document_title: Nose piercing

question_text: what does the nose ring mean in indian culture

text: Nose piercing

text: Nostril piercing[edit]

text: Nostril piercing is a body piercing practice for the purpose of wearing jewelry, much like nose piercing, which is most primarily and prominently associated with Indian culture and fashion since classical times, and found commonly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal , Philippines and throughout South and even Southeast Asia. Nostril piercing is also part of traditional Australian Aboriginal culture.[1] and the culture of the Ilocano, a Muslim tribe in the Philippines. With the diffusion, exposure and spread of Indian fashion and culture, nostril piercing has in recent decades become popular in the wider world, as have other forms of body piercing, after punks and subsequent youth cultures in the '80s and '90s adopted this sort of piercing. Today, nostril piercing is popular in the wider world including South America, United States of America, Canada, the Caribbean, Australia, Africa, Japan and Europe, with piercings being performed on either the left or right nostril.

text: Historically in the Indian Subcontinent, nose piercings are done by women only. However the spread of this fashion has resulted in both men and women having nostril piercings in the wider world. Several different types of nostril rings are found. Among the most popular are the loop, the stud with an L-bar closure, the stud with a ball closure, and the stud with a flat backing.

text: In India the outside of the left part of the body [?] is the preferred position of the piercing. This is followed by some orthodox folk also because Ayurvedic medicine associates this location with the female reproductive organs.[2] In India, like any other jewelry, piercings and the jewelry are regarded as a mark of beauty and social standing as well as a Hindu's honor to Parvati, the goddess of marriage.  Nose piercing is still popular in India and the subcontinent. The piercings are often an integral part of Indian wedding jewelry. In Maharashtra women wear very large intricate nose pieces that often cover the mouth or the side of the face.

text: It is very common in Bengali women. Pashtun and Pahari women commonly have both nostrils pierced. Many South Indian Tamil also follow this old tradition. Numerous traditions are associated with it. Many women from the Asian subcontinent are cremated with just their nose studs as jewelry is removed before the funeral. Indian widows usually remove their nose studs as a sign of respect. Nose piercing has historically been strictly forbidden among many families of Kashmiris belonging to Butt, Dar, Lone and Mir castes settled in Pakistan as their ancestors associated nose piercing with people of menial descent in ancient Kashmiri society.

text: Septum piercing[edit]

text: The nasal septum is the cartilaginous dividing wall between the nostrils. Generally, the cartilage itself is not pierced, but rather the small gap between the cartilage and the bottom of the nose (sometimes called the "sweet spot"), typically at 14ga (1.6 mm) although it is often stretched to a larger gauge (size). The nose has many nerves running through it, and as a result, nose piercings can be painful, although the pain varies by individual. This piercing heals within a month and a half to three months also depending on the individual. It should only be stretched by 1mm at a time, and waiting at least a month between stretches is advisable.[citation needed] If a certain point is exceeded, usually about 8mm, the cartilage gets forced towards the top of the nose, which can be uncomfortable.

text: Many types of jewelry generally are worn in a septum piercing, such as: Captive bead rings (CBRs), rings that close with a bead held in the center by the tension of the ring, circular barbells (as shown in the picture), a circular bar with a bead that screws onto either end, a "tusk" that is a straight or shaped piece of material generally tapered on either end, or pinchers. For large gauge septums, many individuals choose to wear plugs, as the plugs do not weigh their noses down, which is helpful in healing.  This  measure allows the piercing not to be damaged by the sudden movement of the jewelry.

text: Another option is a septum retainer, which is staple-shaped. This type of nose piercing is particularly easy to hide when desired, for example to comply with a dress code. A septum retainer makes possible turning the jewelry up into the nose, thus concealing it. With black jewelry flipped up into the nostrils, this piercing can be made practically invisible. A circular barbell can also be hidden by pushing it to the back into the nose, but it may be uncomfortable.

text: Septum piercing is a popular trend among South Indian dancers (Kuchipudi, Bharatnatyam) and among certain Native American peoples in history; the Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, for example, had such piercings.[citation needed]

text: The septum piercing is popular in countrysides of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In India such piercing is called the 'Nathori' and popular with the Banjara ethnic groups and Adivasi tribes. Lord Krishna and his consort Radharani are often depicted wearing the 'Nathori' style jewel nose pieces.[3]

text: Bengali women traditionally would wear the nathori as a sign of being a married woman. The nathori would be gold with a tear drop that would move along the ring. Many lower-class women in rural Bengal still keep this tradition. This practice is now declining as many women prefer the nose studs.

text: In southern Nepal the septum piercing is still common. Many older women still adorn their noses with both the septum and left nostril rings. Many women have gold nose piercings to show their social, tribal, and religious status in society.

text: Risks[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The septum or nasal septum is the cartilaginous wall that divides the two nostrils. The cartilage is, however, usually not pierced. It is the thin strip of very soft and flexible skin, just between the cartilage and the bottom of the nose, where septum piercing is mostly done. Piercing the skin instead of the cartilage can greatly minimize the pain, as well as other discomforts associated with this type of body piercing. This piercing should be done only with a needle. As far as jewelry is concerned, captive bead rings, circular barbells, plugs, tusks, curls, and septum retainer can be used.

text: All types of body piercings, including septum piercing, are associated with the risk of contracting certain blood borne diseases, like hepatitis, from the needles and piercing guns used in the procedure. This risk can be reduced by getting the piercing done by a reputed piercer and making sure that the piercer uses only sterile single-use needles. The next common risk associated with almost all types of piercing is the risk of infection and pain. These issues can be minimized greatly if piercing is done on the soft and flexible skin that lies between the cartilage and bottom of the nose. As far as infection risks are concerned, they can be managed with proper piercing aftercare.

text: This piercing can sometimes lead to 'septal hematoma' -- an injury to the soft tissue within the septum that can disrupt the blood vessels to cause the accumulation of blood and fluid under the lining. Nasal septum hematoma can eventually cause nasal congestion and interfere with breathing along with causing pain and inflammation. If not treated immediately, the condition can ultimately cause formation of a hole in the septum, leading to nasal congestion. Sometimes, that part of the nose may collapse, resulting in a cosmetic deformity, known as 'saddle nose'.[citation needed]

text: Bridge piercing[edit]

text: Bridge piercings are inserted through the skin at the top of the nose, between the eyes. Curved barbells and straight barbells are the most commonly used in this piercing, while seamless rings are less common.

text: Social acceptability of nose piercing[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: More and more companies in the workplace have become more lenient on such issues as piercings and the dress code. [4]

text: The acceptance of more visible body modifications is attributable to its becoming a social norm.  If companies did not hire employees with a tattoo or nose piercing, the number of future workers that the companies could hire would be limited.[5]


document_title: Lani Price

question_text: who is lani's mom on days of our lives

question_tokens: who is lani 's mom on days of our lives

root

text: Lani Price

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Lani is introduced as a rookie police officer at the Salem Police Department. She takes an interest in the mayor, Abe Carver. She also takes a liking to veteran detective Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering). Abe sees pictures on Lani's computer and realizes she is the daughter of singer Tamara Price (Marilyn McCoo), his ex-flame. Lani and Rafe attend Salem's bicentennial celebration together where Abe confronts Lani over his suspicions about her paternity and she confirms that she is his daughter. Abe makes plans to introduce his autistic son Theo (Kyler Pettis) to Lani but wants to ease into it. Lani forms a connection with Theo when she helps save his friend Joey Johnson (James Lastovic) when he collapses during the party. Lani uncovers that Ben Weston (Robert Scott Wilson) is the serial killer who has been terrorizing Salem. Lani, along with fellow officer JJ Deveraux (Casey Moss) tracks Ben to a nearby town where she successfully arrests him. Theo struggles to accept the revelation that Lani is his sister but when he finally does, Theo becomes very territorial, even around their father. Theo confides in Lani that he is being bullied but he swears her to secrecy. Lani continues flirting with Rafe but she soon recognizes that he is in love with Hope Brady (Kristian Alfonso). Lani gets a new partner in Hope's son, Shawn-Douglas Brady (Brandon Beemer) which leads to romance. Lani falls hard for Shawn but before they can consummate their relationship, Shawn reunites with his estranged wife Belle Black (Martha Madison) and Lani moves back to Miami.

tag: p

text: Lani, now a detective returns to Salem in December 2016 to check up on Abe who is recovering from being shot. Lani is very grateful to Doctor Valerie Grant (Vanessa A. Williams) for saving her father's life. However, Theo suspects Valerie is keeping a secret and Lani reluctantly agrees to help him uncover it. On New Year's Eve, Lani confronts JJ Deveraux and reveals that she is the woman that he had a one-night stand. JJ explains that he was blackout drunk and does not remember and they agree to just be friends. In 2017, Lani and JJ are paired together on the Orwell case. They soon start dating despite Abe's disapproval. After JJ breaks up with her after her brother's shooting, she finds JJ and Gabi in bed together, and assumes he has moved on, so she sleeps with Eli which later results in pregnancy. Later, JJ and Lani get back together after she learns about his attempted suicide and how Gabi stopped him. She discovers she's pregnant with Eli's baby and considers abortion without letting Eli and JJ know, only confiding in Kayla Brady about the child not being JJ's. Later, JJ finds out about her pregnancy, thinking the baby is his and convinces her not to abort the child. She keeps the truth from JJ about the baby not being his, but confesses to Eli about the baby being his after his mother Valerie Grant threatens her to.

