document_title: Stephen Curry

question_text: who did curry play for before golden state

text: Stephen Curry

text: Early life

text: Stephen Curry is the son of Sonya (Adams) and Dell Curry. He was born in Akron, Ohio while his father was a member of the Cleveland Cavaliers.[2][3] He grew up in Charlotte, North Carolina, where his father spent most of his NBA career with the Charlotte Hornets.[4] Dell often took Curry and his younger brother Seth to his games, where they would shoot with the Hornets during warm-ups.[5] The family briefly relocated to Toronto, where Dell finished out his career as a member of the Raptors.[4] During this time, Curry played for the Queensway Christian College boys' basketball team, leading them to an undefeated season.[6][7] He was also a member of Toronto 5–0, a club team that plays across Ontario,[8][9] pitting him against fellow future NBA players Cory Joseph and Kelly Olynyk.[9] Curry led the team to a 33–4 record, en route to winning the provincial championship.[10]

text: Following Dell's retirement, the family moved back to Charlotte and Curry enrolled at Charlotte Christian School, where he was named all-conference, all-state, and led his team to three conference titles and three state playoff appearances. Because of his father's storied career at Virginia Tech, Curry wanted to play college basketball for the Hokies, but was only offered a walk-on spot due in part to his slender 160-pound frame.[11] He ultimately chose to attend Davidson College, who had aggressively recruited him from the tenth grade.[12]

text:
US college sports recruiting information for high school athletes

Name
Hometown
High school / college
Height
Weight
Commit date

Stephen Curry
PG
Charlotte, North Carolina
Charlotte Christian
6 ft 2 in (1.88 m)
163 lb (74 kg)
Sep 18, 2005

Recruiting star ratings: Scout:   Rivals:   247Sports:

Overall recruiting rankings: Scout: 36 (PG)

Note: In many cases, Scout, Rivals, 247Sports, and ESPN may conflict in their listings of height and weight.
In these cases, the average was taken. ESPN grades are on a 100-point scale.

Sources:

"2006 Davidson Basketball Commitment List". Rivals.com. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
"2006 Davidson College Basketball Team Recruiting Prospects". Scout.com. Archived from the original on August 21, 2013. Retrieved August 21, 2013.

"Scout.com Team Recruiting Rankings". Scout.com. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
"2006 Team Ranking". Rivals.com. Retrieved August 21, 2013.

text: College career

text: Freshman season

text: Before Curry even played in his first game for the Wildcats, head coach Bob McKillop praised him at a Davidson alumni event, "Wait 'til you see Steph Curry. He is something special."[13] In his first collegiate game, against Eastern Michigan, Curry finished with 15 points but committed 13 turnovers. In the next game, against Michigan, he scored 32 points, dished out 4 assists, and grabbed 9 rebounds. Curry finished the season leading the Southern Conference in scoring with 21.5 points per game. He was second in the nation among freshmen in scoring, behind only Kevin Durant of Texas. Curry's scoring ability helped the Wildcats to a 29–5 overall record and a Southern Conference regular season title. On March 2, 2007, in the Southern Conference tournament semi-finals against Furman, Curry made his 113th three-pointer of the year, breaking Keydren Clark's NCAA freshman season record for 3-point field goals.[14]

text: Curry eclipsed the school freshman scoring record with his 502nd point against Chattanooga on February 6, 2007.[15] On March 15, 2007, Davidson marched into the NCAA tournament as a 13 seed set to play Maryland; despite Curry's game-high 30 points, Davidson lost 82–70.[16] At the end of his freshman season, Curry was named Southern Conference Freshman of the Year, SoCon Tournament MVP, and selected to the SoCon All-tournament team, All-freshman team, and first team All-SoCon. He was also honorable mention in Sports Illustrated's All-Mid-Major. After the season ended, he was selected for the USA team to appear at the 2007 FIBA U19 World Championships in which he averaged 9.4 points, 3.8 rebounds, and 2.2 assists in 19.4 minutes, helping team USA to a silver medal finish.

text: Sophomore season

text: In his sophomore season in 2007–08, Curry had grown to his adult height of 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) and again led the Southern Conference in scoring, averaging 25.5 points per game while adding 4.7 rebounds per game and 2.8 assists per game. He led the Wildcats to a 26–6 regular season record, and a 20–0 conference record. As a result of Curry's exceptional play, Davidson earned its third straight NCAA Tournament bid.

text: On March 21, 2008, Davidson matched up with seventh-seeded Gonzaga. Gonzaga led by 11 points early in the second half but Curry went on to score 30 points in the half[17] to push Davidson to their first NCAA Tournament win since 1969, 82–76. Curry ended the game with 40 points while also going 8-for-10 from 3-point range.[18] On March 23, Davidson played second seeded Georgetown in the second round of the NCAA Tournament. Georgetown, ranked eighth nationally, entered the game as a heavy favorite after an appearance in the Final Four in 2007. Curry managed just five points in the first half of the game as Davidson trailed by as many as 17 points, but his 25 second-half points led Davidson to a 74–70 comeback victory.[17]

text: On March 28, 2008, Curry led Davidson to another win, against third-seeded Wisconsin. Curry scored 33 points as Davidson won 73–56 to advance to the Elite 8.[19] Curry joined Clyde Lovellette, Jerry Chambers, and Glenn Robinson as the only college players to score over 30 points in their first four career NCAA tournament games.[19] Curry also tied Darrin Fitzgerald of Butler for the single-season record for most three-pointers with 158.[20][21] On March 30, 2008, he set the record, against the top-seeded Kansas Jayhawks, with his 159th three-pointer of the season. Curry scored 25 points in the game but Davidson lost 57–59, and the Jayhawks went on to win the championship.[22]

text: Curry finished the season averaging 25.9 points, 2.9 assists, and 2.1 steals per game. He was named to the Associated Press' All-America Second Team on March 31, 2008.[23] He also was named the Most Outstanding Player of the Midwest Region of the 2008 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Tournament, becoming the first player from a team not making the Final Four to do so since Juwan Howard of Michigan in 1994.[24] Curry was nominated for an ESPY in the Breakthrough Player of the Year category.[25]

text: Junior season

text: After Davidson's loss against Kansas in the NCAA Regional Finals, Curry announced that he would return for his junior year.[20] He stated that he wanted to develop as a point guard, his likely position in the NBA. On November 18, 2008, Curry scored a career-high 44 points in Davidson's 82–78 loss to Oklahoma.[26] He extended a career-long streak by scoring at least 25 points for the seventh straight game.[26] On November 21, Curry registered a career-high 13 assists, to go along with 30 points, in Davidson's 97–70 win over Winthrop.[27] On November 25, against Loyola, Curry was held scoreless as Loyola constantly double-teamed him. It was Curry's only scoreless collegiate game and just his second without double-digit points. He finished 0-for-3 from the field as Davidson won the game 78–48.[28] In Davidson's next game (11 days later), Curry matched his career-high of 44 in a 72–67 win over North Carolina State.

