document_title: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

question_text: how much did the us buy the philippines for

question_tokens: how much did the us buy the philippines for

text: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

text: Historical perspective[edit]

text: The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896 and ended with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, a ceasefire between the Spanish colonial Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo which was signed on December 15, 1897. The terms of the pact called for Aguinaldo and his militia to surrender. Other revolutionary leaders were given amnesty and a monetary indemnity by the Spanish government in return for which the rebel government agreed to go into exile in Hong Kong.[3][4][5]

text: Spanish–American War period (1898)[edit]

text: The failure of Spain to engage in active social reforms in Cuba as demanded by the United States government was the basic cause for the Spanish–American War. American attention was focused on the issue after the mysterious explosion that sank the American battleship Maine on February 15, 1898 in Havana Harbor. As public political pressure from the Democratic Party and certain industrialists built up for war, the U.S. Congress forced the reluctant Republican President William McKinley to issue an ultimatum to Spain on April 19, 1898. Spain found it had no diplomatic support in Europe, but nevertheless declared war; the U.S. followed on April 25 with its own declaration of war.[6][7]

text: Theodore Roosevelt, who was at that time Assistant Secretary of the Navy, ordered Commodore George Dewey, commanding the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy: "Order the squadron ...to Hong Kong. Keep full of coal. In the event of declaration of war Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands." Dewey's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reaching Manila Bay on the evening of April 30.[8]

text: Battle of Manila Bay[edit]

text: The first battle of the Spanish–American War took place in the Philippines on May 1, 1898. In a matter of hours, Commodore Dewey's Asiatic Squadron defeated the Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo.[9][10] The U.S. squadron took control of the arsenal and navy yard at Cavite. Dewey cabled Washington, stating that although he controlled Manila Bay, he needed 5,000 additional men to seize Manila itself.[9]

text: U.S. preparation for land-based operations[edit]

text: The unexpected rapidity and completeness of Dewey's victory in the first engagement of the war prompted the McKinley administration to make the decision to capture Manila from the Spanish. The United States Army began to assemble the Eighth Army Corps—a military unit which would consist of 10,844 soldiers under the command of Major General Wesley Merritt—in preparation for deployment to the Philippines.[9]

text: While awaiting the arrival of troops from the Eighth Corps, Dewey dispatched the cutter USRC McCulloch to Hong Kong to transport Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19 and, after a brief meeting with Dewey, resumed revolutionary activities against the Spanish. On May 24, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and announced his intention to establish a dictatorial government with himself as dictator, saying that he would resign in favor of a duly elected president.[11]

text: Public jubilation marked Aguinaldo's return. Many Filipino enlisted men deserted local Spanish army units to join Aguinaldo's command and the Philippine Revolution against Spain resumed. Soon, many cities such as Imus, Bacoor, Parañaque, Las Piñas, Morong, Macabebe and San Fernando, as well as some entire provinces such as Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Tayabas (now Quezon), and the Camarines provinces, were liberated by the Filipinos and the port of Dalahican in Cavite was secured.[12]

text: The first contingent of American troops arrived on 30 June under the command of Brigadier General Thomas McArthur Anderson, commander of Eighth Corps' 2d Division (U.S. brigade and division numbers of the era were not unique throughout the army). General Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, requesting his cooperation in military operations against the Spanish forces.[13] Aguinaldo responded, thanking General Anderson for his amicable sentiments, but saying nothing about military cooperation. General Anderson did not renew the request.[13]

text: The 2d Brigade, 2d Division, Eighth Corps arrived on July 17, under the command of Brigadier General Francis V. Greene. Major General Merritt (the Commander in Chief of the Philippine Expedition) and his staff arrived at Cavite on July 25. The 1st Brigade of the corps' 2d Division arrived on July 30, under the command of Brigadier General Arthur MacArthur.[14]

text: Philippine declaration of independence and establishment of Philippine governments[edit]

text: On 12 June 1898, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines at his house in Cavite El Viejo.[15][16] Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista wrote the Philippine Declaration of Independence, and read this document in Spanish that day at Aguinaldo's house.[17] On 18 June, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government.[18] On June 23, Aguinaldo issued another decree, this time replacing the dictatorial government with a revolutionary government (and naming himself as President).[19][20]

text: Writing retrospectively in 1899, Aguinaldo claimed that an American naval officer had urged him to return to the Philippines to fight the Spanish and said "The United States is a great and rich nation and needs no colonies."[21] Aguinaldo also wrote that after checking with Dewey by telegraph, U.S. Consul E. Spencer Pratt had assured him in Singapore: "That the United States would at least recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy. The consul added that there was no necessity for entering into a formal written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were in fact equivalent to the most solemn pledge that their verbal promises and assurance would be fulfilled to the letter and were not to be classed with Spanish promises or Spanish ideas of a man’s word of honour."[21] Aguinaldo received nothing in writing.

text: On April 28 Pratt wrote to United States Secretary of State William R. Day, explaining the details of his meeting with Aguinaldo:

text:
“
"At this interview, after learning from General Aguinaldo the state of an object sought to be obtained by the present insurrectionary movement, which, though absent from the Philippines, he was still directing, I took it upon myself, whilst explaining that I had no authority to speak for the Government, to point out the danger of continuing independent action at this stage; and, having convinced him of the expediency of cooperating with our fleet, then at Hongkong, and obtained the assurance of his willingness to proceed thither and confer with Commodore Dewey to that end, should the latter so desire, I telegraphed the Commodore the same day as follows, through our consul-general at Hongkong:--[22]
”

text: There was no mention in the cablegrams between Pratt and Dewey of independence or indeed of any conditions on which Aguinaldo was to cooperate, these details being left for future arrangement with Dewey. Pratt had intended to facilitate the occupation and administration of the Philippines, and also to prevent a possible conflict of action. In a communication written on July 28, Pratt made the following statement:

text:
“
"I declined even to discuss with General Aguinaldo the question of the future policy of the United States with regard to the Philippines, that I held out no hopes to him of any kind, committed the government in no way whatever, and, in the course of our confidences, never acted upon the assumption that the Government would cooperate with him--General Aguinaldo--for the furtherance of any plans of his own, nor that, in accepting his said cooperation, it would consider itself pledged to recognize any political claims which he might put forward."[23]
”

text: On June 16, Secretary Day cabled Consul Pratt: "Avoid unauthorized negotiations with the Philippine insurgents," and later on the same day:[24]

text:
“
The Department observes that you informed General Aguinaldo that you had no authority to speak for the United States; and, in the absence of the fuller report which you promise, it is assumed that you did not attempt to commit this Government to any alliance with the Philippine insurgents. To obtain the unconditional personal assistance of General Aguinaldo in the expedition to Manila was proper, if in so doing he was not induced to form hopes which it might not be practicable to gratify. This Government has known the Philippine insurgents only as discontented and rebellious subjects of Spain, and is not acquainted with their purposes. While their contest with that power has been a matter of public notoriety, they have neither asked nor received from this Government any recognition. The United States, in entering upon the occupation of the islands, as the result of its military operations in that quarter, will do so in the exercise of the rights which the state of war confers, and will expect from the inhabitants, without regard to their former attitude toward the Spanish Government, that obedience which will be lawfully due from them.
If, in the course of your conferences with General Aguinaldo, you acted upon the assumption that this Government would co-operate with him for the furtherance of any plan of his own, or that, in accepting his co-operation, it would consider itself pledged to recognize any political claims which he may put forward, your action was unauthorized and can not be approved.

