document_title: Carter family (EastEnders)

question_text: who plays mick carter's wife in eastenders

question_tokens: who plays mick carter 's wife in eastenders

text: Carter family (EastEnders)

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Backstory[edit]

text: Stan Carter (Timothy West) worked as a fishmongster at the Billingsgate Fish Market. With his wife Sylvie Carter (Linda Marlowe) he had two daughters: Shirley Carter (Linda Henry) and Tina Carter (Luisa Bradshaw-White). Stan neglected his family, whereas Sylvie abused Shirley when she was young. Shirley fell pregnant at 14 by Buster Briggs (Karl Howman) and Sylvie pushed Shirley down the stairs to try to kill the unborn baby; however, she was unsuccessful. Deciding to keep the news from Stan, Sylvie took Shirley to a caravan site with her sister, Babe Smith (Annette Badland), where Shirley gave birth to Mick (Danny Dyer). Seeing an opportunity to revive her failing marriage, Sylvie pretended that Mick was her and Stan's son, and he was raised as Shirley and Tina's brother. Sylvie left the family soon afterwards, and Shirley struggled with bringing up her son and her younger sister alone, so she tried to drown Mick in the bathroom. Stan saved him, but after they took Mick to the hospital, social services took Mick and Tina into care. Shirley grew distant from her father and married Kevin Wicks (Phil Daniels). They had one child, Jimbo Wicks, while Shirley had two further children, Carly Wicks (Kellie Shirley) and Dean Wicks (Matt Di Angelo). Carly was the result of a one-night stand named Daniel, but she and Buster reconnected and he also fathered Dean. Kevin raised both children as his own. Shirley disowned Stan after an argument and did not speak to him for 25 years. Shirley walked out on her children when she divorced Kevin. She did not attend Jimbo's funeral, who died of cystic fibrosis at the age of 21.

text: Tina gave birth to Zsa Zsa Carter (Emer Kenny) at the age of 19 with a man named Mark Reynolds, who was six years her senior, but could not cope with bringing up a child at a young age. She often indulged in alcohol and drugs, leaving Zsa Zsa to bring herself up. Zsa Zsa's father later died. Tina also married a man named Andy, but left him for a man named Miguel and went to Spain. She later began a lesbian relationship with firefighter Fiona "Tosh" Mackintosh (Rebecca Scroggs). They shared a volatile relationship; Tosh was violent towards Tina.

text: Tina remained close to Mick (without knowing that he is really her nephew, rather than her brother). Mick met a local girl called Linda Peacock (Kellie Bright) when he was six years old and they went to school together. When they were 15, Linda fell pregnant by Mick, three months after the death of her father, and gave birth to their son Lee Carter (Danny-Boy Hatchard). Two years later, they had a daughter, Nancy Carter (Maddy Hill), followed by the premature birth of their youngest son, Johnny Carter (Sam Strike/Ted Reilly). Shirley burnt down their first pub, which led to Mick being estranged from Shirley and they lived with Linda's mother, Elaine Peacock (Maria Friedman).

text: Shirley is the first Carter to be introduced, in 2006, as the ex-wife of pre-established character Kevin Wicks and mother of his two children, Carly and Deano. Shirley fails to reunite with her family due to her abandonment of them and Jimbo especially. She clashes with many Walford residents, including Denise Fox (Diane Parish) and Pat Butcher (Pam St. Clement), but has support in her best friend Heather Trott (Cheryl Fergison). She continues to try to win over Carly and Deano, but both leave Walford on bad terms with their mother. Shirley eventually begins a relationship with Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden), over their mutual tendency to drink too much.

text: The second Carter introduced is Shirley's niece Zsa Zsa, Tina's daughter. Zsa Zsa flees her mother and step-father to Walford, and moves in with Shirley and Phil. After Phil becomes addicted to cocaine when his relationship with Shirley ends, Zsa Zsa supports her, but later moves to France, remaining on good terms with her aunt. Shirley continues to try to help Phil escape his addiction, and they reunite when he manages to do so. She provides a false alibi for him when his uncle and step-father, Archie Mitchell (Larry Lamb) is murdered, strengthening their relationship. Shirley shows her maternal skills for the first time since she abandoned Deano and Carly in mothering Phil's son Ben Mitchell (Joshua Pascoe), as he is neglected by Phil due to being gay. She is devastated when Heather is murdered, and, just as she begins to recover, the discovery that it was Ben that killed her and Phil hid this drives Shirley back to being a mess. She ends things with Phil, and sees Ben sent to prison for what he has done. To help her mother recover from Phil's betrayal, Carly returns to Walford and reunites with her. She introduces Shirley to her grandson, Jimmy, named for Jimbo, and Shirley departs Walford with her.

text: Shirley returns but disappears after discovering that Carl White (Daniel Coonan) caused a car crash that put Phil in hospital. However, it is revealed that she is staying with Tina. Tina has recently broken up with Tosh as she had been abusing her. They return to Walford. Tina convinces Shirley to visit their estranged brother, Mick, at his pub in Watford, where they clash with Mick's wife Linda. Eventually Shirley reunites with Mick and Mick buys The Queen Victoria, moving to Albert Square with Linda, their son Johnny and family dog Lady Di (Hot Lips). Shirley and Tina move in with them as well, to Linda's chagrin. Mick stops Nancy's wedding to Wayne Ladlow (Malachi Kirby) and Nancy reveals that Johnny is gay; Linda struggles to accept his sexuality. Mick and Tina as Stan for money but Shirley blames Stan for giving them up as children. However, Shirley is forced to ask for the money herself, and Stan agrees. Tina reunites with Tosh when she returns to Walford, to Shirley's fury, and eventually moves out of The Vic to live with Tosh. When Stan is ill, he comes to stay at The Vic, to everyone's displeasure. He accidentally starts a fire, but is saved by Lee, who has fled the army after. He has casual flings with Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) and Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty). Mick convinces him to return to the army; on the day before he is due to leave, Lucy is murdered by an unknown assailant (see Who Killed Lucy Beale?). Lee makes a statement before leaving.

