]

text: In 1962, the road was deemed by the Tourist Development Authority to be one of the world's great scenic roads.[21] It also had sections widened between the Lorne Hotel and the Pacific Hotel to improve traffic, while aiming to preserve its character.[22] Despite improvements, the road was still considered a challenging drive; the Victorian Police motor school even using it for training around 1966.[23]

text: Over its life, the Great Ocean Road has been susceptible to natural elements; in 1960 the section at Princetown was partially washed away by water during storms.[24] It experienced landslides on 11 August 1964,[25] and in 1971; both closing sections of the road near Lorne.[26] Because of the terrain surrounding the road, it was also closed due to bush-fires in 1962[27] and 1964; particularly in areas with nearby camp-sites.[28] In January 2011 a section of the overhanging cliffs collapsed due to heavy rain.

text: In 2011, the road was added to the Australian National Heritage List.[29]

text: Great Ocean Walk[edit]

text: In 2004, the Great Ocean Walk opened, connecting 104 km of walking trails that follow the coastline near the Great Ocean Road, stretching from Apollo Bay to the 12 Apostles.[30]


document_title: The Breakfast Club

question_text: what is the meaning of the breakfast club movie

text: The Breakfast Club

text: Plot[edit]

text: On Saturday, March 24, 1984, five students report at 7:00 a.m. for all-day detention at Shermer High School in Shermer, Illinois. While not complete strangers, each of them comes from a different clique, and they seem to have nothing in common: the beautiful and pampered Claire Standish, the state champion wrestler Andrew Clark, the geekish intellect Brian Johnson, the introverted outcast Allison Reynolds, and the rebellious delinquent John Bender.

text: They gather in the high school library, where assistant principal Richard Vernon instructs them not to speak, move from their seats, or sleep until they are released at 3:00 p.m. He assigns them a thousand-word essay, in which each must describe "who you think you are." He then leaves, returning only occasionally to check on them. Bender, who has a particularly antagonistic relationship with Vernon, ignores the rules and frequently riles up the other students, teasing Brian and Andrew and harassing Claire. Allison is initially quiet, except for an occasional random outburst. Over the course of the day, Vernon gives Bender several weekends' worth of additional detention and even locks him in a storage closet, but he escapes and returns to the library.

text: The students pass the hours by talking, arguing, and, at one point, smoking marijuana that Bender retrieves from his locker. Gradually, they open up to each other and reveal their deepest personal secrets: Allison is a compulsive liar; Andrew cannot easily think for himself; Bender comes from an abusive household; Brian was planning suicide with a flare gun due to the inability to cope with a bad grade; and Claire is a virgin who feels constant pressure from her friends to be a certain way. They also discover that they all have strained relationships with their parents, which are a key cause for their personal issues as well: Allison's parents ignore her due to their own problems; Andrew's father constantly criticizes his efforts at wrestling and pushes him as hard as possible; Bender's father verbally and physically abuses him; Brian's overbearing parents put immense pressure on him to earn high grades; and Claire's parents use her to get back at each other during frequent arguments. The students realize that, even with their differences, they face similar pressures and complications in their lives.

text: Despite their differences in social status, the group begins to form friendships as the day progresses. Claire gives Allison a makeover, to reveal just how pretty she really is, which sparks romantic interest in Andrew. Claire decides to break her "pristine" virgin appearance by kissing Bender in the closet and giving him a hickey. Although they suspect that the relationships will end with the end of their detention, their mutual experiences will change the way they look at their peers afterwards.

text: As the detention nears its end, the group requests that Brian complete the essay for everyone and John returns to the storage closet to fool Vernon into thinking he has not left. Brian writes the essay and leaves it in the library for Vernon to read after they leave. As the students part ways outside the school, Allison and Andrew kiss, as do Claire and Bender. Allison rips Andrew's state champion patch from his letterman jacket to keep, and Claire gives Bender one of her diamond earrings, which he attaches to his earlobe. Vernon reads the essay (read by Brian in voice-over), in which Brian states that Vernon has already judged who they are, using simple definitions and stereotypes. One by one, the five students' voices add, "But what we found out is that each one of us is a brain, and an athlete, and a basket case, a princess, and a criminal." Brian signs the letter as "The Breakfast Club." Bender raises his fist in triumph as he walks across the school football field toward home.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Judd Nelson as John Bender
Molly Ringwald as Claire Standish
Emilio Estevez as Andy Clark
Anthony Michael Hall as Brian Johnson
Ally Sheedy as Allison Reynolds
Paul Gleason as Assistant Principal Vernon
John Kapelos as Carl Reed
Ron Dean as Mr. Clark
Mercedes Hall as Mrs. Johnson
John Hughes as Mr. Johnson

