document_title: Carly Corinthos

question_text: who plays carly's mom on general hospital

question_tokens: who plays carly 's mom on general hospital

text: Carly Corinthos

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Carly Roberts (Sarah Joy Brown) arrives in town and ingratiates herself into the life of Nurse Bobbie Jones (Jacklyn Zeman) -- her biological mother—when she enrolls in the nursing program at General Hospital. Meanwhile, Carly begins an affair and friendship with mobster Jason Morgan (Steve Burton). After being rejected by Bobbie, Carly seduces Bobbie's husband Doctor Tony Jones (Brad Maule) and she falls in love with him. Bobbie's brother Luke Spencer (Anthony Geary) uncovers Carly's true identity and warns to stop hurting her mother. Bobbie however discovers the affair on her wedding anniversary to Tony making the two bitter enemies. After a fight with Tony, Carly has a one-night stand with Jason's troubled brother A. J. Quartermaine (Sean Kanan) and ends up pregnant. Carly convinces Jason to claim the child as his own and she gives birth to her son in December 1997 whom Jason names Michael after his best friend, mobster Sonny Corinthos (Maurice Benard). In February 1998, Carly's adoptive mother Virginia comes to town and reveals Carly's true identity during Michael's christening. Tony later kidnaps Michael to protect him from Jason and Sonny's dangerous lifestyle. When Tony manages to avoid prosecution, Carly shoots him and fakes insanity to avoid prison time and ends up being committed. Jason helps get her released and Jason's girlfriend Robin Scorpio (Kimberly McCullough) fed up with Carly being so dependent on Jason, exposes Michael's true paternity. While Carly plots a future with Jason, she marries A. J. (then Billy Warlock) in May 1999.

text: In early 2000, after Carly reveals she is pregnant, Sonny coerces A. J. into divorcing Carly and signing away his parental rights to Michael. In May 2000, Carly suffers a miscarriage when she falls down the stairs during a confrontation with A. J. Carly and Sonny bond over their loss and they marry in September 2000. Carly and Sonny realize they are truly in love and renew their wedding vows on February 23, 2001. Carly (then Tamara Braun) later tries to force Sonny out of the mob and he divorces her for it. Carly befriends Sonny's sister Courtney Matthews (Alicia Leigh Willis) and supports her relationship with Jason. Still in love with Sonny, Carly is hopeful they can reconcile until she finds him in bed with his attorney Alexis Davis (Nancy Lee Grahn) and a distraught Carly is presumed dead after a car accident. Upon Carly's return, she and Sonny remarry only for Sonny's vengeful brother Ric Lansing (Rick Hearst) to drug Carly and make it look like they slept together. In October 2003, Ric kidnaps a pregnant Carly only for her to escape and be taken hostage by Lorenzo Alcazar (Ted King). As Alcazar helps Carly deliver her son Morgan, Sonny believing she is in danger shoots at Alcazar only for the bullet to hit Carly and render her comatose. Carly awakens an in the spring of 2004 meets her biological father John Durant (Corbin Bernsen) who is looking to send both Sonny and Alcazar to prison. When the two are trapped in an elevator together, Alexis tells Carly that Sonny is her daughter Kristina's father. Carly keeps quiet fearing she might lose Sonny only to confess it later when the Kristina is deathly ill. Feeling betrayed, Sonny divorces Carly again but she agrees to be Kristina's godmother despite their differences.

text: After the divorce, Carly starts seeing Alcazar but her happiness is short lived thanks to A. J. kidnapping Michael (Dylan Cash) and Morgan and Michael is presumed dead leaving Carly devastated. To complicate matters further, Carly (then Jennifer Bransford) discovers that Sonny's girlfriend Reese Marshall (Kari Wührer) is actually her presumed dead best friend—Carly Roberts. While Michael is revealed to be alive, the stress leads to Carly suffering a nervous breakdown, marrying Alcazar and ending up in a mental hospital. Upon her release and after she divorces Alcazar, Carly (Laura Wright) mourns the loss of her best friend Courtney who dies during child birth and becomes a partner in the Metro Court Hotel with Courtney's ex-husband Jasper Jacks (Ingo Rademacher). Carly offers to help Jax raise Courtney's son John only for Robin to expose that Nikolas Cassadine (Tyler Christopher) is actually the boy's real father. Carly and Jax bond over the loss and become engaged. However, their wedding plans are halted when Carly must marry Sonny again to keep from testifying against him. In February 2007, Jax's estranged brother Jerry Jacks (Sebastian Roché) holds several guests including Sonny and Carly hostage in the hotel lobby before blowing it up. Carly and Sonny make love after the ordeal only for Carly to divorce him and marry Jax on April 27, 2007. In 2008, Carly gets pregnant only to miscarry after she and Michael get caught in an explosion. When Michael is falls into a coma after taking a bullet meant for Sonny, Carly seduces Sonny into signing over his parental rights to their sons. A furious Jax sleeps with Sonny's ex-girlfriend Kate Howard (Megan Ward) and Carly finds them together. As Michael (Drew Garrett) awakens from his coma suffering from severe anger issues in 2009, Carly discovers she is pregnant. Because the pregnancy is so high risk, Michael goes to live with the Quartermaine family. In October 2009, Sonny's wife Claudia Zacchara (also Sarah Brown) takes Carly hostage when it was revealed that she was behind Michael's shooting. Claudia plans to steal Carly's daughter Josslyn only for Michael to kill her.

text: Carly, Jason and Sonny cover up the murder to protect Michael only for Sonny's cop son Dante Falconeri (Dominic Zamprogna) to expose the truth leading to Michael (Chad Duell) being sent to prison. A vengeful Carly pays Brook Lynn Ashton (Adrianne León) to seduce Dante destroy his relationship with her cousin Lulu Spencer (Julie Marie Berman) but her plan fails. Distraught over Michael, Carly and Sonny sleep together again and her marriage to Jax subsequently implodes. Carly's vendetta against Dante strengthens when Michael reveals he was raped in prison and she comes to accept Michael's relationship with ex-stripper Abby (Andrea Bogart) who helps him come clean. When Jason's rival Franco (James Franco) and threatens Carly's family, Shawn Butler (Sean Blakemore) becomes Carly's new bodyguard. When Jax bribes a court official to get sole custody of Josslyn, Carly turns to Sonny who plants drugs on Jax allowing Carly to get full custody. Jax tries to skip town with Josslyn but Shawn stops him and Josslyn returns home safely. Shawn comforts a devastated after Jax is presumed when Sonny sabotages his plane and she sends Morgan (Aaron Refvem) to military school to keep him away from Sonny. Carly later learns Jax is alive but keeps the secret to protect him from Sonny only for an angry and bitter Michael to reveal her lies on New Year's Eve. Grateful to him for keeping Michael out of the mob, Carly starts seeing Johnny Zacchara (Brandon Barash). The romance is short lived due to his affair and eventually marriage to the mentally ill Kate (aka Connie Falconeri) (Kelly Sullivan). Carly finds comfort with publishing mogul Todd Manning (Roger Howarth) only to discover he knew about Johnny's marriage all along. Carly and Sonny are devastated by Jason's sudden death and even more shocked to discover A. J. (Sean Kanan) is alive. Todd and Carly reconcile and start dating only for her to dump him after she discovers his part in switching Jason's healthy son with stillborn child. In 2013, Jax returns revealing that he and Carly's divorce was never finalized. After the divorce, Franco (also Roger Howarth) resurfaces, Carly wants him gone and plots his murder with Franco. The plans go awry with Olivia Falconeri (Lisa LoCicero) gets shot instead. When everyone is led to believe Franco is Jason's long lost twin Carly falls for him and defends his past actions. Carly is shocked when Morgan (Bryan Craig) elopes with his girlfriend Kiki Jerome (Kristen Alderson). At Morgan and Kiki's wedding reception, Sonny grieving the loss of the recently murdered Connie reveals that Morgan tricked Kiki into marriage by lying about her paternity fearing he'd lose her to Michael. Carly and Olivia support Sonny and convince him to start taking his bipolar medication again. Carly is furious when Morgan a bitter Morgan starts sleeping with his mother-in-law Ava Jerome (Maura West) and working for the rival crime family. In January 2014, Carly is kidnapped by Franco's biological mother Heather Webber (Robin Mattson) who fakes Carly's death and frames Franco for her murder. Fortunately, Franco rescues Carly and they continue their relationship as Carly comforts Michael when A. J. is murdered. Carly and Franco later discover a recording which reveals that Sonny killed A. J. and Ava killed Connie. Carly gives the recording to Sonny who plots to kill Ava only for her to reveal that she is pregnant with either Sonny or Morgan's child. Keeping the secret from Michael draws Sonny and Carly closer and they start an affair despite her recent engagement to Franco. At the wedding, a bitter Franco exposes Sonny's part in A. J.'s murder destroying the entire family and landing Sonny in prison.