text: Curry surpassed the 2000-point mark for his career on January 3, 2009, as he scored 21 points against Samford.[29] On February 14, 2009, Curry rolled his ankle in the second half of a win over Furman. The injury caused Curry to miss the February 18 game against The Citadel, the first and only game he missed in his college career.[30] On February 28, 2009, Curry became Davidson's all-time leading scorer with 34 points in a 99–56 win against Georgia Southern. That gave Curry 2,488 points for his career, surpassing previous school leader John Gerdy.[31] Davidson won the 2008–09 Southern Conference regular season championship for the south division, finishing 18–2 in the conference.[32][33]

text: In the 2009 Southern Conference Tournament, Davidson played Appalachian State in the quarterfinals and won 84–68. Curry scored 43 points, which is the third most points in Southern Conference tournament history.[34] In the semifinals, against the College of Charleston, Curry had 20 points but Davidson lost 52–59. Despite lobbying from Davidson head coach Bob McKillop and Charleston coach Bobby Cremins,[35] the Wildcats failed to get an NCAA tournament bid. Instead, they received the sixth seed in the 2009 NIT. Davidson played the third seed, South Carolina, on the road in the first round. Curry scored 32 points as the Wildcats beat the Gamecocks 70–63.[36][37] Davidson then fell 68–80 to the Saint Mary's Gaels in the second round. Curry registered 26 points, 9 rebounds, and 5 assists in what was his final game for the Wildcats.[38]

text: In his final season at Davidson, Curry averaged 28.6 points, 5.6 assists, and 2.5 steals. He was the NCAA scoring leader and was named a consensus first team All-American.[39] Curry opted out of his senior year at Davidson, but he stated that he still planned to earn his degree.[40]

text: College statistics

text:
Regular Season Averages

Season
Team
G
PTS
REB
AST
STL
BLK
FG%
3P%
FT%
MIN
TO

2006–07
Davidson Wildcats
34
21.5
4.6
2.8
1.8
0.2
.463
.408
.855
30.9
2.8

2007–08
Davidson Wildcats
36
25.9
4.6
2.9
2.1
0.4
.483
.439
.894
33.1
2.6

2008–09
Davidson Wildcats
34
28.6
4.4
5.6
2.5
0.2
.454
.387
.876
33.7
3.7

Career
104
25.3
4.5
3.7
2.1
0.3
.467
.412
.876
32.6
3.0

text: Professional career

text: Golden State Warriors (2009–present)

text: Early seasons (2009–11)

text: Curry was selected with the seventh overall pick in the 2009 NBA draft by the Golden State Warriors.[41] His rookie contract was worth $12.7 million over four years.[42] In his first career game, he scored 14 points and distributed 7 assists.[43] With final season averages of 17.5 points, 5.9 assists, and 1.9 steals per game,[41] he finished second in NBA Rookie of the Year voting to Tyreke Evans, and was named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team.[44]

text: At the 2011 NBA All-Star Weekend, Curry won the NBA All-Star Weekend Skills Challenge.[45] He finished the season with averages of 18.6 points, 5.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game and shot a franchise- and league-best 93.4 percent from the free throw line.[41][46] He was also the recipient of the NBA Sportsmanship Award.[47]

text: Injury-riddled year (2011–12)

text: In May 2011, Curry had surgery on his right ankle to repair torn ligaments that were caused by multiple sprains from the previous.[50] The ankle healed in time for the start of the 2011–12 campaign, but he sprained it again during the preseason and on January 4 in a game against the San Antonio Spurs.[51][52][53] On February 22, he strained a tendon in his right foot in a game against the Phoenix Suns.[54] In April, he had another surgery.[55] In total, Curry appeared in only 26 regular season games and his scoring average dipped to 14.7 points per game.[41]

text: Getting back on track (2012–14)

text: Prior to the start of the 2012–13 season, Curry agreed to a four-year, $44 million rookie scale contract extension with the Warriors.[56] At the time, many basketball writers considered the move risky for Golden State because of Curry's injury history.[57] Over the course of the year, Curry and backcourt teammate Klay Thompson gained a reputation for their perimeter scoring, earning them the nickname "The Splash Brothers".[58] On February 27, Curry scored a career-high 54 points in a game against the New York Knicks, setting a franchise record for three-pointers made in a game with 11 and falling just one shy of tying the NBA record.[59][60] In the final game of the season, he set a new league record for three-pointers made in a single season.[61] His final averages were 22.9 points and 6.9 assists per game.[41] The Warriors finished the year with 47 wins, earning them the sixth seed in the Western Conference and a matchup with the Denver Nuggets in the first round of the playoffs.[62] Golden State defeated the Nuggets in six games to advance to the second round, where Curry scored 44 points in a Game 1 loss to the Spurs.[63] The Warriors eventually lost the series in six games.[64]

text: In December of the 2013–14 season, Curry eclipsed Jason Richardson as the franchise's leader in career three-pointers.[65] In February, he made his first All-Star appearance, starting for the West.[66] Behind averages of 24 points and 8.5 assists per game, he was selected to his first All-NBA Team.[41] Seeded sixth for the second consecutive year, the Warriors drew the Los Angeles Clippers to begin the postseason.[67] In Game 4, Curry scored 33 points, including a then playoff career-high seven three-pointers, in a winning effort.[68] Golden State went on to lose the series in seven games.[67]

text: NBA Championship and MVP (2014–15)

text: Prior to the start of the 2014–15 season, the Warriors hired former NBA player and general manager Steve Kerr as their new head coach.[70] Kerr implemented significant changes to Golden State's schemes, including playing at a faster pace and giving Curry more freedom to shoot, helping the team evolve into a title contender.[71] On February 4, Curry scored a season-high 51 points in a win over the Dallas Mavericks.[72] He was the leading vote-getter for the All-Star Game and won the Three-Point Contest on All-Star Saturday night.[73][74] On April 9, he broke his own league record for three-pointers made in a season during a game against the Portland Trail Blazers.[75] The Warriors finished the year with 67 wins and Curry was voted the NBA Most Valuable Player after posting averages of 23.8 points, 7.7 assists and 2 steals per game.[41] Over the course of the season, he sat out 17 fourth quarters due to Golden State's wide margins of victory.[76]

text: In Game 5 of the Conference Semifinals against the Memphis Grizzlies, Curry became the first player in league history to register six three-pointers and six steals in a game.[77] In Game 6, he made a playoff career-high eight three-pointers en route to a series-clinching victory.[78] In Game 3 of the Conference Finals against the Houston Rockets, he broke the NBA record for most three-pointers made in a single postseason.[79][80] The Warriors went on to defeat the Rockets to earn a Finals matchup with the Cleveland Cavaliers, where Curry struggled to start the series, converting on only 22 percent of his field goals in Game 2.[81] In Game 5, he scored 37 points,[82] and in Game 6, Golden State closed out the series to win their first championship in 40 years.[83] For the Finals, Curry averaged 26 points and 6.3 assists per game.[82]

text: Unanimous MVP (2015–16)

text: On October 27, 2015, Curry scored 40 points (including a career-high 24 points in the first quarter) in the Warriors' season opening win over the New Orleans Pelicans, the most points scored by a reigning MVP in an opener since 1972 when Kareem Abdul-Jabbar scored 41 for the Milwaukee Bucks.[84] In addition, Curry started his seventh straight season opener, joining Jeff Mullins, and Chris Mullin as the only Warriors' players since 1962 to do so.[84] Two games later on October 31, also against the Pelicans, Curry scored 53 points on 17-of-27 shooting to lead the Warriors to a 134–120 win. Curry became the first player since Michael Jordan in 1989–90 to score 118 points in the first three games of a season.[85] On November 24, he scored 24 points in a win over the Los Angeles Lakers, as the Warriors set the record for best start in NBA history at 16–0.[86] The Warriors improved to 24–0 on December 11 with a double overtime win over the Boston Celtics, before finally having their streak broken the following day against the Milwaukee Bucks.[87]