”

text: Filipino scholar Maximo Kalaw wrote in 1927: "A few of the principal facts, however, seem quite clear. Aguinaldo was not made to understand that, in consideration of Filipino cooperation, the United States would extend its sovereignty over the Islands, and thus in place of the old Spanish master a new one would step in. The truth was that nobody at the time ever thought that the end of the war would result in the retention of the Philippines by the United States."[25]

text: Tensions between U.S. and revolutionary forces[edit]

text: On July 9 General Anderson informed Major General Henry Clark Corbin, the Adjutant General of the U.S. Army, that Aguinaldo "has declared himself Dictator and President, and is trying to take Manila without our assistance", opining that that would not be probable but, if done, would allow him to antagonize any U.S. attempt to establish a provisional government.[26] On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three organic decrees assuming civil authority of the Philippines.[27]

text: On July 18, General Anderson wrote that he suspected Aguinaldo to be secretly negotiating with the Spanish authorities.[26] In a 21 July letter to the Adjutant General, General Anderson wrote that Aguinaldo had "put in operation an elaborate system of military government, under his assumed authority as Dictator, and has prohibited any supplies being given us, except by his order," and that Anderson had written to Aguinaldo that the requisitions on the country for necessary items must be filled, and that he must aid in having them filled.[28]

text: On July 24, Aguinaldo wrote a letter to General Anderson in effect warning him not to disembark American troops in places conquered by the Filipinos from the Spaniards without first communicating in writing the places to be occupied and the object of the occupation. Murat Halstead, official historian of the Philippine Expedition, writes that General Merritt remarked shortly after his arrival on 25 June, "As General Aguinaldo did not visit me on my arrival, nor offer his services as a subordinate military leader, and as my instructions from the President fully contemplated the occupation of the islands by the American land forces, and stated that 'the powers of the military occupant are absolute and supreme and immediately operate upon the political condition of the inhabitants,' I did not consider it wise to hold any direct communication with the insurgent leader until I should be in possession of the city of Manila, especially as I would not until then be in a position to issue a proclamation and enforce my authority, in the event that his pretensions should clash with my designs."[29]

text: U.S. commanders suspected that Aguinaldo and his forces were informing the Spanish of American movements. U.S. Army Major John R. M. Taylor later wrote, after translating and analyzing insurgent documents, "The officers of the United States Army who believed that the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the American movements were right. Sastrón has printed a letter from Pío del Pilar, dated July 30, to the Spanish officer commanding at Santa Ana, in which Pilar said that Aguinaldo had told him that the Americans would attack the Spanish lines on August 2 and advised that the Spaniards should not give way, but hold their positions. Pilar added, however, that if the Spaniards should fall back on the walled city and surrender Santa Ana to himself, he would hold it with his own men. Aguinaldo's information was correct, and on August 2 eight American soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish fire."[30]

text: On the evening of August 12, on orders of General Merritt, General Anderson notified Aguinaldo to forbid the insurgents under his command from entering Manila. On 13 August, unaware of the peace protocol signing, U.S. forces assaulted and captured the Spanish positions in Manila. Insurgents made an independent attack of their own, as planned, which promptly led to trouble with the Americans. At 0800 that morning, Aguinaldo received a telegram from General Anderson, sternly warning him not to let his troops enter Manila without the consent of the American commander, who was situated on the south side of the Pasig River. General Anderson's request was ignored, and Aguinaldo's forces crowded forward alongside the American forces until they directly confronted the Spanish troops. Although the Spanish were waving a flag of truce, the insurgents fired on the Spanish forces, provoking return fire. 19 American soldiers were killed, and 103 more were wounded in this action.[31][32]

text: General Anderson sent Aguinaldo a telegram, later that day, which read:

text:
“
Dated Ermita Headquarters 2nd Division 13 to Gen. Aguinaldo. Commanding Filipino Forces.--Manila, taken. Serious trouble threatened between our forces. Try and prevent it. Your troops should not force themselves in the city until we have received the full surrender then we will negotiate with you. -Anderson, commanding.
”

text: Aguinaldo however demanded joint occupation of Manila. On August 13 Admiral Dewey and General Merritt informed their superiors of this and asked how far they might proceed in enforcing obedience in the matter.[33]

text: General Merritt received news of the August 12 peace protocol on August 16, three days after the surrender of Manila.[34] Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the President of the United States had directed:

text:
“
That there must be no joint occupation with the Insurgents. The United States in the possession of Manila city, Manila bay and harbor must preserve the peace and protect persons and property within the territory occupied by their military and naval forces. The insurgents and all others must recognize the military occupation and authority of the United States and the cessation of hostilities proclaimed by the President. Use whatever means in your judgment are necessary to this end.[33]
”

text: Insurgent forces were looting the portions of the city which they occupied, and were not confining their attacks to Spaniards, but were assaulting their own people and raiding the property of foreigners as well.[citation needed] U.S. commanders pressed Aguinaldo to withdraw his forces from Manila. Negotiations proceeded slowly and, on August 31, General Elwell Otis (General Merritt being unavailable) wrote, in a long letter to Aguinaldo: "... I am compelled by my instructions to direct that your armed forces evacuate the entire city of Manila, including its suburbs and defences, and that I shall be obliged to take action with that end in view within a very short space of time should you decline to comply with my Government's demands; and I hereby serve notice on you that unless your troops are withdrawn beyond the line of the city's defences before Thursday, the 15th instant, I shall be obliged to resort to forcible action, and that my Government will hold you responsible for any unfortunate consequences which may ensue."[35] After further negotiation and exchanges of letters, Aguinaldo wrote on September 16: "On the evening of the 15th the armed insurgent organizations withdrew from the city and all of its suburbs, ..."[36]

text: Peace protocol between the U.S. and Spain[edit]

text: On August 12, 1898, The New York Times reported that a peace protocol had been signed in Washington that afternoon between the U.S. and Spain, suspending hostilities between the two nations.[37] The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines."[38][39] After conclusion of this agreement, U.S. President McKinley proclaimed a suspension of hostilities with Spain.[40]

text: Capture of Manila[edit]

text: By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to work out a bloodless solution with acting Governor-General Fermín Jáudenes. The negotiating parties made a secret agreement to stage a mock battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces, but the Filipino forces would not be allowed to enter the city. This plan minimized the risk of unnecessary casualties on all sides, while the Spanish would also avoid the shame of possibly having to surrender Intramuros to the Filipino forces.[41] On the eve of the mock battle, General Anderson telegraphed Aguinaldo, "Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the Pasig River you will be under fire".[42]

text: On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a ceasefire had already been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish in the Battle of Manila.[43][44][45] The battle started when Dewey's ships bombarded Fort San Antonio Abad, a decrepit structure on the southern outskirts of Manila, and the virtually impregnable walls of Intramuros. In accordance with the plan, the Spanish forces withdrew while U.S. forces advanced. Once a sufficient show of battle had been made, Dewey hoisted the signal "D.W.H.B." (meaning "Do you surrender?),[46] whereupon the Spanish hoisted a white flag and Manila was formally surrendered to U.S. forces.[47]

text: This battle marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine–American War,[48] which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish–American War.

text: U.S. military government[edit]

text: On August 14, 1898, two days after the capture of Manila, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines, with General Merritt acting as military governor.[49] During military rule (1898–1902), the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines under the authority of the U.S. president as Commander-in-Chief of the United States Armed Forces. After the appointment of a civil Governor-General, the procedure developed that as parts of the country were pacified and placed firmly under American control, responsibility for the area would be passed to the civilian.

text: General Merritt was succeeded by General Otis as military governor, who in turn was succeeded by General MacArthur. Major General Adna Chaffee was the final military governor. The position of military governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the civil Governor-General became the sole executive authority in the Philippines.[50][51]

text: Under the military government, an American-style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts were reestablished, including a supreme court;[52] and local governments were established in towns and provinces. The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, in Baliuag, Bulacan.[53]

text: U.S. and insurgents clash[edit]

text: In a clash at Cavite between United States soldiers and insurgents on August 25, 1898, George Hudson of the Utah regiment was killed, Corporal William Anderson was mortally wounded, and four troopers of the Fourth Cavalry were slightly wounded.[54][55] This provoked General Anderson to send Aguinaldo a letter saying, "In order to avoid the very serious misfortune of an encounter between our troops, I demand your immediate withdrawal with your guard from Cavite. One of my men has been killed and three wounded by your people. This

text: is positive and does not admit of explanation or delay."[55] Internal insurgent communications reported that the Americans were drunk at the time. Halstead writes that Aguinaldo expressed his regret and promised to punish the offenders.[54] In internal insurgent communications, Apolinario Mabini initially proposed to investigate and punish any offenders identified. Aguinaldo modified this, ordering, "... say that he was not killed by your soldiers, but by them themselves [the Americans] since they were drunk according to your telegram".[56] An insurgent officer in Cavite at the time reported on his record of services that he: "took part in the movement against the Americans on the afternoon of the 24th of August, under the orders of the commander of the troops and the adjutant of the post."[57]

text: Philippine elections, Malolos Congress, Constitutional government[edit]

text: Elections were held by the Revolutionary Government between June and September 10, resulting in Emilio Aguinaldo being seated as President in the seating of a legislature known as the Malolos Congress. In a session between September 15 and November 13, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was adopted. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899, creating the First Philippine Republic.[58]

text: Spanish–American War ends[edit]