text: Carly stands by Sonny during his prison stint and they reunite upon his release from prison and Carly plans to help him raise his and Ava's daughter Avery only for a bitter Michael to take custody of her. Meanwhile, Carly befriends the mysterious Jake Doe (Billy Miller) much to Sonny's dismay. Just as Michael begins to thaw toward his parents and relinquishes custody of Avery, Carly and Sonny become engaged. Meanwhile, Sonny and Carly realize Morgan is in trouble and fear he might be bipolar like Sonny. On their wedding day, Sonny gets shot hours before the wedding and ends up paralyzed. Ava takes custody of Avery and Carly wants to marry Sonny immediately hoping it will help in the custody case. Sonny nearly dies during their first attempt at wedding and they finally remarry on October 14, 2015 at General Hospital surrounded by their entire family. In November 2015 everyone realizes Jake Doe is actually Jason Morgan thanks to Carly, Sam and Spinelli and it is revealed at Elizabeth and Jason's wedding. Carly makes it to the courtroom for Avery's custody case and later explains to Sonny, Morgan, Michael, Ric and Kiki what happened unaware Kiki ran her off the road when she was drunk driving the prior night. Carly and Sonny are devastated when Ava gains custody of Avery but Sonny is allowed supervised visitation, Sonny kinda blames Carly at first. Carly tells Michael about Jason. Carly and Sonny talk about the courtroom hearing and she finally tells Sonny that Jason is alive, Jason comes in and they all discuss things. Carly tries to get Liz to back off Jason so he can see if he wants to be with her or Sam but to let him make his own decision, sparking an argument between the two. Jason confronts Carly on this and tells her to stay out of his and Liz's relationship. Carly is relieved when the truth comes out in December 2015 that Liz knew who Jason was since the Nurse's Ball because it meant Jason wasn't wrapped around her finger any more. On December 24, 2015 The Corinthos-Davis-Falconeri clan all gathered for the holidays and took a family picture. In January 2016 Carly and Sonny attended Robin and Patrick's second wedding as Robin and Carly actually finally put their differences aside and hugged, as Robin did give her credit for always being good for Jason and Sonny and Carly thanked her for saving Jason's life. Sonny's new doctor Mayes was quite rude to Carly and Sonny voiced himself on that but Carly wanted this to work out and told him it was fine and she had to head to the Metro Court. Carly often voices with Michael how angry she is that Sabrina lied about having his baby and to Morgan to make sure he took his bipolar medications.

text: Creation[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Brown, known for her appearance in the children's series VR Troopers, auditioned for the role of Carly in early 1996 opposite Burton, who played Jason. Brown won the role out of seven other actresses including Burton's real-life girlfriend. Despite her own reservations, Brown officially booked the role on February 18, 1996, her 21st birthday.[1][2][3] Brown made her first appearance as Carly on April 5, 1996.[4] In September 1999, Brown revealed to Soaps In Depth that she was contemplating renewing her contract so she could audition for pilot.[5] Brown's plans to officially vacate the role were announced in January 2000.[6] However, Brown extended her contract when the producers agreed to work around her schedule.[5] In December 2000, Brown announced that she wanted to move on and the producers were contemplating a recast. Robin Christopher who played Skye Chandler on All My Children and Gina Tognoni — Kelly Cramer from One Life to Live — were both considered as Brown's replacement.[7][8] The series was also suffering from the departures of several popular actors including Burton and Jonathan Jackson—who played Carly's cousin Lucky Spencer.[8] Brown immediately denied rumors that a dispute with executive producer Jill Farren Phelps led to her departure.[9] Brown filmed her final scenes in early April 2001, and made her final appearance on April 24.[10]

text:
"I really didn't know about the uproar, which was good. But I was informed about it before I started working. I thought to myself, 'Holy guacamole ... I'm going into something here. But all I can do is the best that I can.' I think on some level, a lot of people were waiting for me to fail."[11]

Braun on being a high profile recast (2001).

tag: div

text: In April 2001, Braun was announced as a Carly recast and made her first appearance on May 2, 2001.[12] Initial speculation that Braun was only temporary and the character was slated to be written out was put to rest as Braun was put on contract with the series. According to Phelps, recast was always an option, but it was easier said than done. Phelps told the New York Post that she wasn't interested in a recast, but did so out of necessity. Braun had previously appeared on Party of Five and Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The naturally brunette Braun even colored her hair blonde. Braun auditioned opposite Benard four times before booking the gig.[13] Braun answered the casting call for the role of Sarah, which many assumed was a recast of Sarah Webber. In an interview with Soap Opera Digest from September 2001, Braun explained that "Right before booking this job, I had vowed to quit acting and just re-evaluate."[11] After booking the role, Braun immediately did her research. They daytime newcomer admitted that she was nervous about replacing such a popular actress but welcomed the challenge.[14] In early 2005, speculation grew over Braun's future with the soap due to Brown's recent exit from CBS' As the World Turns.[15][16] In February 2005, it was announced that Braun had decided not to renew her contract and would vacate the role. Then president of ABC Daytime, Brian Frons admitted that he would love to have Brown back, but did not want to lose Braun.[17] Braun made her final appearance April 15, 2005.[18]

text: In late March 2005, it was announced that actress Bransford had been cast in the role of Carly. Phelps commented that it would be difficult but viewers would accept the recast as long as the actors made it work.[18] Bransford beat out Melrose Place actress Jamie Luner for the role and The Bold and the Beautiful actress Sarah Buxton. Bransford made her first appearance on April 18, 2005.[18] During Bransford's tenure, Shayne Lamas also made several guest appearances as a teenage Carly in several flashbacks. In September 2005, rumors circulated that Bransford had been let out of her contract with the series when a website claiming Bransford's official web site reported the news. It was also rumored that ABC had rehired Tamara Braun while some reported that the character would be written out completely.[19] The news of Bransford's ousting was confirmed and a spokesperson said "Jennifer's casting in the role Carly did not work out." The spokesperson praised Bransford as a "consummate actress" and wished her luck. Bransford filmed her final scenes on September 9, and made final appearance on October 5, 2005.[20]

text: Wright, who had recently vacated the role of Cassie Layne Winslow on Guiding Light, was rumored to be on a short list of potential recast though Wright refused to comment.[20] After an "exhaustive" search, ABC officially confirmed Wright's casting as the fourth actress to play the role of Carly. Frons commented: "Carly is a complex character and we are excited to bring Laura's talent, beauty and intelligence to this role."[21] While Wright was sad to leave Guiding Light, she was excited to relocate to Los Angeles to play the role of Carly. "Wow! What a challenge" she said. Wright was due to begin filming in October after her contract with CBS expired. Wright made her debut on November 4, 2005.[21] In November 2009, Wright announced on Twitter that she had re-signed with the series for another 4 years officially becoming the longest running actress in the role.[22] In July 2013 during the General Hospital Fan Club Weekend, it was reported that Wright had renewed her contract with the series until 2017.[23] In March 2014, it was announced that both Sarah Brown and Tamara Braun would reprise the role of Carly for the show's 51st anniversary on April 1, 2014 making cameo appearances alongside Wright.[24]

text: Background[edit]

text:
"Carly was coming to Port Charles for the purpose of haunting Bobbie and making her life miserable, out of supposed anger at having been 'abandoned' by her. But of course, she wasn't abandoned, she was given up for adoption, and the network and producers were rightly concerned that we might be 'sending the message' (that phrase that soap writers dread) either that adopted children were hateful and full of rage, or that their adoptive parents were neglectful or otherwise inadequate enough to instill this smoldering resentment of being adopted in their kids... I need not go on."[25]