text: Development[edit]

text: Creation and casting[edit]

text: The series released the casting call for the contract role in September 2014, then known as Maya. The character was due to start filming in late 2014 and expected to air by Spring 2015.[1] On June 30, 2015, it was announced that model and actress Sal Stowers, known to daytime audiences for portrayal of Cassandra Foster on the short lived online reboot of All My Children would portray Lani. Stowers was the season 9 of the reality television series America's Next Top Model. The actress was slated to make her first appearance in September 2015.[2][3][4] "So beyond excited and honored to announce that I have joined the Emmy-winning cast of Days Of Our Lives!" Stowers said in celebration of her new gig.[5] Stowers filmed her first scenes in April 2015.[6] On September 2, 2015, Stowers confirmed through Twitter that she would debut in the role of Lani on September 25.[7] Stowers auditioned opposite Galen Gering and beat out eight other actresses for the role.[8] Stowers described the ca≠sting process in an interview with Soap Opera Digest. "It was 6 a.m. and there was this huge adrenaline rush right before the test." She was instructed by the casting director Marnie Saitta to do push-ups to help calm her nerves. Stowers booked the role the same day. She was still a bit nervous but then the actress told herself, "There was a reason why I got the job." She taped three episodes on her first day. The casting reunited Stowers with her All My Children co-star Robert Scott Wilson. To celebrate her new gig, Stowers planned a brunch to coincide with her first airshow.[8] "I love playing Abe's daughter and being apart of his family" Stowers said of the role. "I'm so passionate about Lani" she continued.[9]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: The original casting notice described the character as "smart and drop-dead gorgeous" African-American woman between the ages of 25-30 who was a "confident, dedicated professional" with a "sensitive side."[1] According to Stowers, "Lani is very smart." She is also "very driven and really good at her job." Stowers described Lani as having "a power in her."[8] Of her character, Stowers said Lani "came with a goal." Lani is "very determined. When she finds out what she wants, she goes after it and won't let anything stop her."[10] When Stowers was invited back to reprise the role of  Lani in 2016, she actively decided to change the way she portrayed Lani. "I wanted to approach her differently and bring a boldness to Lani, showing her as strong." In addition, the writers wanted to explore the character's personality more. Lani is more of a risk taker when she comes back.[9] According Stowers, Lani has grown so much and "has more of an opinion now." Stowers further stated that "Lani owns her power and is committed to her job." The actress later explained that "Lani always tries to be Superwoman."[11]

text: Introduction (2015)[edit]

text: There was initial speculation that Lani would share connection with Billy Flynn's character, Chad DiMera.[12] Upon her introduction, Lani is still settling into her new home "so we are seeing Lani on her best behavior," Stowers remarked. She is also trying to build a relationship with her father Abe whom her mother kept "hidden from Lani her whole life."[13] Lani is determined to ingratiate herself into the Salem Police department and "she's putting everything into her work."[10] In the beginning, Stowers said "there was a mystery to Lani." As the mayor's daughter, "Lani kind of walked on eggshells."[9]

text: In March 2016, Daytime Confidential reported that Stowers was one of several cast members released from their contracts when the series once again replaced the writing team.[14] Stowers had actually filmed her departure scenes at the end of 2015, only a few months after her onscreen debut. However, the series kept quiet about her impending departure. When the news finally broke, Stowers took to Twitter to thank fans for their love and support.[15] Of Lani's unexpected departure in June 2016, Stowers said, "I just went with what was happening."[9]

text: Return (2016)[edit]

text: In September 2016, rumors circulated that Stowers would reprise her role as the actress had appeared in the cast photo for the 13,000th episode back which filmed in July 2016.[16][17] However, Stowers return was not officially confirmed by the network until the week before her first re-appearance on December 19.[18] Stowers was hesitant when she was suddenly contacted by the casting director about returning to the role of Lani. "I was excited but at first, I didn't believe it" the actress explained. However, Stowers revealed that she expected Lani to come back at some point because of her connection to Abe. Her return was kept secret so it was just as much a surprise to her co-stars as the actress herself.[9] However, Stowers was excited because she missed working with everyone.[11] Stowers said her hiatus helped to develop her as an actress and as a person. "When I walk onto the set now I'm very confident in what I've created with Lani." She continued, "I've definitely grown, not only as an artist, but also as a human… Giving Lani a voice, I also gave myself a voice. That's not easy to do, especially with a new job.[19]

text: Stowers was grateful that Lani was much more integrated into the canvas upon her return. "Everyone respects her. She's making great friendships. I think in the beginning […], that wasn't there."[19] Lani comes back to town with a secret.[18] Though Lani's main reason for returning is to visit her ailing father, it is revealed that she is the woman JJ Deveraux (Casey Moss) had a drunken one-night-stand with whom he could not remember.[20][21] In June 2018, Stowers renewed her deal with the soap; she will continue to appear as Lani into fall 2019.[22]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Initially, Lani shows an interest in Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering), a fellow member of the Salem Police Department. When she realizes he is interested in Hope Brady (Kristian Alfonso), Lani hooks up with Hope's son Shawn-Douglas Brady (Brandon Beemer) when he separates from his wife. When Shawn reconciles with his wife, Lani skips town. According to Sal Stowers, Lani "loves love" and she wants it just as much as she wants a career. However, she needs a partner she can have that with.[23]

text: Upon her return, the writers pair Lani with JJ, another one of her colleagues. Stowers liked the pairing "because they're fun," she stated. "They have this very playful chemistry but they also really get each other." However, Lani feels the rookie JJ will let their relationship interfere with their work, so she tries to cut him out of things. This backfires when Lani is abducted by a drug dealer and forced to take drugs. She experiences withdrawal and at same time questions the future of her relationship with JJ. "She wonders if this is what he really wants or if it's just something to get him by."[23] Stowers relished in the opportunity to show her acting chops as Lani suffered from withdrawals after ingesting halo. "I spent a lot of time researching what addicts go through during withdrawal. I didn't know there was fear, loneliness, and hot and cold sensations, feeling like your skin is on fire." Stowers admitted that she had to go a "dark place" but she was up for the challenge.[23] "I'm a very positive, happy person, so to put myself in a dark place was scary." Lani is adamant about keeping JJ out of her struggles because "she had something to prove to herself" and JJ. "She wanted to show JJ that she could hold it together."[11] Stowers said it was easy work with Casey Moss and credited her co-star with making her feel comfortable.[19]

text: At the same time, Lani bonds with Eli Grant (Lamon Archey) who helps her hide her withdrawals from everyone including her father and JJ. While there is a connection between the two, Stowers felt it would be a bit "awkward" due to Abe's relationship with Eli's mom Valerie Grant (Vanessa A. Williams).[23] Eli and Lani initially clash but she admires how good he is at his job.[11] Stowers was excited to work with Archey again, as they had worked together in their modeling days. "We're super-comfortable around each other because we've known each other for so long."[19]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Trey from Rickey.org said of Stowers casting "Looks like Days of our Lives is about to get some well-needed diversity on their canvas!"[12] Jamey Giddens said Stowers' firing "proves once again that while discussion of diversity are of growing important in primetime and film, daytime is completely regressing in this area."[24] Ryan White-Nobles from TVSource Magazine said the lack of development for the character left him unable to feel anything for Lani. However, he continued, "I will say it’s disappointing that once again, an actress of color remains an afterthought in a genre that once placed a value on showcasing diversity."[25] Michael Goldberg from Serial Scoop said "here is hoping that Lani works better as a character this time around than she did last time" and believed Lani's interactions with JJ Deveraux would benefit the character.[26]


document_title: Visa requirements for Australian citizens

question_text: visa requirements for australian citizens travelling to switzerland

question_tokens: visa requirements for australian citizens travelling to switzerland

text: Visa requirements for Australian citizens

text: Visa requirements map[edit]

text: Visa requirements[edit]

text: Each country has a multitude of visa types, each with its particular purpose and requirements. Rules for short visits by ordinary passport holders are as follows:

text:
Country

Visa requirement

Allowed stay

Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Afghanistan

Visa required[2]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Afghanistan.[3]

 Albania

Visa not required[4]

90 days

 Algeria

Visa required[5]

 Andorra

Visa not required[6]

 Angola

eVisa[7][8]

30 days

Visitors who have been granted an online pre-visa are then issued with a visa on arrival at Luanda International Airport.[9][10]
For a maximum total stay of 90 days within a one year period.[11]

 Antigua and Barbuda

Visa not required[12]

1 month

 Argentina

Visa not required[13]

90 days

 Armenia

Visa not required[14]

180 days

 Austria

Visa not required[15]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Azerbaijan

eVisa[16]

30 days[17]

 Bahamas

Visa not required[18]

3 months

 Bahrain

eVisa / Visa on arrival[19]

14 days

 Bangladesh

Visa on arrival[20]

30 days

Not available at all entry points.[21]

 Barbados

Visa not required[22]

6 months

 Belarus

Visa not required[23]

30 days

Must arrive and depart via Minsk International Airport.

 Belgium

Visa not required[24]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area. Additionally bilateral agreement permits 2 months on top of this.

 Belize

Visa not required[25]

1 month[26]

 Benin

eVisa / Visa on arrival[27][28]

30 days / 8 days

Must have an international vaccination certificate.

 Bhutan

Visa required[29]

Visa approved via tour operators only.

 Bolivia

Visa not required[30]

90 days

 Bosnia and Herzegovina

Visa not required[31]

90 days

90 days within any 6-month period

 Botswana

Visa not required[32]

90 days

90 days within year period

 Brazil

eVisa[33]

90 days

90 days within year period

 Brunei

Visa on arrival[34]

30 days

 Bulgaria

Visa not required[35]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Burkina Faso

Visa on arrival[36]

1 month

 Burundi

Visa required[37]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Burundi.[38]

 Cambodia

eVisa / Visa on arrival[39]

30 days

Visa is also obtainable online.[40]

 Cameroon

Visa required[41]

 Canada

Visa not required[42]

6 months

eTA required if arriving by air.[43]

 Cape Verde

Visa on arrival[44]

Not available at all entry points.[45]

 Central African Republic

Visa required[46]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Central African Republic.[47]

 Chad

Visa required[48]

Letter of invitation required.