text: Article V of the peace protocol signed on August 12 had mandated negotiations to conclude a treaty of peace to begin in Paris not later than October 1, 1898.[59] President McKinley sent a five-man commission, initially instructed to demand no more than Luzon, Guam, and Puerto Rico; which would have provided a limited U.S. empire of pinpoint colonies to support a global fleet and provide communication links.[60] In Paris, the commission was besieged with advice, particularly from American generals and European diplomats, to demand the entire Philippine archipelago.[60] The unanimous recommendation was that "it would certainly be cheaper and more humane to take the entire Philippines than to keep only part of it."[61] On October 28, 1898, McKinley wired the commission that "cessation of Luzon alone, leaving the rest of the islands subject to Spanish rule, or to be the subject of future contention, cannot be justified on political, commercial, or humanitarian grounds. The cessation must be the whole archipeligo or none. The latter is wholly inadmissible, and the former must therefore be required."[62] The Spanish negotiators were furious over the "immodist demands of a conqueror", but their wounded pride was assuaged by an offer of twenty million dollars for "Spanish improvements" to the islands. The Spaniards capitulated, and on December 10, 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, formally ending the Spanish–American War. In Article III, Spain ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States, as follows: "Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following line: [... geographic description elided ...]. The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty."[63]

text: In the U.S., there was a movement for Philippine independence; some said that the U.S. had no right to a land where many of the people wanted self-government. In 1898 Andrew Carnegie, an industrialist and steel magnate, offered to offered to pay the U.S. government $20 million to give the Philippines its independence.[64]

text: On November 7, 1900, Spain and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Washington, clarifying that the territories relinquished by Spain to the United States included any and all islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago, but lying outside the lines described in the Treaty of Paris. That treaty explicitly named the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu and their dependencies as among the relinquished territories.[65]

text: Benevolent assimilation[edit]

text: U.S. President McKinley's December 21, 1898 proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation was announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899. Referring to the Treaty of Paris, it said that as a result of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. It enjoined the military commander (General Otis) to make known to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of Spain, the authority of the United States is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and property of the people of the islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights and relations. It specified that it will be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights.[66] On January 6, 1899, General Otis was quoted in The New York Times as expressing himself as convinced that the U.S. government intends to seek the establishment of a liberal government, in which the people will be as fully represented as the maintenance of law and order will permit, susceptible of development, on lines of increased representation, and the bestowal of increased powers, into a government as free and independent as is enjoyed by the most favored provinces in the world.[67]

text: Philippine–American War (1899–1902)[edit]

text: Tensions escalate[edit]

text: The Spanish had yielded Iloilo to the insurgents in 1898 for the purpose of troubling the Americans. On January 1, 1899, news had come to Washington from Manila that American forces which had been sent to Iloilo under the command of General Marcus Miller had been confronted by 6,000 armed Filipinos, who refused them permission to land.[68][69] A Filipino official styling himself Presidente Lopez of the Federal Government of the Visayas informed Miller that "foreign troops" would not be landed "without express orders from the central government of Luzon"[69] On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation. General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and "right of cessation" which were present in the unabridged version.[70] Unknown to Otis, the War Department had also sent an enciphered copy of the Benevolent Assimilation proclamation to General Marcus Miller in Iloilo for informational purposes. Miller assumed that it was for distribution and, unaware that a politically bowdlerized version had been sent to Aguinaldo, published it in both Spanish and Tagalog translations which eventually made their way to Aguinaldo.[71] Even before Aguinaldo received the unaltered version and observed the changes in the copy he had received from Otis, he was upset that Otis had altered his own title to "Military Governor of the Philippines" from "... in the Philippines." Aguinaldo did not miss the significance of the alteration, which Otis had made without authorization from Washington.[72]

text: On January 5, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation summarizing what he saw as American violations of the ethics of friendship, particularly as regards the events in Iloilo. The

text: proclamation concluded as follows:

text:
“
Such procedures, so foreign to the dictates of culture and the usages observed by civilized nations, gave me the right to act without observing the usual rules of intercourse. Nevertheless, in order to be correct to the end, I sent to General Otis commissioners charged to solicit him to desist from his rash enterprise, but they were not listened to.
My government can not remain indifferent in view of such a violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a nation which arrogated to itself the title champion of oppressed nations. Thus it is that my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands. I denounce these acts before the world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its infallable verdict as to who are the true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of human kind.[73]

”

text: After some copies of that proclamation had been distributed, Aguinaldo ordered the recall of undistributed copies and issued another proclamation, which was published the same day in El Heraldo de la Revolucion, the official newspaper of the Philippine Republic. There, he said partly,

text:
“
As in General Otis's proclamation he alluded to some instructions edited by His Excellency the President of the United States, referring to the administration of the matters in the Philippine Islands, I in the name of God, the root and fountain of all justice, and that of all the right which has been visibly granted to me to direct my dear brothers in the difficult work of our regeneration, protest most solemnly against this intrusion of the United States Government on the sovereignty of these islands.
I equally protest in the name of the Filipino people against the said intrusion, because as they have granted their vote of confidence appointing me president of the nation, although I don't consider that I deserve such, therefore I consider it my duty to defend to death its liberty and independence.[74]

”

text: Otis, taking these two proclamations as a call to arms, strengthened American observation posts and alerted his troops. In the tense atmosphere, some 40,000 Filipinos fled Manila within

text: a period of 15 days.[75]

text: Meanwhile, Felipe Agoncillo, who had been commissioned by the Philippine Revolutionary Government as Minister Plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, and who had unsuccessfully sought to be seated at the negotiations between the U.S. and Spain in Paris, was now in Washington. On January 6, he filed a request for an interview with the President to discuss affairs in the Philippines. The next day the government officials were surprised to learn that messages to General Otis to deal mildly with the rebels and not to force a conflict had become known to Agoncillo, and cabled by him to Aguinaldo. At the same time came Aguinaldo's protest against General Otis signing himself "Military Governor of the Philippines."[68]

text: On January 8, Agoncillo gave out this statement:[68]

text:
“
In my opinion the Filipino people, whom I represent, will never consent to become a colony dependency of the United States. The soldiers of the Filipino army have pledged their lives that they will not lay down their arms until General Aguinaldo tells them to do so, and they will keep that pledge, I feel confident.
”

text: The Filipino committees in London, Paris and Madrid about this time telegraphed to President McKinley as follows:

text:
“
We protest against the disembarkation of American troops at Iloilo. The treaty of peace still unratified, the American claim to sovereignty is premature. Pray reconsider the resolution regarding Iloilo. Filipinos wish for the friendship of America and abhor militarism and deceit.[68]
”

text: On January 8, Aguinaldo received the following message from Teodoro Sandiko:

text:
“
To the President of the Revolutionary Government, Malolos, from Sandico, Manila. 8 Jan., 1899, 9.40 p.m..: In consequence of the order of General Rios to his officers, as soon as the Filipino attack begins the Americans should be driven into the Intramuros district and the walled city should be set on fire. Pipi.[76]
”

text: The New York Times reported on January 8, that two Americans who had been guarding a waterboat in Iloilo had been attacked, one fatally, and that insurgents were threatening to destroy the business section of the city by fire; and on January 10 that a peaceful solution to the Iloilo issues may result but that Aguinaldo had issued a proclamation threatening to drive the Americans from the islands.[77][78]

text: By January 10, insurgents were ready to assume the offensive, but desired, if possible, to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. They made no secret of their desire for conflict, but increased their hostile demonstrations and pushed their lines forward into forbidden territory. Their attitude is well illustrated by the following extract from a telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, 1899:[79]

text:
“
Most urgent. An American interpreter has come to tell me to withdraw our forces in Maytubig fifty paces. I shall not draw back a step, and in place of withdrawing, I shall advance a little farther. He brings a letter from his general, in which he speaks to me as a friend. I said that from the day I knew that Maquinley (McKinley) opposed our independence I did not want any dealings with any American. War, war, is what we want. The Americans after this speech went off pale.
”

text: Aguinaldo approved the hostile attitude of Cailles, for there is a reply in his handwriting which reads:[79]

text:
“
I approve and applaud what you have done with the Americans, and zeal and valour always, also my beloved officers and soldiers there. I believe that they are playing us until the arrival of their reinforcements, but I shall send an ultimatum and remain always on the alert.--E. A. Jan. 10, 1899.
”

text: On 31 January 1899, The Minister of Interior of the revolutionary First Philippine Republic, Teodoro Sandiko, signed a decree saying that President Aguinaldo had directed that all idle lands be planted to provide food for the people, in view of impending war with the Americans.[80]

text: Outbreak of general hostilities[edit]

text: Worcester writes that General Otis' account of the opening of active hostilities was as follows:

