document_title: Julian calendar

question_text: what significant event each year is calculated off the julian calendar

question_tokens: what significant event each year is calculated off the julian calendar

text: Julian calendar

text: Year length; leap years

text: The Julian calendar has two types of year: "normal" years of 365 days and "leap" years of 366 days. There is a simple cycle of three "normal" years followed by a leap year and this pattern repeats forever without exception. The Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. Consequently the Julian year drifts over time with respect to the tropical (solar) year (365.24217 days).[2]

text: Although Greek astronomers had known, at least since Hipparchus,[3] a century before the Julian reform, that the tropical year was slightly shorter than 365.25 days, the calendar did not compensate for this difference. As a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was largely corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582. The Gregorian calendar has the same months and month lengths as the Julian calendar, but, in the Gregorian calendar, year numbers evenly divisible by 100 are not leap years, except that those evenly divisible by 400 remain leap years.[4] (Even then, the Gregorian calendar diverges from astronomical observations by one day in 3,030 years).[2]

text: The difference in the average length of the year between Julian (365.25 days) and Gregorian (365.2425 days) is 0.002%, making the Julian 10.8 minutes longer. The accumulated effect of this difference over some 1600 years since the basis for calculation of the date of Easter was determined at the First Council of Nicea means for example that, from 16 February Julian (1 March Gregorian) 1900 and until 15 February Julian (28 February Gregorian) 2100, Julian is 13 days behind Gregorian. (Bearing in mind that 1900 and 2100 are leap years in the Julian system but not in the Gregorian).

text: Table of months

text:
Months (Roman)
Lengths before 45 BC
Lengths as of 45 BC
Months (English)

Ianuarius[5]
29
31
January

Februarius
28 (in common years)In intercalary years:23 if Intercalaris is variable23/24 if Intercalaris is fixed
28 (leap years: 29)
February

Martius
31
31
March

Aprilis
29
30
April

Maius
31
31
May

Iunius[5]
29
30
June

Quintilis[6] (Iulius)
31
31
July

Sextilis (Augustus)
29
31
August

September
29
30
September

October
31
31
October

November
29
30
November

December
29
31
December

text: Motivation for Caesar's reform

text: The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days. In addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 or 23 days after the first 23 days of February; the last five days of February, which counted down toward the start of March, became the last five days of Intercalaris. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, forming an intercalary year of 377 or 378 days.[7] Some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia (23 February).[8]

text: According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, giving it an average drift of one day per year relative to any solstice or equinox. Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days (thus 11 intercalary years out of 24). This refinement averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years.

text: In practice, intercalations did not occur systematically according to any of these ideal systems, but were determined by the pontifices. So far as can be determined from the historical evidence, they were much less regular than these ideal schemes suggest. They usually occurred every second or third year, but were sometimes omitted for much longer, and occasionally occurred in two consecutive years.

text: If managed correctly this system could have allowed the Roman year to stay roughly aligned to a tropical year. However, since the pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power.[9]

text: If too many intercalations were omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the Civil Wars, the calendar would drift out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, because intercalations were often determined quite late, the average Roman citizen often did not know the date, particularly if he were some distance from the city. For these reasons, the last years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as "years of confusion". The problems became particularly acute during the years of Julius Caesar's pontificate before the reform, 63–46 BC, when there were only five intercalary months (instead of eight), none of which were during the five Roman years before 46 BC.

text: Caesar's reform was intended to solve this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that remained aligned to the sun without any human intervention. This proved useful very soon after the new calendar came into effect. Varro used it in 37 BC to fix calendar dates for the start of the four seasons, which would have been impossible only 8 years earlier.[10] A century later, when Pliny dated the winter solstice to 25 December because the sun entered the 8th degree of Capricorn on that date,[11] this stability had become an ordinary fact of life.

text: Context of the reform

text: Although the approximation of 365 1⁄4 days for the tropical year had been known for a long time[12] ancient solar calendars had used less precise periods, resulting in gradual misalignment of the calendar with the seasons.

text: The octaeteris, a cycle of 8 lunar years popularised by Cleostratus (and also commonly attributed to Eudoxus) which was used in some early Greek calendars, notably in Athens, is 1.53 days longer than eight Julian years. The length of nineteen years in the cycle of Meton was 6,940 days, six hours longer than the mean Julian year. The mean Julian year was the basis of the 76-year cycle devised by Callippus (a student under Eudoxus) to improve the Metonic cycle.

text: In Persia (Iran) after the reform in the Persian calendar by introduction of the Persian Zoroastrian (i. e. Young Avestan) calendar in 503 BC and afterwards, the first day of the year (1 Farvardin=Nowruz) slipped against the vernal equinox at the rate of approximately one day every four years.[13][14]

text: Likewise in the Egyptian calendar, a fixed year of 365 days was in use, drifting by one day against the sun in four years. An unsuccessful attempt to add an extra day every fourth year was made in 238 BC (Decree of Canopus). Caesar probably experienced this "wandering" or "vague" calendar in that country. He landed in the Nile delta in October 48 BC and soon became embroiled in the Ptolemaic dynastic war, especially after Cleopatra managed to be "introduced" to him in Alexandria.

text: Caesar imposed a peace, and a banquet was held to celebrate the event.[15] Lucan depicted Caesar talking to a wise man called Acoreus during the feast, stating his intention to create a calendar more perfect than that of Eudoxus[15] (Eudoxus was popularly credited with having determined the length of the year to be 365 1⁄4 days).[16] But the war soon resumed and Caesar was attacked by the Egyptian army for several months until he achieved victory. He then enjoyed a long cruise on the Nile with Cleopatra before leaving the country in June 47 BC.[17]

text: Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BC and, according to Plutarch, called in the best philosophers and mathematicians of his time to solve the problem of the calendar.[18] Pliny says that Caesar was aided in his reform by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria[19] who is generally considered the principal designer of the reform. Sosigenes may also have been the author of the astronomical almanac published by Caesar to facilitate the reform.[20] Eventually, it was decided to establish a calendar that would be a combination between the old Roman months, the fixed length of the Egyptian calendar, and the 365 1⁄4 days of the Greek astronomy. According to Macrobius, Caesar was assisted in this by a certain Marcus Flavius.[21]

text: Julian reform

text: Realignment of the year

text: The first step of the reform was to realign the start of the calendar year (1 January) to the tropical year by making 46 BC (708 AUC) 445 days long, compensating for the intercalations which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate. This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by the insertion of a regular intercalary month in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December.[note 1]

text: These months are called Intercalaris Prior and Intercalaris Posterior in letters of Cicero written at the time; there is no basis for the statement sometimes seen that they were called "Undecimber" and "Duodecimber", terms that arose in the 18th century over a millennium after the Roman Empire's collapse.[note 2] Their individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides within them.[22]

text: Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years, this extra-long year was, and is, referred to as the "last year of confusion". The new calendar began operation after the realignment had been completed, in 45 BC.[23]

text: Changes to the months

text: The Julian months were formed by adding ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days. Two extra days were added to January, Sextilis (August) and December, and one extra day was added to April, June, September and November. February was not changed in ordinary years, and so continued to be the traditional 28 days. Thus, the ordinary (i.e., non-leap year) lengths of all of the months were set by the Julian calendar to the same values they still hold today. (See Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths below for stories purporting otherwise.)

text: The Julian reform did not change the method used to account days of the month in the pre-Julian calendar, based on the Kalends, Nones and Ides, nor did it change the positions of these three dates within the months. Macrobius states that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the established religious ceremonies relative to the Nones and Ides of the month.[24] However, since Roman dates after the Ides of the month counted down toward the start of the next month, the extra days had the effect of raising the initial value of the count of the day following the Ides in the lengthened months. Thus, in January, Sextilis and December the 14th day of the month became a.d. XIX Kal. instead of a.d. XVII Kal., while in April, June, September and November it became a.d. XVIII Kal.

text: Romans of the time born after the Ides of a month responded differently to the effect of this change on their birthdays. Mark Antony kept his birthday on 14 January, which changed its date from a.d. XVII Kal. Feb to a.d. XIX Kal. Feb, a date that had previously not existed. Livia kept the date of her birthday unchanged at a.d. III Kal. Feb., which moved it from 28 to 30 January, a day that had previously not existed. Augustus kept his on 23 September, but both the old date (a.d. VIII Kal. Oct.) and the new (a.d. IX Kal. Oct.) were celebrated in some places.