Patrick Mulcahey on Carly (1999).

text: Officially, former head writers Claire Labine (1993–96) and Robert Guza, Jr. (1996–2000, 2002–11), along with script writers Karen Harris and Patrick Mulcahey, are said to have created the character of Carly.[25][26] In 1999, writer Patrick Mulcahey noted that the character had been somewhat of a work in progress at first. Mulchey explained that she was different from most characters because "We were afraid of her." The character was quite a big deal and very important to the series—so important that one writer even quit over it. "The pitfalls are obvious," Mulcahey said and "I imagine Bob [Guza, the headwriter] promised Wendy [Riche, the executive producer] and ABC that we had no intention of falling into them" the scribe continued. However, the writers themselves had no clue who the character was supposed to be. "That may sound like a horrifying confession, but in daytime, a successful character is always a collaboration between the writers and the actor." Mulcahey said the writers discussed who they felt Carly, as a character, is and that "the actor finds certain other decisions have to be made and makes them, sparks fly between the actor and another actor, we see what's happening on-screen and start playing around with it in the writing- that's how a character takes shape".[25] The variety of actresses that auditioned for the role implied that there was not any set direction for the character.[2] Brown spent the first few months of her tenure crafting a backstory to explain her character's actions.[27] According to her backstory, the character was scripted as being born on November 5, 1973 in Jacksonville, Florida to the 16 year old prostitute Bobbie (Jacklyn Zeman) and immediately placed up for adoption because Bobbie could not care for her.[28][29] The child is adopted by Virginia (Lois Nettleton) and her husband Frank Benson in Pensacola, Florida as Caroline Leigh Benson.[30][31][32] Frank eventually walks out on his family and Virginia works so much that Caroline barely has a chance to develop a relationship with her. According to Brown, Virginia is always a bit cold and bitter toward Caroline. In her teen years, Caroline becomes best friends with Charlotte "Carly" Roberts (Kari Wührer). Carly's father Dan Roberts seduces the young Caroline destroying Carly's family and the girls friendship. Caroline then loses Carly who is presumably killed in a car crash.[27]

text: Development[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015)

text: Using the alias Carly Roberts, the character ingratiates herself into the life of her biological mother Bobbie Spencer (Jacklyn Zeman) through her enrollment in the student nursing program and they start to bond until Bobbie rejects her. Carly then seduces Bobbie's doctor husband Tony Jones and sets her sights on the couple's young son Lucas (Justin Cooper). In Carly's mind, the affair is Bobbie's karma for abandoning her. Carly wants from Bobbie what she feels she didn't get from her adoptive mother.[33] As the affair dismantles a once happy marriage, Sarah Brown maintained Carly's intentions start off pure. With Bobbie shutting her out, Carly goes on the defensive and develops feelings for Tony which she is very reluctant to face. Though she knows the relationship is built on her lies of omission, Tony becomes the center of Carly's life. Meanwhile, Bobbie's brother Luke Spencer (Anthony Geary) recognizes a kindred spirit his niece and "that excites him"—which is why he keeps the secret. As the walls feel like they are closing in on her, Carly becomes impuslive and self-destructive and has a one-night stand with the troubled alcoholic A. J. Quartermaine (Sean Kanan).[34][35] According to Brown, the writing for Carly isn't to garner sympathy from viewers, but being aware her motives creates a certain intrigue.[27]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The second marriage between Sonny and Carly took place between 2001–02, and the couple re-married in 2002 until their divorced in 2005. However, they were married consecutively from 2000–05.

tag: ol


document_title: Center of mass

question_text: where is the center of gravity located on the body

root

text: Center of mass

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of "center of mass" in the form of the center of gravity was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. He worked with simplified assumptions about gravity that amount to a uniform field, thus arriving at the mathematical properties of what we now call the center of mass. Archimedes showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point—their center of mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various well-defined shapes.[1]

tag: p

text: Later mathematicians who developed the theory of the center of mass include Pappus of Alexandria, Guido Ubaldi, Francesco Maurolico,[2] Federico Commandino,[3] Simon Stevin,[4] Luca Valerio,[5] Jean-Charles de la Faille, Paul Guldin,[6] John Wallis, Louis Carré, Pierre Varignon, and Alexis Clairaut.[7]

text: Newton's second law is reformulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law.[8]

text: Definition[edit]

text: The center of mass is the unique point at the center of a distribution of mass in space that has the property that the weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero. In analogy to statistics, the center of mass is the mean location of a distribution of mass in space.

text: A system of particles[edit]

text: In the case of a system of particles Pi, i = 1, …, n , each with mass mi that are located in space with coordinates ri, i = 1, …, n , the coordinates R of the center of mass satisfy the condition

text: Solving this equation for R yields the formula

text: where M is the sum of the masses of all of the particles.

text: A continuous volume[edit]

text: If the mass distribution is continuous with the density ρ(r) within a solid Q, then the integral of the weighted position coordinates of the points in this volume relative to the center of mass R over the volume V is zero, that is

text: Solve this equation for the coordinates R to obtain

text: where M is the total mass in the volume.

text: If a continuous mass distribution has uniform density, which means ρ is constant, then the center of mass is the same as the centroid of the volume.[9]

text: Barycentric coordinates[edit]

text: The coordinates R of the center of mass of a two-particle system, P1 and P2, with masses m1 and m2 is given by

text: Let the percentage of the total mass divided between these two particles vary from 100% P1 and 0% P2 through 50% P1 and 50% P2 to 0% P1 and 100% P2, then the center of mass R moves along the line from P1 to P2. The percentages of mass at each point can be viewed as projective coordinates of the point R on this line, and are termed barycentric coordinates. Another way of interpreting the process here is the mechanical balancing of moments about an arbitrary point. The numerator gives the total moment that is then balanced by an equivalent total force at the center of mass. This can be generalized to three points and four points to define projective coordinates in the plane, and in space, respectively.

text: Systems with periodic boundary conditions[edit]

text: For particles in a system with periodic boundary conditions two particles can be neighbours even though they are on opposite sides of the system. This occurs often in molecular dynamics simulations, for example, in which clusters form at random locations and sometimes neighbouring atoms cross the periodic boundary. When a cluster straddles the periodic boundary, a naive calculation of the center of mass will be incorrect. A generalized method for calculating the center of mass for periodic systems is to treat each coordinate, x and y and/or z, as if it were on a circle instead of a line.[10] The calculation takes every particle's x coordinate and maps it to an angle,

text:
where xmax is the system size in the x direction and

x

i

∈
[
0
,

x

m
a
x

)

{\displaystyle x_{i}\in [0,x_{max})}

. From this angle, two new points

(

ξ

i

,

ζ

i

)

{\displaystyle (\xi _{i},\zeta _{i})}

 can be generated, which can be weighted by the mass of the particle

x

i

{\displaystyle x_{i}}

 for the centre of mass or given a value of 1 for the geometric centre:

text:
In the

(
ξ
,
ζ
)