text:
“
"On the night of February 2 they sent in a strong detachment to draw the fire of our outposts, which took up a position immediately in front and within a few yards of the same. The outpost was strengthened by a few of our men, who silently bore their taunts and abuse the entire night. This was reported to me by General MacArthur, whom I directed to communicate with the officer in command of the insurgent troops concerned. His prepared letter was shown me and approved, and the reply received was all that could be desired. However, the agreement was ignored by the insurgents and on the evening of February 4 another demonstration was made on one of our small outposts, which occupied a retired position at least 150 yards within the line which had been mutually agreed upon, an insurgent approaching the picket and refusing to halt or answer when challenged. The result was that our picket discharged his piece, when the insurgent troops near Santa Mesa opened a spirited fire on our troops there stationed.
"The insurgents had thus succeeded in drawing the fire of a small outpost, which they had evidently labored with all their ingenuity to accomplish, in order to justify in some way their premeditated attack. It is not believed that the chief insurgent leaders wished to open hostilities at this time, as they were not completely prepared to assume the initiative. They desired two or three days more to perfect their arrangements, but the zeal of their army brought on the crisis which anticipated their premeditated action. They could not have delayed long, however, for it was their object to force an issue before American troops, then en route, could arrive in Manila."
Thus began the Insurgent attack, so long and so carefully planned for. We learn from the Insurgent records that the shot of the American sentry missed its mark. There was no reason why it should have provoked a hot return fire, but it did.
The result of the ensuing combat was not at all what the Insurgents had anticipated. The Americans did not drive very well. It was but a short time before they themselves were routed and driven from their positions.
Aguinaldo of course promptly advanced the claim that his troops had been wantonly attacked. The plain fact is that the Insurgent patrol in question deliberately drew the fire of the American sentry, and this was just as much an act of war as was the firing of the shot. Whether the patrol was acting under proper orders from higher authority is not definitely known.[81]

”

text: Other sources name the two specific U.S. soldiers involved in the first exchange of fire as Privates William Grayson and Orville Miller of the Nebraska Volunteers.[82]

text: Subsequent to the conclusion of the war, after analyzing captured insurgent papers, Major Major J. R. M. Taylor wrote, in part,

text:
“
An attack on the United States forces was planned which should annihilate the little army in Manila, and delegations were appointed to secure the interference of foreign powers. The protecting cloak of pretense of friendliness to the United States was to be kept up until the last. While commissioners were appointed to negotiate with General Otis, secret societies were organized in Manila pledged to obey orders of the most barbarous character to kill and burn. The attack from without and the attack from within was to be on a set day and hour. The strained situation could not last. The spark was applied, either inadvertently or by design, on the 4th of February by an insurgent, willfully transgressing upon what, by their own admission, was within the agreed limits of the holding of the American troops. Hostilities resulted and the war was an accomplished fact.[83]
”

text: War[edit]

text: On February 4, Aguinaldo declared "That peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war."[84] On June 2, 1899, the Malolos Congress enacted and ratified a declaration of war on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by Pedro Paterno, President of the Assembly.[85]

text: As before when fighting the Spanish, the Filipino rebels did not do well in the field. Aguinaldo and his provisional government escaped after the capture of Malolos on March 31, 1899 and were driven into northern Luzon. Peace feelers from members of Aguinaldo's cabinet failed in May when the American commander, General Ewell Otis, demanded an unconditional surrender. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and swore allegiance to the United States, marking one end to the war.

text: First Philippine Commission[edit]

text: President McKinley had appointed a five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, on January 20, 1899, to investigate conditions in the islands and

text: make recommendations. The three civilian members of the Philippine Commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after the Battle of Manila which had begun armed conflict between U.S. and revolutionary Filipino forces. The commission published a proclamation containing assurances that the U.S. "... is anxious to establish in the Philippine Islands an enlightened system of government under which the Philippine people may enjoy the largest measure of home rule and the amplest liberty."

text: After meetings in April with revolutionary representatives, the commission requested authorization from McKinley to offer a specific plan. McKinley authorized an offer of a government consisting of "a Governor-General appointed by the President; cabinet appointed by the Governor-General; [and] a general advisory council elected by the people."[86] The Revolutionary Congress voted unanimously to cease fighting and accept peace and, on May 8, the revolutionary cabinet headed by Apolinario Mabini was replaced by a new "peace" cabinet headed by Pedro Paterno. At this point, General Antonio Luna arrested Paterno and most of his cabinet, returning Mabini and his cabinet to power. After this, the commission concluded that "... The Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence ... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples."[87]

text: In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it.[88]

text:
“
On November 2, 1899, The commmision issued a preliminary report containing the following statement:

Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, self-governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the Filipino point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The latter, it is true, would take the revenues and leave us the responsibilities. Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable fact that the Filipinos cannot stand alone. Thus the welfare of the Filipinos coincides with the dictates of national honour in forbidding our abandonment of the archipelago. We cannot from any point of view escape the responsibilities of government which our sovereignty entails; and the commission is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the Philippine Islands.[89][90]

”

text: Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.[91]

text: Second Philippine Commission[edit]

text: The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers.[92] On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions.[93] Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws, established a judicial system, including a supreme court, drew up a legal code, and organized a civil service.[94] The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors.[91]

text: Establishment of civil government[edit]

text: On March 3, 1901 the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriation Act containing (along with the Platt Amendment on Cuba) the Spooner Amendment which provided the President with legislative authority to establish of a civil government in the Philippines.[95] Up until this time, the President been administering the Philippines by virtue of his war powers.[96] On July 1, 1901, civil government was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the Civil Governor. Later, on February 3, 1903, the U.S. Congress would change the title of Civil Governor to Governor-General.[97]

text: A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. — the so-called Thomasites. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley.[98] Also, the Catholic Church was disestablished, and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed.

text: Official end to the war[edit]

text: The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed McKinley's Executive Order establishing the Philippine Commission, and also stipulated that the bicameral Philippine Legislature would be established composed of an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly and the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house. The act also provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to the Philippines.[91][99]

text: On July 2, 1902 the Secretary of War telegraphed that the insurrection against the sovereign authority of the U.S. having come to an end, and provincial civil governments having been established, the office of Military Governor was terminated.[51] On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after the assassination of President McKinley on September 5, 1901 proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.[51][100]

text: On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar, and declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in the Province of Batangas and in the Cities of Batangas, Lipa and Tanaun.[101]

text: Post-1902 hostilities[edit]

text: Some sources have suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade, since bands of guerrillas, quasi-religious armed groups and other resistance groups continued to roam the countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and the Philippine Constabulary continued hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913.[102] Some historians consider these unofficial extensions to be part of the war.[103]

text: Insular Government (1901–35)[edit]

text: The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was a constitution for the Insular Government, as the U.S. civil administration was known. This was a form of territorial government that reported to the Bureau of Insular Affairs. The act provided for a Governor-General appointed by the U.S. president and an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly. It also disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. The United States government, in an effort to resolve the status of the friars, negotiated with the Vatican. The church agreed to sell the friars' estates and promised gradual substitution of Filipino and other non-Spanish priests for the friars. It refused, however, to withdraw the religious orders from the islands immediately, partly to avoid offending Spain. In 1904 the administration bought for $7.2 million the major part of the friars' holdings, amounting to some 166,000 hectares (410,000 acres), of which one-half was in the vicinity of Manila. The land was eventually resold to Filipinos, some of them tenants but the majority of them estate owners.[91]

text: In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States.[104] A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished.

text: Two years after completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house.

text: Every year from 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence.

text: Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed the draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed Congress in 1916 with a later date of independence.[105]

text: The law, officially the Philippine Autonomy Act but popularly known as the Jones Law, served as the new organic act (or constitution) for the Philippines. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained the Governor-General of the Philippines, appointed by the President of the United States, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate.[106]

text: The Filipinos suspended their independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigor.[107] On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States.[108] The "Declaration of Purposes" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine legislature as to a stable government.

text: The Philippine legislature funded an independence mission to the U.S. in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in the U.S. with and presented their case to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker.[109] U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. is to grant Philippine independence.[110] The Republican Party then controlled Congress and the recommendation of the outgoing Democratic president was not heeded.[109]

text: After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Manuel L. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The

text: result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.[111]

text: The Tydings–McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a Constitution, for a 10-year "transitional period" as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence. On May 5, 1934, the Philippines legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor-General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as the election date, and the convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft constitution was approved by the convention on February 8, 1935, approved by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth was put into place.[112]

text: Commonwealth era (1935–1946)[edit]

text: It was planned that the period 1935–1946 would be devoted to the final adjustments required for a peaceful transition to full independence, a great latitude in autonomy being granted in the meantime. Instead there was war with Japan.[113]

text: On May 14, 1935, an election to fill the newly created office of President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was won by Manuel L. Quezon (Nacionalista Party) and a Filipino government was formed on the basis of principles superficially similar to the U.S. Constitution. The Commonwealth as established in 1935 featured a very strong executive, a unicameral national assembly, and a supreme court composed entirely of Filipinos for the first time since 1901. The new government embarked on an ambitious agenda of establishing the basis for national defense, greater control over the economy, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the colonization of the island of Mindanao, and the promotion of local capital and industrialization. The Commonwealth however, was also faced with agrarian unrest, an uncertain diplomatic and military situation in South East Asia, and uncertainty about the level of United States commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines.