text: The inserted days were all initially characterised as dies fasti (F – see Roman calendar).[25] The character of a few festival days was changed. In the early Julio-Claudian period a large number of festivals were decreed to celebrate events of dynastic importance, which caused the character of the associated dates to be changed to NP. However, this practice was discontinued around the reign of Claudius, and the practice of characterising days fell into disuse around the end of the first century AD: the Antonine jurist Gaius speaks of dies nefasti as a thing of the past.[26]

text: Intercalation

text: The old intercalary month was abolished. The new leap day was dated as ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias ('the sixth doubled day before the Kalends of March'), usually abbreviated as a.d. bis VI Kal. Mart.; hence it is called in English the bissextile day. The year in which it occurred was termed annus bissextus, in English the bissextile year.

text: There is debate about the exact position of the bissextile day in the early Julian calendar. The earliest direct evidence is a statement of the 2nd century jurist Celsus, who states that there were two halves of a 48-hour day, and that the intercalated day was the "posterior" half. An inscription from AD 168 states that a.d. V Kal. Mart. was the day after the bissextile day. The 19th century chronologist Ideler argued that Celsus used the term "posterior" in a technical fashion to refer to the earlier of the two days, which requires the inscription to refer to the whole 48-hour day as the bissextile. Some later historians share this view. Others, following Mommsen, take the view that Celsus was using the ordinary Latin (and English) meaning of "posterior". A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour "bis sextum" was originally formally designated as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose as the concept of a 48-hour day became obsolete.[27]

text: There is no doubt that the bissextile day eventually became the earlier of the two days for most purposes. In 238 Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, i.e., a.d. VI, V, IV, III and prid. Kal. Mart. (which would be 24 to 28 February in a common year and the 25th to 29th in a leap year). Hence he regarded the bissextum as the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter) followed this rule, as does the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. However, Celsus' definition continued to be used for legal purposes. It was incorporated into Justinian's Digest,[28] and in the English statute De anno et die bissextili of 1236,[29] which was not formally repealed until 1879.

text: The effect of the bissextile day on the nundinal cycle is not discussed in the sources. According to Dio Cassius, a leap day was inserted in 41 BC to ensure that the first market day of 40 BC did not fall on 1 January, which implies that the old 8-day cycle was not immediately affected by the Julian reform. However, he also reports that in AD 44, and on some previous occasions, the market day was changed to avoid a conflict with a religious festival. This may indicate that a single nundinal letter was assigned to both halves of the 48-hour bissextile day by this time, so that the Regifugium and the market day might fall on the same date but on different days. In any case, the 8-day nundinal cycle began to be displaced by the 7-day week in the first century AD, and dominical letters began to appear alongside nundinal letters in the fasti.[30]

text: During the late Middle Ages days in the month came to be numbered in consecutive day order. Consequently, the leap day was considered to be the last day in February in leap years, i.e., 29 February, which is its current position.

text: Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths

text: The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values. However, a 13th-century scholar, Sacrobosco, proposed a different explanation for the lengths of Julian months[31] which is still widely repeated but is certainly wrong.

text: According to Sacrobosco, the month lengths for ordinary years in the Roman Republican calendar, from January to December, were:

text: Sacrobosco then thought that Julius Caesar added one day to every month except February, a total of 11 more days to regular months, giving the ordinary Julian year of 365 days. A single leap day could now be added to this extra short February:

text: He then said Augustus changed this, by taking one day from February to add it to Sextilis, and then modifying the alternation of the following months, to:

text: so that the length of Augustus (August) would not be shorter than (and therefore inferior to) the length of Iulius (July), giving us the irregular month lengths which are still in use.

text: There is abundant evidence disproving this theory. First, a wall painting of a Roman calendar predating the Julian reform has survived,[32] which confirms the literary accounts that the months were already irregular before Julius Caesar reformed them, with an ordinary year of 355 days, not 354, with month lengths arranged as:

text: Also, the Julian reform did not change the dates of the Nones and Ides. In particular, the Ides were late (on the 15th rather than 13th) in March, May, July and October, showing that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar,[33] whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that March, May and July were originally 30 days long and that the length of October was changed from 29 to 30 days by Caesar and to 31 days by Augustus. Further, Sacrobosco's theory is explicitly contradicted by the 3rd and 5th century authors Censorinus[34] and Macrobius,[35] and it is inconsistent with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BC,[10] before Sextilis was renamed for Augustus in 8 BC, with the 31-day Sextilis given by an Egyptian papyrus from 24 BC,[36] and with the 28-day February shown in the Fasti Caeretani, which is dated before 12 BC.[37]

text: Adoption of the Julian calendar

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Caesar's reform only applied to the Roman calendar. However, in the following decades many of the local civic and provincial calendars of the empire and neighbouring client kingdoms were aligned to the Julian calendar by transforming them into calendars with years of 365 days with an extra day intercalated every four years.[38] The reformed calendars typically retained many features of the unreformed calendars. In many cases, the New Year was not on 1 January, the leap day was not on the bissextile day, the old month names were retained, the lengths of the reformed months did not match the lengths of Julian months, and, even if they did, their first days did not match the first day of the corresponding Julian month. Nevertheless, since the reformed calendars had fixed relationships to each other and to the Julian calendar, the process of converting dates between them became quite straightforward, through the use of conversion tables known as hemerologia.[39] Several of the reformed calendars are only known through surviving hemerologia.

text: The three most important of these calendars are the Alexandrian calendar, the Asian calendar and the Syro-Macedonian calendar. Other reformed calendars are known from Cappadocia, Cyprus and the cities of Syria and Palestine. Most reformed calendars were adopted under Augustus, though the calendar of Nabatea was reformed after the kingdom became the Roman province of Arabia in AD 106. There is no evidence that local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar in the western empire. Unreformed calendars continued to be used in Gaul, Greece, Macedon, the Balkans and parts of Palestine, most notably in Judea.

text: The Alexandrian calendar adapted the Egyptian calendar by adding a 6th epagomenal day as the last day of the year in every fourth year, falling on 29 August preceding a Julian bissextile day. It was otherwise identical to the Egyptian calendar. The first leap day was in 22 BC, and they occurred every four years from the beginning, even though Roman leap days occurred every three years at this time (see Leap year error). This calendar influenced the structure of several other reformed calendars, such as those of the cities of Gaza and Ascalon in Palestine, Salamis in Cyprus, and the province of Arabia. It was adopted by the Coptic church and remains in use both as the liturgical calendar of the Coptic church and as the civil calendar of Ethiopia.

text: The Asian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in the province of Asia and, with minor variations, in nearby cities and provinces. It is known in detail through the survival of decrees promulgating it issued in 8 BC by the proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus. It renamed the first month Dios as Kaisar, and arranged the months such that each month started on the ninth day before the kalends of the corresponding Roman month; thus the year began on 23 September, Augustus' birthday. Since Greek months typically had 29 or 30 days, the extra day of 31-day months was named Sebaste—the emperor's day—and was the first day of these months. The leap day was a second Sebaste day in the month of Xandikos, i.e., 24 February. This calendar remained in use at least until the middle of the fifth century AD.

text: The Syro-Macedonian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in Antioch and other parts of Syria. The months were exactly aligned to the Julian calendar, but they retained their Macedonian names and the year began in Dios = November until the fifth century, when the start of the year was moved to Gorpiaios = September.

text: These reformed calendars generally remained in use until the fifth or sixth century. Around that time most of them were replaced as civil calendars by the Julian calendar, but with a year starting in September to reflect the year of the indiction cycle.

text: The Julian calendar spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire through its use as the Christian liturgical calendar. When a people or a country was converted to Christianity, they generally also adopted the Christian calendar of the church responsible for conversion. Thus, Christian Nubia and Ethiopia adopted the Alexandrian calendar, while Christian Europe adopted the Julian calendar, in either the Catholic or Orthodox variant. Starting in the 16th century, European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere likewise inherited the Julian calendar of the mother country, until they adopted the Gregorian reform. The last country to adopt the Julian calendar was the Ottoman Empire, which used it for financial purposes for some time under the name Rumi calendar and dropped the "escape years" which tied it to Muslim chronology in 1840.

text: Leap year error

text: Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, the pontifices initially added a leap day every three years, instead of every four. There are accounts of this in Solinus,[40] Pliny,[41] Ammianus,[42] Suetonius,[43] and Censorinus.[44]

text: Macrobius[45] gives the following account of the introduction of the Julian calendar:

text: Caesar’s regulation of the civil year to accord with his revised measurement was proclaimed publicly by edict, and the arrangement might have continued to stand had not the correction itself of the calendar led the priests to introduce a new error of their own; for they proceeded to insert the intercalary day, which represented the four quarter-days, at the beginning of each fourth year instead of at its end, although the intercalation ought to have been made at the end of each fourth year and before the beginning of the fifth.

