document_title: Eukaryotic transcription

question_text: where does mrna processing take place in eurkaryotic cells

text: Eukaryotic transcription

text: Overview[edit]

text: Transcription is the process of copying genetic information stored in a DNA strand into a transportable complementary strand of RNA.[1] Eukaryotic transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.[1] The transcriptional machinery that catalyzes this complex reaction has at its core three multi-subunit RNA polymerases. RNA polymerase I is responsible for transcribing RNA that codes for genes that become structural components of the ribosome. [1]

text: Protein coding genes are transcribed into messenger RNAs (mRNAs) that carry the information from DNA to the site of protein synthesis.[1] Although mRNAs possess great diversity, they are not the most abundant RNA species made in the cell. The so-called non-coding RNAs account for the large majority of the transcriptional output of a cell.[2] These non-coding RNAs perform a variety of important cellular functions.[2]

text: RNA polymerase[edit]

text: Eukaryotes have three nuclear RNA polymerases, each with distinct roles and properties[3][4]

text:
Name
Location
Product

RNA Polymerase I (Pol I, Pol A)
nucleolus
larger ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (28S, 18S, 5.8S)

RNA Polymerase II (Pol II, Pol B)
nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA), most small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), small interfering RNA (siRNAs) and microRNA (miRNA).

RNA Polymerase III (Pol III, Pol C)
nucleus (and possibly the nucleolus-nucleoplasm interface)
transfer RNA (tRNA), other small RNAs (including the small 5S ribosomal RNA (5s rRNA), snRNA U6, signal recognition particle RNA (SRP RNA) and other stable short RNAs

text: RNA polymerase I (Pol I) catalyses the transcription of all rRNA genes except 5S.[3][4] These rRNA genes are organised into a single transcriptional unit and are transcribed into a continuous transcript. This precursor is then processed into three rRNAs: 18S, 5.8S, and 28S. The transcription of rRNA genes takes place in a specialised structure of the nucleus called the nucleolus,[5] where the transcribed rRNAs are combined with proteins to form ribosomes.[6]

text: RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is responsible for the transcription of all mRNAs, some snRNAs, siRNAs, and all miRNAs.[3][4] Many Pol II transcripts exist transiently as single strand precursor RNAs (pre-RNAs) that are further processed to generate mature RNAs.[1] For example, precursor mRNAs (pre-mRNAs)are extensively processed before exiting into the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore for protein translation.

text: RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribes small non-coding RNAs, including tRNAs, 5S rRNA, U6 snRNA, SRP RNA, and other stable short RNAs such as ribonuclease P RNA.[7]

text: RNA Polymerases I, II, and III contain 14, 12, and 17 subunits, respectively.[8] All three eukaryotic polymerases have five core subunits that exhibit homology with the β, β’, αI, αII, and ω subunits of E. coli RNA polymerase. An identical ω-like subunit (RBP6) is used by all three eukaryotic polymerases, while the same α-like subunits are used by Pol I and III. The three eukaryotic polymerases share four other common subunits among themselves. The remaining subunits are unique to each RNA polymerase. The additional subunits found in Pol I and Pol III relative to Pol II, are homologous to Pol II transcription factors.[8]

text: Crystal structures of RNA polymerases I[9] and II [10] provide an opportunity to understand the interactions among the subunits and the molecular mechanism of eukaryotic transcription in atomic detail.

text: The carboxyl terminal domain (CTD) of RPB1, the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II, plays an important role in bringing together the machinery necessary for the synthesis and processing of Pol II transcripts.[11] Long and structurally disordered, the CTD contains multiple repeats of heptapeptide sequence YSPTSPS that are subject to phosphorylation and other posttranslational modifications during the transcription cycle. These modifications and their regulation constitute the operational code for the CTD to control transcription initiation, elongation and termination and to couple transcription and RNA processing.[11]

text: Initiation[edit]

text: The initiation of gene transcription in eukaryotes occurs in specific steps.[1] First, an RNA polymerase along with general transcription factors binds to the promoter region of the gene to form a closed complex called the preinitiation complex. The subsequent transition of the complex from the closed state to the open state results in the melting or separation of the two DNA strands and the positioning of the template strand to the active site of the RNA polymerase. Without the need of a primer, RNA polymerase can initiate the synthesis of a new RNA chain using the template DNA strand to guide ribonucleotide selection and polymerization chemistry.[1] However, many of the initiated syntheses are aborted before the transcripts reach a significant length (~10 nucleotides). During these abortive cycles, the polymerase keeps making and releasing short transcripts until it is able to produce a transcript that surpasses ten nucleotides in length. Once this threshold is attained, RNA polymerase passes the promoter and transcription proceeds to the elongation phase.[1]

text: Eukaryotic promoters and general transcription factors[edit]

text: Pol II-transcribed genes contain a region in the immediate vicinity of the transcription start site (TSS) that binds and positions the preinitiation complex. This region is called the core promoter because of its essential role in transcription initiation.[12][13] Different classes of sequence elements are found in the promoters. For example, the TATA box is the highly conserved DNA recognition sequence for the TATA box binding protein, TBP, whose binding initiates transcription complex assembly at many genes.

text: Eukaryotic genes also contain regulatory sequences beyond the core promoter. These cis-acting control elements bind transcriptional activators or repressors to increase or decrease transcription from the core promoter. Well-characterized regulatory elements include enhancers, silencers, and insulators. These regulatory sequences can be spread over a large genomic distance, sometimes located hundreds of kilobases from the core promoters.[1]

text: General transcription factors are a group of proteins involved in transcription initiation and regulation.[1] These factors typically have DNA-binding domains that bind specific sequence elements of the core promoter and help recruit RNA polymerase to the transcriptional start site. General transcription factors for RNA polymerase II include TFIID, TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIIF, TFIIE, and TFIIH.[1][14][15]

text: Assembly of preinitiation complex[edit]

text: To prepare for transcription, a complete set of general transcription factors and RNA polymerase need to be assembled at the core promoter to form the ~2 million dalton preinitiation complex.[16] For example, for promoters that contain a TATA box near the TSS, the recognition of TATA box by the TBP subunit of TFIID initiates the assembly of a transcription complex. The next proteins to enter are TFIIA and TFIIB, which stabilize the DNA-TFIID complex and recruit Pol II in association with TFIIF and additional transcription factors. TFIIF serves as the bridge between the TATA-bound TBP and polymerase. One of the last transcription factors to be recruited to the preinitiation complex is TFIIH, which plays an important role in promoter melting and escape.[17]

text: Promoter melting and open complex formation[edit]

text: For pol II-transcribed genes, and unlike bacterial RNA polymerase, promoter melting requires hydrolysis of ATP and is mediated by TFIIH.[17] TFIIH is a ten-subunit protein, including both ATPase and protein kinase activities.[18] While the upstream promoter DNA is held in a fixed position by TFIID, TFIIH pulls downstream double-stranded DNA into the cleft of the polymerase, driving the separation of DNA strands and the transition of the preinitiation complex from the closed to open state. TFIIB aids in open complex formation by binding the melted DNA and stabilizing the transcription bubble.

text: Abortive initiation[edit]

text: Once the initiation complex is open, the first ribonucleotide is brought into the active site to initiate the polymerization reaction in the absence of a primer.[1] This generates a nascent RNA chain that forms a hetero-duplex with the template DNA strand. However, before entering the elongation phase, polymerase may terminate prematurely and release a short, truncated transcript. This process is called abortive initiation.[19] Many cycles of abortive initiation may occur before the transcript grows to sufficient length to promote polymerase escape from the promoter. Throughout abortive initiation cycles, RNA polymerase remains bound to the promoter and pulls downstream DNA into its catalytic cleft in a scrunching-kind of motion.[19]

text: Promoter escape[edit]

text: When a transcript attains the threshold length of ten nucleotides, it enters the RNA exit channel.[1] The polymerase breaks its interactions with the promoter elements and any regulatory proteins associated with the initiation complex that it no longer needs.[20] Promoter escape in eukaryotes requires ATP hydrolysis and, in the case of Pol II-phosphorylation of the CTD. Meanwhile, the transcription bubble collapses down to 12-14 nucleotides, providing kinetic energy required for the escape.[1]

text: Elongation[edit]

text: After escaping the promoter and shedding most of the transcription factors for initiation, the polymerase acquires new factors for the next phase of transcription: elongation.[21][22] Transcription elongation is a processive process. Double stranded DNA that enters from the front of the enzyme is unzipped to avail the template strand for RNA synthesis. For every DNA base pair separated by the advancing polymerase, one hybrid RNA:DNA base pair is immediately formed. DNA strands and nascent RNA chain exit from separate channels; the two DNA strands reunite at the trailing end of the transcription bubble while the single strand RNA emerges alone.

