document_title: The Greatest Showman

question_text: who plays young pt barnum in greatest showman

text: The Greatest Showman

text: Plot[edit]

text: P. T. Barnum and his troupe perform a show at the circus ("The Greatest Show"). In a flashback to Barnum's childhood where he and his father Philo, a tailor, work for the Hallett family, he becomes infatuated with their daughter, Charity. Though Charity is being sent to finishing school, Barnum reassures her they will not be separated. The two keep in touch through letters until they meet again in adulthood ("A Million Dreams"), eventually marrying and raising two daughters, Caroline and Helen, in New York City ("A Million Dreams" reprise). They live a humble life; though Charity is happy, Barnum dreams of more.

text: Barnum loses his job as a clerk at a shipping company after the company goes bankrupt. Taking a risky bet, he takes out a large loan from a bank, deceiving the bank into accepting his former employer's lost ships as collateral. He uses this loan to buy Barnum's American Museum in downtown Manhattan, an attraction showcasing various wax models. Initially, sales are slow; on the suggestion of his children to showcase something "alive", Barnum searches for "freaks" to serve as performers for his museum ("Come Alive"). This attracts a large audience despite protests and poor reviews, prompting Barnum to rename his venture "Barnum's Circus".

text: Searching for ways to further his reputation amongst the upper class, Barnum meets playwright Phillip Carlyle and convinces him to join his venture ("The Other Side"). Carlyle is enchanted with Anne Wheeler, an African-American trapeze artist, but he hides his feelings. During a trip Carlyle arranged for Barnum and his troupe to meet Queen Victoria, Barnum meets Jenny Lind, a famed Swedish singer, whom he convinces to perform in America, with him serving as her manager. Lind's first American performance is a rousing success ("Never Enough"). While Barnum gains favor with the aristocratic patrons, he begins to distance himself from his original troupe, refusing to socialize with them. Dejected, they decide to stand against their local harassers ("This Is Me").

text: Carlyle and Wheeler attend the theatre together one night, only to run into Carlyle's parents, who insult Wheeler's lowly status, causing her to leave. Carlyle chases her and tries to convince her that they can be together, but she rejects him despite her feelings towards him ("Rewrite the Stars"). As Barnum takes Lind on a US tour, Charity feels isolated from her husband as she stays home with their daughters ("Tightrope"). While on tour, Lind begins falling in love with Barnum, but when he refuses her advances, she calls off the tour and kisses him at the end of her last show, which is photographed by the press ("Never Enough" reprise). Barnum returns home to find his circus on fire, caused by a fight between the protesters and the troupe. Carlyle, who had tried to save Anne not knowing she had already escaped, is rescued by Barnum amid the chaos but suffers severe burns. Most of the sets and props are destroyed. Word of Lind's cancellation and Barnum's public intimacy also reaches New York, resulting in his mansion being foreclosed upon and Charity taking Caroline and Helen to her parents' home.

text: Depressed, Barnum retreats to a local pub, where his troupe find him there and explain that their own mothers were ashamed of them, and how unimpressed they are with him for giving up on them too, thinking that maybe he is a fraud, which causes him to realize the circus was for his friends and family rather than for himself. Meanwhile, the injured Carlyle wakes in a hospital with Wheeler by his side and they share a kiss ("From Now On").

text: Barnum leaves and finds his estranged wife, and they decide to mend their relationship. Faced with the financial difficulty of rebuilding the circus, the recovering Carlyle steps in, offering to use his earnings from his share of the circus's profits to rebuild it under the condition of becoming partners, which Barnum happily accepts. As rebuilding the circus in its original location would be too expensive, Barnum rebuilds it as an open-air tent circus by the docks. The revamped circus is a huge success, and Barnum gives full control of the show to Carlyle so he can focus on his family ("The Greatest Show" reprise).

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Hugh Jackman as P. T. Barnum, an ambitious showman and entrepreneur.

Ellis Rubin as Young P. T. Barnum

Ziv Zaifman provides Young P. T. Barnum's singing voice.

Zac Efron as Phillip Carlyle, a playwright who becomes Barnum's partner. His character is partly based on James Anthony Bailey.
Michelle Williams as Charity Hallett-Barnum, the wife of P.T. Barnum.

Skylar Dunn as Young Charity

Rebecca Ferguson as Jenny Lind, a famous Swedish singer known as the "Swedish Nightingale".

Loren Allred provides Lind's singing voice.[8][9]

Zendaya as Anne Wheeler, an acrobat, trapeze artist, W.D.'s younger sister and Phillip Carlyle's love interest. Her character is partly based on Ruth Louisa McCaddon.
Keala Settle as Lettie Lutz, a bearded lady. She is a composite character partly based on Josephine Clofullia and Annie Jones.
Yahya Abdul-Mateen II as W. D. Wheeler, an acrobat and Anne's brother.
Natasha Liu Bordizzo as Deng Yan, a Chinese blade-specialist.
Paul Sparks as James Gordon Bennett, the founder, editor and publisher of the New York Herald.
Sam Humphrey as Charles Stratton, a dwarf performer who is also known by his stage name, General Tom Thumb.

James Babson provides Stratton's speaking and singing voice.

Austyn Johnson as Caroline Barnum, one of Barnum's daughters.
Cameron Seely as Helen Barnum, one of Barnum's daughters.
Eric Anderson as Mr. O'Malley, a former thief whom Barnum employs at his circus.
Daniel Everidge as The Lord of Leeds, The Huge Man.
Timothy Hughes as Strong Man
Jeremy Hudson as The Elephant-skinned Man
Caoife Coleman and Mishay Petronelli as the Albino Twins
Shannon Holtzapffel as Prince Constantine, The Tattooed Man.
Luciano Acuna Jr. as Fedor Jeftichew, The Dog Boy.
Danial Son and Yusaku Komori as Chang and Eng Bunker, The "Siamese Twins"
Jonathan Redavid as Frank Lentini, The Three-Legged Man.
Nick Jantz as Jeff Harris, The Juggler
Damian Young as Mr. Winthrop
Tina Benko as Mrs. Winthrop
Gayle Rankin as Queen Victoria.
Will Swenson as Philo Barnum, a tailor and the father of P. T. Barnum.
Fredric Lehne as Benjamin Hallett, father of Charity and abusive father-in-law of Barnum.
Kathryn Meisle as Hannah Hallett, mother of Charity and mother-in-law of Barnum.

text: Production[edit]

text: The project was first announced in 2009, with Jackman already set for the title role.[10] In August 2011, Michael Gracey was chosen to direct.[11] In 2013, Fox hired lyricists Pasek and Paul to write the songs.[12]

text: On June 15, 2016, Zac Efron began negotiations to star in the film,[13] and in July 2016, Michelle Williams was cast.[14][15][16][17] The film was choreographed by Ashley Wallen.[18]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Rehearsals on the film began in October 2016 in New York City, and principal photography began on November 22, 2016.[19][20]

text: Post-production[edit]

text: In December 2017, it was reported that James Mangold, who had worked with Jackman on several projects (including 2017's Logan), had been brought in to serve as an executive producer during the film's post-production. In an interview, director Michael Gracey noted, "There were eight producers on this film, and it was amazing having one of them be a filmmaker."[21]

text: Music[edit]

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text: Benj Pasek and Justin Paul wrote nine songs.[22]

text:
"The Greatest Show" – Hugh Jackman, Keala Settle, Zac Efron, Zendaya
"A Million Dreams" – Ziv Zaifman, Jackman, Michelle Williams
"A Million Dreams" (Reprise) – Austyn Johnson, Cameron Seely, Jackman
"Come Alive" – Jackman, Settle, Daniel Everidge, Zendaya
"The Other Side" – Jackman & Efron
"Never Enough" – Loren Allred
"This Is Me" – Settle
"Rewrite the Stars" – Efron & Zendaya
"Tightrope" – Williams
"Never Enough" (Reprise) – Allred
"From Now On" – Jackman

tag: ol

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The soundtrack album is produced by Greg Wells, Justin Paul, and Benj Pasek, featuring eleven tracks performed by the cast. In the United Kingdom it became only the second album in 30 years to achieve 11 consecutive weeks at number 1.[23] The Greatest Showman now draws level with Adele's 21 for the longest unbroken run at the UK summit in the last 30 years. The cast album is now at 465,000 combined units, according to the Official Charts Company, made up of 197,000 physical copies, 107,000 downloads and 35% streaming.[24]

text: Release[edit]

text: The Greatest Showman held its premiere on December 8, 2017, aboard the RMS Queen Mary 2, while it was docked in New York City. The film was then released in the United States on December 20, 2017.[25][26] Like Disney's live-action Beauty and the Beast, a sing-along version of the film was released in the United Kingdom on February 23, 2018.[27] The film had a limited IMAX release on February 2.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On June 28, 2017, 20th Century Fox released the first international trailer to promote the film. On November 13, 2017, the second trailer was released.[28]