text: This error continued for thirty-six years by which time twelve intercalary days had been inserted instead of the number actually due, namely nine. But when this error was at length recognised, it too was corrected, by an order of Augustus, that twelve years should be allowed to pass without an intercalary day, since the sequence of twelve such years would account for the three days which, in the course of thirty-six years, had been introduced by the premature actions of the priests.

text: So, according to Macrobius,

text:
the year was considered to begin after the Terminalia, (23 February)[46]
the calendar was operated correctly from its introduction on 1 January 45 BC until the beginning of the fourth year (February 42 BC) at which point the priests inserted the first intercalation,
Caesar's intention was to make the first intercalation at the beginning of the fifth year (February 41 BC),
the priests made a further eleven intercalations after 42 BC at three-year intervals so that the twelfth intercalation fell in 9 BC,
had Caesar's intention been followed there would have been intercalations every four years after 41 BC, so that the ninth intercalation would have been in 9 BC,
after 9 BC, there were twelve years without leap years, so that the leap days Caesar would have had in 5 BC, 1 BC and AD 4 were omitted and
after AD 4 the calendar was operated as Caesar intended, so that the next leap year was AD 8 and then leap years followed every fourth year thereafter.[47]

tag: ol

text: Some people have had different ideas as to how the leap years went. The above scheme is that of Scaliger in the table below. He established that the Augustan reform was instituted in 8 BC. The table shows for each reconstruction the implied proleptic Julian date for the first day of Caesar's reformed calendar (Kal. Ian. AUC 709) and the first Julian date on which the Roman calendar date matches the Julian calendar after the completion of Augustus' reform.

text: Alexander Jones claims that the correct Julian calendar was in use in Egypt in 24 BC,[36] implying that the first day of the reform in both Egypt and Rome, 1 January 45 BC, was the Julian date 1 January if 45 BC was a leap year and 2 January if it was not. This necessitates fourteen leap days up to and including AD 8 if 45 BC was a leap year and thirteen if it was not.

text: Pierre Brind'Amour[48] argued that "only one day was intercalated between 1/1/45 and 1/1/40 (disregarding a momentary 'fiddling' in December of 41[49] to avoid the nundinum falling on Kal. Ian."[50]

text:
Scholar
Date
Triennial leap years (BC)
First Julian day
First aligned day
Quadriennial leap year resumes

Bennett[51]

2003

44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11, 8
31 Dec 46 BC
25 Feb 1 BC
AD 4

Soltau[52]

1889

45, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11
2 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb AD 4
AD 8

Matzat[53]

1883

44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11
1 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb 1 BC
AD 4

Ideler[54]

1825

45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9
1 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb AD 4
AD 8

Kepler[55]

1614

43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10
2 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb AD 4
AD 8

Harriot[56]

After 1610

43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10
1 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb 1 BC
AD 4

Bünting[56]

1590

45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12
1 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb 1 BC
AD 4

Christmann[56][57]

1590

43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10
2 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb AD 4
AD 7[56]

Scaliger[58]

1583

42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9
2 Jan 45 BC
25 Feb AD 4
AD 8

text: In 1999, a papyrus was discovered which gives the dates of astronomical phenomena in 24 BC in both the Egyptian and Roman calendars. From 30 August 26 BC (Julian), Egypt had two calendars: the old Egyptian in which every year had 365 days and the new Alexandrian in which every fourth year had 366 days. Up to 28 August 22 BC (Julian) the date in both calendars was the same. The dates in the Alexandrian and Julian calendars are in one-to-one correspondence except for the period from 29 August in the year preceding a Julian leap year to the following 24 February.[59] From a comparison of the astronomical data with the Egyptian and Roman dates, Alexander Jones[36] concluded that the Egyptian astronomers (as opposed to travellers from Rome) used the correct Julian calendar.

text: An inscription has been discovered[60] which orders a new calendar to be used in Asia to replace the previous Greek lunar calendar. According to one translation[61]

text: Intercalation shall commence on the day after 14 Peritius [a.d. IX Kal. Feb, which would have been 15 Peritius] as it is currently constituted in the third year following promulgation of the decree. Xanthicus shall have 32 days in this intercalary year.

text: This is historically correct. It was decreed by the proconsul that the first day of the year in the new calendar shall be Augustus' birthday, a.d. IX Kal. Oct. Every month begins on the ninth day before the kalends. The date of introduction, the day after 14 Peritius, was 1 Dystrus, the next month. The month after that was Xanthicus. Thus Xanthicus began on a.d. IX Kal. Mart., and normally contained 31 days. In leap year, however, it contained an extra "Sebaste day", the Roman leap day, and thus had 32 days. From the lunar nature of the old calendar we can fix the starting date of the new one as 24 January, a.d. IX Kal. Feb 5 BC in the Julian calendar, which was a leap year. Thus from inception the dates of the reformed Asian calendar are in one-to-one correspondence with the Julian.

text: Another translation of this inscription[62] is

text: Intercalation shall commence on the day after the fourteenth day in the current month of Peritius [a.d. IX Kal. Feb], occurring every third year. Xanthicus shall have 32 days in this intercalary year.

text: This would move the starting date back three years to 8 BC, and from the lunar synchronism back to 26 January (Julian). But since the corresponding Roman date in the inscription is 24 January, this must be according to the incorrect calendar which in 8 BC Augustus had ordered to be corrected by the omission of leap days. As the authors of the previous paper point out, with the correct four-year cycle being used in Egypt and the three-year cycle abolished in Rome it is unlikely that Augustus would have ordered the three-year cycle to be introduced in Asia.

text: Month names

text: The Julian reform did not immediately cause the names of any months to be changed. The old intercalary month was abolished and replaced with a single intercalary day at the same point (i.e., five days before the end of February). January continued to be the first month of the year.

text: The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis as "Iulius" (July)[5] in 44 BC and Sextilis as "Augustus" (August) in 8 BC. Quintilis was renamed to honour Caesar because it was the month of his birth.[63] According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred in that month.[64]

text: Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths. In AD 37, Caligula renamed September as "Germanicus" after his father;[65] in AD 65, Nero renamed April as "Neroneus", May as "Claudius" and June as "Germanicus";[66] and in AD 84 Domitian renamed September as "Germanicus" and October as "Domitianus".[67] Commodus was unique in renaming all twelve months after his own adopted names (January to December): "Amazonius", "Invictus", "Felix", "Pius", "Lucius", "Aelius", "Aurelius", "Commodus", "Augustus", "Herculeus", "Romanus", and "Exsuperatorius".[68] The emperor Tacitus is said to have ordered that September, the month of his birth and accession, be renamed after him, but the story is doubtful since he did not become emperor before November 275.[69] Similar honorific month names were implemented in many of the provincial calendars that were aligned to the Julian calendar.[70]

text: Other name changes were proposed but were never implemented. Tiberius rejected a senatorial proposal to rename September as "Tiberius" and October as "Livius", after his mother Livia.[71] Antoninus Pius rejected a senatorial decree renaming September as "Antoninus" and November as "Faustina", after his empress.[72]

text: Much more lasting than the ephemeral month names of the post-Augustan Roman emperors were the Old High German names introduced by Charlemagne. According to his biographer, Charlemagne renamed all of the months agriculturally into German.[73] These names were used until the 15th century, over 700 years after his rule, and continued, with some modifications, to see some use as "traditional" month names until the late 18th century. The names (January to December) were: Wintarmanoth ("winter month"), Hornung,[note 3] Lentzinmanoth ("spring month", "Lent month"), Ostarmanoth ("Easter month"), Wonnemanoth ("joy-month", a corruption of Winnimanoth "pasture-month"), Brachmanoth ("fallow-month"), Heuuimanoth ("hay month"), Aranmanoth ("reaping month"), Witumanoth ("wood month"), Windumemanoth ("vintage month"), Herbistmanoth ("harvest month"), and Heilagmanoth ("holy month").

text: The calendar month names used in western and northern Europe, in Byzantium, and by the Berbers, were derived from the Latin names. However, in eastern Europe older seasonal month names continued to be used into the 19th century, and in some cases are still in use, in many languages, including: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Finnish,[74] Georgian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Slovene, Ukrainian. When the Ottoman Empire adopted the Julian calendar, in the form of the Rumi calendar, the month names reflected Ottoman tradition.

text: Year numbering

text: The principal method used by the Romans to identify a year for dating purposes was to name it after the two consuls who took office in it, the eponymous period in question being the consular year. Beginning in 153 BC, consuls began to take office on 1 January, thus synchronizing the commencement of the consular and calendar years. The calendar year has begun in January and ended in December since about 450 BC according to Ovid or since about 713 BC according to Macrobius and Plutarch (see Roman calendar). Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of either the consular year or the calendar year. In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the regnal year of the emperor, and by the late 4th century documents were also being dated according to the 15-year cycle of the indiction. In 537, Justinian required that henceforth the date must include the name of the emperor and his regnal year, in addition to the indiction and the consul, while also allowing the use of local eras.

