document_title: Solid fuel

question_text: what is a solid fossil fuel that is often used to generate electricity

text: Solid fuel

text: Types of solid fuels[edit]

text: Wood[edit]

text: Wood fuel can refer to several fuels such as firewood, charcoal, wood chips sheets, pellets, and sawdust. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application. In many areas, wood is the most easily available form of fuel, requiring no tools in the case of picking up dead wood, or few tools. Today, burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, stove, or fireplace, or outdoors in a furnace, campfire, or bonfire. As with any fire, burning wood fuel creates numerous by-products, some of which may be useful (heat and steam), and others that are undesirable, irritating or dangerous. There is debate as to whether burning wood can be considered carbon neutral, as technically the wood cannot release more carbon than was sequestered during its growth, although this does not take account of other impacts such as deforestation and rotting has on the carbon footprint.[5] When harvested in a sustainable fashion wood is usually considered to be a renewable solid fuel.[6]

text: Biomass[edit]

text: Although wood is a form of biomass, the term usually refers to other natural plant material that can be burnt for fuel. Common biomass fuels include waste wheat, straw, nut shells and other fibrous material.[6]

text: Peat[edit]

text: Peat fuel is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that can be burnt once sufficiently dried.

text: Coal[edit]

text: Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. Throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases. The extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Variations such as smokeless coal can be formed naturally in the form of anthracite, a metamorphosed type of coal with a very high carbon content that gives off a smokeless flame when set alight.

text: Coke[edit]

text: Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous. While coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as petroleum coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes.[6]

text: Municipal waste[edit]

text: Municipal solid waste commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and as rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. With the correct technology it can be gasified and converted to a viable fuel source. However, this is technology heavy and can only be used where the waste is known not to contain toxic materials.[7]

text: Benefits/disadvantages of solid fuel[edit]

text: Solid fuels, compared to liquid fuels or gaseous fuels, are often cheaper, easier to extract, more stable to transport and in many places are more readily available.[8][9] Coal, in particular, is utilized in the generation of 38.1% of the world’s electricity because it is less expensive and more powerful than its liquid and gas counterparts. However, solid fuels are also heavier to transport, require more destructive methods to extract/burn and often have higher carbon, nitrate and sulphate emissions. With the exception of sustainable wood/biomass solid fuel is normally considered non-renewable as it requires thousands of years to form.[3]


document_title: Table tennis racket

question_text: why do ping pong paddles have two different sides

root

text: Table tennis racket

text: Various[edit]

text: Table tennis regulations approved by the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) allow different surfaces on each side of the paddle for various amounts of spin (including nullifying it) or speed.[1] For example, a player may have a spin-heavy rubber on one side of his paddle, and no spin on the other side. The player can flip the racket in play for different types of returns. To help a player distinguish between different types of rubber used by his opponent, regulations specify that one side of a paddle must be red while the other must be black, allowing a player to see what side of a paddle hits the ball mid-play. The player has the right to inspect his opponent's racquet before a match to see the type and color. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the paddle cannot be exchanged for another at any time during a match.[2]

tag: p

text: The rubber coating may be of pimpled rubber, with the pimples outward, or it may be composed of a sponge layer, covered by rubber that may have the pimples pointed inwards or outwards. Some paddles are not covered with rubber ("naked") to make it spin resistant. However, it is illegal to use these types of racquet in competition as they are not approved by the ITTF. Some types of rubbers are also not approved. Approved rubbers have the ITTF emblem on the base of the rubber.[3]

text: Assembling[edit]

text: Players have many choices and variations in rubber sheets on their racquet. Although a racquet may be purchased assembled with rubber by the manufacturer, most serious tournament players will use a custom racquet. A player selects a blank blade (i.e., a racquet without rubber) based on his or her playing style. The type of wood or synthetic layers used to make up the blade will determine the blade's speed. The different types of rubber sheets affect the level of spin, speed, and other specific playing characteristics. Racquet construction and new rubber technology contribute significantly to the amount of deviation from the expected ball flight path.

text: Glue and gluing[edit]

text: Normally, a sheet of rubber is glued to a blade using various table tennis brand glues such as Butterfly, Donic, and DHS. Some glues may work even if it wasn't designed specifically for table tennis, such as Rubber Cement and Tear Mender. The rubber is not removed until it wears out or becomes damaged. In the 1980s, some players developed a new technique with a special glue called speed glue to apply the rubber every time he played. The glue would help provide more spin and speed by providing a "catapult" effect.

text: The fairly recent development of speed glue speeds up the departure of the ball from the rubber considerably, though at the cost of some ball control on touch shots where little or no spin is put on the ball. Speed glue was allowed for the last time in the 2008 Summer Olympics. From the 2012 Summer Olympics onward, the Olympic games banned speed glue.[4]

text: Maintaining and protection[edit]

text: The surface of a racquet will develop a smooth glossy patina with use. The rubber surface needs regular cleaning to retain a high friction surface for ball spin. Commercial cleaners or water and soap can be cleaning agents.[5]

text: Sun exposure may damage the rubber.


document_title: List of early settlers of Rhode Island

question_text: who settled in the colony of rhode island

question_tokens: who settled in the colony of rhode island

text: List of early settlers of Rhode Island

text: Aboriginal tribes and leaders[edit]

text: The following aboriginal people lived in what became the state of Rhode Island.[1]

text: Wampanoag people lived throughout Plymouth Colony and around Mount Hope Bay (later Bristol, Rhode Island)

text:
Massasoit, tribal leader; met the Pilgrims at Plymouth
Wamsutta, son of Massasoit, became tribal leader upon father's death, but died shortly thereafter
Metacomet, son of Massasoit, succeeded his brother as tribal leader; given English name of King Philip, instigated King Philip's War

tag: ul

text: Narragansett people lived throughout the Rhode Island colony

text:
Canonicus, chief sachem, deeded to Roger Williams land that became Providence Plantations
Miantonomo, nephew of Canonicus, sold the land that became Warwick to Samuel Gorton and others
Canonchet, son of Miantonomo, led Narragansets during Great Swamp Fight; accepted his own death at end of King Philip's War
Pumham, lesser sachem of what became Kent County, Rhode Island
Soconoco, lesser sachem of the same area as Pumham

text: Niantic people lived around the Pawcatuck River, in the western part of Rhode Island

text: Ninigret, kept the Niantic people from participating in King Philip's War

text: Nipmuc people wandered within the colony of Rhode Island, mostly from the north

text: First European settler[edit]

text: William Blackstone, settled along the Blackstone River, now in Cumberland, Rhode Island, 1634-5 (then part of the Plymouth Colony)[2]

text: First settlers of Providence[edit]

text: Those who came to Seekonk with Roger Williams early 1636[edit]

text: Roger Williams was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in October 1635 but was allowed to remain at his home in Salem until the end of winter, provided that he did not preach. However, his followers visited him at his home in sizable numbers, and the authorities deemed this as preaching. He was to be apprehended and put on a ship for England in January 1636. He was, however, tipped off by magistrate John Winthrop and slipped away from Salem near the middle of January, in the dead of winter, to find shelter with the Wampanoags. He bought a parcel of land in Seekonk from Wampanoag sachem Massasoit which was then at the western edge of the Plymouth Colony (now Rehoboth, Massachusetts). In a 1677 statement, Williams mentioned the four who were with him at Seekonk. The five members of the group were:[3][4][5]

text:
Roger Williams
William Harris
John Smith (miller)
Francis Wickes
Thomas Angell

text: Those who first settled Providence[edit]

text: In the spring of 1636, Williams and his company planted crops at Seekonk but were informed in a gentle letter from Governor Edward Winslow of Plymouth that they were within Plymouth's jurisdiction, and this fact would cause difficulties with the Massachusetts authorities. Without urgency, Winslow suggested that Williams and his group move across the Seekonk River into the territory of the Narragansetts, where no colony had any claim. By this time, it is likely that the family members of the original settlers had joined the group. Two other families also joined the settlement. Joshua Verin wrote a statement in 1650 mentioning "we six which came first to Providence", suggesting that he was the next to join the original five.[6] Also, Benedict Arnold later wrote, "Memm. We came to Providence to Dwell the 20th of April, 1636"; Providence had not yet been established, so he certainly was referring to Seekonk, where the Arnolds came from Hingham to join the other settlers.[6][7] It is likely, therefore, that sometime about June 1636 the following 25 people crossed the river from Seekonk, in the Plymouth Colony, to a location on the Moshassuck River in Narragansett territory which Williams soon named Providence Plantation:[8]

text:
Roger Williams with wife Mary and daughters Mary and Freeborn
William Harris with wife Susannah and son Andrew
John Smith (miller) with wife Alice and children John Jr. and Elizabeth
Francis Wickes, a minor
Thomas Angell, a minor
Joshua Verin with wife Jane
William Arnold with wife Christian, daughter Joanne, and son Stephen
Benedict Arnold, still a minor, son of William Arnold
William Carpenter with wife Elizabeth (the daughter of William Arnold)
William Mann with wife Frances Hopkins (the niece of William Arnold)[9]
Thomas Hopkins, still a minor, nephew of William Arnold (and ancestor of Governor Stephen Hopkins)

text: Original proprietors of Providence[edit]

text: Those named in a deed from Roger Williams, dated about 8 October 1638[10]

text:
Roger Williams
Stukeley Westcott (left Salem about March 1638)[11]
William Arnold
Thomas James (was minister at Charlestown; Providence by June 1637; left for New Haven in 1639)[12]
Robert Cole (was earlier at Ipswich and Salem)[13]
John Greene (had departed Boston by March 1636)[14]
John Throckmorton (was at Salem earlier)[15]
John Sweet
William Harris
William Carpenter
Thomas Olney (left Salem about March 1638)[16]
Francis Weston (left Salem about March 1638)[17]
Richard Waterman (left Salem about March 1638)[18]
Ezekiel Holyman (left Salem about March 1638)[19]

text: Providence civil compact, 1637[edit]

text: Several young men were admitted as inhabitants to Providence before the settlement was a year old, but they were discontent with their position and wanted to be able to vote and otherwise have equality with the older settlers. The following resolution was adopted in a town meeting on 20 August 1637, and is sometimes called the "civil compact." The 1637 date was on the original town records, but when they were transcribed in 1800, the page containing that date was missing. The text of the resolution is as follows:

text: We, whose names are hereunder, desirous to inhabit in the town of Providence, do promise to subject ourselves in active or passive obedience to all such orders or agreements as shall be made for public good of our body, in an orderly way, by the major assent of the present inhabitants, master of families, incorporated together into a town fellowship, and others whom they shall admit unto them only in civil things.[20]