text: On December 17, 2017, Fox televised a live performance of "Come Alive" from Warner Bros. Studios during its live musical special A Christmas Story Live! (which was based on fellow Pasek and Paul work A Christmas Story: The Musical). The number featured the film's stars and a cast of 150 dancers.[29][30]

text: Home media[edit]

text: In the United States, the film was released via digital download on March 20, 2018, and was released on Blu-ray, DVD and 4K Ultra HD on April 10, 2018.[31] In the United Kingdom, the film was released first on digital download on April 27, 2018, while Blu-ray, 4K Ultra HD and DVD copies went on sale on May 14. These versions include the sing-along version, two hours of behind-the-scenes footage and music machine jukebox features.[32]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of May 22, 2018[update], The Greatest Showman has grossed $174 million in the United States and Canada, and $258.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $432.6 million, against a production budget of $84 million.[3] It is the fourth- and fifth-highest grossing musical ever in North America and globally, respectively, and Deadline Hollywood estimated the film should turn a profit between $50–100 million.[33]

text: In the United States and Canada, The Greatest Showman was released alongside Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, and was projected to gross around $21 million from 3,006 theaters over its first six days.[34][35] It took in $2 million on its first day and $2 million on its second. Over the three day weekend, it grossed $9 million (for a six-day total of $19 million), finishing fourth at the box office, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi, Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and Pitch Perfect 3.[36] In its second weekend, the film grossed $15.5 million, again finishing 4th at the box office.[37] The weekend-to-weekend increase of 76.3% marked the largest ever for a film playing in over 3,000 theaters, and the fourth biggest ever.[38][39] In its third week, the film dropped 11% to $14 million.[40]

text: The film made $13 million in its fourth weekend and $11 million in its fifth, finishing 4th and 5th at the box office, respectively.[41] The film continued to hold well in its sixth week of release, grossing $9.5 million and returning to 4th place,[42] and again finished fourth in its seventh week, this time grossing $7.8 million (a drop of just 18%).[43] It is the 13th highest-grossing film to never top the American box office.[44]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 56% based on 207 reviews, and an average rating of 6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The Greatest Showman tries hard to dazzle the audience with a Barnum-style sense of wonder – but at the expense of its complex subject's far more intriguing real-life story."[45] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[46] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while it earned a 70% "definite recommend" from comScore.[36]

text: Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a positive review, writing, "The Greatest Showman is a concoction, the kind of film where all the pieces click into place, yet at an hour and 45 minutes it flies by, and the link it draws between P.T. Barnum and the spirit of today is more than hype."[47] Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3/4 stars, saying, "With all that corn and cheese and old-timey sentiment, The Greatest Showman ends up scoring some very timely social arguments. P.T. Barnum himself would have approved the dramatic sleight of hand."[48] Steve Persall of Tampa Bay Times gave the film an 'A', and said, "The Greatest Showman is the feel-good movie the holiday season needs,"[49] while William Bibbiani of IGN gave The Greatest Showman a score of 7.9/10, and called the film, "wildly entertaining."[50]

text: Britton Peele of The Dallas Morning News said, "The story is interesting and the beats are well-acted, but it's the musical numbers that make The Greatest Showman."[51] Jackie K Cooper of HuffPost gave the film a score of 10/10 and wrote, "You will be overwhelmed by the music and magic that explode on the screen. The film has a message that should resonate with today's world concerning acceptance and courage."[52] Hugh Armitage of Digital Spy said, "The Greatest Showman is a broad and solid crowd-pleaser. An undemanding spectacle for all the family."[53] Alan Jones of Radio Times called it "A joyously uplifting potpourii of visual resplendence, stylish choreography and solid gold magic, one engineered to approximate the lavish spectacle the movie musical once offered."[54]

text: Sheila O'Malley of RogerEbert.com gave it 3.5/4, stating "The Greatest Showman is an unabashed piece of pure entertainment punctuated by memorable songs."[55] Douglas Davidson of CLTure called the film, "An undeniable spectacle with a infectious soundtrack, a movie that dazzles and delights."[56] James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film a 3/4 score, and said, "The film has show-stopping well-choreographed numbers with catchy tunes,"[57] and Calvin Wilson of St. Louis Post-Dispatch called the film "highly enjoyable."[58]

text: Carl Kozlowski of Pasadena Weekly gave the film an 'A', calling it "Groundbreaking & grandly innovative."[59] Sean P. Means of The Salt Lake Tribune gave The Greatest Showman 3.5/4 stars, stating, "A strong cast give emotional power to this romanticized, tune-filled biography."[60] Manuela Lazic of Little White Lies gave it 4/5, saying, "The Greatest Showman deserves to become a Christmas classic. The film's severe romanticism and ridiculous but affecting enthusiasm make it irresistibly life-affirming."[61] Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and called it, "A fantasia of song and dance, a joyous exercise in pure entertainment that is made for the holiday crowd."[62]

text: Conversely, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a negative review, criticizing the songs and characters and saying "There's idiotic, and there's magnificent, but The Greatest Showman is that special thing that happens sometimes. It's magnificently idiotic. It's an awful mess, but it's flashy. The temptation is to cover your face and watch it through your fingers, because it's so earnest and embarrassing and misguided – and yet it's well-made."[63] In a negative review for The Hollywood Reporter, David Rooney wrote "This ersatz portrait of American big-top tent impresario P.T. Barnum is all smoke and mirrors, no substance. It hammers pedestrian themes of family, friendship and inclusivity while neglecting the fundaments of character and story."[64]

text: Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 1.5 out of 4 stars, saying, "How do you cast a virtuoso Hugh Jackman as P.T. Barnum, spare no expense in production values, add a score by Oscar and Tony winners Benj Pasek and Justin Paul and still end up with the shrill blast of nothing that is The Greatest Showman? Ask first-time director Michael Gracey, who cut his teeth on commercials and music videos without ever mastering the crucial knack of building snippets of musical comedy and drama into a satisfying whole."[65] Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film's failures "are rooted in something deeper: a dispiriting lack of faith in the audience's intelligence, and a dawning awareness of its own aesthetic hypocrisy. You've rarely seen a more straight-laced musical about the joys of letting your freak flag fly."[66]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref(s)

AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards
February 5, 2018
Best Grownup Love Story
The Greatest Showman
Won
[67][68]

Academy Awards
March 4, 2018
Best Original Song
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[69][70]

Casting Society of America
January 18, 2018
Big Budget – Comedy
Bernard Telsey, Tiffany Little Canfield, Rori Bergman and Patrick Goodwin
Won
[71]

Costume Designers Guild
February 20, 2018
Excellence in Period Film
Ellen Mirojnick
Nominated
[72]

Critics' Choice Movie Awards
January 11, 2018
Best Song
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[73]

Dorian Awards
February 24, 2018
Campy Flick of the Year
The Greatest Showman
Nominated
[74]
[75]

Empire Awards
March 18, 2018
Best Costume Design
The Greatest Showman
Nominated
[76]
[77]

Best Make-up And Hairstyling
The Greatest Showman
Nominated

Georgia Film Critics Association
January 12, 2018
Best Original Song
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[78]

Golden Globe Awards
January 7, 2018
Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy
Hugh Jackman
Nominated
[79]

Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy
The Greatest Showman
Nominated

Best Original Song – Motion Picture
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Won

Golden Reel Awards
February 18, 2018
Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Musical
Jen Monnar, Jim Harrison, Jeff Carson, Peter Myles and Sheri Ozeki
Won
[80]

Guild of Music Supervisors Awards
February 8, 2018
Best Music Supervision for Film: Budgeted Over 25 Million Dollars
Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated
[81]

Best Song/Recording Created for a Film
"This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul
Nominated

Heartland Film Festival
December 31, 2017
Truly Moving Picture Award
Michael Gracey
Won
[82]

Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild
February 24, 2018
Feature Motion Picture: Best Period and/or Character Makeup
Nicki Ledermann, Tania Ribalow and Sunday Englis
Nominated
[83]

Saturn Awards
June 2018
Best Action or Adventure Film
The Greatest Showman
Pending
[84]

Best Costume Design
Ellen Mirojnick
Pending

Best Music
John Debney and Joseph Trapanese
Pending


question_text: where is the central food technology research institute situated

root

text:
CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute

Established
21 October 1950 (1950-10-21)

Research type
A constituent laboratory of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India

Director
Dr. Jitendra Jadhav

Location
Mysore, Karnataka

Campus
200 acres (0.81 km2)

Operating agency

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

Website
www.cftri.com

tag: table

text: CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, abbreviated to CSIR-CFTRI, is one of the 40 national research laboratories in India, set up under the aegis of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).[1] It was opened on 21 October 1950 in Mysore, Karnataka. C.F.T.R.I. Mysore The center also has extended resource centers in Hyderabad, Lucknow and Mumbai, rendering technical assistance to numerous entrepreneurs.

tag: p

text: CSIR-CFTRI is a large and diversified laboratory headed by Dr. Jitendra Jadhav, Director, CSIR-CFTRI. Presently the institute has nearly 200 scientists, technologists, and engineers, and over 200 technicians, skilled workers, and support staff. There are sixteen research and development departments, including laboratories focusing on food biotechnology, microbiology, sensory science, and food safety.[2]

text: The institute has designed over 300 products, processes, and equipment types. It holds several patents and has released many publications. India is the world's second largest foodgrain, fruit and vegetable producer,[3] and the institute is engaged in research in the production and handling of grains, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and poultry.

text: The institute develops technologies to increase efficiency and reduce postharvest losses, add convenience, increase export, find new sources of food products, integrate human resources in food industries, reduce costs, and modernize.[4]

text: CSIR-CFTRI has developed over 270 products, processes and equipment designs, and close to 1600 licensees have availed themselves of 160 of these technologies for commercial exploitation.[citation needed]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "CSIR Lab Directory". Retrieved 19 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "CFTRI - R & D Departments". Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Indian Agriculture". Retrieved 19 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "CFTRI does its bit for tenth plan draft - The Times of India". The Times Of India. 31 January 2002.