text: In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, no consuls were appointed.[75] When this happened, the consular date was given a count of years since the last consul (so-called "post-consular" dating). After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, typically for only one year in his reign, and so post-consular dating became the norm. Similar post-consular dates were also known in the west in the early 6th century.  The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was formally abolished in the law code of Leo VI, issued in 888.

text: Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city (of Rome), ab urbe condita (AUC). This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, not to date a year. Different historians had several different dates for the founding. The Fasti Capitolini, an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The epoch used by Varro, 753 BC, has been adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published, giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the Fasti Capitolini which use other AUC systems do so in the same way. However, Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century AD, states that, in his time, the AUC year began with the Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome.[76]

text: Many local eras, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, were adopted for the Julian calendar or its local equivalent in the provinces and cities of the Roman Empire. Some of these were used for a considerable time.[77] Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called Anno Diocletiani (after Diocletian), which was associated with the Alexandrian calendar and often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries, and continues to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches.

text: In the eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event.[78] The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou, used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700. In the west, the kingdoms succeeding the empire initially used indictions and regnal years, alone or in combination. The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, in the fifth century, used an era dated from the Passion of Christ, but this era was not widely adopted. Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525. This era gradually spread through the western Christian world, once the system was adopted by Bede in the eighth century.

text: The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries. The Rumi calendar, the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire, adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840, i.e., the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585. In recent years, some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC, the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh Sheshonq I came to power in Egypt.

text: New Year's Day

text: The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year). Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus, 23 September. The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on 1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March, six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the start of the year to 1 September, so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia, from 1 March to 31 August 1492.[79]

text: During the Middle Ages 1 January retained the name New Year's Day (or an equivalent name) in all western European countries (affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just as the Romans had. However, most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or even Easter, as in France (see the Liturgical year article for more details).

text: In Anglo-Saxon England, the year most commonly began on 25 December, which, as (approximately) the winter solstice, had marked the start of the year in pagan times, though 25 March (the equinox) is occasionally documented in the 11th century. Sometimes the start of the year was reckoned as 24 September, the start of the so-called "western indiction" introduced by Bede.[80] These practices changed after the Norman conquest. From 1087 to 1155 the English year began on 1 January, and from 1155 to 1751 began on 25 March.[81] In 1752 it was moved back to 1 January. (See Calendar (New Style) Act 1750).

text: Even before 1752, 1 January was sometimes treated as the start of the new year – for example by Pepys[82] – while the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year".[83] To reduce misunderstandings on the date, it was not uncommon for a date between 1 January and 24 March to be written as "1661/62". This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 counting from March and 1662 counting from January as the start of the year.[84] (For more detail, see Dual dating).

text: Most western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar, before they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th century. The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted 1 January as the start of the year. Eastern European countries, with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church, began the year on 1 September from about 988. The Rumi calendar used in the Ottoman Empire began the civil year on 1 March until 1918.

text:
Country
Year starting1 January[85][86]
Adoption of new calendar

Republic of Venice
1522
1582

Holy Roman Empire[note 4]
1544
1582

Spain, Portugal
1556
1582

Prussia, Denmark–Norway
1559
1700

Sweden
1559
1753[note 5]

France
1567
1582

Southern Netherlands
1576[87]
1582

Lorraine
1579
1760

Holland, Zeeland
1583
1582

Dutch Republic except Holland and Zeeland
1583
1700

Scotland
1600
1752

Russia
1700
1918

Tuscany
1721
1750

British Empire excluding Scotland
1752
1752[note 6]

Serbia
1804[citation needed]
1918

Ottoman Empire (Turkey)[note 7]
1918
1917

text: Replacement by the Gregorian calendar

text: The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in all countries which officially used it.[88] An analog, the Alexandrian calendar, is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is the civil calendar of Ethiopia. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875. Turkey switched (for fiscal purposes) on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918.[89] Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923, but the next national day (25 March)—a religious holiday—took place as if on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have made the same change for their liturgical calendars.

text: During the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as modern texts that describe events during the period of change, it is customary to clarify to which calendar a given date refers by using an O.S. or N.S. suffix (denoting Old Style, Julian or New Style, Gregorian).

text: Transition history

text: The Julian calendar was in general use in Europe and northern Africa until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar. Reform was required because too many leap days are added with respect to the astronomical seasons on the Julian scheme. On average, the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by 10.8 minutes per year against the Julian year. As a result, the calculated date of Easter gradually moved out of alignment with the March equinox.

text: While Hipparchus and presumably Sosigenes were aware of the discrepancy, although not of its correct value,[90] it was evidently felt to be of little importance at the time of the Julian reform. However, it accumulated significantly over time: the Julian calendar gained a day about every 134 years. By 1582, it was ten days out of alignment from where it supposedly had been in 325 during the Council of Nicaea.

text: The Gregorian calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries (e.g., Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy). Protestant countries followed later, and some countries of eastern Europe even later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752. For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar, and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753.

text: Since the Julian and Gregorian calendars were long used simultaneously, although in different places, calendar dates in the transition period are often ambiguous, unless it is specified which calendar was being used. In some circumstances, double dates might be used, one in each calendar. The notation "Old Style" (O.S.) is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to "New Style" (N.S.), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar. This notation is used to clarify dates from countries which continued to use the Julian calendar after the Gregorian reform, such as Great Britain, which did not switch to the reformed calendar until 1752, or Russia, which did not switch until 1918. This is why the Russian Revolution of 7 November 1917 N.S. is known as the October Revolution, because it began on 25 October OS.

text: Throughout the long transition period, the Julian calendar has continued to diverge from the Gregorian. This has happened in whole-day steps, as leap days which were dropped in certain centennial years in the Gregorian calendar continued to be present in the Julian calendar. Thus, in the year 1700 the difference increased to 11 days; in 1800, 12; and in 1900, 13. Since 2000 was a leap year according to both the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the difference of 13 days did not change in that year: 29 February 2000 (Gregorian) fell on 16 February 2000 (Julian). This difference will persist until the last day of February 2100 (Gregorian), since 2100 is not a Gregorian leap year, but is a Julian leap year. Monday 1 March 2100 (Gregorian) falls on Monday 16 February 2100 (Julian).[91]

text: Eastern Orthodox usage

text:
Although most Eastern Orthodox countries (most of them in eastern or southeastern Europe) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1924, their national churches had not. The "Revised Julian calendar" was endorsed by a synod in Constantinople in May 1923, consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and a lunar part which calculated Easter astronomically at Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter according to the Julian calendar (with the exception of the Estonian Orthodox Church
and the Finnish Orthodox Church).[92][93]

text: The solar part of the Revised Julian calendar was accepted by only some Orthodox churches. Those that did accept it, with hope for improved dialogue and negotiations with the western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland (from 1924 to 2014; it is still permitted to use the Revised Julian calendar in parishes that want it), Bulgaria (in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the Nativity on the same day that western Christians do, 25 December Gregorian until 2799.

text: The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro, Poland (from 15 June 2014), Macedonia, Georgia, Ukraine, and the Greek Old Calendarists and other groups continue to use the Julian calendar, thus they celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Julian (which is 7 January Gregorian until 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the West which celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Gregorian until 2799.

text: Parishes of the Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese, both before and after the 1976 transfer of that diocese from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia to the Orthodox Church in America, were permitted to use this date. Some Old Calendarist groups which stand in opposition to the state churches of their homelands will use the Great Feast of the Theophany (6 January Julian/19 January Gregorian) as a day for religious processions and the Great Blessing of Waters, to publicise their cause.[citation needed]

text: Easter date in Eastern Orthodoxy

text: Most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, upon which the timing of all the other moveable feasts depends. Some such churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while such Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes.[94]

text: Oriental Orthodox usage

text: The Oriental Orthodox Churches generally use the local calendar of their homelands. However, when calculating the Nativity Feast, most observe the Julian calendar. This was traditionally for the sake of unity throughout Christendom. In the west, some Oriental Orthodox Churches either use the Gregorian calendar or are permitted to observe the Nativity according to it. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church celebrates the Nativity as part of the Feast of Theophany according to its traditional calendar.[citation needed]

text: Usage by the Berbers

text: The Julian calendar is still used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar,[95].