text: Elongation factors[edit]

text: Among the proteins recruited to polymerase are elongation factors, thus called because they stimulate transcription elongation.[23] There are different classes of elongation factors. Some factors can increase the overall rate of transcribing, some can help the polymerase through transient pausing sites, and some can assist the polymerase to transcribe through chromatin.[24] One of the elongation factors, P-TEFb, is particularly important.[25] P-TEFb phosphorylates the second residue (Ser-2) of the CTD repeats (YSPTSPS) of the bound Pol II. P-TEFb also phosphorylates and activates SPT5 and TAT-SF1. SPT5 is a universal transcription factor that helps recruit 5'-capping enzyme to Pol II with a CTD phosphorylated at Ser-5. TAF-SF1 recruits components of the RNA splicing machinery to the Ser-2 phosphorylated CTD. P-TEFb also helps suppress transient pausing of polymerase when it encounters certain sequences immediately following initiation.[25]

text: Transcription fidelity[edit]

text: Transcription fidelity is achieved through multiple mechanisms. RNA polymerases select correct nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) substrate to prevent transcription errors. Only the NTP which correctly base pairs with the coding base in the DNA is admitted to the active center.[26][27] RNA polymerase performs two known proof reading functions to detect and remove misincorporated nucleotides: pyrophosphorylytic editing and hydrolytic editing.[1] The former removes the incorrectly inserted ribonucleotide by a simple reversal of the polymerization reaction, while the latter involves backtracking of the polymerase and cleaving of a segment of error-containing RNA product. Elongation factor TFIIS stimulates an inherent ribonuclease activity in the polymerase, allowing the removal of misincorporated bases through limited local RNA degradation.[28] Note that all reactions (phosphodiester bond synthesis, pyrophosphorolysis, phosphodiester bond hydrolysis) are performed by RNA polymerase by using a single active center.[29]

text: Pausing, poising, and backtracking[edit]

text: Transcription elongation is not a smooth ride along the DNA railway. For proofreading, the polymerase is made to back-up, erase some of the RNA it has already made and have another go at transcription.[1] In general, RNA polymerase does not transcribe through a gene at a constant pace. Rather it pauses periodically at certain sequences, sometimes for long periods of time before resuming transcription.[30] In extreme cases, for example, when the polymerase encounters a damaged nucleotide, it comes to a complete halt. More often, an elongating polymerase is stalled near the promoter.[30] Promoter-proximal pausing during early elongation is a commonly used mechanism for regulating genes poised to be expressed rapidly or in a coordinated fashion. Pausing is mediated by a complex called NELF (negative elongation factor) in collaboration with DSIF (DRB-sensitivity-inducing factor containing SPT4/SPT5).[31] The blockage is released once the polymerase receives an activation signal, such as the phosphorylation of Ser-2 of CTD tail by P-TEFb. Other elongation factors such as ELL and TFIIS stimulate the rate of elongation by limiting the length of time that polymerase pauses.[1]

text: RNA processing[edit]

text: Elongating polymerase is associated with a set of protein factors required for various types of RNA processing.[1] mRNA is capped as soon as it emerges from the RNA-exit channel of the polymerase. After capping, dephosphorylation of Ser-5 within the CTD repeats may be responsible for dissociation of the capping machinery. Further phosphorylation of Ser-2 causes recruitment of the RNA splicing machinery that catalyzes the removal of non-coding introns to generate mature mRNA.[1] Alternative splicing expands the protein complements in eukaryotes. Just as with 5’-capping and splicing, the CTD tail is involved in recruiting enzymes responsible for 3’-polyadenylation, the final RNA processing event that is coupled with the termination of transcription.[1]

text: Termination[edit]

text: The last stage of transcription is termination, which leads to the dissociation of the complete transcript and the release of RNA polymerase from the template DNA.The process differs for each of the three RNA polymerases.[32] The mechanism of termination is the least understood of the three transcription stages.

text: Factor-dependent[edit]

text: The termination of transcription of pre-rRNA genes by polymerase Pol I is performed by a system that needs a specific transcription termination factor.[3] The mechanism used bears some resemblance to the rho-dependent termination in prokaryotes.[33] Eukaryotic cells contain hundreds of ribosomal DNA repeats, sometimes distributed over multiple chromosomes. Termination of transcription occurs in the ribosomal intergenic spacer region that contains several transcription termination sites upstream of a Pol I pausing site. Through a yet unknown mechanism, the 3’-end of the transcript is cleaved, generating a large primary rRNA molecule that is further processed into the mature 18S, 5.8S and 28S rRNAs.

text: As Pol II reaches the end of a gene, two protein complexes carried by the CTD, CPSF (cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor) and CSTF (cleavage stimulation factor), recognize the poly-A signal in the transcribed RNA.[32] Poly-A-bound CPSF and CSTF recruit other proteins to carry out RNA cleavage and then polyadenylation. Poly-A polymerase adds approximately 200 adenines to the cleaved 3’ end of the RNA without a template.[32] The long poly-A tail is unique to transcripts made by Pol II.

text: In the process of terminating transcription by Pol I and Pol II, the elongation complex does not dissolve immediately after the RNA is cleaved. The polymerase continues to move along the template, generating a second RNA molecule associated with the elongation complex.[1] Two models have been proposed to explain how termination is achieved at last.[32] The allosteric model states that when transcription proceeds through the termination sequence, it causes disassembly of elongation factors and/or an assembly of termination factors that cause conformational changes of the elongation complex.[33][34] The torpedo model suggests that a 5' to 3' exonuclease degrades the second RNA as it emerges from the elongation complex. Polymerase is released as the highly processive exonuclease overtakes it. It is proposed that an emerging view will express a merge of these two models.[34]

text: Factor-independent[edit]

text: RNA polymerase III can terminate transcription efficiently without the involvement of additional factors. The Pol III termination signal consists of a stretch of thymines (on the nontemplate strand) located within 40bp downstream from the 3' end of mature RNAs.[32] The poly-T termination signal pauses Pol III and causes it to backtrack to the nearest RNA hairpin to become a “dead-end” complex.[35] Consistent with the allosteric mechanism of termination,[36] the RNA hairpin allosterically opens Pol III and causes the elongation complex to disintegrate. The extensive structure embedded in the Pol III-transcript thus is responsible for the factor-independent release of Pol III at the end of a gene. RNA-duplex-dependent termination is an ancient mechanism that dates back to the last universal common ancestor.

text: Eukaryotic transcriptional control[edit]

text: The regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes is achieved through the interaction of several levels of control that acts both locally to turn on or off individual genes in response to a specific cellular need and globally to maintain a chromatin-wide gene expression pattern that shapes cell identity.[1][37] Because eukaryotic genome is wrapped around histones to form nucleosomes and higher-order chromatin structures, the substrates for transcriptional machinery are in general partially concealed.[1] Without regulatory proteins, many genes are expressed at low level or not expressed at all. Transcription requires displacement of the positioned nucleosomes to enable the transcriptional machinery to gain access of the DNA.[38]

text: All steps in the transcription are subject to some degree of regulation.[1] Transcription initiation in particular is the primary level at which gene expression is regulated. Targeting the rate-limiting initial step is the most efficient in terms of energy costs for the cell. Transcription initiation is regulated by cis-acting elements (enhancers, silencers, isolators) within the regulatory regions of the DNA, and sequence-specific trans-acting factors that act as activators or repressors.[1] Gene transcription can also be regulated post-initiation by targeting the movement of the elongating polymerase.[39]

text: Global control and epigenetic regulation[edit]

text: The eukaryotic genome is organized into a compact chromatin structure that allows only regulated access to DNA. The chromatin structure can be globally "open" and more transcriptionally permissive, or globally "condensed" and transcriptionally inactive. The former (euchromatin) is lightly packed and rich in genes under active transcription. The latter (heterochromatin) includes gene-poor regions such as telomeres and centromeres but also regions with normal gene density but transcriptionally silenced. Transcription can be silenced by histone modification (deaceltylation and methylation), RNA interference, and/or DNA methylation.[40]

text: The gene expression patterns that define cell identity are inherited through cell division.[1] This process is called epigenetic regulation. DNA methylation is reliably inherited through the action of maintenance methylases that modify the nascent DNA strand generated by replication.[1] In mammalian cells, DNA methylation is the primary marker of transcriptionally silenced regions. Specialized proteins can recognize the marker and recruit histone deacetylases and methylases to re-establish the silencing. Nucleosome histone modifications could also be inherited during cell division, however, it is not clear whether it can work independently without the direction by DNA methylation.[1]

text: Gene-specific activation[edit]

text: The two main tasks of transcription initiation are to provide RNA polymerase with an access to the promoter and to assemble general transcription factors with polymerase into a transcription initiation complex. Diverse mechanisms of initiating transcription by overriding inhibitory signals at the gene promoter have been identified.[1] Eukaryotic genes have acquired extensive regulatory sequences that encompass a large number of regulator-binding sites and spread overall kilobases (sometimes hundreds of kilobases) from the promoter–-both upstream and downstream.[1] The regulator binding sites are often clustered together into units called enhancers. Enhancers can facilitate highly cooperative action of several transcription factors (which constitute enhanceosomes). Remote enhancers allow transcription regulation at a distance. Insulators situated between enhancers and promoters help define the genes that an enhancer can or cannot influence.