text: On December 28, Curry recorded his sixth career triple-double with 23 points, a career-high 14 rebounds and 10 assists in a 122–103 win over the Sacramento Kings. During the game against the Kings, Curry was guarded by his brother Seth for the first time in their NBA careers.[88] On January 22, he recorded his second triple-double of the season and seventh of his career with 39 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 122–110 win over the Indiana Pacers. He made eight three-pointers in the game to reach 200 for the season, becoming the first player in NBA history to make 200 three-pointers in four straight seasons.[89] On February 3, he made 11 three-pointers (including seven in the first quarter) and scored 51 points (including a career-high 36 points in the first half) to lead the Warriors past the Washington Wizards 134–121. His 51 points tied Gilbert Arenas and Michael Jordan for the Verizon Center record.[90] During the 2016 NBA All-Star Weekend, Curry competed in his third straight All-Star game for the West, and competed in the Three-Point Shootout, where he lost in the final round to teammate Klay Thompson. At 48–4, the Warriors entered the All-Star break with the best record through 52 games in NBA history, one win better than the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls and 1966–67 Philadelphia 76ers.[91]

text: On February 25, Curry made 10 three-pointers and scored 51 points to lead the Warriors past the Orlando Magic 130–114. Curry topped 50 points for the third time in 2015–16, the first player to do it that many times since LeBron James and Dwyane Wade did so in 2008–09. Curry also surpassed Kyle Korver's mark of 127 straight games with a three-pointer.[92] In the following game two days later, the Warriors defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder in overtime thanks to a Curry three-pointer with 0.6 seconds remaining. Curry finished with 46 points as his winning shot was his 12th three-pointer, tying the NBA single-game record (with Kobe Bryant and Donyell Marshall).[93] He also broke his own NBA record for threes in a season, leaving the new mark at 288.[94] On March 7, in a win over the Orlando Magic, Curry scored 41 points and became the first player in NBA history to make 300 three-pointers in a season.[95] On April 1, Curry missed a three-pointer to tie the game against the Boston Celtics with 5.3 seconds left, as the Warriors suffered their first home defeat since January 27, 2015, losing 109–106 to the Celtics to snap an NBA-record 54-game winning streak in the regular season at Oracle Arena.[96] On April 7, Curry scored 27 points to help the Warriors become the second team in NBA history to win 70 games in a season with a 112–101 win over the San Antonio Spurs.[97] In the Warriors' regular season finale on April 13 against the Memphis Grizzlies, Curry achieved another shooting milestone, becoming the first player to make 400 three-pointers in a season by knocking down 10 from long range on his way to 46 points and 402 total three-pointers. With a 125–104 win over the Grizzlies, the Warriors became the first 73-win team in NBA history, surpassing the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls' 72–10 record to finish the 2015–16 season with just nine losses.[98] With the conclusion of the regular season, Curry became the seventh player in NBA history to join the 50–40–90 club, representing the shooting percentages from the field (.504), beyond the arc (.454), and the free-throw line (.908).[99]

text: As the No. 1 seed in the Western Conference, the Warriors faced the eighth-seeded Rockets in the first round of the playoffs. In a Game 1 win, Curry scored 24 first-half points before an ankle injury ruled him out for the rest of the game.[100] He subsequently missed Games 2 and 3 of the series, which the Warriors split for a 2–1 lead.[101] Curry returned in Game 4, but sprained his right knee on the final play of the second quarter. He did not play in the second half, but the Warriors won 121–94.[102] He was diagnosed with a sprained right medial collateral ligament (MCL) and was ruled out for two weeks.[103] Without Curry, the Warriors defeated the Rockets in Game 5 to move on to the second round, where they faced the Portland Trail Blazers. Curry missed the first three games of the series, as the Warriors led 2–1 after Game 3. Curry returned to action in Game 4, coming off the bench to record 40 points, 9 rebounds and 8 assists in a 132–125 overtime win.[104] Seventeen of those points came in the extra period, an NBA record for points scored by an individual in overtime.[105] A day after returning from injury, Curry was named the league's first ever unanimous MVP, becoming the 11th player in NBA history to win the award in consecutive seasons and the first guard to do so since Steve Nash in 2004–05 and 2005–06.[106] Curry led the Warriors to a 4–1 victory over the Trail Blazers, as they moved on to the Western Conference Finals to face the Oklahoma City Thunder. After going down 3–1, he helped the Warriors rally to win the series 4–3 and advance to their second straight NBA Finals.[107] In the Finals, Curry's play relative to his regular season performance remained inconsistent, as it had been since he returned from injury against Portland.[108] Still, he broke Danny Green's record of 27 three-pointers made in a Finals.[109] However, the Warriors, despite being up 3–1 in the series, were defeated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in seven games and became the first team in NBA Finals history to lose a series after leading 3–1. In the Game 7 loss, Curry scored 17 points on 6-of-19 shooting.[110]

text: Second NBA Championship (2016–17)

text: After dropping their season opener at home to the San Antonio Spurs on October 25, the Warriors levelled their record at 1–1 with a 122–114 win over the New Orleans Pelicans three days later. Curry hit four three-pointers against the Pelicans to reach 1,600 for his career, becoming the 19th player to do so, as well as the fastest to reach the mark.[111] On November 4, 2016, Curry's NBA-record streak of 157 straight games with at least one made three-pointer was snapped during the Warriors' 117–97 loss to the Los Angeles Lakers after he went 0-of-10 from three-point range. He had hit a three-pointer in every regular-season game since November 11, 2014.[112] Three days later, he hit 13 three-pointers against New Orleans, setting an NBA record for most three-pointers made in a regular-season game. Curry shot 16-of-26 overall against the Pelicans for his first 40-point game of the season, finishing with 46 in a 116–106 win.[113] On December 11, Curry hit two three-pointers against the Minnesota Timberwolves to pass Steve Nash for 17th on the NBA's career three-pointers list.[114] With 14 points against the Dallas Mavericks on December 30, Curry (11,903) passed Purvis Short (11,894) for seventh place on the Warriors' all-time scoring list.[115] In a loss to the Memphis Grizzlies on January 6, 2017, Curry had his second 40-point game of the season and reached the 12,000-point threshold, becoming the seventh player in Warriors history to score 12,000 career points.[116] Three days later, Curry was named Western Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday, January 2 through Sunday, January 8.[117] It marked his eighth career Player of the Week honor, more than any other player in franchise history.[116] On January 19, Curry was named a starter on the Western Conference All-Star team for the 2017 NBA All-Star Game.[118] On January 28, he scored 25 of his 43 points in the third quarter of the Warriors' 144–98 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. He also had nine three-pointers against the Clippers.[119] On February 1, he hit 11 three-pointers and scored 39 points in a 126–111 win over the Charlotte Hornets.[120] The following day, he was named Co-Western Conference Player of the Month for January alongside teammate Kevin Durant[121] and hit his 200th three-pointer of the season in the Warriors' 133–120 win over the Clippers, making him the first player in NBA history to have 200 or more three-pointers in five consecutive seasons.[122] On March 5, he scored 31 points and moved into the top 10 on the NBA's career three-point list in a 112–105 win over the New York Knicks. Curry hit five three-pointers, passing Chauncey Billups for 10th place, and added eight rebounds and six assists.[123] On April 2, Curry hit nine three-pointers and scored 42 points in a 139–115 win over the Washington Wizards.[124] Three days later, he had another 42-point effort in a 120–111 win over the Phoenix Suns, helping the Warriors clinch the best record in the Western Conference for the third straight season.[125]