text: In 1939–40, the Philippine Constitution was amended to restore a bicameral Congress, and permit the reelection of President Quezon, previously restricted to a single, six-year term.

text: During the Commonwealth years, Philippines sent one elected Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives, as Puerto Rico currently does today.

text: Japanese occupation and World War II (1941–45)[edit]

text: A few hours after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched air raids in several cities and US military installations in the Philippines on December 8, and on December 10, the first Japanese troops landed in Northern Luzon. Filipino pilot Captain Jesús A. Villamor, leading a flight of three P-26 "Peashooter" fighters of the 6th Pursuit Squadron, distinguished himself by attacking two enemy formations of 27 planes each and downing a much-superior Japanese Zero, for which he was awarded the U.S. Distinguished Service Cross. The two other planes in that flight, flown by Lieutenants César Basa and Geronimo Aclan were shot down.[114]

text: General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), was forced to retreat to Bataan. Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. The fall of Bataan was on April 9, 1942 with Corregidor Island, at the mouth of Manila Bay, surrendering on May 6.[115]

text: The Commonwealth government by then had exiled itself to Washington, DC, upon the invitation of President Roosevelt; however many politicians stayed behind and collaborated with the occupying Japanese. The main general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was stationed and moved in the province was our enemy against the Japanese Occupation. The Philippine Commonwealth Army continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and were considered auxiliary units of the United States Army. Several Philippine Commonwealth military awards, such as the Philippine Defense Medal, Independence Medal, and Liberation Medal, were awarded to both the United States and Philippine Armed Forces.

text: As the Japanese forces advanced, Manila was declared an open city to prevent it from destruction, meanwhile, the government was moved to Corregidor. In March 1942, General MacArthur and President Quezon fled the country. Guerrilla units harassed the Japanese when they could, and on Luzon native resistance was strong enough that the Japanese never did get control of a large part of the island.An anti-Japanese Army consisting of peasants known as the Huks did most of the fighting. The Huks forces resisted invaders and punished the people who collaborated with the Japanese, but they didn’t have a well-disciplined organization, and were later seen as a threat to the Manila government.[116] Before MacArthur came back, the effectiveness of the guerilla movement had decimated the control of Japan -limited to only 12 out of the 48 provinces. In October 1944, MacArthur had gathered enough additional troops and supplies to begin the retaking of the Philippines, landing with Sergio Osmeña who had assumed the Presidency after Quezon's death. The battles entailed long fierce fighting; some of the Japanese continued to fight until the official surrender of the Empire of Japan on September 2, 1945.[117]

text: After their landing, Filipino and American forces also undertook measures to suppress the Huk movement, which was founded to fight the Japanese Occupation. The Filipino and American forces removed local Huk governments and imprisoned many high-ranking members of the Philippine Communist Party. While these incidents happened, there was still fighting against the Japanese forces and, despite the American and Philippine measures against the Huk, they still supported American and Filipino soldiers in the fight against the Japanese.

text: Over a million Filipinos (including regular and constable soldiers, recognized guerrillas and non-combatant civilians) had been killed in the war, and many towns and cities, including Manila, were left in ruins.

text: Independence (1946)[edit]

text: Philippine independence came on July 4, 1946, with the signing of the Treaty of Manila between the governments of the United States and the Philippines. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.[118] From 1946 to 1961, Independence Day was observed on July 4. On 12 May 1962, President Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, proclaiming Tuesday, June 12, 1962 as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines.[119][120] In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.[121]

text: World War II veteran benefits[edit]

text: During World War II, over 200,000 Filipinos fought in defense of the United States against the Japanese in the Pacific theater of military operations, where more than half died. As a commonwealth of the United States before and during the war, Filipinos were legally American nationals. With American nationality, Filipinos were promised all the benefits afforded to those serving in the armed forces of the United States.[122] In 1946, Congress passed the Rescission Act (38 U.S.C. § 107) which stripped Filipinos of the benefits they were promised.[122]

text: Since the passage of the Rescission Act, many Filipino veterans have traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for the benefits promised to them for their service and sacrifice. Over 30,000 of such veterans live in the United States today, with most being United States citizens. Sociologists introduced the phrase "Second Class Veterans" to describe the plight of these Filipino Americans. Beginning in 1993, numerous bills titled Filipino Veterans Fairness Act were introduced in Congress to return the benefits taken away from these veterans, only to die in committee. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, signed into law on February 17, 2009, included provisions to pay benefits to the 15,000 remaining veterans.[123]

text: On January 6, 2011 Jackie Speier (D-CA), U.S. Representative for California's 12th congressional district, serving since 2008, introduced a bill seeking to make Filipino WW-II veterans eligible for the same benefits available to U.S. veterans. In a news conference to outline the bill, Speier estimated that approximately 50,000 Filipino veterans survive.[124][125]


document_title: Nuke (Marvel Comics)

question_text: who does will simpson became in jessica jones

root

text: Nuke (Marvel Comics)

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Nuke was created by Frank Miller and David Mazzuchelli. He first appeared in Daredevil #232. Nuke largely disappeared following his apparent death in Daredevil #233, although his origin was explored and touched upon in issues of Captain America and Wolverine. It was not until Grant Morrison's New X-Men, when Morrison revealed Nuke was involved in the Weapon Plus program, that the character made a return in subsequent stories.

tag: p

text: Fictional character biography[edit]

text: Nuke was a test subject of the Weapon Plus program, the supersoldier program that had created Captain America and would later have their Weapon X facility transform Wolverine into a killing machine. The enhancing and conditioning process went awry, leaving Nuke seriously deranged.

text: Early life[edit]

text: The origins of Nuke are explained in the series Wolverine: Origins.

text: The disturbed son of a wealthy, abusive, alcoholic, upper-class woman in Ohio, Frank soon developed an unhealthy affection for his babysitter, the only real maternal figure in his life. The young woman, who was harboring feelings for his father Charles, capitalized on Frank's affection and talked the boy into killing his mother. Wolverine, who at that time was an operative for Weapon Plus, had been sent to kidnap Frank Simpson. Wolverine showed up, dressed as a cop. He then stalked Charles Simpson and the babysitter, eventually shooting the girl with Charles' gun, after which Charles committed suicide. Wolverine then went to Frank's place and abducted him for the supersoldier project.[1]

text: Years later, Frank Simpson was sent into the Vietnam War as a black-ops agent. Captured by the Viet Cong, Frank was severely tortured by Logan (who was posing as a Russian intelligence liaison), shattering Frank's still unbalanced mind. While torturing him (even carving into his face the American flag that years later would become part of his superpowered personality), he implanted the phrase "No V.C.!" as a trigger word, along with the compulsion to kill gruesomely, in retaliation for the tortures suffered, anyone who uttered the words. He then allowed Frank to escape, testing his work with a village of peasants, who, seeing an American soldier, tried to soothe his anger and convince him to spare them, shouting the "No V.C.!" phrase, meaning that they weren't Viet Cong. Frank, in response to the trigger word, burnt the village to the ground killing every inhabitant. The experiment being a success, Logan was installed as his handler. Due to his trauma, Nuke often hallucinates that the enemies he is fighting are the Viet Cong.[2]

text: At some time during the war, Nuke was inducted into the final part of the Project Homegrown, the Weapon VII programs, that turned him into a partial cyborg with a subdermal mesh able to deflect bullets, and a second heart that, working in conjunction with some (placebo) pills, controlled his aggression, leaving him addicted as well. His whereabouts after the war are still unknown.[3]

text: First appearance[edit]

text: Nuke resurfaces, employed by Generalissimo Felix Guillermo Carridad, of Tierra Verde, to destroy a rebel base. Carridad is impressed with his skills, and he enjoys using Nuke periodically as a superhuman iconic symbol.[4] Following an operation in Nicaragua, the Kingpin hires Nuke through a corrupt general and sends him to kill Daredevil. Nuke launches an attack on Hell's Kitchen, but is defeated by Daredevil. Enraged at a Daily Bugle article reporting on his mass murder in Hell's Kitchen, he escapes his handlers, intending to destroy the Bugle building. He is intercepted by Captain America and shot by a military chopper. He faints from the wound and is presumed dead by the general public.[5] Nuke was taken into custody by the government, still controlled by the Tierra Verde enclave.[6]

text: Wolverine: Origins - The Death of Wolverine[edit]

