document_title: Cars 3

question_text: who plays the yellow car in cars 3

question_tokens: who plays the yellow car in cars 3

text: Cars 3

text: Plot[edit]

text: Lightning McQueen, now a seven-time Piston Cup racing legend, and the other veterans of the Piston Cup, suddenly find themselves being displaced by the next-generation rookies such as Jackson Storm, outfitted with the latest technology to break speed records. As the season progresses, the amount of new racers begin to increase, resulting in many veterans either retiring, or being fired by their sponsors, to make way for the new generation. Then, in the last race of the season, McQueen is injured in a rollover crash while trying to catch up to Storm.

text: Four months later, McQueen, recovering in Radiator Springs, isolates himself from his friends, and is watching footage of Doc Hudson, whose career ended in a similar accident, and McQueen fears that this might happen to him as well. After receiving some encouragement from his girlfriend, Sally, McQueen decides to continue racing and call his sponsors from Rust-eze, Rusty and Dusty, who surprise him by telling him they opened a new state-of-the-art training center known as the Rust-eze Racing Center, only to reveal that they have sold the team to a new owner, Sterling. There, McQueen meets Sterling, and is assigned to train under Cruz Ramirez. Cruz's methodical approach to training wears on McQueen's impatience, and he attempts to use a high tech racing simulator - only to end up damaging it. Sterling decides that McQueen is unfit to race, and instead, plans to use him for promotional materials only. McQueen contests this, and instead, makes a deal; if he should win the first race of the season, he will get to determine when he retires, otherwise he will retire on the spot. Sterling accepts the deal, but assigns him to work one-on-one with Cruz.

text: McQueen tries to train on the nearby Fireball Beach in order to build up his speed, but he finds most of his time spent on teaching Cruz how to drive on various terrain. McQueen then attempts to race at a dirt track called Thunder Hollow, and inadvertently becomes part of a demolition derby called ″Crazy Eight″ that Cruz wins, and her elation leads to McQueen's embarrassment. Distraught at the waste of training time, McQueen rages at Cruz, and in a fit of frustration, he accidentally breaks her trophy. Upset and in retaliation, Cruz furiously reveals that she had wanted to race professionally all her life, since she was inspired by McQueen, but never started a race because she felt intimidated by the other race cars, and simply lacked confidence. She resigns as McQueen's trainer, and heads back to the training center.

text: Guilty and with no other options, McQueen calls up his friend Mater, who suggests that he should talk to Doc's mentor, Smokey in Doc's hometown of Thomasville. McQueen catches up to Cruz, and, after revealing that he had fixed her trophy, apologies to her, and convinces her to join him. In Thomasville, McQueen meets up with Smokey, who recounts how, despite his forced retirement, Doc found a new happiness in training McQueen. After McQueen accepts that he will never be as fast as Storm, Smokey and his friends help McQueen learn new tricks to overcome his speed disadvantage with Cruz as his sparring partner. However, during the last practice race, Cruz suddenly overtakes him, giving him a flashback to his crash, shaking his confidence.

text: At the race in Florida, McQueen is coached by Smokey from the pits, and manages to gradually push up through the ranks. Sterling, who still believes McQueen cannot win, orders Cruz back to the center, despite her wanting to stay and watch the race. McQueen overhears this, and remembers Cruz's speech about wanting to be a racer. He devises a plan; the next time he pits, he tells his crew to outfit Cruz in his racing number to try and finally beat Storm, against Sterling's wishes. Cruz is initially shaken by her lack of confidence, but Smokey and McQueen help her to pull ahead. On the last lap, Cruz catches up to Storm. Storm, feeling threatened, tries to intimidate her - even to the point of ramming her against the wall, but she uses one of Doc's tricks to repel off it, take the lead, and win.

text: As Cruz celebrates her victory, Sterling offers her a role on his team, but she instead takes a counteroffer made by Tex Dinoco. Sterling reminds McQueen about his bet, but then McQueen's name is shared with Cruz's on the leaderboard as victors, since both he and Cruz raced with the winning number, thus winning the deal. Tex then goes to speak with Sterling, offering a deal. Sometime later, McQueen and Cruz return to Radiator Springs, decked out in Doc's old color and number, respectively. McQueen reveals that Tex has bought Rust-eze from Sterling, and McQueen decides to continue racing, and to be Cruz's crew chief.

text: In the post-credits scene, Mater at his junkyard tries to answer an incoming call from his phone. Somehow he accidentally touches his reception antenna and his phone goes dead much to his dismay.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Owen Wilson as Lightning McQueen,[7] a legendary Piston Cup veteran who lives in Route 66's Radiator Springs; racer for Rust-eze; #95.
Cristela Alonzo as Cruz Ramirez,[7][8] Lightning McQueen's trainer and racing technician, who always longed to be a racer, but lacked confidence. She later becomes a yellow and blue Dinoco; #51 racer.
Chris Cooper as Smokey,[9] Doc's former mechanic and crew chief, who helps Lightning McQueen train for the Florida 500.
Nathan Fillion as Sterling,[10] a rich business car who runs the elite training facility Rust-eze Racing Center, who challenges McQueen's position as a racer.
Larry the Cable Guy as Mater, a jolly tow truck and Lightning McQueen's best friend.
Armie Hammer as Jackson Storm,[7][8] McQueen's new racing rival. The face of the newer generation of high-tech racers, he threatens to displace McQueen as the top racer, and McQueen's career; racer for IGNTR; #20.
Tom and Ray Magliozzi as Rusty and Dusty Rust-eze, respectively,[11] the owners of Rust-eze. Following Tom's death in 2014, unused archive recordings from the first film were used for Rusty's lines.
Tony Shalhoub as Luigi, a Fiat 500.
Bonnie Hunt as Sally Carrera, a Porsche 996, and Lightning McQueen's girlfriend.
Lea DeLaria as Miss Fritter,[10] an intimidating demolition derby-inspired monster school bus at the Thunder Hollow demolition derby.
Kerry Washington as Natalie Certain,[10] a statistical analyst.
Bob Costas as Bob Cutlass, a broadcaster at the race track.
Margo Martindale as Louise "Barnstormer" Nash,[12] a Piston Cup legend and a friend of Doc.
Darrell Waltrip as Darrell Cartrip,[5] a broadcaster and former Piston Cup racer working aside with Bob.
Isiah Whitlock Jr. as River Scott,[12] a legendary Piston Cup racer who is a friend of Smokey.
Bob Peterson as Chick Hicks,[11] a former Piston Cup racer and ex-rival of Lightning McQueen, who now works as an RSN announcer and hosts his own TV show, Chick's Picks. He was previously voiced by Michael Keaton in the first film.

Peterson also voices Dr. Damage, an ambulance monster truck competitor at Thunder Hollow; though the character is provided as an additional voice.