 Chile

Visa not required[49]

90 days

Australian tourists entering Chile through Santiago International Airport are required to pay a "reciprocity fee" of US$117.

 China

Visa required[50]

72-hour visit without a visa when in transit at Changsha, Chengdu, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Guilin, Harbin, Kunming, Qingdao, Wuhan, Xi'an and Xiamen.144-hours visit without a visa when in transit through Beijing Capital International Airport,[51] Dalian, Hangzhou, Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport in Hebei,[52] Nanjing, Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport, Shanghai Railway Station and the Port of Shanghai); Shenyang and Tianjin Binhai International Airport[53]
Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan do count as third countries under the 72 and 144-hours visa-free visit transit policy.

 Colombia

Visa not required[54]

180 days

90 days - extendable up to 180-days stay within a one-year period

 Comoros

Visa on arrival[55]

 Republic of the Congo

Visa required[56]

Visa and invitation letters approved via tour operators only.

 Democratic Republic of the Congo

Visa required[57]

Visa not required for Congolese-born visitors

 Costa Rica

Visa not required[58]

90 days

 Côte d'Ivoire

eVisa[59]

3 months

eVisa holders must arrive via Port Bouet Airport.

 Croatia

Visa not required[60]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Cuba

Tourist Card required[61]

Visitors travelling to Cuba can purchase a tourist card at the Cuban embassy or nearest travel agent that sells authorized cards.

 Cyprus

Visa not required[62]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Czech Republic

Visa not required[63]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Denmark

Visa not required[64]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries (except the other Nordic countries)

 Djibouti

eVisa[65]

31 days

 Dominica

Visa not required[66]

6 months

 Dominican Republic

Visa not required[67]

90 days

 Ecuador

Visa not required[68]

90 days[26]

 Egypt

eVisa / Visa on arrival[69][70]

30 days

 El Salvador

Visa not required[71]

3 months

 Equatorial Guinea

Visa required[72]

Letter of invitation required.

 Eritrea

Visa required[73]

A tourist visa for Australian citizens is issued for a stay of 1 month from arrival to Eritrea.

 Estonia

Visa not required[74]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Ethiopia

eVisa / Visa on arrival[75]

Not available at all entry points.[76]

 Fiji

Visa not required[77]

4 months

 Finland

Visa not required[78]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 France

Visa not required[79]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area (in Regions of France) regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Gabon

eVisa / Visa on arrival[80]

Electronic visa holders must arrive via Libreville International Airport.[81]

 Gambia

Visa not required[82]

90 days

 Georgia

Visa not required[83]

360 days[84]

 Germany

Visa not required[85]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period regardless of previous time spent in Schengen countries

 Ghana

Visa required[86][87]

 Greece

Visa not required[88]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Grenada

Visa not required[89]

3 months[26]

 Guatemala

Visa not required[90]

90 days

 Guinea

Visa required[91]

 Guinea-Bissau

eVisa / Visa on arrival[92]

90 days

 Guyana

Visa not required[93]

3 months

 Haiti

Visa not required[94]

3 months

 Honduras

Visa not required[95]

3 months

 Hungary

Visa not required[96]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Iceland

Visa not required[97]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 India

e-Visa[98]

60 days

e-Visa holders must arrive via 25 designated airports[Note 1] or 3 designated seaports.[Note 2][99]
An Indian e-Tourist Visa can only be obtained twice in one calendar year.

 Indonesia

Visa not required[100][101]

30 days

 Iran

Visa on arrival[102]

30 days[103]

 Iraq

Visa required[104]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Iraq.[105]

 Ireland

Visa not required[106]

3 months

 Israel

Visa not required[107]

3 months

 Italy

Visa not required[108]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Jamaica

Visa not required[109]

 Japan

Visa not required[110]

90 days

 Jordan

Visa on arrival[111]

Conditions apply.[112]
Not available at all entry points.[113]

 Kazakhstan

Visa not required[114]

30 days

 Kenya

eVisa / Visa on arrival[115]

3 months

 Kiribati

Visa not required[116]

120 days

 North Korea

Visa required[117]

 South Korea

Visa not required[118]

90 days

 Kuwait

eVisa / Visa on arrival[119]

3 months

 Kyrgyzstan

Visa not required[120]

60 days

A single or multiple tourist or business e-visa for 90 days is also available.[121]

 Laos

Visa on arrival[122]

30 days

Conditions apply.
Available at international airports Luangphabang, Pakse, Savannakhet and Vientiane, and at 4 land borders Friendship Bridge,[Note 3] and at 13 border crossings[Note 4] as well as Tanalaeng train station in Vientiane, which connects to the train station in Nongkai, Thailand.[123]
Entry points Lalai, Lantui, Meuang mom, Pakxan, and Phoudou are open only to visa holders.
Extendable up to 60 days.

 Latvia

Visa not required[124]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Lebanon

Visa on arrival[125]

1 month

Visa extendible for 2 additional months
Granted free of charge at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if there is no Israeli visa or seal, holding a telephone number, an address in Lebanon, and a non refundable return or circle trip ticket.

 Lesotho

Visa not required[126]

14 days[26]

 Liberia

Visa required[127]

 Libya

Visa required[128]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Libya.[129]

 Liechtenstein

Visa not required[130]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Lithuania

Visa not required[131]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Luxembourg

Visa not required[132]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Macedonia

Visa not required[133]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Madagascar

Visa on arrival[134]

30 days

Free of charge.

 Malawi

Visa on arrival[135]

 Malaysia

Visa not required[136]

3 months

 Maldives

Visa on arrival[137]

30 days[26]

 Mali

Visa required[138]

 Malta

Visa not required[139]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Marshall Islands

Visa on arrival[140]

90 days

 Mauritania

Visa on arrival[141]

Available at Nouakchott–Oumtounsy International Airport.

 Mauritius

Visa not required[142]

90 days

 Mexico

Visa not required[143]

180 days

 Micronesia

Visa not required[144]

30 days

 Moldova

Visa not required[145]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Monaco

Visa not required[146]

 Mongolia

Visa required[147]

Registration upon arrival for stays longer than 30 days is mandatory.

 Montenegro

Visa not required[148]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Morocco

Visa not required[149]

3 months

 Mozambique

Visa on arrival[150]

30 days

Conditions apply[151]

 Myanmar

eVisa[152]

28 days

eVisa holders must arrive via Yangon, Nay Pyi Taw or Mandalay airports.

 Namibia

Visa not required[153]

3 months

 Nauru

Visa required[154]

Criminal record and medical fitness certificates are not required for Australian citizens.[155]

   Nepal

Visa on arrival[156]

90 days

 Netherlands

Visa not required[157]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area (European Netherlands) regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 New Zealand

Freedom of movement[158]

Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement

 Nicaragua

Visa not required[159]

90 days

 Niger

Visa required[160]

 Nigeria

Visa required[161]

Visa not required for Nigerian-born citizens.

 Norway

Visa not required[162]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries (except other Nordic countries)

 Oman

eVisa[163]

30 days

 Pakistan

Visa required[164]

Visa on arrival when travelling on business valid for 30 days.
Conditions apply.[165]

 Palau

Visa on arrival[166]

30 days

 Panama

Visa not required[167]

180 days

 Papua New Guinea

Free Visa on arrival[168]

30 days

Available at Gurney Airport (Alotau), Mount Hagen Airport, Port Moresby Airport and Tokua Airport (Rabaul).

 Paraguay

Visa on arrival[169]

90 days

Only available at Silvio Pettirossi International Airport in Luque.
Reciprocity fee applies.

 Peru

Visa not required[170]

183 days

 Philippines

Visa not required[171]

30 days

 Poland

Visa not required[172]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Portugal

Visa not required[173]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Qatar

eVisa / Visa on arrival[174]

30 days

Available at Hamad International Airport.
eVisa is also available.

 Romania

Visa not required[175]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Russia

Visa required[176]

Registration required after 2 business days.

 Rwanda

eVisa / Visa on arrival[177]

30 days

 Saint Kitts and Nevis

Visa not required[178]

3 months

 Saint Lucia

Visa not required[179]

6 weeks

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Visa not required[180]

1 month

 Samoa

Entry Permit on arrival[181]

60 days

 San Marino

Visa not required[182]

 São Tomé and Príncipe

eVisa[183]

 Saudi Arabia

Visa required[184]

 Senegal

Visa not required[185]

 Serbia

Visa not required[186]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Seychelles

Visitor's Permit on arrival[187]

3 months[26]

 Sierra Leone

Visa required[188]

 Singapore

Visa not required[189]

90 days

 Slovakia

Visa not required[190]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Slovenia

Visa not required[191]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Solomon Islands

Visitor's permit on arrival[192]

3 months

 Somalia

Visa on arrival[193]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Somalia.[194]

 South Africa

Visa not required[195]

90 days

 South Sudan

Visa required[196]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit South Sudan.[197]

 Spain

Visa not required[198]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Sri Lanka

eVisa / Visa on arrival[199]

30 days

 Sudan

Visa required[200]

Visa not required for Sudanese-born citizens.

 Suriname

Visa required[201]

Visitors arriving from Australia without a representation from Suriname can obtain a visa on arrival with a maximum stay of 2 months if holding a pre-arranged approval.

 Swaziland

Visa not required[202]

30 days[26]

 Sweden

Visa not required[203]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries (except other Nordic countries)

  Switzerland

Visa not required[204]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Syria

Visa required[205]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Syria.[206]

 Tajikistan

Visa on arrival[207]

45 days

At Dushanbe International Airport.
Visa also available online.
E-visa holders can enter through all border points.[208]

 Tanzania

Visa on arrival[209]

 Thailand

Visa not required[210]

30 days

Maximum two visits annually if not arriving by air.