{\displaystyle (\xi ,\zeta )}

 plane, these coordinates lie on a circle of radius 1. From the collection of

ξ

i

{\displaystyle \xi _{i}}

 and

ζ

i

{\displaystyle \zeta _{i}}

 values from all the particles, the averages

ξ
¯

{\displaystyle {\overline {\xi }}}

 and

ζ
¯

{\displaystyle {\overline {\zeta }}}

 are calculated. These values are mapped back into a new angle,

θ
¯

{\displaystyle {\overline {\theta }}}

, from which the x coordinate of the center of mass can be obtained:

text:
The process can be repeated for all dimensions of the system to determine the complete center of mass. The utility of the algorithm is that it allows the mathematics to determine where the "best" center of mass is, instead of guessing or using cluster analysis to "unfold" a cluster straddling the periodic boundaries. It must be noted that if both average values are zero,

(

ξ
¯

,

ζ
¯

)
=
(
0
,
0
)

{\displaystyle ({\overline {\xi }},{\overline {\zeta }})=(0,0)}

, then

θ
¯

{\displaystyle {\overline {\theta }}}

 is undefined. This is a correct result, because it only occurs when all particles are exactly evenly spaced. In that condition, their x coordinates are mathematically identical in a periodic system.

text: Center of gravity[edit]

text: A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. Where a gravity field can be considered to be uniform, the mass-center and the center-of-gravity will be the same. However, for satellites in orbit around a planet, in the absence of other torques being applied to a satellite, the slight variation (gradient) in gravitational field between closer-to (stronger) and further-from (weaker) the planet can lead to a torque that will tend to align the satellite such that its long axis is vertical. In such a case, it is important to make the distinction between the center-of-gravity and the mass-center. Any horizontal offset between the two will result in an applied torque.

text: It is useful to note that the mass-center is a fixed property for a given rigid body (e.g. with no slosh or articulation), whereas the center-of-gravity may, in addition, depend upon its orientation in a non-uniform gravitational field. In the latter case, the center-of-gravity will always be located somewhat closer to the main attractive body as compared to the mass-center, and thus will change its position in the body of interest as its orientation is changed.

text: In the study of the dynamics of aircraft, vehicles and vessels, forces and moments need to be resolved relative to the mass center. That is true independent of whether gravity itself is a consideration. Referring to the mass-center as the center-of-gravity is something of a colloquialism, but it is in common usage and when gravity gradient effects are negligible, center-of-gravity and mass-center are the same and are used interchangeably.

text: In physics the benefits of using the center of mass to model a mass distribution can be seen by considering the resultant of the gravity forces on a continuous body. Consider a body Q of volume V with density ρ(r) at each point r in the volume. In a parallel gravity field the force f at each point r is given by,

text: where dm is the mass at the point r, g is the acceleration of gravity, and k is a unit vector defining the vertical direction. Choose a reference point R in the volume and compute the resultant force and torque at this point,

text: and

text: If the reference point R is chosen so that it is the center of mass, then

text: which means the resultant torque T=0. Because the resultant torque is zero the body will move as though it is a particle with its mass concentrated at the center of mass.

text: By selecting the center of gravity as the reference point for a rigid body, the gravity forces will not cause the body to rotate, which means the weight of the body can be considered to be concentrated at the center of mass.

text: Linear and angular momentum[edit]

text: The linear and angular momentum of a collection of particles can be simplified by measuring the position and velocity of the particles relative to the center of mass. Let the system of particles Pi, i=1,...,n of masses mi be located at the coordinates ri with velocities vi. Select a reference point R and compute the relative position and velocity vectors,

text: The total linear and angular momentum vectors relative to the reference point R are

text: and

text: If R is chosen as the center of mass these equations simplify to

text: where m is the total mass of all the particles, p is the linear momentum, and L is the angular momentum

text: The Law of Conservation of Momentum predicts that for any system not subjected to external forces the momentum of the system will remain constant, which means the center of mass will move with constant velocity. This applies for all systems with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally, this is true for any internal forces that cancel in accordance with Newton's Third Law.[11]

text: Locating the center of mass[edit]

text: The experimental determination of the center of mass of a body uses gravity forces on the body and relies on the fact that in the parallel gravity field near the surface of the earth the center of mass is the same as the center of gravity.

text: The center of mass of a body with an axis of symmetry and constant density must lie on this axis. Thus, the center of mass of a circular cylinder of constant density has its center of mass on the axis of the cylinder. In the same way, the center of mass of a spherically symmetric body of constant density is at the center of the sphere. In general, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed point of that symmetry.[12]

text: In two dimensions[edit]

text: An experimental method for locating the center of mass is to suspend the object from two locations and to drop plumb lines from the suspension points. The intersection of the two lines is the center of mass.[13]

text: The shape of an object might already be mathematically determined, but it may be too complex to use a known formula. In this case, one can subdivide the complex shape into simpler, more elementary shapes, whose centers of mass are easy to find. If the total mass and center of mass can be determined for each area, then the center of mass of the whole is the weighted average of the centers.[14] This method can even work for objects with holes, which can be accounted for as negative masses.[15]

text: A direct development of the planimeter known as an integraph, or integerometer, can be used to establish the position of the centroid or center of mass of an irregular two-dimensional shape. This method can be applied to a shape with an irregular, smooth or complex boundary where other methods are too difficult. It was regularly used by ship builders to compare with the required displacement and center of buoyancy of a ship, and ensure it would not capsize.[16][17]

text: In three dimensions[edit]

text:
An experimental method to locate the three-dimensional coordinates of the center of mass begins by supporting the object at three points and measuring the forces, F1, F2, and F3 that resist the weight of the object,

W

=
−
W

k
^

{\displaystyle \mathbf {W} =-W\mathbf {\hat {k}} }

 (

k
^

{\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {k}} }

 is the unit vector in the vertical direction). Let r1, r2, and r3 be the position coordinates of the support points, then the coordinates R of the center of mass satisfy the condition that the resultant torque is zero,

text: or

text: This equation yields the coordinates of the center of mass R* in the horizontal plane as,

text: The center of mass lies on the vertical line L, given by

text: The three-dimensional coordinates of the center of mass are determined by performing this experiment twice with the object positioned so that these forces are measured for two different horizontal planes through the object. The center of mass will be the intersection of the two lines L1 and L2 obtained from the two experiments.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Engineering designs[edit]

text: Automotive applications[edit]

text: Engineers try to design a sports car so that its center of mass is lowered to make the car handle better, that is maintaining traction while executing relatively sharp turns.

text: The characteristic low profile of the U. S. military Humvee was designed in part to allow it tilt farther than taller vehicles, without a rollover, because its low center of mass would stay over the space bounded the four wheels even at angles far from the horizontal.

text: Aeronautics[edit]

text: The center of mass is an important point on an aircraft, which significantly affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is stable enough to be safe to fly, the center of mass must fall within specified limits. If the center of mass is ahead of the forward limit, the aircraft will be less maneuverable, possibly to the point of being unable to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing.[18] If the center of mass is behind the aft limit, the aircraft will be more maneuverable, but also less stable, and possibly so unstable that it is impossible to fly. The moment arm of the elevator will also be reduced, which makes it more difficult to recover from a stalled condition.[19]

text: For helicopters in hover, the center of mass is always directly below the rotorhead. In forward flight, the center of mass will move forward to balance the negative pitch torque produced by applying cyclic control to propel the helicopter forward; consequently a cruising helicopter flies "nose-down" in level flight.[20]

text: Astronomy[edit]

text: The center of mass plays an important role in astronomy and astrophysics, where it is commonly referred to as the barycenter. The barycenter is the point between two objects where they balance each other; it is the center of mass where two or more celestial bodies orbit each other. When a moon orbits a planet, or a planet orbits a star, both bodies are actually orbiting around a point that lies away from the center of the primary (larger) body.[21] For example, the Moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point on a line between the center of the Earth and the Moon, approximately 1,710 km (1,062 miles) below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance. This is the point about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun. If the masses are more similar, e.g., Pluto and Charon, the barycenter will fall outside both bodies.