Guido Quaroni as Guido, a forklift who is Luigi's best friend and assistant.
John Ratzenberger as Mack,[11] a 1985 Mack Super-Liner who is Lightning's transport.
Kyle Petty as Cal Weathers, one of Lightning's racing friends, and a veteran racer for Dinoco.
Lewis Hamilton as Hamilton, a voice command assistant to Cruz Ramirez.[11] Hamilton previously voiced himself (as a WGP racer) in the second film.
Lloyd Sherr as Fillmore, a Volkswagen Bus. He was previously voiced by George Carlin in the first film who died in 2008.
Junior Johnson as Junior "Midnight" Moon,[12] a former Piston Cup racer who is a 1938 Ford Standard Coupe; #11.
Ray Evernham as Ray Reverham,[5] Jackson Storm's crew chief.
Paul Newman as Doc Hudson, Lightning McQueen's late mentor. He appears in the film with unused archive recordings of Newman from the first film. After Newman's death in September 2008, the character was written in a flashback for his final film eleven years ago.
Cheech Marin as Ramone, a Chevrolet Impala Lowrider, and Flo's husband.
Humpy Wheeler as Tex Dinoco, the owner of Dinoco.
Katherine Helmond as Lizzie, a Ford Model T.
Paul Dooley as Sarge, a Willys Jeep.
Jenifer Lewis as Flo, a Motorama show car, and Ramone's wife.
Shannon Spake as Shannon Spokes,[5] an RSN reporter who is not afraid to ask questions to racers.
Madeleine McGraw as Maddy McGear, a young Axxelo Microlux who is Lightning's biggest fan.
Michael Wallis as Sheriff, a seasoned 1949 Mercury Eight police car.
Mike Joy as Mike Joyride, the host on Lightning's radio.
Jeff Gordon as Jeff Gorvette,[5] a World Grand Prix competitor who now works as a Piston Cup announcer for races
Daniel Suárez as Danny Swervez, Octain Gain's next-gen racer; #19.[5]
Ryan Blaney as Ryan "Inside" Laney, Blinkr's next gen racer; #21.[5]
Bubba Wallace as Bubba Wheelhouse, Transberry Juice's next-gen racer; #6.[5]
Chase Elliott as Chase Racelott, Vitoline's next-gen racer; #24.[5]
Richard Petty as Strip "The King" Weathers, who has retired and now acts as crew chief for his nephew Cal.[5]
Andra Day as Sweet Tea, a forklift waiter and singer at Cotter Pin Bar & Grill.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development on Cars 3 began in 2011 after the release of Cars 2,[13] and by March 2014 pre-production was underway.[14] In October 2014, Pixar's chief creative officer John Lasseter revealed at the Tokyo International Film Festival that the film would feature a tribute to Hayao Miyazaki's film The Castle of Cagliostro, in a form of an old Citroën 2CV.[15]

text: Prior to the film's release, John Lasseter, director of the previous Cars films, stated that the film had a "very emotional story", similar in tone to the first film.[16] Co-writer Kiel Murray, who also co-wrote the original Cars, said of the return to the series roots, "With these franchises you always want to know who it's about. The first movie was about McQueen, and the second movie was a sort of off-ramp to the Mater story. We wanted to get back to the McQueen story. When we looked at what would be next for him, we wondered what that would be like both as an athlete, and also for what he was dealing with in the rest of his life."[17]

text: On January 5, 2017, it was announced that Armie Hammer and Cristela Alonzo would voice Jackson Storm and Cruz Ramirez, respectively. Two months later, Nathan Fillion, Kerry Washington and Lea Delaria joined the cast.[8]

text: The production utilized a new rendering system, RIS, which made scenes like the demolition derby race possible. The system was previously used on Pixar's Finding Dory.[18]

text: Soundtracks[edit]

text: There are two soundtracks released for the third film. The original motion picture soundtrack features rock/pop songs featured in the film, while the original score soundtrack features the score composed and conducted by Randy Newman.[19]

text:
Cars 3 Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

Soundtrack album

Released
June 16, 2017

Genre
Western, Country, Pop

Length
28:40

Label
Walt Disney

text:
No.
Title
Artist
Length

1.
"Run that Race"
Dan Auerbach
2:43

2.
"Kings Highway"
James Bay
3:07

3.
"Truckaroo"
Brad Paisley
2:36

4.
"Thunder Hollow Breakdown"
Brad Paisley
4:49

5.
"Glory Days"
Andra Day
4:07

6.
"Ride"
ZZ Ward featuring Gary Clark Jr.
4:03

7.
"Drive My Car"
Jorge Blanco
2:42

8.
"Freeway of Love"
Lea DeLaria
4:30

text:
Cars 3 Original Score

Soundtrack album by Randy Newman

Released
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Recorded
2016–2017

Genre
Country, classical

Length
50:15

Label
Walt Disney

Randy Newman chronology

Monsters University
(2013)
Cars 3 Original Score
(2017)
Toy Story 4
(2019)

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Storm's Winning Streak"
1:23

2.
"When All Your Friends are Gone/ Crash"
3:44

3.
"Doc's Painful Demise"
1:25

4.
"Mater on the Horn"
0:29

5.
"Sistine Chapel on Wheels"
1:06

6.
"Temple of Rust-eze"
1:25

7.
"A Career on a Wall/ Electronic Suit"
3:21

8.
"Drip Pan"
1:12

9.
"McQueen's Wild Ride"
2:05

10.
"Biggest Brand in Racing"
3:12

11.
"Fireball Beach"
2:16

12.
"Pull Over, Now!/ Cruz's Racing Dreams"
2:00

13.
"1.2%"
1:21

14.
"If This Track Could Talk"
2:33

15.
"Letters About You"
2:02

16.
"Smokey Starts Training/ A Blaze of Glory"
5:56

17.
"Starting Dead Last"
1:42

18.
"Flashback/ Pit Stop"
3:32

19.
"Through the Pack"
3:42

20.
"Victory Lane"
3:51

21.
"The Fabulous Lightning McQueen"
2:11

text: Release[edit]

text: Cars 3 was released in theaters on June 16, 2017, in the United States, in 3D[20] and selected IMAX theaters,[21] accompanied by the Pixar short film Lou.[22] The film had a special screening for the NASCAR industry in Kannapolis, North Carolina on May 23, 2017.[23] The world premiere was held in Anaheim, California on June 10, 2017.[24]

text: Video game[edit]

text: A tie-in video game has been announced to accompany the film's release. It was developed by Avalanche Software, which was shut down by Disney in 2016, but was acquired and revived by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. It was released on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Xbox 360, and Xbox One on June 13, 2017, in North America,[25] in Europe and Australia on July 14, 2017,[26] and in Japan on July 20, 2017.[27] As Disney no longer develops and publishes video games after the release of Disney Infinity 3.0, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment published the tie-in game.[28]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Cars 3 was released on Digital HD on October 24, 2017 and was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on November 7, 2017, by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.[29]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Cars 3 grossed $153 million in the United States and Canada and $231 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $384 million, against a production budget of $175 million.[4]

text: In North America, Cars 3 was released alongside Rough Night, 47 Meters Down and All Eyez on Me, and was projected to gross $55–60 million from 4,256 theaters in its opening weekend.[30][31] It made $2.8 million from Thursday night previews and $19.5 million on its first day. It went on to open to $53.7 million, finishing first at the box office and dethroning two-time first-place finisher Wonder Woman. Cars 3 had the lowest opening of the series, but nevertheless was the 16th Pixar film to debut at number one.[32] In its second weekend, the film grossed $24.1 million, dropping to third place, behind Transformers: The Last Knight and Wonder Woman.[33] In its third weekend the film made $9.7 million ($14.1 million over the five-day 4th of July holiday weekend), dropping to 5th.[34]

text: Internationally, the film made $21.3 million from its opening in 23 markets, which was 9% more than Cars 2 and 29% more than Cars.[35] The film opened in China on August 25 and grossed $10.8 million over its debut weekend.[36] The biggest markets in terms of total earnings are China ($20.8 million), followed by France ($19.5 million), Japan ($16.1 million), Mexico ($15.6 million), and the UK ($15.2 million).[37]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 67% based on 191 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. This is the first Pixar film to get a "Fresh" tomato rating. The site's critical consensus reads, "Cars 3 has an unexpectedly poignant story to go with its dazzling animation, suggesting Pixar's most middle-of-the-road franchise may have a surprising amount of tread left."[38] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 59 out of 100, based on reviews from 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[39] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[32]

text: In his review for Variety, Owen Gleiberman wrote, "Cars 3 is a friendly, rollicking movie made with warmth and dash, and to the extent that it taps our primal affection for this series, it more than gets the job done. Yet in many ways it’s the tasteful version of a straight-to-DVD (or streaming) sequel."[40] David Fear of Rolling Stone gave the film a positive review, saying: "There's an emotional resonance to this story about growing old, chasing glory days and the joy of passing the baton that leaves the other two films choking on its digitally rendered dust. The end goal this time out isn't just to sell a few more toys and Lightning McQueen lunchboxes. It's actually tapping into something deeper than a corporate bottom line."[41] Mike Ryan of Uproxx called the film 'The Rocky III Of The Cars Franchise,' and wrote "There’s a hint of sadness that seems to be present throughout Cars 3 that gives it a little more weight than the previous installments."[42]

text: Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a mixed review, saying: "As a spawner of merchandise, Cars 3 fires on all pistons but, as a movie, it's a harmless but never stimulating 109 minutes."[43] Vicky Roach gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, saying: "Returning to the iconic, backroads nostalgia of the original film, Cars 3 puts the flashy, unpopular middle film squarely in its rear vision mirror. The route that the filmmakers take might be familiar, but after gunning it, they take the corners like pros."[44]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