 Timor-Leste

Visa on arrival[211]

30 days

Not available at all entry points.[212]

 Togo

Visa on arrival[213]

7 days

 Tonga

Visa on arrival[214]

31 days

 Trinidad and Tobago

Visa on arrival[215]

30 days

 Tunisia

Visa not required[216][217]

3 months

 Turkey

eVisa / Visa on arrival[218]

3 months[219]

Cruise ship passengers do not require a visa for up to 72 hours.[220]
eVisa can be obtained on arrival for a higher fee.

 Turkmenistan

Visa required[221]

 Tuvalu

Visa on arrival[222]

1 month[26]

 Uganda

eVisa / Visa on arrival[223]

Determined at the port of entry.
May apply online.[224]

 Ukraine

eVisa / Visa on arrival[225][226]

15 days

Visa on arrival for business or tourism purposes, available at Kyiv Boryspil Airport, Kyiv International Airport (Zhuliany) and Odessa International Airport.[227]

 United Arab Emirates

Visa on arrival[228]

30 days

 United Kingdom and Crown dependencies

Visa not required[229]

6 months

 United States

Visa Waiver Program[230]

90 days

On arrival from overseas; ESTA (valid for 2 years when issued) required if arriving by air or cruise ship.[231]
ESTA is not required for Guam and Northern Mariana Islands.

 Uruguay

Visa not required[232]

3 months

 Uzbekistan

eVisa[233][234]

30 days

5-day visa free transit when in transit at the international airports on condition of holding a confirmed onward ticket for a flight to a third country.[235]

 Vanuatu

Visa not required[236]

30 days[26]

  Vatican City

Visa not required[237]

 Venezuela

Visa not required[238]

90 days

 Vietnam

eVisa[239]

30 days

 Yemen

Visa required[240]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Yemen.[241]

 Zambia

eVisa / Visa on arrival[242]

90 days

Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zimbabwe. eVisa available.

 Zimbabwe

eVisa / Visa on arrival[243]

3 months

Strictly tourism purposes only.
Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zambia. eVisa available.

tag: table

text: Dependent, disputed, or restricted territories[edit]

text:
Territory

Conditions of access

Notes

 Abkhazia

Visa required[244]

 Kosovo

Visa not required[245]

90 days

 Northern Cyprus

Visa not required[246]

3 months

 Artsakh

Visa required[247]

Travellers with Artsakh visa (expired or valid) or evidence of travel to Artsakh (stamps) will be permanently denied entry to Azerbaijan.[248]

 Palestine

Visa not required[249]

Arrival by sea to Gaza Strip not allowed.[250]

 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

Undefined visa regime in the Western Sahara controlled territory.

 Somaliland

Visa on arrival

30 days for 30 US dollars, payable on arrival.[251][252]

 South Ossetia

Visa not required[253]

Multiple entry visa to Russia and three day prior notification are required to enter South Ossetia.[254][255]

 Taiwan

Visa not required[256][257]

90 days

 Transnistria

Visa not required[258]

Registration required after 24h.[259][260]

text:
Territory

Conditions of access

Notes

China

 Hong Kong

Visa not required[261]

90 days

 Macau

Visa not required[262]

30 days

Denmark

 Faroe Islands

Visa not required[263]

 Greenland

Visa not required[264]

France

 French Guiana

Visa not required[265]

3 months

 French Polynesia

Visa not required[266]

90 days within 180 days

 French West Indies

Visa not required

Includes overseas departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique and overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin.

 Mayotte

Visa not required[267]

3 months

 New Caledonia

Visa not required[268]

3 months

 Réunion

Visa not required[269]

3 months

 Saint Pierre and Miquelon

Visa not required[270]

3 months

 Wallis and Futuna

Visa not required[271]

3 months

Netherlands

 Aruba

Visa not required[272]

30 days, extendable to 180 days

 Caribbean Netherlands

Visa not required[273]

90 days. Includes Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba.

 Curaçao

Visa not required[274]

90 days

 Sint Maarten

Visa not required[275]

90 days

New Zealand

 Cook Islands

Visa not required[276]

31 days

 Niue

Visa not required[277]

30 days

 Tokelau

Visa required[278]

United Kingdom

 Akrotiri and Dhekelia

Visa not required[279]

Stays longer than 28 days per 12-month period require a permit.[280]

 Anguilla

Visa not required[281]

3 months

 Bermuda

Visa not required[282]

Up to 6 months, decided on arriva

 British Indian Ocean Territory

Special permit required

Special permit required.[283]

 British Virgin Islands

Visa not required[284]

30 days, extensions possible

 Cayman Islands

Visa not required[285]

6 months

 Falkland Islands

Visa not required[286]

 Gibraltar

Visa not required[287]

 Montserrat

Visa not required[288]

6 months

 Pitcairn Islands

Visa not required

14 days visa free and landing fee 35 USD or tax of 5 USD if not going ashore.[289][290][291]

 Ascension Island

Entry Permit required

Entry Permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance (3 months for 20/30 pounds sterling, single/double entry).[292]

 Saint Helena

Visitor's Pass required

Visitor's Pass granted on arrival valid for 4/10/21/60/90 days for 12/14/16/20/25 pound sterling.[293]

 Tristan da Cunha

Permission required

Permission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands.[294]

 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

Permit required

Pre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[295][296]

 Turks and Caicos Islands

Visa required[297]

90 days

United States

 American Samoa

Electronic authorization[298]

30 days

 Guam

Visa not required[299]

45 days

 Northern Mariana Islands

Visa not required[300]

45 days

 Puerto Rico

Visa not required[301]

Under the Visa Waiver Program, for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years. ESTA required.

 U.S. Virgin Islands

Visa not required[302]

Under the Visa Waiver Program, for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years. ESTA required.

Antarctica and adjacent islands

Special permits required for  Bouvet Island,  British Antarctic Territory,  French Southern and Antarctic Lands,  Argentine Antarctica,  Australian Antarctic Territory,  Chilean Antarctic Territory,  Heard Island and McDonald Islands,  Peter I Island,  Queen Maud Land,  Ross Dependency.[303][304][305][306][307][308][309][310][311][312][313][314]

text:
Territory

Conditions of access

Notes

 Brest and Grodno

Visa not required

Visa-free for 10 days[315]

 China Hainan

Visa on arrival[316]

15 days. Available at Haikou Meilan International Airport and Sanya Phoenix International Airport.Visa not required for 15 days for traveling as part of a tourist group (5 or more people)[317]

 China Tibet Autonomous Region

TTP required

Tibet Travel Permit required (10 US Dollars).[318][319][320]

 Crimea

Visa required

Visa issued by Russia is required.[321]

 Ecuador  Galápagos

Pre-registration required

Online pre-registration is required. Transit Control Card must also be obtained at the airport prior to departure.[322]

 Eritrea outside Asmara

Travel permit required

To travel in the rest of the country, a Travel Permit for Foreigners is required (20 Eritrean nakfa).[323]

 Greece  Mount Athos

Special permit required

Special permit required (4 days: 25 euro for Orthodox visitors, 35 euro for non-Orthodox visitors, 18 euro for students). There is a visitors' quota: maximum 100 Orthodox and 10 non-Orthodox per day and women are not allowed.[324][325]

 India PAP/RAP

PAP/RAP required

Protected Area Permit (PAP) required for whole states of Nagaland and Sikkim and parts of states Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh.Restricted Area Permit (RAP) required for all of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Sikkim. Some of these requirements are occasionally lifted for a year.[326][327][328]

 Iran Kish Island

Visa not required

Visitors to Kish Island do not require a visa.[329]

 Iraqi Kurdistan

Visa on arrival

Visa on arrival for 15 days is available at Erbil and Sulaymaniyah airports.[330]

 Fiji Lau Province

Special permission required

Special permission required.[331]

 France Clipperton Island

Special permit required

Special permit required.[332]

 Kazakhstan

Special permission required

Special permission required for the town of Baikonur and surrounding areas in Kyzylorda Oblast, and the town of Gvardeyskiy near Almaty.[333]

 North Korea outside Pyongyang

Special permit required

People are not allowed to leave the capital city, tourists can only leave the capital with a governmental tourist guide (no independent moving)

 Malaysia Sabah and Sarawak

Visa not required

These states have their own immigration authorities and passport is required to travel to them, however the same visa applies.[334]

 Maldives outside Malé

Permission required

With the exception of the capital Malé, tourists are generally prohibited from visiting non-resort islands without the express permission of the Government of Maldives.[335]

 Norway Jan Mayen

Permit required

Permit issued by the local police required for staying for less than 24 hours[336] and permit issued by the Norwegian police for staying for more than 24 hours.[337]

 Svalbard of  Norway

Visa not Required

Unlimited Stay (Idefinite Stay).

 Novorossiya

Restricted area

Crossing from Ukraine requires visit purpose to be explained to Ukrainian passport control on exit and those who entered from Russia are not allowed to proceed further into Ukraine.[338][339]

 Russia

Special authorization required

Several closed cities and regions in Russia require special authorization.[340]

 Sudan outside Khartoum

Travel permit required

All foreigners traveling more than 25 kilometers outside of Khartoum must obtain a travel permit.

 Sudan Darfur

Travel permit required

Separate travel permit is required.[341]

 Tajikistan Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province

OIVR permit required

OIVR permit required (15+5 Tajikistani Somoni) and another special permit (free of charge) is required for Lake Sarez.[342][343][344]

 UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus

Access Permit required[345]

Access Permit is required for travelling inside the zone, except Civil Use Areas.