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

CSIR labs in India

AMPRI Bhopal
C-MMACS Bangalore
CBRI Roorkee
CCMB Hyderabad
CDRI Lucknow
CECRI Karaikudi
CEERI Pilani
CFTRI Mysore
CGCRI Kolkata
CIMAP Lucknow
CIMFR Dhanbad
CLRI Chennai
CMERI Durgapur
CRRI New Delhi
CSIO Chandigarh
CSMCRI Bhavnagar
IGIB Delhi
IHBT Palampur
IICB Kolkata
IICT Hyderabad
IIIM Jammu
IIP Dehradun
IMMT Bhubaneswar
IMTECH Chandigarh
IITR Lucknow
NAL Bangalore
NBRI Lucknow
NCL Pune
NEERI Nagpur
NGRI Hyderabad
NIO Goa
NISCAIR New Delhi
NISTADS New Delhi
NML Jamshedpur
NPL Delhi
NEIST(RRL) Jorhat
NIIST Thiruvananthapuram
SERC Chennai
URDIP Pune

 Category


document_title: Paint

question_text: when did latex paint come on the market

question_tokens: when did latex paint come on the market

text: Paint

text: History[edit]

text: In 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100,000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint.[1][2] Further excavation in the same cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments and making a primitive paint-like substance.[2][3] Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, and charcoal may have been made by early Homo sapiens as long as 40,000 years ago.

text: Ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a gummy substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge.

text: Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries.

text: Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils. Most paints used either oil or water as a base (the diluent, solvent or vehicle for the pigment).

text: A still extant example of 17th-century house oil painting is Ham House in Surrey, England, where a primer was used along with several undercoats and an elaborate decorative overcoat; the pigment and oil mixture would have been ground into a paste with a mortar and pestle. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder.

text: In 1718, Marshall Smith invented a "Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours" in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. Soon, a company called Emerton and Manby was advertising exceptionally low-priced paints that had been ground with labour-saving technology:

text: By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills and an alternative to lead-based pigments was found in a white derivative of zinc oxide. Interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder.

text: In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and invented a paint that could be used from the tin without preparation.

text: It was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they also held the color well and lasted for a long time.[4][not in citation given][citation needed]

text: Components[edit]

text: Vehicle[edit]

text: The vehicle is composed of the binder; or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder and diluent.[5][6] In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated and only the binder is left on the coated surface. Thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the "vehicle solids", sometimes called the "resin solids" of the formula. This is the proportion of the wet coating weight that is binder, i.e. the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after drying or curing is complete.

text: Binder or film former[edit]

text: The binder is the film-forming component of paint.[7] It is the only component that is always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders are too thick to be applied and must be thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder.

text: The binder imparts properties such as gloss, durability, flexibility, and toughness.[8]

text: Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds, acrylics, vinyl-acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE), polyurethanes, polyesters, melamine resins, epoxy, silanes or siloxanes or oils.

text: Binders can be categorized according to the mechanisms for film formation. Thermoplastic mechanisms include drying and coalescence. Drying refers to simple evaporation of the solvent or thinner to leave a coherent film behind. Coalescence refers to a mechanism that involves drying followed by actual interpenetration and fusion of formerly discrete particles. Thermoplastic film-forming mechanisms are sometimes described as "thermoplastic cure" but that is a misnomer because no chemical curing reactions are required to knit the film. Thermosetting mechanisms, on the other hand, are true curing mechanism that involve chemical reaction(s) among the polymers that make up the binder.[9]

text: Thermoplastic mechanisms: Some films are formed by simple cooling of the binder. For example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and harden upon cooling. In many cases, they resoften or liquify if reheated.

text: Paints that dry by solvent evaporation and contain the solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers. A solid film forms when the solvent evaporates. Because no chemical crosslinking is involved, the film can re-dissolve in solvent; as such, lacquers are unsuitable for applications where chemical resistance is important. Classic nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category, as do non-grain raising stains composed of dyes dissolved in solvent. Performance varies by formulation, but lacquers generally tend to have better UV resistance and lower corrosion resistance than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or coalescence.

text: The paint type known as Emulsion in the UK and Latex in the United States is a water-borne dispersion of sub-micrometer polymer particles. These terms in their respective countries cover all paints that use synthetic polymers such as acrylic, vinyl acrylic (PVA), styrene acrylic, etc. as binders.[10] The term "latex" in the context of paint in the United States simply means an aqueous dispersion; latex rubber from the rubber tree is not an ingredient. These dispersions are prepared by emulsion polymerization. Such paints cure by a process called coalescence where first the water, and then the trace, or coalescing, solvent, evaporate and draw together and soften the binder particles and fuse them together into irreversibly bound networked structures, so that the paint cannot redissolve in the solvent/water that originally carried it. The residual surfactants in paint, as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause the paint to remain susceptible to softening and, over time, degradation by water. The general term of latex paint is usually used in the United States, while the term emulsion paint is used for the same products in the UK and the term latex paint is not used at all.

text: Thermosetting mechanisms: Paints that cure by polymerization are generally one- or two-package coatings that polymerize by way of a chemical reaction, and cure into a crosslinked film. Depending on composition they may need to dry first, by evaporation of solvent. Classic two-package epoxies or polyurethanes would fall into this category.[11]

text: The "drying oils", counter-intuitively, actually cure by a crosslinking reaction even if they are not put through an oven cycle and seem to simply dry in air. The film formation mechanism of the simplest examples involve first evaporation of solvents followed by reaction with oxygen from the environment over a period of days, weeks and even months to create a crosslinked network.[5] Classic alkyd enamels would fall into this category. Oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate.

text: Recent environmental requirements restrict the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and alternative means of curing have been developed, generally for industrial purposes. UV curing paints, for example, enable formulation with very low amounts of solvent, or even none at all. This can be achieved because of the monomers and oligomers used in the coating have relatively very low molecular weight, and are therefore low enough in viscosity to enable good fluid flow without the need for additional thinner. If solvent is present in significant amounts, generally it is mostly evaporated first and then crosslinking is initiated by ultraviolet light. Similarly, powder coatings contain little or no solvent. Flow and cure are produced by heating of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry powder.[12]

text: Combination mechanisms: So-called "catalyzed" lacquers" or "crosslinking latex" coatings are designed to form films by a combination of methods: classic drying plus a curing reaction that benefits from the catalyst. There are paints called plastisols/organosols, which are made by blending PVC granules with a plasticiser. These are stoved and the mix coalesces.

text: Diluent or solvent or thinner[edit]

text: The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the non volatile components. To spread heavier oils (for example, linseed) as in oil-based interior house paint, a thinner oil is required. These volatile substances impart their properties temporarily—once the solvent has evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed to the surface.

text: This component is optional: some paints have no diluent.

text: Water is the main diluent for water-borne paints, even the co-solvent types.

text: Solvent-borne, also called oil-based, paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as the diluent, including aliphatics, aromatics, alcohols, ketones and white spirit. Specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate, esters, glycol ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents.

text: Pigment and filler[edit]

text: Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute color. Fillers are granular solids incorporate to impart toughness, texture, give the paint special properties,[13] or to reduce the cost of the paint. Alternatively, some paints contain dyes instead of or in combination with pigments.

text: Pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic. Natural pigments include various clays, calcium carbonate, mica, silicas, and talcs. Synthetics would include engineered molecules, calcined clays, blanc fixe, precipitated calcium carbonate, and synthetic pyrogenic silicas.

text: Hiding pigments, in making paint opaque, also protect the substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light. Hiding pigments include titanium dioxide, phthalo blue, red iron oxide, and many others.

text: Fillers are a special type of pigment that serve to thicken the film, support its structure and increase the volume of the paint. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as diatomaceous earth, talc, lime, barytes, clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Not all paints include fillers. On the other hand, some paints contain large proportions of pigment/filler and binder.