text:
Richard Scott
William Reynolds X his mark
John Field X his mark
Chad Browne
John Warner
George Richard
Edward Cope
Thomas Angell X his mark (now an adult)
Thomas Harris
Francis Wickes X his mark (now an adult)
Benedict Arnold (now an adult)
Joshua Winsor
William Wickenden

text: Pawtuxet settlers[edit]

text: Those settlers who left Providence to settle on the north side of the Pawtuxet River about 1638, putting themselves under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts from 1642 to 1658[21][22][23][24]

text:
William Arnold
Benedict Arnold, moved to Newport in 1651
William Carpenter
Thomas Hopkins, did not stay long
William Mann, did not stay long
Robert Cole
William Harris, did not stay long
Zachariah Rhodes (married Joanna, daughter of William Arnold), did not stay long
William Field, did not stay long
Stukeley Westcott, moved to Warwick about 1643

text: Signers of Providence agreement for a government, 1640[edit]

text: Those 39 Providence settlers who signed an agreement to form a government on 27 July 1640:[25]

text:
Chad Brown
Robert Cole
William Harris
John Throckmorton
Stukely Westcott
Benedict Arnold
William Carpenter
Richard Scott
Thomas Harris
Francis Wickes X his mark
Thomas Angell X his mark
Adam Goodwin X his mark
William Burrows X his mark
Roger Williams
Robert West
Joshua Winsor
Robert Williams
Matthew Waller
Gregory Dexter
John Lippitt X his mark
John Warner
John Field
William Arnold
William Field
Edward Cope
Edward Manton X his mark
William Man
Nicholas Power
William Reynolds X his mark
Thomas Olney
Richard Waterman
William Wickenden
Edward Hart
Hugh Bewit
Thomas Hopkins X his mark
Joan Tiler (widow)
Jane Sears X her mark (widow)
Christopher Unthank
William Hawkins X his mark

text: Settlers of Cocumscussoc (Wickford) area[edit]

text: Those early settlers who had trading posts in the area of Wickford in what was then the "Narragansett country" and later a part of North Kingstown, Rhode Island:[26][27]

text:
Richard Smith, built a trading post established about 1637, where his house Smith's Castle still stands, rebuilt by Richard, Jr. after King Philip's War.
Roger Williams, built his trading post about a mile north from Smith's post along the Pequot Path (or Post Road) and occupied it from about 1644 to 1651 and then sold it to Smith to get funds for his proposed errand to England.
Mr. Wilcox (possibly Edward or John), built his trading post in the early 1640s in the same general area.

text: Founders of Portsmouth[edit]

text: Supporters of Anne Hutchinson who signed the Portsmouth Compact, dated 7 March 1638[28]

text:
William Coddington
John Clarke
William Hutchinson, husband of Anne Hutchinson
John Coggeshall
William Aspinwall
Samuel Wilbore
John Porter
John Sanford
Edward Hutchinson, Jr., oldest son of William and Anne Hutchinson
Thomas Savage
William Dyer, husband of Mary Dyer
William Freeborn
Philip Shearman
John Walker
Richard Carder
William Baulston
Edward Hutchinson, Sr., brother of William Hutchinson
Henry Bull (signed with a mark)
Randall Holden
Thomas Clarke
John Johnson
William Hall
John Brightman

text: The last four names on the list were crossed out, but these men nevertheless came to Portsmouth or Newport.

text: Inhabitants of Aquidneck Island (1638)[edit]

text: The following individuals were among the earliest settlers of Aquidneck Island in the Narragansett Bay; the island was officially named Rhode Island by 1644,[29] from which the entire colony was eventually named. The first group of 58 names appears to be settlers of Pocasset (later Portsmouth), while the second group of 42 appears to be settlers of Newport. These two lists come from Bartlett's Records of the Colony of Rhode Island..., and apparently the lists were compiled and incorporated into the town records of Newport on 25 November 1639. The actual arrival dates of the individuals likely span over several months during 1638; a few individuals have legible dates next to their names, while several others have illegible dates.[30]

text: "A Catalogue of such [persons] who, by the Generall consent of the Company were admitted to be Inhabytants of the Island now called Aqueedneck, having submitted themselves to the Government that is or shall be established, according to the word of God therein" [1638]

text:
Samuel Hutchinson
Thomas Emons
Richard Awards
Edward Willcoks
George Gardiner
William Witherington
Mr. Samuel Gorton
John Wickes
Ralph Earle
Nicholas Browne
Richard Burden [Borden]
Richard Maxon
Mr. Nicholas Esson
Thomas Spicer
Robert Potter
William Nedham
Sampson Shatton
Adam Mott
John Mott
Mr. Robert Jefferyes

Thomas Hitt
James Tarr
John Roome
Robert Gilham
Jeremy Clarke
Nicholas Davis
Wm. Baker
John More
Anthony Pain
George Potter
Wm. Richardson
Wm. Quick
Thomas Clarke
John Johnson
William Hall
John Briggs
James Davis
George Parker
Erasmus Bullock
George Cleer

Thomas Hazard
William Cowlie
Jeffery Champlin
Richard Sarle
John Sloff
Thomas Beeder
John Tripp
Osamund Doutch
John Marshall
Robert Stanton
Joseph Clarke
Robert Carr
George Layton
John Arnold
Wm. Heavens [Havens]
Thomas Layton
Edward Poole
Mathew Sutherland

tag: table

text: "Inhabitants admitted at the Town of Nieu-port since the 20th of the 3:1638" (since 20 May 1638)

text:
Marmaduke Ward
Robert Field
Thomas Stafford
Job Tyler
Thomas Sauorie
Hugh Durdall
William Baker
John Layton
Mr. Will Foster
John Hall
Tobye Knight
John Peckum
Michel Williamson
Mr. Robert Lintell

Richard Smith
James Rogers
John Smith
Wm. Parker
John Grinman
Edward Rero
John Macummore
Robert Root
Ezekiah Meritt
James Burt
John Bartlett
Edward _________
Sampson Salter
Nicholas Cottrell

John Vaughan
John Smith
John Merchant (2 July)
Jeremy Gould
Enoch Hunt
Nathaniel Adams
Samuel Allen
George Allen
Ralph Allen
Mr. Thomas Burton
Henry Bishop
John Hicks
Edward Browce
Mathew Gridell (5 August)

text: Residents of Portsmouth after split with Newport[edit]

text: Those Portsmouth settlers who remained after the group left to found Newport, and who signed an agreement for a government on 30 April 1639:[31]

text:
William Hutchinson
Samuel Gorton
Samuel Hutchinson, did not stay long if actually here
John Wickes
Richard Magson
Thomas Spicer
John Roome
John Geoffe (?)
Thomas Beddar
Erasmus Bullock
Samson Shotten
Ralphe Earle
Robert Potter
Nathaniel Potter
George Potter
William Havens
George Shaw
George Lawton
Anthony Paine
Job Hawkins
Richard Awarde
John Moore
Nicholas Browne
William Richardson
John Tripp
Thomas Layton
Robert Stanton
John Briggs
James Davis
William Aspinwall (did not sign agreement, but did remain here)

text: Founders of Newport[edit]

text: Those who signed an agreement for a new government, 28 April 1639[32]

text:
William Coddington
Nicholas Easton
John Coggeshall
William Brenton
John Clarke
Jeremy Clarke (his wife was Frances (Latham) Clarke)
Thomas Hazard
Henry Bull
William Dyer

text: Founders of Warwick[edit]

text: Those who purchased the land from the Indians, January 12, 1642[33]

text:
Randall Holden
John Greene
John Wickes
Francis Weston
Samuel Gorton
Richard Waterman
John Warner
Richard Carder
Samson Shotten
Robert Potter
William Wodell
Nicholas Power
John Sweet

text: Pettaquamscutt purchasers[edit]

text: Those who purchased the Pettaquamscutt lands (later South Kingstown) from the Indian sachems, 1657[34]

text: Original purchasers:

text:
John Porter
Samuel Wilbore
Thomas Mumford
Samuel Wilson
John Hull (Boston goldsmith and minter)

text: Later purchasers:[35]

text:
William Brenton
Benedict Arnold

text: Early inhabitants of New Shoreham (Block Island)[edit]

text: The original purchasers of Block Island in April 1661, whose names appear on a plaque at the north end of the island:

text:
Thomas Terry
John Clarke
William Jud
Samuel Dearing
Simon Ray
William Tosh
Tormut Rose
William Barker
Daniel Cumball
William Cohoone
Duncan Mack Williamson
John Rathbun
Edward Vorce, Jun.
Trustrum Dodge, Sen.
Nicholas White
William Billings
John Ackurs (Acres).

text: The early settlers whose names appear on the plaque:[36]

text:
Richard Billingum
Samuel Dearing
Nathaniel Winslow
Tormut Rose
Edward Vorce
John Rathbun
Thomas Faxson
Richard Allis
Phillip Warton
John Glover
Thomas Terry
James Sands
Hugh Williams
John Alcock
Peter George
Simon Ray
Trustrum Dodge was also an early settler, though his name only appears on the plaque as an original purchaser

text: Those named in the Royal Charter of 1663[edit]

text: The early Rhode Island inhabitants named in the Rhode Island Royal Charter, dated 8 July 1663, and signed with the royal seal by King Charles II; this charter was the basis for Rhode Island's government for nearly two centuries:[37]

text:
Author: John Clarke
Governor: Benedict Arnold
Deputy Governor: William Brenton

text: Assistants:

text:
William Baulston
John Porter
Roger Williams
Thomas Olney
John Smith
John Greene
John Coggeshall
James Barker
William Field
Joseph Clarke

text: Others named in the document:

text:
William Codington
Nicholas Easton
Samuel Gorton
John Wickes
Gregory Dexter
Randall Holden
John Roome
Samuel Wildbore
Richard Tew
Thomas Harris
William Dyre
________ Rainsborrow (given name omitted)
________ Williams (this is undoubtedly Robert Williams, brother of Roger Williams)
John Nickson

text: Early inhabitants of Westerly[edit]

text: Westerly, at first called Misquamicut, was purchased on 27 August 1661 by the following Newport men:

text:
William Vaughan
John Coggeshall, Jr.
John Crandall
Hugh Mosher
James Barker
Caleb Carr
James Rogers
Joseph Torry
John Cranston

text: Of these men, only John Crandall appears to have settled in Westerly.