text: Deano (now known as Dean) returns, as Stan wants to reunite him with Shirley. He still angry at Shirley and clashes with Mick. Stan pays for him to open up his own salon in Walford, unaware that Dean is planning to scam him and flee. Stan discovers the plan and stops him, convincing Dean to stay. Dean develops feelings for Linda and overhears a conversation between Mick and Linda, revealing they are not really married. Lee returns from the army. Shirley confesses to Phil that she still harbours intense guilt about her bad relationship with her son. Phil tries to talk Dean around, only to realise that Shirley means Mick; she is secretly Mick's mother. She discloses to him how her mother, Sylvie, hid her pregnancy and then posed the baby as her own. Tina and Tosh decide to use IVF to have a baby, and to help pay for it, Tina turns to Babe and starts dealing drugs but Carol Jackson (Lindsey Coulson) reveals Tina's drug dealing to Tosh and the rest of the Carter family. Tosh ends the relationship, while the Carters demand that Babe dispose of her cannabis. Babe enlist Dean's help with storing it at the salon, but Shirley discovers their plan and burns the drugs to keep Dean out of trouble. As revenge, Babe threatens to reveal Shirley as Mick's mother, but Shirley pleads with her. Babe lies to her family that she has not seen Sylvie for years, but actually Sylvie is living with her.

text: Dean makes a move on Linda, but she firmly rejects him. When Shirley shoots Phil and quickly leaves, Dean is comforted by Linda and he rapes her. Linda keeps her rape a secret from Mick. Babe discovers Stan has terminal prostate cancer and reveals this to the family. Mick and Dean find Shirley to tell her but she refuses to return home. Mick and Dean tow the caravan in which Shirley was staying to Walford, to find Buster Briggs inside. Shirley arrives on Buster's motorbike, revealing her long-standing relationship with Buster. Dean realises that Buster is his father and they begin to bond. Buster is on day release from prison but intends going away with Shirley and Dean. Mick alerts the authorities and police arrive at the pub. Buster is arrested for not reporting back after his day release. Buster then realises that he is the father of Mick as well. Linda later discovers that she is pregnant, but does not know whether the father is Mick or Dean.

text: After Tosh badly beats Tina, Shirley attacks her and orders Tosh to leave Tina forever. Shirley and Mick discover that it was Babe let Tosh think Tina was having an affair, so they confront her but they find Sylvie, who is suffering from Alzheimer's disease. Mick is upset when Sylvie tells him that she never had a son. Babe and Shirley convince Mick not to pursue a relationship with Sylvie.

text: Linda admits her rape to Dean's girlfriend Stacey Branning (Lacey Turner), who ends the relationship. Johnny leaves Walford to travel the world with his new boyfriend. Dean reveals to Lee and Nancy that Mick and Linda are not really married. Linda is adamant that Dean stays away from The Queen Vic on Christmas Day, upsetting the entire family. Dean confronts Linda and threatens to tell Mick that her baby could be his if she does not persuade Stacey to reunite with him. She agrees, however Stacey is not interested. Mick proposes to Linda but she declines and reveals that Dean raped her. Mick reveals the truth to Shirley, who refuses to believe it and confronts Dean, who states that Linda wanted to have sex. Mick violently attacks Dean, but stops when Shirley screams that they are brothers. Mick then throws Shirley out. Linda is devastated to hear Mick telling Stan and Tina that Dean raped her, so she leaves, without her engagement ring. Mick then completely wrecks the pub and throws all of the customers out, before breaking down.

text: Linda returns the following day with Elaine, and she and Mick rebuild their relationship. They leave for Watford, leaving Lee and Nancy suspicious. Linda decides to report her rape to the police, while Dean continues to tell Shirley lies about how Linda had been leading him on for months. Mick and Linda tell Lee and Nancy the truth. When Lee attacks Dean in the street, they are interrupted when Babe reveals that Stan has collapsed outside the pub while attempting to whisk Sylvie off on holiday. Shirley reveals to Mick all of the wicked things Stan, Babe and Sylvie did while she was pregnant with him, leading to Mick exiling Shirley and Dean from the family and sending Babe and Sylvie home. Tina attempts to persuade Mick to forgive Shirley as she has always looked after the pair of them, however when Mick tries to talk to Shirley, she ignores him to concentrate on Dean.

text: Mick so abducts Dean from his salon and threatens to kill him if he does not tell the truth. Mick then returns to the pub and reveals that Dean is gone. Dean breaks into the pub cellar and pours petrol everywhere. When Nancy enters, he takes her hostage, but Mick hears her screams and also enters. Dean reveals that just wants revenge by burning the pub down. Mick attacks Dean and pushes his foot on Dean's throat, leaving him unconscious. Linda proposes to Mick and he accepts. Nancy asks Mick if killed Dean and disposed of his body but Mick ignores Nancyher. Nancy reveals Mick and Dean's showdown to Linda, who confronts Mick. He swears that he did not kill Dean, and to calm Nancy's nerves, Linda lies that she telephoned Dean and spoke to him.

text: Stan's cancer spreads to his spinal cord, and Shirley becomes more involved with the family, and eventually Nancy reveals that Mick may have killed Dean. Shirley confronts Mick, Nancy and Linda, but Dean and Buster then enter, and tell Shirley that they are her new family and that they do not need the others. The three plan to leave Walford for Greece, but first Dean is determined to visit Stan before he dies. When Mick throws Dean out for giving Stan alcohol, Dean assaults a police officer, after Shirley called them on him. When Buster finds out, he leaves Shirley, but returns to her later that day when he realises how much he loves her. Stan is later placed in a hospice when he begins to experience more pain, and eventually peacefully dies in Shirley's arms as they reminisce and their lives. When Shirley reveals the news to the family, they are devastated, and shun Shirley when she continues to protect Dean. She and Buster then tell Dean that Stan has died in prison, leading to him crying and the other prisoners laughing at him. Mick puts pressure on himself by stating he is determined to match Shirley and Buster's contribution to the funeral, however Linda manages to knock down the price after negotiating with Pam Coker (Lin Blakley). On the day of Stan's funeral, Linda is stunned to learn that Dean has been released, and so confronts him at his home. As he is about to confess to raping Linda, Mick storms in and collects Linda, banning Shirley, Dean and Buster from the funeral in the process. After the funeral, Mick, Linda, Nancy, Lee, Tina and Babe are furious to see Shirley, Dean and Buster at the bar of The Queen Vic, stating that they are not going to miss the wake. Babe later leaves and visits Sylvie in her care home. She slaps Sylvie when she makes a remark about her appearance, so Sylvie bites Babe's neck when she tries to comfort her. Sylvie then reveals that Babe broke the law in Ramsgate, but Babe threatens Sylvie to keep quiet.

