document_title: Genius (U.S. TV series)

question_text: how many episodes of genius picasso are there

text: Genius (U.S. TV series)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: The first season chronicles two periods in the life of Albert Einstein: the first as a patent clerk struggling to gain a teaching position and doctorate, the second as a scientist respected for his development of the theory of relativity.

text: The second season chronicles two periods in the life of Pablo Picasso: the first as a young man first discovering his talent, the second as a celebrated artist struggling with the rise of fascism and the price of fame.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Geoffrey Rush as elder Albert Einstein
Johnny Flynn as younger Einstein
Samantha Colley as Mileva Marić
Richard Topol as Fritz Haber
Michael McElhatton as Philipp Lenard
Emily Watson as elder Elsa Einstein
Gwendolyn Ellis as younger Elsa
Ralph Brown as Max Planck

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Robert Lindsay as Hermann Einstein
Claire Rushbrook as Pauline Einstein
Helen Monks as Maja Einstein
Edward Akrout as Laurent Debienne
Nicholas Rowe as Jost Winteler
Lucy Russell as Pauline Winteler
Shannon Tarbet as Marie Winteler
Alicia von Rittberg as Anna Winteler
George Webster as Julius Winteler
Henry Goodman as Walther Rathenau
Alistair Petrie as Heinrich Weber
Jon Fletcher as Marcel Grossmann
Seth Gabel as Michele Besso
Sally Dexter as elder Mileva Marić
Nikola Đuričko as Leo Szilard
David Dencik as Niels Bohr
Predrag Bjelac as Miloš Marić
Catherine McCormack as Marija Ružić–Marić
Charity Wakefield as Betty
Jodhi May as Helen Dukas
Zoe Telford as Clara Haber
T. R. Knight as J. Edgar Hoover
Vincent Kartheiser as Raymond H. Geist
Eugene Simon as  Eduard Einstein
Ed Stoppard as  Hans Albert Einstein
Joseph Arkley as David Bohm

text: Season 2[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Antonio Banderas as Pablo Picasso
Clémence Poésy as Françoise Gilot
Alex Rich as younger Picasso
Samantha Colley as Dora Maar

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Poppy Delevingne as Marie-Thérèse Walter
Robert Sheehan as Carlos Casagemas
David Wilmot as José Ruiz y Blasco
Jordi Mollà as Salvador Ruiz
Edward Akrout as Laurent Debienne
Charlie Carrick as Manuel Pallarès
Sebastian Roché as Emile Gilot
Adrian Schiller as Jaime Sabartés
Will Keen as Paul Rosenberg
Alessio Scalzotto as Pablo Picasso (age 14)
Timothy Lyons as Pablo Picasso (age 9)
Maria Jose Bavio as María Picasso y López
Aisling Franciosi as Fernande Olivier
Stéphane Caillard as Geneviève Aliquot
Bruno Paviot as Marcel
Elena Martinez as Dolores
T.R. Knight as Max Jacob
Seth Gabel as Guillaume Apollinaire
Tracee Chimo as Gertrude Stein
Johnny Flynn as Alain Cuny
Kerr Logan as Georges Braque
Tchéky Karyo as Henri Rousseau
Jack Brett Anderson as Géry Pieret
Eileen O'Higgins as Eva Gouel
Gerran Howell as Karl-Heinz Wiegels
Lucas Englander as Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler
Simon Buret as Jean Cocteau
Sofia Doniants as Olga Khokhlova
Nicola Perot as Ubaldo Oppi
Tom Cullen as Luc Simon
Zachary Fall as Paulo Picasso
Michael Gor as Sergei Diaghilev
Margaux Chatelier as Geneviève Laporte
Dimitri Leonidas as Kostas Axelos
Ed Stoppard as Paul Éluard
Vincent Londez as André Breton
Valentina Bellé as Jacqueline Roque
Emile Feltesse as Jean Renoir
Sand Van Roy as Florelle
Michael McElhatton as Jonas Salk
Luis Soto as Eugenio Arias
Andrew Buchan as Henri Matisse

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1: Einstein (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)11"Chapter One"Ron HowardStory by : Noah Pink and Ken Biller Teleplay by : Noah PinkApril 25, 2017 (2017-04-25)1.38[1]
As Antisemitism reaches a fever pitch in 1930s Germany, physicist Albert Einstein finds himself forced to choose between emigrating to the United States or staying in solidarity with his fellow academics. The struggle evokes memories of his days as a student at Zürich Polytechnic and his first encounter with Mileva Marić, the woman who would become his first wife.
22"Chapter Two"Minkie SpiroAngelina BurnettMay 2, 2017 (2017-05-02)1.05[2]
After butting heads with Mileva Marić, the only female student in his class at Zürich Polytechnic, a young Albert Einstein falls in love with this determined fellow student. While the passionate affair fans the flames of their mutual curiosity and love of science, their reckless abandon doesn't go unnoticed by Einstein's strict physics lecturer, Professor Weber.
33"Chapter Three"Minkie SpiroMark LaffertyMay 9, 2017 (2017-05-09)1.02[3]
As a recent university graduate, Albert Einstein struggles to make ends meet while trying to land an academic post in a scientific world rigid with tradition and protocol. After finally securing various tutoring jobs, he moves one step closer to being able to provide for his pregnant wife, Mileva, when tragedy strikes.
44"Chapter Four"Kevin HooksNoah PinkMay 16, 2017 (2017-05-16)0.93[4]
While working at his day job at the Bern patent office, Albert Einstein burns the candle at both ends supported by his new wife, writing four new scientific papers including the theory of special relativity, in what will be considered his miracle year. One of his papers attracts the attention of the notable theoretical physicist Max Planck.
55"Chapter Five"Kevin HooksRaf GreenMay 23, 2017 (2017-05-23)0.94[5]
With new teaching duties, Albert Einstein finally begins to experience the academic life he long coveted as he develops his theory of general relativity. Enjoying his first taste of acclaim among the most renowned scientific minds in Europe including Marie Curie, Einstein falters in his familial responsibilities. His only relief comes from a visit to extended family, where he is introduced to his cousin Elsa.
66"Chapter Six"James HawesBrian PetersonMay 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)1.02[6]
After moving his family to Berlin for work, and to be closer to his new love Elsa, Albert Einstein sets out to prove his theory of general relativity. He enlists the help of an astronomer to photograph a solar eclipse in Russia, but the expedition goes awry. Einstein's affair becomes less secret, and Elsa forces an ultimatum: divorce Mileva or lose her forever.
77"Chapter Seven"James HawesKelly SoudersJune 6, 2017 (2017-06-06)1.06[7]
Exhausted and worn out, Albert Einstein's attempt to make scientific history is put to the test as he begins to experience health issues. Meanwhile, sweeping patriotism in the wake of the war has corrupted one of his closest friends, Fritz Haber, pitting them against each other. In the German war effort, Albert is the lone scientist to refuse the call to arms.
88"Chapter Eight"Ken BillerAngelina Burnett & Francesca ButlerJune 13, 2017 (2017-06-13)1.05[8]
Attempting to flee to the United States, Albert Einstein and his wife Elsa find that their visas have been blocked for entry by the U.S. State Department because Einstein's politics placed him on the radar of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. Just days before his departure, Einstein must convince the U.S Consul in Germany that he is no threat to the country.
99"Chapter Nine"Ken BillerKen Biller & Raf GreenJune 20, 2017 (2017-06-20)1.04[9]
Albert Einstein and Elsa settle into the U.S. while trying to save those he left behind. Although quantum physics continues to vex him, his focus is diverted by the splitting of the atom in Nazi Germany. When tragedy strikes, Einstein seeks comfort in the arms of a Russian woman whose intentions are unclear.
1010"Chapter Ten"Ken BillerMark LaffertyJune 20, 2017 (2017-06-20)1.04[9]
After the atomic bomb is dropped and World War II ends, Albert Einstein assumes the role of world citizen in his elder years. Having been linked to nuclear weapons, he drowns in guilt and refocuses his efforts to prevent further wars. Inspiration strikes when a young neighbor asks him for homework help, reminding him of the joy that science once brought.