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Molly Ringwald and Anthony Michael Hall both starred in Hughes' 1984 film Sixteen Candles. Towards the end of filming, Hughes asked them both to be in The Breakfast Club. Hall became the first to be cast, agreeing to the role of Brian Johnson. Ringwald was originally approached to play the character of Allison Reynolds, but she was "really upset" because she wanted to play Claire Standish. She eventually convinced the director and the studio to give her the part.[5] The role of Allison ultimately went to Ally Sheedy.

text: Emilio Estevez originally auditioned for the role of John Bender. However, when Hughes was unable to find someone to play Andrew Clarke, Estevez was recast. Nicolas Cage was considered for the role of John Bender, which was the last role to be cast, though the role was narrowed down to John Cusack and Judd Nelson. Hughes eventually cast Cusack, but decided to replace him with Nelson before shooting began because Cusack did not look threatening enough for the role. At one point, Hughes was disappointed at Nelson because he stayed in character by harassing Ringwald off-camera, and the other actors had to convince Hughes not to fire him.[5][6]

text: Rick Moranis was originally cast as the janitor but left due to creative differences and was replaced by John Kapelos.[7]

text: Filming[edit]

text: In 1999, Hughes said that his request to direct the film met with resistance and skepticism because he lacked filmmaking experience.[8] Hughes ultimately convinced the film's investors that due to the modest $1 million budget and its single location shoot, he could greatly minimize their risk. Hughes originally thought that The Breakfast Club would be his directorial debut. Hughes opted for an insular, largely one room set and wrote it about high school students, who would be played by younger actors.[9]

text: Principal photography began on March 28, 1984, and ended in May. Filming took place at Maine North High School in Des Plaines, Illinois, shuttered in 1981. The same setting was used for interior scenes of Hughes' 1986 film Ferris Bueller's Day Off, which featured exterior shots from nearby Glenbrook North High School. The library at Maine North High School, considered too small for the film, prompted the crew to build the set in the school's gymnasium.[10] The actors rehearsed with each other for three weeks and then shot the film in sequence.[11] On the Ferris Bueller's Day Off DVD commentary (featured on the 2004 DVD version), Hughes revealed that he shot the two films concurrently to save time and money, and some outtakes of both films feature elements of the film crews working on the other film. The first print was 150 minutes in length.[12]

text: During a cast reunion in honor of the film's 25th anniversary, Ally Sheedy revealed that a Director's Cut existed but Hughes' widow did not disclose any details concerning its whereabouts.[6]

text: In 2015 the first draft of the film's script was discovered in a Maine South High School cabinet as district employees were moving offices to a new building.[13]

text: Poster[edit]

text: The film's poster, featuring the five characters huddled together, was photographed by Annie Leibovitz toward the end of shooting. The shot of five actors gazing at the camera influenced the way teen films were marketed from that point on.[14] The poster refers to the five "types" of the story using slightly different terms than those used in the film, and in a different sequence, stating "They were five total strangers with nothing in common, meeting for the first time. A brain, a beauty, a jock, a rebel, and a recluse." The poster itself was so influential, it was parodied in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 a year later.

text: Themes[edit]

text: The main theme of the film is the constant struggle of the American teenager to be understood, by adults and by themselves. It explores the pressure put on teenagers to fit into their own realms of high school social constructs, as well as the lofty expectations of their parents, teachers, and other authority figures. On the surface, the students have little in common with each other. However, as the day rolls on, they eventually bond over a common disdain for the aforementioned issues of peer pressure and parental expectations.[15][16] Stereotyping is another theme. Once the obvious stereotypes are broken down, the characters "empathize with each other's struggles, dismiss some of the inaccuracies of their first impressions, and discover that they are more similar than different."[17]

text: The main adult character, Mr. Vernon, is not portrayed in a positive light. He consistently talks down to the students and flaunts his authority throughout the film. Bender is the only one who stands up to Vernon.[15]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film premiered in Los Angeles on February 7, 1985. Universal Pictures released the film in cinemas on February 15, 1985 in the United States. On February 18, 1985 it was released in the Soviet Union, making it one of the rare west films to be shown. [18]

text: Home media[edit]

text: In 2003, the film was released on DVD as part of the "High School Reunion Collection".[19] In 2008, a "Flashback Edition" DVD was released with several special features, including an audio commentary with Anthony Michael Hall and Judd Nelson.[20] A 25th Anniversary Edition Blu-ray was released in 2010,[21] and the same disc was re-released with a DVD and digital copy in 2012 as part of Universal's 100th Anniversary series.[22][23] On March 10, 2015, the 30th Anniversary Edition was released. This release was digitally remastered and restored from the original 35mm film negatives for better picture quality on DVD, Digital HD and Blu-ray.[24]