text: Eukaryotic transcriptional activators have separate DNA-binding and activating functions.[1] Upon binding to its cis-element, an activator can recruit polymerase directly or recruit other factors needed by the transcriptional machinery. An activator can also recruit nucleosome modifiers that alter chromatin in the vicinity of the promoter and thereby help initiation. Multiple activators can work together, either by recruiting a common or two mutually dependent components of the transcriptional machinery, or by helping each other bind to their DNA sites.[1] These interactions can synergize multiple signaling inputs and produce intricate transcriptional responses to address cellular needs.

text: Gene-specific repression[edit]

text: Eukaryotic transcription repressors share some of the mechanisms used by their prokaryotic counterparts. For example, by binding to a site on DNA that overlaps with the binding site of an activator, a repressor can inhibit binding of the activator. But more frequently, eukaryotic repressors inhibit the function of an activator by masking its activating domain, preventing its nuclear localization, promoting its degradation, or inactivating it through chemical modifications.[1] Repressors can directly inhibit transcription initiation by binding to a site upstream of a promoter and interacting with the transcriptional machinery. Repressors can indirectly repress transcription by recruiting histone modifiers (deacetylases and methylases) or nucleosome remodeling enzymes that affect the accessibility of the DNA.[1] Repressing histone and DNA modifications are also the basis of transcriptional silencing that can spread along the chromatin and switch off multiple genes.[41]

text: Elongation and termination control[edit]

text: The elongation phase starts once assembly of the elongation complex has been completed, and progresses until a termination sequence is encountered.[1] The post-initiation movement of RNA polymerase is the target of another class of important regulatory mechanisms. For example, the transcriptional activator Tat affects elongation rather than initiation during its regulation of HIV transcription.[42] In fact, many eukaryotic genes are regulated by releasing a block to transcription elongation called promoter-proximal pausing.[43] Pausing can influence chromatin structure at promoters to facilitate gene activity and lead to rapid or synchronous transcriptional responses when cells are exposed to an activation signal.[30] Pausing is associated with the binding of two negative elongation factors, DSIF (SPT4/SPT5) and NELF, to the elongation complex. Other factors can also influence the stability and duration of the paused polymerase.[44] Pause release is triggered by the recruitment of the P-TEFb kinase.[39]

text: Transcription termination has also emerged as an important area of transcriptional regulation. Termination is coupled with the efficient recycling of polymerase.[45] The factors associated with transcription termination can also mediate gene looping and thereby determine the efficiency of re-initiation.

text: Transcription-coupled DNA repair[edit]

text: When transcription is arrested by the presence of a lesion in the transcribed strand of a gene, DNA repair proteins are recruited to the stalled RNA polymerase to initiate a process called transcription-coupled repair.[46] Central to this process is the general transcription factor TFIIH that has ATPase activity. TFIIH causes a conformational change in the polymerase, to expose the transcription bubble trapped inside, in order for the DNA repair enzymes to gain access to the lesion.[47] Thus, RNA polymerase serves as damage-sensing protein in the cell to target repair enzymes to genes that are being actively transcribed.

text: Comparisons between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription[edit]

text: Eukaryotic transcription is more complex than prokaryotic transcription. For instance, in eukaryotes the genetic material (DNA), and therefore transcription, is primarily localized to the nucleus, where it is separated from the cytoplasm (in which translation occurs) by the nuclear membrane. This allows for the temporal regulation of gene expression through the sequestration of the RNA in the nucleus, and allows for selective transport of mature RNAs to the cytoplasm. Bacteria do not have a distinct nucleus that separates DNA from ribosome and mRNA is translated into protein as soon as it is transcribed. The coupling between the two processes provides an important mechanism for prokaryotic gene regulation.[1]

text: At the level of initiation, RNA polymerase in prokaryotes (bacteria in particular) binds strongly to the promoter region and initiates a high basal rate of transcription. No ATP hydrolysis is needed for the close-to-open transition, promoter melting is driven by binding reactions that favor the melted conformation. Chromatin greatly impedes transcription in eukaryotes. Assembly of large multi-protein preinitiation complex is required for promoter-specific initiation. Promoter melting in eukaryotes requires hydrolysis of ATP. As a result, eukaryotic RNA polymerases exhibit a low basal rate of transcription initiation.[41]

text: Regulation of transcription in cancer[edit]

text: In vertebrates, the majority of gene promoters contain a CpG island with numerous CpG sites.[48] When many of a gene's promoter CpG sites are methylated the gene becomes silenced.[49] Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6 driver mutations and 33 to 66 hitchhiker or passenger mutations.[50] However, transcriptional silencing may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally silenced by CpG island methylation (see regulation of transcription in cancer). Transcriptional repression in cancer can also occur by other epigenetic mechanisms, such as altered expression of microRNAs.[51] In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of BRCA1 may occur more frequently by over-expressed microRNA-182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter (see Low expression of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers).


document_title: List of Major League Baseball All-Star Games

question_text: who won last year's major league baseball all-star game

question_tokens: who won last year 's major league baseball all-star game

root

text: Game results[edit]

text:
Date
Winning League (All-Time Record)
Score
Venue
Host Team
Attendance
MVP
Winning Pitcher
Losing Pitcher

July 6, 1933
American
(1–0–0 AL)
4–2
Comiskey Park
Chicago White Sox
47,595

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)
Bill Hallahan, St. Louis (NL)

July 10, 1934
American
(2–0–0 AL)
9–7
Polo Grounds
New York Giants
48,368

Mel Harder, Cleveland (AL)
Van Mungo, Brooklyn (NL)

July 8, 1935
American
(3–0–0 AL)
4–1
Cleveland Stadium
Cleveland Indians
69,812

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)
Bill Walker, St. Louis (NL)

July 7, 1936
National
(3–1–0 AL)
4–3
National League Park
Boston Bees
25,556

Dizzy Dean, St. Louis (NL)
Lefty Grove, Boston, (AL)

July 7, 1937
American
(4–1–0 AL)
8–3
Griffith Stadium
Washington Senators
31,391

Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)
Dizzy Dean, St. Louis (NL)

July 6, 1938
National
(4–2–0 AL)
4–1
Crosley Field
Cincinnati Reds
27,067

Johnny Vander Meer, Cincinnati (NL)
Lefty Gomez, New York (AL)

July 11, 1939
American
(5–2–0 AL)
3–1
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
62,892

Tommy Bridges, Detroit (AL)
Bill Lee, Chicago (NL)

July 9, 1940
National
(5–3–0 AL)
4–0
Sportsman's Park
St. Louis Cardinals
32,373

Paul Derringer, Cincinnati (NL)
Red Ruffing, New York (AL)

July 8, 1941
American
(6–3–0 AL)
7–5
Briggs Stadium
Detroit Tigers
54,674

Eddie Smith, Chicago (AL)
Claude Passeau, Chicago (NL)

July 6, 1942
American
(7–3–0 AL)
3–1
Polo Grounds
New York Giants
34,178

Spud Chandler, New York (AL)
Mort Cooper, St. Louis (NL)

July 13, 1943
American
(8–3–0 AL)
5–3
Shibe Park
Philadelphia Athletics
31,938

Dutch Leonard, Washington (AL)
Mort Cooper, St. Louis (NL)

July 11, 1944
National
(8–4–0 AL)
7–1
Forbes Field
Pittsburgh Pirates
29,589

Ken Raffensberger, Philadelphia (NL)
Tex Hughson, Boston (AL)

1945
Not held because of World War II

July 9, 1946
American
(9–4–0 AL)
12–0
Fenway Park
Boston Red Sox
34,906

Bob Feller, Cleveland (AL)
Claude Passeau, Chicago (NL)

July 8, 1947
American
(10–4–0 AL)
2–1
Wrigley Field
Chicago Cubs
41,123

Spec Shea, New York (AL)
Johnny Sain, Boston (NL)

July 13, 1948
American
(11–4–0 AL)
5–2
Sportsman's Park
St. Louis Browns
34,009

Vic Raschi, New York (AL)
Johnny Schmitz, Chicago (NL)