text: Season 2: Picasso (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)111"Chapter One"Ken BillerKen BillerApril 24, 2018 (2018-04-24)0.72[10]
While going to art school in Madrid, young Pablo Ruiz rejects the traditional rules of painting in search of his own unique style, and soon changes his last name to Picasso. He moves to Paris and befriends art student Carlos Casagemas, and together they share a studio and sell their art until a terrible tragedy happens. In 1938, Pablo contends with the rising threat of Franco's fascism in his home country of Spain.
122"Chapter Two"Ken BillerKen BillerApril 24, 2018 (2018-04-24)0.52[10]
After Pablo learns of Guernica, an ancient town in the Basque Country which was destroyed by the Nazis, he paints a mural of the same name depicting the carnage. It is shown in the Spanish Pavilion at the Universal Exposition. It is critiqued by inspiring French painter, Françoise Gilot who catches Pablo's eye, especially when his current muse, Dora Maar doesn't inspire him to pick up a paintbrush anymore.
133"Chapter Three"Kevin HooksBrian Peterson & Kelly SoudersMay 1, 2018 (2018-05-01)0.26[11]
After the suicide of his heartbroken friend, Pablo struggles with life. He meets poet Max Jacob who helps him through his pain, using  it in his art. While he paints, Pablo only sees bleak colors, thus beginning his Blue Period. While back in Barcelona in 1903, to honor Carlos, he creates La Vie. In 1943, Pablo grows closer to Françoise and he shows her how to feel the passion through her work.
144"Chapter Four"Kevin HooksRaf GreenMay 8, 2018 (2018-05-08)0.35[12]
Back in Paris, Pablo reunites with Max and through him meets French poet Guillaume Apollinaire who inspires him to create Family of Saltimbanques, the masterpiece of his Rose Period. But after seeing rival Henri Matisse's work at the Autumn Salon, Pablo pulls his painting from the show. In 1944, Pablo loses Max to the Nazis, and he soon struggles with two love affairs between Dora and Françoise.
155"Chapter Five"Laura BelseyNoah PinkMay 15, 2018 (2018-05-15)0.33[13]
After the French critics denounce all the artists who submitted their work at the Autumn Salon as Matisse imitators, Pablo meets the man himself and is challenged by his radical genius. For years, the two artists try to outdo each other, urged on by brother and sister art collecting duo Leo and Gertrude Stein. When attempts with his first love, Fernande Olivier fail, Pablo seeks inspiration from the primitive African masks at Trocadero Museum and creates Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. In 1947, Pablo convinces Françoise to move in with him.
166"Chapter Six"Laura BelseyMatthew NewmanMay 22, 2018 (2018-05-22)0.33[14]
Pablo is inspired by Henri Rousseau, a customs clerk who paints in a distorted style, and starts cubism with Matisse's protegé George Braque. The two go on to change the way people see art and they sell many paintings in their new style. After the Mona Lisa is stolen from the Louvre in 1911, Apollinare's secretary Géry Pieret who stole statues from the museum, confesses he knows who did it. Since Pieret sold them the artifacts, Pablo and Apollinare are accused of stealing the beloved DaVinci painting. Pablo takes Françoise on a getaway to Midi, but she is not impressed. He asks her to have a baby with him.
177"Chapter Seven"Greg YaitanesWendy RissMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)0.26[15]
In 1912, Pablo and Georges expand their art movement with radical collages called Crystal Cubism. Pablo's Family of Saltimbanques becomes the most expensive painting in history, selling for 12,650 francs. When World War I begins, Pablo doesn't believe in fighting and remains a pacifist at home while his friends fight in the trenches. But he has his own battles with Fernande having an affair with Italian painter Ubaldo Oppi. Pablo falls in love with her conventional friend, Eva Gouel, wanting to marry her. However, she's diagnosed with lung cancer and dies soon after. After the loss of his father, Pablo has a fling with cabaret singer Gaby Lespinasse, but she is engaged. In 1949, with two kids with Françoise, Pablo, a member of the Communist Party attends the World Peace Council in Paris and creates a symbol of peace.
188"Chapter Eight"Greg YaitanesStephanie K. SmithJune 5, 2018 (2018-06-05)0.27[16]
After befriending playwright Jean Cocteau, Pablo designs his ballet, Parade in 1917, and meets his first wife, Olga Khokhlova, a Russian ballerina. He must choose starting a family with his new wife or being around for his old friends. Max decides to stay at a monastery and make his vows to God, while Apollinaire contracts Spanish influenza. As an older man in the early 1950s, Pablo struggles with Françoise who attempts to bring his complex family back into his life. It is a distraction when he tries to continue his legacy with a retrospective of his works.
199"Chapter Nine"Mathias HerndlRaf Green & Ali Gordon-GoldsteinJune 12, 2018 (2018-06-12)0.27[17]
Surrealist writer André Breton includes Pablo in the surrealism movement, but he doesn't want to be labeled. When Pablo feels stuck in his marriage with Olga and her snobbish ways, he seeks out someone new. He sees Marie-Thérèse Walter on the streets of Paris and she agrees to let him paint her, thus starting a love affair. In 1935, Pablo needs an outlet and begins writing poetry. His friend, poet Paul Éluard introduces him to Dora, a photographer. After finding out Pablo has been sneaking off to St. Tropez with his young mistress Geneviève Laporte, Françoise leaves him to pursue her artistic goals by designing a ballet for choreographer Janine Charrat, and becomes more than friends with philosopher Kostas Axelos in 1953.
2010"Chapter Ten"Mathias HerndlMatthew Newman & Noah PinkJune 19, 2018 (2018-06-19)0.34[18]
After leaving Pablo, Françoise struggles to escape his shadow even when she marries, then divorces art teacher Luc Simon, and later moves to New York City to showcase her art. Not wanting to only be known as Picasso's former mistress, she fights back by writing a tell-all book about their abusive relationship and gets into a healthy one with doctor Jonas Salk. Meanwhile, Pablo meets Jacqueline Roque and she becomes his last muse and then his second wife after Olga dies in 1955. An aging Pablo withdraws from the public eye to create a neo-expressionist self-portrait. On April 8, 1973, Pablo passes away at the age of 91 without a will. The art he leaves behind is worth millions.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On April 28, 2016, it was announced that National Geographic had given the production a straight-to-series order, its first ever scripted series. The series was set to be based on the biography Einstein: His Life and Universe by Walter Isaacson and adapted by Noah Pink, who was also expected to co-executive produce. Executive producers were announced to include Brian Grazer, Ron Howard, Francie Calfo, Gigi Pritzker, Rachel Shane, Sam Sokolow, and Jeff Cooney. Anna Culp was set to co-produce alongside Melissa Rucker. Ron Howard was expected to direct the first episode of the series. Production companies involved with the series were set to include Imagine TV, Fox 21 TV Studios, OddLot Entertainment and EUE/Sokolow.[19]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: In August 2016, it was announced that Geoffrey Rush and Johnny Flynn would star in the series as Albert Einstein both as an old man and as a young adult, respectively.[20] Additionally, it was reported that Emily Watson would also star in the series and that Michael McElhatton, Seth Gabel, Samantha Colley, Richard Topol, and Vincent Kartheiser had joined the cast.[21] In November 2016, it was announced that Shannon Tarbet, Claire Rushbrook, and Robert Lindsay had been cast in recurring roles.[22] On February 2, 2017, it was reported that T. R. Knight had been cast in the recurring role of J. Edgar Hoover.[23]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: On September 6, 2017, it was announced that Antonio Banderas would star in the second season as Pablo Picasso.[24] On November 2, 2017, it was reported that Alex Rich would co-star in the series sharing the lead role of Picasso. It was further reported that Clémence Poésy, Robert Sheehan, Poppy Delevingne, Aisling Franciosi, and Sebastian Roché also joined the cast and that Samantha Colley, T. R. Knight, Seth Gabel, and Johnny Flynn were returning from season one in new roles.[25]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography for season one took place in mid-2016 in Prague.[19] Filming for season two began in November 2017 in Málaga and was expected to take place for over five months in various cities around the world, including Barcelona, Paris, and Budapest.[25][26]

text: Release[edit]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On January 13, 2017, National Geographic released an extended trailer for the first season.[27] On January 12, 2018, a trailer for the second season was released.[28]

text: Renewal[edit]

text: On April 19, 2017, National Geographic renewed the series for a second season.[29] The subject of the second season was to have been announced during the finale of the first season,[29] but was instead revealed to be Pablo Picasso the day after the finale, when the network and producers did not want to divert attention away from the season finale.[30][31] The second season premiered on April 24, 2018.[32]

text: On April 18, 2018, National Geographic renewed the series for a third season set to follow the life of writer Mary Shelley. Ken Biller is expected to return as showrunner, executive producer and writer. Also returning are executive producers Brian Grazer, Ron Howard, Francie Calfo, Jeff Cooney, Sam Sokolow, Gigi Pritzker, and Rachel Shane. Anna Culp will return as producer. Returning production companies include Imagine TV, MWM Studios, and EUE/Sokolow. Filming is expected to begin in late-2018.[33]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: The first season received mostly positive reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 83%, based on 29 reviews.[34] On Metacritic, the season had a score of 65 out of 100, based on 20 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[35]

text: Science columnist Dennis Overbye of The New York Times described the series as a "tense binge-worthy psychological thriller full of political and romantic melodrama."[36] Overbye further noted that Einstein himself, writing to his sister, wrote, "If everybody lived a life like mine, there would be no need for novels."[36] According to Hillary Busis of Vanity Fair, the film shows, "... Einstein at work ... peers into the über-genius's tumultuous love life (monogamy, he believes, is "not natural") ... his fraught emigration to the United States ...".[37] Busis quotes producer Ron Howard: "When you move past his scientific contributions, Albert's life story—what his youth was like, who his friends were, who his enemies were, his tumultuous love life—is a story people don't know ... I think audiences are going to be riveted as we tell this ambitious and revealing human story behind Einstein's scientific brilliance."[37]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: The second season received mixed reviews, but garnered praise for its star, Antonio Banderas. Rotten Tomatoes gave an approval rating of 59%, based on 17 reviews. Its critical consensus reads: "An impressive performance from Antonio Banderas rescues Genius: Picasso from condensed melodrama."[38] On Metacritic, the season had a score of 52 out of 100, based on 10 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[39]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

Ref.