document_title: Oodgeroo Noonuccal

question_text: when was the poem then and now written

question_tokens: when was the poem then and now written

root

text: Oodgeroo Noonuccal

text: Life as a poet, artist, writer and activist[edit]

text: Oodgeroo Noonuccal joined the Australian Women’s Army Service in 1942, after her two brothers were captured by the Japanese at the fall of Singapore. Serving as a signaller in Brisbane she met many black American soldiers, as well as European Australians. These contacts helped to lay the foundations for her later advocacy of Aboriginal rights.[3]

tag: p

text: During the 1960s Kath Walker emerged as a prominent political activist and writer. She was Queensland state secretary of the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders (FCAATSI),[4] and was involved in a number of other political organisations. She was a key figure in the campaign for the reform of the Australian constitution to allow Aboriginal people full citizenship, lobbying Prime Minister Robert Menzies in 1965, and his successor Harold Holt in 1966.[5] At one deputation in 1963, she taught Robert Menzies a lesson in the realities of Aboriginal life. After the Prime Minister offered the deputation an alcoholic drink, he was startled to learn from her that in Queensland he could be jailed for this.[6]

text: She wrote many books, beginning with We Are Going (1964), the first book to be published by an Aboriginal woman.[7] The title poem concludes:

text:
The scrubs are gone, the hunting and the laughter.
The eagle is gone, the emu and the kangaroo are gone from this place.
The bora ring is gone.
The corroboree is gone.
And we are going.

text: This first book of poetry was extraordinarily successful, selling out in several editions, and setting Oodgeroo well on the way to be Australia's highest-selling poet alongside C. J. Dennis.[8] Critics' responses, however, were mixed, with some questioning whether Oodgeroo, as an Aboriginal person, could really have written it herself. Others were disturbed by the activism of the poems, and found that they were "propaganda" rather than what they considered to be real poetry.[9] Oodgeroo embraced the idea of her poetry as propaganda, and described her own style as "sloganistic, civil-writerish, plain and simple."[10] She wanted to convey pride in her Aboriginality to the broadest possible audience, and to popularise equality and Aboriginal rights through her writing.[11]

text: In 1972 she bought a property on North Stradbroke Island (also known as Minjerribah) which she called Moongalba ('sitting-down place'), and established the Noonuccal-Nughie Education and Cultural Centre.[1] And in 1977, a documentary about her, called Shadow Sister, was released. It was directed and produced by Frank Heimans and photographed by Geoff Burton. It describes her return to Moongalba and her life there.[12] In a 1987 interview, she described her education program at Moongalba, saying that over "the last seventeen years I've had 26,500 children on the island. White kids as well as black. And if there were green ones, I'd like them too ... I'm colour blind, you see. I teach them about Aboriginal culture. I teach them about the balance of nature."[13] Oodgeroo was committed to education at all levels, and collaborated with universities in creating programs for teacher education that would lead to better teaching in Australian schools.[14]

text: In 1974 Noonuccal was aboard a British Airways flight that was hijacked by terrorists campaigning for Palestinian liberation. The hijackers shot a crew member and a passenger and forced the plane to fly to several different African destinations. During her three days in captivity, she used a blunt pencil and an airline sickbag from the seat pocket to write two poems, 'Commonplace' and 'Yusuf (Hijacker)'.[15]

text: In 1983 Noonuccal ran in the Queensland state election for the Australian Democrats political party in the Electoral district of Redlands. Her campaign focused around policies promoting the environment and Aboriginal rights.[16]

text: In 1988 she adopted a traditional name: Oodgeroo (meaning "paperbark tree") Noonuccal (her tribe's name).[17]

text: She died in 1993 in Victoria aged 72.[1]

text: In 2016 the Queensland Poetry Festival introduced an indigenous program which included the inaugural Oodgeroo Noonuccal Indigenous Poetry Prize.[18]

text: In culture[edit]

text: A play has been written by Sam Watson entitled Oodgeroo: Bloodline to Country commemorating Oodgeroo Noonuccal's life, being a play based on Oodgeroo Noonuccal's real life experience as an Aboriginal woman on board a flight hijacked by Palestinian terrorists on her way home from a committee meeting in Nigeria for the World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture[19]

text: Noonuccal's poetry has been set to music by numerous composers, including Christopher Gordon, Clare Maclean, Stephen Leek, Andrew Ford, Paul Stanhope, Mary Mageau, and Joseph Twist.[20]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Oodgeroo won several literary awards, including the Mary Gilmore Medal (1970), the Jessie Litchfield Award (1975), and the Fellowship of Australian Writers' Award.

text: In 1979, she was awarded the Sixth Annual Oscar at the Micheaux Awards Ceremony, hosted by the US Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame and in the same year received the International Acting Award for the film Shadow Sisters.[21]

text: She was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1970, returning it in 1987 to protest the Australian Bicentenary celebrations, and to make a political statement at the condition of her people.[17][1]

text: In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Oodgeroo Noonuccal was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for her role as an "Influential Artists".[22]

text: The electoral district of Oodgeroo created in the 2017 Queensland state electoral redistribution was named after her.[23]

text: Her work[edit]

text: Poetry

text:
The Past (1970)
Municipal Gum (1960)
"A Song of Hope" (1960)
We are Going: Poems (1964)
The Dawn is at Hand: Poems (1966)
My People: A Kath Walker collection (1970)
No more boomerang (1985)
Kath Walker in China (1988)
The Colour Bar (1990)
Oodgeroo (1994)
Let Us Not Be Bitter (1990)
White Australia (1970)
All One Race (1970)
Freedom (1970)
The Unhappy Race (1989)
Then and Now (1970)
Last of His Tribe (1970)

tag: ul

text: For children

text:
Stradbroke Dreamtime (1972)
Father Sky and Mother Earth (1981)
Little Fella (1986)
The Rainbow Serpent (1988)

text: Non fiction

text:
Towards a Global Village in the Southern Hemisphere (1989)
The Spirit of Australia (1989)
Australian Legends And Landscapes (1990)
Australia's Unwritten History: More legends of our land (1992)

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Land, Clare (16 September 2013). "Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1993)". Australian Women's Archives Project. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2016.

Jump up ^ "Oodgeroo Noonuccal." Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 27. Gale, 2007

Jump up ^ "Indigenous defence service - The Australian War Memorial". www.awm.gov.au. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2018.

Jump up ^ Cochrane, (1994), p. 67; Elaine Darling, They spoke out pretty good: politics and gender in the Brisbane Aboriginal Rights Movement 1958–1962 (St Kilda, Vic.: Janoan Media Exchange, c1998.), p. 189.

Jump up ^ Cochrane, (1994), p. 63.

Jump up ^ "Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath (Ruska) Walker)". Reconciliation Australia. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2016.

Jump up ^ "Maori and Aboriginal Women in the Public Eye: Representing Difference, 1950-2000". ANU E Press. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2014.

Jump up ^ Mitchell, (1987), pp. 200–2.

Jump up ^ Rooney, Brigid, Literary activists: writer-intellectuals and Australian public life (St Lucia, Qld.) : University of Queensland Press, 2009, pp. 68–9

Jump up ^ Kath Walker, "Aboriginal Literature" Identity 2.3 (1975) pp. 39–40

Jump up ^ Cochrane, (1994), p. 37

Jump up ^ "Shadow Sister: A Film Biography of Aboriginal Poet Kath Walker (Oodgeroo Noonuccal), MBE". Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 14 March 2017.

Jump up ^ Mitchell, (1987), p. 206.

Jump up ^ Rhonda Craven, "The role of teachers in the Year of Indigenous people: Oodgeroo of the Tribe Noonuccal (Kath Walker)", Aboriginal Studies Association Journal, No. 3 (1994), p. 55-56.

Jump up ^ Powell, Marg; Rickertt, Jeff. "Kath Walker - Sick Bag Poem - Treasures from the Fryer Library". Library.uq.edu.au. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.

Jump up ^ Floyd, B., Inside Story, p. 71, Boolarong Press, Salisbury.

^ Jump up to: a b "Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement: Supplement (Mi-So): Oodgeroo Noonuccal Biography". Notable Biographies. Archived from the original on 27 February 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2016.

Jump up ^ "Queensland Poetry Festival". ATSICHS. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2017.

Jump up ^ "Oodgeroo - Bloodline To Country". AustralianPlays.org. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.

Jump up ^ "Oodgeroo Noonuccal : Australian Music Centre". Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017.

Jump up ^ Who's Who of Australian Women. Methuen Australia Pty Ltd. 1982. ISBN 0454004370.

Jump up ^ Bligh, Anna (10 June 2009). "PREMIER UNVEILS QUEENSLAND'S 150 ICONS". Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.