July 12, 1949
American
(12–4–0 AL)
11–7
Ebbets Field
Brooklyn Dodgers
32,577

Virgil Trucks, Detroit (AL)
Don Newcombe, Brooklyn (NL)

July 11, 1950
National
(12–5–0 AL)
4–3
(14 innings)
Comiskey Park
Chicago White Sox
46,127

Ewell Blackwell, Cincinnati (NL)
Ted Gray, Detroit (AL)

July 10, 1951
National
(12–6–0 AL)
8–3
Briggs Stadium
Detroit Tigers
52,075

Sal Maglie, New York (NL)
Ed Lopat, New York (AL)

July 8, 1952
National
(12–7–0 AL)
3–2
(5 innings, rain)
Shibe Park
Philadelphia Phillies
32,785

Bob Rush, Chicago (NL)
Bob Lemon, Cleveland (AL)

July 14, 1953
National
(12–8–0 AL)
5–1
Crosley Field
Cincinnati Reds
30,846

Warren Spahn, Milwaukee (NL)
Allie Reynolds, New York (AL)

July 13, 1954
American
(13–8–0 AL)
11–9
Cleveland Stadium
Cleveland Indians
69,751

Dean Stone, Washington (AL)
Gene Conley, Milwaukee (NL)

July 12, 1955
National
(13–9–0 AL)
6–5
(12 innings)
County Stadium
Milwaukee Braves
45,643

Gene Conley, Milwaukee (NL)
Frank Sullivan, Boston (AL)

July 10, 1956
National
(13–10–0 AL)
7–3
Griffith Stadium
Washington Senators
28,843

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)
Billy Pierce, Chicago (AL)

July 9, 1957
American
(14–10–0 AL)
6–5
Busch Stadium
St. Louis Cardinals
30,693

Jim Bunning, Detroit (AL)
Curt Simmons, Philadelphia (NL)

July 8, 1958
American
(15–10–0 AL)
4–3
Memorial Stadium
Baltimore Orioles
48,829

Early Wynn, Chicago (AL)
Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)

July 7, 1959
National
(15–11–0 AL)
5–4
Forbes Field
Pittsburgh Pirates
35,277

Johnny Antonelli, San Francisco (NL)
Whitey Ford, New York (AL)

August 3, 1959
American
(16–11–0 AL)
5–3
Memorial Coliseum
Los Angeles Dodgers
55,105

Jerry Walker, Baltimore (AL)
Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)

July 11, 1960
National
(16–12–0 AL)
5–3
Municipal Stadium
Kansas City Athletics
30,619

Bob Friend, Pittsburgh (NL)
Bill Monbouquette, Boston (AL)

July 13, 1960
National
(16–13–0 AL)
6–0
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
38,362

Vern Law, Pittsburgh (NL)
Whitey Ford, New York (AL)

July 11, 1961
National
(16–14–0 AL)
5–4
(10 innings)
Candlestick Park
San Francisco Giants
44,115

Stu Miller, San Francisco (NL)
Hoyt Wilhelm, Baltimore (AL)

July 31, 1961
TIE
(16–14–1 AL)
1–1
Fenway Park
Boston Red Sox
31,851
N/A
N/A
N/A

July 10, 1962
National
(16–15–1 AL)
3–1
D.C. Stadium
Washington Senators
45,480
Maury Wills, Los Angeles (NL)
Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)
Camilo Pascual, Minnesota (AL)

July 30, 1962
American
(17–15–1 AL)
9–4
Wrigley Field
Chicago Cubs
38,359
Leon Wagner, Los Angeles (AL)
Ray Herbert, Chicago (AL)
Art Mahaffey, Philadelphia (NL)

July 9, 1963
National
(17–16–1 AL)
5–3
Cleveland Stadium
Cleveland Indians
44,160
Willie Mays, San Francisco (NL)
Larry Jackson, Chicago (NL)
Jim Bunning, Detroit (AL)

July 7, 1964
National
(17–17–1)
7–4
Shea Stadium
New York Mets
50,850
Johnny Callison, Philadelphia (NL)
Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)
Dick Radatz, Boston (AL)

July 13, 1965
National
(18–17–1 NL)
6–5
Metropolitan Stadium
Minnesota Twins
46,706
Juan Marichal, San Francisco (NL)
Sandy Koufax, Los Angeles (NL)
Sam McDowell, Cleveland (AL)

July 12, 1966
National
(19–17–1 NL)
2–1
(10 innings)
Busch Memorial Stadium
St. Louis Cardinals
49,936
Brooks Robinson, Baltimore (AL)
Gaylord Perry, San Francisco (NL)
Pete Richert, Washington (AL)

July 11, 1967
National
(20–17–1 NL)
2–1
(15 innings)
Anaheim Stadium
California Angels
46,309
Tony Pérez, Cincinnati Reds (NL)
Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)
Catfish Hunter, Kansas City (AL)

July 9, 1968
National
(21–17–1 NL)
1–0
Astrodome
Houston Astros
48,321
Willie Mays, San Francisco (NL)
Don Drysdale, Los Angeles (NL)
Luis Tiant, Cleveland (AL)

July 23, 1969
National
(22–17–1 NL)
9–3
RFK Stadium
Washington Senators
45,259
Willie McCovey, San Francisco (NL)
Steve Carlton, St. Louis (NL)
Mel Stottlemyre, New York (AL)

July 14, 1970
National
(23–17–1 NL)
5–4
(12 innings)
Riverfront Stadium
Cincinnati Reds
51,838
Carl Yastrzemski, Boston (AL)
Claude Osteen, Los Angeles (NL)
Clyde Wright, California Angels (AL)

July 13, 1971
American
(23–18–1 NL)
6–4
Tiger Stadium
Detroit Tigers
53,559
Frank Robinson, Baltimore (AL)
Vida Blue, Oakland (AL)
Dock Ellis, Pittsburgh (NL)

July 25, 1972
National
(24–18–1 NL)
4–3
(10 innings)
Atlanta Stadium
Atlanta Braves
53,107
Joe Morgan, Cincinnati (NL)
Tug McGraw, New York (NL)
Dave McNally, Baltimore (AL)

July 24, 1973
National
(25–18–1 NL)
7–1
Royals Stadium
Kansas City Royals
40,849
Bobby Bonds, San Francisco (NL)
Rick Wise, St. Louis (NL)
Bert Blyleven, Minnesota (AL)

July 23, 1974
National
(26–18–1 NL)
7–2
Three Rivers Stadium
Pittsburgh Pirates
50,706
Steve Garvey, Los Angeles (NL)
Ken Brett, Pittsburgh (NL)
Luis Tiant, Boston (AL)

July 15, 1975
National
(27–18–1 NL)
6–3
County Stadium
Milwaukee Brewers
51,480
Bill Madlock, Chicago (NL)
Jon Matlack, New York (NL)
Jon Matlack, New York (NL)
Catfish Hunter, New York (AL)

July 13, 1976
National
(28–18–1 NL)
7–1
Veterans Stadium
Philadelphia Phillies
63,974
George Foster, Cincinnati (NL)
Randy Jones, San Diego (NL)
Mark Fidrych, Detroit (AL)

July 19, 1977
National
(29–18–1 NL)
7–5
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
56,683
Don Sutton, Los Angeles (NL)
Don Sutton, Los Angeles (NL)
Jim Palmer, Baltimore (AL)

July 11, 1978
National
(30–18–1 NL)
7–3
San Diego Stadium
San Diego Padres
51,549
Steve Garvey, Los Angeles (NL)
Bruce Sutter, Chicago (NL)
Rich Gossage, New York (AL)

July 17, 1979
National
(31–18–1 NL)
7–6
Kingdome
Seattle Mariners
58,905
Dave Parker, Pittsburgh (NL)
Bruce Sutter, Chicago (NL)
Jim Kern, Texas (AL)

July 8, 1980
National
(32–18–1 NL)
4–2
Dodger Stadium
Los Angeles Dodgers
56,088
Ken Griffey, Sr., Cincinnati (NL)
Jerry Reuss, Los Angeles (NL)
Tommy John, New York (AL)

August 9, 1981
National
(33–18–1 NL)
5–4
Cleveland Stadium
Cleveland Indians
72,086
Gary Carter, Montreal (NL)
Vida Blue, San Francisco (NL)
Rollie Fingers, Milwaukee (AL)

July 13, 1982
National
(34–18–1 NL)
4–1
Olympic Stadium
Montreal Expos
59,057
Dave Concepción, Cincinnati (NL)
Steve Rogers, Montreal (NL)
Dennis Eckersley, Boston (AL)

July 6, 1983
American
(34–19–1 NL)
13–3
Comiskey Park
Chicago White Sox
43,801
Fred Lynn, California (AL)
Dave Stieb, Toronto (AL)
Mario Soto, Cincinnati (NL)