text: Some pigments are toxic, such as the lead pigments that are used in lead paint. Paint manufacturers began replacing white lead pigments with titanium white (titanium dioxide), before lead was banned in paint for residential use in 1978 by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission. The titanium dioxide used in most paints today is often coated with silica/alumina/zirconium for various reasons, such as better exterior durability, or better hiding performance (opacity) promoted by more optimal spacing within the paint film.[14]

text: Micaceous iron oxide (MIO) is another alternative to lead for protection of steel, giving more protection against water and light damage than most paints. When MIO pigments are ground into fine particles, most cleave into shiny layers, which reflect light, thus minimising UV degradation and protecting the resin binder. Most pigments used in paint tend to be spherical, but lamellar pigments, such as glass flake and MIO have overlapping plates, which impede the path of water molecules.[15] For optimum performance MIO should have a high content of thin flake-like particles resembling mica. ISO 10601 sets two levels of MIO content.[16] MIO is often derived from a form of hematite.

text: Additives[edit]

text: Besides the three main categories of ingredients, paint can have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a significant effect on the product. Some examples include additives to modify surface tension, improve flow properties, improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve pigment stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming, control skinning, etc. Other types of additives include catalysts, thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, adhesion promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents), biocides to fight bacterial growth, and the like.

text: Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual components in a formulation.[17]

text: Color-changing paint[edit]

text: Various technologies exist for making paints that change color. Thermochromic paints and coatings contain materials that change conformation when heat is applied or removed, and so they change color. Liquid crystals have been used in such paints, such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in aquaria and novelty/promotional thermal cups and straws. These materials are used to make eyeglasses.

text: Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochrome compounds or other organic pigments. One patent[18] cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on a wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005[19][20] for use in foundries.

text: Electrochromic paints change color in response to an applied electric current. Car manufacturer Nissan has been reportedly working on an electrochromic paint, based on particles of paramagnetic iron oxide. When subjected to an electromagnetic field the paramagnetic particles change spacing, modifying their color and reflective properties. The electromagnetic field would be formed using the conductive metal of the car body.[21] Electrochromic paints can be applied to plastic substrates as well, using a different coating chemistry. The technology involves using special dyes that change conformation when an electric current is applied across the film itself. This new technology has been used to achieve glare protection at the touch of a button in passenger airplane windows.

text: Art[edit]

text: Since the time of the Renaissance, siccative (drying) oil paints, primarily linseed oil, have been the most commonly used kind of paints in fine art applications; oil paint is still common today. However, in the 20th century, water-based paints, including watercolors and acrylic paints, became very popular with the development of acrylic and other latex paints. Milk paints (also called casein), where the medium is derived from the natural emulsion that is milk, were popular in the 19th century and are still available today. Egg tempera (where the medium is an emulsion of raw egg yolk mixed with oil) is still in use as well, as are encaustic wax-based paints. Gouache is a variety of opaque watercolor that was also used in the Middle Ages and Renaissance for manuscript illuminations. The pigment was often made from ground semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli and the binder made from either gum arabic or egg white. Gouache, also known as 'designer color' or 'body color' is commercially available today.

text: Poster paint has been used primarily in the creation of student works, or by children.

text: Application[edit]

text: Paint can be applied as a solid, a gaseous suspension (aerosol) or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results desired.

text: As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts the powder and causes it to adhere to the surface. The reasons for doing this involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and perhaps even the chemistry of the substrate (the object being painted). This is called "powder coating" an object.

text: As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is suspended in solid or liquid form in a gas that is sprayed on an object. The paint sticks to the object. This is called "spray painting" an object. The reasons for doing this include:

text:
The application mechanism is air and thus no solid object touches the object being painted;
The distribution of the paint is uniform, so there are no sharp lines;
It is possible to deliver very small amounts of paint;
A chemical (typically a solvent) can be sprayed along with the paint to dissolve together both the delivered paint and the chemicals on the surface of the object being painted;
Some chemical reactions in paint involve the orientation of the paint molecules.

tag: ul

text: In the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct application using brushes, paint rollers, blades, scrapers, other instruments, or body parts such as fingers and thumbs.

text: Rollers generally have a handle that allows for different lengths of poles to be attached, allowing painting at different heights. Generally, roller application requires two coats for even color. A roller with a thicker nap is used to apply paint on uneven surfaces. Edges are often finished with an angled brush.

text:
Using the finish flat one would most likely use a 1/2" nap roller
Using the finish eggshell one would most likely use a 3/8" nap roller
Using the finish satin or pearl one would most likely use a 3/8" nap roller
Using the finish semi-gloss or gloss one would most likely use a 3/16" nap roller

text: After liquid paint is applied, there is an interval during which it can be blended with additional painted regions (at the "wet edge") called "open time". The open time of an oil or alkyd-based emulsion paint can be extended by adding white spirit, similar glycols such as Dowanol (propylene glycol ether) or open time prolongers. This can also facilitate the mixing of different wet paint layers for aesthetic effect. Latex and acrylic emulsions require the use of drying retardants suitable for water-based coatings.

text: Paint application by spray is the most popular method in industry. In this, paint is atomized by the force of compressed air or by the action of high pressure compression of the paint itself, and the paint is turned into small droplets that travel to the article to be painted. Alternate methods are airless spray, hot spray, hot airless spray, and any of these with an electrostatic spray included. There are numerous electrostatic methods available.

text: Dipping used to be the norm for objects such as filing cabinets, but this has been replaced by high speed air turbine driven bells with electrostatic spray. Car bodies are primed using cathodic elephoretic primer, which is applied by charging the body depositing a layer of primer. The unchanged residue is rinsed off and the primer stoved.

text: Many paints tend to separate when stored, the heavier components settling to the bottom, and require mixing before use. Some paint outlets have machines for mixing the paint by shaking the can vigorously for a few minutes.

text: The opacity and the film thickness of paint may be measured using a drawdown card.

text: Water-based paints tend to be the easiest to clean up after use; the brushes and rollers can be cleaned with soap and water.

text: Proper disposal of left over paint is a challenge. Sometimes it can be recycled: Old paint may be usable for a primer coat or an intermediate coat, and paints of similar chemistry can be mixed to make a larger amount of a uniform color.

text: To dispose of paint it can be dried and disposed of in the domestic waste stream, provided that it contains no prohibited substances (see container). Disposal of liquid paint usually requires special handling and should be treated as hazardous waste, and disposed of according to local regulations.[23][24]

text: Product variants[edit]

text:
Primer is a preparatory coating put on materials before applying the paint itself. The primed surface ensures better adhesion of the paint, thereby increasing the durability of the paint and providing improved protection for the painted surface. Suitable primers also may block and seal stains, or hide a color that is to be painted over.
Emulsion paints are water-based paints in which the paint material is dispersed in a liquid that consists mainly of water. For suitable purposes this has advantages in fast drying, low toxicity, low cost, easier application, and easier cleaning of equipment, among other factors.
Flat Finish paint is generally used on ceilings or walls that are in bad shape. This finish is useful for hiding imperfections in walls and it is economical in effectively covering relatively great areas. However this finish is not easily washable and is subject to staining.
Matte Finish is generally similar to flat finish, but such paints commonly offer superior washability and coverage. (See Gloss and matte paint.)
Eggshell Finish has some sheen, supposedly like that of the shell on an egg. This finish provides great washability, but is not very effective at hiding imperfections on walls and similar surfaces. Eggshell finish is valued for bathrooms because it is washable and water repellent, so that it tends not to peel in a wet environment.
Pearl (Satin) Finish is very durable in terms of washability and resistance to moisture, even in comparison to eggshell finish. It protects walls from dirt, moisture and stains. Accordingly, it is exceptionally valuable for bathrooms, furniture, and kitchens, but it is shinier than eggshell, so it is even more prone to show imperfections.
Semi-Gloss Finish typically is used on trim to emphasise detail and elegance, and to show off woodwork, such as on doors and furniture. It provides a shiny surface and provides good protection from moisture and stains on walls. Its gloss does however emphasise imperfections on the walls and similar surfaces. It is popular in schools and factories where washability and durability are the main considerations.[25]
Varnish and shellac are in effect paints without pigment; they provide a protective coating without substantially changing the color of the surface, though they can emphasise the colour of the material.
Wood stain is a type of paint that is formulated to be very "thin", meaning low in viscosity, so that the pigment soaks into a material such as wood rather than remaining in a film on the surface. Stain is mainly dissolved pigment or dye plus binder material in solvent. It is designed to add color without providing a surface coating.
Lacquer is a solvent-based paint or varnish that produces an especially hard, durable finish. Usually it is a rapidly drying formulation.
Enamel paint is formulated to give an especially hard, usually glossy, finish. Some enamel paints contain fine glass powder or metal flake instead of the color pigments in standard oil-based paints. Enamel paint sometimes is mixed with varnish or urethane to improve its shine and hardness.
A glaze is an additive used with paint to slow drying time and increase translucency, as in faux painting and for some artistic effects.
A roof coating is a fluid that sets as an elastic membrane that can stretch without harm. It provides UV protection to polyurethane foam and is widely used in roof restoration.
Fingerpaints are formulations suitable for application with the fingers; they are popular for use by children in primary school activities.
Inks are similar to paints, except that they are typically made using finely ground pigments or dyes, and are not designed to leave a thick film of binder. They are used largely for writing or calligraphy.
Anti-graffiti coatings are used to defeat the marking of surfaces by graffiti artists or vandals. There are two categories of anti-graffiti coatings: sacrificial and non-bonding:

text:
Sacrificial coatings are clear coatings that allow the removal of graffiti, usually by washing the surface with high-pressure water that removes the graffiti together with the coating (hence the term "sacrificial"). After removal of the graffiti, the sacrificial coating must be re-applied for continued protection. Such sacrificial protective coatings are most commonly used on natural-looking masonry surfaces, such as statuary and marble walls, and on rougher surfaces that are difficult to clean.
Non-bonding coatings are clear, high-performance coatings, usually catalyzed polyurethanes, that do not bond strongly to paints used for graffiti. Graffiti on such a surface can be removed with a solvent wash, without damaging either the underlying surface or the protective non-bonding coating. These coatings work best on smooth surfaces, and are especially useful on decorative surfaces such as mosaics or painted murals, which might be expected to suffer harm from high pressure sprays.