Teen Choice Awards
August 13, 2017
Choice Movie: Comedy
Walt Disney Pictures
Nominated
[45]

Choice Movie Actor: Comedy
Owen Wilson
Nominated

Detroit Film Critics Society
December 7, 2017
Best Animated Film
Cars 3
Nominated
[46]

St. Louis Film Critics Association
December 15, 2017
Best Animated Feature
Brian Fee
Nominated
[47]

IGN Awards
December 19, 2017
Best Animated Movie
Cars 3
Nominated
[48]

Central Ohio Film Critics Association
January 4, 2017
Best Animated Film
Nominated
[49]

Image Awards
January 15, 2018
Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance
Kerry Washington as Natalie Certain
Nominated
[50]

Satellite Awards
February 10, 2018
Best Animated or Mixed Media Feature
Cars 3
Nominated
[51]

Art Directors Guild
January 27, 2018
Production Design in an Animated Feature
William Cone and Jay Shuster
Nominated
[52]

Visual Effects Society Awards
February 13, 2018
Outstanding Visual Effects in an Animated Feature
Brian Fee, Kevin Reher, Michael Fong, Jon Reisch
Nominated
[53]

Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature
Marlena Fecho, Thidartana Annee Jonjai, Jose L. Ramos Serrano, Frank Tai for "Abandoned Racetrack"
Nominated

Outstanding Effects Simulations in an Animated Feature
Greg Gladstone, Stephen Marshall, Leon JeongWook Park, Tim Speltz
Nominated

Annie Award
February 3, 2018
Best Animated Feature
Kevin Reher
Nominated
[54]

Animated Effects in an Animated Production
Amit Baadkar, Greg Gladstone, Stephen Marshall, Tim Speltz and Jon Reisch
Nominated

Cinema Audio Society Awards
February 24, 2018
Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Motion Picture – Animated
Doc Kane, Tom Meyers, Michael Semanick, Nathan Nance, David Boucher and Blake Collins
Nominated
[55]

Saturn Awards
June 2018
Best Animated Film
Cars 3
Pending
[56]

text: Possible sequel[edit]

text: Regarding a possible Cars 4, Cars 3 producers Kevin Reher and Andrea Warren stated speaking to Cinema Blend that "If there's a good story to tell, I mean, our heads kinda break after having gotten this one done, like "oh my God" what could you do the further adventures of? But like any sequel, from Toy Story 4 to Incredibles 2, as long as there's a good story to tell it's worth investing, we do love these characters, we love them as much as the public does."[57] Regarding which character would be the main protagonist in the film, Reher and Warren stated that "if Cruz is a breakout character, kind of like Mater was, she would be involved in a 4".[58] Owen Wilson stated at a Cars 3 press event that possible stories have been discussed for a Cars 4, though he would personally like for a fourth Cars film to delve into aspects of the thriller genre, akin to Cars 2.[59]


document_title: History of the Middle East

question_text: where were the earliest civilizations of the middle east found

question_tokens: where were the earliest civilizations of the middle east found

root

text: History of the Middle East

text: General[edit]

text: Geographically, the Middle East can be thought of as Western Asia without the Caucasus but with Egypt, which is the non-Maghreb part of Northern Africa. The Middle East was the first to experience a Neolithic Revolution (c. the 10th millennium BC), as well as the first to enter the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC) and Iron Age (c. 1200–500 BC).

tag: p

text: Historically human populations have tended to settle around bodies of water, which is reflected in modern population density patterns. Irrigation systems were extremely important for the agricultural Middle East: for Egypt that of the lower Nile River, and for Mesopotamia that of the Tigris River and Euphrates River. Levantine agriculture depended on precipitation rather than on the river-based irrigation of Egypt and Mesopotamia, resulting in preference for different crops. Since travel was faster and easier by sea, civilizations along the Mediterranean, such as Phoenicia and later Greece, participated in intense trade. Similarly, Ancient Yemen, much more conducive to agriculture than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, sea traded heavily with the Horn of Africa, some of which it lingually Semitized. The Adnanite Arabs, inhabiting the drier desert areas of the Middle East, were all nomadic pastoralists before some began settling in city states, with the geo-linguistic distribution today being divided between Persian Gulf, the Najd and the Hejaz in the Peninsula, as well as the Bedouin areas beyond the Peninsula.

text: Since ancient times the Middle East has had several lingue franche: Akkadian (c. 14th – 8th century BCE), Aramaic (c. 8th century BCE – 8th century CE),[6] Greek (c. 4th century BCE – 8th century CE), and Arabic (c. 8th century CE – present). Familiarity with English is not uncommon among the middle and upper classes.[7][8] Arabic is not commonly spoken in Turkey, Iran, and Israel, and some varieties of Arabic lack mutual intelligibility, thus qualifying as distinct languages by this linguistic criterion.

text: The Middle East was the birthplace of the Abrahamic, Gnostic, and most Iranian religions. Initially the ancient inhabitants of the region followed various ethnic religions, but most of those began to be gradually replaced at first by Christianity (even before the 313 CE Edict of Milan) and finally by Islam (after the spread of the Muslim conquests beyond the Arabian Peninsula in 634 CE). To this day, however, the Middle East has, in particular, some sizable, ethnically distinct Christian minority groups, as well as Jews, concentrated in Israel, and followers of Iranian religions, such as Yazdânism and Zoroastrianism. Some of the smaller ethnoreligious minorities include the Shabak people, the Mandaeans and the Samaritans. It is somewhat controversial whether the Druze religion is a distinct religion in its own right or merely a part of the Ismailist branch of Shia Islam.

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: The Arabian Tectonic Plate was part of the African Plate during much of the Phanerozoic Eon (Paleozoic–Cenozoic), until the Oligocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era. Red Sea rifting began in the Eocene, but the separation of Africa and Arabia occurred in the Oligocene, and since then the Arabian Plate has been slowly moving toward the Eurasian Plate.

text: The collision between the Arabian Plate and Eurasia is pushing up the Zagros Mountains of Iran. Because the Arabian Plate and Eurasia plate collide, many cities are in danger such as those in south eastern Turkey (which is on the Arabian Plate). These dangers include earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes.

text: The earliest human migrations out of Africa occurred through the Middle East, namely over the Levantine corridor, with the pre-modern Homo erectus about 1.8 million years BP. One of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia is Iran.

text: Haplogroup J-P209, the most common human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup in the Middle East today, is believed to have arisen in the region 31,700±12,800 years ago.[9][10] The two main current subgroups, J-M267 and J-M172, which now comprise between them almost all of the population of the haplogroup, are both believed to have arisen very early, at least 10,000 years ago. Nonetheless, Y-chromosomes F-M89* and IJ-M429* were reported to have been observed in the Iranian plateau.[11]

text: There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishermen was replaced by a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.[12]

text: The ancient Near East[edit]

text:
The symbol of the winged sun was found throughout the Middle East.