text: Body motion[edit]

text: When high jumpers perform a "Fosbury Flop", they bend their respective bodies in such a way that they clear the bar while their respective centers of mass do not necessarily do so.[22] Because it is the height of the center of gravity (rather than of the highest part of the body) that constrains the minimum energy investment for "clearing" the bar, "snaking over" the bar can reduce the energy expended in propelling the body upward.

text: In kinesiology and biomechanics, the center of mass is an important parameter that assists people in understanding their human locomotion. Typically, a human’s center of mass is detected with one of two methods: The reaction board method is a static analysis that involves the person lying down on that instrument, and use of their static equilibrium equation to find their center of mass; the segmentation method relies on a mathematical solution based on the physical principle that the summation of the torques of individual body sections, relative to a specified axis, must equal the torque of the whole system that constitutes the body, measured relative to the same axis.[23]


document_title: Death Note (2017 film)

question_text: who plays light's dad in death note

question_tokens: who plays light 's dad in death note

text: Death Note (2017 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: This film's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In Seattle, Washington, high school student Light Turner encounters a notebook entitled "Death Note", which allows the user to kill anyone by writing their name whilst picturing their face. Coaxed by the book's original owner, the death god Ryuk, Light murders two people, a school bully and his mother's killer, in apparent freak accidents. Ryuk also explains the Death Note's various rules, including the ability to control a victim's actions prior to their prescribed death. After demonstrating its power to classmate Mia Sutton, Light begins a relationship with her and they begin eliminating criminals under the pseudonym "Kira". This draws the attention of a mysterious consulting detective called "L", who quickly deduces that Kira is in Seattle. Allying himself with the head of the local investigation - Light's father, James - he gives a televised speech with his face concealed, taunting Kira to kill him; when this fails to happen, L concludes that Kira must know a person's name and face to kill.

text: L has FBI agents follow Light and other suspects; Mia suggests killing the agents, but Light refuses. The FBI agents thereafter commit mass suicide, and Light accuses Ryuk of killing them. When James appears on television and vows to apprehend Kira, Mia insists on killing him for the greater good, but Light refuses. When James is not killed, L concludes that Light must be Kira, confronting him and revealing his face. In retaliation, Light uses the Death Note on L's handler, Watari, forcing him into uncovering L's real name; he departs for the abandoned New York orphanage where he found L years before. As Ryuk explains, Light can save Watari by burning the page with his name before he dies; however, this method can only be used once to save a victim of the Death Note. Watari's sudden disappearance enrages L, who orders Light's house to be searched; he finds nothing, as Mia is able to sneak the Death Note out.

text: Knowing that Light is still being followed, Mia helps him to sneak away at the school dance, allowing him to collect the Death Note and contact Watari via phone. However, Light finds Watari's page is missing, and the latter is killed before he can reveal L's name. Mia then explains that she killed the FBI agents, took Watari's page, and has also written Light's name in the book, giving him until midnight before his heart stops. She offers to burn Light's page if he gives the Death Note to her, believing him incapable of making the right decisions for the good of society. Meanwhile, L is devastated by Watari's death and goes on his own manhunt for Light.

text: Light agrees to turn over the book at the Seattle Great Wheel, and then flees from police. L catches up to him and prepares to kill him, but is knocked out by a passerby who overhears that Light is Kira. Light meets Mia and takes her to the top of the Ferris wheel, trying to convince her that they will be happier without the Death Note. Seemingly persuaded at first, Mia tries to steal the Death Note, much to Light's intense dismay. Initially confused, she realises that Light has written her name in the book, her death being contingent on her taking the Death Note from him. The Ferris wheel collapses, causing Mia to fall to her death whilst Light and the Death Note land safely in the water; L watches as the page with Light's name drifts into a burning barrel.

text: Having orchestrated Mia's death and his own survival, Light also manipulates criminals so he is medically induced into a coma, whilst the Death Note is used to continue the Kira killings before being left at his bedside. With Kira continuing to kill whilst Light is hospitalised, L is taken off the case; however, James later deduces that his son is Kira and confronts him after he wakes from his coma. Meanwhile, L realises Mia's involvement from a comment Light made during their standoff, racing to her home to search her possessions. He finds the Death Note page with the names of the FBI agents and contemplates writing on it in a hysterical fit. Back in the hospital, Light tries to convince his father that his actions were "the lesser of two evils", prompting Ryuk to laugh and remark, "You humans are so interesting."

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Nat Wolff as Light Turner / Kira: A bright yet isolated high-school student who discovers the titular "Death Note" and uses it to kill criminals by writing their names and causes of death, in a bid to change the world into a utopia without crime, and thus, alongside Mia Sutton, becoming the world-famous serial killer known as "Kira", while being both praised and feared by law enforcement agencies and the worldwide media and public.
Lakeith Stanfield as L: A near-mythical, highly-intelligent and well-skilled—but also arrogant and slightly unhinged—FBI profiler with a past shrouded in mystery and who is determined to capture "Kira" and end his reign of terror.
Margaret Qualley as Mia Sutton / Kira: Light's classmate and love interest, who becomes an ally in his mission to rid the world of criminals, jointly becoming the world-famous serial killer known as "Kira" alongside Light, eventually seeking to kill those who seek to stop them and becoming dangerously obsessed with the book's power. In an interview with io9, Adam Wingard revealed that rather than being based on original manga character Misa Amane, Sutton as a character is based on the sociopathic qualities of Light Yagami.[2]
Shea Whigham as James Turner: Light's father and a veteran Seattle detective, who aids L in finding the mysterious "Kira", unaware that he is his own son.
Paul Nakauchi as Watari: L's assistant and foster-father.
Jason Liles and Willem Dafoe as Ryuk: A demonic god of death and the original owner of the Death Note, who begins communicating with Light when he receives the book and inquistively observes Light's activities as "Kira". Liles played the character in costume, while Dafoe provided voice work and performance capture for the facial elements.

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2007, the Malaysian newspaper The Star stated that more than ten film companies in the United States had expressed interest in the Death Note franchise.[3] The American production company Vertigo Entertainment was originally set to develop the remake, with Charley and Vlas Parlapanides as screenwriters and Roy Lee, Doug Davison, Dan Lin, and Brian Witten as producers.[4] On April 30, 2009, Variety reported that Warner Bros., the distributors for the original Japanese live-action films, had acquired the rights for an American remake, with the original screenwriters and producers still attached.[5] In 2009, Zac Efron responded to rumors that he would be playing the film's lead role by stating that the project was "not on the front burner".[6]  On January 13, 2011, it was announced that Shane Black had been hired to direct the film, with the script being written by Anthony Bagarozzi and Charles Mondry.[7] Warner's studios planned to change the background story of Light Yagami into one of vengeance instead of justice and to remove Shinigami from the story. Black opposed this change, and it had not been green-lit.[8] Black confirmed in a 2013 interview with Bleeding Cool that he was still working on the film.[9] In July 2014, it was rumored that Gus Van Sant would replace Black as the film's new director, with Dan Lin, Doug Davison, Roy Lee and Brian Witten producing through Vertigo Entertainment, Witten Pictures and Lin Pictures.[10]

text: On April 27, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Adam Wingard would direct the film, that Lin, Lee, Jason Hoffs and Masi Oka would produce, and that Niija Kuykendall and Nik Mavinkurve would oversee the studio.[11] Producers  stated the film would receive an R rating.[12] In April 2016, TheWrap reported that because Warner Bros. had decided to make fewer films, the studio put the film into turnaround but allowed Wingard to take the project elsewhere. Within 48 hours, Wingard was reportedly approached by nearly every major film studio.[13]  On April 6, 2016, it was confirmed that Netflix had bought the film from Warner Bros. with a budget of $40–50 million and a recent draft of the script being written by Jeremy Slater. Production officially began in British Columbia on June 30, 2016, overseen by DN (Canada) Productions, Inc.[14][15][16][17][18] Atticus Ross and Leopold Ross composed the score for the film.