text: In the series Wolverine: Origins, following Wolverine's regaining of his full memories, and his embarking on a mission to take care of loose ends, the U.S. government dispatches Nuke to hunt Wolverine down.[7] Though Wolverine dispatches Nuke, it is revealed that Nuke's enhanced physiology has further mutated, giving him cybernetic limbs, bones and skull, and the ability to survive the most gruesome injuries, but has left him devoid of any personality or conscience. When Wolverine tries to kill him, Captain America intervenes, believing that Nuke is a failed subject of the Super Soldier Program. Wolverine asked the telepath Emma Frost to restore Nuke's broken mind, saying that he would euthanize Nuke if she determined that it was not possible.[8]

text: During Norman Osborn's tenure as the head of the American peace-keeping organization H.A.M.M.E.R., he adds a man named Scourge to his black ops team, the Thunderbolts,[9] but the man later reveals himself to be Nuke, and is demoted from the position of team leader.[10] During the events of the storyline "Siege", Nuke sustains injuries that render him comatose.[11] In Captain America Vol 7, Simpson is allied with the Iron Nail, attacking individuals in Europe that he perceives as enemies of America, until he is stopped by Captain America.[12] He is caught in an explosion and presumed dead.[13]

text: Nuke later appears alive with a shaved head in the Death of Wolverine mini-series. He is seen working for Madame Hydra and hunting Wolverine as part of her bounty. While at a bar in British Columbia, Wolverine uses his adamantium skull to headbutt Nuke to spread the word that he spared him while also getting the information on who placed the bounty on him.[14]

text: Powers and abilities[edit]

text: Nuke possesses various superhuman physical attributes as a result of various cybernetic enhancements. Nuke's bones have been replaced with advanced cybernetic components, granting him superhuman strength of an unrevealed limit. Aside from his strength, Nuke's body is considerably more resistant to physical injury than that of an ordinary human; even the arcane nerve strikes Daredevil learned during training by his sensei, Stick, have no effect. Nuke's skin has been replaced with an artificial type of plastic that looks identical to human skin but is much more durable. In addition, he has an artificial secondary heart that works in conjunction with his colored pills. Nuke is the victim of decades of systematic physical and psychological conditioning at the hands of various individuals working for the United States government. As a result, Nuke is insane. He is now little more than a puppet in the hands of his current handler, and able only to follow issued commands. Also in his first appearance in Daredevil, Nuke was equipped with a monstrous multi-barrelled assault rifle which, in addition to being able to fire massive volleys of bullets, fragmentation grenades, and rockets, was also (due to mechanisms left unexplained) able to "keep count" of the casualties inflicted. Nuke also had a habit of resetting the counter after noting down each "score" trying to "better" it in the coming assignment.[volume & issue needed]

text: Apparently Nuke's metabolism is now remote controlled from a secret base on Tierra Verde, whose technicians are able to shut down the biomech systems in Nuke's body.[8]

text: Pills[edit]

text: Nuke has a second heart, and takes different colored pills to produce different bodily effects. Nuke's pill colors are: red, for increased adrenaline; blue to bring him down; and white, to keep him balanced between missions.

text: It was originally stated that the red pills Nuke took affected his adrenal glands, sending him into his bloodthirsty rages.[volume & issue needed] The Wolverine: Origins series retconned this, stating instead that these pills are placebos, suggesting that Nuke lives in a constant state of increased adrenaline, but is not aware of this. The pills, therefore, trigger his violent behavior, but the effect is psychosomatic.[volume & issue needed]

text: Other versions[edit]

text: In the "House of M" storyline, Nuke is one of the government agents (alongside Mimic and Agent Barnes) sent to Genosha to kill Magneto and as many of his followers as possible. He and Mimic served as a distraction while Agent Barnes snuck into Magneto's headquarters.[15] When Nuke entered Wanda's bedroom in order to kill her, he was disassembled by her.[16]

text: What If v2 #48 showed what would have happened if Daredevil had saved Nuke. This story manifests as Ben Urich pondering the situation and thinking of alternatives.[17]

text: In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Frank Simpson appears in Ultimate Comics: Captain America #1 as the man who was given the Super Soldier Serum during the Vietnam War when Steve Rogers was MIA after World War II, but his origin is more reminiscent of the Grand Director, a Captain America post World War II.[18] Like his mainstream counterpart, Simpson has the American Flag tattooed onto his face.[19] Simpson, completely disillusioned by America after Vietnam (1972) is believed to have betrayed his country due to the war and the augmentations, but has "seen the Light". He is trying to sell his reverse-engineered serum blood to the North Koreans, but is stopped by British S.A.S. and Steve Rogers. After his identity is revealed to Colonel Danvers, Cap is beaten, and travels to Saloth, a Cambodian village, but Simpson and his army (all pumped up with the Super-Soldier Serum) beat him. Simpson vows to make Cap, "see the light", strongly believing America stands for a number of atrocities in the last 50 years. Cap escapes and stops Simpson. He is brought into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody. Simpson is later visited by Cap in the Triskelion, which has Rogers reading the Bible to a bed-ridden Simpson.[20]

text: In the Amalgam Comics universe, in which the characters of Marvel Comics were merged with those of DC Comics, Nuke is combined with DC's Bane as Hydra agent Bane Simpson.[21]

text: In other media[edit]

text: The character appears in the first season of Jessica Jones as Will Simpson, portrayed by Wil Traval.[22][23] Simpson is a police sergeant at the 15th Precinct and a former Special Ops soldier. He is introduced when he is sent by Kilgrave to kill Trish Walker. After falsely believing his mission to have been accomplished, Kilgrave commands him to jump off a rooftop. Jessica saves him, freeing him of Kilgrave's control, after which Simpson becomes a lover to Trish. He remains at odds with Jessica, as he is determined to murder Kilgrave to prevent him from hurting anyone else. After his attempt to kill Kilgrave with a bomb fails, Simpson reconnects with his military unit, using experimental pills to increase combat awareness. They also make him more manic, to the point that he kills fellow detective Oscar Clemmons and two of his fellow operatives. He then attempts to kill Jessica, but is thwarted by both Jessica and Trish, when the latter takes some of his combat enhancements and overpowers him. Left unconscious, Simpson is later taken away by members of the mysterious "IGH" organization who provided him with the supplements.


document_title: Cabo San Lucas International Airport

question_text: what is the airport for cabo san lucas mexico

text: Cabo San Lucas International Airport

text:
Cabo San Lucas International AirportAeródromo Internacional de Cabo San Lucas

IATA: noneICAO: MMSLSummaryAirport type
PublicOperator
Aeropuerto Cabo San Lucas Internacional SA de CVLocation
Cabo San LucasHub for
Calafia AirlinesElevation AMSL
690 ft / 210 mCoordinates
22°56′51″N 109°56′13″W / 22.94750°N 109.93694°W / 22.94750; -109.93694Coordinates: 22°56′51″N 109°56′13″W / 22.94750°N 109.93694°W / 22.94750; -109.93694Map
MMSLMMSLShow map of Baja California SurShow map of MexicoShow allRunways

Direction

Length

Surface

m

ft

11/29

2,133

7,000

Asphalt

Statistics (2017)
Total Passengers
1,198Ranking in Mexico
64th
Source:Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil[1][2]

tag: table

text: Cabo San Lucas International Airport (Spanish: Aeródromo Internacional de Cabo San Lucas) (ICAO: MMSL) is a small international airfield (officially it's an "aerodrome") located 4.5 miles (7.2 km) northwest of Cabo San Lucas in Baja California Sur, Mexico.

text: The airport has air taxi service. Recently, the runway was enlarged and lengthened to 7,000 ft. Also, new navigation aids were installed, along with new air traffic control equipment, control tower, lighting, PAPI visual aids, and a new FBO with all the ground support equipment.

text: It handled 1,198 passengers in 2017.

text: Airlines and destinations[edit]

text: AirlinesDestinations Calafia Airlines  Ciudad Obregón, Culiacán, Guasave, Hermosillo, La Paz, Los Mochis, Mazatlán, Puerto Vallarta


document_title: List of NCAA Division I men's basketball champions

question_text: who won the ncaa men's championship last year

question_tokens: who won the ncaa men 's championship last year

text: Championship games[edit]

text:
Legend for "Championship games" table below

Indicator
Meaning

*
Game was decided in an overtime period

Game was decided in a third overtime period

Score
Each score is linked to an article about that particular championship game, when available

Year
Each year is linked to an article about that particular NCAA Tournament

text:
Championship games, by year, showing winners and losers, final scores and venues

Year
Winning team
Winning head coach
Score
Losing team
Losing head coach
Venue
City
Ref.