Jump up ^ Queensland Redistribution Commission (26 May 2017). "Determination of Queensland's Legislative Assembly Electoral Districts" (PDF). Queensland Government Gazette. p. 177. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017.


document_title: Chutak Hydroelectric Plant

question_text: chutak hydro electric project being constructed by nhpc in kargil is on the river

text: Chutak Hydroelectric Plant

text: The Chutak Hydroelectric Plant is a run-of-the-river power project on the Suru River (a tributary of Indus) in Kargil district in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (224 km (139 mi) from the state's summer capital Srinagar). The barrage of the project is at Sarze village and the powerhouse is located on the right bank of the Suru near Chutak Village. The project construction began on  23 September 2006, and the first three generators were commissioned in November 2012. The fourth was commissioned in January 2013.[1]

text:
The project includes construction of a 47.5-metre-long (156 ft) barrage, having 15 m height above the crest level, an underground powerhouse, and 3.3 m dia and 10.02 km long head race tunnel and installation of four nos. of vertical Francis turbine of 11 MW each.
The project envisages utilizing a gross head of 63.4 m (208 ft) to generate 216.41 GWh in a 90% dependable year with an installed capacity of 44 MW. Each 11 MW underground generating unit will operate under a rated head of 52 m and a rated discharge of 24.05 cubic metres per second.  The barrage diverts water from the river and involves a flooding of only 0.135 km2 (0.052 sq mi). Thus the power density is 44 MW per 0.135 km2, i.e. very high 326 W/m2, compared to dam-based hydroelectric projects. The project will be connected to the Northern Grid by the 220 kV Leh-Srinagar transmission line, which is to be scheduled for commissioning along with project’s commissioning.[2]

text: The project is being developed by M/s National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd. The generating equipment is being supplied, erected and commissioned by M/s Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. The generator/turbine was manufactured by BHEL's Bhopal unit whereas the controls were supplied by BHEL's Bangalore unit. The erection and commissioning is being done by BHEL's Power Sector Northern Region under able guidance of Narendra Kumar (GM Hydro-BHEL) and joginder singh ( expert in hydro commissioning). As of date all four generating units of this project are running successfully.


document_title: List of Game of Thrones episodes

question_text: how many seasons of games of throne is there

text: List of Game of Thrones episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2011)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)11"Winter Is Coming"Tim Van PattenDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 17, 2011 (2011-04-17)2.22[19]
22"The Kingsroad"Tim Van PattenDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 24, 2011 (2011-04-24)2.20[20]
33"Lord Snow"Brian KirkDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 1, 2011 (2011-05-01)2.44[21]
44"Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things"Brian KirkBryan CogmanMay 8, 2011 (2011-05-08)2.45[22]
55"The Wolf and the Lion"Brian KirkDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 15, 2011 (2011-05-15)2.58[23]
66"A Golden Crown"Daniel MinahanStory by : David Benioff & D. B. Weiss Teleplay by : Jane Espenson and David Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 22, 2011 (2011-05-22)2.44[24]
77"You Win or You Die"Daniel MinahanDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 29, 2011 (2011-05-29)2.40[25]
88"The Pointy End"Daniel MinahanGeorge R. R. MartinJune 5, 2011 (2011-06-05)2.72[26]
99"Baelor"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 12, 2011 (2011-06-12)2.66[27]
1010"Fire and Blood"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)3.04[28]

text: Season 2 (2012)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)111"The North Remembers"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)3.86[29]
122"The Night Lands"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 8, 2012 (2012-04-08)3.76[30]
133"What Is Dead May Never Die"Alik SakharovBryan CogmanApril 15, 2012 (2012-04-15)3.77[31]
144"Garden of Bones"David PetrarcaVanessa TaylorApril 22, 2012 (2012-04-22)3.65[32]
155"The Ghost of Harrenhal"David PetrarcaDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 29, 2012 (2012-04-29)3.90[33]
166"The Old Gods and the New"David NutterVanessa TaylorMay 6, 2012 (2012-05-06)3.88[34]
177"A Man Without Honor"David NutterDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 13, 2012 (2012-05-13)3.69[35]
188"The Prince of Winterfell"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 20, 2012 (2012-05-20)3.86[36]
199"Blackwater"Neil MarshallGeorge R. R. MartinMay 27, 2012 (2012-05-27)3.38[37]
2010"Valar Morghulis"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 3, 2012 (2012-06-03)4.20[38]

text: Season 3 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)211"Valar Dohaeris"Daniel MinahanDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMarch 31, 2013 (2013-03-31)4.37[39]
222"Dark Wings, Dark Words"Daniel MinahanVanessa TaylorApril 7, 2013 (2013-04-07)4.27[40]
233"Walk of Punishment"David BenioffDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 14, 2013 (2013-04-14)4.72[41]
244"And Now His Watch Is Ended"Alex GravesDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 21, 2013 (2013-04-21)4.87[42]
255"Kissed by Fire"Alex GravesBryan CogmanApril 28, 2013 (2013-04-28)5.35[43]
266"The Climb"Alik SakharovDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 5, 2013 (2013-05-05)5.50[44]
277"The Bear and the Maiden Fair"Michelle MacLarenGeorge R. R. MartinMay 12, 2013 (2013-05-12)4.84[45]
288"Second Sons"Michelle MacLarenDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 19, 2013 (2013-05-19)5.13[46]
299"The Rains of Castamere"David NutterDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 2, 2013 (2013-06-02)5.22[47]
3010"Mhysa"David NutterDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 9, 2013 (2013-06-09)5.39[48]

text: Season 4 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)311"Two Swords"D. B. WeissDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 6, 2014 (2014-04-06)6.64[49]
322"The Lion and the Rose"Alex GravesGeorge R. R. MartinApril 13, 2014 (2014-04-13)6.31[50]
333"Breaker of Chains"Alex GravesDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 20, 2014 (2014-04-20)6.59[51]
344"Oathkeeper"Michelle MacLarenBryan CogmanApril 27, 2014 (2014-04-27)6.95[52]
355"First of His Name"Michelle MacLarenDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 4, 2014 (2014-05-04)7.16[53]
366"The Laws of Gods and Men"Alik SakharovBryan CogmanMay 11, 2014 (2014-05-11)6.40[54]
377"Mockingbird"Alik SakharovDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 18, 2014 (2014-05-18)7.20[55]
388"The Mountain and the Viper"Alex GravesDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 1, 2014 (2014-06-01)7.17[56]
399"The Watchers on the Wall"Neil MarshallDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 8, 2014 (2014-06-08)6.95[57]
4010"The Children"Alex GravesDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 15, 2014 (2014-06-15)7.09[58]

text: Season 5 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)411"The Wars to Come"Michael SlovisDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 12, 2015 (2015-04-12)8.00[59]
422"The House of Black and White"Michael SlovisDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 19, 2015 (2015-04-19)6.81[60]
433"High Sparrow"Mark MylodDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 26, 2015 (2015-04-26)6.71[61]
444"Sons of the Harpy"Mark MylodDave HillMay 3, 2015 (2015-05-03)6.82[62]
455"Kill the Boy"Jeremy PodeswaBryan CogmanMay 10, 2015 (2015-05-10)6.56[63]
466"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken"Jeremy PodeswaBryan CogmanMay 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)6.24[64]
477"The Gift"Miguel SapochnikDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 24, 2015 (2015-05-24)5.40[65]
488"Hardhome"Miguel SapochnikDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 31, 2015 (2015-05-31)7.01[66]
499"The Dance of Dragons"David NutterDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 7, 2015 (2015-06-07)7.14[67]
5010"Mother's Mercy"David NutterDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 14, 2015 (2015-06-14)8.11[68]

text: Season 6 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)511"The Red Woman"Jeremy PodeswaDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissApril 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)7.94[69]
522"Home"Jeremy PodeswaDave HillMay 1, 2016 (2016-05-01)7.29[70]
533"Oathbreaker"Daniel SackheimDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 8, 2016 (2016-05-08)7.28[71]
544"Book of the Stranger"Daniel SackheimDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 15, 2016 (2016-05-15)7.82[72]
555"The Door"Jack BenderDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissMay 22, 2016 (2016-05-22)7.89[73]
566"Blood of My Blood"Jack BenderBryan CogmanMay 29, 2016 (2016-05-29)6.71[74]
577"The Broken Man"Mark MylodBryan CogmanJune 5, 2016 (2016-06-05)7.80[75]
588"No One"Mark MylodDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 12, 2016 (2016-06-12)7.60[76]
599"Battle of the Bastards"Miguel SapochnikDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 19, 2016 (2016-06-19)7.66[77]
6010"The Winds of Winter"Miguel SapochnikDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJune 26, 2016 (2016-06-26)8.89[78]