July 10, 1984
National
(35–19–1 NL)
3–1
Candlestick Park
San Francisco Giants
57,756
Gary Carter, Montreal (NL)
Charlie Lea, Montreal (NL)
Dave Stieb, Toronto (AL)

July 16, 1985
National
(36–19–1 NL)
6–1
Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome
Minnesota Twins
54,960
LaMarr Hoyt, San Diego (NL)
LaMarr Hoyt, San Diego (NL)
Jack Morris, Detroit (AL)

July 15, 1986
American
(36-20-1 NL)
3–2
Astrodome
Houston Astros
45,774
Roger Clemens, Boston (AL)
Roger Clemens, Boston (AL)
Dwight Gooden, New York (NL)

July 14, 1987
National
(37–20–1 NL)
2–0
(13 innings)
Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum
Oakland Athletics
49,671
Tim Raines, Montreal (NL)
Lee Smith, Chicago (NL)
Jay Howell, Oakland (AL)

July 12, 1988
American
(37–21–1 NL)
2–1
Riverfront Stadium
Cincinnati Reds
55,837
Terry Steinbach, Oakland (AL)
Frank Viola, Minnesota (AL)
Dwight Gooden, New York (NL)

July 11, 1989
American
(37–22–1 NL)
5–3
Anaheim Stadium
California Angels
64,036
Bo Jackson, Kansas City (AL)
Nolan Ryan, Texas (AL)
John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

July 10, 1990
American
(37–23–1 NL)
2–0
Wrigley Field
Chicago Cubs
39,071
Julio Franco, Texas (AL)
Bret Saberhagen, Kansas City (AL)
Jeff Brantley, San Francisco (NL)

July 9, 1991
American
(37–24–1 NL)
4–2
SkyDome
Toronto Blue Jays
52,383
Cal Ripken, Jr., Baltimore (AL)
Jimmy Key, Toronto (AL)
Dennis Martínez, Montreal (NL)

July 14, 1992
American
(37–25–1 NL)
13–6
Jack Murphy Stadium
San Diego Padres
59,372
Ken Griffey, Jr., Seattle (AL)
Kevin Brown, Texas (AL)
Tom Glavine, Atlanta (NL)

July 13, 1993
American
(37–26–1 NL)
9–3
Oriole Park at Camden Yards
Baltimore Orioles
48,147
Kirby Puckett, Minnesota (AL)
Jack McDowell, Chicago (AL)
John Burkett, San Francisco (NL)

July 12, 1994
National
(38–26–1 NL)
8–7
(10 innings)
Three Rivers Stadium
Pittsburgh Pirates
59,568
Fred McGriff, Atlanta (NL)
Doug Jones, Philadelphia (NL)
Jason Bere, Chicago (AL)

July 11, 1995
National
(39–26–1 NL)
3–2
The Ballpark in Arlington
Texas Rangers
50,920
Jeff Conine, Florida (NL)
Heathcliff Slocumb, Philadelphia (NL)
Steve Ontiveros, Oakland (AL)

July 9, 1996
National
(40–26–1 NL)
6–0
Veterans Stadium
Philadelphia Phillies
62,670
Mike Piazza, Los Angeles (NL)
John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)
Charles Nagy, Cleveland (AL)

July 8, 1997
American
(40–27–1 NL)
3–1
Jacobs Field
Cleveland Indians
44,916
Sandy Alomar, Cleveland (AL)
José Rosado, Kansas City (AL)
Shawn Estes, San Francisco (NL)

July 7, 1998
American
(40–28–1 NL)
13–8
Coors Field
Colorado Rockies
51,267
Roberto Alomar, Baltimore (AL)
Bartolo Colón, Cleveland (AL)
Ugueth Urbina, Montreal (NL)

July 13, 1999
American
(40–29–1 NL)
4–1
Fenway Park
Boston Red Sox
34,187
Pedro Martínez, Boston (AL)
Pedro Martínez, Boston (AL)
Curt Schilling, Philadelphia (NL)

July 11, 2000
American
(40–30–1 NL)
6–3
Turner Field
Atlanta Braves
51,323
Derek Jeter, New York (AL)
James Baldwin, Chicago (AL)
Al Leiter, New York (NL)

July 10, 2001
American
(40–31–1 NL)
4–1
Safeco Field
Seattle Mariners
47,364
Cal Ripken, Jr., Baltimore (AL)
Freddy García, Seattle (AL)
Chan Ho Park, Los Angeles (NL)

July 9, 2002
TIE
(40–31–2 NL)
7–7
(11 innings)
Miller Park
Milwaukee Brewers
41,871
N/A
N/A
N/A

July 15, 2003
American
(40–32–2 NL)
7–6
U.S. Cellular Field
Chicago White Sox
47,609
Garret Anderson, Anaheim (AL)
Brendan Donnelly, Anaheim (AL)
Éric Gagné, Los Angeles (NL)

July 13, 2004
American
(40–33–2 NL)
9–4
Minute Maid Park
Houston Astros
41,886
Alfonso Soriano, Texas (AL)
Mark Mulder, Oakland (AL)
Roger Clemens, Houston (NL)

July 12, 2005
American
(40–34–2 NL)
7–5
Comerica Park
Detroit Tigers
41,617
Miguel Tejada, Baltimore (AL)
Mark Buehrle, Chicago (AL)
John Smoltz, Atlanta (NL)

July 11, 2006
American
(40–35–2 NL)
3–2
PNC Park
Pittsburgh Pirates
38,904
Michael Young, Texas (AL)
B. J. Ryan, Toronto (AL)
Trevor Hoffman, San Diego (NL)

July 10, 2007
American
(40–36–2 NL)
5–4
AT&T Park
San Francisco Giants
43,965
Ichiro Suzuki, Seattle (AL)
Josh Beckett, Boston (AL)
Chris Young, San Diego (NL)

July 15, 2008
American
(40–37–2 NL)
4–3
(15 innings)
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
55,632
J. D. Drew, Boston (AL)
Scott Kazmir, Tampa Bay (AL)
Brad Lidge, Philadelphia (NL)

July 14, 2009
American
(40–38–2 NL)
4–3
Busch Stadium
St. Louis Cardinals
46,760
Carl Crawford, Tampa Bay (AL)
Jonathan Papelbon, Boston (AL)
Heath Bell, San Diego (NL)

July 13, 2010
National
(41–38–2 NL)
3–1
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
45,408
Brian McCann, Atlanta (NL)
Matt Capps, Washington (NL)
Phil Hughes, New York (AL)

July 12, 2011
National
(42–38–2 NL)
5–1
Chase Field
Arizona Diamondbacks
49,033
Prince Fielder, Milwaukee (NL)
Tyler Clippard, Washington (NL)
C. J. Wilson, Texas (AL)

July 10, 2012
National
(43–38–2 NL)
8–0
Kauffman Stadium
Kansas City Royals
40,933
Melky Cabrera, San Francisco (NL)
Matt Cain, San Francisco (NL)
Justin Verlander, Detroit (AL)

July 16, 2013
American
(43–39–2 NL)
3–0
Citi Field
New York Mets
45,186
Mariano Rivera, New York (AL)
Chris Sale, Chicago (AL)
Patrick Corbin, Arizona (NL)

July 15, 2014
American
(43–40–2 NL)
5–3
Target Field
Minnesota Twins
41,048
Mike Trout, Los Angeles (AL)
Max Scherzer, Detroit (AL)
Pat Neshek, St. Louis (NL)

July 14, 2015
American
(43–41–2 NL)
6–3
Great American Ball Park
Cincinnati Reds
43,656
Mike Trout, Los Angeles (AL)
David Price, Detroit (AL)
Clayton Kershaw, Los Angeles (NL)

July 12, 2016
American
(43–42–2 NL)
4–2
Petco Park
San Diego Padres
42,386
Eric Hosmer, Kansas City (AL)
Corey Kluber, Cleveland (AL)
Johnny Cueto, San Francisco (NL)

July 11, 2017
American
(43–43–2)
2–1
(10 innings)
Marlins Park
Miami Marlins
37,188
Robinson Canó, Seattle (AL)
Craig Kimbrel, Boston (AL)
Wade Davis, Chicago (NL)

July 17, 2018
TBA
TBA
Nationals Park
Washington Nationals
<----> Attendance

tag: table

text:
National League (43 Wins)

American League (43 Wins)

text: Future MLB All-Star Games[edit]

text:
Date
Host team
Stadium
City
Television
Radio

July 17, 2018
Washington Nationals
Nationals Park
Washington, D.C.
Fox Sports
ESPN