text: On April 24, Curry scored 37 points in Game 4 to help the Warriors sweep their first-round playoff series against the Portland Trail Blazers and advance to the conference semifinals.[126] On May 8, he scored 30 points in Game 4 to help the Warriors sweep their second-round playoff series against the Utah Jazz and advance to the Western Conference Finals.[127] In Game 1 of the Western Conference Finals against the Spurs on May 14, Curry scored 40 points and hit a tying 3-pointer with 1:48 remaining to help the Warriors rally from a 25-point deficit to win 113–111; the Warriors overcame their largest halftime deficit ever in the postseason at 20 points.[128] In a 120–108 Game 3 win, Curry scored 21 points and became the franchise leader in postseason points, passing Rick Barry. They went up 3–0 in the series, becoming the third team in NBA history to win their first 11 playoff games.[129] His 36 points in Game 4 led to a 129–115 victory that saw the Warriors advance to the NBA Finals for a third straight year while becoming the first team in league history to start the playoffs 12–0.[130] In Game 2 of the 2017 NBA Finals against the Cleveland Cavaliers, Curry recorded his first career postseason triple-double with 32 points, 11 assists and 10 rebounds to help the Warriors go up 2–0 in the series with a 132–113 win.[131] Curry helped the Warriors clinch the series and the championship in Game 5 with 34 points, 10 assists and six rebounds, as Golden State claimed its second title in three years.[132]

text: 2017–18 season

text: On July 1, 2017, Curry agreed to a five-year, $201 million extension with the Warriors, becoming the first NBA player to sign a supermax contract, the crossing of a $200 million threshold.[133] He officially signed the contract on July 25.[134]

text: National team career

text: Curry's first experience with the United States national team came at the 2007 FIBA Under-19 World Championship, where he helped Team USA capture the silver medal.[135] In 2010, he was selected to the senior squad, playing limited minutes at the 2010 FIBA World Championship (known later as FIBA Basketball World Cup) as the United States won the gold medal in an undefeated tournament.[136] In 2014, he took on a larger role with the team, helping them to another undefeated tournament at the 2014 World Cup and scoring 10 points in the final game.[137] On June 6, 2016, Curry withdrew from consideration for the 2016 Olympics in Brazil, citing ankle and knee ailments as the major reason behind the decision.[138]

text: Player profile

text: Standing at 6 feet 3 inches tall (1.91 m) and weighing 190 pounds (86 kg), Curry plays almost exclusively at the point guard position and has career averages of 22.4 points, 6.9 assists, and 1.8 steals per game. He has been selected to three All-NBA Teams and voted league MVP twice.[41] Since 2013, he has been ranked a top ten player in the NBA as part of ESPN's #NBArank project.[139][140][141]

text: Curry is considered to be an important leader within the Warriors organization; he is known for his humility and work ethic.[142][143] Curry is said to have played a significant role in the recruitment of former MVP Kevin Durant to the Warriors.[144]

text: Curry is known for his elite shooting ability; he is able to score in great volume from underneath the rim all the way to near half-court.[145] He is considered by many to be among the greatest scorers in NBA history.[146][147][148] [148][149] Using an unorthodox jump shot, he is able to get the ball out of his hands in under half a second by releasing it on the way up, adding extra arc to his shot and making it difficult to block.[150] In addition to his quick release, he puts extra pressure on defenses with his long range, leading the NBA in field goals made from beyond 28 feet in 2016.[151] As of April 2016, he ranks second in NBA history in career three-point field goal percentage and holds three of the top five seasons in terms of total three-pointers made.[152][153][154] He is also the fastest player in league history to make 1,000 career three-pointers, doing so in 88 fewer games than the previous record-holder.[155] In an article for FiveThirtyEight, Benjamin Morris emphasized Curry's importance in the NBA's increasing use of the three-point shot, writing, "Curry is perhaps the figurehead in the NBA's Three-Point Revolution."[156]

text: Some experts have commented that Curry's elite scoring ability creates a "gravity" effect, forcing opposing defenders to double-team him even when he doesn't have the ball, which creates mismatches that his teammates are able to exploit.[157][158]

text: Curry is also known as a clutch scorer, often shooting at his best in high-pressure moments, and taking game-winning shots.[159][160]

text: Curry is an exceptional free throw shooter, with a career free throw average of over 90% through the 2015–16 season.[161] He is currently the Warriors' all-time free-throw leader, and led the NBA in free throw shooting average in the 2014–15 and 2015–16 seasons.[162]

text: Though capable stealing the ball, having led the league in steals for the 2015–16 season, Curry is not considered to be an elite defender, and his teammates frequently take the more difficult defensive assignments.[157]

text: Personal life

text: On July 30, 2011, Curry married longtime girlfriend and Toronto native Ayesha Alexander in Charlotte.[7][8][163][164] Together, they have two daughters, Riley (b. 2012) and Ryan (b. 2015).[165][166] They currently reside in Alamo, California.[167] Curry's younger brother, Seth, is also a professional basketball player,[168] and his younger sister, Sydel, plays volleyball at Elon University.[169]

text: Curry has been outspoken about his Christian faith.[170][171] Curry spoke about his faith during his MVP speech by saying, "People should know who I represent and why I am who I am, and that's because of my Lord and Savior." He also said the reason that he pounds his chest and points up is that he has a "heart for God" and as a reminder that he plays for God.[172] On some of his "Curry One" basketball shoes, there is a lace loop scripted "4:13".[173] It is a reference to the Bible verse Philippians 4:13, which reads "I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me".[174][175] Curry has a tattoo of First Corinthians, 13:8 in Hebrew on his wrist ("Love never fails...").[176] Curry is also an investor in Active Faith, a Christian sports apparel brand.[177][178]

text: During the 1992 All-Star Weekend, Curry's father entrusted him to Biserka Petrović, mother of future Hall of Fame player Dražen Petrović, while Dell competed in the Three-Point Contest. Following the 2015 NBA Finals, Curry gave Biserka one of his Finals-worn jerseys, which will reportedly be added to the collection of the Dražen Petrović Memorial Center, a museum to the late player in the Croatian capital of Zagreb.[179]

text: Charity

text: In 2012, Curry started donating three insecticide-treated mosquito nets for every three-pointer he made to the United Nations Foundation's Nothing But Nets campaign to combat malaria. He was first introduced to the malaria cause by Davidson teammate Bryant Barr when they were both in school. Curry visited the White House in 2015 and delivered a five-minute speech to dignitaries as part of President Barack Obama's launch of his President's Malaria Initiative strategy for 2015–2020.[180][181]

text: In 2015, Curry wore sneakers that had Deah Shaddy Barakat's name on them (one of the victims of the 2015 Chapel Hill shooting). According to his sister Suzanne, Deah Barakat was known for his "love for basketball and anything Steph Curry."[182] Deah's number for his intramural basketball team at North Carolina State University was Curry's No. 30 and he posed for a photo that was similar to one that Curry did for GQ.[182] Curry said that Barakat's family "did a great job of reaching out to me and making me aware of the details of his life and personality [...] It was really kind of a cool deal to be able to use the platform yesterday to honor Deah and his family [...] I'm going to send them the shoes I wore yesterday. And hopefully they know that I've been thinking about them."[183][184][185] Also in 2015, after winning the MVP award following his impressive season, Curry donated his prize vehicle—a 2016 Kia Sorento—to the East Oakland Youth Development Center, a local non-profit organization located in the backyard of Oracle Arena.[186]