text: Babe begins to socialise with Shirley, Dean and Buster as well as the rest of the family. She even attends an event at Dean's salon, however a brick is thrown through the window with the word "rapist" on it. It is later revealed that Babe paid somebody to throw the brick through the window, and is intending on sabotaging Dean's business for what he did to Linda. When Shirley and Buster discover Babe's meddling, Buster throws a trifle over her head, leading to Mick and Linda learning the truth. They exile Babe from the family, so she leaves Walford. Shortly after this, Mick confides in Linda that he feels heavily depressed over her rape, and as she tries to comfort him, he storms off in a rage. As Linda follows him, she trips on her dressing gown rope and falls down the stairs. When she awakens from unconsciousness, she realises she has fallen on her stomach and that her waters have broken. Sonia and Kat get Linda to hospital, while Carol finds Mick and tells him that Linda has gone into labour. She gives birth to a baby boy, later named Ollie. Dean tried to visit Ollie and Linda in hospital and tries to rename him "Kevin", convinced that Ollie is his son after raping Linda. Mick has a blood test to see if he matches Ollie's; he does. He asks Dean and he is revealed not to be a match, meaning that Mick is Ollie's biological father. Dean is secretly heartbroken, and when confiding in Shabnam Masood (Rakhee Thakrar), she reveals that she had a daughter with Dean seven years ago. Dean attempts to pursue Shabnam into telling him where their daughter is, however Shabnam - not wanting to reconnect with her child - lies that she died shortly after birth. Shirley later learns that truth and tells Dean, who ruins Shabnam's engagement party to Kush Kazemi (Davood Ghadami) in revenge. Shirley and Shabnam's father Masood Ahmed (Nitin Ganatra) decide to find the child, who is revealed to be named Jade Green (Amaya Edward), and it is revealed that she is suffering from cystic fibrosis in a foster home. When Shirley and Buster tell Dean, he breaks down as this is the disease which killed his older brother Jimbo. Shirley and Buster decide they want to adopt Jade, however Shabnam will not give her consent to allow them to do so. They later convince her to and begin building a strong custody case. Meanwhile, Lee has developed depression as he struggles to cope with Linda's rape and Ollie's birth, only confiding in Nancy and his girlfriend, Whitney.

text: Mick, Shirley and Tina later realise that Babe stole Stan's ashes when she left Walford following their argument, so travel to Ramsgate to find her and scatter his ashes. They find her, and Shirley is confused when she finds a photo album filled with young girls and dates on the back of them. She later realises that Babe and Queenie used to go searching for young pregnant girls and sell their babies to parents who could not have children. Shirley is disgusted to learn that they were going to do the same to her with Mick, however Babe changed her mind after seeing Mick. Babe later sets her caravan on fire, and Shirley, Mick and Tina allow her to move to Walford with the rest of the family. The following month, Linda's mother Elaine and her new toyboy lover Jason Adams (Scott Neal) arrive and announce their engagement. However, the next night, Mick and Linda catch Jason in a state of undress with Babe. Linda orders Babe to get Jason to leave, so she records Jason trying to persuade her to help him con the Carters, and plays it to the entire pub. Elaine, hurt and humiliated, slaps Babe. When explaining herself to Elaine and Linda, Babe reveals that she is a virgin and just wanted to know what it felt like to have sex, leading to Elaine pitying her and Linda throwing Jason out. Linda then informs Mick that she has booked their wedding day for New Year's Day 2016.

text: When Lee is sacked from his job in the army for punching his former boss, his depression worsens, leading to Mick and Babe finding out. Mick takes him to the doctors' surgery, where he is formally diagnosed with clinical depression and prescribed medication, which he refuses to take, but he changes his mind after conversations with Linda and Babe. At Stacey's Halloween party, Lee attempts to fix her plug socket, but does it incorrectly, leading to a heavily pregnant Stacey being electrocuted and her boyfriend, Martin Fowler (James Bye) punching Lee. This sends Lee on a downward spiral, but he feels better when he is informed that Stacey and the baby are fine. Meanwhile, Dean begins a relationship with Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons), angering her sister Ronnie Mitchell (Samantha Womack) and she does everything in her power to split them up. Firstly, she attempts to persuade Mick to help her murder Dean, but after Mick decides against helping Ronnie in her plans, she tries to poison Dean. Shirley and Buster arrive just in time, however are furious to learn that Mick knew what Ronnie was planning, resulting in Buster punching Mick. Shirley, Buster and Jade spend Christmas dinner with the Carters, infuriating Dean, which results in his throwing a jug at Roxy, which cuts her face. Roxy attempts to leave Dean, but he is extremely apologetic and she forgives him. The next day, after Jack Branning (Scott Maslen) points out that Roxy's feisty personality has gone since she began dating Dean, she tries to leave him and end their relationship. Dean attempts to rape Roxy, but is stopped when Shirley enters, hearing Roxy's cries. Roxy flees, while Shirley finally sees Dean as a rapist. Roxy then bumps into Linda and Elaine, who encourage her to report the matter to the police, which she does. While Dean is having a bath, Shirley attempts to drown him, but she is unsuccessful and Dean strikes her as Linda enters. During an argument over Roxy, Dean admits that he raped Linda in Shirley's presence, and then goes into hiding from the police.

text: On New Year's Day 2016, Mick and Linda prepare for their wedding at a hotel, but Shirley feels too ashamed to attend after believing Dean over Linda. After being instructed by Linda to attend, Shirley goes, but is furious to see that Tina has brought Sylvie to the ceremony. Dean then arrives and attempts to gatecrash the nuptials, however Shirley takes him outside, leading to an explosive argument by a nearby lake over Linda, Roxy and Shirley's murder attempt on him. When Mick becomes curious of Shirley's whereabouts, Jade informs him that she is arguing with Dean outside. As Mick leaves the hotel, he witnesses Dean throw himself into the lake, taking Shirley with him. Mick dives in to save Shirley, as Dean is trying to drown her, which leads to a fight in the water and Dean floating face down in the water. As Shirley is taken to safety, Linda, Buster and Tina watch in horror as Mick goes back under the water to save Dean; he is successful and Dean survives after being resuscitated by Mick. Dean is then arrested for the attempted rape of Roxy, and Mick and Linda then marry with their friends and family around them.

text: While Mick and Linda are on their honeymoon, Lee and Nancy are shocked when Whitney asks them whether her fugitive half-brother, Ryan Malloy (Neil McDermott), can stay the night. The pair reluctantly agree, however after Whitney and Ryan argue after Whitney suggests that Ryan hands himself into the police, Ryan steals a large amount of money from the pub and flees. This results in a catfight between Whitney and Nancy as Nancy attempts to call the police on Ryan, however Mick and Linda enter and demand to know what is going on. Whitney fears that she will be kicked out, while Nancy and Babe are confused as to why Mick and Linda have not called the police. The following morning, Ryan contacts Whitney, asking to meet her in the park. She does so, but takes Mick with her, and they manage to retrieve the money and persuade Ryan to give himself up. Later, an emotional Whitney kisses Mick, leaving him stunned. Mick later informs Linda, who is intent on throwing Whitney out, but decides against it when she sees how much she means to Lee. Linda later warns Whitney off Mick, and encourages her to be patient with Lee when he feels depressed. Nancy and her boyfriend of seven months, Tamwar Masood (Himesh Patel) later begin a new business venture into Indian cuisine. Tamwar manages to hire the launderette to hold their first event, however Tamwar leaves due to Shabnam's failing marriage to Kush. Nancy, rushing due to stress, trips over and drops a pan of curry. This results in her suffering an absence and wetting herself, humiliating her. The following day, Nancy is devastated, and refuses to speak to Tamwar for leaving her on her own. Shabnam later visits Nancy to encourage her to forgive Tamwar, however Tamwar ends the relationship, shattering Nancy. Shirley later visits Dean in prison, pleading with him to admit that he attempted to rape Roxy at his upcoming trial. However, Dean pleads not guilty, and he is remanded in custody.