It was associated with divinity, royalty, and power. The above is an Egyptian version. The modern-day Assyrian flag and Aramean flag feature different versions of the symbol. The Israelite royal Seals of Hezekiah also featured one, sometimes flanked on either side with the Egyptian ankh symbol. The Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism has a related symbol called Faravahar.

tag: table

text:
The ancient Near East

Regions and states

Fertile Crescent
Mesopotamia

Akkadian Empire
Assyria
Babylonia
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Sumer

Egypt

Ancient Egypt

Persia

Achaemenid Empire
Elam
Medes

Anatolia

Hittites
Hurrians
Neo-Hittite states
Urartu

The Levant

Ancient Israel
Phoenicia

Archaeological periods

Chronology
Bronze Age
Bronze Age collapse
Iron Age

Languages

Akkadian
Aramaic
Assyriology
Cuneiform script
Elamite
Hebrew
Hittite
Hurrian
Phoenician
Sumerian
Urartian

Literature

Babylonian
Hittite texts
Sumerian

Mythology

Babylonian
Hittite
Mesopotamian
Egyptian

Other topics

Cradle of civilization
Assyrian law
Babylonian astronomy
Babylonian law
Babylonian mathematics
Cuneiform law
History of the Middle East

v
t
e

text: The ancient Near East was the first to practice intensive year-round agriculture and currency-mediated trade (as opposed to barter), gave the rest of the world the first writing system, invented the potter's wheel and then the vehicular and mill wheel, created the first centralized governments and law codes, served as birthplace to the first city-states with their high degree of division of labor, as well as laying the foundation for the fields of astronomy and mathematics. However, its empires also introduced rigid social stratification, slavery, and organized warfare.

text: Cradle of civilization, Sumer and Akkad[edit]

text: The earliest civilizations in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the Sumerians, in Mesopotamia (Iraq), widely regarded as the cradle of civilization. The Sumerians and the Akkadians (later known as Babylonians and Assyrians) all flourished in this region.

text: "In the course of the fourth millennium BC, city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia that were dominated by temples whose priests represented the cities' patron deities. The most prominent of the city-states was Sumer, which gave its language to the area, [presumably the first written language,] and became the first great civilization of mankind. About 2340 BC, Sargon the Great (c. 2360–2305 BC) united the city-states in the south and founded the Akkadian dynasty, the world's first empire."[13]

text: During this same time period, Sargon the Great appointed his daughter, Enheduanna, as High Priestess of Inanna at Ur.[14] Her writings, which established her as the first known author in world history, also helped cement Sargon's position in the region.

text: Egypt[edit]

text: Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the Nile valley of Lower and Upper Egypt was unified under the Pharaohs approximately around 3150 BC. Since then, Ancient Egypt experienced 3 high points of civilization, the so-called "Kingdom" periods:

text:
The Old Kingdom (2686–2181),
The Middle Kingdom (2055–1650) and, most notably,
The New Kingdom (1550–1069).

tag: ul

text: The history of Ancient Egypt is concluded by the Late Period (664–332 BC), immediately followed by the history of Egypt in Classical Antiquity, beginning with Ptolemaic Egypt.

text: The Levant and Anatolia[edit]

text: Thereafter, civilization quickly spread through the Fertile Crescent to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the Levant, as well as to ancient Anatolia. Ancient Levantine kingdoms and city states included Ebla City, Ugarit City, Kingdom of Aram-Damascus, Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Judah, Kingdom of Ammon, Kingdom of Moab, Kingdom of Edom, and the Nabatean kingdom. The Phoenician civilization, encompassing several city states, was a maritime trading culture that established colonial cities in the Mediterranean Basin, most notably Carthage, in 814 BC.

text: Assyrian empires[edit]

text: Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–605 BC. The Assyrian Empire, at its peak, was the largest the world had seen. It ruled all of what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus, and Bahrain—with large swathes of Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Sudan, and Arabia. "The Assyrian empires, particularly the third, had a profound and lasting impact on the Near East. Before Assyrian hegemony ended, the Assyrians brought the highest civilization to the then known world. From the Caspian to Cyprus, from Anatolia to Egypt, Assyrian imperial expansion would bring into the Assyrian sphere nomadic and barbaric communities, and would bestow the gift of civilization upon them."[15]

text: Neo-Babylonian and Persian empires[edit]

text: From the early 6th century BC onwards, several Persian states dominated the region, beginning with the Medes and non-Persian Neo-Babylonian Empire, then their successor the Achaemenid Empire known as the first Persian Empire, conquered in the late 4th century BC. by the very short-lived Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great, and then successor kingdoms such as Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state in Western Asia.

text: After a century of hiatus, the idea of the Persian Empire was revived by the Parthians in the 3rd century BC—and continued by their successors, the Sassanids from the 3rd century AD. This empire dominated sizable parts of what is now the Asian part of the Middle East and continued to influence the rest of the Asiatic and African Middle East region, until the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century CE. Between the 1st century BC and the early 7th century AD, the region was completely dominated by the Romans and the Parthians and Sassanids on the other hand, which often culminated in various Roman-Persian Wars over the seven centuries. Eastern Rite, Church of the East Christianity took hold in Persian-ruled Mesopotamia, particularly in Assyria from the 1st century AD onwards, and the region became a center of a flourishing Syriac–Assyrian literary tradition.

text: Greek and Roman Empire[edit]

text: In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Roman Empire united the region with most of Europe and North Africa in a single political and economic unit. Even areas not directly annexed were strongly influenced by the Empire, which was the most powerful political and cultural entity for centuries. Though Roman culture spread across the region, the Greek culture and language first established in the region by the Macedonian Empire continued to dominate throughout the Roman period. Cities in the Middle East, especially Alexandria, became major urban centers for the Empire and the region became the Empire's "bread basket" as the key agricultural producer. Ægyptus was by far the most wealthy Roman province.[16][17]

text: As the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman and Persian Empires, it took root in the Middle East, and cities such as Alexandria and Edessa became important centers of Christian scholarship. By the 5th century, Christianity was the dominant religion in the Middle East, with other faiths (gradually including heretical Christian sects) being actively repressed. The Middle East's ties to the city of Rome were gradually severed as the Empire split into East and West, with the Middle East tied to the new Roman capital of Constantinople. The subsequent Fall of the Western Roman Empire therefore, had minimal direct impact on the region.

text: Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)[edit]

text: The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. By this time, Greek had become the 'lingua franca' of the region, although ethnicities such as the Syriacs and the Hebrew continued to exist. Under Byzantine/Greek rule the area of the Levant met an era of stability and prosperity.

text: The medieval Near East[edit]

text: Islamic caliphate[edit]

text: From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam, whilst the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare during the Roman–Persian Wars. In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, the Arab armies, motivated by Islam and led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by more than half and completely engulfing the Persian lands. In Anatolia, their expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines with the help of the Bulgarians.

text: The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France by the Franks. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire was the first empire to control the entire Middle East, as well 3/4 of the Mediterranean region, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the Mediterranean Sea.[18] It would be the Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today. The Seljuq Empire would also later dominate the region.

text: Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia (Al-Andalus) and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with Baghdad in the eastern Mediterranean.

text: Between 831 and 1071, the Emirate of Sicily was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the Normans the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western and Byzantine influences. Palermo remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.

text: Africa was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land. The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Turks. They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean.

text: Turks, Crusaders and Mongols[edit]

text: The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia, who conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz. Egypt held out under the Fatimid caliphs until 1169, when it too fell to the Turks.

text: Despite massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the Christian Byzantine Empire continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean, preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe. The Seljuqs' defeat of the Byzantine military in the 11th century and settling in Anatolia effectively marked the end of Byzantine influence in the region. The Seljuks ruled most of the Middle East region for the next 200 years, but their empire soon broke up into a number of smaller sultanates.

text: Christian [Western Europe] had staged a remarkable economic and demographic recovery in the 11th century since the nadir of its fortunes in the 7th century. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France and the emerging Holy Roman Empire to enter the region. In 1095, Pope Urban II had responded to pleas from the flagging Byzantine Empire, summoned the European aristocracy to recapture the Holy Land for Christianity, and in 1099 the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem. They founded the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived until 1187, when Saladin retook the city. Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291.