text: Celebrity

text: Curry is currently one of the most successful players in the NBA, and he has also become an international celebrity, on par with four-time MVP LeBron James.[187][188] His flashy play and penchant for coming up big in the clutch have made him a fan favorite, and his smaller physique is said to have made his success seem more attainable for younger fans of the NBA.[189][190] Curry's jersey was the top seller in the NBA for the 2015–16 and 2016–17 NBA seasons.[191] ESPN has ranked Curry among the most famous international athletes, while Forbes has ranked him among the world's highest-paid celebrities for his endorsements.[192][193]

text: Under Armour

text: Curry is widely known for his partnership with Under Armour, where he is considered to be the "face of their footwear line".[194] Originally signed to Nike, Curry joined with Under Armour in the 2013 offseason.[195] As Curry became MVP and one of the most popular athletes in the world, sales of his shoes have become a major factor for the brand, with stock prices rising and falling based on the success of the Curry shoe line.[196][197]

text: Golf

text: Curry is an avid golfer; he played golf in high school, and frequently plays golf with teammate Andre Iguodala.[198][199] A 5-handicap golfer, Curry participates in celebrity golf tournaments, and has played golf alongside Barack Obama.[200][201][202] In August 2017, Curry competed in the Ellie Mae Classic on an unrestricted sponsor exemption.[203] Though he missed the first cut, he scored 4-over-74 for both days he participated, surpassing most expectations for an amateur competing in the pro event.[204]

text: Steiner Sports

text: On September 20, 2017, it was announced that Curry had signed an exclusive autograph contract with Steiner Sports Memorabilia. The full product line will include: hand-signed official basketballs and jerseys, autographed photographs of epic moments, flashy framed signs and wall-art, game-used memorabilia, and limited-edition pieces.[205]

text: NBA career statistics

text:
Legend

  GP
Games played
  GS
Games started
 MPG
Minutes per game

 FG%
Field goal percentage
 3P%
3-point field goal percentage
 FT%
Free throw percentage

 RPG
Rebounds per game
 APG
Assists per game
 SPG
Steals per game

 BPG
Blocks per game
 PPG
Points per game
 Bold
Career high

text:
†
Denotes seasons in which Curry won an NBA championship

*
Led the league

text: Regular season

text:
Year
Team
GP
GS
MPG
FG%
3P%
FT%
RPG
APG
SPG
BPG
PPG

2009–10
Golden State
80
77
36.2
.462
.437
.885
4.5
5.9
1.9
.2
17.5

2010–11
Golden State
74
74
33.6
.480
.442
.934*
3.9
5.8
1.5
.3
18.6

2011–12
Golden State
26
23
28.2
.490
.455
.809
3.4
5.3
1.5
.3
14.7

2012–13
Golden State
78
78
38.2
.451
.453
.900
4.0
6.9
1.6
.2
22.9

2013–14
Golden State
78
78
36.5
.471
.424
.885
4.3
8.5
1.6
.2
24.0

2014–15†
Golden State
80
80
32.7
.487
.443
.914*
4.3
7.7
2.0
.2
23.8

2015–16
Golden State
79
79
34.2
.504
.454
.908*
5.4
6.7
2.1*
.2
30.1*

2016–17†
Golden State
79
79
33.4
.468
.411
.898
4.5
6.6
1.8
.2
25.3

Career
574
568
34.7
.476
.438
.901
4.4
6.8
1.8
.2
22.8

All-Star
4
4
27.2
.437
.355
1.000
5.2
7.0
1.7
.0
16.0

text: Playoffs

text:
Year
Team
GP
GS
MPG
FG%
3P%
FT%
RPG
APG
SPG
BPG
PPG

2013
Golden State
12
12
41.4
.434
.396
.921
3.8
8.1
1.7
.2
23.4

2014
Golden State
7
7
42.3
.440
.386
.881
3.6
8.4
1.7
.1
23.0

2015†
Golden State
21
21
39.3
.456
.422
.835
5.0
6.4
1.9
.1
28.3

2016
Golden State
18
17
34.3
.438
.404
.916
5.5
5.2
1.4
.3
25.1

2017†
Golden State
17
17
35.3
.484
.419
.904
6.2
6.7
2.0
.2
28.1

Career
75
74
37.8
.453
.410
.885
5.1
6.6
1.7
.2
26.2

text: Awards and honors

text: NBA

text:
2× NBA champion: 2015, 2017
2× NBA Most Valuable Player: 2015, 2016
4× NBA All-Star: 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
2× All-NBA First Team: 2015, 2016
2× All-NBA Second Team: 2014, 2017
NBA scoring leader: 2016[a]
5× NBA three-point field goals leader: 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
3× NBA free-throw percentage leader: 2011, 2015, 2016
NBA steals leader: 2016
NBA Skills Challenge champion: 2011
NBA regular season record for made three-pointers (402)[207]
NBA record for most consecutive regular season games with a made three-pointer (157)[112]
NBA record for most consecutive playoff games with a made three-pointer (75)
NBA record for most three-pointers made in a single playoffs (98 – tied with Klay Thompson)[208]
NBA record for most three-pointers made in a game (13)
NBA record for most points scored in an overtime period (17)
Warriors franchise leader in three-point field goals made

text: College

text:
2× SoCon Player of the Year (2008–2009)
Consensus first-team All-American (2009)
Consensus second-team All-American (2008)
2× First-team All-SoCon (2008–2009)
2× SoCon Conference Tournament Most Outstanding Player (2007–2008)
3× SoCon first-team All-Tournament (2007–2009)
SoCon Freshman of the Year (2007)
SoCon All-Freshmen Team (2007)

text: NCAA records

text:
NCAA Division I scoring leader (2009)
Single-season NCAA 3-point field goals (162, 2007–08)
Single-season NCAA freshman 3-point field goals (122, 2006–07)

text: Davidson College records

text:
All-time leading scorer in Davidson College history (2,635)
All-time Davidson College leader in 3-point field-goals made (414)
All-time Davidson College leader in 30-point games (30)
All-time Davidson College leader in 40-point games (6)
Single-season Davidson College points (974, 2008–09)
Single-season Davidson College steals (86, 2008–09)
Single-season Davidson College freshman points (730, 2006–07)

text: Other

text:
Jefferson Award for Outstanding Public Service in Professional Sports (2011)[209]
ESPY Award for Best Male Athlete and Best NBA Player (2015)[210]
BET Award for Sportsman of the Year (2015)[211]
AP Male Athlete of the Year (2015)[212]
2016 ESPY Award Nominee for Best Record-Breaking Performance[213]


document_title: Antarctica

question_text: when was the last date antarctica was free of ice

question_tokens: when was the last date antarctica was free of ice

root

text: Antarctica

text: Etymology

text: The name Antarctica is the romanised version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική (antarktiké), feminine of ἀνταρκτικός (antarktikós),[9] meaning "opposite to the Arctic", "opposite to the north".[10]

tag: p

text: Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c. 350 B.C.[11] Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A.D. The Roman authors Hyginus and Apuleius (1–2 centuries A.D.) used for the South Pole the romanised Greek name polus antarcticus,[12][13] from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik in a 1391 technical treatise by Geoffrey Chaucer (modern Antarctic Pole).[14]

text: Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for other locations that could be defined as "opposite to the north". For example, the short-lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called "France Antarctique".