text: Nancy is offered a job in another pub, but Lee also applies and gets the job. Babe notices Whitney's attraction to Mick, and pushes her to tell Lee, leading to him attacking Mick. Feeling neglected, Lee has sex with Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald) in an alleyway. Whitney decides to leave Walford, but Lee stops her and proposes marriage. Lee admits that he got the job by telling the landlady of the other pub that Nancy has epilepsy, so Nancy moves out. Lee quits his job at the other pub and Mick and Linda give him Nancy's old job, so she accuses him of stealing two jobs from her and being treated unfairly by her parents. Nancy and Lee later fight on Mother's Day, and she pushes him, which causes Ollie to fall from his highchair. Linda refuses to take him to hospital after Mick requests, but later she finds him not breathing in his cot then he suffers a seizure. They are told that Ollie has a bleed on the brain from a severe head injury and he could have brain damage. Mick blames Nancy, while Linda is in denial about Ollie's condition. Mick later pays Nancy to leave Walford so that the family can come to terms with Ollie's condition on their own, which she refuses to do. However, after Johnny returns as a surprise for Linda, he states that he is not returning to Italy, so Nancy asks him to give her the tickets. Tamwar and Nancy then leave the country to travel the world, with Mick finally forgiving Nancy before they depart. The Carters are frustrated by the lack of information the doctors can give them regarding Ollie's condition. Things in Tina and Sonia's relationship begin to turn sour, and things get even worse when Tina gets drunk at the Pride of Walford Awards, makes a fool of Sonia and then has sex with Sophie Dodd (Poppy Rush). She confides in Mick of her betrayal, and decides to tell Sonia, but is stopped when Sonia reveals that she has found a lump on her breast. Tina decides not to tell Sonia as she needs her, but is later shocked when Sophie arrives at the house an reveals their one-night stand to Sonia. She manages to forgive Tina, however she finds it difficult to trust her again. The family is later stunned when Sylvie arrives at the pub with the police, and it is revealed that she ran away from her care home after she was told off for making sexual advances to other patients. The Carters decide to allow Sylvie to love with them, but after she threatens to harm baby Ollie, Linda arranges for a Sylvie to move in with Tina and Sonia, much to Sonia's discomfort.

text: Elsewhere, Babe has caused trouble for many residents of Albert Square. Firstly, she strikes up a friendship with Abi after she begins working with her in The Queen Vic kitchen, and becomes her confidant as she worries that her boyfriend, Ben, is in love with Paul Coker (Jonny Labey). So, Babe forces Abi to tell Ben, Paul and a busy pub that she is pregnant by him, but later transpires that this is a lie. Abi desperately tries to get pregnant by Ben, but her attempts fail and her plan goes awry when Ben tells her that he has contracted chlamydia and may have given it to her. Babe then advises Abi to sleep with other men to become pregnant, so she has sex with Lee in an alleyway. When Abi tells Babe she wants to end the lie, Babe sees the perfect opportunity when Ben and his father, Phil, scuffle in The Vic. She pushes Abi into the fight, causing her to fall over, and hints to Abi to fake a miscarriage. Babe and Abi continue to scheme even after the faked miscarriage, but after an argument between the pair, Babe posts a letter through Ben's letterbox revealing Abi's pregnancy lie. They are relieved to learn that Ben has not read it, but Abi is shaken when she realises that Ben's troublesome half-sister, Louise Mitchell (Tilly Keeper), has read it and begins blackmailing Abi. Babe then threatens Louise with Abi to leave them alone, which she agrees to. However, Abi later inadvertently reveals to Ben about the pregnancy lie after hearing him arguing with Louise, and he publicly humiliates her half-naked in front of everybody at The Queen Vic. This results in Abi quitting her job with Babe. Babe later attempts to flirt with happily married Les Coker (Roger Sloman), but he harshly declines her in favour of his wife, Pam. Babe later follows Les and Pam to the allotments, where she witnesses them setting fire to women's clothes and accessories. When they leave, Babe investigates and finds a photograph of Les dressed as a woman, and realises that he is a transvestite. Disgusted, Babe begins blackmailing the Cokers for money, in order for Les' "perversion" to be kept secret. When they finally realise that it is Babe blackmailing them, Pam pleads with her to stop it, however Babe has other ideas and increases the weekly payment. Les later threatens to report Babe to the police, but this backfires when she allows Pam to believe that she is going to reveal the photograph to a busy pub and lets her make a fool of herself when it is actually a present for Linda's birthday. Babe does not even stop blackmailing the tortured Cokers when their grandson, Paul, is killed in a homophobic attack. Eventually, Pam confides in her equally ruthless friend, Claudette Hubbard (Ellen Thomas), who threatens Babe to leave Pam and Les alone, which she refuses to do.

text: After Abi is given her job back at the pub, it is revealed that she had sex with Lee and gave him and Whitney chlamydia, which devastates a now pregnant Whitney. She contemplates leaving Walford, but after a conversation with Linda, she decides to give Lee a second chance. Babe, however, burns Abi's hand on a hot stove in revenge for damaging Lee and Whitney's relationship. Abi then reveals to the Carters all about how Babe forced her to fake a pregnancy, and Whitney in turn reveals how Babe blackmailed her to tell Lee that she kissed Mick. Therefore, the family throw Babe out, and she moves in with Tina and Sonia. This reignites Babe's feud with Sylvie, and she later storms over to Abi's house and threatens to make her life hell for exposing her to her family. Later, Babe decides to leave Walford after a showdown with Sylvie, but Claudette sees her and taunts her, so she decides to stay and warns Claudette that her blackmailing of Les and Pam will not stop. She later visits Les, and orders a payment by the end of the day, or she will expose his secret. Later, when Abi arrives at work, Babe plants some of Abi's hair in the meals, getting Abi fired when she becomes argumentative, pleasing Babe. She later visits Sylvie, and nastily informs her that she is not leaving Walford and threatens her. That night, while Babe is tidying up the kitchen, an unknown assailant enters the pub and locks Babe in the walk-in freezer. Whitney and Linda later find her, and she is rushed to hospital. Claudette then exposes Babe's blackmail of Pam and Les to Mick and Linda, who are yet again disgusted in her. After Sylvie pays the family a visit, Babe tells Mick and Linda that it was Sylvie who locked her in the freezer, and manages to convince the family that she should be put back in a care home. However, after Abi is given her job back, it is revealed that Abi was the real culprit who locked Babe in the freezer, and that Babe lied to have Sylvie exiled from the family. Amidst Babe's dramas, Dean's trial for the attempted rape of Roxy is upcoming, which puts an immense strain on Linda, and focuses on finding Babe's attacker to take her mind off it. She is later devastated by Dean's acquittal, but tells Mick that she is a survivor and will get through it.