text: Casting[edit]

text: On September 29, 2015, Nat Wolff was cast in the lead role.[19] On November 12, 2015, Margaret Qualley joined the film as the female lead.[20]  In June 2016, Lakeith Stanfield joined the cast.[21] On June 30, 2016, it was announced that Paul Nakauchi and Shea Whigham had joined the cast.[22] On August 2, 2016, Willem Dafoe was announced to voice the Shinigami Ryuk.[23] In the wake of Dafoe's casting, Brian Drummond, who voiced Ryuk in the English dub of the anime, voiced his approval citing the casting of Ryuk.[24] Oka, one of the film's producers, announced that he also has a role in the film.[25]

text: Early casting announcements, similar to other Hollywood productions based on Japanese manga such as Dragonball Evolution and Ghost in the Shell, resulted in accusations of whitewashing.[26][27] In response, producers Roy Lee and Dan Lin stated that "Our vision for Death Note has always been to...introduce the world to this dark and mysterious masterpiece. The talent and diversity represented in our cast, writing, and producing teams reflect our belief in staying true to the story's concept of moral relevance—a universal theme that knows no racial boundaries."[18]

text: Wingard addressed the concerns over the film, explaining that the film is an American take on the Death Note story, stating, "It's one of those things where the harder I tried to stay 100 percent true to the source material, the more it just kind of fell apart... You're in a different country, you're in a different kind of environment, and you're trying to also summarize a sprawling series into a two-hour-long film. For me, it became about; what do these themes mean to modern day America, and how does that affect how we tell the story."[28]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on Netflix on August 25, 2017. On July 20, 2017, the film was screened early for audiences at San Diego Comic-Con International 2017.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On March 22, 2017, Netflix released a teaser of the film on YouTube.[29] An additional trailer was released on June 29, 2017.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Death Note received mixed reviews, with critics calling it "a bad decision on top of a festering pile of bad decisions", "a lazy, unambitious, forgettable movie" and "boring",[30][31] though the direction and the cast (particularly Dafoe and Stanfield) received praise.[31] On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 59 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Death Note benefits from director Adam Wingard's distinctive eye and a talented cast, but they aren't enough to overcome a fatally overcrowded canvas."[32] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a score of 43 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[33]

text: Jeanette Catsoulis for The New York Times wrote that the film "feels rushed and constricted" compared to the volume of the source material, but praised how Wingard's direction focused on "mood over mayhem" to make the adaptation his own.[34] Peter Debruge for Variety said that he felt that Wingard took the film adaptation towards a Donnie Darko-styled work that would capture the interest of more Western audiences compared to the original work, but made the work capture the feel of a theatrical film rather than a work confined to its original medium. Debruge also wrote that despite the philosophical concepts of murdering via the Death Note, "the movie never quite reckons with just how twisted a concept it’s peddling, and that’s easily the scariest thing about it".[35] Brian Tallerico for Rogerebert.com gave the film one of four stars, stating that the changes that Wingard had made from the original work did not serve any artistic or thematic purpose, nor captured the cat-and-mouse game between Light and L that was core to the original work, and because the producers "refused to make Light the antihero he needed to be", the addition of Mia as a love interest "[left] the project hollow at its center", but mainly praised the performances of Stanfield and Dafoe.[36]

text: Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata, the original creators of Death Note, have praised the film, with the former stating, "In a good way, it both followed and diverged from the original work so the film can be enjoyed, of course by not only the fans, but also by a much larger and wider audience".[37]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In an interview with Heat Vision, director Adam Wingard stated that Netflix has wanted to make at least two films, if enough people watch the first one. He said: "There are definitely lots of places to go, and we know generally where we would take it. Hopefully people will watch it and Netflix will order a sequel. They definitely are ready to. They just need people to watch it."[38]

text: On August 22, 2018, it was announced through a THR report that a sequel was in the works, with Greg Russo reportedly writing the script, after the Netflix Chief Content Officer Ted Sarandos called the film a "sizable" success.[39]


document_title: List of countries by oil production

question_text: how many barrels of oil does iraq produce per day

text: List of countries by oil production

text: This is a list of countries by oil production, as compiled from the U.S. Energy Information Administration database for calendar year 2016, tabulating all countries on a comparable best-estimate basis. Compared with shorter-term data, the full-year figures are less prone to distortion from periodic maintenance shutdowns and other seasonal cycles. The volumes in the table represent crude oil and lease condensate, the hydrocarbon liquids collected at or near the wellhead. The volumes in the table do not include biofuel. They also do not include the increase in liquid volumes during oil refining ("refinery gain"), or liquids separated from natural gas in gas processing plants (natural gas liquids).[1]

text: Under this definition, total world oil production in 2016 averaged 80,622,000 barrels per day. Approximately 68% came from the top ten countries, and an overlapping 44% came from the fourteen current OPEC members, highlighted with blue shading in the table below.

text: For many years, the top three producers have been (alphabetically) Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. Each of these countries experienced major production declines at different times in the past, but since 2014 all three have been producing near their peak rates of 9 to 11 million barrels per day.[2]

text:
Country
Oil Production
(bbl/day, 2016)[1]

1
 Russia
10,551,497

2
 Saudi Arabia (OPEC)
10,460,710

3
 United States
8,875,817

4
 Iraq (OPEC)
4,451,516

5
 Iran (OPEC)
3,990,956

6
 China
3,980,650

7
 Canada
3,662,694

8
 United Arab Emirates (OPEC)
3,106,077

9
 Kuwait (OPEC)
2,923,825

10
 Brazil
2,515,459

11
 Venezuela (OPEC)
2,276,967

12
 Mexico
2,186,877

13
 Nigeria (OPEC)
1,999,885

14
 Angola (OPEC)
1,769,615

15
 Norway
1,647,975

16
 Kazakhstan
1,595,199

17
 Qatar (OPEC)
1,522,902

18
 Algeria (OPEC)
1,348,361

19
 Oman
1,006,841

20
 United Kingdom
939,760

21
 Colombia
897,784

22
 Indonesia
833,667

23
 Azerbaijan
833,538

24
 India
734,180

25
 Malaysia
661,240

26
 Ecuador (OPEC)
548,421

27
 Argentina
510,560

28
 Egypt
494,325

29
 Libya (OPEC)
384,686

30
 Congo, Republic of the
308,363

31
 Vietnam
301,850

32
 Australia
289,749

33
 Thailand
257,525

34
 Sudan and  South Sudan
255,000

35
 Turkmenistan
230,779

36
 Equatorial Guinea (OPEC)
227,000

37
 Gabon (OPEC)
210,820

38
 Denmark
140,637

39
 Chad
110,156

40
 Brunei
109,117

41
 Ghana
100,549

42
 Cameroon
93,205

43
 Pakistan
84,746

44
 Romania
77,910

45
 Italy
70,675

46
 Timor-Leste
60,661

47
 Trinidad and Tobago
60,090

48
 Bolivia
58,077

49
 Papua New Guinea
56,667

50
 Uzbekistan
52,913

51.5
 Bahrain
50,000

51.5
 Cuba
50,000

53
 Turkey
49,497

54
 Tunisia
48,757

55
 Germany
46,839

56
 Peru
40,266

57
 New Zealand
35,574

58
 Ukraine
31,989

59.5
 Ivory Coast
30,000

59.5
 Syria
30,000

61
 Belarus
25,000

62
 Mongolia
23,426

63
 Albania
22,915

64
 Yemen
22,000

65
 Poland
20,104

67
 Congo, Democratic Republic of the
20,000

67
 Philippines
20,000

67
 Serbia
20,000

69
 Netherlands
18,087

70
 Suriname
17,000

71
 France
16,418

72
 Austria
15,161

73
 Myanmar
15,000

74
 Hungary
13,833

75
 Croatia
13,582

76
 Niger
13,000

77
 Guatemala
8,977

78
 Mauritania
5,000

79
 Chile
4,423

80
 Bangladesh
4,189

81
 Japan
3,918

82
 Greece
3,172

83
 Spain
2,667

84
 Czech Republic
2,333

86
 Belize
2,000

86
 Lithuania
2,000

86
 South Africa
2,000

89
 Barbados
1,000

89
 Bulgaria
1,000

89
 Kyrgyzstan
1,000

91
 Georgia
400

92
 Israel
390

93
 Slovakia
200

94
 Taiwan
196

95
 Tajikistan
180

96
 Morocco
160

97
 Jordan
22

98
 Slovenia
5


document_title: Architecture of Mesopotamia

question_text: an artificial mountain with a temple on top in mesopotamia

text: Architecture of Mesopotamia

text: Building materials[edit]