text: Westerly inhabitants appearing in the town records of 18 May 1669:[38]

text:
John Crandall
Edward Larkin
Stephen Wilcox
John Lewis
James Cross
Jonathan Armstrong
John Maxson
Jeffrey Champlin, Sr.
John Fairfield
Daniel Cromb
Nicholas Cottrell
Shubael Painter

Tobias Saunders
Robert Burdick
John Randall
John Matkoon
John Sharp
Daniel Stanton
James Babcock, Sr.
Thomas Painter
James Babcock, Jr.
John Babcock
Job Babcock
Josiah Clarke

text: Colonial leaders during King Philip's War[edit]

text: During the devastating events of King Philip's War (1675-1676), the Rhode Island General Assembly sought the counsel of 16 prominent citizens of the colony with the resolution, "Voted that in these troublesome times and straites in this Collony, this Assembly desiringe to have the advice and concurrance of the most juditious inhabitants, if it may be had for the good of the whole, doe desire at their next sittinge the Company and Councill of":[39]

text:
Benedict Arnold
John Clarke
James Barker
Obadiah Holmes
William Vaughan
William Hiscocks
Christopher Holder
Phillip Shearman
Capt. John Albro
William Wodell
George Lawton
Robert Hodgson
William Carpenter
Gregory Dexter
Capt. Randall Holden
Capt. John Greene

text: Original proprietors of East Greenwich[edit]

text: At a meeting of the General Assembly in Newport in May 1677, the following 48 individuals were granted 100-acre tracts in East Greenwich "for the services rendered during King Philip's War."[40]

text:
John Spencer
Thomas Nichols, father of Deputy Governor Jonathan Nichols
Clement Weaver
Henry Brightman
George Vaughan
John Weaver
Charles Macarty
Thomas Wood
Thomas Frye, father of Deputy Governor Thoms Frye
Benjamin Griffin
Daniel Vaughan
Thomas Dungan, son of William and Frances (Latham) Dungan
John Pearce
Stephen Peckham
John Crandall, son of John Crandall
Preserved Pearce
Henry Lilly
John Albro, son of John Albro
Samuel Albro, son of John Albro
Philip Long
Richard Knight
John Peckham
Thomas Peckham
William Clarke

Edward Day
Edward Richmond
Edward Calvery
John Heath
Robert Havens
John Strainge
John Parker
George Browne
Richard Barnes
Samson Ballou
John Remington
Jonathan Devell
Benjamin Mowrey
Joseph Mowrey
William Wilbore, cousin of Samuel Wilbore
James Eyles Pearce
James Batty
Benjamin Gorton, son of Samuel Gorton
Henry Dyre, son of William and Mary Dyer
John Knowles
Stephen Arnold, son of William Arnold and brother of Governor Benedict Arnold
John Sanford, son of Governor John Sanford
William Hawkins
John Holden, son of Randall Holden

text: Early Settlers of Bristol (1680)[edit]

text: Bristol's early history began as a commercial enterprise when John Gorham was awarded 100 acres of land if it could be "honorably purchased from the indians."[41] Gorham's enterprise succeeded on 18 Sep 1680 when four proprietors were awarded the deed to Mt. Hope Lands:[42]

text:
John Walley
Nathaniel Byfield
Stephen Burton
Nathaniel Oliver (sold share to Nathan Hayman)
Nathan Hayman

text: On 27 Aug 1680, twelve men signed Articles agreeing to purchase lands:

text:
Capt. Benjamin Church
Doctor Isaac Waldron
Timothy Clarke
William Ingraham
Nathaniel Paine
Nathaniel Reynolds
Christopher Saunders
John Wilkins
Nathaniel Williams
Samuel Woodbury
Nathaniel Bosworth
Benjamin Jones[43]

text: On 1 Sep 1681, more than 60 families were present at the first town meeting and named these lands Bristol after Bristol, England.[44] Bristol was originally part of Massachusetts, but it became part of Rhode Island when disputed lands were awarded to the Colony of Rhode Island in 1747.[45]

text:
Eliashib Adams
Watching Atherton
Joseph Baster
John Bayley
John Birge
Thomas Bletsoe
Benjamin Bosworth
Edward Bosworth
William Brenton
William Brown
James Burrill
James Burroughs (Burrows)
David Cary (Carey)
John Cary (Carey)
Samuel Cobbett

John Corps (Cope)
Solomon Curtis
Zachariah Curtis
Thomas Daggett
Jonathan Davenport
Robert Dutch
Jeremiah Finney
John Finney
Jonathan Finney
Joseph Ford
Anthony Fry
Samuel Gallop
John Gladding
Jabez Gorham
Richard Hammond

Henry Hampton
William Hedge
William Hoar
Jabez Howland
Benjamin Ingell (Ingalls)
Joseph Jacob(s)
Daniel Landon (Langdon)
Thomas Lewis
John Martin Jr.
Nicholas Mead
George Morye (Mowrey)
Jeremiah Osborne
Peter Pampelion (Papillon)
Samuel Penfield
John Pope

Edmund Ranger
Increase Robinson
John Rogers
John Saffin
Joseph Sandy
John Smith
Richard Smith
Widdo (Elizabeth) Southard (Southworth)
Robert Taft
Major Robert Thompson
William Throope
John Thurston
George Waldron
Thomas Walker
Uzal/Uzell Wardwell

Richard White
John Wilson
Hugh Woodbury

text: Settlers of Frenchtown[edit]

text: French Huguenots settled in what is now East Greenwich in 1687. On 12 October 1686, an agreement was signed between the following, representing the French settlers and the land owners:

text: Representing Land Owners

text:
Richard Wharton
Elisha Hutchinson (son of Edward Hutchinson)
John Saffin

text: Representing Huguenot Settlers

text:
Ezechiel Carre'
Peter Le Breton

text: Those who signed the agreement

text: The following individuals signed the follow-on agreement, usually giving only their surname, and these same names are found on a plat map of the settlement.

text:
William Barbret
Paul Collin
Jean Germon
Dechamps
Fougere
Grignon
Legare'
Robineau
Petter Ayrault
Magni, Junior
Magni, Senior
Dauid, Junior
Dauid, Senior
Chadene
foretier
Ezechiel Carre', Ministre
Louis Alaire
Jamain
Bussereau
Le moine (Moses LeMoine, father of Colonel Peter Mawney)
Abraum tourtellot
La Veue Galay
Targe', Junior
Targe', Senior

Grasilier
Amian
Lafou
Belhair
Milard
Jouet
Renaud
Le gendre
Bertin dit Laronde
Menardeau
Galay
Ratier
Dauid
Beauchamps
Moize le Brun
Le Breton
La Vigne
Tauerrier
Bouniot
Arnaud
Lambert
Rambert
Coudret
Jean Julien

text: Also on the map are two additional lots: "La terre pour L'Eglise" (land for the church) and "La terr pour L'ecolle" (land for the school). Almost all of these people left Rhode Island to settle in Massachusetts and New York following some severe civil clashes with the English settlers. Two families remained on their original land, however:

text:
LeMoine (later anglicized to Money, and then Mawney)
Targe' (which became Tourgee)

text: The Ayrault family moved to Newport.[46]

text: Other prominent early settlers (pre-1700)[edit]

text:
Jireh Bull, early settler of Pettaquamscutt (South Kingstown)
Thomas Cornell (settler)
Joseph Jenckes, early settler of Pawtucket, Warwick, and Providence
Stephen Northup, built house that remains as one of oldest in the state
John Steere, early settler of Providence and Smithfield, Rhode Island
John Sweet
Pardon Tillinghast, early pastor of the First Baptist Church in America
John Whipple, early settler of Providence


document_title: Thorax

question_text: where is the chest located in the body

question_tokens: where is the chest located in the body

text: Thorax

text: Structure[edit]

text: In humans and other hominids, the thorax is the chest region of the body between the neck and the abdomen, along with its internal organs and other contents. It is mostly protected and supported by the rib cage, spine, and shoulder girdle.

text: Contents[edit]

text: The contents of the thorax include the heart and lungs and the thymus gland); the (major and minor pectoral muscles, trapezius muscles and neck muscle); internal structures such as the diaphragm, esophagus, trachea and a part of the sternum known as the xiphoid process). Arteries and veins are also contained – (aorta, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and the pulmonary artery); bones (the shoulder socket containing the upper part of the humerus, the scapula, sternum, thoracic portion of the spine, collarbone, and the rib cage and floating ribs).

text: External structures are the skin and nipples.

text: The chest[edit]

text: In the human body, the region of the thorax between the neck and diaphragm in the front of the body is called the chest. The corresponding area in an animal can also be referred to as the chest.

text: The shape of the chest does not correspond to that part of the thoracic skeleton that encloses the heart and lungs. All the breadth of the shoulders is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axillae and the heads of the humeri. In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse ridge can be felt, which is known as the sternal angle and this marks the junction between the manubrium and body of the sternum. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, and when these are found the lower ribs can often be counted. At the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins, and above this there is often a depression known as the pit of the stomach.

text: Bones[edit]

text: The bones of the thorax, called the "thoracic skeleton" is a component of the axial skeleton.

text: It consists of the ribs and sternum.The ribs of the thorax are numbered in ascending order from 1-12. 11 & 12 are known as floating ribs because they have no anterior attachment point in particular the cartilage attached to the sternum, as 1-7 are, and therefore are termed "floating". Whereas ribs 8-10 are termed false ribs as their costal cartilage articulates with the costal cartilage of the rib above.

text: Anatomical landmarks[edit]

text: The anatomy of the chest can also be described through the use of anatomical landmarks. The nipple in the male is situated in front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little external to a line drawn down from the middle of the clavicle; in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the breast, which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line laterally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a normal heart is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from the mid-line.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Different types of diseases or conditions that affect the chest include pleurisy, flail chest, atelectasis, and the most common condition, chest pain. These conditions can be hereditary or caused by birth defects or trauma. Any condition that lowers the ability to either breathe deeply or to cough is considered a chest disease or condition.

text: Injury[edit]

text: Injury to the chest (also referred to as chest trauma, thoracic injury, or thoracic trauma) results in up to ¼ of all deaths due to trauma in the United States.[4]

text: The major pathophysiologies encountered in blunt chest trauma involve derangements in the flow of air, blood, or both in combination. Sepsis due to leakage of alimentary tract contents, as in esophageal perforations, also must be considered. Blunt trauma commonly results in chest wall injuries (e.g., rib fractures). The pain associated with these injuries can make breathing difficult, and this may compromise ventilation. Direct lung injuries, such as pulmonary contusions (see the image below), are frequently associated with major chest trauma and may impair ventilation by a similar mechanism.