text: Attentions in the Carter family soon turn to Lee and Whitney's upcoming wedding, with Mick and Linda ecstatic about becoming grandparents. After initially having doubts, Lee eventually comes round to the idea of becoming a father, and begins applying for several jobs in order to support his impending family. However, while looking through wedding magazines with Linda and Lauren, Whitney begins bleeding and Mick and Linda insist on taking her to hospital. They contact Lee, and while Whitney has an ultrasound scan performed, the couple are distraught to learn that Whitney has miscarried their baby. The following day, Lee feels immensely guilty as he believes that contracting chlamydia from his one-night stand with Abi contributed to Whitney's miscarriage, but she reassures him that it is impossible. However, Whitney confides in Lauren that it is possible that Lee's chlamydia could have caused her miscarriage. Whitney then decides to visit her adoptive mother, Bianca, in Milton Keynes for a while, devastating Lee and the other Carters. To everybody's surprise, Whitney returns to following day, expressing how much she missed Lee and she throws herself into planning their wedding, which worries Linda. Elsewhere, Mick and Linda threaten to inform the police of Babe's blackmail of the Cokers if she does not return it to them. Babe struggles to find the money, and when Linda believes that she is just making excuses, she throws Babe out. After realizing that Pam and Les have been given their money back, Linda finds Babe and she confesses that she had used the Cokers' money for a savings account for Ollie for when he was older, and also explains that behaving so bitterly makes her feel better. Linda explains that being nice to people can also make her feel good too, before allowing her to move back into The Queen Vic.

text: Family members[edit]

text: The Carter family tree includes all characters who are descended from Stan Carter. His grandfather, Reginald William Carter, has also been mentioned. Linda Carter also took the surname "Carter", before actually marrying her partner Mick Carter in 2016.

text:
Reginald William Carter

Unknown

Stan Carter; married to Sylvie Carter

Shirley Carter; married to Kevin Wicks

Mick Carter; son of Shirley Carter and Buster Briggs; married to Linda Carter

Lee Carter; son of Mick and Linda; married to Whitney Dean
Nancy Carter; daughter of Mick and Linda
Johnny Carter; son of Mick and Linda
Ollie Carter; son of Mick and Linda

Jimbo Wicks; son of Shirley and Kevin
Carly Wicks; daughter of Shirley and Daniel; married to Nico Pappas

Jimmy; son of Carly and an unknown man

Dean Wicks; son of Shirley and Buster

Jade Green, daughter of Dean and Shabnam Masood

Tina Carter; divorced from Andy

Zsa Zsa Carter; daughter of Tina and Mark Reynolds

text: Sylvie's sister Babe Smith is also considered to be a part of the family unit, though not related by blood to Stan. Linda's mother, Elaine Peacock, is also heavily involved with all aspects of the family.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Carters were named Best Family at the 2014 Inside Soap Awards.[1]


document_title: History of sociology

question_text: the first department of sociology in the united states was established at

root

text: History of sociology

text: Precursors[edit]

text: Ancient times[edit]

text: The sociological reasoning may be traced back at least as far as the ancient Greeks (cf. Xenophanes′ remark: "If horses would adore gods, these gods would resemble horses"). Proto-sociological observations are to be found in the founding texts of Western philosophy (Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato, Polybius and so on), as well as in the non-European thought of figures such as Confucius.[3] The characteristic trends in the sociological thinking of the ancient Greeks can be traced back to their social environment.  Because there was rarely any extensive or highly centralized political organization within states this allowed the tribal spirit of localism and provincialism to have free play. This tribal spirit of localism and provincialism pervaded most of the Greek thinking upon social phenomena.[4]

tag: p

text: The origin of the survey can be traced back to the Domesday Book ordered by king William I in 1086.[5][6]

text: In the 13th century, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized patterns of social dynamics as an underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopedia, Wenxian Tongkao or "Comprehensive Examination of Literature".[7]

text: Ibn Khaldun (14th century)[edit]

text: There is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century. Some consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Tunisian, Arab, Islamic scholar from North Africa, to have been the first sociologist and father of sociology; his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict.[8][9][10][11][12][13] Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), in his Muqaddimah (later translated as Prolegomena in Latin), the introduction to a seven volume analysis of universal history, was the first to advance social philosophy and social science in formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflict. He is thus considered by some to be the forerunner of sociology.[8][10][12][13][14][11]

text: Concerning the discipline of sociology, he conceived a dynamic theory of history that involved conceptualizations of social conflict and social change. He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a "generation", and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city. Following a contemporary Arab scholar, Sati' al-Husri, the Muqaddimah may be read as a sociological work: six books of general sociology. Topics dealt with in this work include politics, urban life, economics, and knowledge. The work is based around Ibn Khaldun's central concept of 'asabiyyah, which has been translated as "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism". This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; it can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds – psychological, sociological, economic, political – of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion.

text: Classical origins[edit]

text: The term ("sociologie") was first coined by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836),[15] from the Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge".[16][17] In 1838, the French-thinker Auguste Comte (1798–1857) ultimately gave sociology the definition that it holds today.[16] Comte had earlier expressed his work as "social physics", but that term had been appropriated by others, such as Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874).