2017

Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Limited Series

Genius

Nominated

[40]

Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie

Geoffrey Rush

Nominated

Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special

Ron Howard

Nominated

Outstanding Hairstyling for a Limited Series or Movie

Tash Lees, Fae Hammond, Adela Robova, Alex Rouse

Nominated

Outstanding Main Title Theme Music

Hans Zimmer and Lorne Balfe

Nominated

Outstanding Makeup for a Limited Series or Movie (Non-Prosthetic)

Davina Lamont

Nominated

Outstanding Period/Fantasy Costumes for a Series, Limited Series, or Movie

Sonu Mishra, Martina Hejlova, Petia Krckova

Nominated

Outstanding Sound Editing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Special

Daniel Pagan, Erich Gann, Arielle McGrail, Bill Bell, Nicholas Fitzgerald, Tim Chilton, Jill Sanders

Nominated

Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Limited Series or Movie

Bob Bronow, Mark Hensley, Petr Forejt

Nominated

Outstanding Special Visual Effects in a Supporting Role

Eric Durst, Lenka Líkařová, Viktor Muller, Marek Ruth, Tomáš Kalhous, Lukáš Herrmann, Pavel Kolář, Petr Hastík, Vit Komrzý

Nominated

Hollywood Music in Media Awards

Main Title Theme – TV Show/Limited Series

Hans Zimmer and Lorne Balfe

Nominated

[41]

2018

Golden Globe Awards

Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film

Geoffrey Rush

Nominated

Screen Actors Guild Awards

Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Limited Series

Geoffrey Rush

Nominated

[42]

American Society of Cinematographers Awards

Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Television Movie, Miniseries or Pilot

Mathias Herndl (for "Chapter One")

Won

[43]

Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Limited Series

Genius: Picasso

Pending

[44]

Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie

Antonio Banderas

Pending

Outstanding Cinematography for a Limited Series or Movie

Mathias Herndl

Pending

Outstanding Hairstyling for a Limited Series or Movie

Kate Starr, Alex Rouse, Judit Halasz, Janosne Kajtar

Pending

Outstanding Makeup for a Limited Series or Movie (Non-Prosthetic)

Davina Lamont, Hayden Bloomfield, Szandra Biro, Szilvia Homolya

Pending

Outstanding Period Costumes

Sonu Mishra, Eudald Magari, Balazs Labancz

Pending

Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Limited Series or Movie

Bob Bronow, Mark Hensley, Tamás Csaba]

Pending


document_title: List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders

question_text: who has the record for the most strikeouts

root

text: In baseball, a strikeout occurs when the batter receives three strikes during his time at bat. Strikeouts are associated with dominance on the part of the pitcher and failure on the part of the batter.

tag: p

text: Nolan Ryan has the most career strikeouts in Major League Baseball. During a record 27-year career, he struck out 5,714 batters.

text: The List[edit]

text:
†
Denotes elected to National Baseball Hall of Fame.

Bold
Denotes active player.

tag: table

text:
A player is considered "inactive" if he has not played baseball for one year or has announced his retirement.
Stats updated through September 26, 2017.

text:
Rank
Player
K

1
Nolan Ryan †
5,714

2
Randy Johnson †
4,875

3
Roger Clemens
4,672

4
Steve Carlton †
4,136

5
Bert Blyleven †
3,701

6
Tom Seaver †
3,640

7
Don Sutton †
3,574

8
Gaylord Perry †
3,534

9
Walter Johnson †
3,508

10
Greg Maddux †
3,371

11
Phil Niekro †
3,342

12
Ferguson Jenkins †
3,192

13
Pedro Martínez †
3,154

14
Bob Gibson †
3,117

15
Curt Schilling
3,116

16
John Smoltz †
3,084

17
Jim Bunning †
2,855

18
CC Sabathia (114)
2,840

19
Mickey Lolich
2,832

20
Mike Mussina
2,813

21
Cy Young †
2,803

22
Frank Tanana
2,773

23
David Cone
2,668

24
Chuck Finley
2,610

25
Tom Glavine †
2,607

26
Warren Spahn †
2,583

27
Bob Feller †
2,581

28
Tim Keefe †
2,564

29
Jerry Koosman
2,556

30
Javier Vázquez
2,536

31
A. J. Burnett
2,513

32
Christy Mathewson †
2,507

33
Don Drysdale †
2,486

34
Jack Morris
2,478

text:
Rank
Player
K

35
Mark Langston
2,464

36
Jim Kaat
2,461

37
Sam McDowell
2,453

38
Bartolo Colón (85)
2,450

39
Andy Pettitte
2,448

40
Jamie Moyer
2,441

41
Luis Tiant
2,416

Justin Verlander (219)
2,416

43
Dennis Eckersley †
2,401

44
Kevin Brown
2,397

45
Sandy Koufax †
2,396

46
Charlie Hough
2,362

47
Robin Roberts †
2,357

48
Félix Hernández (78)
2,342

49
Early Wynn †
2,334

50
Rube Waddell †
2,316

51
Juan Marichal †
2,303

52
Dwight Gooden
2,293

John Lackey (148)
2,293

54
Lefty Grove †
2,266

55
Eddie Plank †
2,246

56
Tommy John
2,245

57
Zack Greinke (211)
2,232

58
Cole Hamels (100)
2,222

59
Jim Palmer †
2,212

60
Jake Peavy
2,207

61
David Wells
2,201

62
Grover Cleveland Alexander †
2,198

63
Vida Blue
2,175

64
Camilo Pascual
2,167

65
Tim Wakefield
2,156

66
Dennis Martínez
2,149

67
Max Scherzer (263)
2,144

68
Clayton Kershaw (200)
2,118

text:
Rank
Player
K

69
Roy Halladay
2,117

70
Kevin Millwood
2,083

71
Bobo Newsom
2,082

72
Tim Hudson
2,080

James Shields (103)
2,080

74
Ryan Dempster
2,075

75
Fernando Valenzuela
2,074

76
Dazzy Vance †
2,045

77
Jon Lester (173)
2,034

78
Rick Reuschel
2,015

79
Orel Hershiser
2,014

80
Dan Haren
2,013

81
Catfish Hunter †
2,012

82
Andy Benes
2,000

83
Billy Pierce
1,999

84
Kevin Appier
1,994

85
Johan Santana
1,988

86
Red Ruffing †
1,987

87
John Clarkson †
1,978

88
Liván Hernández
1,976

89
Al Leiter
1,974

90
Bob Welch
1,969

91
Kenny Rogers
1,968

92
Whitey Ford †
1,956

93
Bobby Witt
1,955

94
Amos Rusie †
1,950

95
Danny Darwin
1,942

96
Tom Gordon
1,928

97
Hideo Nomo
1,918

98
Jerry Reuss
1,907

99
Ervin Santana (166)
1,904

100
Josh Beckett
1,901


document_title: Left- and right-hand traffic

question_text: which side of the road to drive on

question_tokens: which side of the road to drive on

text: Left- and right-hand traffic

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching.[10] In 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.[11]

text: The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.[12]

text: Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left.[10] In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.[10]

text: In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver's seat, so the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.[13]

text: In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right.[12] Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.

text: Meanwhile, LHT traffic was introduced by the British in Atlantic Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate, British India, Southern Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, East Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Angola.

text: The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike.[7] New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.[14]

text: Changing sides[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right-hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left-hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[15] However, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938-39.[16]

text: Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967,[17] despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left-hand drive (LHD) vehicles.[18] A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change,[19] but soon rose back to near its original level.[20] The day was known as Dagen H ("H-Day"), the 'H' being for Högertrafik or right traffic. When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H-dagurinn, again meaning "H-Day".[21]

text: In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation.[22] Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.[23]

text: Asia and the Pacific[edit]

text: China adopted RHT in 1946. Taiwan changed to driving on the right at the same time. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.

text: Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated and surrendered by the Allies.

text: Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.[24]

text: Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009,[25] being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch.[26] The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right hand drive (RHD) vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge,[27] and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it.[28] The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion.[26] After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents.[3] At 05:50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6:00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT.[25] The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat-belt laws.[29] That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic.[30] The change included a three-day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.[3]

text: The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish[31] and American colonial periods,[32][33] the latter despite United States switch to RHT in the 1930s (see above); as well as during the Commonwealth era.[34] During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT,[35] also because LHT had been required by the Japanese;[36] but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.[37]

text: Africa[edit]

text: A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.

text: Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC).[38] A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54% of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents.[39] In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT.[40] In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.[41][42]

text: Changing sides at borders[edit]

text: Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 72 countries that are parties to the 1968 agreement.

text: Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year between the UK and France.

text: Some countries have borders where drivers must switch from LHT to RHT and vice versa.

text: LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.[43]

text: There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100.[44] The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one-way streets with a main road.

text: The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil[45]) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.

text: Road vehicle configurations[edit]

text: Driver seating position[edit]

text: In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.[46]

text: Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD.[7] In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America,[7] arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car" and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger."[47] By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.[7]

text: In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or kerbside. Examples include:

text:
Where the driver needs a good view of the nearside, e.g. street sweepers, or vehicles driven along unstable road edges.[48]
Where it is more convenient for the driver to be on the nearside, e.g. delivery vehicles. The Grumman LLV is widely in used on RHD configurations in RHT North America. Some Unimogs are designed to be switch between LHD and RHD to permit operators to work on the more convenient side of the truck.

tag: ul

text: Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left,[49] and kickstands are usually on the left[50] which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside[50] as is the case in LHT.

text: Headlamps[edit]

text: The projection of light from low-beam headlamps is asymmetrical. The kerbside lamp projects light forwards, while the other headlamp dips the beam down and away from oncoming traffic, so as not to dazzle drivers coming in the opposite direction. In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road.[51] This is done by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded.[51] Some cars have a built-in adjustment to adapt the projection mechanically.[52]

text: Worldwide distribution by country[edit]

text: Of the 193 countries currently recognised by the United Nations, 139 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.

text:
Country
Road traffic
Road switched sides
Multi-track rail traffic generally
Notes

 Afghanistan
RHT

LHT
Was LHT until the 1950s, in line with neighbouring British Raj and later Pakistan.[53]

 Albania
RHT[54]

RHT

 Algeria
RHT[54]

 Andorra
RHT[54]

 Angola
RHT[54]
1928

 Antigua and Barbuda
LHT[54]

 Argentina
RHT
10 June 1945
LHT
The anniversary on 10 June is still observed each year as Día de la Seguridad Vial (road safety day).[55]
The Metrotranvía Mendoza uses RHT.

 Armenia
RHT[54]

 Australia
LHT[56]

LHT
Commonwealth. Includes  Christmas Island,  Cocos Islands,  Norfolk Island

 Austria
RHT
1921 in Vorarlberg, 1930 in North Tyrol, 1935 in Carinthia and East Tyrol, 1938 in the rest of the country.
RHT[57]
Originally LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary.