text: Sumerian masonry was usually mortarless although bitumen was sometimes used. Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period.[1]

text:
Patzen 80×40×15 cm: Late Uruk period (3600–3200 BC)
Riemchen 16×16 cm: Late Uruk period (3600–3200 BC)
Plano-convex 10x19x34 cm: Early Dynastic Period (3100–2300 BC)

text: The favored design was rounded bricks, which are somewhat unstable, so Mesopotamian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. The advantages to plano-convex bricks were the speed of manufacture as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster coat better than a smooth surface from other brick types.

text: Bricks were sun baked to harden them. These types of bricks are much less durable than oven-baked ones so buildings eventually deteriorated. They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This planned structural life cycle gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resulting mounds are known as tells, and are found throughout the ancient Near East. Civic buildings slowed decay by using cones of colored stone, terracotta panels, and clay nails driven into the adobe-brick to create a protective sheath that decorated the façade. Specially prized were imported building materials such as cedar from Lebanon, diorite from Arabia, and lapis lazuli from India.

text: Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly colored, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terra-cotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. Assyria, imitating Babylonian architecture, also built its palaces and temples of brick, even when stone was the natural building material of the country – faithfully preserving the brick platform, necessary in the marshy soil of Babylonia, but little needed in the north.

text: As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted as in Chaldea. Three stages may be traced in the art of these bas-reliefs: it is vigorous but simple under Ashurnasirpal II, careful and realistic under Sargon II, and refined but wanting in boldness under Ashurbanipal.

text: In Babylonia, in place of the bas relief, there is greater use of three-dimensional figures in the round – the earliest examples being the statues from Girsu, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting. Two seal-cylinders from the age of Sargon of Akkad are among the best examples of their kind. One of the first remarkable specimens of early metallurgy to be discovered by archaeologists is the silver vase of Entemena. At a later epoch, great excellence was attained in the manufacture of such jewellery as earrings and bracelets of gold. Copper, too, was worked with skill; indeed, it is possible that Babylonia was the original home of copper-working.

text: The people were famous at an early date for their embroideries and rugs. The forms of Assyrian pottery are graceful; the porcelain, like the glass discovered in the palaces of Nineveh, was derived from Egyptian models. Transparent glass seems to have been first introduced in the reign of Sargon. Stone, clay and glass were used to make vases, and vases of hard stone have been dug up at Girsu similar to those of the early dynastic period of Egypt.

text: The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. According to Archibald Sayce, the primitive pictograms of the Uruk period era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. ... Demons were feared who had wings like a bird, and the foundation stones – or rather bricks – of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them."[2]

text: Scholarly literature usually concentrates on the architecture of temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.[3] Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.

text: Urban planning[edit]

text: The Sumerians were the first society to construct the city itself as a built form. They were proud of this achievement as attested in the Epic of Gilgamesh which opens with a description of Uruk—its walls, streets, markets, temples, and gardens. Uruk itself is significant as the center of an urban culture which both colonized and urbanized western Asia.

text: The construction of cities was the end product of trends which began in the Neolithic Revolution. The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic. Planning is evident in the walls, high temple district, main canal with harbor, and main street. The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the spatial limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with regular features. Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the urban growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text sources.

text: The typical city divided space into residential, mixed use, commercial, and civic spaces. The residential areas were grouped by profession.[4] At the core of the city was a high temple complex always sited slightly off of the geographical center. This high temple usually predated the founding of the city and was the nucleus around which the urban form grew. The districts adjacent to gates had a special religious and economic function.

text: The city always included a belt of irrigated agricultural land including small hamlets. A network of roads and canals connected the city to this land. The transportation network was organized in three tiers: wide processional streets (Akkadian:sūqu ilāni u šarri), public through streets (Akkadian:sūqu nišī), and private blind alleys (Akkadian:mūṣû). The public streets that defined a block varied little over time while the blind-alleys were much more fluid. The current estimate is 10% of the city area was streets and 90% buildings.[5] The canals; however, were more important than roads for good transportation.

text: Houses[edit]

text: The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were similar but not exact as those used today: mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city,[6] although wood was not common in some cities of Sumer. Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves.[7] The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact, it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this.[8]

text: Residential design was a direct development from Ubaid houses. Although Sumerian cylinder seals depict reed houses, the courtyard house was the predominant typology, which has been used in Mesopotamia to the present day. This house called é (Cuneiform: 𒂍, E2; Sumerian: e2; Akkadian: bītu) faced inward toward an open courtyard which provided a cooling effect by creating convection currents. This courtyard called tarbaṣu (Akkadian) was the primary organizing feature of the house, all the rooms opened into it. The external walls were featureless with only a single opening connecting the house to the street. Movement between the house and street required a 90° turn through a small antechamber. From the street only the rear wall of the antechamber would be visible through an open door, likewise there was no view of the street from the courtyard. The Sumerians had a strict division of public and private spaces. The typical size for a Sumerian house was 90 m2.[5]

text: Palace[edit]

text: The palace came into existence during the Early Dynastic I period. From a rather modest beginning the palace grows in size and complexity as power is increasingly centralized. The palace is called a 'Big House' (Cuneiform: E2.GAL Sumerian e2-gal Akkdian: ekallu) where the lugal or ensi lived and worked.

text: The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large-scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest known examples are from the Diyala River valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as large-scale socio-economic institutions, and therefore, along with residential and private functions, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and are often associated with shrines. For instance, the so-called "giparu" (or Gig-Par-Ku in Sumerian) at Ur where the Moon god Nanna's priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, and a ceremonial banquet hall. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at Mari in Syria, dating from the Old Babylonian period.

text: Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu/Nimrud, Dur Sharrukin/Khorsabad and Ninuwa/Nineveh, have become famous due to the Assyrian palace reliefs, extensive pictorial and textual narrative programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as orthostats. These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculptures of apotropaic mythological figures, lamassu and winged genies. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throne room opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met and state ceremonies were performed.

text: Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in some Assyrian palaces pointing to an intense trade relationship with North Syrian Neo-Hittite states at the time. Bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates of major buildings, but were mostly looted at the fall of the empire; the Balawat Gates are the principal survivors.

text: Temples[edit]

text: Temples often predated the creation of the urban settlement and grew from small one room structures to elaborate multiacre complexes across the 2,500 years of Sumerian history. Sumerian temples, fortifications, and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as buttresses, recesses, and half columns. Chronologically, Sumerian temples evolved from earlier Ubaid temples. As the temple decayed it was ritually destroyed and a new temple built on its foundations. The successor temple was larger and more articulated than its predecessor temple. The evolution of the E2.abzu temple at Eridu is a frequently cited case-study of this process. Many temples had inscriptions engraved into them, such as the one at Tell Uqair. Palaces and city walls came much later after temples in the Early Dynastic Period.