text: The Enlightenment and positivism[edit]

text: Henri de Saint-Simon[edit]

text: Saint-Simon published Physiologie sociale in 1813 and devoted much of his time to the prospect that human society could be steered toward progress if scientists would form an international assembly to influence its course. He argued that scientists could distract groups from war and strife, by focusing their attention to generally improving their societies living conditions. In turn, this would bring multiple cultures and societies together and prevent conflict. Saint-Simon took the idea that everyone had encouraged from the Enlightenment, which was the belief in science, and spun it to be more practical and hands-on for the society. Saint-Simon's main idea was that industrialism would create a new launch in history. He saw that people had been seeing progress as an approach for science, but he wanted them to see it as an approach to all aspects of life. Society was making a crucial change at the time since it was growing out of a declining feudalism. This new path could provide the basis for solving all the old problems society had previously encountered. He was more concerned with the participation of man in the workforce instead of which workforce man choose. His slogan became "All men must work[2] ” and from this, the slogan of communism was evolved "Each according to his capacity.[2] "

text: Auguste Comte[edit]

text: Writing after the original Enlightenment and influenced by the work of Saint-Simon, political philosopher of social contract, Auguste Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind through the scientific understanding of the social realm. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th-century humanists; he believed all human life passed through distinct historical stages and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the "queen science" in Comte's schema; all basic physical sciences had to arrive first, leading to the most fundamentally difficult science of human society itself.[16] Comte has thus come to be viewed as the "Father of Sociology".[16] Comte delineated his broader philosophy of science in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842], whereas his A General View of Positivism (1865) emphasized the particular goals of sociology.

text: Auguste Comte was so impressed with his theory of positivism that he referred to it as "the great discovery of the year 1822.” Comte's system is based on the principles of knowledge, as seen in 3 states. This law states any kind of knowledge always begins in theological form. Here the knowledge can be explained by a superior supernatural power such as animism, spirits, or gods. It then passes to the metaphysical form where the knowledge is explained by abstract philosophical speculation. Finally, the knowledge becomes positive after being explained scientifically through observation, experiment, and comparison. The order of the laws was created in order of increasing difficulty.[2] Comte's description of the development of society is parallel to Karl Marx's own theory historical progression from capitalism to communism. They both were influenced by various Utopian-socialist thinkers of the day and agreed that some form of communism would be the climax of societal development.[2]

text: In later life, Auguste Comte developed a 'religion of humanity' to give positivist societies the unity and cohesiveness found through the traditional worship people were used to.  In this new "religion" he referred to society as the "Great Being." Comte promoted a universal love and harmony taught through the teachings of his industrial system theory.[2] For close associate John Stuart Mill, it was possible to distinguish between a "good Comte" (the author of the Course in Positive Philosophy) and a "bad Comte" (the author of the secular-religious system).[18] The system was unsuccessful but met with the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species to influence the proliferation of various Secular Humanist organizations in the 19th century, especially through the work of secularists such as George Holyoake and Richard Congreve.

text: Industrial revolution and the Darwinian revolution[edit]

text: Historical materialism[edit]

text: Both Comte and Marx intended to develop a new scientific ideology in the wake of European secularization. Marx, in the tradition of Hegelianism, rejected the positivist method and was in turn rejected by the self-proclaimed sociologists of his day. However, in attempting to develop a comprehensive science of society Marx nevertheless became recognized as a founder of sociology by the mid 20th century. Isaiah Berlin described Marx as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."[19]

text: To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principal achievement of Marx's theory ... The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him, Spencer and Taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense.

text: In the 1830s, Karl Marx was part of the Young Hegelians in Berlin, which discussed and wrote about the legacy of the philosopher, Hegel (1770–1831) (whose seminal tome, Science of Logic was published in 1816). Although, at first sympathetic with the groups strategy of attacking Christianity to undermine the Prussian establishment, he later formed divergent ideas and broke with the Young Hegelians, attacking their views in works such as The German Ideology.  Witnessing the struggles of the laborers during the Industrial Revolution, Marx concluded that religion (or the "ideal") is not the basis of the establishment's power, but rather ownership of capital (or the "material")- processes that employ technologies, land, money and especially human labor-power to create surplus-value[21] — lie at the heart of the establishment's power. This "stood Hegel on his head" as he theorized that, at its core, the engine of history and the structure of society was fundamentally material rather than ideal. He theorized that both the realm of cultural production and political power created ideologies that perpetuated the oppression of the working class and the concentration of wealth within the capitalist class: the owners of the means of production. Marx predicted that the capitalist class would feel compelled to reduce wages or replace laborers with technology, which would ultimately increase wealth among the capitalists. However, as the workers were also the primary consumers of the goods produced, reducing their wages would result in an inevitable collapse in capitalism as a mode of economic production.[2]

text: Social Darwinism[edit]

text: Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. The early sociology of Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte and Marx; writing before and after the Darwinian revolution in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms. In fact, his early writings show a coherent theory of general evolution several years before Darwin published anything on the subject.[22] Encouraged by his friend and follower Edward L. Youmans,[23][24] Spencer published The Study of Sociology in 1874, which was the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. In the 1900 edition of the journal International Monthly,[22] Franklin H. Giddings (1855–1931), the first professor of sociology at Columbia University, described it as the book that "first awakened in England, America, France, Italy and Russia a wide interest general interest"[23] in the then fledgling discipline of sociology. In the United States, Charles Horton Cooley, stated in a 1920 article that The Study of Sociology "probably did more to arouse interest in the subject than any other publication before or since."[23] It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’s Division of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively.[25] Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" as a basic mechanism by which more effective socio-cultural forms progressed. Whilst many intellectuals of his day were proponents of socialism as a scientifically informed manner of steering society, Spencer was a critic of socialism and an advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. His ideas were highly observed by conservative political circles, especially in the United States and England.[26] Although Spencer's work is rarely discussed in contemporary sociological theory, his work has been adapted and changed, and resurfaces in various contemporary forms.[27]

text: A contemporary of Spencer, Lester Frank Ward is often described as a father of American sociology[28] and served as the first president of the American Sociological Association in 1905 and served as such until 1907. He published Dynamic Sociology in 1883; Outlines of Sociology in 1898; Pure Sociology in 1903; and Applied Sociology in 1906. Also in 1906, at the age of 65 he was appointed to professor of sociology at Brown University.[29]

text: Following Ward as president of the American Sociological Association was William Graham Sumner from 1908 to 1909. He also held the first professorship of sociology at Yale College, and in 1876, Sumner became the first to teach a course entitled "sociology" in the English-speaking world. His course focused predominantly on the work of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. He was ideologically opposed to the sociology of Ward as he felt that society could not be steered by scientific intervention, and famously stated the alternative to "survival of the fittest" was the "survival of the unfittest." However, he also opposed the grand theorizing of Spencer. During the Progressive Era in the United States, social Darwinism became a contentious topic and Sumner and his course at Yale College was criticized for including Spencerian ideas. This almost led to Sumner's expulsion from teaching. His most famous sociological works are What Social Classes Owe to Each Other in 1883 and Folkways: a study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals in 1906.