1939
Oregon
Hobson, HowardHoward Hobson
046.3 !46–33
Ohio State
Olsen, HaroldHarold Olsen
Patten Gymnasium
Evanston, Illinois
[17]

1940
Indiana
McCracken, BranchBranch McCracken
060.3 !60–42
Kansas
Allen, PhogPhog Allen
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[18]

1941
Wisconsin
Foster, BudBud Foster
039 !39–34
Washington State
Friel, JackJack Friel
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[19]

1942
Stanford
Dean, EverettEverett Dean
053.2 !53–38
Dartmouth
Cowles, O. B.O. B. Cowles
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[20]

1943
Wyoming
Shelton, EverettEverett Shelton
046.2 !46–34
Georgetown
Ripley, ElmerElmer Ripley
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[21]

1944
Utah
Peterson, VadalVadal Peterson
042 !42–40*
Dartmouth
Brown, EarlEarl Brown
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[22][23]

1945
Oklahoma A&M
Iba, HenryHenry Iba
049 !49–45
NYU
Cann, HowardHoward Cann
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[24]

1946
Oklahoma A&M
Iba, HenryHenry Iba
043 !43–40
North Carolina
Carnevale, BenBen Carnevale
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[25]

1947
Holy Cross
Julian, DoggieDoggie Julian
058.1 !58–47
Oklahoma
Drake, BruceBruce Drake
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[26]

1948
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
058.2 !58–42
Baylor
Henderson, BillBill Henderson
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[27]

1949
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
046.1 !46–36
Oklahoma A&M
Iba, HenryHenry Iba
Hec Edmundson Pavilion
Seattle, Washington
[28]

1950
CCNY
Holman, NatNat Holman
071.2 !71–68
Bradley
Anderson, ForddyForddy Anderson
Madison Square Garden
New York City, New York
[29]

1951
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
068.3 !68–58
Kansas State
Gardner, JackJack Gardner
Williams Arena
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[30]

1952
Kansas
Allen, PhogPhog Allen
080.3 !80–63
St. John's
McGuire, FrankFrank McGuire
Hec Edmundson Pavilion
Seattle, Washington
[31]

1953
Indiana
McCracken, BranchBranch McCracken
069 !69–68
Kansas
Allen, PhogPhog Allen
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[32]

1954
La Salle
Loeffler, KenKen Loeffler
092.2 !92–76
Bradley
Anderson, ForddyForddy Anderson
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[33]

1955
San Francisco
Woolpert, PhilPhil Woolpert
077.3 !77–63
La Salle
Loeffler, KenKen Loeffler
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[34]

1956
San Francisco
Woolpert, PhilPhil Woolpert
083.2 !83–71
Iowa
O'Connor, BuckyBucky O'Connor
McGaw Hall
Evanston, Illinois
[35]

1957
North Carolina
McGuire, FrankFrank McGuire
054.1 !54–53
Kansas
Harp, DickDick Harp
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[36]

1958
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
084.3 !84–72
Seattle
Castellani, JohnJohn Castellani
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[37]

1959
California
Newell, PetePete Newell
071.1 !71–70
West Virginia
Schaus, FredFred Schaus
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[38]

1960
Ohio State
Taylor, FredFred Taylor
075.4 !75–55
California
Newell, PetePete Newell
Cow Palace
Daly City, California
[39][40]

1961
Cincinnati
Jucker, EdEd Jucker
070 !70–65*
Ohio State
Taylor, FredFred Taylor
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[41]

1962
Cincinnati
Jucker, EdEd Jucker
071.4 !71–59
Ohio State
Taylor, FredFred Taylor
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[42]

1963
Loyola Chicago
Ireland, GeorgeGeorge Ireland
060.1 !60–58*
Cincinnati
Jucker, EdEd Jucker
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[43]

1964
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
098 !98–83
Duke
Bubas, VicVic Bubas
Municipal Auditorium
Kansas City, Missouri
[44]

1965
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
091 !91–80
Michigan
Strack, DaveDave Strack
Memorial Coliseum
Portland, Oregon
[45]

1966
Texas Western
Haskins, DonDon Haskins
072.2 !72–65
Kentucky
Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
Cole Field House
College Park, Maryland
[46]

1967
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
079 !79–64
Dayton
Donoher, DonDon Donoher
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[47]

1968
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
078.2 !78–55
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
Sports Arena
Los Angeles, California
[48]

1969
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
092.3 !92–72
Purdue
King, GeorgeGeorge King
Freedom Hall
Louisville, Kentucky
[49]

1970
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
080.2 !80–69
Jacksonville
Williams, JoeJoe Williams
Cole Field House
College Park, Maryland
[50]

1971
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
068.2 !68–62
Villanova[a]
Kraft, JackJack Kraft
Astrodome
Houston, Texas
[51]

1972
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
081.2 !81–76
Florida State
Durham, HughHugh Durham
Memorial Sports Arena
Los Angeles, California
[52]

1973
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
087 !87–66
Memphis State
Bartow, GeneGene Bartow
St. Louis Arena
St. Louis, Missouri
[53]

1974
North Carolina State
Sloan, NormNorm Sloan
076.3 !76–64
Marquette
McGuire, AlAl McGuire
Greensboro Coliseum
Greensboro, North Carolina
[54]

1975
UCLA
Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
092.1 !92–85
Kentucky
Hall, Joe B.Joe B. Hall
San Diego Sports Arena
San Diego, California
[55]

1976
Indiana
Knight, BobBob Knight
086 !86–68
Michigan
Orr, JohnnyJohnny Orr
Spectrum
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
[56]

1977
Marquette
McGuire, AlAl McGuire
067 !67–59
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
Omni Coliseum
Atlanta, Georgia
[57]

1978
Kentucky
Hall, Joe B.Joe B. Hall
094 !94–88
Duke
Foster, BillBill Foster
The Checkerdome
St. Louis, Missouri
[58]

1979
Michigan State
Heathcote, JudJud Heathcote
075.3 !75–64
Indiana State
Hodges, BillBill Hodges
Special Events Center
Salt Lake City, Utah
[59]

1980
Louisville
Crum, DennyDenny Crum
059 !59–54
UCLA[a]
Brown, LarryLarry Brown
Market Square Arena
Indianapolis, Indiana
[60]

1981
Indiana
Knight, BobBob Knight
063.2 !63–50
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
Spectrum
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
[61]

1982
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
063.1 !63–62
Georgetown
Thompson, JohnJohn Thompson
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[62]

1983
North Carolina State
Valvano, JimJim Valvano
054.2 !54–52
Houston
Lewis, GuyGuy Lewis
University Arena
Albuquerque, New Mexico
[63]

1984
Georgetown
Thompson, JohnJohn Thompson
084.2 !84–75
Houston
Lewis, GuyGuy Lewis
Kingdome
Seattle, Washington
[64]

1985
Villanova
Massimino, RollieRollie Massimino
066 !66–64
Georgetown
Thompson, JohnJohn Thompson
Rupp Arena
Lexington, Kentucky
[65]

1986
Louisville
Crum, DennyDenny Crum
072.1 !72–69
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
Reunion Arena
Dallas, Texas
[66]

1987
Indiana
Knight, BobBob Knight
074 !74–73
Syracuse
Boeheim, JimJim Boeheim
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[67]

1988
Kansas
Brown, LarryLarry Brown
083.1 !83–79
Oklahoma
Tubbs, BillyBilly Tubbs
Kemper Arena
Kansas City, Missouri
[68]

1989
Michigan
Fisher, SteveSteve Fisher
080.1 !80–79*
Seton Hall
Carlesimo, P. J.P. J. Carlesimo
Kingdome
Seattle, Washington
[69]

1990
UNLV
Tarkanian, JerryJerry Tarkanian
103 !103–73
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
McNichols Sports Arena
Denver, Colorado
[70]

1991
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
072.2 !72–65
Kansas
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
Hoosier Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[71]

1992
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
071.5 !71–51
Michigan[a]
Fisher, SteveSteve Fisher
Metrodome
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[72]

1993
North Carolina
Smith, DeanDean Smith
077.2 !77–71
Michigan[a]
Fisher, SteveSteve Fisher
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[73]

1994
Arkansas
Richardson, NolanNolan Richardson
076.1 !76–72
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
Charlotte Coliseum
Charlotte, North Carolina
[74]

1995
UCLA
Harrick, JimJim Harrick
089.1 !89–78
Arkansas
Richardson, NolanNolan Richardson
Kingdome
Seattle, Washington
[75]

1996
Kentucky
Pitino, RickRick Pitino
076.2 !76–67
Syracuse
Boeheim, JimJim Boeheim
Continental Airlines Arena
East Rutherford, New Jersey
[76]

1997
Arizona
Olson, LuteLute Olson
084.1 !84–79*
Kentucky
Pitino, RickRick Pitino
RCA Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[77]

1998
Kentucky
Smith, TubbyTubby Smith
078.1 !78–69
Utah
Majerus, RickRick Majerus
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[78]