text: Mongol invasions (13th century)[edit]

text: In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in 1258 and advancing as far south as the border of Egypt. Mamluk Emir Baibars left Damascus to Cairo where he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. After taking Damascus, the Ilkhanate was established and Hulagu demanded that Sultan Qutuz surrender Egypt but Sultan Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with the help of Baibars, mobilized his troops.

text: Although Hulagu had to leave for the East when great Khan Möngke died in action against the Southern Song, he left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge. Sultan Qutuz drew the Mongol army into an ambush near the Orontes River, routed them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and captured and executed Kitbuqa. With this victory Mamluk Turks became Sultans of Egypt and the real power in the Middle East and gaining control of Palestine and Syria, while other Turkish sultans controlled Iraq and Anatolia until the arrival of the Ottomans.

text: The Ottoman Empire (1299–1918)[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman khans, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capitol of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. The Mamluks held the Ottomans out of the Middle East for a century, but in 1514 Selim the Grim began the systematic Ottoman conquest of the region. Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. Iraq was conquered almost in 40 years from the Iranian Safavids, who were successors of the Aq Qoyunlu.

text: The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Iranian Safavids and Afsharids. "The Ottoman Empires was one of the greatest, most extensive, and long lasting in the History of the World. It included most of the territories of the Eastern Roman Empire(...)and held portions that the Byzantines never ruled (...)The Ottoman Empire was born in 1300 and endured until World War I-."[19]

text: By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the Balkans, and most of Hungary, setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the Danube. In the west, Europe was rapidly expanding; demographically, economically and culturally. By the 19th century, Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and—most importantly—technology. The industrial revolution fuelled a boom that laid the foundations for the growth of capitalism.

text: By 1700, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary. Although some areas of Ottoman Europe, such as Albania and Bosnia, saw many conversions to Islam, the area was never culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.[citation needed] From 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory. During the 19th century, Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria asserted their independence, and in the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 the Ottomans were driven out of Europe altogether, except for the city of Constantinople and its hinterland.

text: By the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was known as the "sick man of Europe", increasingly under the financial control of the European powers. Domination soon turned to outright conquest. The French annexed Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1878. The British occupied Egypt in 1882, though it remained under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.

text: The British also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French extended their influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany.

text: Ottoman attempts at reform[edit]

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with the European powers. In the Ottoman Empire, the Tanzimat reforms re-strengthened Ottoman rule and were furthered by the Young Ottomans in the late 19th century, leading to the First Constitutional Era in the Empire that included the writing of the 1876 constitution and the establishment of the Ottoman Parliament. The authors of the 1906 revolution in Persia all sought to import versions of the western model of constitutional government, civil law, secular education and industrial development into their countries. Across the region, railways and telegraphs lines were built, schools and universities were opened, and a new class of army officers, lawyers, teachers and administrators emerged, challenging the traditional leadership of Islamic scholars.

text: The first Ottoman constitutional experiment ended soon after it began, however, when the autocratic Sultan Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution in favor of personal rule. Abdul Hamid ruled by decree for the next 30 years, stirring democratic resentment towards his rule. The reform movement known as the Young Turks emerged in the 1890s against Abdul Hamid's rule, which included massacres against minorities. The Young Turks seized power in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution and established the Second Constitutional Era, leading to a pluralist and multiparty elections in the Empire for the first time in 1908. The Young Turks split into two parties, the pro-German and pro-centralization Committee of Union and Progress and the pro-British and pro-decentralization Freedom and Accord Party. The former was led by an ambitious pair of army officers, Ismail Enver Bey (later Pasha) and Ahmed Cemal Pasha, and a radical lawyer, Mehmed Talaat Bey (later Pasha). After a power struggle between the two parties of Young Turks, the Committee emerged victorious and became a ruling junta, with Talaat as Grand Vizier and Enver as War Minister, and established a German-funded modernisation program across the Empire.[20]

text: Enver Bey's alliance with Germany, which he saw as the most advanced military power in Europe, was enabled by the British demands that the Ottoman Empire cede their formal capital Edirne (Adrianople) to the Bulgarians after losing the First Balkan War, which the Turks saw as a betrayal by Britain.[21] These demands cost Britain the support of the Turks, as the pro-British Freedom and Accord Party was now repressed under the pro-German Committee for, in Enver's words, "shamefully delivering the country to the enemy [Britain]" after agreeing to the demands to give up Edirne.[22]

text: Modern Middle East[edit]

text: Final years of the Ottoman Empire[edit]

text: In 1878, as the result of the Cyprus Convention, the United Kingdom took over the government of Cyprus as a protectorate from the Ottoman Empire. While the Cypriots at first welcomed British rule, hoping that they would gradually achieve prosperity, democracy and national liberation, they soon became disillusioned. The British imposed heavy taxes to cover the compensation they paid to the Sultan for conceding Cyprus to them. Moreover, the people were not given the right to participate in the administration of the island, since all powers were reserved to the High Commissioner and to London. In 1819, the Government of Lord Liverpool created the Six Acts, which established press censorship, the banning of political parties (mainly the communist party), the dissolution of municipal elections, as well as the out-ruling of trade unions, meetings of more than five individuals, and the tolling of church bells outside services.[23]

text: Meanwhile, the fall of the Ottomans and the partitioning of Anatolia by the Allies led to resistance by the Turkish population, under the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the Turkish victory against the invading powers during the Turkish War of Independence, and the founding of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923. As the first President of Turkey, Atatürk embarked on a program of modernisation and secularisation. He abolished the caliphate, emancipated women, enforced western dress and the use of a new Turkish alphabet based on Latin script in place of the Arabic alphabet, and abolished the jurisdiction of the Islamic courts. In effect, Turkey, having given up rule over the Arab World, was now determined to secede from the Middle East and become culturally part of Europe.

text: Another turning point in the history of the Middle East came when oil was discovered, first in Persia in 1908 and later in Saudi Arabia (in 1938) and the other Persian Gulf states, and also in Libya and Algeria. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily accessible reserves of crude oil, the most important commodity in the 20th-century industrial world. Although western oil companies pumped and exported nearly all of the oil to fuel the rapidly expanding automobile industry and other western industrial developments, the kings and emirs of the oil states became immensely rich, enabling them to consolidate their hold on power and giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region.[24]

text: A Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil and the decline of British influence led to a growing American interest in the region. Initially, the Western oil companies established a predominance over oil production and extraction. However, indigenous movements towards nationalizing oil assets, oil sharing and the advent of OPEC ensured a shift in the balance of power towards the Arab oil producing nations.[24] Oil wealth also had the effect of stultifying whatever movement towards economic, political or social reform might have emerged in the Arab world under the influence of the Kemalist revolution in Turkey.

text: World War I[edit]

text: In 1914, Enver Pasha's alliance with Germany led the Ottoman Empire into the fatal step of joining Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I, against Britain and France. The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance, and concentrated on knocking them out of the war. When a direct assault failed at Gallipoli in 1915, they turned to fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains, exploiting the awakening force of Arab, Armenian, and Assyrian nationalism against the Ottomans.

text: The British found an ally in Sharif Hussein, the hereditary ruler of Mecca (and believed by Muslims to be a descendant of the family of Muhammad), who led an Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule, having received a promise of Arab independence in exchange.

text: The Allies, led by Britain, won the war and seized most of the Ottoman territories. Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and, with the rise of the motor vehicle industry, the rapid growth of the Middle Eastern oil industry.[25]

text: Defeat and partition of the Ottoman Empire (1918–22)[edit]

text: When the Ottoman Empire was defeated by an Arab uprising and the British forces after the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1918, the Arab population did not get what it wanted. Islamic activists of more recent times have described as an Anglo-French betrayal. British and French governments concluded a secret treaty (the Sykes–Picot Agreement) to partition the Middle East between them. The British in 1917 announced the Balfour Declaration promised the international Zionist movement their support in re-creating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine.