text: Other precursors[edit]

text: Many other philosophers and academics were influential in the development of sociology, not least the Enlightenment theorists of social contract, and historians such as Adam Ferguson (1723–1816). For his theory on social interaction, Ferguson has himself been described as "the father of modern sociology"[30] Other early works to appropriate the term 'sociology' included A Treatise on Sociology, Theoretical and Practical by the North American lawyer Henry Hughes and Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society[31] by the American lawyer George Fitzhugh. Both books were published in 1854, in the context of the debate over slavery in the antebellum US. Harriet Martineau, a Whig social theorist and the English translator of many of Comte's works, has been cited as the first female sociologist.

text: Various other early social historians and economists have gained recognition as classical sociologists, including Robert Michels (1876–1936), Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) and Thorstein Veblen (1857–1926). The classical sociological texts broadly differ from political philosophy in the attempt to remain scientific, systematic, structural, or dialectical, rather than purely moral, normative or subjective. The new class relations associated with the development of Capitalism are also key, further distinguishing sociological texts from the political philosophy of the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras.

text: Foundation of the academic discipline[edit]

text: Formal institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline began when Emile Durkheim founded the first French department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année Sociologique.

text: A course entitled "sociology" was taught for the first time in the United States in 1875 by William Graham Sumner, drawing upon the thought of Comte and Herbert Spencer rather than the work of Durkheim.[32] In 1890, the oldest continuing sociology course in the United States began at the University of Kansas, lectured by Frank Blackmar. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891[33][34] and the first full-fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small (1854–1926), who in 1895 founded the American Journal of Sociology.[35] American sociology arose on a broadly independent trajectory to European sociology. George Herbert Mead and Charles H. Cooley were influential in the development of symbolic interactionism and social psychology at the University of Chicago, while Lester Ward emphasized the central importance of the scientific method with the publication of Dynamic Sociology in 1883.

text: The University of Chicago developed the major sociologists at the time. It brought them together, and even gave them a hub and a network to link all the leading sociologists. In 1925, a third of all sociology graduate students attended the University of Chicago. Chicago was very good at not isolating their students from other schools. They encouraged them to blend with other sociologists, and to not spend more time in the class room than studying the society around them.  This would teach them real life application of the classroom teachings. The first teachings at the University of Chicago were focused on the social problems that the world had been dealt. At this time, academia was not concerned with theory; especially not to the point that academia is today. Many people were still hesitant of sociology at this time, especially with the recent controversial theories of Weber and Marx. The University of Chicago decided to go into an entirely different direction and their sociology department directed their attention to the individual and promoted equal rights. Their concentration was small groups and discoveries of the individual’s relationship to society. The program combined with other departments to offer students well-rounded studies requiring courses in hegemony, economics, psychology, multiple social sciences and political science. Albion Small was the head of the sociology program at the University of Chicago. He played a key role in bringing German sociological advancements directly into American academic sociology. Small also created the American Journal of Sociology.  Robert Park and Ernest Burgess refined the program’s methods, guidelines, and checkpoints. This made the findings more standardized, concise and easier to comprehend. The pair even wrote the sociology program’s textbook for a reference and get all students on the same page more effectively. Many remarkable sociologists such as George Hebert Mead, W.E. Du Bois, Robert Park, Charles S. Johnson, William Ogburn, Hebert Blumer and many others have significant ties to the University of Chicago.[36]

text: In 1920 a department was set up in Poland by Florian Znaniecki (1882–1958). William I. Thomas was an early graduate from the Sociology Department of the University of Chicago. He built upon his education and his work changed sociology in many ways. In 1918, William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki gave the world the publication of "The Polish Peasant" in Europe and America. This publication combined sociological theory with in depth experiential research and thus launching methodical sociological research as a whole. This changed sociologist’s methods and enabled them to see new patterns and connect new theories. This publication also gave sociologists a new way to found their research and prove it on a new level. All their research would be more solid, and harder for society to not pay attention to it. In 1920, Znaniecki developed a sociology department in Poland to expand research and teachings there.[2]

text: With the lack of sociological theory being taught at the University of Chicago paired with the new foundations of statistical methods, the student’s ability to make any real predictions was nonexistent. This was a major factor in the downfall of the Chicago school.[36]

text: The first sociology department in the United Kingdom was founded at the London School of Economics in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber, who had established a new antipositivist sociology.  The "Institute for Social Research" at the University of Frankfurt (later to become the "Frankfurt School" of critical theory) was founded in 1923.[29] Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after WW2, influencing literary theory and the "Birmingham School" of cultural studies.

text: The University of Frankfurt’s advances along with the close proximity to the research institute for sociology made Germany a powerful force in leading sociology at that time. In 1918, Frankfurt received the funding to create sociology’s first department chair. The Germany’s groundbreaking work influenced its government to add the position of Minister of Culture to advance the country as a whole. The remarkable collection of men who were contributing to the sociology department at Frankfurt were soon getting worldwide attention and began being referred to as the “Frankfurt school.” Here they studied new perspectives of Marx theories, and went into depth of the works of Weber and Freud. Most of this men would soon be forced out of Germany by the Nazis and arrive in America, influencing social research there. This forced relocation of sociologists enabled sociology in America to bring up to the standards of European studies of sociology by planting some of Europe’s greatest sociologists in America.[37]

text: Felix Weil was one of the students who received their doctorate on the concept of socialization from the University of Frankfurt.  He, along with Max Horkheimer and Kurt Albert Gerlach, developed the Institute of Social Research and it was established in 1923. Kurt Albert Gerlach would serve as the institute’s first director. Their goal in creating the institute was to produce a place that people could discover and be informed of social life as a whole. Weil, Horkheimer, and Gerlach wanted to focus on interactions between economics, politics, legal matters, as well as scholarly interactions in the community and society. The main research that got the institute known was its revival of scientific Marxism. Many benefactors contributed money, supplies, and buildings to keep this area of research going. When Gerlach, became ill and had to step down as director, Max Horkheimer took his place. He encouraged the students of the institute to question everything they studied. If the students studied a theory, he not only wanted them to discover its truth themselves, but also to discover how, and why it is true and the theories relation to society. The National Socialist regime exiled many of the members of the Institute of Social Research. The regime also forced many students and staff from the entire Frankfurt University, and most fled to America. Many people forced from the institute also left the war path, but unlike the university, the institute lost too many people and was forced to close. In 1950, the institute was reopened as a private establishment. From this point on the Institute of Social Research would have a close connection to sociology studies in the United States.[37]

text: International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when René Worms (1869–1926) founded the small Institut International de Sociologie, eclipsed by much larger International Sociological Association from 1949. In 1905 the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and Lester F. Ward was selected to serve as the first President of the new society.