text: The form of a Sumerian temple is manifestation of Near Eastern cosmology, which described the world as a disc of land which was surrounded by a salt water ocean, both of which floated on another sea of fresh water called apsu, above them was a hemispherical firmament which regulated time. A world mountain formed an axis mundi that joined all three layers. The role of the temple was to act as that axis mundi, a meeting place between gods and men.[9] The sacredness of 'high places' as a meeting point between realms is a pre-Ubaid belief well attested in the Near East back the Neolithic age. The plan of the temple was rectangular with the corners pointing in cardinal directions to symbolize the four rivers which flow from the mountain to the four world regions. The orientation also serves a more practical purpose of using the temple roof as an observatory for Sumerian timekeeping. The temple was built on a low terrace of rammed earth meant to represent the sacred mound of primordial land which emerged from the water called dukug, 'pure mound' (Sumerian: du6-ku3 Cuneiform:) during creation.

text: The doors of the long axis were the entry point for the gods, and the doors of the short axis the entry point for men. This configuration was called the bent axis approach, as anyone entering would make a ninety degree turn to face the cult statue at the end of the central hall. The bent axis approach is an innovation from the Ubaid temples which had a linear axis approach, and is also a feature of Sumerian houses. An offering table was located in the center of the temple at the intersection of the axes.

text: Temples of the Uruk Period divided the temple rectangle into tripartite, T-shaped, or combined plans. The tripartite plan inherited from the Ubaid had a large central hall with two smaller flanking halls on either side. The entry was along the short axis and the shrine was at the end of the long axis. The T-shaped plan, also from the Ubaid period, was identical to the tripartite plan except for a hall at one end of the rectangle perpendicular to the main hall. Temple C from the Eanna district of Uruk is a case-study of classical temple form.

text: There was an explosion of diversity in temple design during the following Early Dynastic Period. The temples still retained features such as cardinal orientation, rectangular plans, and buttresses. Now however they took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and barracks. The Sin Temple in Khafajah is typical of this era, as it was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a cella.

text: The high temple was a special type of temple that was home to the patron god of the city. Functionally, it served as a storage and distribution center as well as housing the priesthood. The White Temple of Anu in Uruk is typical of a high temple which was built very high on a platform of adobe-brick. In the Early Dynastic period high temples began to include a ziggurat, a series of platforms creating a stepped pyramid. Such ziggurats may have been the inspiration for the Biblical Tower of Babel.

text: Ziggurats[edit]

text: Ziggurats were huge pyramidal temple towers which were first built in Sumerian City-States and then developed in Babylonia and Assyrian cities as well. There are 32 ziggurats known at, or near, Mesopotamia—28 in Iraq and 4 in Iran. Notable ziggurats include the Great Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq, the Ziggurat of Aqar Quf near Baghdad, Iraq, Chogha Zanbil in Khūzestān, Iran (the most recent to be discovered), and the Sialk near Kashan, Iran. Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, and Assyrians as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period[10] during the fourth millennium BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.[11]

text: Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis.

text: Classical ziggurats emerged in the Neo-Sumerian Period with articulated buttresses, vitreous brick sheathing, and entasis in the elevation. The Ziggurat of Ur is the best example of this style. Another change in temple design in this period was a straight as opposed to bent-axis approach to the temple.

text: Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, but today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in bitumen, 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually, a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (Leonard Woolley), and crowned by a temple. At the Chogha Zanbil ziggurat, archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass.

text: The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Haykaberd, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.

text: Design of Assyrian buildings, fortifications and temples[edit]

text: The plans of all the Assyrian buildings are rectangular, and we know that long ago, as now, the Eastern architects used this outline almost invariably, and upon it reared some of the most lovely and varied forms ever devised. They gather over the angles by graceful curves, and on the basis of an ordinary square hall carry up a minaret or a dome, an octagon or a circle. That this was sometimes done in Assyria is shown by the sculptures. Slabs from Kouyunjik show domes of varied form, and tower-like structures, each rising from a square base. The resemblance between the ancient form of the dome and those still used in the Assyrian villages is very striking. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas-reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well-nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found.

text: Of the fortifications we know much more. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty-eight towers have been traced, and at Kouyunjik there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun-dried bricks. At Khorsabad there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1.2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval machicolations, and are finished at top with battlements, remains of which have been found at Nimrud and Kouyunjik, and at Assur, the capital of Assyria before Nineveh.

text: Of temples distinct from the palace we have a few supposed remains, but little is absolutely known as to their general form.

text: But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of Nabû at Borsippa (now Birs Nimrod), near Babylon, which has been identified as the temple of the Seven Spheres. This was reconstructed by Nebuchadnezzar, as appears by a well-known inscription. Another example is at Mugheir, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens.

text: Landscape architecture[edit]

text: Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: kišubbû).

text: External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal.[12] This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia.

text: In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B.C., found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient Assyrian fountain "discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream." The water was led from small conduits.[13]


document_title: After the Gold Rush (song)

question_text: who had a hit with after the gold rush

question_tokens: who had a hit with after the gold rush

text: After the Gold Rush (song)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
"After the Gold Rush"

Song by Neil Young and Crazy Horse

from the album After the Gold Rush

Released
September 19, 1970

Recorded
March 12, 1970

Genre
Folk rock

Length
3:45

Label
Reprise

Songwriter(s)
Neil Young

Producer(s)
Neil Young
David Briggs

After the Gold Rush track listing

"Tell Me Why"
(1)
"After the Gold Rush"
(2)
"Only Love Can Break Your Heart"
(3)

text: "After the Gold Rush" is a song written, composed, and performed by Neil Young and is the title song from the 1970 album of the same name. In addition to After the Gold Rush, it also appears on Decade, Greatest Hits, and Live Rust.

text: The song consists of three verses, two of which describe dream visions involving Mother Nature.[1] The three verses move forward in time from the past (a medieval celebration with the sun floating on the breeze), to the present (the singer lying, distressed, in bed with the full moon in his eyes when there is a nuclear bomb explosion ie sunburst), and, finally, the future (spaceships transporting the chosen ones to a new home in the sun). The theme of the sun links all three verses. On the original recording, in addition to Young's vocals, two instruments are used in the song: a piano and a french horn. The french horn solo in the middle of the song is often replaced by a harmonica solo by Young in live performances. The line "Look at Mother Nature on the run / In the 1970s" has been amended by Young in concert over the decades and is currently sung as "Look at Mother Nature on the run / in the 21st century."

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: The song has been covered numerous times. In 1973, it was interpreted by Prelude, whose a capella version was a top 40 hit all over the globe, especially the United Kingdom where it re-charted in the Top 40 in 1982. Other versions have been performed by artists such as Thom Yorke, k.d. lang, The Flaming Lips, The King's Singers, Michael Hedges, Nena, and Natalie Merchant. Linda Ronstadt, Dolly Parton, and Emmylou Harris included it on their smash Trio II album in 1999 and were awarded a Grammy for their version. (Parton also released a solo version of the song in 1996, though her version altered the line "I felt like getting high" to "I felt like I could cry" with the permission of Neil Young.) During Radiohead's 2003 and 2012 world tours, Thom Yorke occasionally played this song solo, usually segueing into "Everything in Its Right Place." Patti Smith included it on her 2012 album, Banga. The song has also been covered in live shows by Tori Amos, Dave Matthews, Neil Finn during Crowded House's 2007 tour of the United States, and by Nana Mouskouri during her 1970s BBC show.

text: Dolly Parton once commented about the making of her version of the song: "When we were doing the Trio album, I asked Linda and Emmy what it meant, and they didn't know. So we called Neil Young, and he didn't know. We asked him, flat out, what it meant, and he said, 'Hell, I don't know. I just wrote it. It just depends on what I was taking at the time. I guess every verse has something different I'd taken.'"[2] The Trio version of the song was also released as a single, and while it received modest radio airplay, a video accompanying the song was very popular on a number of cable video outlets, including CMT.In 2017 The Detroits’Seatbelts' cover was made into a video by Torontos’ Greasy King.[3]