text: When the Ottomans departed, the Arabs proclaimed an independent state in Damascus, but were too weak, militarily and economically, to resist the European powers for long, and Britain and France soon established control and re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.[26]

text: Syria became a French protectorate as a League of Nations mandate. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become Lebanon, another French protectorate. Iraq and Palestine became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "Kingdom of Iraq" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, Faisal, was installed as the King of Iraq. Iraq incorporated large populations of Kurds, Assyrians and Turkmens, many of whom had been promised independent states of their own.

text: Palestine became the "British Mandate of Palestine" and was split in half. The eastern half of Palestine became the "Emirate of Transjordan" to provide a throne for another of Husayn's sons, Abdullah. The western half of Palestine was placed under direct British administration. The Jewish population of Palestine which numbered less than 8 percent in 1918 was given free rein to immigrate, buy land from absentee landlords, set up a shadow government in waiting and establish the nucleus of a state under the protection of the British Army which suppressed a Palestinian revolt in 1936.[27] Most of the Arabian peninsula fell to another British ally, Ibn Saud. Saud created the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.

text: During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, Syria and Egypt made moves towards independence. In 1919, Saad Zaghloul orchestrated mass demonstrations in Egypt known as the First Revolution. While Zaghloul would later become Prime Minister, the British repression of the anticolonial riots led to the death of some 800 people. In 1920, Syrian forces were defeated by the French in the Battle of Maysalun and Iraqi forces were defeated by the British when they revolted. In 1922, the (nominally) independent Kingdom of Egypt was created following the British government's issuance of the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence.

text: Although the Kingdom of Egypt was technically "neutral" during World War II, Cairo soon became a major military base for the British forces and the country was occupied. The British were able to do this because of a 1936 treaty by which the United Kingdom maintained that it had the right to station troops on Egyptian soil to protect the Suez Canal. In 1941, the Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup in Iraq led to the British invasion of the country during the Anglo-Iraqi War. The British invasion of Iraq was followed by the Allied invasion of Syria–Lebanon and the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.

text: In Palestine, conflicting forces of Arab nationalism and Zionism created a situation the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise to power of German dictator Adolf Hitler had created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to immigrate to Palestine and create a Jewish state. A Palestinian state was also an attractive alternative to the Arab and Persian leaders, instead of the de facto British, French, and perceived Jewish colonialism or imperialism, under the logic of "the enemy of my enemy is my friend".[28]

text: New states post-World War II[edit]

text: The British, the French, and the Soviets departed from many parts of the Middle East during and after World War II. Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and the Middle East states on the Arabian Peninsula generally remained unaffected by World War II. However, after the war, the following Middle East states had independence restored or became independent:

text:
22 November 1943 – Lebanon
1 January 1944 – Syria
22 May 1946 – Jordan (British mandate ended)
1947 – Iraq (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
1947 – Egypt (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn to the Suez Canal area)
1948 – Israel (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
August 16, 1960 – Cyprus

text: The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine. This plan attempted to create an Arab state and a Jewish state in the narrow space between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean. While the Jewish leaders accepted it, the Arab leaders rejected this plan.

text: On 14 May 1948, when the British Mandate expired, the Zionist leadership declared the State of Israel. In the 1948 Arab–Israeli War which immediately followed, the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia intervened and were defeated by Israel. About 800,000 Palestinians fled from areas annexed by Israel and became refugees in neighbouring countries, thus creating the "Palestinian problem", which has troubled the region ever since. Approximately two-thirds of 758,000–866,000 of the Jews expelled or who fled from Arab lands after 1948 were absorbed and naturalized by the State of Israel.

text: On August 16, 1960, Cyprus gained its independence from the United Kingdom. Archbishop Makarios III, a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected the first president of independent Cyprus, and in 1961 it became the 99th member of the United Nations.

text: Modern states[edit]

text: The departure of the European powers from direct control of the region, the establishment of Israel, and the increasing importance of the oil industry, marked the creation of the modern Middle East. These developments led to a growing presence of the United States in Middle East affairs. The U.S. was the ultimate guarantor of the stability of the region, and from the 1950s the dominant force in the oil industry. When revolutions brought radical anti-Western regimes to power in Egypt in 1954, Syria in 1963, Iraq in 1968 and Libya in 1969, the Soviet Union, seeking to open a new arena of the Cold War in the Middle East, allied itself with Arab socialist rulers such as Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Saddam Hussein of Iraq.

text: These regimes gained popular support through their promises to destroy the state of Israel, defeat the U.S. and other "western imperialists," and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses. When the Six-Day War of 1967 between Israel and its neighbours ended in a decisive loss for the Muslim side, many in the Islamic world saw this as the failure of Arab socialism. This represents a turning point when "fundamental and militant Islam began to fill the political vacuum created".[29]

text: In response to this challenge to its interests in the region, the U.S. felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the conservative monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were almost as unattractive to western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a revolution led by the Shi'a clergy overthrew the monarchy in 1979 and established a theocratic regime that was even more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. This forced the U.S. into a close alliance with Saudi Arabia. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as 1948 Arab–Israeli War, 1956 Suez War, 1967 Six-Day War, 1970 War of Attrition, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, as well as a number of lesser conflicts.

text: Between 1963 and 1974, conflict arising between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots in British colonial Cyprus led to Cypriot intercommunal violence and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The Cyprus dispute remains unresolved.

text: In the mid-to-late 1960s, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar took power in both Iraq and Syria. Iraq was first ruled by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, but was succeeded by Saddam Hussein in 1979, and Syria was ruled first by a Military Committee led by Salah Jadid, and later Hafez al-Assad until 2000, when he was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-Assad.

text: In 1979, Egypt under Nasser's successor, Anwar Sadat, concluded a peace treaty with Israel, ending the prospects of a united Arab military front. From the 1970s the Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, resorted to a prolonged campaign of violence against Israel and against American, Jewish and western targets generally, as a means of weakening Israeli resolve and undermining western support for Israel. The Palestinians were supported in this, to varying degrees, by the regimes in Syria, Libya, Iran and Iraq. The high point of this campaign came in the 1975 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 condemning Zionism as a form of racism and the reception given to Arafat by the United Nations General Assembly. Resolution 3379 was revoked in 1991 by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686.

text: Due to many of the frantic events of the late 1970s in the Middle East it culimated in the Iran–Iraq War between neighbouring Iran and Iraq. The war, started by Iraq, who invaded Iranian Khuzestan in 1980 at the behest of the latter's chaotic state of country due to the 1979 Islamic Revolution, eventually turned into a stalemate with hundreds of thousands of dead on both sides.

text: The fall of the Soviet Union and the collapse of communism in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of Soviet Jews to emigrate from Russia and Ukraine to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Saddam Hussein in Iraq increasingly turned to Arab nationalism as a substitute for socialism.

text: Saddam Hussein led Iraq into a prolonged and very costly war with Iran in the 1980s, and then into its fateful invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of Basra before 1918, and thus in a sense part of Iraq, but Iraq had recognized its independence in the 1960s. The U.S. responded to the invasion by forming a coalition of allies that included Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Syria, gaining approval from the United Nations and then evicting Iraq from Kuwait by force in the Persian Gulf War. President George H. W. Bush did not, however, attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime, something the U.S. later came to regret.[citation needed] The Persian Gulf War and its aftermath brought about a permanent U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf region, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which offended many Muslims, and was a reason often cited by Osama bin Laden as justification for the September 11 attacks.

text: The rapid spread of political democracy and the development of market economies in Eastern Europe, Latin America, East Asia and parts of Africa had passed by the Middle East. In the whole region, only Israel, Turkey and to some extent Lebanon and the Palestinian territories were democracies.

text: Other countries had legislative bodies, but these had little power. In the Persian Gulf states the majority of the population could not vote because they were guest workers rather than citizens. Many Arab countries counter-claim that a direct result of Western foreign policy and an overly strong Israel, has been the removal of much progress that would come naturally from these nations.