text: Season 7 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)611"Dragonstone"Jeremy PodeswaDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJuly 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)10.11[79]
622"Stormborn"Mark MylodBryan CogmanJuly 23, 2017 (2017-07-23)9.27[80]
633"The Queen's Justice"Mark MylodDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissJuly 30, 2017 (2017-07-30)9.25[81]
644"The Spoils of War"Matt ShakmanDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissAugust 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)10.17[82]
655"Eastwatch"Matt ShakmanDave HillAugust 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)10.72[83]
666"Beyond the Wall"Alan TaylorDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissAugust 20, 2017 (2017-08-20)10.24[84]
677"The Dragon and the Wolf"Jeremy PodeswaDavid Benioff & D. B. WeissAugust 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)12.07[85]

text: Season 8[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected by [86][87]Written by [88]Original air date [12]U.S. viewers(millions)681TBADavid NutterDave Hill2019 (2019)TBD
692TBADavid NutterBryan Cogman2019 (2019)TBD
703TBAMiguel SapochnikDavid Benioff & D. B. Weiss2019 (2019)TBD
714TBADavid NutterDavid Benioff & D. B. Weiss2019 (2019)TBD
725TBAMiguel SapochnikDavid Benioff & D. B. Weiss2019 (2019)TBD
736TBADavid Benioff & D. B. WeissDavid Benioff & D. B. Weiss2019 (2019)TBD

text: Home media releases[edit]

text:
Season

Episodes

DVD release date

Region 1

Region 2

Region 4

1

10

March 6, 2012[89]

March 5, 2012[90]

August 10, 2012[91]

2

10

February 19, 2013[92]

March 4, 2013[93]

March 6, 2013[94]

3

10

February 18, 2014[95]

February 17, 2014[96]

February 19, 2014[97]

4

10

February 17, 2015[98]

February 16, 2015[99]

February 18, 2015[100]

5

10

March 15, 2016[101]

March 14, 2016[102]

March 16, 2016[103]

6

10

November 15, 2016[104]

November 14, 2016[105]

November 16, 2016[106]

7

7

December 12, 2017[107]

December 11, 2017[108]

December 11, 2017[109]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday-night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on-demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode.[110] For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers.[111] The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most-viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos).[112][113] For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record.[114][115] By the sixth season the average per-episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms.[116] In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is".[117]  By season seven, average viewer numbers had increased to over 30 million per episode across all platforms.[118]

text: The series set records on pay-television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms)[119] and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).[120]


document_title: Computer multitasking

question_text: allows many users at different terminals to communicate with a single computer at the same time

text: Computer multitasking

text: Multiprogramming[edit]

text: In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and peripherals were very slow. When the computer ran a program that needed access to a peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the data. This was usually very inefficient.

text: The first computer using a multiprogramming system was the British Leo III owned by J. Lyons and Co. During batch processing, several different programs were loaded in the computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral, the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued until all programs finished running.[citation needed]

text: The use of multiprogramming was enhanced by the arrival of virtual memory and virtual machine technology, which enabled individual programs to make use of memory and operating system resources as if other concurrently running programs were, for all practical purposes, non-existent and invisible to them.[citation needed]

text: Multiprogramming doesn't give any guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the very first program may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive terminal, this was no problem: users handed in a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced wait times when multiple batches were being processed.[citation needed]

text: Cooperative multitasking[edit]

text: The expression "time sharing" usually designated computers shared by interactive users at terminals, such as IBM's TSO, and VM/CMS. The term "time-sharing" is no longer commonly used, having been replaced by "multitasking", following the advent of personal computers and workstations rather than shared interactive systems.

text: Early multitasking systems used applications that voluntarily ceded time to one another. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer operating systems, is known today as cooperative multitasking. Although it is now rarely used in larger systems except for specific applications such as CICS or the JES2 subsystem, cooperative multitasking was once the scheduling scheme employed by Microsoft Windows (prior to Windows 95 and Windows NT) and Classic Mac OS (prior to Mac OS X) in order to enable multiple applications to be run simultaneously. Windows 9x also used cooperative multitasking, but only for 16-bit legacy applications, much the same way as pre-Leopard PowerPC versions of Mac OS X used it for Classic applications. The network operating system NetWare used cooperative multitasking up to NetWare 6.5. Cooperative multitasking is still used today on RISC OS systems.[2]

text: As a cooperatively multitasked system relies on each process regularly giving up time to other processes on the system, one poorly designed program can consume all of the CPU time for itself, either by performing extensive calculations or by busy waiting; both would cause the whole system to hang. In a server environment, this is a hazard that makes the entire environment unacceptably fragile.

text: Preemptive multitasking[edit]

text: Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee to each process a regular "slice" of operating time. It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process. Operating systems were developed to take advantage of these hardware capabilities and run multiple processes preemptively. Preemptive multitasking was implemented in the PDP-6 Monitor and MULTICS in 1964, in OS/360 MFT in 1967, and in Unix (1969, and was available in some operating systems for computers as small as DEC's PDP-8; it is a core feature of all Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, Solaris and BSD with its derivatives,[3] as well as modern versions of Windows.

text: At any specific time, processes can be grouped into two categories: those that are waiting for input or output (called "I/O bound"), and those that are fully utilizing the CPU ("CPU bound"). In primitive systems, the software would often "poll", or "busywait" while waiting for requested input (such as disk, keyboard or network input). During this time, the system was not performing useful work. With the advent of interrupts and preemptive multitasking, I/O bound processes could be "blocked", or put on hold, pending the arrival of the necessary data, allowing other processes to utilize the CPU. As the arrival of the requested data would generate an interrupt, blocked processes could be guaranteed a timely return to execution.[citation needed]

text: The earliest preemptive multitasking OS available to home users was Sinclair QDOS on the Sinclair QL, released in 1984, but very few people bought the machine. Commodore's powerful Amiga, released the following year, was the first commercially successful home computer to use the technology, and its multimedia abilities make it a clear ancestor of contemporary multitasking personal computers. Microsoft made preemptive multitasking a core feature of their flagship operating system in the early 1990s when developing Windows NT 3.1 and then Windows 95. It was later adopted on the Apple Macintosh by Mac OS X that, as a Unix-like operating system, uses preemptive multitasking for all native applications.

text: A similar model is used in Windows 9x and the Windows NT family, where native 32-bit applications are multitasked preemptively, and legacy 16-bit Windows 3.x programs are multitasked cooperatively within a single process, although in the NT family it is possible to force a 16-bit application to run as a separate preemptively multitasked process.[4] 64-bit editions of Windows, both for the x86-64 and Itanium architectures, no longer provide support for legacy 16-bit applications, and thus provide preemptive multitasking for all supported applications.

text: Real time[edit]

text: Another reason for multitasking was in the design of real-time computing systems, where there are a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system is coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time.[citation needed]

text: Multithreading[edit]

text: As multitasking greatly improved the throughput of computers, programmers started to implement applications as sets of cooperating processes (e. g., one process gathering input data, one process processing input data, one process writing out results on disk). This, however, required some tools to allow processes to efficiently exchange data.[citation needed]

text: Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as lightweight processes because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.[5][6][7]

text: While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named fibers, that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on machines with multiple processors.[citation needed]

text: Some systems directly support multithreading in hardware.

text: Memory protection[edit]

text: Essential to any multitasking system is to safely and effectively share access to system resources. Access to memory must be strictly managed to ensure that no process can inadvertently or deliberately read or write to memory locations outside of the process's address space. This is done for the purpose of general system stability and data integrity, as well as data security.

text: In general, memory access management is a responsibility of the operating system kernel, in combination with hardware mechanisms that provide supporting functionalities, such as a memory management unit (MMU). If a process attempts to access a memory location outside of its memory space, the MMU denies the request and signals the kernel to take appropriate actions; this usually results in forcibly terminating the offending process. Depending on the software and kernel design and the specific error in question, the user may receive an access violation error message such as "segmentation fault".

text: In a well designed and correctly implemented multitasking system, a given process can never directly access memory that belongs to another process. An exception to this rule is in the case of shared memory; for example, in the System V inter-process communication mechanism the kernel allocates memory to be mutually shared by multiple processes. Such features are often used by database management software such as PostgreSQL.

text: Inadequate memory protection mechanisms, either due to flaws in their design or poor implementations, allow for security vulnerabilities that may be potentially exploited by malicious software.