July 9, 2019
Cleveland Indians
Progressive Field
Cleveland, Ohio
Fox Sports
ESPN

text: Notes[edit]

text:
St. Petersburg (Tampa Bay Rays) is the only current MLB city that has not yet hosted (or been scheduled to host) an MLB All-Star Game.
Washington, D.C., previously hosted the 1937 and 1956 games when the original Washington Senators franchise was located there, and the 1962 and 1969 games when the expansion Washington Senators franchise was located there. They will host as the Washington Nationals in 2018.

tag: ul


document_title: Columbus Day

question_text: when was columbus day made a national holiday

text: Columbus Day

text: United States observance[edit]

text: History[edit]

text: Celebration of Columbus's voyage in the early United States is recorded from as early as 1792, when the Tammany Society in New York City[3] (for whom it became an annual tradition)[4][5] and also the Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston celebrated the 300th anniversary of Columbus' landing in the New World.[6][7] President Benjamin Harrison called upon the people of the United States to celebrate Columbus's landing in the New World on the 400th anniversary of the event. During the anniversary in 1892, teachers, preachers, poets and politicians used rituals to teach ideals of patriotism. These rituals took themes such as citizenship boundaries, the importance of loyalty to the nation, and the celebration of social progress.[8][9][10]

tag: p

text: Many Italian-Americans observe Columbus Day as a celebration of their heritage, and the first such celebration was held in New York City on October 12, 1866.[11] The day was first enshrined as a legal holiday in the United States through the lobbying of Angelo Noce, a first generation Italian, in Denver. The first statewide holiday was proclaimed by Colorado governor Jesse F. McDonald in 1905, and it was made a statutory holiday in 1907.[12] In April 1934, as a result of lobbying by the Knights of Columbus and New York City Italian leader Generoso Pope, Congress and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt proclaimed October 12 a federal holiday under the name Columbus Day.[12][13][14]

text: Since 1971 (Oct. 11), the holiday has been fixed to the second Monday in October,[15] coincidentally exactly the same day as Thanksgiving in neighboring Canada fixed since 1957. It is generally observed nowadays by banks, the bond market, the U.S. Postal Service, other federal agencies, most state government offices, many businesses, and most school districts. Some businesses and some stock exchanges remain open, and some states and municipalities abstain from observing the holiday.[16] The traditional date of the holiday also adjoins the anniversary of the United States Navy (founded October 13, 1775), and thus both occasions are customarily observed by the Navy (and usually the Marine Corps as well) with either a 72- or 96-hour liberty period.[citation needed]

text: Local observance of Columbus Day[edit]

text: Actual observance varies in different parts of the United States, ranging from large-scale parades and events to complete non-observance. Most states celebrate Columbus Day as an official state holiday, though many mark it as a "Day of Observance" or "Recognition" and at least four do not recognize it at all. Most states that celebrate Columbus Day will close state services, while others operate as normal.[17]

text: San Francisco claims the nation's oldest continuously existing celebration with the Italian-American community's annual Columbus Day Parade, which was established by Nicola Larco in 1868,[18] while New York City boasts the largest, with over 35,000 marchers and one million viewers.[19][20][21]

text: As in the mainland U.S., Columbus Day is a legal holiday in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico. In the United States Virgin Islands, the day is celebrated as both Columbus Day and "Puerto Rico Friendship Day".[22]

text: Virginia also celebrates two legal holidays on the day, Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day, which honors the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in the Revolutionary War.[23]

text: Non-observance[edit]

text: The U.S. states of Alaska, Hawaii, Oregon, South Dakota, and Vermont do not recognize Columbus Day at all; however, they mark the day with an alternative holiday or observance. Hawaii celebrates Discoverer's Day, which commemorates the Polynesian discoverers of Hawaii on the same date, the second Monday of October,[24][25] though the name change has not ended protest related to the observance of Columbus's discovery.[26] The state government does not treat either Columbus Day or Discoverer's Day as a legal holiday;[27] state, city and county government offices and schools are open for business. Similarly, in 2016, Vermont started celebrating Indigenous Peoples' Day instead of Columbus Day. Because this change was made by Governor Peter Shumlin's executive proclamation, it only applies for 2016. In the future it would have to be issued by the sitting governor on a yearly basis, or officially changed by the legislature in order to become permanent.[28] On the other hand, South Dakota celebrates the day as an official state holiday known as Native American Day.[29] Until 2017, Oregon did not recognize Columbus Day, either as a holiday or as a commemoration; schools and public offices remained open.[30] However, on Columbus Day, 2017, Oregon Governor Kate Brown renamed the holiday "Indigenous Peoples' Day," to remember these cultures and commemorate the struggles of native peoples during European colonization.[31] Two additional states, Iowa and Nevada, do not celebrate it as an official holiday, but the states' respective governors are "authorized and requested" by statute to proclaim the day each year.[32]

text: Several other states have removed the day as a paid holiday for government workers while still maintaining it either as a day of recognition, or as a legal holiday for other purposes. These include California and Texas.[33][34][35][36][37]

text: The city of Berkeley, California, replaced Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples' Day in 1992,[38] a move which has been followed by multiple other localities including Sebastopol and Santa Cruz, California; Dane County, Wisconsin; Seattle, Washington; Missoula, Montana; Cambridge, Massachusetts; Denver, Colorado; Phoenix, Arizona; Los Angeles, California; Austin, Texas; and Salt Lake City, Utah.[39][40][34][41][42][43][44][45][46] Various tribal governments in Oklahoma designate the day Native American Day, or name it after their own tribe.[47]

text: Latin American observance[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Día de la Raza[edit]

text: The date Columbus arrived in the Americas is celebrated in some countries of Latin America. The most common name for the celebration in Spanish (including some Latin American communities[48] in the United States) is the Día de la Raza ("day of the race" or the "day of the [Hispanic] people"), commemorating the first encounters of Europeans and Native Americans. The day was first celebrated in Argentina in 1917, in Venezuela and Colombia in 1921, in Chile in 1922, and in Mexico, it was first celebrated in 1928. The day was also celebrated under this title in Spain until 1957, when it was changed to the Día de la Hispanidad ("Hispanicity Day"), and in Venezuela it was celebrated under this title until 2002, when it was changed to the Día de la Resistencia Indígena (Day of Indigenous Resistance). Originally conceived of as a celebration of Hispanic influence in the Americas, as evidenced by the complementary celebrations in Spain and Latin America, Día de la Raza has come to be seen by indigenous activists throughout Latin America as a counter to Columbus Day; a celebration of the native races and cultures and their resistance to the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.[citation needed]

text: In the U.S. Día de la Raza has served as a time of mobilization for pan-ethnic Latino activists, particularly since the 1960s. Since then, La Raza has served as a periodic rallying cry for Hispanic activists. The first Hispanic March on Washington occurred on Columbus Day in 1996. The name is still used by the largest Hispanic social justice organization in the nation, the National Council of La Raza.[8]

text: Argentina[edit]

text: The Day of the Race was established in Argentina in 1916 by a decree of President Hipólito Yrigoyen. The name was changed to "Day of Respect of Cultural Diversity" by a Decree of Necessity and Urgency 1584/2010 issued by populist President Cristina Kirchner. Instigated by then Venezuelan president Chávez, she had the statue of Columbus removed from its original position near the Casa Rosada and replaced by one of Juana Azurduy.

text: Colombia[edit]

text: Colombia, the only country in the world with a name originated from Columbus himself, celebrates El día de la Raza y de la Hispanidad and is taken as an opportunity to celebrate the encounter of "the two worlds" and to reflect on the richness that the racial diversity has brought to the culture.

text: Venezuela[edit]

text: Between 1921 and 2002, Venezuela celebrated Día de la Raza along with many other Latin American nations. The original holiday was officially established in 1921 under President Juan Vicente Gómez. In 2002, under president Hugo Chávez, the name was changed to Día de la Resistencia Indígena (Day of Indigenous Resistance) to commemorate the Indigenous peoples' resistance to European settlement. On October 12, 2004 a crowd of pro-government activists toppled the statue of Christopher Columbus in Caracas and sprayed allusive graffiti over its pedestal. The pro-Chávez website Aporrea wrote: "Just like the statue of Saddam in Baghdad, that of Columbus the tyrant also fell this October 12, 2004 in Caracas".[50] The famous toppling of Saddam Hussein's statue had occurred the previous year.