text: The first formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew.[15]

text: History of exploration

text: Antarctica has no indigenous population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. However, belief in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa—had existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

text: Integral to the story of the origin of the name "Antarctica" is how it was not named Terra Australis—this name was given to Australia instead, and it was because of a mistake made by people who decided that a significant landmass would not be found farther south than Australia. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has been credited with popularising the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. He justified the titling of his book A Voyage to Terra Australis (1814) by writing in the introduction:

text: There is no probability, that any other detached body of land, of nearly equal extent, will ever be found in a more southern latitude; the name Terra Australis will, therefore, remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country and of its situation on the globe: it has antiquity to recommend it; and, having no reference to either of the two claiming nations, appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected.[16]

text: European maps continued to show this hypothesised land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774.[17] Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773.[18] The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals.

text: According to various organisations (the National Science Foundation,[19] NASA,[20] the University of California, San Diego,[21] Russian State Museum of the Arctic and Antarctic,[22] among others),[23][24] ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820: von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (a sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut).

text: The First Russian Antarctic expedition led by Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on the 985-ton sloop-of-war Vostok ("East") and the 530-ton support vessel Mirny ("Peaceful") reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Queen Maud's Land and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W / -69.35778; -2.24722,[25] on 27 January,[26] which became known as the Fimbul ice shelf. This happened three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis, apparently at Hughes Bay, near Cape Charles, in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim.[27][28] The first recorded and confirmed landing was at Cape Adair in 1895.[29]

text: On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the Balleny Islands, some members of the crew of the 1837–40 expedition of Jules Dumont d'Urville disembarked on the highest islet[30] of a group of rocky islands about 4 km from Cape Géodésie on the coast of Adélie Land where they took some mineral, algae and animal samples.[31]

text: In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it retains to this day.

text: Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named after him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[32] Mercator Cooper landed in East Antarctica on 26 January 1853.[33]

text: During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931.[34] In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountains (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier.[35] One month later, the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole.

text: Richard E. Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanised land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research.[36] The first women to set foot on Antarctica did so in the 1930s with Caroline Mikkelsen landing on an island of Antarctica in 1935,[37] and Ingrid Christensen stepping onto the mainland in 1937.[38][39][40]

text: It was not until 31 October 1956, that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.[41] The first women to step onto the South Pole were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill in 1969.[42]

text: The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in the 10-metre steel sloop Ice Bird.

text: On 28 April 1979, Air New Zealand Flight 901, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all 257 people on board. [43]

text: Geography

text: Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. There are a number of rivers and lakes in Antarctica, the longest river being the Onyx. The largest lake, Vostok, is one of the largest sub-glacial lakes in the world. Antarctica covers more than 14 million km2 (5,400,000 sq mi),[1] making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi)[1] and is mostly characterised by ice formations, as the following table shows:

text:
Coastal types around Antarctica[44]

Type
Frequency

Ice shelf (floating ice front)
44%

Ice walls (resting on ground)
38%

Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall)
13%

Rock
5%

Total
100%

tag: table

text: Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and the remainder East Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian.

text: About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, a sheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of the world's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 m (200 ft).[45] In most of the interior of the continent, precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm (0.8 in) per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.

text: West Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, ocean levels would rise by several metres in a relatively geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic ice streams, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves: see ice-sheet dynamics.

text: East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains and comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.

text: Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Antarctica contains many other mountains, on both the main continent and the surrounding islands. Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano. Another well-known volcano is found on Deception Island, which is famous for a giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.[46] In 2004, a potentially active underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers.[47]

text: Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these subglacial lakes. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for 500,000 to one million years but a recent survey suggests that, every so often, there are large flows of water from one lake to another.[48]

text: There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 m (1,300 ft) above the water line, that Lake Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter's moon, Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, it would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.[49][50] On 7 February 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments.[51]

text: Geology

text: Geological history and palaeontology

text: More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Over time, Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago. Antarctica was not always cold, dry, and covered in ice sheets. At a number of points in its long history, it was farther north, experienced a tropical or temperate climate, was covered in forests, and inhabited by various ancient life forms.

text: Palaeozoic era (540–250 Ma)

text: During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), as Gondwana became centred on the South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period, the land became dominated by seed plants such as Glossopteris, a pteridosperm which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.[52]

text: Mesozoic era (250–66 Ma)

text: As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In Eastern Antarctica, seed ferns or pteridosperms became abundant and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. Synapsids, commonly known as "mammal-like reptiles", were common in Antarctica during the Early Triassic and included forms such as Lystrosaurus. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206–146 Ma), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. Ginkgo trees, conifers, bennettites, horsetails, ferns and cycads were plentiful during this period. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146–66 Ma), though southern beech became more prominent towards the end of this period. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only three Antarctic dinosaur genera (Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus, from the Hanson Formation,[53] and Antarctopelta) have been described to date.[54] It was during this era that Gondwana began to break up.

text: However, there is some evidence of antarctic marine glaciation during the Cretaceous period.[55]

text: Gondwana breakup (160–23 Ma)

text: The cooling of Antarctica occurred stepwise, as the continental spread changed the oceanic currents from longitudinal equator-to-pole temperature-equalising currents to latitudinal currents that preserved and accentuated latitude temperature differences.

text: Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic, around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). By the end of the Cretaceous, about 66 Ma, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a subtropical climate and flora, complete with a marsupial fauna.[56] In the Eocene epoch, about 40 Ma Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, so that latitudinal currents could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and the first ice began to appear. During the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago, CO2 levels have been found to be about 760 ppm[57] and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm.

text: Around 23 Ma, the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America, resulting in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of the changes suggest that declining CO2 levels became more important.[58] The ice began to spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent.

text: Neogene Period (23–0.05 Ma)

text: Since about 15 Ma, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.[59]

text: Meyer Desert Formation biota

text: Fossil Nothofagus leaves in the Meyer Desert Formation of the Sirius Group show that intermittent warm periods allowed Nothofagus shrubs to cling to the Dominion Range as late as 3–4 Ma (mid-late Pliocene).[60] After that, the Pleistocene ice age covered the whole continent and destroyed all major plant life on it.[61]

text: Present-day

text: The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by nearly all of the continent being permanently covered with a thick layer of ice.[62] However, new techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.

text: Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America.[52] The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to East Antarctica.

text: East Antarctica is geologically varied, dating from the Precambrian era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a metamorphic and igneous platform which is the basis of the continental shield. On top of this base are coal and various modern rocks, such as sandstones, limestones and shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as Shackleton Range and Victoria Land some faulting has occurred.

text: The main mineral resource known on the continent is coal.[59] It was first recorded near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the oil and natural gas fields found in the Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

text: Climate

text: Antarctica is the coldest of Earth's continents. It used to be ice-free until about 34 million years ago, when it became covered with ice.[63] The coldest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Soviet (now Russian) Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.[64] For comparison, this is 10.7 °C (20 °F) colder than subliming dry ice at one atmosphere of partial pressure, but since CO2 only makes up 0.039% of air, temperatures of less than −140 °C (−220 °F)[65] would be needed to produce dry ice snow in Antarctica. A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may be influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of 7 feet above the surface as required for the official air temperature records.[66] Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it. Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world.[67]

text: East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, ice there lasts for extended periods. Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 metres (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded.