text: Pain[edit]

text: Chest pain can be the result of multiple issues including respiratory problems, digestive issues, musculoskeletal complications. The pain can trigger cardiac issues as well. Not all pain that is felt is associated with the heart, but it should not be taken lightly either. Symptoms can be different depending on the cause of the pain.[5] While cardiac issues cause feelings of sudden pressure in the chest or a crushing pain in the back, neck and arms, pain that is felt due to non cardiac issues gives a burning feeling along the digestive tract or pain when deep breaths are attempted. Different people feel pains differently for the same condition. Only a patient truly knows if the symptoms are mild or serious.

text: Chest pain may be a symptom of myocardial infarctions. If this condition is present in the body, discomfort will be felt in the chest that is similar to a heavy weight placed on the body. Sweating, shortness of breath, lightheadedness, and irregular heartbeat may also be experienced. If heart attack occurs, the bulk of damage is caused during the first six hours, so getting the proper treatment quickly as possible is important. Some people, especially those who are elderly or have diabetes, may not have typical chest pain but may have many of the other symptoms of a heart attack. It is important that these patients and their care givers have a good understanding of heart attack symptoms.

text: Non-cardiac causes of chest pain[edit]

text: Just like with a heart attack, not all chest pain is suffered because of a condition involving the heart. Chest wall pain can be experienced after an increase in activity. Persons who add exercise to their daily routine generally feel this type of pain at the beginning. It is important to monitor the pain to ensure that it is not a sign of something more serious. Pain can also be experienced in persons who have an upper respiratory infection. This virus is also accompanied by fever and cough. Shingles is another viral infection that can give symptoms of chest or rib pain before a rash develops. Injuries to the rib cage or sternum is also a common cause of chest pain. It is generally felt when deep breaths are taken or during cough.

text: Atelectasis[edit]

text: Another non cardiac cause of chest pain is atelectasis. It is a condition that suffered when a portion of the lung collapses from being airless. When bronchial tubes are blocked, this condition develops and causes patients to feel shortness of breath. The most common cause of atelectasis is when a bronchi that extends from the windpipe is blocked and traps air. The blockage may be caused by something inside the bronchus, such as a plug of mucus, a tumour, or an inhaled foreign object such as a coin, piece of food, or a toy.[6] It is possible for something outside of the bronchus to cause the blockage.

text: Pneumothorax[edit]

text: Pneumothorax is the condition where air or gas can build up in the pleural space. It can occur without a known cause or as the result of a lung disease or acute lung injury.[7] The size of the pneumothorax changes as air or gas builds up, so a medical procedure can release the pressure with a needle. If it is untreated, blood flow can be interrupted and cause a drop in blood pressure known as tension pneumothorax. It is possible for smaller cases to clear up on their own. Symptoms of this condition are often felt only on one side of the lung or as a shortness of breath.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: In tetrapods[edit]

text: In mammals, the thorax is the region of the body formed by the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae, and the ribs. It extends from the neck to the diaphragm, and does not include the upper limbs. The heart and the lungs reside in the thoracic cavity, as well as many blood vessels. The inner organs are protected by the rib cage and the sternum. Thoracic vertebrae are also distinguished in birds, but not in reptiles.

text: In arthropods[edit]

text: In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions (or tagmata) of the creature's body, each of which is in turn composed of multiple segments. It is the area where the wings and legs attach in insects, or an area of multiple articulating plates in trilobites. In most insects, the thorax itself is composed of three segments; the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax. In extant insects, the prothorax never has wings, though legs are always present in adults; wings (when present) are restricted to at least the mesothorax, and typically also the metathorax, though the wings may be reduced or modified on either or both segments. In the Apocritan Hymenoptera, the first abdominal segment is fused to the metathorax, where it forms a structure known as the propodeum. Accordingly, in these insects, the functional thorax is composed of four segments, and is therefore typically called the mesosoma to distinguish it from the "thorax" of other insects.

text: Each thoracic segment in an insect is further subdivided into various parts, the most significant of which are the dorsal portion (the notum), the lateral portion (the pleuron; one on each side), and the ventral portion (the sternum). In some insects, each of these parts is composed of one to several independent exoskeletal plates with membrane between them (called sclerites), though in many cases the sclerites are fused to various degrees.

text: Additional Images[edit]

text:
Volume rendering of a high resolution computed tomography of the thorax. The anterior thoracic wall, the airways and the pulmonary vessels anterior to the root of the lung have been digitally removed in order to visualize the different levels of the pulmonary circulation.

Thorax. Anterior view.

Thorax. Anterior view.


document_title: Capital One Arena

question_text: when did verizon center become capital one arena

text: Capital One Arena

text: History[edit]

text: The arena was built in the mid-1990s solely with private financing by Abe Pollin, and is situated on top of land leased from the District of Columbia. It opened on December 2, 1997, as the MCI Center. Nearly a decade later, in January 2006, Verizon Communications purchased MCI and the arena's name was changed accordingly to Verizon Center.[8] The following year, in 2007, the "first true indoor high-definition LED scoreboard" was installed at the Verizon Center.[9][10]

text: On June 10, 2010, following Pollin's death in November 2009, the Pollin family sold the arena, along with the Washington Wizards and the Washington-Baltimore area Ticketmaster franchise, to Ted Leonsis, who already owned the arena's other tenant, the Washington Capitals. Leonsis subsequently formed a new management company, Monumental Sports & Entertainment.[11]

text: A report emerged in May 2015 that Verizon would not renew its naming rights to the Verizon Center when its agreement with Monumental ended in 2018.[12][13] In the same week, it was announced that Etihad Airways signed a deal to become the official airline of the arena, sparking speculation that Etihad might be the leading contender to assume naming rights in 2017.[14] However, on August 9, 2017, it was announced Verizon Center had instead been renamed Capital One Arena, when Capital One signed an agreement worth $100 million over 10 years.[15][16][17][18]

text: The Washington Valor began play at the arena for their inaugural season in the Arena Football League.[19] The Mystics will move after the 2018 WNBA season to a new, smaller arena currently under construction in the Congress Heights area of southeast Washington.[20]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Gentrification[edit]

text: When the arena opened, there was concern that it would lead to the displacement of Chinese businesses and culture in the area that is the city's Chinatown.[21] The surrounding area has indeed been dramatically gentrified, and most of the Chinese residents and businesses who lived and operated in the neighborhood when the arena first opened have been displaced because of the spike in real estate prices.[22] Recent estimates hold that the number of Chinese in the neighborhood is down to around 400 to 500.[22] The Chinese-owned restaurants and businesses in the Chinatown area are largely gone and there has not been a full-service Chinese grocery in the neighborhood since 2005.[22]

text: Ice quality issues[edit]

text: In December 2007, then-Capitals captain Chris Clark gained a bit of press by stating that he believed the arena had the worst ice in the NHL. "There's a lot of ruts in the ice. It's soft. It's wet half the time. I could see a lot of injuries coming from the ice there. It could cost [players] their jobs... Even guys on other teams say the same thing. When we're facing off, they say, 'How do you guys play on this?'" Capitals owner Ted Leonsis addressed this criticism directly.[23] The ice quality issue has been persistent both since the opening of the facility and with the Capitals franchise in general.[24] Since Leonsis' acquisition of the facility, the quality of the ice has gotten better[according to whom?] and number of complaints has noticeably decreased. During playoff games, the arena installs a system to help remove hot air and humidity to maintain the ice conditions during warmer times of the year.[citation needed]


document_title: Trollhunters

question_text: who plays the voice of jim in trollhunters

text: Trollhunters

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Part 1[edit]

text: Beneath the town of Arcadia lives a secret civilization of trolls, which humans are oblivious to. The trolls' common enemy are the Gumm-Gumms, evil trolls from the Darklands. The trolls' chosen warrior, known as the "Trollhunter", is supposed to protect them from the Gumm-Gumms along with other dark miscreants from the Darklands.

text: Fifteen-year-old James "Jim" Lake Jr. and his friend Toby find a mystical amulet which grants him the Trollhunter mantle. He is shortly approached by his new troll mentors, Blinky and AAARRRGGHH!!!. Despite his initial reluctance to lead a double life, he eventually accepts his role after discovering that attempting to discard the amulet will cause it to return to him on its own. During his visits to Heartstone Trollmarket, the presence of the first human Trollhunter stirs resentment, but he quickly gains their acceptance. Throughout his training and missions, he befriends a gnome (who Toby dubs "Gnome Chompsky") and discovers that goblins and Changelings (human-morphing trolls that replace humans to spy) are gathering for the completion of the Killahead Bridge, a portal through which the Gumm-Gumms from the Darklands will arrive and invade. The project is being led by Bular, Gumm-Gumm leader Gunmar's son, and Walter Strickler, a Changeling who is Jim's high school teacher.

text: While discovering more mysteries, Jim is forced to reveal the truth about his life to Claire Nuñez when she becomes a target of the goblins. Jim and his allies launch a surprise attack on Bular and his henchmen, destroying the bridge and closing the portal. Jim is forced to battle Bular. They fight and with aid from AAARRRGGHH!!!, Jim succeeds in slaying him. He returns to Trollmarket, where the citizens celebrate Bular's defeat.

text: Shortly afterward, Claire proposes a quest into the Darklands to rescue her baby brother Enrique, who has been replaced by a Changeling who they dub NotEnrique. The spirits of past Trollhunters inform Jim that the only way to get out of the Darklands alive is to kill Gunmar. Blinky discovers that the only way to kill Gunmar is with the three Triumbric Stones. Meanwhile, Strickler has freed ancient troll assassin Angor Rot from his bonds. Using Angor's ring, he forces Angor to obey him. Jim and the gang hunt for the Stones while Strickler has Angor create a binding spell that ties Strickler's fate to Jim's mother in order to ensure that Jim cannot kill Strickler. During one particular confrontation with Angor Rot, Angor manages to take one of the Triumbric Stones, although Claire takes his Shadow Staff in the process. While trying to steal the stone from Angor, Jim indirectly causes Angor's ring to break. Angor Rot goes on a rampage, attempting to kill Strickler and Jim. In the process, Strickler and Jim's mother are both injured. Trollmarket's leader, Vendel, informs Jim that the only way to save his mother is to break the binding spell that ties her and Strickler's fates together. However, his mother's memories of the troll world, including the fact that her son is the Trollhunter, are erased. Meanwhile, Strickler coaches Jim on cutting Angor Rot's removable stone-like eye, which they acquired, into a Triumbric-like stone to help him defeat Angor. Strickler also reveals to Jim that he had the last Triumbric Stone all along; he gives it to Jim before leaving town.