 Korean Demilitarized Zone

Restricted zone.

 UNDOF Zone and Ghajar

Restricted zone.

 United States Minor Outlying Islands

Special permits required

Special permits required for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island.[346][347][348][349][350][351][352]

 Venezuela Margarita Island

Visa not required

All visitors are fingerprinted.[353]

 Vietnam Phú Quốc

Visa not required

30 days[354]

 Yemen outside Sana’a or Aden

Special permission required

Special permission needed for travel outside Sana’a or Aden.[355]

text: Reciprocity issues[edit]

text: Some countries regard Australia's requirement for obtaining an Electronic Travel Authority (ETA) prior to travel as being equivalent to offering visa-free travel when deciding whether to grant the same to Australians wishing to enter their territory. The United States, for example, offers their Visa Waiver Program to Australian passport-holders,[356] and one of the conditions for joining this scheme is that "Governments provide reciprocal visa-free travel for U.S. citizens for 90 days for tourism or business purposes".[357] However, the United States has required from January 2009 a similar ETA from citizens of Australia and some more countries. This system is not called a visa, but Electronic System for Travel Authorization, therefore the USA still allows visa-free travel for Australians. As of December 1998, Japan has also granted visa-free access to Australians.[358] Other ETA eligible countries and territories including Canada,[359] Hong Kong,[360] Malaysia,[361] Singapore,[362] South Korea (90 days)[363] and Taiwan (90 days)[364] also grant visa-free access to Australians while Brunei grants Australians a 30-day visa on arrival.[365]

text: Additional rules[edit]

text: Visa exemptions for Schengen states[edit]

text: A stay in the Schengen Area as a whole of more than three months (but no more than three months in any individual member state)[edit]

text:
The Australian Government has signed bilateral visa waiver agreements with a number of the individual countries who are Schengen signatories, which allow Australian citizens to spend up to three months in the relevant country, without reference to time spent in other Schengen signatory states. Since these agreements continue to remain valid despite the implementation of the Schengen agreement, the European Commission has confirmed that in practice if Australians visit Schengen countries which have signed these types of bilateral agreements with Australia, then the terms of these agreements override the conditions normally imposed as a result of the Schengen visa exemption agreement.[366] However, amendments are under consideration to restrict exit from the Schengen area only through the territory of the Member State which is
a Contracting Party to the bilateral agreement and the authorities of which have extended the stay.
[367]

text: Australia has individual bilateral visa waiver agreements with the following Schengen signatories:

text:
Austria[368]
 Belgium[369]
 Denmark[370][371]
 Finland[372]
 France[373]
 Germany[374][375]

 Iceland[376]
 Italy[377]
 Luxembourg[378]
 Netherlands[379][380]
 Spain[381]
 Norway[382]
 Sweden[383]

text: Consequently, Australian citizens can visit the above Schengen member states visa-free for periods of up to three months in each country. If, however, an Australian citizen then visits another Schengen state not included in the list above, the restriction of no more than three months out of a six-month period in the Schengen area as a whole applies. Therefore, if an Australian citizen has already spent three months in one or more of the above Schengen countries, any visits to another Schengen country without a bilateral visa waiver agreement with Australia may lead to difficulties with local law enforcement agencies (e.g. being accused of having overstayed upon leaving a Schengen country which is not in the list above).

text: A stay in the Schengen Area as a whole of up to three months[edit]

text: Australian citizens are classified as 'Annex II' foreign nationals, and so are permitted to stay visa-free in the 26 member states of the Schengen Area as a whole — rather than each country individually — for a period not exceeding 3 months every 6 months.

text: During the visa exemption period, Australian citizens are permitted to work in Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Slovenia and Sweden.[384] In addition, Australian citizens intending to stay and work in Estonia for up to 90 days can do so without a visa as long as the employer has completed a 'registration of short-term employment'.[385]

text: A stay in the Schengen Area as a whole of more than 3 months (and more than 3 months in an individual member state)[edit]

text: In general, any person who is not a European Union, European Economic Area or Swiss citizen and who wishes to stay in a Schengen member state for more than 3 months is required to obtain a national long-stay 'D' visa and/or a residence permit. Australian citizens aged 18–30 (or 18-35 in some cases) are able to obtain a national long-stay 'D' visa and/or a residence permit from some Schengen member states on the basis of a working holiday (see below). Schengen member states also issue national long-stay 'D' visas and residence permits for other reasons to those fulfilling criteria laid out in their national immigration policies (e.g. skilled workers, students, au pair).

text: In general, the national long-stay 'D' visa/residence permit needs to be obtained in advance through the member state's embassy/consulate. However, some Schengen member states offer exceptions for Australian citizens.

text: Austria allows Australian citizens to enter the country without a visa and to apply for a temporary residence permit or a 'Red-White-Red Card' (issued to permanent immigrants) after arrival, rather than in advance through an Austrian embassy/consulate.[386][387]

text: The  Czech Republic allows Australian citizens to apply for a work visa under a special scheme known as a 'Green Card' (rather than a 'Blue Card' or work permit which is required by most non-EU citizens). The application for a Green Card can be lodged at any Czech embassy/consulate (or, in some circumstances, within the Czech Republic if the applicant is already resident there) and is usually processed within 60 days.[388] Note that 'Green Cards' are no longer issued after 24 June 2014.[389]

text: Germany permits Australian citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months to enter without a visa and to apply for a residence permit after arrival (whilst for many other non-EEA and Swiss citizens, a residence permit and visa for a stay over 3 months must be applied for in advance at a German foreign mission).[390][391]

text: Estonia permits Australian citizens to stay and work in Estonia for more than 90 days but less than 6 months as long as they obtain a category 'D' long-stay visa at a cost of €80 in advance at an Estonian foreign mission after the employer has completed a 'registration of short-term employment'.[392] Australian citizens intending to stay and work in Estonia for more than 6 months can apply for a temporary residence permit for employment after arrival in the country.[393]

text: Hungary allows Australian citizens who wish to stay for more than 90 days in the country to apply for a residence card from the regional directorate of the Office of Immigration and Nationality within 90 days of arrival and do not need to obtain a residence permit prior to arrival in Hungary (unlike most other non-EEA and Swiss foreign nationals).[394]

text: Latvia permits Australian citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months as self-employed persons or as businesspersons to enter Latvia without a visa and to apply for a residence permit after arrival (whilst for many non-EEA and Swiss citizens, an application for a residence permit must be lodged in advance at a Latvian foreign mission).[395]

text: Netherlands exempts Australian citizens from the requirement to obtain a Schengen category "D" visa (the visa issued for long term stays in The Netherlands of over 90 days, known in Dutch as the "MVV" visa) - an exemption which goes beyond the visa waiver afforded to most other non-EEA and non-Swiss foreign nationals who are usually only given a visa waiver of up to 90 days in a 180-day period.[396]

text: Norway permits Australian citizens who have qualifications as a skilled worker to stay in the country without a visa for up to 6 months to seek employment as a skilled worker or a specialist (except as a religious leader/teacher or an ethnic cook), as long as they register with the police within 3 months of arriving in Norway.[397]

text: Visa exemptions and requirements for the United Kingdom[edit]

text: Australian citizens are able to visit the United Kingdom for up to 6 months (or 3 months if they enter from the Republic of Ireland) without the need to apply for a visa as long as they fulfil all of the following criteria:

text:
they do not work during their stay in the UK
they must not register a marriage or register a civil partnership during their stay in the UK
they can present evidence of sufficient money to fund their stay in the UK (if requested by the border inspection officer)
they intend to leave the UK at the end of their visit and can meet the cost of the return/onward journey
they have completed a landing card and submitted it at passport control unless in direct transit to a destination outside the Common Travel Area[398]
if under the age of 18, they can demonstrate evidence of suitable care arrangements and parental (or guardian's) consent for their stay in the UK[399]

tag: ul

text: However, even though, strictly speaking, he or she is not required to apply for a visa if he or she satisfies all of the above criteria, an Australian citizen who falls into any of the following categories has been strongly advised by the UK Border Agency (replaced by UK Visas and Immigration) to apply for a visa prior to travelling to the UK:

text:
he/she has any unspent criminal convictions in any country
he/she has previously been refused or breached the terms of any entry to the UK, or been deported or otherwise removed from the UK
he/she has previously applied for a visa and been refused one
he/she has been warned by a UK official that he/she should obtain a visa before travelling to the UK

text: Australian citizens who were born before 1983[citation needed] and qualify for the right of abode are able to live and work in the United Kingdom indefinitely.

text: Australian citizens with a grandparent born either in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands or Isle of Man at any time or in the Republic of Ireland on or before 31 March 1922 can apply for UK Ancestry Entry Clearance, which enables them to work in the UK for five years, after which they can apply to settle indefinitely.

text: Australian citizens aged 18 to 30 can apply for a Youth Mobility Scheme visa which allows them to pursue a working holiday in the UK for two years.

text: Visa exemption for New Zealand[edit]

text: By virtue of the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement, Australian citizens are exempt from the requirement to hold a permit on arrival in New Zealand and may reside or work for an indefinite period as long as:[400]

text:
they present a valid Australian passport OR hold a foreign passport showing their Australian Citizen Endorsement or Australian Citizen Declaratory Visa (either with a label or a confirmation letter) as evidence of their Australian citizenship
they have no criminal convictions
they have no untreated tuberculosis
they have not been deported, excluded or removed from any country

text: Travel ban[edit]

text: It is an offence for Australians to travel or remain in Declared Areas. Those are currently parts of northern Iraq and parts of northern Syria.

text: APEC Business Travel Card[edit]

text: Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)  travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:[401]

text:
Brunei1
 Chile1
 China2
 Hong Kong2
 Indonesia2
 Japan1
 South Korea1
 Malaysia2
 Mexico1

 New Zealand1
 Papua New Guinea2
 Peru1
 Philippines3
 Russia1
 Singapore2
 Taiwan1
 Thailand1
 Vietnam2

text:
1 – up to 90 days
2 – up to 60 days
3 – up to 59 days

text: The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:[402]

text:
no need to apply for a visa or entry permit to APEC countries, as the card is treated as such (except by  Canada and  United States)
undertake legitimate business in participating economies
expedited border crossing in all member economies, including transitional members
expedited scheduling of visa interview (USA)

text: Consular protection of Australian citizens abroad[edit]

text: There are currently over 100 Australian missions overseas.

text:
In some countries Australians may also receive consular assistance from Canadian missions under the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.