text: Memory swapping[edit]

text: Use of a swap file or swap partition is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of the primary memory in secondary storage. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time. Typically, a multitasking system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from secondary storage.[citation needed]

text: Programming[edit]

text: Processes that are entirely independent are not much trouble to program in a multitasking environment. Most of the complexity in multitasking systems comes from the need to share computer resources between tasks and to synchronize the operation of co-operating tasks.[citation needed]

text: Various concurrent computing techniques are used to avoid potential problems caused by multiple tasks attempting to access the same resource.[citation needed]

text: Bigger systems were sometimes built with a central processor(s) and some number of I/O processors, a kind of asymmetric multiprocessing.[citation needed]

text: Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric multiprocessing has introduced new complexities and capabilities.[citation needed]


document_title: Cult of Chucky

question_text: when does the cult of chucky take place

question_tokens: when does the cult of chucky take place

text: Cult of Chucky

text: Plot[edit]

text: Four years after the events of Curse of Chucky, an adult Andy Barclay is revealed to have the original Chucky's head, which is still conscious and deformed after being repeatedly tortured by Andy in retribution for his crimes. Nica Pierce has spent the past four years in a mental institution after being framed by Chucky for the murders of her family. After intense therapy, she now believes she was responsible for the murders and that Chucky was just a manifestation of her psychosis. As a result of her "breakthrough", her doctor, Dr. Foley, has her transferred to the medium security facility Harrogate Psychiatric Hospital.

text: Nica becomes part of a regular group therapy session, which is composed of Malcolm, a man with multiple identity disorder; Angela, an old woman who believes she is dead; Claire, a woman who burned her house down; and Madeleine, a patient who smothered her infant son to death. Dr. Foley introduces a new therapy technique which involves a Good Guy doll to the group. Most of the patients are unsettled by the doll except for Madeleine, who treats it as her baby.

text: Nica is visited by Tiffany Valentine, the legal guardian of her niece, Alice. Tiffany reveals that Alice has died and leaves her a Good Guy doll, which she claims was a gift from Alice. That night, Chucky awakens and discovers that Nica has attempted suicide. The next morning, Nica finds that her wrists have been stitched up, with a message stating "not so fast." She discovers that Angela has died, with the message "Chucky did it" in her blood. After realizing that Valentine was the last name of Charles Lee Ray's girlfriend, Nica begins to believe that Chucky is real. Believing Madeleine is in danger, Nica has Malcolm try to warn her. However, Madeline throws both the doll and Malcolm into an empty grave. The orderlies rescue Malcolm, but it is implied that Chucky has transferred his soul into his body. Chucky kills Claire next. Andy learns about the murders online and realizes that Chucky has somehow managed to transfer his soul into multiple bodies at once.

text: In a private session with Foley, Nica agrees to be hypnotized in order to regain any repressed memories about her involvement in the murders. While hypnotized, it is revealed that Foley has been sexually abusing Nica. Foley is then hit from behind by Chucky. Foley believes Nica is the one who assaulted him but is willing to keep quiet in order to blackmail her for sexual favors. Madeleine smothers her Good Guy doll with a pillow, forcing her to confront the repercussions of her real child's death. The orderlies bury the doll as a form of catharsis for Madeleine.

text: Andy hatches a plan to end the carnage by committing himself to the institution. He gets committed by assaulting one of the security guards. Foley receives a package brought in by Carlos. It is another Good Guy doll. Madeleine is visited by her doll, who has risen from the grave, and allows him to kill her so she can finally be with her baby. Foley attempts to assault Nica but is knocked out by one of the Chucky dolls. The Chucky doll awakens the doll Andy had sent. The three Chuckys reveal that the original Chucky found a voodoo spell on the Internet, which allowed him to separate his soul into multiple host bodies. Alice was one of his hosts, but was killed. Carlos is then killed by all the dolls in front of Nica.

text: Tiffany returns, killing a security guard. One of the Chucky's transfers his soul into Nica, causing her to have the ability to walk again. She kills Foley and stumbles upon Malcolm, who is killed by Madeline's Chucky. The short-haired Chucky attacks Andy but Andy reaches into Chucky's chest and pulls out a gun he planted there. He shoots the doll before stomping its head, killing him. He attempts to shoot Nica, but has wasted all of his ammunition. The institution is sent into lockdown, resulting in Andy being locked inside his cell, Madeline's Chucky going into hiding, and Nica escaping. Nica reunites with Tiffany before driving off together with the Tiffany doll, which is revealed to be alive as well.

text: In a post-credits scene, Andy's former foster sister Kyle from the second film enters Andy's house, having been sent by Andy to continue torturing the original Chucky's severed head.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Fiona Dourif as Nica Pierce[4]
Michael Therriault as Dr. Thaddeus Foley
Adam Hurtig as Multiple Malcolm
Alex Vincent as Andy Barclay[4]
Elisabeth Rosen as Madeleine
Grace Lynn Kung as Claire[5]
Marina Stephenson Kerr as Angela
Zak Santiago as Nurse Carlos
Ali Tataryn as Nurse Ashley
Jennifer Tilly as Tiffany Valentine[4]
Brad Dourif as the voice of Chucky[4]
Summer H. Howell as Alice Pierce
Christine Elise as Kyle

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In December 2013, following the release of Curse of Chucky, Don Mancini confirmed that he was planning on developing a seventh installment in the Chucky franchise.[6] By February 2015, Mancini was in the process of writing the script for the film.[7] A year later, Mancini, Jennifer Tilly and Fiona Dourif confirmed that shooting would soon begin for the film.[8] In December 2016, the production office for the film was opened in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.[9] On January 5, 2017, the premise, cast, production schedule and distribution details for Cult of Chucky were revealed, with shooting set to commence four days later.[3]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On January 5, 2017, the principal cast for Cult of Chucky was announced, featuring the talent of Brad Dourif as Chucky, Fiona Dourif as Nica Pierce, Alex Vincent as Andy Barclay, Jennifer Tilly as Tiffany and Summer H. Howell as Alice.[4][10] Each of the first announced members were featured in previous films, with Brad Dourif and Vincent from the Child’s Play trilogy, Tilly from Bride of Chucky (1998) and Seed of Chucky (2004), and Fiona Dourif and Howell from Curse of Chucky (2013). Cult of Chucky marks Vincent's first principal role in the franchise since he was a child actor in Child's Play 2, as he was only mentioned in Bride of Chucky and Seed of Chucky.[4] Although Andy was in Child's Play 3, he was played by a different actor, Justin Whalin due to the events taking place 8 years after the second film, which came out less than a year earlier. Andy also appeared in Curse of Chucky, during a post-credits scene.

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography for Cult of Chucky began in Winnipeg on January 9, 2017, with the cinematographer from Curse of Chucky, Michael Marshall, returning in the same capacity.[3] Tony Gardner returned to create and perform the Chucky character as he had done previously for Seed of Chucky and Curse of Chucky.[11] Filming ended on February 18, 2017.[12]

text: Release[edit]

text: Cult of Chucky was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and Netflix on October 3, 2017.[13] Unlike the Blu-ray and DVD versions of the film, the Netflix version was not unrated.[14] The rated version is about a minute shorter than the unrated cut[14] and does not have a post-credits scene.[14]

text: Reception[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 16 reviews, and an average rating of 6.3/10.[15]

text: An early review posted on Bloody Disgusting, was very favorable of the film. Benedict Seal stated: "Seventh films have no right to be this good or break this much new ground. Cult of Chucky takes this wild story in a whole host of new directions that franchise fans are sure to get a kick out of. There are so many batshit delights, especially as things escalate towards the finale, but to spoil them would be to ruin Mancini and co.’s grand carnival. Without a doubt, Child's Play is a horror franchise worth treasuring."[16] Stephen Dalton of The Hollywood Reporter also had mostly positive things to say about it, stating that "the bratty quips and cheerfully nasty murders come thick and fast, with drillings and decapitations, high heels and compressed air canisters all part of their repertoire. Mancini’s low-key shooting style also shifts up a gear with slow-motion split-screen action and deranged psycho-lesbian clinches, like Brian de Palma on an indie-movie budget. A lean 91 minutes long, Cult of Chucky is part self-spoofing slasher, part lowbrow bloodbath and all guilty pleasure."[17] Scott Mendelson of Forbes said "Cult of Chucky is either the Final Chapter or a New Beginning. Either way, this most tenacious of horror franchises can walk on with its head held high."[18] William Bibbiani writing for IGN gave the film 7.4 out of 10 stated "Too many horror sequels feel like cheap and soulless cash ins. Cult of Chucky has big ideas, strong performances and some moments that rank among the best in the series. The other classic slasher franchises may be failing, but lately, Chucky is making entertaining horror sequels look like child’s play."[19]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In October 2017, Don Mancini expressed an interest in having Glen/Glenda from Seed of Chucky return in a future film, and that most references to that character had been cut from Cult of Chucky.[20]