text:
Anti-climb paint is a non-drying paint that appears normal but is extremely slippery. It is useful on drainpipes and ledges to deter burglars and vandals from climbing them, and is found in many public places. When a person attempts to climb objects coated with the paint, it rubs off onto the climber, as well as making it hard for them to climb.
Anti-fouling paint, or bottom paint, prevents barnacles and other marine organisms from adhering to the hulls of ships.
Insulative paint or insulating paint, reduces the rate of thermal transfer through a surface it's applied to. One type of formulation is based on the addition of hollow microspheres to any suitable type of paint.
Anti-slip paint contains chemicals or grit to increase the friction of a surface so as to decrease the risk of slipping, particularly in wet conditions.
Road marking paint[26] is specially used to marking and painting road traffic signs and lines, to form a durable coating film on the road surface. It must be fast drying, provide a thick coating, and resist wear and slipping, especially in wet conditions.
Luminous paint or luminescent paint is paint that exhibits luminescence. In other words, it gives off visible light through fluorescence, phosphorescence, or radioluminescence.

text: Failure of a paint[edit]

text: The main reasons of paint failure after application on surface are the applicator and improper treatment of surface.

text: Defects or degradation can be attributed to:

text: Dangers[edit]

text: Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in paint are considered harmful to the environment and especially for people who work with them on a regular basis. Exposure to VOCs has been related to organic solvent syndrome, although this relation has been somewhat controversial.[30] The controversial solvent 2-butoxyethanol is also used in paint production.[31]

text: In the US, environmental regulations, consumer demand, and advances in technology led to the development of low-VOC and zero-VOC paints and finishes. These new paints are widely available and meet or exceed the old high-VOC products in performance and cost-effectiveness while having significantly less impact on human and environmental health.[citation needed]

text: A polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was reported ( published in 2009 ) in air samples collected in Chicago, Philadelphia, the Arctic, and several sites around the Great Lakes. PCB is a global pollutant and was measured in the wastewater effluent from paint production. The widespread distribution of PCB suggests volatilization of this compound from surfaces, roofs etc. PCB is present in consumer goods including newspapers, magazines, and cardboard boxes, which usually contain color pigments. Therefore, exist hypothesis that PCB congeners are present as byproduct in some current commercial pigments.[32]


document_title: Infant formula

question_text: when did the first baby formula come out

question_tokens: when did the first baby formula come out

text: Infant formula

text: Uses, risks and controversies[edit]

text: The use and marketing of infant formula has come under scrutiny. Breastfeeding, including exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, is widely advocated as "ideal" for babies and infants, both by health authorities[6][9] — and accordingly in ethical advertising of infant formula manufacturers.[10]

text: Despite the recommendation that babies be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months, less than 40% of infants below this age are exclusively breastfed worldwide.[11] The overwhelming majority of American babies are not exclusively breastfed for this period – in 2005 under 12% of babies were breastfed exclusively for the first 6 months,[9] with over 60% of babies of 2 months of age being fed formula,[12] and approximately one in four breastfed infants having infant formula feeding within two days of birth.[13]

text: Some studies have shown that use of formula can vary according to the parents' socio-economic status, ethnicity or other characteristics. For example, according to a research conducted in Vancouver, Canada, 82.9% of mothers breastfeed their babies at birth, but the number differed between Caucasians (91.6%) and non-Caucasians (56.8%), with the difference essentially attributed to marital status, education and family income.[14] In the United States, mothers of lower socio-economic status have been found less likely to breastfeed, although this may be partly related to adverse effects of government nutrition supplementation programs that provide subsidies for infant formula.[15]

text: The use of hydrolysed cow milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk of allergies or autoimmune diseases.[16]

text: Use of infant formula[edit]

text: In some cases, breastfeeding is medically contraindicated. These include:

text:
Mother's health: The mother is infected with HIV or has active tuberculosis.[17] She is extremely ill or has had certain kinds of breast surgery, which may have removed or disconnected all milk-producing parts of the breast. She is taking any kind of drug that could harm the baby, including both prescription drugs such as cytotoxic chemotherapy for cancer treatments as well as illicit drugs.[17]

One of the main global risks posed by breast milk specifically is the transmission of HIV and other infectious diseases. Breastfeeding by an HIV-infected mother poses a 5–20% chance of transmitting HIV to the baby.[18][19][20] However, if a mother has HIV, she is more likely to transmit it to her child during the pregnancy or birth than during breastfeeding. A 2012 study conducted by researchers from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine showed reduced HIV-1 transmission in humanized mice, due to components in the breast milk.[21] Cytomegalovirus infection poses potentially dangerous consequences for pre-term babies.[19][22] Other risks include mother's infection with HTLV-1 or HTLV-2 (viruses that could cause T-cell leukemia in the baby),[19][20] herpes simplex when lesions are present on the breasts,[20] and chickenpox in the newborn when the disease manifested in the mother within a few days of birth.[20] In some cases these risks can be mitigated by using heat-treated milk and nursing for a briefer time (e.g. 6 months, rather than 18–24 months), and can be avoided by using an uninfected woman's milk, as via a wet-nurse or milk bank, or by using infant formula and/or treated milk.[23]
In balancing the risks, such as cases where the mother is infected with HIV, a decision to use infant formula versus exclusive breastfeeding may be made based on alternatives that satisfy the “AFASS” (Acceptable, Feasible, Affordable, Sustainable and Safe) principles.[23][24]

Baby is unable to breastfeed: The child has a birth defect or inborn error of metabolism such as galactosemia that makes breastfeeding difficult or impossible.[citation needed]
Baby is considered at risk for malnutrition: In certain circumstances infants may be at risk for malnutrition, such as due to iron deficiency, vitamin deficiencies (e.g. vitamin D which may be less present in breast milk than needed at high latitudes where there is less sun exposure), or inadequate nutrition during transition to solid foods.[25] Risks can often be mitigated with improved diet and education of mothers and caregivers, including availability of macro and micronutrients. For example, in Canada, marketed infant formulas are fortified with vitamin D, but Health Canada also recommends breastfed infants receive extra vitamin D in the form of a supplement.[26]
Personal preferences, beliefs, and experiences: The mother may dislike breast-feeding or think it is inconvenient.[27] In addition, breastfeeding can be difficult for victims of rape or sexual abuse; for example, it may be a trigger for posttraumatic stress disorder.[28][29] Many families bottle feed to increase the father's role in parenting his child.[30]
Absence of the mother: The child is adopted, orphaned, abandoned, or in the sole custody of a man or male same-sex couple. The mother is separated from her child by being in prison or a mental hospital. The mother has left the child in the care of another person for an extended period of time, such as while traveling or working abroad.
Food allergies: The mother eats foods that may provoke an allergic reaction in the infant.[citation needed]
Financial pressures: Maternity leave is unpaid, insufficient, or lacking. The mother's employment interferes with breastfeeding.[31] Mothers who breastfeed may experience a loss of earning power.[32]
Societal structure: Breastfeeding may be forbidden at the mother's job, school, place of worship or in other public places, or the mother may feel that breastfeeding in these places or around other people is immodest, unsanitary, or inappropriate.[31]
Social pressures: Family members, such as mother's husband or boyfriend, or friends or other members of society may encourage the use of infant formula. For example, they may believe that breastfeeding will decrease the mother's energy, health, or attractiveness.[citation needed] [33]
Lack of training and education: The mother lacks education and training from medical providers or community members.[citation needed] [34]
Lactation insufficiency: The mother is unable to produce sufficient milk. In studies that do not account for lactation failure with obvious causes (such as use of formula and/or breast pumps), this affects around 2 to 5% of women.[35] Alternatively, despite a healthy supply, the woman or her family may incorrectly believe that her breast milk is of low quality or in low supply. These women may choose infant formula either exclusively or as a supplement to breastfeeding.[citation needed]
Fear of exposure to environmental contaminants: Certain environmental pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls, can bioaccumulate in the food chain and may be found in humans including mothers' breast milk.[36]

However studies have shown that the greatest risk period for adverse effects from environmental exposures is prenatally.[36] Other studies have further found that the levels of most persistent organohalogen compounds in human milk decreased significantly over the past three decades and equally did their exposure through breastfeeding.[37]
Research on risks from chemical pollution is generally inconclusive in terms of outweighing the benefits of breastfeeding.[38][39] Studies supported by the WHO and others have found that neurological benefits of breast milk remain, regardless of dioxin exposure.[39][40] It has also been reported that "adverse effects on learning and behavior are strongly associated with fetal exposure to persistent pollutants, not with breast milk exposure".[41]
In developing countries, environmental contaminants associated with increased health risks from use of infant formula, particularly diarrhea due to unclean water and lack of sterile conditions – both prerequisites to the safe use of formula – often outweigh any risks from breastfeeding.