See also: List of diplomatic missions of Australia.

text: Foreign travel statistics[edit]

text: According to the statistics these are the numbers of Australian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):

text:
Foreign travel statistics

Destination
Number of Australian visitors

 American Samoa[note 1][403]

974

 Angola[404]

702

 Antarctica[note 2][405]

4,488

 Antigua and Barbuda[note 2][406]

761

 Austria[note 3][note 1][407]

143,000

 Azerbaijan[note 1][408]

1,851

 Bahamas[note 4][409]

3,858

 Barbados[note 3][note 1][410]

2,301

 Belgium[note 1][411]

43,276

 Bhutan[note 2][412]

2,249

 Bolivia[note 1][413]

11,044

 Bosnia and Herzegovina[note 2][414]

8,632

 Botswana[415]

15,607

 Brazil[note 1][416]

49,809

 Brunei[note 5][417]

18,845

 Cambodia[note 1][418]

146,806

 Canada[note 2][419]

392,364

 Cayman Islands[note 2][note 6][420]

1,303

 Chile[note 1][421]

50,968

 China[422]

637,300

 Colombia[423]

13,356

 Congo[note 7][424]

69

 Cook Islands[note 1][425]

23,796

 Costa Rica[note 2][426]

12,320

 Croatia[note 2][427]

186,323

 Cyprus[note 2][428]

14,655

 Dominica[429]

437

 Dominican Republic[note 2][430]

2,723

 Ecuador[note 8][431]

13,686

 Estonia[note 3][note 2][432]

7,431

 Fiji[note 2][433]

365,689

 Finland[434]

26,959

 France[435]

1,266,509

 French Polynesia[note 2][436]

7,363

 Georgia[note 2][437]

4,611

 Germany[note 1][438]

314,014

 Greece[439]

183,165

 Guatemala[note 8][440]

17,206

 Guam[note 2][note 6][441]

2,255

 Hong Kong[note 2][442]

567,881

 Hungary[note 3][note 1][443]

41,231

 Indonesia[note 1][444]

1,302,291

 India[note 1][445]

293,625

 Israel[note 1][446]

32,000

 Italy[note 1][447]

884,000

 Jamaica[note 2][448]

2,574

 Japan[note 2][449]

495,100

 Jordan[note 1][450]

21,857

 Kazakhstan[note 1][451]

3,909

 Kiribati[note 8][452]

625

 Kyrgyzstan[note 1][453]

2,300

 Laos[note 1][454]

33,077

 Latvia[note 3][note 2][455]

7,421

 Lebanon[note 1][456]

72,743

 Luxembourg[note 1][note 3][457]

3,525

 Macau[note 2][458]

88,988

 Macedonia[note 1][note 3][459]

5,557

 Madagascar[460]

1,098

 Malaysia[note 2][461]

351,232

 Malawi[note 9][462]

10,250

 Maldives[note 2][463]

27,360

 Mali[note 8][464]

860

 Malta[note 2][465]

35,875

 Mauritius[note 2][466]

21,271

 Mexico[note 2][note 6][467]

84,225

 Micronesia[468]

1,075

 Mongolia[note 2][469]

6,689

 Montenegro[note 3][note 1][470]

6,103

 Myanmar[note 1][471]

34,010

 Namibia[472]

7,888

   Nepal[473]

18,619

 Netherlands[note 8][474]

188,000

 New Caledonia[475]

20,926

 New Zealand[note 2][476]

1,472,160

 Niue[note 9][477]

461

 Oman[note 4][478]

15,616

 Pakistan[note 9][479]

13,200

 Palau[480]

1,135

 Panama[481]

4,349

 Papua New Guinea[note 1][482]

88,092

 Peru[483]

41,568

 Philippines[note 2][484]

259,433

 Romania[note 1][485]

16,978

 Russia[note 2][486]

49,259

 Samoa[487]

30,302

 Serbia[note 2][note 3][488]

13,559

 Seychelles[489]

1,661

 Singapore[note 2][490]

1,081,987

 Slovakia[note 1][note 3][491]

7,888

 Slovenia[note 2][note 3][492]

34,205

 Solomon Islands[493]

9,509

 South Africa[494]

99,205

 South Korea[note 2][495]

150,408

 Sri Lanka[note 2][496]

81,281

 Suriname[note 2][497]

453

 Swaziland[note 1][498]

3,132

 Taiwan[note 2][499]

107,157

 Tanzania[note 1][500]

15,356

 Tonga[501]

11,930

 Thailand[note 2][502]

817,091

 Timor-Leste[note 8][note 10][503]

13,429

 Turkey[note 2][504]

77,153

 Tuvalu[note 5][505]

116

 Uganda[note 4][506]

7,842

 Ukraine[note 2][507]

5,743

 United Arab Emirates[note 2][508]

279,000

 United Kingdom[note 2][509]

831,000

 United States[note 1][note 11][510][511]

1,529,987

 Vanuatu[512]

46,098

 Vietnam[note 2][513]

370,438

 Zambia[514]

12,363

 Zimbabwe[515]

22,016

text:
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Data for 2016

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap Data for 2017

^ a b c d e f g h i j k Counting only guests in tourist accommodation establishments.

^ a b c Data for 2013

^ a b Data for 2011

^ a b c Data for arrivals by air only.

^ Data for 2012

^ a b c d e f Data for 2014

^ a b c Data for 2009

^ Data for arrivals by air only.

^ Total number includes tourists, business travelers, students, exchange visitors, temporary workers and families, diplomats and other representatives and all other classes of nonimmigrant admissions (I-94).

tag: ol

text: Non-visa restrictions[edit]

text: Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.

text: Passport validity length[edit]

text: In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain,[516] Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel,[517] Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.[518]

text: Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.

text: Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.

text: Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU/EEA/Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.

text: Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.

text: Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macao and South Africa.

text: Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens[519][520] or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).[521]

text: Blank passport pages[edit]

text: Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.[522] Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.

text: Vaccination[edit]

text: Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.

text: Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.[523]

text: Israeli stamps[edit]

text: Kuwait,[524] Lebanon,[525] Libya,[526] Saudi Arabia,[527] Sudan,[528] Syria[529] and Yemen[530] do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.

text: To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories." [531] Passports are still (as of  22 June 2017[update]) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of  22 June 2017[update]) at the Jordan Valley/Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin/Arava land borders with Jordan.

text: Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.

text: Armenian ethnicity[edit]

text: Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan[532][533] (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).

text: Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno-Karabakh[534] (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan[535] and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae".[536] As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.

text: Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and/or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.

text: Criminal record[edit]

text: Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States and Fiji [537]) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.

text: Persona non grata[edit]

text: The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner  persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10-year ban on entering Israel.[538]

text: Fingerprinting[edit]

text: Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.[539]

text:
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan,[540][541] Argentina,[542]
Brunei,
Cambodia,[543]
China when entering through Shenzhen airport,[544]
Ethiopia,[545]
Ghana, India,
Japan,[546][547]
Malaysia upon entry and departure,[548]
Paraguay, Saudi Arabia,[549] Singapore, South Korea,[550] and Taiwan.[551]

text: Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.[552][553]


document_title: Langmuir–Blodgett trough

question_text: who experimented with oil and water layers in 1917

text: Langmuir–Blodgett trough

text: Description[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: The idea of a Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) film was first proven feasible in 1917 when Dr. Irving Langmuir (Langmuir, 1917) showed that single water-surface monolayers could be transferred to solid substrates. 18 years later, Dr. Katharine Blodgett made an important scientific advance when she discovered that several of these single monolayer films could be stacked on top of one another to make multilayer films (Blodgett 1935). Since then, LB films (and subsequently the troughs to make them) have been used for a wide variety of scientific experimentation, ranging from 2D crystallization of proteins to Brewster angle microscopy. The LB trough's general objective is to study the properties of monolayers of amphiphilic molecules. An amphiphilic molecule is one that contains both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic domain (e.g. soaps and detergents). The LB trough allows investigators to prepare a monolayer of amphiphilic molecules on the surface of a liquid, and then compress or expand these molecules on the surface, thereby modifying the molecular density, or area per molecule. This is accomplished by placing a subphase (usually water) in a trough, spreading a given amphiphile over the surface, and then compressing the surface with barriers  (see illustration). The monolayer's effect on the surface pressure of the liquid is measured through use of a Wilhelmy plate, electronic wire probes, or other types of detectors. An LB film can then be transferred to a solid substrate by dipping the substrate through the monolayer.