 Azerbaijan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Bahamas
LHT[54]

 Bahrain
RHT
1967

Former British protectorate. Switched to same side as neighbours.[58]

 Bangladesh
LHT[54]

LHT

 Barbados
LHT

 Belgium
RHT[54]
1899
LHT
The Brussels Metro uses RHT.

 Belarus
RHT[54]

RHT

 Belize
RHT
1961[2]

Former British colony. Switched to same side as neighbours.

 Benin
RHT[54]

 Bhutan
LHT[54]

Under British protection before 1949.

 Bolivia
RHT[54]

 Botswana
LHT[54]

 Brazil
RHT
1928[54]
LHT
A Portuguese colony until the early 19th century, switched some states still using LHT[59] to RHT in 1928.[60]
Most metro systems use RHT.

 Brunei
LHT[54]

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
RHT[54]

Switched sides after the collapse of Austria-Hungary.

 Bulgaria
RHT[54]

RHT

 Burkina Faso
RHT[54]

 Burundi
RHT

Considering switching to LHT[61] in line with neighbours Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

 Cambodia
RHT

RHT implemented while part of French Indochina. RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned from 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in the country.[62]

 Cameroon
RHT[54]
1961

 Canada
RHT
1920s
RHT
Territories now in Canada have always been RHT, except British Columbia, which changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923,[63][64] and New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island which changed in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively.[65] Newfoundland and Labrador changed to RHT in 1947 while still a dominion of the British Empire, two years before joining Canada.[66]

 Cape Verde
RHT[54]
1928

 Central African Republic
RHT[54]

 Chad
RHT[54]

 Chile
RHT[54]

LHT
The Santiago Metro uses RHT.

 China
RHT/LHT[56]
1946
LHT/RHT
At one time, northern provinces were RHT due to American influence, while southern provinces were LHT due to British influence. LHT was uniform in the 1930s. China includes LHT  Hong Kong and  Macau, former colonies of Britain and Portugal, respectively.
Most metro systems use RHT, with the exception of the Hong Kong MTR.

 Colombia
RHT[54]

 Comoros
RHT[54]

 Congo
RHT[54]

 Democratic Republic of Congo
RHT[54]

 Costa Rica
RHT[54]

 Côte d'Ivoire
RHT[54]

 Croatia
RHT[54]

RHT
Istria and Dalmatia were RHT, while Croatia-Slavonia was LHT when Croatia was part of Austria-Hungary [67]. The LHT regions switched to RHT on joining the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

 Cuba
RHT[54]

 Cyprus
LHT[54]

Former British colony.

 Czech Republic
RHT[54]
1939
RHT
Was LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary, switched during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia.

 Denmark
RHT

RHT[68]
Includes  Faroe Islands and  Greenland

 Djibouti
RHT[54]

 Dominica
LHT[54]

Former British colony.

 Dominican Republic
RHT[54]

 East Timor
LHT
1976

Originally LHT, like its colonial power Portugal. Switched to RHT with Portugal in 1928.[2] Under the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, changed back to LHT in 1976.

 Ecuador
RHT[54]

LHT

 Egypt
RHT[54]

LHT
Road vehicles are RHT due to French influence, but railway system was built by British companies.

 El Salvador
RHT[54]

 Equatorial Guinea
RHT[54]

 Eritrea
RHT[54]
1964

 Estonia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Ethiopia
RHT[54]
1964
LHT

 Fiji
LHT

 Finland
RHT
1858
RHT
Formerly ruled by LHT Sweden, switched to RHT as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree.[69]

 France
RHT
1792
LHT[70]/RHT
Includes  French Polynesia,  New Caledonia,  Saint Pierre and Miquelon,  Wallis and Futuna,  French Guiana,  Réunion,  Saint Barthélemy,  Collectivity of Saint Martin,  Guadeloupe,  Mayotte.
Most metro systems use RHT, except for the Lyon Metro.

 Gabon
RHT[54]

 Gambia
RHT [54]
1965

 Georgia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Germany
RHT[71]

RHT

 Ghana
RHT
1974

Former British colony. When changing to RHT a Twi language slogan was "Nifa, Nifa Enan" or "Right, Right, Fourth".[72]

 Greece
RHT[54]

RHT

 Grenada
LHT[54]

 Guatemala
RHT[54]

 Guinea
RHT[54]

 Guinea-Bissau
RHT[54]
1928

 Guyana
LHT[54]

 Haiti
RHT[54]

 Honduras
RHT[54]

 Hungary
RHT[54]
1941
RHT
Originally LHT, like most of Austria-Hungary.

 Iceland
RHT
1968

The day of the switch was known as H-dagurinn. Most passenger cars were already LHD.

 Iran
RHT[54]

RHT

 Iraq
RHT[54]

 India
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Indonesia
LHT[56]

RHT[73]
The Jakarta MRT will use LHT.

 Ireland
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British Dominion.

 Israel
RHT[54]

RHT

 Italy
RHT
1920s
LHT
Until 1927 the countryside was RHT while cities were LHT.[74] Rome changed to RHT in 1924 and Milan in 1926. Alfa Romeo and Lancia did not produce LHD cars until as late as 1950 and 1953 respectively, as many drivers favoured the RHD layout even in RHT as this offered the driver a clearer view of the edge of the road in mountainous regions at a time when many such roads lacked barriers or walls.[75]
The metro systems in Brescia, Genoa, Milan, and Turin use RHT, as well as all tram systems.

 Jamaica
LHT[54]

 Japan
LHT[76]

LHT
Post-World War II Okinawa was ruled by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands and was RHT. It was returned to Japan in 1972 went LHT in 1978.[77] The conversion operation was known as 730 (Nana-San-Maru, which means Nana(7)-San(3)-Maru(0)). Okinawa is one of few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century.

 Jordan
RHT[54]

RHT, despite the Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum being under British rule till 1946.

 Kazakhstan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Kenya
LHT[78]

British colony until 1963.

 Kiribati
LHT[54]

 North Korea and  South Korea
RHT
1946
LHT
Korea had been LHT because of the influence of Japan in the 1900s. Switched to RHT under Soviet and American occupation after 1945.
Most metro systems in South Korea use RHT (exceptions include Seoul Subway Line 1 and the Bundang Line).

 Kuwait
RHT[54]

 Kyrgyzstan
RHT

RHT
Former part of RHT Soviet Union. In 2012, over 20,000 cheaper used RHD cars were imported from Japan.[79]

 Laos
RHT[54]

LHT
RHT implemented while part of French Indochina.

 Latvia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Lebanon
RHT[54]

Former French mandate.

 Lesotho
LHT[54]

 Liberia
RHT[54]

 Libya
RHT[54]

 Liechtenstein
RHT[54]

 Lithuania
RHT[54]

RHT

 Luxembourg
RHT[54]

RHT

 Macedonia
RHT[54]

 Madagascar
RHT[54]

 Malawi
LHT[54]

 Malaysia
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Maldives
LHT[54]

 Mali
RHT[54]

 Malta
LHT[54]

British colony until 1964.

 Marshall Islands
RHT[54]

 Mauritania
RHT

Mining roads between Fdérik and Zouérat are LHT.[80]

 Mauritius
LHT[54]

Former British colony. Island nation.

 Mexico
RHT[54]

RHT

 Micronesia
RHT [54]

RHT

 Moldova
RHT[54]

RHT

 Monaco
RHT[54]

LHT

 Mongolia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Montenegro
RHT[54]

RHT

 Morocco
RHT[54]

 Mozambique
LHT[81]

 Myanmar
RHT
1970
LHT
Much of infrastructure still geared to LHT, most cars are pre-owned RHD vehicles, imported from Japan.[82]

 Netherlands
RHT
1906[83]
RHT
Rotterdam was LHT until 1917.[84] Includes  Curaçao,  Sint Maarten, and  Aruba

 Namibia
LHT
1918

RHT as a German colony. After South Africa occupied German South-West Africa during World War I, switched to LHT.[2] South-West Africa was made a South African mandate by the League of Nations, and the new rule of the road was established in law.[85]

 Nauru
LHT[54]
1918

   Nepal
LHT[86]

 New Zealand
LHT[56]

LHT
Includes territories  Niue and  Cook Islands

 Nicaragua
RHT[54]

 Niger
RHT[54]

 Nigeria
RHT
1972[87]

Former British colony. Switched to RHT as it is surrounded by former French RHT colonies.

 Norway
RHT[54]

RHT

 Oman
RHT

Not a party to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic and bans all foreign-registered RHD vehicles.[88]

 Palau
RHT[54]

RHT

 Palestine
RHT[54]

 Pakistan
LHT[54]

LHT

 Panama
RHT
1943[89]

 Papua New Guinea
LHT[54]

 Paraguay
RHT
1945[90]

 Peru
RHT[54]

LHT

 Philippines
RHT
1946[37]
RHT
LHT up until the Battle of Manila in 1945

 Poland
RHT

RHT
Partitions of Poland belonging to the German Empire and the Russian Empire were RHT. Partitions that were part of Austria-Hungary were LHT and changed to RHT in the 1920s.[91]

 Portugal
RHT[56]
1928
LHT
Colonies Goa, Macau and Mozambique, which had land borders with LHT countries, did not switch and continue to drive on the left.[81]

 Qatar
RHT[54]

 Romania
RHT[54]

RHT

 Russia
RHT[54]

RHT
In the Russian Far East RHD vehicles are common due to the import of used cars from nearby Japan.[92] Railway between Moscow and Ryazan is LHT. Sormovskaya line in Metro of Nizhny Novgorod is LHT.