1999
Connecticut
Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
077.1 !77–74
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
Tropicana Field
St. Petersburg, Florida
[79]

2000
Michigan State
Izzo, TomTom Izzo
089.2 !89–76
Florida
Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
RCA Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[80]

2001
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
082.3 !82–72
Arizona
Olson, LuteLute Olson
Metrodome
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[81]

2002
Maryland
Williams, GaryGary Williams
064 !64–52
Indiana
Davis, MikeMike Davis
Georgia Dome
Atlanta, Georgia
[82]

2003
Syracuse
Boeheim, JimJim Boeheim
081.1 !81–78
Kansas
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
Louisiana Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[83]

2004
Connecticut
Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
082.2 !82–73
Georgia Tech
Hewitt, PaulPaul Hewitt
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[84]

2005
North Carolina
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
075.1 !75–70
Illinois
Weber, BruceBruce Weber
Edward Jones Dome
St. Louis, Missouri
[85]

2006
Florida
Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
073 !73–57
UCLA
Howland, BenBen Howland
RCA Dome
Indianapolis, Indiana
[86]

2007
Florida
Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
084.2 !84–75
Ohio State
Matta, ThadThad Matta
Georgia Dome
Atlanta, Georgia
[87]

2008
Kansas
Self, BillBill Self
075.2 !75–68*
Memphis[a]
Calipari, JohnJohn Calipari
Alamodome
San Antonio, Texas
[88]

2009
North Carolina
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
089.3 !89–72
Michigan State
Izzo, TomTom Izzo
Ford Field
Detroit, Michigan
[89]

2010
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
061 !61–59
Butler
Stevens, BradBrad Stevens
Lucas Oil Stadium
Indianapolis, Indiana
[90]

2011
Connecticut
Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
053.1 !53–41
Butler
Stevens, BradBrad Stevens
Reliant Stadium
Houston, Texas
[91]

2012
Kentucky
Calipari, JohnJohn Calipari
067.1 !67–59
Kansas
Self, BillBill Self
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
New Orleans, Louisiana
[92]

2013
Louisville[a]
Pitino, RickRick Pitino
082.1 !82–76
Michigan
Beilein, JohnJohn Beilein
Georgia Dome
Atlanta, Georgia
[93]

2014
Connecticut
Ollie, KevinKevin Ollie
060.2 !60–54
Kentucky
Calipari, JohnJohn Calipari
AT&T Stadium
Arlington, Texas
[94]

2015
Duke
Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
068.1 !68–63
Wisconsin
Ryan, BoBo Ryan
Lucas Oil Stadium
Indianapolis, Indiana
[95]

2016
Villanova
Jay Wright
077.1 !77–74
North Carolina
Williams, RoyRoy Williams
NRG Stadium
Houston, Texas
[96]

2017
North Carolina
Roy Williams
071.3 !71–65
Gonzaga
Mark Few
University of Phoenix Stadium
Glendale, Arizona
[97]

text: Multiple champions[edit]

text:
Teams with multiple championships

Team
Wins
Years won

UCLA
11
1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995

Kentucky
8
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1996, 1998, 2012

North Carolina
6
1957, 1982, 1993, 2005, 2009, 2017

Duke
5
1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, 2015

Indiana
5
1940, 1953, 1976, 1981, 1987

Connecticut
4
1999, 2004, 2011, 2014

Kansas
3
1952, 1988, 2008

Louisville*
2
1980, 1986

Cincinnati
2
1961, 1962

Florida
2
2006, 2007

Michigan State
2
1979, 2000

North Carolina State
2
1974, 1983

Oklahoma State[b]
2
1945, 1946

San Francisco
2
1955, 1956

Villanova
2
1985, 2016

text:
Coaches with multiple championships

Team
Wins
Years won

Wooden, JohnJohn Wooden
10
1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975

Krzyzewski, MikeMike Krzyzewski
5
1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, 2015

Rupp, AdolphAdolph Rupp
4
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958

Calhoun, JimJim Calhoun
3
1999, 2004, 2011

Knight, BobBob Knight
3
1976, 1981, 1987

Williams, RoyRoy Williams
3
2005, 2009, 2017

Crum, DennyDenny Crum
2
1980, 1986

Donovan, BillyBilly Donovan
2
2006, 2007

Iba, HenryHenry Iba
2
1945, 1946

Jucker, EdEd Jucker
2
1961, 1962

McCracken, BranchBranch McCracken
2
1940, 1953

Smith, DeanDean Smith
2
1982, 1993

Woolpert, PhilPhil Woolpert
2
1955, 1956

text: Louisville won the 2013 National Championship, however the NCAA Committee on Infractions vacated the title in 2018

tag: ul

text: Champions by conference status[edit]

text: Champions by conference at the time of tournaments[edit]

text:
Championships by conference membership at the time of tournaments

Conference
Wins
Years won
Ref(s)

Pac-12 Conference !Pac-12 Conference (1915–current)
15
1939, 1942, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995, 1997
[17][38][98][99][100]

Atlantic Coast Conference !Atlantic Coast Conference (1953–current)
14
1957, 1974, 1982, 1983, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2017
[101][102][103][104][105]

Southeastern Conference !Southeastern Conference (1932–current)
11
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2006, 2007, 2012
[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]

Big Ten Conference !Big Ten Conference (1896–current)
10
1940, 1941, 1953, 1960, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1987, 1989, 2000
[117]

Big East Conference !Big East Conference (1979–current)
7
1984, 1985, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2011, 2016
[93][118][119][120]

Independents
6
1944, 1947, 1954, 1963, 1966, 1977
[46][121][122][123][124][125]

Missouri Valley Conference !Missouri Valley Conference (1907–current)
4
1945, 1946, 1961, 1962
[126][127][128][129]

Big Eight Conference !Big 8 Conference (1907–1996)
2
1952, 1988
[31][68]

Metro Conference !Metro Conference (1975–1995)
2
1980, 1986
[130]

West Coast Conference !West Coast Conference (1952–current)
2
1955, 1956
[131]

American Athletic Conference !American Athletic Conference (2014–current)
1
2014
[94]

Big Twelve Conference !Big 12 Conference (1994–current)
1
2008
[132]

Big West Conference !Big West Conference (1969–current)
1
1990
[133]

Metropolitan New York Conference !Metropolitan New York Conference (1933–1963)
1
1950
[134]

Mountain States Conference !Mountain States Conference (1938–1962)
1
1943
[135]

text: Championships by current conference membership[edit]

text:
Championships by current conference membership

Conference
Wins
Years won
Ref(s)

Atlantic Coast Conference !Atlantic Coast Conference
16
1957, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2017
[136][137]

Pac-12 Conference !Pac-12 Conference
16
1939, 1942, 1944, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995, 1997
[138][139]

Southeastern Conference !Southeastern Conference
11
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2006, 2007, 2012
[140]

Big Ten Conference !Big Ten Conference
11
1940, 1941, 1953, 1960, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1987, 1989, 2000, 2002
[141]

American Athletic Conference
6
1961, 1962, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2014
[142][143][144]

Big Twelve Conference !Big 12 Conference
5
1945, 1946, 1952, 1988, 2008
[145][146][147]

Big East Conference
4
1977, 1984, 1985, 2016
[148][149]

Mountain West Conference !Mountain West Conference
2
1943, 1990
[150][151]

West Coast Conference !West Coast Conference
2
1955, 1956
[152]

Atlantic 10 Conference !Atlantic 10 Conference
1
1954
[153]

City University of New York Athletic Conference !City University of New York Athletic Conference
1
1950
[154]

Conference USA !Conference USA
1
1966
[155]

Missouri Valley Conference !Missouri Valley Conference
1
1963
[156]

Patriot League !Patriot League
1
1947
[157]

text: Championships by state[edit]

text:
Championships by state

State
Wins
Years won

California
15
1942, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1995

North Carolina
13
1957, 1974, 1982, 1983, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2017

Kentucky
10
1948, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1978, 1980, 1986, 1996, 1998, 2012

Indiana
5
1940, 1953, 1976, 1981, 1987

Connecticut
4
1999, 2004, 2011, 2014

Ohio
3
1960, 1961, 1962

Kansas
3
1952, 1988, 2008

Michigan
3
1979, 1989, 2000

Pennsylvania
3
1954, 1985, 2016

Oklahoma
2
1945, 1946

Wisconsin
2
1941, 1977

New York
2
1950, 2003

Florida
2
2006, 2007

Oregon
1
1939

Wyoming
1
1943

Utah
1
1944

Massachusetts
1
1947

Illinois
1
1963

Texas
1
1966

Washington, D.C.
1
1984

Nevada
1
1990

Arkansas
1
1994

Arizona
1
1997

Maryland
1
2002

text: Indicates vacated by NCAA