text: In addition to amphiphilic materials, Langmuir-Blodgett Troughs are commonly used nowadays to create nanoparticle coatings with controlled packing density.[1][2]

text: Materials[edit]

text: In early experiments, the trough was first constructed from metals such as brass. However difficulties arose with contamination of the sub-phase by metal ions. To combat this, glass troughs were used for a time, with a wax coating to prevent contamination from glass pores. This was eventually abandoned in favor of plastics that were insoluble in ordinary solvents, such as Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene). Teflon is hydrophobic and chemically inert, making it a highly suitable material, and the most commonly used for troughs today. Occasionally metal or glass troughs coated with a thin layer of Teflon are used; however they are not as enduring as solid PTFE troughs.[3]

text: In the case of liquid-liquid experiments where the compression is performed at the interface of a polar liquid such as water and a dispersive liquid such as oil, the trough is commonly manufactured from POM (polyoxymethylene). POM is more hydrophilic and aids in keeping the liquid-liquid interphase stable.

text: Barriers[edit]

text: Different mechanisms have been used to compress or expand the monolayers throughout the development of the LB trough. In their first experiments, Langmuir and Blodgett used flexible silk threads rubbed with wax to enclose and compress the monolayer film. Most commonly used systems are made of movable barriers that slide parallel to the walls of the trough and are in contact with the top of the fluid. These barriers are typically made from hydrophilic POM to form a meniscus on them that will aid in keeping the molecules inside even in high packing densities. PTFE barriers are also available for instances when additional chemical resistance is needed.[4]

text: Another version with a variable perimeter working zone is the circular trough in which the monolayer is located between two radial barriers. A constant perimeter trough was developed later in which the barrier is a flexible Teflon tape wrapped around three pairs of rollers. One of the pairs is fixed and the other two are movable on trolleys, so that the length of the tape remains constant as the area of the working zone is changed.

text: Special Alternate troughs allow for preparation and deposition of alternating monolayers by having two separate working zones that can be compressed independently or synchronously by the barriers.[3]

text: Balance[edit]

text: An important property of the system is its surface pressure (the surface tension of the pure subphase minus the surface tension of the subphase with amphiphiles floating on surface) which varies with the molecular area. The surface pressure – molecular area isotherm is one of the important indicators of monolayer properties. Additionally, it is important to maintain constant surface pressure during deposition in order to obtain uniform LB films. Measurement of surface pressure can be done by means of a Wilhelmy plate or Langmuir balance.[3]

text: The Wilhelmy method consists of a plate partially immersed in the liquid connected to an electronic linear-displacement sensor, or electrobalance. The plate can be made of platinum or filter paper which has been presoaked in the liquid to maintain constant mass. The plate detects the downward force exerted by the liquid meniscus which wets the plate. The surface tension can then be calculated by the following equation:

text: where

text: The weight of the plate can be determined beforehand and set to zero on the electrobalance, while the effect of buoyancy can be removed by extrapolating the force back to the zero depth of immersion. Then the remaining component force is only the wetting force. Assuming that perfect wetting of the plate occurs (θ = 0, cos(θ) = 1), then the surface tension can be calculated.[5]

text: The surface pressure is then the change in surface tension due to the addition of the monolayer [6]

text: Where

text: In Langmuir's method, the surface pressure is measured as the force exerted directly on a moveable barrier.[3]

text: History[edit]

text:
One of the first scientists to describe and attempt to quantify the spreading of monolayer films on the surface of a liquid was Benjamin Franklin.  Franklin described the spreading of a drop of oil onto the surface of a lake to form a surface of defined area.  In addition he did experiments dropping oil onto the surface of a bowl of water and noted that the spreading action was dependent on the surface area of the liquid, i.e. by increasing the surface of the liquid it will take more drops to create a film on the surface.  Franklin suggested that this spreading action was based on repulsive forces between oil molecules.[7]
Much later this work was continued by Lord Rayleigh, who suggested that the spreading of oil on water resulted in a monolayer of oil molecules.[8]

text: A German woman and independent scientist, Agnes Pockels, wrote to Lord Rayleigh shortly after his publication in 1890.  In this letter she described an apparatus she had designed to measure the surface tension of monolayers of hydrophobic and amphiphillic substances.  This simple device was a trough made from a tin pan with tin inserts for determining the size of the surface and a balance with a 6 mm disk on one end to measure the force required to pull the disk from the surface.  Using this device she described the general behavior of surface tension with varying surface concentrations of oil.[9]

text: Pockels continued her work and in 1892 published a paper in which she calculated the amount of several materials (mostly household oils) required to form a monolayer.  In addition she comments on the purity and cleanliness required to accurately perform measurements of surface tension.  Also in this paper she reports values of the thickness of films of various amphiphillic substances on the surface of water.[10]

text:
In a later paper Pockels examined the effects of different ratios of hydrophobic to amphiphilic molecules on surface tension and monolayer formation.[11]
After the turn of the century, Pockels's trough was improved upon by Irving Langmuir. With this new device Langmuir showed that amphiphillic films are truly monolayers, and these monolayers are oriented on the surface such that the "active or most hydrophilic portion of the surface molecules are in contact with the liquid below whereas the hydrophobic portions of the molecules are pointing up toward the air".[12] William Harkins described similar results at the same time.[13] Shortly after Langmuir described the transfer of amphiphilic films from water surfaces to solid surfaces (Langmuir, 1920). Langmuir won the Nobel prize in chemistry for this work in 1932.[3]

text:
Neil Kensington Adam summarized and expanded on the work of Langmuir in a series of several papers published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London from 1921 to 1926.[14]
Katherine Blodgett was a student of Irving Langmuir and in 1935 she described the deposition of hundreds of layers of amphiphilic molecules onto a solid substrate in a very ordered fashion. She made final developments to the Langmuir–Blodgett trough allowing it to be used to easily transfer films to solid surfaces.[15]
After the work of Blodgett the field was relatively inactive for several years until in 1971 Hans Kuhn began performing optical and photoelectric experiments with monolayer assemblies using the methods of Langmuir and Blodgett.[16]

text: Preparations of Langmuir–Blodgett troughs[edit]

text: Any type of surface experiment requires maximal cleanliness and purity of components. Even small contaminations can have substantial effects on results. If an aqueous subphase is used, the water must be purified to remove organics and deionized to a resistivity not less than 1.8 GΩ-m. Impurities as small as 1ppm can radically change the behavior of a monolayer.[3] To eliminate contamination from the air, the LB trough can be enclosed in a clean room. The trough set-up may also be mounted on a vibration isolation table, to further stabilize the monolayer. The exact calibration of the electrobalance is also very important for force measurements, as well as using a Wilhelmy plate as big as possible to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

text: Experimental preparation requires that the trough and barriers be thoroughly cleaned by a solvent such as ethanol to remove any residual organics. The liquid subphase is added to a height such that the meniscus just touches the barriers. Often it is necessary to aspirate the surface of the liquid in order to remove any last remaining impurities. The amphiphilic molecules dissolved in solvent are slowly dropped onto the liquid surface using a microsyringe, with care being taken to spread it uniformly across the surface. Some time must be taken to allow for evaporation of the solvent, and the spreading of the amphiphile. The Wilhelmy plate to be used must be absolutely clean. A platinum plate must stripped of any organics with a solvent or heated by a flame. The Wilhelmy plate is then mounted on the electrobalance such that it is immersed perpendicular to the surface of the liquid and a uniform meniscus is achieved. Disposable paper plates can also be used.

text: The transfer of a monolayer to a substrate is a delicate process dependent on many factors. These include the direction and speed of the substrate, the surface pressure, composition, temperature, and pH of the subphase. Many different transfer methods have been devised and patented. One method involves a dipping arm which holds the substrate and can be programmed to pass through the interface from top to bottom or bottom to top at a set speed. For dipping starting from below the liquid surface, the substrate should by hydrophilic, and for dipping starting above the liquid surface, the substrate should be hydrophobic. Multilayers can be achieved by successive dipping through alternating monolayers.[3]

text: Uses[edit]

text: The LB trough has a myriad of uses, but generally takes on one of two roles. First (as described above), the trough can be used to deposit one or more monolayers of specific amphiphiles onto solid substrates. They are in turn used for different areas of science ranging from optics to rheology.  For example, through devices fabricated from an LB trough Lee et al.[17] showed in 2006 that direct electron tunneling was the mode of transportation in alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers [18]

text: Langmuir-Blodgett Troughs have unique advantages in nanoparticle deposition, making them capable of creating highly sophisticated coatings with nanoparticles. Some of the advantages include a precise control on the packing density of the molecules and the thickness of the deposited layer. Also LB method is flexible in using different geometries of substrates and different nanoparticle materials.[19]

text: Secondly, the LB trough can be used itself as an experimental device to test interfacial properties such as the surface tension of various fluids, as well as the surface pressure of a given system. The system can also be used as an observation mechanism to watch how drugs interact with lipids, or to see how lipids arrange themselves as the number to area ratios are varied.

text: Langmuir–Blodgett troughs can be used for experiments in the fabrication of Langmuir–Blodgett films and the characterization of Langmuir films. LB films are now used as the building blocks of molecular electronics.[20] Troughs can be used to make films for the fabrication of nanoscale electronics such as graphene sheets (Li et al., 2008), and LCDs (Russell-Tanner, Takayama, Sugimura, DeSimone & Samulski, 2007). In addition films can be made of biological materials (Yang et al., 2002) to improve cell adhesion or study the properties of biofilms. An example of Langmuir–Blodgett troughs' utility in characterizing Langmuir films is the analysis of surface properties of quantum dots at the air-water interface.[21]

text: Surface of water has an immensely smooth nature that could be extended as large as the size of its container. The root-mean-square (RMS) roughness of water is 3.2 Å, as measured by X-ray reflectivity.[22] This feature makes Langmuir troughs a suitable candidate for synthesis and characterization of covalent monolayer sheets and even 2D polymers.[23][24][25]


document_title: A Dog's Purpose (film)

question_text: where did a dog's purpose take place

question_tokens: where did a dog 's purpose take place

text: A Dog's Purpose (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the 1950s, a feral puppy named Toby is whisked away to the dog pound and quickly euthanized, wondering if "fun" truly is life's purpose.