text: On October 16, 2017, The Criterion Collection announced that the film will be released in a special edition in January 2018.[25]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received high critical acclaim. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 89% approval rating based on 56 reviews with a critical consensus that states "The Breakfast Club is a warm, insightful, and very funny look into the inner lives of teenagers".[26] Kathleen Carroll from the New York Daily News stated, "Hughes has a wonderful knack for communicating the feelings of teenagers, as well as an obvious rapport with his exceptional cast - who deserves top grades."[27] Review aggregator Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 62% based on 11 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be "generally favorable reviews".[28]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In February 1985, the film debuted at #3 at the box office (behind blockbuster film Beverly Hills Cop and Witness starring Harrison Ford).[29] Grossing $45,875,171 domestically and $51,525,171 worldwide, the film is a box office success, given its alleged $1 million budget.[30]

text: Award[edit]

text: Anthony Michael Hall, Judd Nelson, Molly Ringwald, Paul Gleason and Ally Sheedy won a Silver Bucket of Excellence Award at the 2005 MTV Movie Awards in 2005.

text:
Award
Nominee
Result

Silver Bucket of Excellence Award
Anthony Michael Hall
Judd Nelson
Paul Gleason
Molly Ringwald
Ally Sheedy
Won

text: American Film Institute lists[edit]

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"Don't You (Forget About Me)" – Nominated[31]

AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers - Nominated[32]
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) — Nominated[33]
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:

Principal Richard Vernon: "Don't mess with the bull, young man. You'll get the horns!" – Nominated

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Breakfast Club is known as the "quintessential 1980s film" and is considered as one of the best films of the decade.[34] In 2008, Empire magazine ranked it #369 on their The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time list.[35] It then rose 331 places to rank at #38 on their 2014 list.[36] Similarly, The New York Times placed the film on its Best 1000 Movies Ever list[37] and Entertainment Weekly ranked the film number 1 on its list of the 50 Best High School Movies.[38] In the 2001 parody film Not Another Teen Movie, Gleason reprised his role as Assistant Principal Vernon in a short scene that parodies The Breakfast Club.[39]

text: In 2005, the film received the Silver Bucket of Excellence Award in honor of its 20th anniversary at the MTV Movie Awards. For the event, MTV attempted to reunite the original cast. Sheedy, Ringwald, and Hall appeared together on stage, with Kapelos in the audience; Gleason gave the award to his former castmates. Estevez could not attend because of other commitments, and Nelson appeared earlier in the show but left before the on-stage reunion, prompting Hall to joke that the two were "in Africa with Dave Chappelle". Yellowcard performed Simple Minds' anthem for the film, "Don't You (Forget About Me)", at the awards. At the 82nd Academy Awards (March 7, 2010), Sheedy, Hall, Ringwald, and Nelson all appeared in a tribute to John Hughes — who had died a few months prior — along with other actors who had worked with him, including Jon Cryer from Pretty in Pink, Matthew Broderick from Ferris Bueller's Day Off, and Macaulay Culkin from Home Alone.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
The Breakfast Club (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)

Soundtrack album by various artists

Released
February 19, 1985

Recorded
1984

Genre
Rock, new wave

Length
38:02

Label
A&M Records

Producer
various artists

Singles from The Breakfast Club (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)

"Don't You"
Released: February 20, 1985 (US), April 8, 1985 (UK)

Audio sample

Simple Minds—Don't You (Forget About Me)

file
help

text: The Breakfast Club soundtrack album was released on February 19, 1985 by A&M Records. The album peaked at No. 17 on the Billboard 200 album chart. The song "Don't You (Forget About Me)" performed by Scottish rock band Simple Minds was released on February 20, 1985 in the United States and on April 8, 1985 in the United Kingdom as a single and reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100.

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"Don't You (Forget About Me)" – Simple Minds
"Waiting" – E.G. Daily
"Fire in the Twilight" – Wang Chung
"I'm the Dude" (instrumental) – Keith Forsey
"Heart Too Hot to Hold" – Jesse Johnson and Stephanie Spruill
"Dream Montage" (instrumental) – Gary Chang
"We Are Not Alone" – Karla DeVito
"Reggae" (instrumental) – Keith Forsey
"Didn't I Tell You?" – Joyce Kennedy
"Love Theme" (instrumental) – Keith Forsey