 Rwanda
RHT[61]

Former Belgian mandate. Considering switching to LHT[61][93] like its neighbours Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
LHT

 Saint Lucia
LHT

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
LHT

 Samoa
LHT
2009

Switched to LHT to allow the import of cars more cheaply from Australia, New Zealand and Japan.[56]

 San Marino
RHT[54]

 São Tomé and Príncipe
RHT[54]
1928

 Saudi Arabia
RHT[54]

 Senegal
RHT[54]

 Serbia
RHT[54]

RHT
Vojvodina was LHT while part of Austria-Hungary.

 Seychelles
LHT[54]

 Sierra Leone
RHT
1971[94]

Importation of RHD vehicles was banned in 2013.[95]

 Singapore
LHT[54]

Former British colony.

 Slovakia
RHT[54]
1939–41
RHT

 Slovenia
RHT[54]

LHT

 Solomon Islands
LHT[54]

 Somalia
RHT
1968[96]

 South Africa
LHT[97][98]

LHT
Former British colony.

 South Sudan
RHT
1973

Was LHT during the period of British colonial rule. Split from Sudan in 2011 after the majority of the population voted for independence.

 Spain
RHT
1924
RHT
Up to the 1920s Barcelona was RHT, and Madrid was LHT until 1924. The Madrid Metro is LHT.[99]

 Sri Lanka
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British Colony.

 Sudan
RHT[54]
1973

Former British Colony.

 Suriname
LHT[54]

 Swaziland
LHT[54]

 Sweden
RHT[54]
1967
LHT
The day of the switch was known as Dagen H. Most passenger cars were already LHD. The tram systems in Gothenburg and Norrköping use RHT; the tram system in Stockholm uses a mixture of LHT and RHT.[100]

  Switzerland
RHT[54]

LHT

 Syria
RHT[54]

 Taiwan
RHT
1946
LHT
Was LHT during the period of Japanese rule. The government of the Republic of China changed Taiwan to RHT in 1946 along with the rest of China.[101]

 Tajikistan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Tanzania
LHT[54]

 Thailand
LHT[56]

LHT
One of the few LHT countries not a former British colony. Shares long land border with RHT Laos and Cambodia.

 Togo
RHT[54]

 Tonga
LHT[54]

 Trinidad and Tobago
LHT[102]

Former British colony.

 Tunisia
RHT[54]

French RHT was enforced in the French protectorate of Tunisia from 1881.

 Turkey
RHT[54]

RHT

 Turkmenistan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Tuvalu
LHT[54]

 Uganda
LHT[54]

 Ukraine
RHT
1922[91]
RHT
West Ukraine was LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary. Carpathian Ruthenia remained LHT as part of Czechoslovakia before switching in 1941 as part of Hungary. The rest of Ukraine, having been part of the Russian Empire, already drove on the right.

 United Arab Emirates
RHT[54]

RHT

 United Kingdom
LHT

LHT/RHT
Includes Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories  Isle of Man,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Anguilla,  Bermuda,  British Virgin Islands,  Cayman Islands, Channel Islands,  Falkland Islands,  Montserrat,  Pitcairn Islands,  Turks and Caicos Islands,  Saint Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha.  Gibraltar has been RHT since 1929 because of its land border with Spain.[103] The Channel Islands (Jersey and Guernsey) drove on the right under German occupation until their liberation in 1945.[104] The Falkland Islands similarly drove on the right during their occupation by Argentina in 1982.[105]

 United States
RHT

RHT/LHT[106]
Includes  American Samoa,  Guam,  Northern Mariana Islands,  Puerto Rico.  U.S. Virgin Islands is LHT, like much of the Caribbean.

 Uruguay
RHT[90]
1945

Became LHT in 1918, but as in some other countries in South America, changed to RHT on 2 September 1945. A speed limit of 30 km/h (19 mph) was observed until 30 September for safety.

 Uzbekistan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Vanuatu
RHT[107]

 Venezuela
RHT[54]

LHT

 Vietnam
RHT[54]

LHT
Became RHT as French Indochina.

 Yemen
RHT
1977[2]

South Yemen, formerly the British colony of Aden, changed to RHT 1977. A series of postage stamps commemorating the event was issued.[108] North Yemen was already RHT.

 Zambia
LHT[54]

 Zimbabwe
LHT

LHT
Former British colony. In 2010 the government attempted to ban LHD vehicles.[109]

text: Traffic behaviour[edit]

text:
Manoeuvre
LHT
RHT

Unless overtaking stay on the
left
right

In roundabouts traffic rotates
clockwise
anticlockwise

Oncoming traffic is seen coming from the
right
left

Traffic must cross oncoming traffic when turning
right
left

Most traffic signs are on the
left
right

Pedestrians crossing a two-way road look first for traffic from their
right
left

Dual carriageway ramps are on the
left
right

After stopping at a red light it may be legal to turn
left
right

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Gibraltar is RHT (since 1929)

A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia

Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.

Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland

The entrance to the Channel Tunnel in France.


document_title: The Outsiders (film)

question_text: who did ralph macchio play in the outsiders

text: The Outsiders (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In Tulsa, Oklahoma, greasers are a gang of tough, low-income working-class teens. They include Ponyboy Curtis and his two older brothers, Sodapop and Darrel, as well as Johnny Cade, Dallas Winston, Two-Bit Matthews, and Steve Randle. Their rivalry is with the Socs, a gang of wealthier kids from the other side of town. Two Socs, Bob Sheldon and Randy Anderson, confront Johnny, Ponyboy, and Two-Bit, who are talking to the Socs' girlfriends, Cherry and Marcia, at a drive-in theater. The girls defuse the situation by going home with the Socs. Later that night, Ponyboy and Johnny are attacked in a park by Bob, Randy, and three other Socs. They begin dunking Ponyboy in a fountain attempting to drown him, but Johnny pulls out his switchblade and stabs Bob to death.

text: On the advice of Dallas, and the fact that murderers in Oklahoma will be executed in the electric chair, Ponyboy and Johnny flee on a cargo train, and hide out in an abandoned church in Windrixville. Both boys cut their hair and Ponyboy bleaches his with peroxide in order to mask their descriptions. To pass time, the boys play poker and Ponyboy reads Gone with the Wind and quotes the Robert Frost poem "Nothing Gold Can Stay". After a few days, Dallas arrives with news that Cherry has offered to support the boys in court, that he told the police that Johnny and Pony were in Texas, and gives Pony a note from Sodapop. They go out to get something to eat, then return to find the church on fire with children trapped inside. The Greasers turn into heroes as they rescue the kids from the burning church. It doesn't take long for Ponyboy and Dally to heal up. Johnny, on the other hand, ends up with a broken back and severe burns. The boys are praised for their heroism, but Johnny is charged with manslaughter for killing Bob, while Ponyboy may be sent to a boys' home.

text: Bob's death has sparked calls from the Socs for "a rumble," which the Greasers win. Dallas drives Ponyboy to the hospital to visit Johnny. Johnny is unimpressed by the victory, and dies after telling Ponyboy to "stay gold," referring to the Frost poem. Unable to bear Johnny's death, Dallas wanders through the hospital, pretending to shoot a doctor with his unloaded gun, which clicks harmlessly. He then robs a grocery store with the same gun, but he is shot and wounded by the owner as he flees. Pursued by the police, Dallas is surrounded in a park and the police kill him after he repeatedly refuses to drop his unloaded gun. Ponyboy is eventually cleared of wrongdoing in Bob's death and allowed to stay with his brothers. Turning the pages of Johnny's copy of Gone with the Wind, Ponyboy finds a letter from Johnny saying that saving the children was worth sacrificing his own life. The story ends with Ponyboy writing a school report about his experiences.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
C. Thomas Howell as Ponyboy Curtis
Matt Dillon as Dallas "Dally" Winston
Ralph Macchio as Johnny Cade
Patrick Swayze as Darrel "Darry" Curtis
Rob Lowe as Sodapop Curtis
Emilio Estevez as Two-Bit Matthews
Tom Cruise as Steve Randle
Glenn Withrow as Tim Shepard
Diane Lane as Sherri "Cherry" Valance
Leif Garrett as Robert "Bob" Sheldon
Darren Dalton as Randy Anderson
Michelle Meyrink as Marcia
Tom Waits as Buck Merrill

text: Production[edit]

text: Francis Ford Coppola had not intended to make a film about teen angst until Jo Ellen Misakian, a school librarian from Lone Star Elementary School in Fresno, California, wrote to him on behalf of her seventh and eighth grade students about adapting The Outsiders.[4] When Coppola read the book, he was moved not only to adapt and direct it, but to follow it the next year by adapting Hinton's novel Rumble Fish. The latter film's cast also included Matt Dillon, Diane Lane, and Glenn Withrow.

text: The film was shot on location in Tulsa, Oklahoma.[5] Coppola filmed The Outsiders and Rumble Fish back-to-back in 1982—a newspaper, used to show a story about the three greasers saving the kids in The Outsiders, includes a real story from 1982 regarding the death of a man hit by a train in Boston.[6] He wrote the screenplay for the latter while on days off from shooting the former. Many of the same locations were used in both films, as were many of the same cast and crew members. The credits are shown at the beginning of the film in the style normally found in a published play.