Lack of other sources of breast milk:

Lack of wet nurses: Wet nursing is illegal and stigmatized in some countries, and may not be available.[42] It may also be socially unsupported, expensive, or health screening of wet nurses may not be available. The mother, her doctor,[43] or family may not know that wet nursing is possible, or may believe that nursing by a relative or paid wet-nurse is unhygienic.
Lack of milk banks: Human-milk banks may not be available, as few exist, and many countries cannot provide the necessary screening for diseases and refrigeration.

text: Health risks[edit]

text: Use of infant formula has been cited for numerous increased health risks. Studies have found infants in developed countries who consume formula are at increased risk for acute otitis media, gastroenteritis, severe lower respiratory tract infections, atopic dermatitis, asthma, obesity,[44] type 1 and 2 diabetes, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), eczema and necrotizing enterocolitis when compared to infants who are breastfed.[45][46][47][48] Some studies have found an association between infant formula and lower cognitive development, including iron supplementation in baby formula being linked to lowered I.Q. and other neurodevelopmental delays;[49][50] however other studies have found no correlation.[45]

text: Melamine contamination[edit]

text: In 2008, a case of melamine poisoning of infant formula was discovered in China, where milk was deliberately adulterated with the chemical, leading to the death of six babies, and illnesses in more than 300,000 infants, including cases of acute kidney failure. Large quantities of melamine were added to watered-down milk to give it the appearance of having adequate protein levels. Some of those responsible for the poisoning were sentenced to death.[51]

text: In November 2008, traces of melamine were reported to have been found by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in infant formula sold in the United States made by the three main American firms[52][53] — Abbott Laboratories, Nestlé and Mead Johnson — responsible for 90–99% of the infant formula market in that country.[15][52] The levels were much less than those reported in China, where levels of melamine contamination had reached as much as 2,500 parts per million, about 10,000 times higher than the recorded US levels. The safety data sheet for melamine (CAS registry number 108-78-1; C3-H6-N6) recorded the acute oral toxicity (median lethal dose) at 3161 mg/kg for a rat.

text: Health Canada conducted a separate test and also detected traces of melamine in infant formula available in Canada. The melamine levels were well below Health Canada's safety limits,[54] although concerns remain about the safety of manufactured food for infants and monitoring of potentially dangerous substances.[51]

text: Other health controversies[edit]

text:
In 1985, Syntex Corporation was ordered to pay $27 million in compensation for the deaths of two American infants who suffered brain damage after drinking the company's baby formula, called Neo-mull-soy.[55] Formulas produced by Syntex had previously been subject to a major recall as they were found to have insufficient chloride to support normal infant growth and development.[56]
In 2003, baby formula manufactured by the German company Humana and sold in Israel under the brand Remedia caused severe vitamin deficiencies in babies. Babies who consumed the formula were hospitalized with cardiac and neurological symptoms. Three of them died, and at least twenty others were left with severe disabilities. An investigation revealed that the formula contained a much lower quantity of Thiamine than is needed for healthy infant development because of a manufacturing error. Humana's chief food technologist received a 30-month prison sentence for negligent manslaughter in February 2013 over the case.[57]
In 2010, Abbott Laboratories issued a voluntary recall of about five million Similac brand powder infant formulas that were sold in the United States, Guam, Puerto Rico and some Caribbean countries. The recall was issued after the presence of a 'small common beetle' was detected in the product.[58]
In Canada, New Zealand and elsewhere, public concerns have been raised over the continued sale and marketing of soy-based formulae potentially containing high levels of phytoestrogens,[59][60] linked to abnormal child development[61] including damage to babies' thyroid glands.
In December 2011 Wal-Mart recalled a quantity of infant formula after a baby died in Missouri. "We extend our deepest condolences to this baby boy's family as they try to come to grips with their loss," said Dianna Gee, a Wal-Mart spokeswoman. "As soon as we heard what happened, we immediately reached out to the manufacturer of the formula and to the Department of Health and Senior Services to provide any information we may have to help with the investigation." Wal-Mart said it pulled a batch of Enfamil from its stores nationwide that matched the size and lot number ZP1k7G of the formula that may have sickened the baby in Missouri, Gee said. The baby formula was purchased from a Wal-Mart in Lebanon, Missouri. After the purchase, a 10-day-old infant died from a rare bacterial infection, CNN affiliate KYTV reported. Authorities ran tests to determine if the death came from the formula, the water to make the formula or any other factor, said Mead Johnson Nutrition, the company that makes Enfamil. "We are highly confident in the safety and quality of our products – and the rigorous testing we put them through," said Chris Perille, a Mead Johnson Nutrition spokesman.[Source CNN]

text: Preparation and content[edit]

text: Variations[edit]

text: Infant formulas come in powder, liquid concentrate, and ready-to-feed forms. They are designed to be prepared by the parent or caregiver in small batches and fed to the infant, usually with either a cup or a baby bottle.[6]

text: Infant formulas come in a variety of types:

text:
Cow's milk formula is the most commonly used type. The milk has been altered to resemble breast milk.
Soy protein based formulas are frequently used for infants allergic to cow's milk or lactose. Soy-based formulas can also be useful if the parent wants to exclude animal proteins from the child's diet.
Protein hydrolysate formulas contain protein that's been broken down into smaller sizes than are those in cow's milk and soy-based formulas. Protein hydrolysate formulas are meant for babies who don't tolerate cow's milk or soy-based formulas.
Specialized formulas are also available for premature infants and those with specific medical conditions.[62]

text: Manufacturers and health officials advise it is very important to measure powders or concentrates accurately to achieve the intended final product concentration; otherwise, the child will be malnourished. It is advisable that all equipment that comes into contact with the infant formula be cleaned and sterilized before each use. Proper refrigeration is essential for any infant formula which is prepared in advance.

text: In developing countries, formula is frequently prepared improperly, resulting in high infant mortality due to malnutrition and diseases such as diarrhea and pneumonia. This is due to lack of clean water, lack of sterile conditions, lack of refrigeration, illiteracy (so written instructions cannot be followed), poverty (diluting formula so that it lasts longer), and lack of education of mothers by formula distributors. These problems and resulting disease and death are a key factor in opposition to the marketing and distribution of infant formula in developing countries by numerous public health agencies and NGOs (discussed in more detail at Nestlé boycott and International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes).

text: Nutritional content[edit]

text: Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other milk product which the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year (as opposed to cow's milk, goat's milk, or follow-on formula). Supplementing with solid food in addition to breast milk or formula begins during weaning, and most babies begin supplementing about the time their first teeth appear, usually around the age of six months.

text: Although cow's milk is the basis of almost all infant formula, plain cow's milk is unsuited for infants because of its high casein content and low whey content, and untreated cow's milk is not recommended before the age of 12 months. The infant intestine is not properly equipped to digest non-human milk, and this may often result in diarrhea, intestinal bleeding and malnutrition.[63] To reduce the negative effect on the infant's digestive system, cow's milk used for formula undergoes processing to be made into infant formula. This includes steps to make protein more easily digestible and alter the whey-to-casein protein balance to one closer to human milk, the addition of several essential ingredients (often called "fortification", see below), the partial or total replacement of dairy fat with fats of vegetable or marine origin, etc.

text: The nutrient content of infant formula for sale in the United States is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) based on recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. The following must be included in all formulas produced in the U.S.:[64]

text:
Protein
Fat
Linoleic acid
Vitamins: A, C, D, E, K, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), B6, B12
Niacin
Folic acid
Pantothenic acid
Calcium
Minerals: magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper
Phosphorus
Iodine
Sodium chloride
Potassium chloride
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are an important source of energy for growing infants, as they account for 35 to 42% of their daily energy intake. In most cow's milk-based formulas, lactose is the main source of carbohydrates present, but lactose is not present in cow's milk-based lactose-free formulas nor specialized non-milk protein formulas or hydrolyzed protein formulas for infants with milk protein sensitivity. Lactose is also not present in soy-based formulas. Therefore, those formulas without lactose will use other sources of carbohydrates, such as sucrose and glucose, dextrins, and natural and modified starches. Lactose is not only a good source of energy, it also aids in the absorption of the minerals magnesium, calcium, zinc and iron.[65]