text: Costa Rica[edit]

text: On September 21, 1994, Costa Rica changed the official holiday from Día de la Raza to Día del Encuentro de las Culturas(Day of the Encounter of Cultures) to recognize the mix of European, Native American (autochthonous populations), African and Asian cultures that constitute modern Costa Rican (and Latin American) culture and ethnicity. In accordance to the Costa Rican labor law, the holiday is observed on October 12. However, should this date coincide with a Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday or Friday, the employer shall agree that said holiday be postponed to the following Monday. [51]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Brazil Columbus Day is not celebrated. Instead, the country celebrates the arrival on the coast of present-day Brazil of the fleet led by Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22, 1500. This date is known in Brazil as "O Descobrimento do Brazil" (The Discovery of Brazil). The date began to be celebrated after the country's independence from Portugal, when Brazilian Emperor Pedro II instituted the date as part of a plan to foster a sense of nationalism among Brazil's diverse citizenry—giving them a common identity and history as residents of a unique Portuguese-speaking empire surrounded by Hispanic-American Republics. [52] The Discovery of Brazil was originally celebrated on May 3, but scholars in the nineteen century found definitive evidence proving April 22 to be the actual date of the arrival of Cabral's fleet on South American shores. [53] In 2000, the government of Brazil used the date to celebrate 500 years of the existence of the country. The festivities, however, were met with protests by indigenous peoples who claimed it marked 500 years of genocide of indigenous Brazilians.[54] [55]

text: Caribbean observance[edit]

text: Some Caribbean countries also observe holidays related to Columbus Day. In Belize, October 12 is celebrated as Day of the Americas or Pan American Day.[56][57][58] In the Bahamas, it was formerly known as Discovery Day, until 2001 when it was replaced by National Heroes Day.

text: Italy[edit]

text: Since the 18th century, many Italian communities in the Americas have observed the Discovery of the New World as a celebration of their heritage; Cristopher Columbus (whose original, Italian name is "Cristoforo Colombo") was an Italian explorer, citizen of the Republic of Genoa.[11]

text: In Italy, Columbus Day has been officially celebrated since 2004.[2] It is officially named Giornata nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo.

text: The "Lega Navale Italiana" has created a Regata di Colombo as a celebration of the Columbus achievement.[59] Italians have celebrated their "Cristoforo Colombo" naming after him many civilian and military ships, like the ocean liner SS Cristoforo Colombo.

text: Spain[edit]

text: Since 1987, Spain has celebrated the anniversary of Columbus's arrival in the Americas as its Fiesta Nacional or "National Day".[60] Previously Spain had celebrated the day as Día de la Hispanidad, emphasizing Spain's ties with the Hispanidad, the international Hispanic community.[60] In 1981 a royal decree established the Día de la Hispanidad as a national holiday.[60] However, in 1987 the name was changed to Fiesta Nacional, and October 12 became one of two national celebrations, along with Constitution Day on December 6.[61] Spain's "national day" had moved around several times during the various regime changes of the 20th century; establishing it on the day of the international Columbus celebration was part of a compromise between conservatives, who wanted to emphasize the status of the monarchy and Spain's history, and Republicans, who wanted to commemorate Spain's burgeoning democracy with an official holiday.[61] Since 2000, October 12 has also been Spain's Day of the Armed Forces, celebrated each year with a military parade in Madrid.[61] Other than this, however, the holiday is not widely or enthusiastically celebrated in Spain; there are no other large-scale patriotic parades, marches, or other events, and the observation is generally overshadowed by the feast day of Our Lady of the Pillar (Fiestas del Pilar).[61]

text: Opposition to Columbus celebrations[edit]

text: Opposition to Columbus Day dates back to at least the 19th century, when anti-immigrant nativists (see Know Nothings) sought to eliminate its celebration because of its association with immigrants from the Catholic countries of Ireland and Italy, and the American Catholic fraternal organization, the Knights of Columbus.[62] Some anti-Catholics, notably including the Ku Klux Klan and the Women of the Ku Klux Klan, opposed celebrations of Columbus or monuments about him because they thought that it increased Catholic influence in the US, which was largely a Protestant country.[62]

text: By far the more common opposition today, decrying both Columbus's and other Europeans’ actions against the indigenous populations of the Americas, did not gain much traction until the latter half of the 20th century. This opposition was led by Native Americans and expanded upon by left-wing political parties,[63][64][65][66][67] though it has become more mainstream.[68] Surveys conducted in 2013 and 2015 found 26% to 38% of American adults not in favor of celebrating Columbus Day.[69][70]

text: There are many interrelated strands of criticism. One refers primarily to the treatment of the indigenous populations during the European colonization of the Americas which followed Columbus's discovery. Some groups, such as the American Indian Movement, have argued that the ongoing actions and injustices against Native Americans are masked by Columbus myths and celebrations. These groups argue that the legacy of Columbus has been used to legitimize these actions. F. David Peat asserts that many cultural myths of North America exclude or diminish the culture and myths of Native Americans. These cultural myths include ideas expressed by Michael Berliner of the Ayn Rand Institute, claiming that Western civilization brought "reason, science, self-reliance, individualism, ambition, and productive achievement" to a people who were based in "primitivism, mysticism, and collectivism", and to a land that was "sparsely inhabited, unused, and underdeveloped".[71] American anthropologist Jack Weatherford says that on Columbus Day, Americans celebrate the greatest waves of genocide of the American Indians known in history.[72] American Indian Movement of Colorado leader and activist Ward Churchill takes this argument further, contending that the mythologizing and celebration of the European settlement of the Americas in Columbus Day make it easier for people today to avoid taking responsibility for their own actions, or the actions of their governments regarding indigenous populations. He wrote in his book Bringing the Law Back Home:

text: Very high on the list of those expressions of non-indigenous sensibility [that] contribute to the perpetuation of genocidal policies against [American] Indians are the annual Columbus Day celebration, events in which it is baldly asserted that the process, events, and circumstances described above are, at best, either acceptable or unimportant. More often, the sentiments expressed by the participants are, quite frankly, that the fate of Native America embodied in Columbus and the Columbian legacy is a matter to be openly and enthusiastically applauded as an unrivaled "boon to all mankind". Undeniably, the situation of American Indians will not—in fact cannot—change for the better so long as such attitudes are deemed socially acceptable by the mainstream populace. Hence, such celebrations as Columbus Day must be stopped.

text: A second strain of criticism of Columbus Day focuses on the character of Columbus himself. In time for the 2004 observation of the day, the final volume of a compendium of Columbus-era documents was published by the University of California, Los Angeles's Medieval and Renaissance Center. Geoffrey Symcox, the general editor of the project, asserted:[73]

text: While giving the brilliant mariner his due, the collection portrays Columbus as an unrelenting social climber and self-promoter who stopped at nothing—not even exploitation, slavery, or twisting Biblical scripture—to advance his ambitions… Many of the unflattering documents have been known for the last century or more, but nobody paid much attention to them until recently… The fact that Columbus brought slavery, enormous exploitation or devastating diseases to the Americas used to be seen as a minor detail—if it was recognized at all—in light of his role as the great bringer of white man's civilization to the benighted idolatrous American continent. But to historians today this information is very important. It changes our whole view of the enterprise.

text: Howard Zinn described some of the details of how Columbus personally ordered the enslavement and mutilation of the native Arawak people in a bid to repay his investors:

text: Now, from his base on Haiti, Columbus sent expedition after expedition into the interior. They found no gold fields, but had to fill up the ships returning to Spain with some kind of dividend. In the year 1495, they went on a great slave raid, rounded up fifteen hundred Arawak men, women, and children, put them in pens guarded by Spaniards and dogs, then picked the five hundred best specimens to load onto ships. Of those five hundred, two hundred died en route. The rest arrived alive in Spain and were put up for sale by the archdeacon of the town, who reported that, although the slaves were "naked as the day they were born," they showed "no more embarrassment than animals." Columbus later wrote: "Let us in the name of the Holy Trinity go on sending all the slaves that can be sold."