text: Coppola's craving for realism almost led to disaster during the church-burning scene. He pressed for "more fire", and the small, controlled blaze accidentally triggered a much larger, uncontrolled fire, which a downpour doused.[7]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes has a rating of 63% based on 38 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1/10. The site's consensus reads, "The cracks continue to show in Coppola's directorial style, but The Outsiders remains a blustery, weird, and fun adaptation of the classic novel."[1] Roger Ebert awarded the film two and a half out of four stars, citing problems with Coppola's vision, "the characters wind up like pictures, framed and hanging on the screen."[8]

text: Authors Janet Hirshenson and Jane Jenkins, in a 2007 book, wrote that the film's realistic portrayal of poor teenagers "created a new kind of filmmaking, especially about teenagers — a more naturalistic look at how young people talk, act, and experience the world. This movie was one of the few Hollywood offerings to deal realistically with kids from the wrong side of the tracks, and to portray honestly children whose parents had abused, neglected, or otherwise failed them."[9]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The Outsiders was nominated for four Young Artist Awards, given annually since 1978 by the Young Artist Foundation. C. Thomas Howell won for "Best Young Motion Picture Actor in a Feature Film". Diane Lane was nominated for "Best Young Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture". The film was nominated for "Best Family Feature Motion Picture".[10] Francis Ford Coppola was nominated for the Golden Prize at the 13th Moscow International Film Festival.[11]

text: "The Complete Novel" re-release[edit]

text: In September 2005, Coppola re-released the film on DVD, including 22 minutes of additional footage and new music, as The Outsiders: The Complete Novel. Coppola re-inserted some deleted scenes to make the film more faithful to the book. At the beginning of the film, he added scenes where Ponyboy gets stalked and jumped, the gang talks about going to the movies, Sodapop and Ponyboy talking in their room and Dally, Pony and Johnny bum around before going to the movies. In the end, Coppola added the scenes taking place in court, Mr. Syme talking to Ponyboy, and Sodapop, Ponyboy and Darry in the park. Also, much of the original score was replaced with music popular in the 1960s as well as new music composed by Michael Seifert and Dave Padrutt. The film was re-rated by the MPAA as PG-13 for "violence, teen drinking and smoking, and some sexual references".[12]

text: The director also removed several scenes in order to improve pacing, but they could be found on the second disc as additional scenes. In addition, Swayze, Macchio, Lane, and Howell gathered at Coppola's estate to watch the re-release, and their commentary is included on the DVD. Dillon and Lowe provided separate commentary.

text: A Blu-ray edition of The Outsiders: The Complete Novel was released in Region 1 on June 3, 2014.[13]

text: Music[edit]

text: The original film score was composed by the director's father, Carmine Coppola; the main theme, "Stay Gold", was sung by Stevie Wonder. The original soundtrack included one rock song, Them's "Gloria".

text: Sequel TV series[edit]

text: A television series based on the characters of the novel and film aired in 1990. It consists of a different cast playing the same characters. It picks up right after the events of the film's ending but lasted only one season.


document_title: Positivism

question_text: who proposed positive method in social science research

text: Positivism

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The English noun positivism was re-imported in the 19th century from the French word positivisme, derived from positif in its philosophical sense of 'imposed on the mind by experience'. The corresponding adjective (lat. positīvus 'arbitrarily imposed', from pono 'put in place') has been used in similar sense to discuss law (positive law compared to natural law) since the time of Chaucer.[5]

text: Overview[edit]

text: Antecedents[edit]

text: Positivism is part of a more general ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry, notably laid out by Plato and later reformulated as a quarrel between the sciences and the humanities,[6] Plato elaborates a critique of poetry from the point of view of philosophy in his dialogues Phaedrus 245a, Symposium 209a, Republic 398a, Laws 817 b-d and Ion.[7] Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) popularized the distinction between Geisteswissenschaft (humanities) and Naturwissenschaften (natural sciences).[8]

text: The consideration that laws in physics may not be absolute but relative, and, if so, this might be more true of social sciences,[9] was stated, in different terms, by G. B. Vico in 1725.[10] Vico, in contrast to the positivist movement, asserted the superiority of the science of the human mind (the humanities, in other words), on the grounds that natural sciences tell us nothing about the inward aspects of things.[11]

text: Positivists[edit]

text: Positivism asserts that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.[12] Thinkers such as Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825), Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) and Auguste Comte (1798–1857) believed the scientific method, the circular dependence of theory and observation, must replace metaphysics in the history of thought.[citation needed] Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) reformulated sociological positivism as a foundation of social research.[13]

text: Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911), in contrast, fought strenuously against the assumption that only explanations derived from science are valid.[8] He reprised the argument, already found in Vico, that scientific explanations do not reach the inner nature of phenomena[8] and it is humanistic knowledge that gives us insight into thoughts, feelings and desires.[8] Dilthey was in part influenced by the historicism of Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886).[8]

text: Antipositivism[edit]

text: At the turn of the 20th century the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, rejected the doctrine, thus founding the antipositivist tradition in sociology. Later antipositivists and critical theorists have associated positivism with "scientism"; science as ideology.[14] Later in his career (1969),[15] German theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, Nobel laureate for pioneering work in quantum mechanics, distanced himself from positivism by saying:

text: The positivists have a simple solution: the world must be divided into that which we can say clearly and the rest, which we had better pass over in silence. But can any one conceive of a more pointless philosophy, seeing that what we can say clearly amounts to next to nothing? If we omitted all that is unclear we would probably be left with completely uninteresting and trivial tautologies.[16]

text: Logical positivism and postpositivism[edit]

text: In the early 20th century, logical positivism—a descendant of Comte's basic thesis but an independent movement—sprang up in Vienna and grew to become one of the dominant schools in Anglo-American philosophy and the analytic tradition. Logical positivists (or 'neopositivists') rejected metaphysical speculation and attempted to reduce statements and propositions to pure logic. Strong critiques of this approach by philosophers such as Karl Popper, Willard Van Orman Quine and Thomas Kuhn have been highly influential, and led to the development of postpositivism.

text: In historiography[edit]

text: In historiography the debate on positivism has been characterized by the quarrel between positivism and historicism.[9] (Historicism is also sometimes termed historism in the German tradition.)[17]

text: Arguments against positivist approaches in historiography include that history differs from sciences like physics and ethology in subject matter and method.[18] That much of what history studies is nonquantifiable, and therefore to quantify is to lose in precision. Experimental methods and mathematical models do not generally apply to history, and it is not possible to formulate general (quasi-absolute) laws in history.[18]

text: In other fields[edit]

text: Positivism in the social sciences is usually characterized by quantitative approaches and the proposition of quasi-absolute laws. A significant exception to this trend is represented by cultural anthropology, which tends naturally toward qualitative approaches.[9]

text: In psychology the positivist movement was influential in the development of operationalism. The 1927 philosophy of science book The Logic of Modern Physics in particular, which was originally intended for physicists, coined the term operational definition, which went on to dominate psychological method for the whole century.[19]

text: In economics, practising researchers tend to emulate the methodological assumptions of classical positivism, but only in a de facto fashion: the majority of economists do not explicitly concern themselves with matters of epistemology.[20] Economic thinker Friedrich Hayek (see "Law, Legislation and Liberty") rejected positivism in the social sciences as hopelessly limited in comparison to evolved and divided knowledge. For example, much (positivist) legislation falls short in contrast to pre-literate or incompletely defined common or evolved law. In jurisprudence, "legal positivism" essentially refers to the rejection of natural law, with the latter's claimed basis in a "divine" origin, thus its common meaning with philosophical positivism is somewhat attenuated and in recent generations generally emphasizes the authority of human political structures as opposed to a pseudo-"scientific" view of law, based in a view of natural law, which supposes "divine"origins.

text: In the early 1970s, urbanists of the positivist-quantitative school like David Harvey started to question the positivist approach itself, saying that the arsenal of scientific theories and methods developed so far in their camp were "incapable of saying anything of depth and profundity" on the real problems of contemporary cities.[21]

text: In 1900s sociology[edit]

text: In contemporary social science, strong accounts of positivism have long since fallen out of favour. Practitioners of positivism today acknowledge in far greater detail observer bias and structural limitations. Modern positivists generally eschew metaphysical concerns in favour of methodological debates concerning clarity, replicability, reliability and validity.[22] This positivism is generally equated with "quantitative research" and thus carries no explicit theoretical or philosophical commitments. The institutionalization of this kind of sociology is often credited to Paul Lazarsfeld,[23] who pioneered large-scale survey studies and developed statistical techniques for analyzing them. This approach lends itself to what Robert K. Merton called middle-range theory: abstract statements that generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a social whole.[24]

text: In 2000s sociology[edit]

text: Other new movements, such as critical realism, have emerged to reconcile the overarching aims of social science with various so-called 'postmodern' critiques.[25][26] There are now at least twelve distinct epistemologies that are referred to as positivism.[27]

text: Sociological positivism[edit]

text: Comte's positivism[edit]

text: Auguste Comte (1798–1857) first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1844 work, A General View of Positivism (published in French 1848, English in 1865). The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasized the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[28] For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. His View of Positivism therefore set out to define the empirical goals of sociological method.

text: "The most important thing to determine was the natural order in which the sciences stand—not how they can be made to stand, but how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes of any one. ... This Comte accomplished by taking as the criterion of the position of each the degree of what he called "positivity," which is simply the degree to which the phenomena can be exactly determined. This, as may be readily seen, is also a measure of their relative complexity, since the exactness of a science is in inverse proportion to its complexity. The degree of exactness or positivity is, moreover, that to which it can be subjected to mathematical demonstration, and therefore mathematics, which is not itself a concrete science, is the general gauge by which the position of every science is to be determined. Generalizing thus, Comte found that there were five great groups of phenomena of equal classificatory value but of successively decreasing positivity. To these he gave the names astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology."

text: Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general "law of three stages". The idea bears some similarity to Marx's belief that human society would progress toward a communist peak (see dialectical materialism).[citation needed] This is perhaps unsurprising as both were profoundly influenced by the early Utopian socialist, Henri de Saint-Simon, who was at one time Comte's mentor. Comte intended to develop a secular-scientific ideology in the wake of European secularisation.