text: Angor Rot invades Trollmarket after stealing a key from Claire. Jim and his allies defeat him, but not before AAARRRGGHH!!! takes a hit from his poison dagger and turns to stone. The group is in mourning. Believing that he is responsible for the death of AAARRRGGHH!!! and the ongoing endangerment of his friends, Jim sets off to the Darklands alone, not wanting to lose any more of them.

text: Part 2[edit]

text: Jim returns Enrique, but ends up trapped in the Darklands. He is rescued by his friends along with former antagonist Nomura. AAARRRGGHH!!! is revived with a potion, and is welcomed back by his friends. Gunmar also escapes the Darklands with Dictatious, Blinky's presumed-dead brother, and a couple soldiers. They meet up with the Janus Order, an organization dedicated to Gunmar's return. Blinky finds out Dictatious is supportive of Gunmar, much to his dismay. Meanwhile, the fact that Gunmar is out from his prison makes Jim guilty in the eyes of Troll Law. Gunmar battles and enslaves Draal, as a means of torturing Jim. Jim is guided by Merlin's spirit imbued in the amulet he carries. Queen Usurna, who leads the Troll Tribunal, kills Vendel in secret, but is unaware that Vendel secretly records it in a special troll device. It is revealed that Usurna is faithful towards Gunmar rather than the welfare of Troll society and that she schemes with Gunmar's counsel to bring about Gunmar's return. Gunmar invades Trollmarket and closes off the underground city. Gunmar drains energy from the Heartstone and regains his strength. He forcibly converts many of the Trolls into his soldiers. Jim and his cohorts retreat from the city to Arcadia with as many Trolls as they can save using Claire's magic staff. With the excessive use of dark magic, Claire comes under the spell of Morgana and secretly brings to her Angor Rot's damaged head.

text: Part 3[edit]

text: Merlin is awakened, and Morgana is released from her prison by the Staff of Avalon. Barbara recovers her memories of knowing about Trolls, forcing Jim and his friends to reveal the truth to their families. Angor Rot is resurrected by Morgana. To better fight against Gunmar and Morgana, Jim is irreversibly transformed into a half-troll. Morgana brings forth the Eternal Night so that she and Gunmar can freely invade the world. Jim and his allies fight and win the battle, Jim killing Gunmar and Claire trapping Morgana in the Shadow Realm with help from Angor Rot, who sacrifices himself to help defeat the witch. Merlin leads the Trolls of Arcadia to a new home in New Jersey. Jim and Claire say goodbye to their families and friends (including Toby) as they leave with the Trolls.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Anton Yelchin and Emile Hirsch as James "Jim" Lake Jr. / Trollhunter,[1][2] the first human Trollhunter and a reluctant hero dealing with the pressures of leading a double life. He has a talent for cooking and eventually sword-fighting, and cares deeply for his mother and friends. Yelchin provided the voice of Jim from Part 1, through portions of Part 3 before his death. Hirsch assumed the role and replaced him.
Charlie Saxton as Tobias "Toby" Domzalski,[16] Jim's best friend and confidant. Dorky and excitable, he fully embraces the secret world of trolls and aids Jim in his quests. His weapon of choice is a warhammer.
Jonathan Hyde as Walter Strickler,[16] Jim's history teacher who is actually a Changeling. When Jim discovers the truth, he loses all respect for him and the two become bitter enemies. However, he remains affable toward Jim and has redeeming qualities.
Kelsey Grammer as Blinkous "Blinky" Galadrigal,[2] Jim's six-eyed troll mentor. A wise and scholarly troll with a heart of gold, he serves as the brains of the Trollhunters and eventually becomes a sort of father figure to Jim.
Fred Tatasciore as Aarghaumont "AAARRRGGHH!!!",[16] a burly troll and close companion of Blinky who forms a deep bond with Toby. He was kidnapped by the Gumm-Gumms as a child, which stunted his vocabulary. Tormented by the atrocities they committed, he deserted Gunmar to live a life of peace. However, he will still fight to protect those he cares about.
Lexi Medrano as Claire Nuñez,[16] Jim's girlfriend. She is a feisty, kind, jolly, sarcastic, curious, and intelligent tomboy who enjoys books and is a talented martial artist and gymnast. She obtains the Shadowstaff, a staff capable of creating portals activated by the user's emotions.
Victor Raider-Wexler as Vendel, the leader of Trollmarket. An ancient and wizened troll, Vendel is at first suspicious of Jim and often comes across as a pessimist, but shows a softer side and eventual faith in Jim. At the end of Part 2, he is killed by Usurna after she revealed herself to be working for Gunmar, but not before recording the act to warn the Trollhunters.
Ron Perlman as Bular,[2] the son of Gunmar. A brutish and powerful troll warrior, he's obsessed with freeing his father from the Darklands. He holds a special disdain for Changelings, whom he considers "impure", putting him at odds with Strickler and other Changelings who seek to free Gunmar. He is killed by Jim in the first half of season 1, but later makes appearances in the season 1 episode "Where Is My Mind" and the season 2 episode "Unbecoming".
Amy Landecker as Barbara Lake,[16] Jim's protective and overworked mother. Her husband left the family when Jim was five years old. Her doctor job means she's often away from home, which lets Jim pursue his Trollhunter duties.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Steven Yeun as Steve Palchuk,[1] a narcissistic bully who frequently harasses Jim. Suspicious of Jim's unusual behavior, he eventually discovers the truth and teams up with Eli Pepperjack to help Jim in Part 2.
Matthew Waterson as Draal, the son of previous Trollhunter, Kanjigar. He is originally jealous and suspicious of Jim but later befriends him – acting as Jim's fighting tutor. During a battle in the museum, Draal sacrifices his lower right arm while removing the Trollhunter amulet from the Killahead Bridge to close the portal, and later obtains a mechanical prosthetic. Draal explains that his father kept a distance from him as he grew up, and he had hoped to become the next Trollhunter that he might earn his father's approval.
Lauren Tom as Nomura, the Changeling museum curator and a colleague of Strickler. Originally an antagonist, she was pulled into the Darklands and imprisoned by Gunmar for her failures. When Jim is captured in the Darklands, the two form a connection and escape together.
Jimmie Wood as NotEnrique, the Changeling swapped with Claire's baby brother Enrique. While troublesome and self-serving, he isn't actively malicious and even helps the Trollhunters from time to time (usually after being bribed). He forms a rocky but brotherly connection with Claire.
Clancy Brown as Gunmar, the iron-fisted leader of the Gumm-Gumms who reside in the Darklands. He is powerful and ruthless, and will readily dispose of loyal minions and allies who can no longer serve him. He has no qualms about enslaving or killing his fellow trolls to accomplish his goals.
Tom Hiddleston and James Purefoy as Kanjigar the Courageous, Draal's father and the noble Trollhunter prior to Jim. His ghost tutors Jim, often worrying about Jim's team fighting style, believing that the Trollhunter must work alone to avoid endangering those he cares about – this leads to Jim's guilt and decision to venture into the Darklands alone. Hiddleston provided the voice acting for Kanjigar during the series premiere, while Purefoy was cast to assume the role for the rest of the series.
Ike Amadi as Angor Rot, an ancient troll warlock-assassin who hunts down Trollhunters and takes their souls. In medieval times, Angor made a deal with Morgana, surrendering his own soul in return for his mystical powers.
Rodrigo Blaas as Gnome Chompsky, a Gnome adopted by Toby. He started out as a "rogue Gnome" causing trouble, but after he was finally defeated by Jim he became friendly when he was given a dollhouse to live in and a plastic doll to be his companion. He later helped locate Enrique in the Darklands and also helped rescue Jim from the Darklands.
Mark Hamill as Dictatious Galadrigal, Blinky's brother. Presumed dead, he helps Gunmar in his quest to conquer the surface lands. He is blinded by Blinky during a struggle in the Darklands.
Anjelica Huston as Queen Usurna, the queen of the Krubera, AAARRRGGHH!!!'s race who lives in the Deep Caverns, and a member of a council of troll leaders known as the Tribunal. She initially seems to be a kind queen concerned for AAARRRGGHH!!!'s well-being. As a Tribunal member, she is strict and judgmental and leads the Tribunal to act against Jim and his friends. Late in Part 2, she reveals herself to be a traitor who works for Gunmar and helps him take over Trollmarket.
Cole Sand as Eli Pepperjack, a nerdy classmate of Jim who believes in the paranormal. In Part 2, he teams up with Steve Palchuk to investigate the strange creatures they both have seen and to help Jim.
Lena Headey as Morgana / The Pale Lady, an ancient and seemingly malevolent entity and the patron of Angor Rot.
Tom Kenny as Otto Scaarbach, a Changeling Polymorph who can change into the form of anyone. He is the Grand Commandant of the Janus Order, a secret society of Changelings who assist the Gumm-Gumms.
David Bradley as Merlin, the wizard who created the Trollhunter's amulet.
Colin O'Donoghue as Douxie "Big D", a charming English teen from Arcadia Oaks Academy whose band, "Ash Dispersal Pattern," is an entrant in the Battle of the Bands in Part 3.
Tatiana Maslany as Aja, a "foreign exchange student" from "Cantalupa" older sister to Krel. Jim is tasked to show them around and acclimate them to Arcadia late in Part 3.
Diego Luna as Krel, younger brother to Aja.