text: In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was inhibited by political restrictions, corruption and cronyism, overspending on arms and prestige projects, and over-dependence on oil revenues. Successful economies in the region were those that combined oil wealth with low populations, such as Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates. In these states, the ruling emirs allowed some political and social liberalization, but without giving up any of their own power. Lebanon also rebuilt a fairly successful economy after a prolonged civil war in the 1980s.

text: In the opening years of the 21st century all these factors combined to raise the Middle East conflict to a new height, and to spread its consequences across the globe. The failure of the attempt by Bill Clinton to broker a peace deal between Israel and the Palestinians at Camp David in 2000 (2000 Camp David Summit) led directly to the election of Ariel Sharon as Prime Minister of Israel and to the Al-Aqsa Intifada, characterised by suicide bombing of Israeli civilian targets. This was the first major outbreak of violence since the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993.

text: At the same time, the failures of most of the Arab regimes and the bankruptcy of secular Arab radicalism led a section of educated Arabs (and other Muslims) to embrace Islamism, promoted both by the Shi'a clerics of Iran and by the powerful Wahhabist sect of Saudi Arabia. Many of the militant Islamists gained their military training while fighting against the forces of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan[dubious – discuss]. Many of the Afghan jihadists, though supposedly none of the Arab volunteers, were funded by the US under Operation Cyclone as part of the Reagan Doctrine, one of the longest and most expensive covert CIA operations ever undertaken.[30][31]

text: One of these Arab militants was a wealthy Saudi Arabian, Osama bin Laden. After fighting against the Soviets in Afghanistan, he formed the al-Qaida organization, which was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, the USS Cole bombing and the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States.[citation needed] The September 11 attacks led the administration of U.S. President George W. Bush to launch an invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 to overthrow the Taliban regime, which was harbouring Bin Laden and his organisation. The U.S. and its allies described this operation as part of a global "War on Terror."

text: During 2002 the administration, led by Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, developed a plan to invade Iraq, remove Saddam from power, and turn Iraq into a democratic state with a free-market economy, which they hoped would serve as a model for the rest of the Middle East. When the U.S. and its principal allies, Britain, Italy, Spain and Australia, could not secure United Nations approval for the execution of the numerous United Nations resolutions, they launched an invasion of Iraq, overthrowing Saddam with no great difficulty in April 2003.

text: The advent of a new western army of occupation in a Middle Eastern capital marked a turning point in the history of the region. Despite successful elections (although boycotted by large portions of Iraq's Sunni population) held in January 2005, much of Iraq had all but disintegrated, due to a post-war insurgency which morphed into persistent ethnic violence that the American army was initially unable to quell. Many of Iraq's intellectual and business elite fled the country, and many Iraqi refugees left as a result of the insurgency, further destabilizing the region. A responsive surge in US forces in Iraq has recently been largely successful in controlling the insurgency and stabilizing the country.

text: By 2005, President George W. Bush's Road map for peace between Israel and the Palestinians was stalled, although this situation had begun to change with Yasser Arafat's death in 2004. In response, Israel moved towards a unilateral solution, pushing ahead with the Israeli West Bank barrier to protect Israel from Palestinian suicide bombers and proposed unilateral withdrawal from Gaza. The barrier if completed would amount to a de facto annexation of areas of the West Bank by Israel. In 2006 a new conflict erupted between Israel and Hezbollah Shi’a militia in southern Lebanon, further setting back any "prospects for peace".

text: Starting in late 2010 to the present, a revolutionary wave popularly known as the Arab Spring has brought major protests, uprisings, and even revolutions to several Middle Eastern countries and appears to be in the process of significantly changing the social order of the region.


document_title: Dean of the College of Cardinals

question_text: who is the dean of the college of cardinals

text: Dean of the College of Cardinals

text: Responsibilities[edit]

text:
Part of a series on theHierarchy of theCatholic ChurchSaint Peter
Ecclesiastical titles (order of precedence)
Pope
Cardinal
Cardinal Vicar
Moderator of the curia
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text: It is the Dean's responsibility to summon the conclave for the purposes of electing a new pope following a death or resignation.  The Dean presides over the conclave unless he is too old to vote in it. Additionally, the dean has the responsibility of communicating the "news of the Pope's death to the Diplomatic Corps accredited to the Holy See and to the Heads of the respective Nations"[1] and is the public face of the Holy See during the sede vacante period. It is the Dean, unless he is impeded, who asks the Pope-elect if he accepts the election, and then asks the new Pope what name he wishes to use. According to Canon 355 (from the Latin Code of Canon Law 1983), if the newly elected Supreme Pontiff is not already a bishop, it has always been the right of the Bishop of Ostia to ordain him.

text: The Cardinal Dean has "the title of the diocese of Ostia, together with that of any other church to which he already has a title,"[2] such as his suburbicarian diocese. This has been the case since 1914, by decree of Pope Pius X—previous deans had given up their prior suburbicarian see for the joint title of Ostia and Velletri, which were separated in that same 1914 decree.

text: Deans elected Pope[edit]

text: Nine Deans have been elected Pope:[3] Anastasius IV, Lucius III, Gregory IX, Alexander IV, John XXI, Alexander VI, Paul III, Paul IV, Benedict XVI.

text: List of Deans[edit]

text: This list needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The following is the list of Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, separated into three groups to account for the Western Schism, which  ended after the Council of Constance. The earliest attested reference to the "College of Cardinals" is at the Council of Reims in 1148.[4]

text: Each name in the following list includes years of birth and death, then comma-separated years of cardinalate and deanship.

text: Before the Western Schism[edit]

text:
Pietro Senex (d. 1134) (1102, before 1130)[5][disputed  – discuss]
Guillaume (d. 1137/39) (1122, 1130)[citation needed][disputed  – discuss]
Corrado della Suburra (1073–1154) (1114, 1137/39) Elected Pope Anastasius IV in 1153[disputed  – discuss]
Imar of Tusculum (d. 1161) (1142, 1153, deposed 1159[6])[disputed  – discuss]
Gregorio de Suburra (d. 1163) (1140, 1159)[disputed  – discuss]
Ubaldo Allucingoli (1097–1185) (1138, 1163)  Elected Pope Lucius III in 1181
Konrad von Wittelsbach (1120/25–1200) (1165, 1181)
Ottaviano di Paoli (d. 1206) (1182, 1200)
Pietro Gallocia (d. 1211) (1188, 1206)
Nicola de Romanis (d. 1219) (1204, 1211)
Ugolino Conti di Segni (ca.1160/70–1241) (1198, 1219) Elected Pope Gregory IX in 1227
Pelagio Galvani (d. 1230) (1206/07, 1227)
Jean Halgrin (1180–1237) (1227, 1230)
Jacques de Vitry (1160/70–1240) (1228, 1237)
Rinaldo Conti (1185–1261) (1227, 1240) Elected Pope Alexander IV in 1254
Odo of Châteauroux (1190–1273) (1244, 1254)
John of Toledo (d. 1275) (1244, 1273)
João Pedro Julião (1210/15–1276) (1273, 1275)  Elected Pope John XXI in 1276)
Bertrand de Saint-Martin (d. 1277) (1273, 1276)
Ordonho Alvares (1198–1285) (1278, 1278)
Bentivenga de Bentivengi (1230–1289) (1278, 1285)
Latino Malabranca Orsini (d. 1294) (1278, 1289)
Gerardo Bianchi (1220/25–1302) (1278, 1294)
Giovanni Boccamazza (d. 1309) (1285, 1302)
Leonardo Patrasso (1230–1311) (1300, 1309)
Giovanni Minio de Murovalle (1250–1312) (1302, 1311)
Nicolò Albertini (1250–1321) (1303, 1312)
Berenger Fredoli (1250–1323) (1305, 1321)
Berenguer Fredol (d. 1323) (1312, 1323)
Guillaume Godin (1260–1336) (1312, 1323)
Pierre Desprès (1288–1361) (1320, 1336)
Élie de Talleyrand-Périgord (1301–1364) (1331, 1361)
Guy de Boulogne (1313–1373) (1342, 1364)
Ange de Grimoard (1315/20-1388) (1366, 1373, deposed by Urban VI in 1378, retained the post in the obedience of Avignon until 1388)

text: During the Western Schism[edit]

text:
The obedience of Rome (1378–1415)