text: Comte's stages were (1) the theological, (2) the metaphysical, and (3) the positive.[30] The theological phase of man was based on whole-hearted belief in all things with reference to God. God, Comte says, had reigned supreme over human existence pre-Enlightenment. Humanity's place in society was governed by its association with the divine presences and with the church. The theological phase deals with humankind's accepting the doctrines of the church (or place of worship) rather than relying on its rational powers to explore basic questions about existence. It dealt with the restrictions put in place by the religious organization at the time and the total acceptance of any "fact" adduced for society to believe.[31] Comte describes the metaphysical phase of humanity as the time since the Enlightenment, a time steeped in logical rationalism, to the time right after the French Revolution. This second phase states that the universal rights of humanity are most important. The central idea is that humanity is invested with certain rights that must be respected. In this phase, democracies and dictators rose and fell in attempts to maintain the innate rights of humanity.[32]

text: The final stage of the trilogy of Comte's universal law is the scientific, or positive, stage. The central idea of this phase is that individual rights are more important than the rule of any one person. Comte stated that the idea of humanity's ability to govern itself makes this stage inherently different from the rest. There is no higher power governing the masses and the intrigue of any one person can achieve anything based on that individual's free will. The third principle is most important in the positive stage.[33] Comte calls these three phases the universal rule in relation to society and its development. Neither the second nor the third phase can be reached without the completion and understanding of the preceding stage. All stages must be completed in progress.[34]

text: Comte believed that the appreciation of the past and the ability to build on it towards the future was key in transitioning from the theological and metaphysical phases. The idea of progress was central to Comte's new science, sociology. Sociology would "lead to the historical consideration of every science" because "the history of one science, including pure political history, would make no sense unless it was attached to the study of the general progress of all of humanity".[35] As Comte would say: "from science comes prediction; from prediction comes action."[36] It is a philosophy of human intellectual development that culminated in science. The irony of this series of phases is that though Comte attempted to prove that human development has to go through these three stages, it seems that the positivist stage is far from becoming a realization. This is due to two truths: The positivist phase requires having a complete understanding of the universe and world around us and requires that society should never know if it is in this positivist phase. Anthony Giddens argues that since humanity constantly uses science to discover and research new things, humanity never progresses beyond the second metaphysical phase.[34]

text: Comte's fame today owes in part to Emile Littré, who founded The Positivist Review in 1867. As an approach to the philosophy of history, positivism was appropriated by historians such as Hippolyte Taine. Many of Comte's writings were translated into English by the Whig writer, Harriet Martineau, regarded by some as the first female sociologist. Debates continue to rage as to how much Comte appropriated from the work of his mentor, Saint-Simon.[37] He was nevertheless influential: Brazilian thinkers turned to Comte's ideas about training a scientific elite in order to flourish in the industrialization process. Brazil's national motto, Ordem e Progresso ("Order and Progress") was taken from the positivism motto, "Love as principle, order as the basis, progress as the goal", which was also influential in Poland.

text: In later life, Comte developed a 'religion of humanity' for positivist societies in order to fulfil the cohesive function once held by traditional worship. In 1849, he proposed a calendar reform called the 'positivist calendar'. For close associate John Stuart Mill, it was possible to distinguish between a "good Comte" (the author of the Course in Positive Philosophy) and a "bad Comte" (the author of the secular-religious system).[28] The system was unsuccessful but met with the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species to influence the proliferation of various Secular Humanist organizations in the 19th century, especially through the work of secularists such as George Holyoake and Richard Congreve. Although Comte's English followers, including George Eliot and Harriet Martineau, for the most part rejected the full gloomy panoply of his system, they liked the idea of a religion of humanity and his injunction to "vivre pour autrui" ("live for others", from which comes the word "altruism").[38]

text: The early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte; writing after various developments in evolutionary biology, Spencer attempted (in vain) to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms.

text: Proletarian positivism[edit]

text: Fabien Magnin was the first working class adherent to Comte's ideas. Comte appointed him as his successor as president of the Positive Society in the event of Comte's death. Magnin filled this role from 1857 to 1880, when he resigned.[39] Magnin was in touch with the English positivists Richard Congreve and Edward Spencer Beesly. He established the Cercle des prolétaires positivistes in 1863 which was affiliated to the First International. Eugène Sémérie was a psychiatrist who was also involved in the Positivist movement, setting up a positivist club in Paris after the foundation of the French Third Republic in 1870. "Positivism is not only a philosophical doctrine, it is also a political party which claims to reconcile order – the necessary basis for all social activity – with Progress, which is its goal." he wrote.[40]

text: Durkheim's positivism[edit]

text: The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). While Durkheim rejected much of the details of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[23] Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method (1895).[41] In this text he argued: "[o]ur main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism."[29]

text: Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy. By carefully examining suicide statistics in different police districts, he attempted to demonstrate that Catholic communities have a lower suicide rate than Protestants, something he attributed to social (as opposed to individual or psychological) causes. He developed the notion of objective sui generis "social facts" to delineate a unique empirical object for the science of sociology to study.[23] Through such studies, he posited, sociology would be able to determine whether a given society is 'healthy' or 'pathological', and seek social reform to negate organic breakdown or "social anomie". Durkheim described sociology as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning".[42]

text: Accounts of Durkheim's positivism are vulnerable to exaggeration and oversimplification: Comte was the only major sociological thinker to postulate that the social realm may be subject to scientific analysis in exactly the same way as natural science, whereas Durkheim saw a far greater need for a distinctly sociological scientific methodology. His lifework was fundamental in the establishment of practical social research as we know it today—techniques which continue beyond sociology and form the methodological basis of other social sciences, such as political science, as well of market research and other fields.[43]

text: Antipositivism and critical theory[edit]

text: At the turn of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists formally introduced methodological antipositivism, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a subjective perspective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be loosely described as a 'science' as it is able to identify causal relationships—especially among ideal types, or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena.[44] As a nonpositivist, however, one seeks relationships that are not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable"[45] as those pursued by natural scientists. Weber regarded sociology as the study of social action, using critical analysis and verstehen techniques. The sociologists Georg Simmel, Ferdinand Tönnies, George Herbert Mead, and Charles Cooley were also influential in the development of sociological antipositivism, whilst neo-Kantian philosophy, hermeneutics, and phenomenology facilitated the movement in general.

text: Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism and critical analysis drew upon positivism,[46] a tradition which would continue in the development of critical theory. However, following in the tradition of both Weber and Marx, the critical theorist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality (in its relation to the cultural "rationalisation" of the modern West) as meaning that scientific thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself. Positivism may be espoused by "technocrats" who believe in the inevitability of social progress through science and technology.[47][48] New movements, such as critical realism, have emerged in order to reconcile postpositivist aims with various so-called 'postmodern' perspectives on the social acquisition of knowledge.

text: Contemporary positivism[edit]

text: In the original Comtean usage, the term "positivism" roughly meant the use of scientific methods to uncover the laws according to which both physical and human events occur, while "sociology" was the overarching science that would synthesize all such knowledge for the betterment of society. "Positivism is a way of understanding based on science"; people don't rely on the faith of God but instead of the science behind humanity. "Antipositivism" formally dates back to the start of the twentieth century, and is based on the belief that natural and human sciences are ontologically and epistemologically distinct. Neither of these terms is used any longer in this sense.[23] There are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies that are referred to as positivism.[27] Many of these approaches do not self-identify as "positivist", some because they themselves arose in opposition to older forms of positivism, and some because the label has over time become a term of abuse[23] by being mistakenly linked with a theoretical empiricism. The extent of antipositivist criticism has also become broad, with many philosophies broadly rejecting the scientifically based social epistemology and other ones only seeking to amend it to reflect 20th century developments in the philosophy of science. However, positivism (understood as the use of scientific methods for studying society) remains the dominant approach to both the research and the theory construction in contemporary sociology, especially in the United States.[23]

text: The majority of articles published in leading American sociology and political science journals today are positivist (at least to the extent of being quantitative rather than qualitative).[49][50] This popularity may be because research utilizing positivist quantitative methodologies holds a greater prestige[clarification needed] in the social sciences than qualitative work; quantitative work is easier to justify, as data can be manipulated to answer any question.[51][need quotation to verify] Such research is generally perceived as being more scientific and more trustworthy, and thus has a greater impact on policy and public opinion (though such judgments are frequently contested by scholars doing non-positivist work).[51][need quotation to verify]

text: The role of science in social change[edit]

text: The contestation over positivism is reflected in older (see the Positivism dispute) and current debates over the proper role science in the public sphere. Public sociology—especially as described by Michael Burawoy—argues that sociologists should use empirical evidence to display the problems of society so they might be changed.[52] Conversely, Thibodeaux[53] argued that critical theory—public sociology in particular—relies on a dialectical, unilineal evolutionary view of social change. If a public sociologists assumes a multi-lineal interpretation of social change, public sociology will fail to affect social change for three reasons: (1) there's no objective criteria for the assessment of different goals (2) the rejection of one goal does not necessarily lead to an adherence to some other particular goal and (3) criticizing a goal maintains its relevance at the expense of possible alternatives.

text: Logical positivism[edit]

text: Logical positivism (later and more accurately called logical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is indispensable for knowledge of the world, with a version of rationalism, the idea that our knowledge includes a component that is not derived from observation.

text: Logical positivism grew from the discussions of a group called the "First Vienna Circle" which gathered at the Café Central before World War I. After the war Hans Hahn, a member of that early group, helped bring Moritz Schlick to Vienna. Schlick's Vienna Circle, along with Hans Reichenbach's Berlin Circle, propagated the new doctrines more widely in the 1920s and early 1930s.