Nucleotides

Nucleotides are compounds found naturally in human breast milk. They are involved in critical metabolic processes, such as energy metabolism and enzymatic reactions. Also, as the building blocks of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), they are essential for normal body functions. Compared to human breast milk, cow's milk has lower levels of the nucleotides uridine, inosine, and cytidine. Therefore, several companies that produce infant formula have added nucleotides to their infant formulas.[65]

text: Other commonly used ingredients:

text:
Emulsifiers and stabilizers: Ingredients added to prevent the separation of the oil from the water (and its soluble components) in the infant formula. Some commonly used emulsifiers include monoglycerides, diglycerides, and gums.[64]
Diluents: Skim milk is commonly used as the primary diluent in milk-based liquid formula to provide the bulk of the volume. In contrast, purified water is the most commonly used diluent in milk-free formulations.[64]

text: Policy, industry and marketing[edit]

text: The policy, regulatory and industry environments surrounding the infant formula market vary tremendously between countries.

text: International[edit]

text: The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes is an international health policy framework adopted by the World Health Assembly of the WHO in 1981 regarding infant formula marketing, including strict restrictions on advertising.[66] Its implementation depends on the laws of different countries and the behavior of infant formula manufacturers – the code has no power itself. Legislation and corporate behavior vary significantly between countries: at least 84 countries have enacted national legislation implementing all or many of the provisions of the Code and 14 countries have draft laws awaiting adoption;[67] whereas elsewhere neither the Code nor its principles are followed by governments or formula manufacturers.

text: Practices that are banned in the Code include most advertising, claiming health benefits for formula, and giving free samples to women able to breastfeed – this latter practice is particularly criticized because it can interfere with lactation, creating dependence on formula. In many countries free samples of infant formula have been provided to hospitals for decades; infant formula is often the only product routinely provided free of charge to hospitals.[68] The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative aims to reduce and eliminate this controversial practice.

text: By country[edit]

text: Philippines[edit]

text: Infant formula is one of the top three consumer commodities in the Philippines, and among the most imported products.[69] Annual sales amount to some US$469 million annually. US$88 million is spent on advertising the product.[70]

text: Infant formula marketing has been regulated since the 1987 Executive Order 51 or "Milk Code",[71] which regulated, but did not ban, practices such as advertising and providing free samples. Shortly after it was enacted, Wyeth introduced "follow-on formula", which was not in the purview of the Milk Code which predated its market entry.

text: In 2006, the Department of Health banned the advertising of infant formula and the practice of providing free samples, regardless of intended age group (in the Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations of Executive Order 51, or RIRR).[72] The new regulation was challenged by the infant formula industry in the Supreme Court. Initially the challenge was dismissed, but this decision was reversed following industry pressure and a controversial letter by American business leader Thomas Donahue,[73] then President and CEO of the US Chamber of Commerce, resulting in the regulation being suspended and advertising continuing.[69][71][72][74]

text: The Guardian newspaper reports widespread illegal advertising and marketing of formula milk contrary to World Health Organization guidelines. Doctors and midwives are encouraged to promote feeding babies formula milk, advertising also targets mothers directly. Babies get sick and sometimes die because poor mothers cannot sterilize bottles.[75]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa, there is a move towards plain packaging of infant formula[76] under R 991 of the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act; as of 6 December 2013, Regulation 7 (Sale and Promotion) is force, whereas Regulations 2-6 (primarily with respect to labelling) are scheduled to come into force on 6 December 2014. One of the key requirements as per Regulation 3.1.A.iii is a conspicuous message stating “[t]his product shall only be used on the advice of a health professional”.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, infant formula advertising has been illegal since 1995,[77] advertising for "follow-on formula" is legal, which has been cited as a loophole allowing advertising of similarly-packaged formula.[78]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, infant formula is both heavily marketed – the country has not adopted the Code, nor is it being systematically implemented by manufacturers for domestic marketing[79] – and even heavily subsidized by the government: at least one third of the American market is supported by the government,[80] with over half of infant formula sold in the country provided through the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (known as WIC).[15]

text: According to surveys, over 70% of large U.S. hospitals dispense infant formula to all infants, a practice opposed by the American Academy of Pediatrics and in violation of the Code.[81] The Gerber Products Company began marketing its brand of infant formula directly to the public in October 1989, while the Carnation Company began marketing Good Start infant formula directly to the public in January 1991.[81]

text: Infant formula costs are a significant fraction of the WIC program costs: 21% post-rebate and 46% pre-rebate.[15] Formula manufacturers are granted a WIC monopoly in individual states.[15] Meanwhile, breastfeeding rates are substantially lower for WIC recipients;[82] this is partly attributed to formula being free of charge to mothers in the WIC program, who are of lower socio-economic status.[15] Violations of federal policy have also been found in terms of infant formula company advertising using the WIC trademark, to reach both WIC and non-WIC participants.[82] In recent years WIC has been expanding its breastfeeding promotion strategies, including providing subsidies for clients who use milk banks.[83]

text: History[edit]

text: Early infant foods[edit]

text: Throughout history, mothers who could not breastfeed their babies either employed a wet nurse[84] or, less frequently, prepared food for their babies, a process known as "dry nursing".[84][85] Baby food composition varied according to region and economic status.[85] In Europe and North America during the early 19th century, the prevalence of wet nursing began to decrease, while the practice of feeding babies mixtures based on animal milk rose in popularity.[86][87]

text: This trend was driven by cultural changes as well as increased sanitation measures,[88] and it continued throughout the 19th and much of the 20th century, with a notable increase after Elijah Pratt invented and patented the India-rubber nipple in 1845.[84][89] As early as 1846, scientists and nutritionists noted an increase in medical problems and infant mortality was associated with dry nursing.[86][90] In an attempt to improve the quality of manufactured baby foods, in 1867, Justus von Liebig developed the world's first commercial infant formula, Liebig's Soluble Food for Babies.[91] The success of this product quickly gave rise to competitors such as Mellin's Food, Ridge's Food for Infants and Nestlé's Milk.[92]

text: Raw milk formulas[edit]

text: As physicians became increasingly concerned about the quality of such foods, medical recommendations such as Thomas Morgan Rotch's "percentage method" (published in 1890) began to be distributed, and gained widespread popularity by 1907.[84] These complex formulas recommended that parents mix cow's milk, water, cream, and sugar or honey in specific ratios to achieve the nutritional balance believed to approximate human milk reformulated in such a way as to accommodate the believed digestive capability of the infant.[4]

text: At the dawn of the 20th century in the United States, most infants were breastfed, although many received some formula feeding as well. Home-made "percentage method" formulas were more commonly used than commercial formulas in both Europe and the United States.[93] They were less expensive and were widely believed to be healthier. However, formula-fed babies exhibited more diet-associated medical problems, such as scurvy, rickets and bacterial infections than breastfed babies. By 1920, the incidence of scurvy and rickets in formula-fed babies had greatly decreased through the addition of orange juice and cod liver oil to home-made formulas. Bacterial infections associated with formula remained a problem more prevalent in the United States than in Europe, where milk was usually boiled prior to use in formulas.[93]

text: Evaporated milk formulas[edit]

text: In the 1920s and 1930s, evaporated milk began to be widely commercially available at low prices, and several clinical studies suggested that babies fed evaporated milk formula thrive as well as breastfed babies[84][94]

text: These findings are not supported by modern research. These studies, accompanied by the affordable price of evaporated milk and the availability of the home icebox initiated a tremendous rise in the use of evaporated milk formulas.[4] By the late 1930s, the use of evaporated milk formulas in the United States surpassed all commercial formulas, and by 1950 over half of all babies in the United States were reared on such formulas.[84]

text: Commercial formulas[edit]

text: In parallel with the enormous shift (in industrialized nations) away from breastfeeding to home-made formulas, nutrition scientists continued to analyze human milk and attempted to make infant formulas that more closely matched its composition.[4] Maltose and dextrins were believed nutritionally important, and in 1912, the Mead Johnson Company released a milk additive called Dextri-Maltose. This formula was made available to mothers only by physicians. In 1919, milkfats were replaced with a blend of animal and vegetable fats as part of the continued drive to closer simulate human milk. This formula was called SMA for "simulated milk adapted."[84]

text: In the late 1920s, Alfred Bosworth released Similac (for "similar to lactation"), and Mead Johnson released Sobee.[84] Several other formulas were released over the next few decades, but commercial formulas did not begin to seriously compete with evaporated milk formulas until the 1950s. The reformulation and concentration of Similac in 1951, and the introduction (by Mead Johnson) of Enfamil (for "infant meal") in 1959 were accompanied by marketing campaigns that provided inexpensive formula to hospitals and pediatricians.[84] By the early 1960s, commercial formulas were more commonly used than evaporated milk formulas in the United States, which all but vanished in the 1970s. By the early 1970s, over 75% of American babies were fed on formulas, almost entirely commercially produced.[4]

text: When birth rates in industrial nations tapered off during the 1960s, infant formula companies heightened marketing campaigns in non-industrialized countries. Unfortunately, poor sanitation led to steeply increased mortality rates among infants fed formula prepared with contaminated (drinking) water.[95] Additionally, low-income families may over-dilute in an effort to "stretch" supplies resulting in malnourishment for the infant.[96] Organized protests, the most famous of which was the Nestlé boycott of 1977, called for an end to unethical marketing. This boycott is ongoing, as the current coordinators maintain that Nestlé engages in marketing practices which violate the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes.