text: Production[edit]

text: Initially, del Toro envisioned the idea as a live-action television series; however this was deemed impractical due to budgetary concerns, and as a result he instead turned the idea into a book. DreamWorks then planned to turn the book into an animated feature film. The feature film was going to be directed by Guillermo del Toro and Rodrigo Blaas. Eventually Dreamworks decided to instead turn it into a TV series with Netflix. Rodrigo Blaas became an Executive Producer and Supervising Director on the series.[17]

text: Del Toro modeled the show's sensibilities after shows he grew up with such as Johnny Quest, identifying them as "really earnest and emotionally beautiful".[18] To this end, he sought to make the main character of Jim "in that '70s mold," and "really a very good boy" with del Toro noting that this was a constant struggle for him to express to both writers and actors.[19] Eventually he came across Anton Yelchin, who embodied those qualities although by del Toro's estimate it still took him a few sessions to fully understand the character.[19]

text: When creating the show's narrative, del Toro noted that he wanted a "bittersweet journey" for the main character dealing with issues that most such "power fantasies" failed to address, telling indiewire "I wanted to say, 'Look, you can be in high school and you can have your problems. Then you get all these powers and then you have a different set of problems. There is not such a thing as a final, great outcome.'"[18]

text: The show serves as one of Yelchin's final projects as he died shortly after recording most of his character's dialogue.[20] Producer del Toro refused to replace his recordings,[21] which del Toro noted was a challenge for the show's recording engineers.[19] Of his decision del Toro stated that the actor "was proud of what he did, and we were so proud of how he did it." Del Toro added that his experience as a father and Yelchin's young age were also factors that led to the decision.[17]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally released126December 23, 2016 (2016-12-23)213December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)313May 25, 2018 (2018-05-25)

text: Release[edit]

text: The two-episode pilot of the series premiered on October 8, 2016 at the New York Comic Con.[1][3] The first season consisted of 26 half-hour episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on December 23, 2016.[4] The second season, consisting of 13 episodes, was released on December 15, 2017.[5][6] The third and final season, consisting of 13 episodes, was released on May 25, 2018.[7][8]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The first season of Trollhunters was released on DVD on November 7, 2017.[22][23]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Trollhunters has received positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 94% approval rating with an average rating of 7.81/10 based on 16 reviews for the first season. The website's consensus reads, "Trollhunters manages to capture del Toro's enthusiasm for telling monster stories, in a youthful and more colorful fashion that may well earn him a new generation of fans."[24] On Metacritic, the season has a normalized score of 69 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[25]

text: In 2017, it received six Daytime Emmys, more than any other television program, animated or live action, that year.[26]

text: On January 30, 2017, Trollhunters writers Kevin and Dan Hageman stated that the series is the most successful Netflix original show to date that is targeted at a younger audience.[27]

text: The second season of Trollhunters was nominated for six 2018 Annie Awards, tied for the most nominations of any television program in 2018.[28]  It was also nominated for four Daytime Emmy Awards, including Best Children’s Animated Series, and won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing in an Animated Program.

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

Ref.

2017

Annie Awards

Outstanding Achievement, Character Animation in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

Mike Chaffe for character Blinky in "Becoming, Part 1"

Won

[29]

Outstanding Achievement, Character Design in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production

Victor Maldonado, Alfredo Torres and Jules Rigolle, "Win, Lose or Draal"

Won

Outstanding Achievement, Music in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production

Alexandre Desplat and Tim Davies, "Becoming, Part 1"

Nominated

Outstanding Achievement, Storyboarding in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production

Hyunjoo Song, "Win, Lose or Draal"

Won

Saturn Awards

Best Animated Series or Film on Television

Trollhunters

Nominated

[30]

Behind the Voice Actors Awards

Best Male Lead Vocal Performance in a Television Series

Anton Yelchin, for Jim Lake Jr.

Won

[31]

Best Female Lead Vocal Performance in a Television Series

Lexi Medrano, for Claire Nuñez

Nominated

Best Female Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Supporting Role

Laraine Newman, for Miss Janeth

Nominated

Best Female Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Guest Role

Anjelica Huston, for Queen Usurna

Nominated

Daytime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Individual Achievement in Character Animation

Mike Chaffe, "Becoming, Part 1"

Won

[32][33]

Outstanding Individual Achievement in Character Design

Victor Maldonado, "Win, Lose Or Draal"

Won

Outstanding Special Class Animated Program

Guillermo del Toro, Rodrigo Blaas, Marc Guggenheim, Chad Hammes, Christina Steinberg, Dan Hageman, Kevin Hageman, Lawrence Jonas

Nominated

Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program

Kelsey Grammer, for Blinky

Won

Outstanding Casting for an Animated Series or Special

Mary Hidalgo, Ania O'Hare, CSA

Won

Outstanding Writing in an Animated Program

Marc Guggenheim

Won

Outstanding Directing in an Animated Program

Rodrigo Blaas, Guillermo del Toro

Won

Outstanding Main Title and Graphic Design

Rodrigo Blaas, Andy Erekson, Jonathan Catalan, Dai Weier, John Laus, David M.V. Jones

Nominated

Outstanding Sound Mixing – Animation

Matthew Thomas Hall and Carlos Sanches, CAS

Nominated

2018

Annie Awards

Outstanding Achievement, Character Animation in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

Bruno Chiou, Yi-Fan Cho, Kevin Jong, Chun-Jung Chu, "Homecoming"

Won

[34]

Outstanding Achievement, Character Design in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

Jules Rigolle, Alfredo Torres, Linda Chen, Rustam Hasanov, Alfonso Blaas, "Escape from the Darklands"

Nominated

Outstanding Achievement, Directing in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

Andrew Schmidt, "Unbecoming"

Nominated

Outstanding Achievement, Storyboarding in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

David Woo, "Hero with a Thousand Faces"

Nominated

Outstanding Achievement, Storyboarding in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

Hyunjoo Song, "In the Hall of the Gumm-Gumm King"

Nominated

Outstanding Achievement, Writing in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production

A.C. Bradley, Kevin Hageman, Dan Hageman, Aaron Waltke, Chad Quandt, "Escape from the Darklands"

Nominated

Kidscreen Awards

Best New Series, Kids Category

Trollhunters

Won

[35]

Best Writing

Trollhunters

Won

Best Animation

Trollhunters

Won

Golden Reel Award

Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing, Animation Short Form

Matthew Hall, Jason Oliver, Goeun Lee, MPSE, James Miller, Carlos Sanches, Aran Tanchum, Vincent Guisetti

Nominated

[36]

Daytime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Children's Animated Series

Guillermo del Toro, Marc Guggenheim, Chad Hammes, Rodrigo Blaas, Christina Steinberg, Dan Hageman, Kevin Hageman, Lawrence Jonas

Nominated

[37][38]

Outstanding Writing in an Animated Program

Dan Hageman, Kevin Hageman, Aaron Waltke, Chad Quandt, AC Bradley

Won

Outstanding Sound Editing - Animation

Matt Hall, Goeun Lee, James Miller, James Oliver, Aran Tanchum, Stacey Michaels, Vincent Guilsetti, Alex Ulrich

Nominated

Outstanding Main Title and Graphic Design

Rodrigo Blaas, Andy Erekson, Jonathan Catalan, Dai Weier, David M.V. Jones, John Laus

Nominated

BAFTA

International Animation

Rodrigo Blaas, Marc Guggenheim, Chad Hammes

Pending

[39]

text: Tales of Arcadia[edit]

text: On November 6, 2017, show creator Guillermo del Toro announced that Trollhunters will be expanded into a trilogy of animated series known as Tales of Arcadia.[40] The trilogy will be continued by a sci-fi animated series known as 3 Below, which will center on two royal aliens and their bodyguard who escape from their home planet and crash-land on Earth in Arcadia, where Trollhunters also takes place. There, the aliens adjust to human culture and try to fix their spaceship to return and take back their home planet, which is being taken over by an evil dictator. 3 Below will premiere on Netflix in 2018. The trilogy will then be concluded with the animated series Wizards, which brings together the three disparate worlds of trolls, aliens and wizards who have found themselves drawn to Arcadia, "...culminating in an apocalyptic battle for the control of magic that will ultimately determine the fate of these supernatural worlds that have now converged."  Wizards is scheduled to premiere on Netflix in 2019.[40]


document_title: Prokaryote

question_text: where are the chromosomes located in prokaryotic cells

text: Prokaryote

text: Structure[edit]

text: Prokaryotes have a prokaryotic cytoskeleton, albeit more primitive than that of the eukaryotes. Besides homologues of actin and tubulin (MreB and FtsZ), the helically arranged building-block of the flagellum, flagellin, is one of the most significant cytoskeletal proteins of bacteria, as it provides structural backgrounds of chemotaxis, the basic cell physiological response of bacteria. At least some prokaryotes also contain intracellular structures that can be seen as primitive organelles. Membranous organelles (or intracellular membranes) are known in some groups of prokaryotes, such as vacuoles or membrane systems devoted to special metabolic properties, such as photosynthesis or chemolithotrophy. In addition, some species also contain carbohydrate-enclosed microcompartments, which have distinct physiological roles (e.g. carboxysomes or gas vacuoles).

text: Most prokaryotes are between 1 µm and 10 µm, but they can vary in size from 0.2 µm (Mycoplasma genitalium) to 750 µm (Thiomargarita namibiensis).

text:
Prokaryotic cell structure

Flagellum (only in some types of prokaryotes)[which?]
Long, whip-like protrusion that aids cellular locomotion used by both gram positive and gram negative organisms.

Cell membrane
Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell.

Cell wall (except genera Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma)
Outer covering of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape.

Cytoplasm
A gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules.

Ribosome
Cell structures responsible for protein production.

Nucleoid
Area of the cytoplasm that contains the prokaryote's single DNA molecule.

Glycocalyx (only in some types of prokaryotes)
A glycoprotein-polysaccharide covering that surrounds the cell membranes.

Inclusions
It contains the inclusion bodies like ribosomes and larger masses scattered in the cytoplasmic matrix.

text: Morphology[edit]

text: Prokaryotic cells have various shapes; the four basic shapes of bacteria are:[9]

text:
Cocci – spherical
Bacilli – rod-shaped
Spirochaete – spiral-shaped
Vibrio – comma-shaped

text: The archaeon Haloquadratum has flat square-shaped cells.[10]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Bacteria and archaea reproduce through asexual reproduction, usually by binary fission. Genetic exchange and recombination still occur, but this is a form of horizontal gene transfer and is not a replicative process, simply involving the transference of DNA between two cells, as in bacterial conjugation.

text: DNA transfer[edit]

text: DNA transfer between prokaryotic cells occurs in bacteria and archaea, although it has been mainly studied in bacteria. In bacteria, gene transfer occurs by three processes. These are (1) bacterial virus (bacteriophage)-mediated transduction, (2) plasmid-mediated conjugation, and (3) natural transformation. Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage appears to reflect an occasional error during intracellular assembly of virus particles, rather than an adaptation of the host bacteria. The transfer of bacterial DNA is under the control of the bacteriophage’s genes rather than bacterial genes. Conjugation in the well-studied E. coli system is controlled by plasmid genes, and is an adaptation for distributing copies of a plasmid from one bacterial host to another. Infrequently during this process, a plasmid may integrate into the host bacterial chromosome, and subsequently transfer part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium. Plasmid mediated transfer of host bacterial DNA (conjugation) also appears to be an accidental process rather than a bacterial adaptation.