text: But too many of the slaves died in captivity. And so Columbus, desperate to pay back dividends to those who had invested, had to make good his promise to fill the ships with gold. In the province of Cicao on Haiti, where he and his men believed huge gold fields to exist, they ordered all persons fourteen years or older to collect a certain quantity of gold every three months. When they brought it, they were given copper tokens to hang around their necks. American Indians found without a copper token had their hands cut off and bled to death.[74]

text: Most criticisms combine elements of both strains. Journalist and media critic Norman Solomon reflects, in Columbus Day: A Clash of Myth and History, that many people choose to hold on to the myths surrounding Columbus, whereas historians who deal with the evidence are frequently depicted as “politically correct” revisionists. He quotes from the logbook Columbus's initial description of the American Indians: "They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance.... They would make fine servants.... With 50 men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want". In 1495, during the Second Voyage, American Indians were transported to Spain as slaves, many dying en route. "Let us in the name of the Holy Trinity", Columbus later wrote, "go on sending all the slaves that can be sold". Solomon states that the most important contemporary documentary evidence is the multi-volume History of the Indies by the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas, who observed the region where Columbus was governor. In contrast to "the myth" Solomon quotes Las Casas, who describes Spaniards driven by "insatiable greed"—"killing, terrorizing, afflicting, and torturing the native peoples" with "the strangest and most varied new methods of cruelty" and how systematic violence was aimed at preventing "[American] Indians from daring to think of themselves as human beings." The Spaniards "thought nothing of knifing [American] Indians by tens and twenties and of cutting slices off them to test the sharpness of their blades," wrote Las Casas. "My eyes have seen these acts so foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write".[75]

text: In the summer of 1990, 350 representatives from American Indian groups from all over the hemisphere, met in Quito, Ecuador, at the first Intercontinental Gathering of Indigenous People in the Americas, to mobilize against the 500th anniversary (quin-centennial) celebration of Columbus Day planned for 1992. The following summer, in Davis, California, more than a hundred Native Americans gathered for a follow-up meeting to the Quito conference. They declared October 12, 1992 to be "International Day of Solidarity with Indigenous People". The largest ecumenical body in the United States, the National Council of Churches, called on Christians to refrain from celebrating the Columbus quincentennial, saying, "What represented newness of freedom, hope, and opportunity for some was the occasion for oppression, degradation and genocide for others".[76] Among the latest places in the United States to redefine how they would celebrate the holiday to the title "Indigenous Peoples' Day" by the autumn of 2016 include communities in Massachusetts, specifically Cambridge, Amherst and Northampton, with a group naming itself the "Indigenous Peoples' Day of Massachusetts" currently attempting to do the same for the state's capital city of Boston.[77]

text: An American Hispanist, commenting on Spain’s glorification of 1492/1992, pointed out that in Spain in 1492, the big events were the conquest of Granada and secondarily the expulsion of all of Spain’s Jews (see Alhambra decree). In 1992, it would have been politically problematic for Spain to commemorate either of these.[78]


document_title: Live Free or Die (television series)

question_text: where does thorn from live free or die live

text: Live Free or Die (television series)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Live Free or Die is an American reality series hosted by The National Geographic Channel that follows the lives of five primitive individuals and one couple who live in the country's most remote backwoods and swamps. Each individual or couple is trying to live or survive in an extreme rural environment freed from the constraints of technology and relying completely on nature to give them everything they need to survive. The series is produced by National Geographic Studios (formerly known as National Geographic Television) and airs on National Geographic.

text: The individuals who make up the program leave the technical world behind, while sustaining themselves through hunting, fishing and bartering, taking to the woods and living off the land. Each character highlights the use of primitive tools for foraging, trapping, and building. The characters of the series live a gritty existence in shelters with only raw materials found, created or traded for.[1]

text: Each individual brings to the show a knowledge of survival skills and is isolated from the outside world. Each individual or couple lives without running water or electricity while hunting and foraging for food.

text: Each participant offers clever survival tips and advice as a cameraman follows them through everyday tasks. Whether it is checking animal traps, or making one's own mosquito repellent, each attempts to demonstrates how to survive, with no script and no agenda.[2]

text: "We rarely do retakes unless the cameraman has to change his lens," said Colbert Sturgeon of Moultire, Georgia, who was approached by National Geographic to do the show. Designed for the increasing number of people interested in survivalism, Live Free or Die was, as of 2016, in its third season.[3]

text: The primitive individuals in the series were selected based on a self-reliant criteria as to who could demonstrate a "do more with less" philosophy.[4] The woods furnish the individuals' rugged lifestyle, as they are faced with natural obstacles like brutal weather and depleted food sources. According to the creed of the show, nature "fuels their desire to remain on the modern-day frontier."

text: The cast includes:[5]

text:
Colbert Sturgeon, of Moultire, Georgia
Thorn, who lives deep in the Blue Ridge Mountains
Tony and Amelia Stevens, who also live in the Blue Ridge Mountains
Derik Stevens, a mountain man living off-the-grid, twenty miles from Boulder, Colorado
Tobias Corwin, a desert primitive survival skills expert living outside of Prescott, Arizona
Matt Graham

text: The show is rooted in the premise that capitalist society is, in effect, broken, as the film crew follows a handful of people living in extreme anti-modern fashion.[6] The show emphasizes experimental living, which was once the norm but feels radical in a modern context.[7]

text: Though the show shows the gritty consumption of rats and berries in a "sustainable" platform, even one of the characters cannot afford the true primitive life, as Colbert raises money from his GoFundMe page.


document_title: Orbital speed

question_text: what is the speed of satellites in orbit

text: Orbital speed

text: Radial trajectories[edit]

text: In the following, it is assumed that the system is a two-body system and the orbiting object has a negligible mass compared to the larger (central) object. In real-world orbital mechanics, it is the system's barycenter, not the larger object, which is at the focus. Specific orbital energy = K.E. + P.E. (kinetic energy + potential energy). Since kinetic energy is always non-negative ( greater than or equal to zero, ≥0) and potential energy is always non-positive (less than or equal to zero, ≤0), the sign of this may be positive, zero, or negative and the sign tells us something about the type of orbit:

text:
If the specific orbital energy is positive the orbit is open, following a hyperbola with the larger body the focus of the hyperbola. Objects in open orbits do not return; once past periapsis their distance from the focus increases without bound. See radial hyperbolic trajectory
If the specific orbital energy is zero, (K.E = - P.E.): the orbit is thus a parabola with focus at the other body. See radial parabolic trajectory. Parabolic orbits are also open.
If the energy is negative, K.E. + P.E. < 0: The orbit is closed. The motion is on an ellipse with one focus at the other body. See radial elliptic trajectory, free-fall time. Planets have closed orbits around the Sun.

text: Transverse orbital speed[edit]

text: The transverse orbital speed is inversely proportional to the distance to the central body because of the law of conservation of angular momentum, or equivalently, Kepler's second law. This states that as a body moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from the barycenter to the body sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the body traces during that period of time.[1]

text: This law implies that the body moves slower near its apoapsis than near its periapsis, because at the smaller distance along the arc it needs to move faster to cover the same area.

text: Mean orbital speed[edit]

text: For orbits with small eccentricity, the length of the orbit is close to that of a circular one, and the mean orbital speed can be approximated either from observations of the orbital period and the semimajor axis of its orbit, or from knowledge of the masses of the two bodies and the semimajor axis.[2]

text: where v is the orbital velocity, a is the length of the semimajor axis, T is the orbital period, and μ=GM is the standard gravitational parameter. This is an approximation that only holds true when the orbiting body is of considerably lesser mass than the central one, and eccentricity is close to zero.

text: In case one of the bodies is not of considerably lesser mass then see: Gravitational two-body problem

text:
So, when one of the masses is almost negligible compared to the other mass, as the case for Earth and Sun, one can approximate the orbit velocity

v

o

{\displaystyle v_{o}}

 as:

text: or assuming r equal to the body's radius

text: Where M is the (greater) mass around which this negligible mass or body is orbiting, and ve is the escape velocity.

text: For an object in an eccentric orbit orbiting a much larger body, the length of the orbit decreases with orbital eccentricity e, and is an ellipse. This can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate of the average orbital speed:

text: The mean orbital speed decreases with eccentricity.

text: Precise orbital speed[edit]

text: For the precise orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory, both the mean distance and the precise distance are taken into account:

text: where μ is the standard gravitational parameter, r is the distance at which the speed is to be calculated, and a is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. This expression is called the vis-viva equation. For the Earth at perihelion,

text: which is slightly faster than Earth's average orbital speed of 29,800 m/s, as expected from Kepler's 2nd Law.

text: Tangential velocities at altitude[edit]

text:
Orbit
Center-to-center
distance
Altitude above
the Earth's surface
Speed
Orbital period
Specific orbital energy

Standing on Earth's surface at the equator (for comparison – not an orbit)
6,378 km
0 km
465.1 m/s (1,674 km/h or 1,040 mph)
23 h 56 min
−62.6 MJ/kg

Orbiting at Earth's surface (equator)
6,378 km
0 km
7.9 km/s (28,440 km/h or 17,672 mph)
1 h 24 min 18 sec
−31.2 MJ/kg

Low Earth orbit
6,600–8,400 km
200–2,000 km
circular orbit: 7.8–6.9 km/s (17,450–14,430 mph) respectively
elliptic orbit: 6.5–8.2 km/s respectively
1 h 29 min – 2 h 8 min
−29.8 MJ/kg

Molniya orbit
6,900–46,300 km
500–39,900 km
1.5–10.0 km/s (3,335–22,370 mph) respectively
11 h 58 min
−4.7 MJ/kg

Geostationary
42,000 km
35,786 km
3.1 km/s (6,935 mph)
23 h 56 min
−4.6 MJ/kg

Orbit of the Moon
363,000–406,000 km
357,000–399,000 km
0.97–1.08 km/s (2,170–2,416 mph) respectively
27.3 days
−0.5 MJ/kg