text: Generic brand formulas[edit]

text: In addition to commercially marketed brands, generic brands (or store brands) of infant formula were introduced in the United States in 1997, first by PBM Products. These private label formulas are sold by many leading food and drug retailers such as Wal-Mart, Target, Kroger, Loblaws, and Walgreens. All infant formula brands in the United States are required to adhere to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines. As reported by the Mayo Clinic: “as with most consumer products, brand-name infant formulas cost more than generic brands. But that doesn't mean that brand-name [Similac, Nestle, Enfamil] formulas are better. Although manufacturers may vary somewhat in their formula recipes, the FDA requires that all formulas contain the same nutrient density.”[97]

text: Similarly, in Canada all infant formulas regardless of brand are required to meet standards set by Health Canada.[98]

text: Follow-on and toddler formulas[edit]

text: Follow-on or toddler formulas are sold for ages 6 months to 2 years, (when infants are typically breastfed) and are not nutritionally complete nor subject to the same regulations as infant formula. Critics have argued that follow-on and toddler formulas were introduced to circumvent the regulations regarding infant formula and have resulted in confusing advertising.[78]

text: An early example of follow-on formula was introduced by Wyeth in the Philippines in 1987, following the introduction in this country of regulations on infant formula advertising, but which did not address follow-on formulas (products that did not exist at the time of their drafting).[71] Similarly, while infant formula advertising is illegal in the United Kingdom, follow-on formula advertising is legal, and the similar packaging and market results in follow-on advertisements frequently being interpreted as advertisements for formula.[78] (See also industry and marketing, below.)

text: These products have also recently fallen under criticism for contributing to the childhood obesity epidemic in some developed countries due to their marketing and flavoring practices.[99]

text: Usage since 1970s[edit]

text: Since the early 1970s, industrial countries have witnessed a resurgence in breastfeeding among newborns and infants to 6 months of age.[5] This upswing in breastfeeding has been accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of other foods (such as cow's milk), resulting in increased use of both breastfeeding and infant formula between the ages of 3–12 months.[4][5]

text: The global infant formula market has been estimated at $7.9 billion,[80] with North America and Western Europe accounting for 33% of the market and considered largely saturated, and Asia representing 53% of the market.[100] South East Asia is a particularly large fraction of the world market relative to its population.[100] Infant formula is the largest segment of the baby food market,[100] with the fraction given as between 40%[100] and 70%.[80]

text: Leading health organizations (e.g. WHO, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Department of Health and Human Services) are attempting to reduce the use of infant formula and increase the prevalence of breastfeeding from birth through 12 to 24 months of age through public health awareness campaigns.[9][101][102][103] The specific goals and approaches of these breastfeeding promotion programs, and the policy environment surrounding their implementation, vary by country. As a policy basic framework, the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes, adopted by the WHO's World Health Assembly in 1981, requires infant formula companies to preface their product information with statements that breastfeeding is the best way of feeding babies and that a substitute should only be used after consultation with health professionals.[66] The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative also restricts use by hospitals of free formula or other infant care aids provided by formula companies. (See also Policy section below.)

text: Infant formula processing[edit]

text: History[edit]

text:
Dates
Events

1867
A formula containing wheat flour, cow's milk, malt flour, and potassium bicarbonate was developed.[104]

1915
A powder form of infant formula was introduced, containing cow's milk, lactose, oleo oils, and vegetable oils.[104]

1929
Soy formula was introduced.[104]

1935
Protein was added because it was believed cow's milk protein content was lower than human milk protein content; protein at 3.3–4.0 g/100 kcal was added.[104]

1959
Iron fortification was introduced because a large amount of iron (~80%) is used to expand the red blood cell mass in a growing infant. Infants with birth weights between 1500 and 2500g require 2 mg/kg of iron per day. Infants with weights of less than 1500g require 4 mg/kg per day.[104][105]

1962
The whey:casein ratio was made similar to human milk because producers were aware that human milk contains a higher ratio of whey protein, and cow's milk contains a higher ratio of casein.[104]

1984
Taurine fortification was introduced because newborn infants lack the enzymes needed to convert and form taurine.[104][106]

Late 1990
Nucleotide fortification was introduced into infant formula because nucleotides can act as growth factors and may enhance the infant immune system.[104]

Early 2000
Polyunsaturated fatty acid fortification was introduced. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA), were added because those fatty acids play an important role in infant brain development.[104]

text: Current general procedure[edit]

text: The manufacturing process may differ for different types of formula made; therefore the following is the general procedure for liquid-milk based formulas:[64]

text: Mixing ingredients[edit]

text: Primary ingredients are blended in large stainless steel tanks and skim milk is added and adjusted to 60 °C. Then, fats, oils and emulsifiers are added. Additional heating and mixing may be required to get proper consistency. Next, minerals, vitamins, and stabilizing gums are added at various points, depending on their sensitivity to heat. The batch is temporarily stored and then transported by pipelines to pasteurization equipment when mixing is complete.[64]

text: Pasteurization[edit]

text: This is a process that protects against spoilage by eliminating bacteria, yeasts and molds. It involves quickly heating and then cooling of the product under controlled conditions which micro-organisms cannot survive. The batch is held at around 85–94 °C for approximately 30 seconds which is necessary to adequately reduce micro-organisms and prepare the formula for filling.[64]

text: Homogenization[edit]

text: This is a process which increases emulsion uniformity and stability by reducing size of fat and oil particles in the formula. It is done with a variety of mixing equipment that applies shear to the product and this mixing breaks fat and oil particles into very small droplets.[64]

text: Standardization[edit]

text: Standardization is used to ensure that the key parameters like pH, fat concentration and vitamins and mineral content are correct. If insufficient levels of these are found, the batch is reworked to achieve appropriate levels. After this step, the batch is ready to be packaged.[64]

text: Packaging[edit]

text: Packaging depends on manufacturer and type of equipment used, but in general, liquid formula is filled into metal cans with lids crimped into place.[64]

text: Heat treatment or sterilization[edit]

text: Finally, infant formulas are heat treated to maintain the bacteriologic quality of the product. This can be done traditionally by either retort sterilization or high-temperature short-time (HTST) treatment. Recently, ultrahigh-temperature treated formula has become more commonly used. If powdered formula is made, then spray drying would be required in addition.[107] Retort sterilization is a traditional retort sterilization method that uses 10-15mins treatment at 118 °C.[107] Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) is a method that uses a brief (2–3 seconds) treatment at 142 °C. Because of the short time used, there is little protein denaturation, but the process still ensures sterility of the final product.[107]

text: Recent and future potential new ingredients[edit]

text: Probiotics[edit]

text: Recently, probiotics have become a new ingredient in many of our foods, and studies have been completed regarding the use of probiotics in infant formula[108] Several randomized, controlled trials completed recently have shown limited and short term clinical benefits for the use of probiotics in infants’ diet[108] The safety of probiotics in general and in infants, especially preterm infants, has been investigated in a limited number of controlled trials. The findings thus far suggest probiotics are generally safe.[108] Therefore, the study suggested more scientific research is necessary before a conclusion can be made about probiotic supplementation in infant formula, since the research is still quite preliminary.[108]

text: Prebiotics[edit]

text: Prebiotics are undigestible carbohydrates that promote the growth of probiotic bacteria in the gut. Human milk contains a variety of oligosaccharides believed to be an important factor in the pattern of microflora colonization of breastfed infants. Because of variety, variability, complexity and polymorphism of the oligosaccharide composition and structure, it is currently not feasible to reproduce the oligosaccharide components of human milk in a strictly structural fashion.[109]

text: The European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition Committee on Nutrition found evidence to support short term effects of ingesting prebiotics on stool microflora of infants with increased in the number of bifidobacteria. Babies can be at risk of dehydration with the induction of softer stools, if they have the kidney immaturity and/or a poor ability to concentrate urine.[109] A reduction of pathogens has been associated with the consumption of prebiotics.[109] However, there was no evidence to support major clinical or long-term benefits.[108] Therefore, there is little evidence of beneficial effects of prebiotics in dietary products.[108]

text: Lysozyme and lactoferrin[edit]

text: Lysozyme is an enzyme that is responsible for protecting the body by damaging bacterial cell walls. Lactoferrin is a globular, multifunctional protein that has antimicrobial activity. Compared to human milk, cow’s milk has a signifactly lower levels of lysozyme and lactoferrin; therefore, the industry has an increasing interest in adding them into infant formulas.[104]