text: Natural bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another through the intervening medium. Unlike transduction and conjugation, transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer, because it depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process.[11] For a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome, it must first enter a special physiological state called competence. About 40 genes are required in Bacillus subtilis for the development of competence.[12] The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be as much as a third to the whole chromosome.[13][14] Transformation is a common mode of DNA transfer, and 67 prokaryotic species are thus far known to be naturally competent for transformation.[15]

text: Among archaea, Halobacterium volcanii forms cytoplasmic bridges between cells that appear to be used for transfer of DNA from one cell to another.[16] Another archaeon, Sulfolobus solfataricus, transfers DNA between cells by direct contact. Frols et al.[17] found that exposure of S. solfataricus to DNA damaging agents induces cellular aggregation, and suggested that cellular aggregation may enhance DNA transfer among cells to provide increased repair of damaged DNA via homologous recombination.

text: Sociality[edit]

text: While prokaryotes are considered strictly unicellular, most can form stable aggregate communities.[18] When such communities are encased in a stabilizing polymer matrix ("slime"), they may be called "biofilms".[19] Cells in biofilms often show distinct patterns of gene expression (phenotypic differentiation) in time and space. Also, as with multicellular eukaryotes, these changes in expression often appear to result from cell-to-cell signaling, a phenomenon known as quorum sensing.

text: Biofilms may be highly heterogeneous and structurally complex and may attach to solid surfaces, or exist at liquid-air interfaces, or potentially even liquid-liquid interfaces. Bacterial biofilms are often made up of microcolonies (approximately dome-shaped masses of bacteria and matrix) separated by "voids" through which the medium (e.g., water) may flow easily. The microcolonies may join together above the substratum to form a continuous layer, closing the network of channels separating microcolonies. This structural complexity—combined with observations that oxygen limitation (a ubiquitous challenge for anything growing in size beyond the scale of diffusion) is at least partially eased by movement of medium throughout the biofilm—has led some to speculate that this may constitute a circulatory system [20] and many researchers have started calling prokaryotic communities multicellular (for example [21]). Differential cell expression, collective behavior, signaling, programmed cell death, and (in some cases) discrete biological dispersal[22] events all seem to point in this direction. However, these colonies are seldom if ever founded by a single founder (in the way that animals and plants are founded by single cells), which presents a number of theoretical issues. Most explanations of co-operation and the evolution of multicellularity have focused on high relatedness between members of a group (or colony, or whole organism). If a copy of a gene is present in all members of a group, behaviors that promote cooperation between members may permit those members to have (on average) greater fitness than a similar group of selfish individuals[23] (see inclusive fitness and Hamilton's rule).

text: Should these instances of prokaryotic sociality prove to be the rule rather than the exception, it would have serious implications for the way we view prokaryotes in general, and the way we deal with them in medicine.[24] Bacterial biofilms may be 100 times more resistant to antibiotics than free-living unicells and may be nearly impossible to remove from surfaces once they have colonized them.[25] Other aspects of bacterial cooperation—such as bacterial conjugation and quorum-sensing-mediated pathogenicity, present additional challenges to researchers and medical professionals seeking to treat the associated diseases.

text: Environment[edit]

text: Prokaryotes have diversified greatly throughout their long existence. The metabolism of prokaryotes is far more varied than that of eukaryotes, leading to many highly distinct prokaryotic types. For example, in addition to using photosynthesis or organic compounds for energy, as eukaryotes do, prokaryotes may obtain energy from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide. This enables prokaryotes to thrive in harsh environments as cold as the snow surface of Antarctica, studied in cryobiology or as hot as undersea hydrothermal vents and land-based hot springs.

text: Prokaryotes live in nearly all environments on Earth. Some archaea and bacteria are extremophiles, thriving in harsh conditions, such as high temperatures (thermophiles) or high salinity (halophiles).[26] Many archaea grow as plankton in the oceans. Symbiotic prokaryotes live in or on the bodies of other organisms, including humans.

text: Classification[edit]

text: In 1977, Carl Woese proposed dividing prokaryotes into the Bacteria and Archaea (originally Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) because of the major differences in the structure and genetics between the two groups of organisms. Archaea were originally thought to be extremophiles, living only in inhospitable conditions such as extremes of temperature, pH, and radiation but have since been found in all types of habitats. The resulting arrangement of Eukaryota (also called "Eucarya"), Bacteria, and Archaea is called the three-domain system, replacing the traditional two-empire system.[27][28]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: A widespread current model of the evolution of the first living organisms is that these were some form of prokaryotes, which may have evolved out of protocells, while the eukaryotes evolved later in the history of life.[30] Some authors have questioned this conclusion, arguing that the current set of prokaryotic species may have evolved from more complex eukaryotic ancestors through a process of simplification.[31][32][33] Others have argued that the three domains of life arose simultaneously, from a set of varied cells that formed a single gene pool.[34] This controversy was summarized in 2005:[35]

text: There is no consensus among biologists concerning the position of the eukaryotes in the overall scheme of cell evolution. Current opinions on the origin and position of eukaryotes span a broad spectrum including the views that eukaryotes arose first in evolution and that prokaryotes descend from them, that eukaryotes arose contemporaneously with eubacteria and archeabacteria and hence represent a primary line of descent of equal age and rank as the prokaryotes, that eukaryotes arose through a symbiotic event entailing an endosymbiotic origin of the nucleus, that eukaryotes arose without endosymbiosis, and that eukaryotes arose through a symbiotic event entailing a simultaneous endosymbiotic origin of the flagellum and the nucleus, in addition to many other models, which have been reviewed and summarized elsewhere.

text: The oldest known fossilized prokaryotes were laid down approximately 3.5 billion years ago, only about 1 billion years after the formation of the Earth's crust. Eukaryotes only appear in the fossil record later, and may have formed from endosymbiosis of multiple prokaryote ancestors. The oldest known fossil eukaryotes are about 1.7 billion years old. However, some genetic evidence suggests eukaryotes appeared as early as 3 billion years ago.[36]

text: While Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist, some have suggested that there is evidence on Mars of fossil or living prokaryotes.[37][38] However, this possibility remains the subject of considerable debate and skepticism.[39][40]

text: Relationship to eukaryotes[edit]

text: The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is usually considered the most important distinction or difference among organisms. The distinction is that eukaryotic cells have a "true" nucleus containing their DNA, whereas prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes contain large RNA/protein structures called ribosomes, which produce protein.

text: Another difference is that ribosomes in prokaryotes are smaller than in eukaryotes. However, two organelles found in many eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts, contain ribosomes similar in size and makeup to those found in prokaryotes.[41] This is one of many pieces of evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts are themselves descended from free-living bacteria. This theory holds that early eukaryotic cells took in primitive prokaryotic cells by phagocytosis and adapted themselves to incorporate their structures, leading to the mitochondria we see today.

text: The genome in a prokaryote is held within a DNA/protein complex in the cytosol called the nucleoid, which lacks a nuclear envelope.[42] The complex contains a single, cyclic, double-stranded molecule of stable chromosomal DNA, in contrast to the multiple linear, compact, highly organized chromosomes found in eukaryotic cells. In addition, many important genes of prokaryotes are stored in separate circular DNA structures called plasmids.[2]

text: Prokaryotes lack mitochondria and chloroplasts. Instead, processes such as oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis take place across the prokaryotic cell membrane.[43] However, prokaryotes do possess some internal structures, such as prokaryotic cytoskeletons.[44][45] It has been suggested that the bacterial order Planctomycetes have a membrane around their nucleoid and contain other membrane-bound cellular structures.[46] However, further investigation revealed that Planctomycetes cells are not compartmentalized or nucleated and like the other bacterial membrane systems are all interconnected.[47]

text: Prokaryotic cells are usually much smaller than eukaryotic cells.[2] Therefore, prokaryotes have a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, giving them a higher metabolic rate, a higher growth rate, and as a consequence, a shorter generation time than eukaryotes.[2]


document_title: Outboard motor

question_text: when did yamaha start making 4 stroke outboard motors

text: Outboard motor

text: General uses[edit]

text: Large Outboards[edit]

text: Large outboards are usually bolted to the transom (or to a bracket bolted to the transom), and are linked to controls at the helm. These range from 2-, 3- and 4-cylinder models generating 15 to 135 horsepower suitable for hulls up to 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, to powerful V6 and V8 cylinder blocks rated up to 557 hp (415 kW).,[2] with sufficient power to be used on boats of 37 feet (11 m) or longer.

text: Portable[edit]

text: Small outboard motors, up to 15 horsepower or so are easily portable. They are affixed to the boat via clamps, and thus easily moved from boat to boat. These motors typically use a manual start system, with throttle and gearshift controls mounted on the body of the motor, and a tiller for steering. The smallest of these weigh as little as 12 kilograms (26 lb), have integral fuel tanks, and provide sufficient power to move a small dinghy at around 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) This type of motor is typically used:

text:
to power small craft such as jon boats, dinghies, canoes, etc.
to provide auxiliary power for sailboats,
for trolling aboard larger craft, as small outboards are typically more efficient at trolling speeds. In this application, the motor is frequently installed on the transom alongside and connected to the primary outboard to enable helm steering. In addition many small motor manufacturers have begun offering variants with power trim/tilt and electric starting functions so that they may be completely controlled remotely.

text: Electric-powered[edit]

text: Commonly referred to as "trolling motors" or "electric outboard motors", electric outboards are used

text:
on very small craft or on small lakes where gasoline motors are prohibited,
as a secondary means of propulsion on larger craft, and
as repositioning thrusters while fishing for bass and other freshwater species,

text: and any other application where their quietness, and ease of operation and zero emissions outweigh the speed and range deficiencies.

text: Pump-jet[edit]

text: Pump-jet propulsion is available as an option on most outboard motors. Although less efficient than an open propeller, they are particularly useful in applications where the ability to operate in very shallow water is important. They also eliminate the laceration dangers of an open propeller.

text: Propane[edit]

text: Propane outboard motors are available from several manufacturers. These products have several advantages such as lower emissions, lower cost of fuel, and no need for choke once the system is pressurized.[3]

text: History and developments[edit]

text: The first known outboard motor was a small 5 kilogram (11 lb) electric unit designed around 1870 by Gustave Trouvé,[4] and patented in May 1880 (Patent N° 136,560).[5] Later about 25 petrol powered outboards may have been produced in 1896 by American Motors Co[4]—but neither of these two pioneering efforts appear to have had much impact.

text: The Waterman outboard engine appears to be the first real gasoline-powered outboard offered for sale.[6] Developed by Cameron Waterman,[7] a young Yale Engineering student, it was developed from 1903, with a patent application filed in 1905[8] Starting in 1906,[9][10] the company went on to make thousands of his "Porto-Motor"[11] units,[12] claiming 25,000 sales by 1914.[13] The inboard boat motor firm of Caille Motor Company of Detroit were instrumental in making the cylinder and engines.