text: His strong spirit is reborn and reincarnated as a newborn Retriever puppy in 1961. Toby leaves his cage at a puppy mill and is found by two garbage men who plan to sell him for their own profit. They leave to drink and Toby is spotted locked inside their pick-up truck by a young boy named Ethan and his mother, who rescue him from the brink of death by heatstroke. After they convince Ethan's father, the dog is allowed to stay and renamed Bailey.

text: Bailey and Ethan bond quickly, especially over the summer when the family visits Ethan's maternal grandparents' farm, and Bailey now believes Ethan alone is his purpose. Years pass and after several attempts at advancing in his job failed, Ethan's father has become a deadbeat alcoholic, though teenage Ethan still tries to respect him – inviting him to a football game now that he has been named starting quarterback.

text: Over the summer, Ethan goes to a fair with Bailey and meets Hannah, who he quickly begins dating, with Bailey referring to her as "part of the pack". Ethan and Hannah spend their summer happy together though their senior years are upcoming, but they plan to go to the same school; popular Ethan getting a football scholarship and Hannah following him on an academic one. When he goes home one night though, Ethan's father is drunk and shouting at Ethan's mother. He turns on Ethan then and when his mother tries to keep them separated, he shoves her to the ground. Ethan orders his father to leave and never come back, and becomes "the leader of the pack".

text: Later, at a game watched by scouts, Ethan is offered a full 4-year scholarship to Michigan State, but that night a vindictive classmate named Todd throws a lit firecracker into Ethan's house as a prank, which unintentionally results in a house fire. Bailey alerts Ethan, who goes to save his mother. Unable to get out of the door, they head out through his mother's bedroom window upstair. Ethan first lowers her with her sheets to the neighbors below, then Bailey – but when trying to jump himself, Ethan badly fractures his leg, ending his dreams of an athletic scholarship. Bailey attacks Todd, who is apprehended and arrested by the police. Now, Ethan must go to an agricultural school where he will learn to take over his grandparents' farm. Falling into depression, self-pity and bitterness, Ethan grudgingly breaks off his romance with Hannah before leaving for college. Sometime afterwards, an aged Bailey slowly expires at the veterinarian's office after sharing an eleventh-hour teary goodbye with Ethan.

text: Bailey reincarnates into another dog life, a female German Shepherd police dog named Ellie, sometime in the late 1970s/early 1980s, while possessing full memories and experiences of his past lives. Ellie is partnered with a widowed officer named Carlos from the Chicago Police Department, and works hard at "showing" and "finding", now seeing the job as life's purpose. The two form a close relationship which ends after Ellie jumps into a rushing river and saves a kidnapped girl from drowning, and is then fatally shot during a struggle with the armed kidnapper who was a moment away from killing an unsuspecting Carlos.

text: Reborn again in the mid-1980s as a Pembroke Welsh Corgi, he forms a bond with an Atlanta college student named Maya who names him Tino. Maya is lonely, which Tino, having bonded closely with the girl, realizes, and makes his purpose to find her some happiness. She starts a relationship with another classmate named Al who she begins seeing after Tino falls for Al's dog, a black and white Landseer named Roxie, and allows her to open up to him. Maya and Al marry and have 3 children who all love the Corgi. In love with Roxie (though she does not seem to reciprocate the romance), Tino is permanently heartbroken when one day she does not return from the vet. As he lies dying of old age in the late 1990s, Tino thanks Maya for giving him one of his best lives.

text: Bailey is again reborn and reincarnated, this time, as a St. Bernard-Australian Shepherd mix, sometime during the next decade, only to be taken in by an abusive and neglectful urban couple who name him Waffles. Waffles is eventually dumped in an abandoned lot and reluctantly sets off in search of a new life. Walking past a dog park and remembering how long it had been since he played, Waffles meets a dog and her human who hold a familiar scent to him, though he knows neither of them. He gradually makes his way to the country area where he spent summers as Bailey without even realizing at first where he is headed. He joyfully reunites with his old master Ethan, who is now somewhere in his 50s, living a lonely life and apparently broken in spirit at his grandparents' old farm, which he now owns and runs. Ethan, of course, initially has no idea who this wandering dog really is and hands him over to the local animal shelter. But he soon has a change of heart and reclaims him, naming him Buddy. Buddy, sensing that he has finally found the true purpose of life that has long evaded him, finds a way to reunite Ethan with a widowed Hannah, and they eventually get married.

text: Buddy finally convinces Ethan that he is his beloved childhood pet by performing some tricks and responding to key phrases that were known only to the two of them all those many, many long years ago. The dog in voiceover tells the viewer that life is about having fun; saving others; not getting caught in the past or regrets; finding someone to be with; and living for today.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Josh Gad as the voice of Toby, Bailey, Ellie, Tino, Waffles and Buddy.
Dennis Quaid as Ethan Montgomery (adult)[8]

KJ Apa as teenage Ethan Montgomery[8]
Bryce Gheisar as eight-year old Ethan Montgomery

Juliet Rylance as Elizabeth Montgomery, Ethan's mother.[8]
Peggy Lipton as Hannah (adult)[8]

Britt Robertson as young Hannah[8]

John Ortiz as Carlos Ruiz
Kirby Howell-Baptiste as Maya
Pooch Hall as Al[9]
Luke Kirby as Jim Montgomery, Ethan's father
Michael Bofshever as Bill, Ethan's grandfather
Gabrielle Rose as Fran, Ethan's grandmother
Logan Miller as Todd, the vindictive classmate

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2015, DreamWorks acquired the film rights for Cameron's novel.[10] On May 8, 2015, it was announced Lasse Hallström would direct the film.[11] On August 5, 2015, Britt Robertson and Dennis Quaid joined the cast.[8] On September 18, 2015, Pooch Hall was cast in the film.[9] On October 15, 2015, Bradley Cooper joined the cast to play the dog's inner voice.[12] He was eventually replaced by Josh Gad.[13] Principal photography began on August 17, 2015.[14]

text: Release[edit]

text: In December 2015, the film switched from a DreamWorks Pictures release to under the Amblin Entertainment banner as per Amblin Partners' newly enacted branded strategy.[15] The film was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017.[16] Universal also distributed it overseas, except for countries where Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales.

text: Box office[edit]

text: A Dog's Purpose has grossed $64.5 million in the United States and Canada and $131.9 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $196.4 million, against a production budget of $22 million.[3]

text: In North America was released alongside Resident Evil: The Final Chapter and Gold, and was projected to gross $18–22 million from 3,050 theaters in its opening weekend, slightly lower than initial $27 million tracking had the film debuting to before boycotts against the film were called for.[4] It made $466,000 from Thursday night previews and $5.3 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $18.2 million, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Universal's own Split.[17] The film dropped 40.6% in its second weekend, grossing $10.8 million and finishing third at the box office.[18]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30% based on 121 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A Dog's Purpose offers an awkward blend of sugary sentiment and canine suffering that tugs at animal-loving audiences' heartstrings with shameless abandon."[19] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 43 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[20] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[21]

text: Home media[edit]

text: A Dog's Purpose was released on digital HD on April 18, 2017, and was followed by a release on Blu-ray and DVD on May 2, 2017, from Universal Studios Home Entertainment.[22][23] The film topped the home video sales chart for the week ending on May 7, 2017.[24]

text: Animal abuse allegations[edit]

text: Initial reaction[edit]

text: On January 18, 2017, a video surfaced on TMZ showing footage taken from the set of the film, which shows a German Shepherd named Hercules being dragged and dipped into rushing water while visibly resisting.[25] After a cut in the video, the next clip shows the dog being submerged in the water at the other end of the tank while a voice on set can be heard shouting "CUT IT!", and various people are then seen rushing towards the dog.[26] The American Humane Association, which ensures that animals are not harmed in entertainment productions, announced that its representative on set had been suspended over the incident, and that the incident is under further investigation.[27][28] PETA called for a boycott of the film.[29] Actor Josh Gad, who voices the dog in the movie, was not on set during the making of the film, but stated that he was "shaken and sad to see any animal put in a situation against its will".[30] Due to the release of the video, Universal Pictures cancelled the film's scheduled January 19 Los Angeles premiere.[31]

text: Director Lasse Hallström stated on Twitter that he "did not witness" the actions in the video, and was "very disturbed" by the footage.[32]

text: Validity of the video[edit]

text: Amblin Entertainment released a statement in regards to the incident, saying that "on the day of the shoot, Hercules did not want to perform the stunt portrayed on the tape so the Amblin production team did not proceed with filming that shot", and that "Hercules is happy and healthy".[33]

text: Dennis Quaid also came out against the TMZ video, stating that the video did not tell the whole story, saying:

text: My experience is that the animals were treated great. There was no animal abuse. That video that someone took and sold for money and held on to for a year and a half until right before the film's coming out, does not tell the whole story. First of all, it's been edited and manipulated. And I think it's a scam, to tell you the truth. What they (the viewers of the video) saw was completely out of context. It was edited...and all of the footage I saw, the dog was going into the water happily and had to be restrained, actually, from going into the water many times during that day.

text: Quaid also said that the video was shot towards the end of the day and I would not say, in real context, that the dog was frightened. The dog was acting like a dog who was kind of tired of taking a bath and was ready to get out. And, in fact, that's what happened. They took the dog out.[34]

text: On February 4, 2017, the American Humane Association reported that an independent third-party animal-cruelty expert had concluded that safety measures on the set of the film were in place and the video had been deliberately edited to mislead the public.[5]

text: The film was released with AHAD approval number 06202.

text: Sequel[edit]

text: On June 21, 2017, CEO of Amblin Entertainment Michael Wright announced that a sequel was in development.[35]