text: At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, wind speeds are typically moderate. During clear days in summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.[1]

text: Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for three reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation in the troposphere. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica. Third, the Earth is at aphelion in July (i.e., the Earth is farthest from the Sun in the Antarctic winter), and the Earth is at perihelion in January (i.e., the Earth is closest to the Sun in the Antarctic summer). The orbital distance contributes to a colder Antarctic winter (and a warmer Antarctic summer) but the first two effects have more impact.[68]

text: The aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth. Another unique spectacle is diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun.[67]

text: Population

text: Several governments maintain permanent manned research stations on the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer, giving it a population density between 70 and 350 inhabitants per million square kilometres (180 and 900 per million square miles) at these times. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church—Trinity Church, opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station—is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year.[69][70]

text: The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.

text: The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 and became the manager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.[71]

text: Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty),[72] as well as the first one born on the Antarctic mainland, in 1978 at Base Esperanza, on the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula;[73][74] his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if the continent was suitable for family life. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.[75] As of 2009, eleven children were born in Antarctica (south of the 60th parallel south): eight at the Argentine Esperanza Base[76] and three at the Chilean Frei Montalva Station.[77]

text: Biodiversity

text: Animals

text: Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica, and those that do are limited to the sub-Antarctic islands.[78] Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites like the Alaskozetes antarcticus, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. The flightless midge Belgica antarctica, up to 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica.[79] The snow petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica.[80]

text: Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The southern rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

text: The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[81]

text: A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as sea cucumbers, and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport eggs and larval stages.[82]

text: Fungi

text: About 1,150 species of fungi have been recorded from Antarctica, of which about 750 are non-lichen-forming and 400 are lichen-forming.[83][84] Some of these species are cryptoendoliths as a result of evolution under extreme conditions, and have significantly contributed to shaping the impressive rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges. The apparently simple morphology, scarcely differentiated structures, metabolic systems and enzymes still active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles shown by such fungi make them particularly suited to harsh environments such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys. In particular, their thick-walled and strongly melanised cells make them resistant to UV light. Those features can also be observed in algae and cyanobacteria, suggesting that these are adaptations to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that, if life ever occurred on Mars, it might have looked similar to Antarctic fungi such as Cryomyces antarcticus, and Cryomyces minteri.[85] Some of these fungi are also apparently endemic to Antarctica. Endemic Antarctic fungi also include certain dung-inhabiting species which have had to evolve in response to the double challenge of extreme cold while growing on dung, and the need to survive passage through the gut of warm-blooded animals.[86]

text: Plants

text: About 298 million years ago Permian forests started to cover the continent, and tundra vegetation survived as late as 15 million years ago,[87] but the climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit plant growth. As a result, the diversity of plant life is very low and limited in distribution. The flora of the continent largely consists of bryophytes. There are about 100 species of mosses and 25 species of liverworts, but only three species of flowering plants, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass), Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native Poa annua (annual bluegrass).[88] Growth is restricted to a few weeks in the summer.[83][89]

text: Other organisms

text: Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicoloured snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer.[89] Bacteria have been found living in the cold and dark as deep as 800 m (0.50 mi; 2,600 ft) under the ice.[90]

text: Conservation

text: The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (also known as the Environmental Protocol or Madrid Protocol) came into force in 1998, and is the main instrument concerned with conservation and management of biodiversity in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting is advised on environmental and conservation issues in Antarctica by the Committee for Environmental Protection. A major concern within this committee is the risk to Antarctica from unintentional introduction of non-native species from outside the region.[91]

text: The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act (1978) in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on Antarctica. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.[1] Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,300 short tons) in 2000.[92][93]

text: Politics

text: Several countries claim sovereignty in certain regions. While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims,[94] the validity of these claims is not recognised universally.[1]

text: New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959, although in 2015 Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole.[95] Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States.[96] It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection, and banned military activity on Antarctica. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.

text: In 1983 the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica.[97] A coalition of international organisations[98] launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International,[99] which operated its own scientific station—World Park Base—in the Ross Sea region from 1987 until 1991[100] and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental effects of humans on Antarctica.[101] In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted.[102] The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place.[103] The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the "Madrid Protocol") was negotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force.[103][104] The Madrid Protocol bans all mining in Antarctica, designating Antarctica a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science".

text: The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvres, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes.[105] The only documented military land manoeuvre has been the small Operation NINETY by the Argentine military in 1965.[106]

text: Antarctic territories

text:
Date
Country
Territory
Claim limits
Map

1908
 United Kingdom
 British Antarctic Territory
20°W to 80°W

1923
 New Zealand
 Ross Dependency
150°W to 160°E

1924
 France
 Adélie Land
142°2′E to 136°11′E

1929
 Norway
 Peter I Island
68°50′S 90°35′W / 68.833°S 90.583°W / -68.833; -90.583 (Peter I Island)

1933
 Australia
 Australian Antarctic Territory
160°E to 142°2′E and
136°11′E to 44°38′E

1939
 Norway
 Queen Maud Land
44°38′E to 20°W

1940
 Chile
 Chilean Antarctic Territory
53°W to 90°W

1943
 Argentina
 Argentine Antarctica
25°W to 74°W

–
(none)
Unclaimed territory
(Marie Byrd Land)
90°W to 150°W
(except Peter I Island)

text: The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction. On 18 December 2012, the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office named a previously unnamed area Queen Elizabeth Land in tribute to Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee.[107] On 22 December 2012, the UK ambassador to Argentina, John Freeman, was summoned to the Argentine government as protest against the claim.[108] Argentine–UK relations had previously been damaged throughout 2012 due to disputes over the sovereignty of the nearby Falkland Islands, and the 30th anniversary of the Falklands War.

text: The areas shown as Australia's and New Zealand's claims were British territory until they were handed over following the countries' independence. Australia currently claims the largest area. The claims of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France and Norway are all recognised by each other.

text: Other countries participating as members of the Antarctic Treaty have a territorial interest in Antarctica, but the provisions of the Treaty do not allow them to make their claims while it is in force.[109][110]

text:
Brazil has a designated "zone of interest" that is not an actual claim.[111]
 Peru has formally reserved its right to make a claim.[109][110]
 Russia has inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty.[112]
 South Africa has formally reserved its right to make a claim.[109][110]
 United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty.[112]

tag: ul

text: Economy

text: There is no economic activity in Antarctica at present, except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based outside Antarctica.[113]

text: Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they have not been in large enough quantities to exploit.[114] The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.[115]

text: Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since 1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol provisions, but in effect self-regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel is largely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. A total of 37,506 tourists visited during the 2006–07 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships; 38,478 were recorded in 2015–16.[116][117][118]

text: There has been some concern over the potential adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors. Some environmentalists and scientists have made a call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota.[119] The primary response by Antarctic Treaty Parties has been to develop, through their Committee for Environmental Protection and in partnership with IAATO, "site use guidelines" setting landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. Antarctic sightseeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on Mount Erebus, which killed all 257 aboard. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s.