Tommaso da Frignano (1305–1381) (1378)
Francesco Moricotti Prignano (d. 1394) (1378, 1381)
Philippe d'Alençon (1338–1397) (1378, 1394)
Pietro Pileo di Prata (1330–1400) (1378, 1397)[7]
Angelo Acciaioli (1349–1408) (1384, 1405)
Enrico Minutoli (d. 1412) (1389, 1408 until 1409)
Antonio Correr (1369–1445) (1408, 1409 until 1415)

The obedience of Avignon (1378–1429)

Ange de Grimoard (until 1388)
Pietro Corsini (1335–1405) (1370, 1388)
Gui de Malsec (d. 1412) (1375, 1405, deposed 1409, retained the post in the obedience of Pisa)
Jean Flandrin (after 1301–1415) (1390, 1405)
Julián Lobera y Valtierra (d. 1435) (1423, 1423 until 1429)

The obedience of Pisa (1409–1415)

Gui de Malsec (until 1412)
Jean Allarmet de Brogny (1342–1426) (1385, 1412 until 1415)

text: After the Council of Constance[edit]

text:
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text:
Angelo Correr (ca.1330–1417) (1415, 1415)[8]
Jean-Allarmet de Brogny (1342–1426) (1385, 1417)
Baldassare Cossa (ca.1360/70–1419) (1419, 1419)[9]
Jean Allarmet de Brogny (again) (1342–1426) (1385, 1419)
Angelo d'Anna de Sommariva (d. 1428) (1384, 1426)
Giordano Orsini (1360/70–1438) (1405, 1428)
Antonio Correr (again) (1369–1445) (1408, 1438)
Giovanni Berardi (1380–1449) (1439, 1445)[10]
Amadeo de Savoy (1383–1451) (1449, 1449)[11]
Francesco Condulmer (1390–1453) (1431, 1451)[12]
Giorgio Fieschi (ca.1395–1461) (1439, 1453)
Isidore of Kiev (1380/90–1463) (1439, 1461)
Bessarion (1403–1472) (1439, 1463)
Guillaume d'Estouteville (1403–1483) (1439, 1472)
Rodrigo Borgia (1431–1503) (1456, 1483) Elected Pope Alexander VI in 1492)
Oliviero Carafa (1430–1511) (1467, 1492)[13]
Raffaele Riario (1461–1521) (1477, 1511)
Bernardino Lopez de Carvajal (1456–1523) (1493, 1521)
Francesco Soderini (1453–1524) (1503, 1523)
Niccolò Fieschi (1456–1524) (1503, 1524)
Alessandro Farnese (1468–1549) (1493, 1524)Elected Pope Paul III in 1534)
Giovanni Piccolomini (1475–1537) (1517, 1535)
Giovanni Domenico de Cupis (1493–1553) (1517, 1537)
Gian Pietro Carafa (1476–1559) (1536, 1553)Elected Pope Paul IV in 1555)
Jean du Bellay (1492–1560) (1535, 1555)
François de Tournon(1489–1562) (1530, 1560)
Rodolfo Pio de Carpi (1500–1564) (1536, 1562)
Francesco Pisani (1494–1570) (1517, 1564)
Giovanni Girolamo Morone (1509–1580) (1542, 1570)
Alessandro Farnese, juniore (1520–1589) (1534, 1580)
Giovanni Antonio Serbelloni (1519–1591) (1560, 1589)
Alfonso Gesualdo (1540–1603) (1561, 1591)
Tolomeo Gallio (1526–1607) (1565, 1603)
Domenico Pinelli (1541–1611) (1585, 1607)
Francois de Joyeuse (1562–1615) (1583, 1611)
Antonio Maria Galli (1553–1620) (1586, 1615)
Antonio Maria Sauli (1541–1623) (1587, 1620)
Francesco Maria del Monte (1549–1626) (1588, 1623)
Ottavio Bandini (1558–1629) (1596, 1626)
Giovanni Battista Deti (1576–1630) (1599, 1629)
Domenico Ginnasi (1550–1639) (1604, 1630)
Carlo Emmanuele Pio de Savoia, seniore (1585–1641) (1604, 1639)
Marcello Lante della Rovere (1561–1652) (1606, 1641)
Giulio Roma (1584–1652) (1621, 1652) served less than 5 months
Carlo de' Medici (1595–1666) (1615, 1652)
Francesco Barberini, seniore (1597–1679) (1623, 1666)
Cesare Facchinetti (1608–1683) (1643, 1680)
Niccolò Albergati-Ludovisi (1608–1687) (1645, 1683)
Alderano Cybo (1613–1700) (1645, 1687)
Emmanuel–Theodose de la Tour d'Auvergne de Bouillon (1643–1715) (1669, 1700)
Nicola Acciaiouli (1630–1719) (1669, 1715)
Fulvio Astalli (1655–1721) (1686, 1719)
Sebastiano Antonio Tanara (1650–1724) (1695, 1721)
Francesco del Giudice (1647–1725) (1690, 1724)
Fabrizio Paolucci (1651–1726) (1697, 1725)
Francesco Pignatelli 1635 (1652–1734) (1703, 1726)[14]
Francesco Barberini (1662–1738) (1690, 1734)
Pietro Ottoboni (1667–1740) (1689, 1738)
Tommaso Ruffo (1663–1753) (1706, 1740)
Pierluigi Carafa (1677–1755) (1728, 1753)
Rainiero d'Elci (1670–1761) (1737, 1755)
Giuseppe Spinelli (1694–1763) (1735, 1761)
Carlo Alberto Guidoboni Cavalchini (1683–1774) (1743, 1763)
Gian Francesco Albani (1720–1803) (1747, 1774)[15] longest deanship
Henry Benedict Maria Clement Stuart (1725–1807) (1747, 1803) longest total cardinalate
Leonardo Antonelli (1730–1811) (1775, 1807)
Alessandro Mattei (1744–1820) (1779, 1814) vacancy caused by his exile by Napoleon
Giulio Maria della Somaglia (1744–1830) (1795, 1820)
Bartolomeo Pacca (1756–1844) (1801, 1830)
Lodovico Micara (1775–1847) (1824, 1844)
Vincenzo Macchi (1770–1860) (1826, 1847)
Mario Mattei (1792–1870) (1832, 1860)
Costantino Patrizi Naro (1798–1876) (1834, 1870)
Luigi Amat di San Filippo e Sorso (1796–1878) (1837, 1877)
Camillo di Pietro (1806–1884) (1853, 1878)
Carlo Sacconi (1808–1889) (1861, 1884)
Raffaele Monaco La Valletta (1827–1896) (1868, 1889)
Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano (1828–1913) (1873, 1896)
Serafino Vannutelli (1834–1915) (1887, 1913)
Vincenzo Vannutelli (1836–1930) (1889, 1915)
Gennaro Granito Pignatelli di Belmonte (1851–1948) (1911, 1930)
Francesco Marchetti-Selvaggiani (1871–1951) (1930, 1948)
Eugène Tisserant (1884–1972) (1936, 1951)
Amleto Giovanni Cicognani (1883–1973) (1958, 1972)
Luigi Traglia (1895–1977) (1960, 1974)
Carlo Confalonieri (1893–1986) (1958, 1977)
Agnelo Rossi (1913–1995) (1965, 1986, retired 1993)
Bernardin Gantin (1922–2008) (1977, 1993, retired 2002)
Joseph Ratzinger (born 1927) (1977, 2002) Elected Pope Benedict XVI in 2005
Angelo Sodano (born 1927) (1991, 2005)