text: It was Otto Neurath's advocacy that made the movement self-conscious and more widely known. A 1929 pamphlet written by Neurath, Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the doctrines of the Vienna Circle at that time. These included: the opposition to all metaphysics, especially ontology and synthetic a priori propositions; the rejection of metaphysics not as wrong but as meaningless (i.e., not empirically verifiable); a criterion of meaning based on Ludwig Wittgenstein's early work (which he later refuted)[citation needed]; the idea that all knowledge should be codifiable in a single standard language of science; and above all the project of "rational reconstruction," in which ordinary-language concepts were gradually to be replaced by more precise equivalents in that standard language. However, the project is widely considered to have failed:[54][55]

text: The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation.[56]

text: In the early 1930s, the Vienna Circle dispersed, mainly because of fascist persecution and the untimely deaths of Hahn and Schlick. The most prominent proponents of logical positivism emigrated to the United Kingdom and to the United States, where they considerably influenced American philosophy. Until the 1950s, logical positivism was the leading school in the philosophy of science.

text: After moving to the United States, Carnap proposed a replacement for the earlier doctrines in his Logical Syntax of Language. This change of direction, and the somewhat differing beliefs of Reichenbach and others, led to a consensus that the English name for the shared doctrinal platform, in its American exile from the late 1930s, should be "logical empiricism."

text: Most philosophers consider logical positivism to be, as John Passmore expressed it, "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".[57] By the late 1970s, its ideas were so generally recognized to be seriously defective that one of its own main proponents, A. J. Ayer, could say in an interview: "I suppose the most important [defect] ... was that nearly all of it was false."[57]

text: Further thinkers[edit]

text: Within years of the publication of Comte's book A General View of Positivism (1848), other scientific and philosophical thinkers began creating their own definitions for positivism. They included Émile Zola, Emile Hennequin, Wilhelm Scherer, and Dimitri Pisarev. Émile Zola was an influential French novelist, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France.

text: Emile Hennequin was a Parisian publisher and writer who wrote theoretical and critical pieces. He "exemplified the tension between the positivist drive to systematize literary criticism and the unfettered imagination inherent in literature." He was one of the few thinkers who disagreed with the notion that subjectivity invalidates observation, judgment and prediction. Unlike many positivist thinkers before him, he believed that subjectivity does play a role in science and society. His contribution to positivism pertains not to science and its objectivity, but rather to the subjectivity of art and the way artists, their work, and audiences interrelate. Hennequin tried to analyse positivism strictly on the predictions, and the mechanical processes, but was perplexed due to the contradictions of the reactions of patrons to artwork that showed no scientific inclinations.

text: Wilhelm Scherer was a German philologist, a university professor, and a popular literary historian. He was known as a positivist because he based much of his work on "hypotheses on detailed historical research, and rooted every literary phenomenon in 'objective' historical or philological facts". His positivism is different due to his involvement with his nationalist goals. His major contribution to the movement was his speculation that culture cycled in a six-hundred-year period.

text: Dimitri Pisarev was a Russian critic who showed the greatest contradictions with his belief in positivism. His ideas focused around an imagination and style though he did not believe in romantic ideas because they reminded him of the oppressive tsarist government under which he lived. His basic beliefs were "an extreme anti-aesthetic scientistic position." He focused his efforts on defining the relation between literature and the environment.

text: Stephen Hawking is a recent high-profile advocate of positivism, at least in the physical sciences. In The Universe in a Nutshell (p. 31) he writes:

text: Any sound scientific theory, whether of time or of any other concept, should in my opinion be based on the most workable philosophy of science: the positivist approach put forward by Karl Popper and others. According to this way of thinking, a scientific theory is a mathematical model that describes and codifies the observations we make. A good theory will describe a large range of phenomena on the basis of a few simple postulates and will make definite predictions that can be tested. ... If one takes the positivist position, as I do, one cannot say what time actually is. All one can do is describe what has been found to be a very good mathematical model for time and say what predictions it makes.

text: However, the claim that Popper was a positivist is a common misunderstanding that Popper himself termed the "Popper legend."[58] In fact, he developed his beliefs in stark opposition to and as a criticism of positivism and held that scientific theories talk about how the world really is, not, as positivists claim, about phenomena or observations experienced by scientists.[59] In the same vein, continental philosophers like Theodore Adorno and Jürgen Habermas regarded Popper as a positivist because of his alleged devotion to a unified science. However, this was also part of the "Popper legend"; Popper had in fact been the foremost critic of this doctrine of the Vienna Circle, critiquing it, for instance, in his Conjectures and Refutations.[60]

text: In science today[edit]

text: The key features of positivism as of the 1950s, as defined in the "received view",[61] are:

text:
A focus on science as a product, a linguistic or numerical set of statements;
A concern with axiomatization, that is, with demonstrating the logical structure and coherence of these statements;
An insistence on at least some of these statements being testable; that is, amenable to being verified, confirmed, or shown to be false by the empirical observation of reality. Statements that would, by their nature, be regarded as untestable included the teleological; thus positivism rejects much of classical metaphysics.
The belief that science is markedly cumulative;
The belief that science is predominantly transcultural;
The belief that science rests on specific results that are dissociated from the personality and social position of the investigator;
The belief that science contains theories or research traditions that are largely commensurable;
The belief that science sometimes incorporates new ideas that are discontinuous from old ones;
The belief that science involves the idea of the unity of science, that there is, underlying the various scientific disciplines, basically one science about one real world.
The belief that science is nature and nature is science; and out of this duality, all theories and postulates are created, interpreted, evolve, and are applied.

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text: Positivism is elsewhere defined as the belief that all true knowledge is scientific,[62] and that all things are ultimately measurable. Positivism is closely related to reductionism, in that both involve the belief that "entities of one kind... are reducible to entities of another,"[62] such as societies to configurations of individuals, or mental events to neural phenomena. It also involves the contention that "processes are reducible to physiological, physical or chemical events,"[62] and even that "social processes are reducible to relationships between and actions of individuals,"[62] or that "biological organisms are reducible to physical systems."[62]

text: While most social scientists today are not explicit about their epistemological commitments, articles in top American sociology and political science journals generally follow a positivist logic of argument.[49][50] It can be thus argued that "natural science and social science [research articles] can therefore be regarded with a good deal of confidence as members of the same genre".[49]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Historically, positivism has been criticized for its reductionism, i.e., for contending that all "processes are reducible to physiological, physical or chemical events," "social processes are reducible to relationships between and actions of individuals," and that "biological organisms are reducible to physical systems."[62]

text: Max Horkheimer criticized the classic formulation of positivism on two grounds. First, he claimed that it falsely represented human social action.[63] The first criticism argued that positivism systematically failed to appreciate the extent to which the so-called social facts it yielded did not exist 'out there', in the objective world, but were themselves a product of socially and historically mediated human consciousness.[63] Positivism ignored the role of the 'observer' in the constitution of social reality and thereby failed to consider the historical and social conditions affecting the representation of social ideas.[63] Positivism falsely represented the object of study by reifying social reality as existing objectively and independently and labour actually produced those conditions.[63] Secondly, he argued, representation of social reality produced by positivism was inherently and artificially conservative, helping to support the status quo, rather than challenging it.[63] This character may also explain the popularity of positivism in certain political circles. Horkheimer argued, in contrast, that critical theory possessed a reflexive element lacking in the positivistic traditional theory.[63]

text: Some scholars today hold the beliefs critiqued in Horkheimer's work, but since the time of his writing critiques of positivism, especially from philosophy of science, have led to the development of postpositivism. This philosophy greatly relaxes the epistemological commitments of logical positivism and no longer claims a separation between the knower and the known. Rather than dismissing the scientific project outright, postpositivists seek to transform and amend it, though the exact extent of their affinity for science varies vastly. For example, some postpositivists accept the critique that observation is always value-laden, but argue that the best values to adopt for sociological observation are those of science: skepticism, rigor, and modesty. Just as some critical theorists see their position as a moral commitment to egalitarian values, these postpositivists see their methods as driven by a moral commitment to these scientific values. Such scholars may see themselves as either positivists or antipositivists.[64]

text: Positivism has also come under fire on religious and philosophical grounds, whose proponents state that truth begins in sense experience, but does not end there. Positivism fails to prove that there are not abstract ideas, laws, and principles, beyond particular observable facts and relationships and necessary principles, or that we cannot know them. Nor does it prove that material and corporeal things constitute the whole order of existing beings, and that our knowledge is limited to them. According to positivism, our abstract concepts or general ideas are mere collective representations of the experimental order—for example; the idea of "man" is a kind of blended image of all the men observed in our experience. This runs contrary to a Platonic or Christian ideal, where an idea can be abstracted from any concrete determination, and may be applied identically to an indefinite number of objects of the same class[citation needed] From the idea's perspective, Platonism is more precise. Defining an idea as a sum of collective images is imprecise and more or less confused, and becomes more so as the collection represented increases. An idea defined explicitly always remains clear.

text: Experientialism, which arose with second generation cognitive science, asserts that knowledge begins and ends with experience itself.[65][66]

text: Echoes of the "positivist" and "antipositivist" debate persist today, though this conflict is hard to define. Authors writing in different epistemological perspectives do not phrase their disagreements in the same terms and rarely actually speak directly to each other.[67] To complicate the issues further, few practicing scholars explicitly state their epistemological commitments, and their epistemological position thus has to be guessed from other sources such as choice of methodology or theory. However, no perfect correspondence between these categories exists, and many scholars critiqued as "positivists" are actually postpositivists.[68] One scholar has described this debate in terms of the social construction of the "other", with each side defining the other by what it is not rather than what it is, and then proceeding to attribute far greater homogeneity to their opponents than actually exists.[67] Thus, it is better to understand this not as a debate but as two different arguments: the "antipositivist" articulation of a social meta-theory which includes a philosophical critique of scientism, and "positivist" development of a scientific research methodology for sociology with accompanying critiques of the reliability and validity of work that they see as violating such standards.