text: The most successful early outboard motor,[12] was created by Norwegian-American inventor Ole Evinrude in 1909.[14] Between 1909 and 1912, Evinrude made thousands of his outboards and the three horse units were sold around the world. His Evinrude Outboard Co. was spun off to other owners, and he went on to success after starting the ELTO company to produce a two-cylinder motor - ELTO stood for Evinrude Light Twin Outboard. The 1920s were the first high-water mark for the outboard with Evinrude, Johnson, ELTO, Atwater Lockwood and dozens of other makers in the field.

text: Historically, a majority of outboards have been two-stroke powerheads fitted with a carburetor due to the design's inherent simplicity, reliability, low cost and light weight. Drawbacks include increased pollution, due to the high volume of unburned gasoline and oil in their exhaust, and louder noise.

text: Four stroke outboards[edit]

text: Although four stroke outboards have been sold since the late 1920s, particularly Roness and Sharland, in 1962 Homelite introduced a commercially viable four cycle outboard a 55-horsepower motor, based on the 4 cylinder Crosley automobile engine. This was called the Bearcat that was later purchased by Fischer-Pierce who are the makers of Boston Whaler for use in their boats because of their technical superiority and efficiency over two strokes. In 1964, Honda Motor Co. introduced its first four-stroke powerhead.[15] In 1984, Yamaha introduced their first four-stroke powerhead. These motors were only available in the smaller horsepower range. In 1990 Honda released 35 hp and 45 hp four-stroke models. They continued to lead in the development of four-stroke engines throughout the 1990s as US and European exhaust emissions regulations such as CARB (California Air Resources Board) led to the proliferation of four-stroke outboards. At first, North American manufacturers such as Mercury and OMC used engine technology from Japanese manufacturers such as Yamaha and Suzuki until they were able to develop their own four-stroke engine. The inherent advantages of four-stroke motors included: lower pollution (especially oil in the water), noise reduction, increase fuel economy, increased low end torque, and smoother operation.

text: Honda Marine Group, Mercury Marine, Mercury Racing, Nissan Marine, Suzuki Marine, Tohatsu Outboards, Yamaha Marine, and China Oshen-Hyfong marine have all developed new four-stroke engines. Some are carburetted, usually the smaller engines. The balance are electronically fuel-injected. Depending on the manufacturer, newer engines benefit from advanced technology such as multiple valves per cylinder, variable camshaft timing (Honda's VTEC), boosted low end torque (Honda's BLAST), 3-way cooling systems, and closed loop fuel injection. Mercury Verado four-strokes are unique in that they are supercharged.

text: Mercury Marine, Mercury Racing, Tohatsu, Yamaha Marine, Nissan and Evinrude each developed computer-controlled direct-injected two-stroke engines. Each brand boasts a different method of DI.

text: Fuel economy on both direct injected and four-stroke outboards measures from a 10 percent to 80 percent improvement, compared with conventional two-strokes. Depending on rpm and load at cruising speeds, figure on about a 30 percent mileage improvement.[16]

text: Propane Outboards[edit]

text: In 2012, Lehr inc. Produced the first line of propane powered outboards. Designer Bernardo J. Herzer marked these outboards as low cost, green, and low maintenance. The first models included a 5 hp option and a 2.5 hp option. Since their introduction,Tohatsu has released their own 5hp versions. The Lehr original currently offers sizes ranging from the original 2.5 hp to 40 hp. Propane's advantages over gasoline include increased fuel stability, lower emissions, and reliability.

text: Outboard motor selection[edit]

text: It is important to select a motor that is a good match for the hull in terms of power and shaft length.

text: Power requirements[edit]

text: Overpowering is a dangerous condition that can lead to the transom accelerating past the rest of the vessel[17] and underpowering often results in a boat that is incapable of performing in the role for which it was acquired. Boats built in the U.S. have a Coast Guard Rating Plate which specifies the maximum recommended horsepower for the hull. A motor with less than 75% of the maximum will most likely result in unsatisfactory performance.

text: Shaft length[edit]

text: Outboard motor shaft lengths are standardized to fit 15-inch, 20-inch and 25-inch transoms. If the shaft is too long it will extend farther into the water than necessary creating drag, which will impair performance and fuel economy. If the shaft is too short, the motor will be prone to ventilation. Even worse, if the water intake ports on the lower unit are not sufficiently submerged, engine overheating is likely, which can result in severe damage.

text: General Dimensions[edit]

text: Different outboard engine brands require different transom dimensions and sizes, that affects performance and trim.

text:
Outboard Brand - Model
Transom Angle
Max Transom Thickness
Transom To Bulkhead

Yamaha - F350
12°

712 mm

Yamaha – F300
12°

712 mm

EVINRUDE – DE 300
14°
68.58 mm

EVINRUDE - G2 300 HP
14°

SUZUKI – DF 300 AP
14°
81 mm

MERCURY – 300 HP
14°

LEHR - 5.0HP
14°

LEHR - 2.5HP
14°

text: Operational issues[edit]

text: Motor mounting height[edit]

text: Motor height on the transom is an important factor in achieving optimal performance. The motor should be as high as possible without ventilating or loss of water pressure. This minimizes the effect of hydrodynamic drag while underway, allowing for greater speed. Generally, the antiventilation plate should be about the same height as, or up to two inches higher than, the keel, with the motor in neutral trim.

text: Trim[edit]

text:
Trim is the angle of the motor in relation to the hull, as illustrated below. The ideal trim angle is the one in which the boat rides level, with most of the hull on the surface instead of plowing through the water.

If the motor is trimmed out too far, the bow will ride too high in the water. With too little trim, the bow rides too low. The optimal trim setting will vary depending on many factors including speed, hull design, weight and balance, and conditions on the water (wind and waves). Many large outboards are equipped with power trim, an electric motor on the mounting bracket, with a switch at the helm that enables the operator to adjust the trim angle on the fly. In this case, the motor should be trimmed fully in to start, and trimmed out (with an eye on the tachometer) as the boat gains momentum, until it reaches the point just before ventilation begins or further trim adjustment results in an RPM increase with no increase in speed. Motors not equipped with power trim are manually adjustable using a pin called a topper tilt lock.

text: Ventilation[edit]

text: Ventilation is a phenomenon that occurs when surface air or exhaust gas (in the case of motors equipped with through-hub exhaust) is drawn into the spinning propeller blades. With the propeller pushing mostly air instead of water, the load on the engine is greatly reduced, causing the engine to race and the propeller to spin fast enough to result in cavitation, at which point little thrust is generated at all. The condition continues until the prop slows enough for the air bubbles to rise to the surface.[18] The primary causes of ventilation are: motor mounted too high, motor trimmed out excessively, damage to the antiventilation plate, damage to propeller, foreign object lodged in the diffuser ring.

text: Safety[edit]

text: If the helmsman goes overboard, the boat may continue under power but uncontrolled, risking serious or fatal injuries to the helmsman and others in the water. A safety measure is a "kill cord" attached to the boat and helmsman, which cuts the motor if the helmsman falls overboard.[19]

text: Cooling System[edit]

text: The most common type of cooling used on outboards of all eras use a rubber impeller to pump water from below the waterline up into the engine. This design has remained the standard due mainly to the efficiency and simplicity of its design. One disadvantage to this system is that if the impeller is run dry for a length of time (such as leaving the engine running when pulling the boat out of the water or in some cases tilting the engine out of the water while running), the impeller is likely to be ruined in the process.

text: Air cooled outboards[edit]

text: Air cooled outboard engines are currently produced by some manufacturers, these tend to be small engines of less than 5 horsepower. Outboard engines made by Briggs & Stratton are air-cooled[20]

text: Closed loop cooling[edit]

text: Outboards manufactured by Seven Marine use a closed-loop cooling system with heat exchanger. This means saltwater is not pumped through the engine block as is the case with most outboards but still has to be pumped through the heat exchanger

text: Other Outboard Motoring Method[edit]

text: In Vietnam and perhaps other parts of South East Asia such as Thailand, designs perhaps adapted from the predecessors of one such as this Kohler Long Tail,[21] using locally materials are used until the present. In Vietnam, they are called "May Duoi Tom"(Shrimp Tail Motor). The outboard motors, which can be smallish air-cooled or water-cooled gasoline, diesel or even modified automotive engines, are bolted to a welded steel tube frame, with another long steel tube up to 3 m long to hold the drive shaft, driving a conventional looking propeller. The frame that holds the motor has a short, swiveling steel pin/tube approximately 15 cm long underneath, to be inserted into a corresponding hole on the transom, or a solid block or wood purposely built-in thereof.,[22][23][24][25][26] This drop-in arrangement enables extremely quick transfer of the motor to another boat or for storage - all that is needed is to lift it out. The pivoting design allows the outboard motor to be swiveled by the operator in almost all directions: Sideways for direction, up and down to change the thrust line according to speed or bow lift, elevate completely out of water for easy starting, placing the drive shaft and the propeller forward along the side of the boat for reverse, or put them inside the boat for propeller replacement, which can be a regular occurrence to the cheap cast aluminum propellers on the often debris-prone inland waterways. This design is utilized to propel Long-tail boats.

text: Manufacturers[edit]

text:
Aquawatt Electric Outboard Motor
Bolinder[27]
Briggs & Stratton - USA - Up to 5 hp
Cimco Marine AB
DBD Marine
ELTO
ePropulsion - Hong Kong
Evinrude, a division of Bombardier Recreational Products - USA - Up to 300 hp
Hidea - China
Honda Marine Group - Japan - Up to 250 hp
Kohler Company
Jarvis Marine
Lehr
Maxus outboards
Mud-skipper Longtail outboard
McCulloch
Mercury/Mariner - USA - Up to 300 hp
Nissan Marine (now Tohatsu)
Oshen-Hyfong Marine
Parsun - China
Selva Marine - Italy - Up to 250 hp
Seven Marine - USA - One model of 557 hp, utilising General Motors powerplant
Suzuki Marine - Japan - Up to 300 hp
Tohatsu - Japan
Tomos
Torqeedo - Electric outboards
Zomair
Ul'yanovsk Motor Plant
West Bend
Yamaha Outboards - Japan - Up to 350 hp

text: Former manufacturers[edit]

text:
British Anzani
British Seagull (defunct)
Johnson Outboards (folded into Evinrude Outboard Motors)
Yanmar Diesel (no longer manufactures outboards)