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: In a June 25, 1985 review for The Village Voice, music critic Robert Christgau gave the album a "D−" and said that it has "utterly negligible" songs, and he commended Simple Minds for trying to distance themselves from their song, "Don't You (Forget About Me)," best known for being played during the film's opening and closing credits.[40] In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the soundtrack three out of five stars and wrote that, apart from Simple Minds' "undisputed masterpiece," the album is largely "disposable" and marred by "'80s artifacts" and "forgettable instrumentals".[41]


document_title: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017

question_text: who won the sa re ga ma pa little champ

question_tokens: who won the sa re ga ma pa little champ

text: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017

text: Format

text: Children aged 5 - 14 years participate in a singing competition. In the auditions round, they have 100 seconds to impress the three judges and the 30-members of the grand jury. If two of the three judges say YES and they secure at least 50 per cent of the support of the Grand Jury, then the contestant progresses to the next round.

text: In the Gala round, the judges select the 'Student of the Week' who is the best performer according to them. The contestant gets to sit on a 'flying sofa', which indicates that the contestant is safe from next week's elimination.

text: The audience vote will come in later in the competition. The contestant with the highest votes in the final round will win the competition.[2]

text: Grand Jury

text: The show has a panel of 30 jury members who are experts from the music industry. They closely assess the contestants from the audition stage wherein they help the mentors in the selection process and are present in the show during the studio rounds too.[3]

text: Some of them are:

text:
Pandit Ajay Pohankar (Classical maestro)
Ami Mishra (singer, composer)
Amit Mishra (singer)
Aneek Dhar (singer, winner of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2007)
Arpita Mukherjee (singer), winner of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa: Golden Voice Hunt)
Arvinder Singh (singer)
Asees Kaur (singer)
Bhavya Pandit (singer)
Chintu Singh (guitarist)
Debojit Saha (singer, winner of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005)
Earl Edgar URL (rapper, singer)
Eric Pillai (mixing engineer & music producer)
Ghanshyam Vaswani (singer)
Hamsika Iyer (singer)
Hrishikesh Chury (singer)
Jalees Sherwani (lyricist)
Jasraj Jayant Joshi (singer, winner of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2012)
Jolly Mukherjee (singer)
Kamal Khan (singer, winner of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Singing Superstar)
Kiran Kamath (music producer, DJ)
Manasi Scott (singer, songwriter)
Murtaza Khan (singer)
Nandini Srikar (singer)
Nikhil Paul George (singer, record producer & composer)
Padma Wadkar (singer, winner of the first series of Sa Re Ga Ma in 1995)
DJ Paroma (celebrity DJ)
Pavni Pandey (singer)
Prashant Ingole (lyricist)
Raja Hasan (singer, contestant on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2007)
Ram Shankar (singer & composer)
Raman Mahadevan (singer)
Ranjeet Rajwada (singer, contestant on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Singing Superstar)
Ronu Majumdar (flautist)
Sachin Kumar Valmiki (singer)
Sandeep Batraa (singer, contestant on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005 and Fame Gurukul)
Sarfraz Ahmed Khan (Sufi maestro)
Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)
Shamsher Singh (composer, brother of Daler Mehndi and Mika Singh)
Shashi Suman (singer & composer)
Shibani Kashyap (singer)
Shriram Iyer (singer)
Sumedha Karmahe (singer, contestant on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2007)
Suzanne D'Mello (singer)
Vaishali Made (singer, winner of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009)
Dr. Vinod Hasal (Kathak exponent)
Vipin Aneja (singer)
Yashita Yashpal Sharma (singer, contestant on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009)

text: Top 15 Contestants

text:
Contestant
Age (in years)
From
[hide]Result

Adnan Hussain Sabri
12
Mumbai Maharashtra
eliminated

Dhroon Tickoo
11
Amritsar Punjab
Runner-up

Jasu Khan Mir
13
Rajasthan
eliminated

Rajashree Bag
14
Kolkata West Bengal
eliminated

Riya Biswas
13
Kolkata West Bengal
Runner-up

Saimann Sewa
13
Siliguri
eliminated

Satyajeet Jena
12
Bhubaneshwar Odisha
Quits on June 24, 2017

Shaktiswaroopa Panda
9
Odisha
eliminated

Shanmukhapriya
14
Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh
Runner-up

Shreyan Bhattacharya[4][5]
11
Midnapur West Bengal
Winner

Sonakshi Kar
13
Kolkata West Bengal
Runner-up

Tanya Tiwari
13
Varanasi Uttar Pradesh
Eliminated

Utkarsh Wankhede
11
Nagpur Maharashtra
Eliminated

Yumna Ajin
11
Kerala
Runner-up

Jayas Kumar
5
Delhi
Runner-up

Anjali Gaikwad

Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
Winner