text: Antarctic fisheries in 1998–99 (1 July – 30 June) reported landing 119,898 tonnes legally.[120]

text: About thirty countries maintain about seventy research stations (40 year-round or permanent, and 30 summer-only) in Antarctica, with an approximate population of 4000 in summer and 1000 in winter.[1]

text: The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 "AQ" is assigned to the entire continent regardless of jurisdiction. Different country calling codes and currencies[121] are used for different settlements, depending on the administrating country. The Antarctican dollar, a souvenir item sold in the United States and Canada, is not legal tender.[1][122]

text: Research

text: Each year, scientists from 28 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to just over 1,000 in the winter.[1] McMurdo Station, which is the largest research station in Antarctica, is capable of housing more than 1,000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.

text: Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. Astrophysicists at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere; low temperature, which minimises the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere; and absence of light pollution, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, built 2 km (1.2 mi) below Amundsen–Scott station.[123]

text: Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985, three British scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.[124]

text: In September 2006 NASA satellite data revealed that the Antarctic ozone hole was larger than at any other time on record, at 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi).[125] The impacts of the depleted ozone layer on climate changes occurring in Antarctica are not well understood.[124]

text: In 2007 The Polar Geospatial Center was founded. The Polar Geospatial Center uses geospatial and remote sensing technology to provide mapping services to American federally funded research teams. Currently, the Polar Geospatial Center can image all of Antarctica at 50 cm resolution every 45 days.[126]

text: On 6 September 2007 Belgian-based International Polar Foundation unveiled the Princess Elisabeth station, the world's first zero-emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change. Costing $16.3 million, the prefabricated station, which is part of the International Polar Year, was shipped to the South Pole from Belgium by the end of 2008 to monitor the health of the polar regions. Belgian polar explorer Alain Hubert stated: "This base will be the first of its kind to produce zero emissions, making it a unique model of how energy should be used in the Antarctic." Johan Berte is the leader of the station design team and manager of the project which conducts research in climatology, glaciology and microbiology.[127]

text: In January 2008 British Antarctic Survey (BAS) scientists, led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan, reported (in the journal Nature Geoscience) that 2,200 years ago, a volcano erupted under Antarctica's ice sheet (based on airborne survey with radar images). The biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10,000 years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier.[128]

text: A study from 2014 estimated that during the Pleistocene, the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) thinned by at least 500 m (1,600 ft), and that thinning since the Last Glacial Maximum for the EAIS area is less than 50 m (160 ft) and probably started after c. 14 ka.[129]

text: Meteorites

text: Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the solar system; most are thought to come from asteroids, but some may have originated on larger planets. The first meteorite was found in 1912, and named the Adelie Land meteorite. In 1969, a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are well-preserved.[130]

text: This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the centre of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.[130]

text: In 2006 a team of researchers from Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA's GRACE satellites to discover the 500-kilometre-wide (300 mi) Wilkes Land crater, which probably formed about 250 million years ago.[131]

text: In January 2013 an 18 kg (40 lb) meteorite was discovered frozen in ice on the Nansen ice field by a Search for Antarctic Meteorites, Belgian Approach (SAMBA) mission.[132]

text: In January 2015 reports emerged of a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) circular structure, supposedly a meteorite crater, on the surface snow of King Baudouin Ice Shelf. Satellite images from 25 years ago seemingly show it.

text: Ice mass and global sea level

text: Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation. This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica is a desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet which covers the land. Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards the edges of the continent. Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year. It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global cooling.

text: Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer. This ice is formed from the ocean water and floats in the same water and thus does not contribute to rise in sea level. The extent of sea ice around Antarctica has remained roughly constant in recent decades, although the thickness changes are unclear.[133][134]

text: Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water). However it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level. This effect is offset by snow falling back onto the continent. Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves around the coast of Antarctica, especially along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns have been raised that disruption of ice shelves may result in increased glacial outflow from the continental ice mass.[135]

text: On the continent itself, the large volume of ice present stores around 70% of the world's fresh water.[45] This ice sheet is constantly gaining ice from snowfall and losing ice through outflow to the sea.

text: Sheperd et al. 2012, found that different satellite methods for measuring ice mass and change were in good agreement and combining methods leads to more certainty with East Antarctica, West Antarctica, and the Antarctic Peninsula changing in mass by +14 ± 43, –65 ± 26, and –20 ± 14 gigatonnes (Gt) per year.[136] The same group's 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatonnes per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002 but has accelerated to an average of 220 gigatonnes per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017.[137] NASA's Climate Change website indicates a compatible overall trend of greater than 100 gigatonnes of ice loss per year since 2002.[138]

text: A single 2015 study by Zwally et al. found instead that the net change in ice mass is slightly positive at approximately 82 gigatonnes per year (with significant regional variation) which would result in Antarctic activity reducing global sea-level rise by 0.23 mm per year.[139] However one critic, Eric Rignot of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, states that this outlying study's findings "are at odds with all other independent methods: re-analysis, gravity measurements, mass budget method, and other groups using the same data" and appears to arrive at more precise values than current technology and mathematical approaches would permit.[140]

text: East Antarctica is a cold region with a ground base above sea level and occupies most of the continent. This area is dominated by small accumulations of snowfall which becomes ice and thus eventually seaward glacial flows. The mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole is thought to be slightly positive (lowering sea level) or near to balance.[141][142][143] However, increased ice outflow has been suggested in some regions.[142][144]

text: Effects of global warming

text: Some of Antarctica has been warming up; particularly strong warming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula. A study by Eric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that the continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is slightly positive at >0.05 °C (0.09 °F) per decade from 1957 to 2006. This study also noted that West Antarctica has warmed by more than 0.1 °C (0.2 °F) per decade in the last 50 years, and this warming is strongest in winter and spring. This is partly offset by autumn cooling in East Antarctica.[145] There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions,[146] but this remains ambiguous.[147] The amount of surface warming in West Antarctica, while large, has not led to appreciable melting at the surface, and is not directly affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet's contribution to sea level. Instead the recent increases in glacier outflow are believed to be due to an inflow of warm water from the deep ocean, just off the continental shelf.[148][149] The net contribution to sea level from the Antarctic Peninsula is more likely to be a direct result of the much greater atmospheric warming there.[150]

text: In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed.[151] Between 28 February and 8 March 2008, about 570 km2 (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km (4 mi) wide,[152][153] prior to its collapse on 5 April 2009.[154][155] According to NASA, the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005, when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and refroze; this may have resulted from temperatures rising to as high as 5 °C (41 °F).[156]

text: A study published in Nature Geoscience in 2013 (online in December 2012) identified central West Antarctica as one of the fastest-warming regions on Earth. The researchers present a complete temperature record from Antarctica's Byrd Station and assert that it "reveals a linear increase in annual temperature between 1958 and 2010 by 2.4±1.2 °C".[157]

text: Ozone depletion

text: There is a large area of low ozone concentration or "ozone hole" over Antarctica. This hole covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2008, when the longest lasting hole on record remained until the end of December.[158] The hole was detected by scientists in 1985[159] and has tended to increase over the years of observation. The ozone hole is attributed to the emission of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs into the atmosphere, which decompose the ozone into other gases.[160]

text: Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica (and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere).[159] Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 °C in the local stratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent (the polar vortex) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote accelerated melting.[159] Models also suggest that the ozone depletion/enhanced polar vortex effect also accounts for the recent increase in sea ice just offshore of the continent.[161]