text: The canon: Durkheim, Marx, Weber[edit]

text: Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are typically cited as the three principal architects of modern social science. The sociological "canon of classics" with Durkheim and Weber at the top owes in part to Talcott Parsons, who is largely credited with introducing both to American audiences.[38] Parsons' Structure of Social Action (1937) consolidated the American sociological tradition and set the agenda for American sociology at the point of its fastest disciplinary growth. In Parsons' canon, however, Vilfredo Pareto holds greater significance than either Marx or Simmel. His canon was guided by a desire to "unify the divergent theoretical traditions in sociology behind a single theoretical scheme, one that could in fact be justified by purely scientific developments in the discipline during the previous half century."[39] While the secondary role Marx plays in early American sociology may be attributed to Parsons,[39] as well as to broader political trends,[40] the dominance of Marxism in European sociological thought had long since secured the rank of Marx alongside Durkheim and Weber as one of the three "classical" sociologists.[41]

text: 19th century: from positivism to antipositivism[edit]

text:
The methodological approach toward sociology by early theorists was to treat the discipline in broadly the same manner as natural science. An emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method was sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy.
This perspective, termed positivism, was first developed by theorist Auguste Comte. Positivism was founded on the theory that the only true, factual knowledge is scientific knowledge. Comte had very vigorous guidelines for a theory to be considered positivism. He thought that this authentic knowledge can only be derived from positive confirmation of theories through strict continuously tested methods, that are not only scientifically but also quantitatively based.[2] Émile Durkheim was a major proponent of theoretically grounded empirical research,[42] seeking correlations to reveal structural laws, or "social facts".  Durkheim proved that concepts that had been attributed to the individual were actually socially determined. These occurrences are things such as suicide, crime, moral outrage, a person’s personality, time, space, and God. He brought to light that society had influence on all aspects of a person, far more than had been previously believed.[2] For him, sociology could be described as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning".[43] Durkheim endeavoured to apply sociological findings in the pursuit of political reform and social solidarity.  Today, scholarly accounts of Durkheim's positivism may be vulnerable to exaggeration and oversimplification: Comte was the only major sociological thinker to postulate that the social realm may be subject to scientific analysis in the same way as noble science, whereas Durkheim acknowledged in greater detail the fundamental epistemological limitations.[44][45]

text: Reactions against positivism began when German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) voiced opposition to both empiricism, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic.[46] Karl Marx's methodology borrowed from Hegel dialecticism but also a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis, seeking to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions.[47] He maintained that appearances need to be critiqued rather than simply documented. Marx nonetheless endeavoured to produce a science of society grounded in the economic determinism of historical materialism.[47] Other philosophers, including Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) and Heinrich Rickert (1863–1936) argued that the natural world differs from the social world because of those unique aspects of human society (meanings, signs, and so on) which inform human cultures.

text: At the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists formally introduced methodological antipositivism, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a subjective perspective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be loosely described as a 'science' as it is able to identify causal relationships—especially among ideal types, or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena.[48] As a nonpositivist however, one seeks relationships that are not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable"[49] as those pursued by natural scientists. Ferdinand Tönnies presented Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (sometimes translated as community and society) as the two normal types of human association, a distinction that was developed further by Max Weber. Tönnies drew a sharp line between the realm of conceptuality and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ('pure' sociology), whereas the second empirically and in an inductive way ('applied' sociology). Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the Verstehen (or 'interpretative') approach toward social science; a systematic process in which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their own point-of-view. Through the work of Simmel, in particular, sociology acquired a possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. Relatively isolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential writers than of Comte or Durkheim, paying particular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality.[50] His sociology engaged in a neo-Kantian critique of the limits of perception, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?'[51]

text: 20th century: critical theory, postmodernism, and positivist revival[edit]

text: In the early 20th century, sociology expanded in the U.S., including developments in both macrosociology, concerned with the evolution of societies, and microsociology, concerned with everyday human social interactions. Based on the pragmatic social psychology of George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) and, later, the Chicago school, sociologists developed symbolic interactionism.[52] In the 1920s, György Lukács released History and Class Consciousness (1923), while a number of works by Durkheim and Weber were published posthumously. In the 1930s, Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) developed action theory, integrating the study of social order with the structural and voluntaristic aspects of macro and micro factors, while placing the discussion within a higher explanatory context of system theory and cybernetics. In Austria and later the U.S., Alfred Schütz (1899–1959) developed social phenomenology, which would later inform social constructionism. During the same period members of the Frankfurt school, such as Theodor W. Adorno (1903–1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), developed critical theory, integrating the historical materialistic elements of Marxism with the insights of Weber, Freud and Gramsci—in theory, if not always in name—often characterizing capitalist modernity as a move away from the central tenets of the Enlightenment.

text: During the Interwar period, sociology was undermined by totalitarian governments for reasons of ostensible political control. After the Russian Revolution, sociology was gradually "politicized, Bolshevisized and eventually, Stalinized" until it virtually ceased to exist in the Soviet Union.[53] In China, the discipline was banned with semiotics, comparative linguistics and cybernetics as "Bourgeois pseudoscience" in 1952, not to return until 1979.[54] During the same period, however, sociology was also undermined by conservative universities in the West. This was due, in part, to perceptions of the subject as possessing an inherent tendency, through its own aims and remit, toward liberal or left wing thought. Given that the subject was founded by structural functionalists; concerned with organic cohesion and social solidarity, this view was somewhat groundless (though it was Parsons who had introduced Durkheim to American audiences, and his interpretation has been criticized for a latent conservatism).[45]

text: In the mid-20th century there was a general—but not universal—trend for U.S.-American sociology to be more scientific in nature, due to the prominence at that time of action theory and other system-theoretical approaches. Robert K. Merton released his Social Theory and Social Structure (1949). By the turn of the 1960s, sociological research was increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses worldwide. Sociologists developed new types of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Paul Lazarsfeld founded Columbia University's Bureau of Applied Social Research, where he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. His many contributions to sociological method have earned him the title of the "founder of modern empirical sociology".[55]  Lazarsfeld made great strides in statistical survey analysis, panel methods, latent structure analysis, and contextual analysis.[55]  He is also considered a co-founder of mathematical sociology. Many of his ideas have been so influential as to now be considered self-evident.[55]

text: In 1959, Erving Goffman published The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life and introduced the theory of dramaturgical analysis which asserts that all individuals aim to create a specific impression of themselves in the minds of other people. C. Wright Mills presented The Sociological Imagination, encouraging humanistic discourse and a rejection of abstracted empiricism and grand theory. Parallel with the rise of various social movements in the 1960s, particularly in Britain, the cultural turn saw a rise in conflict theories emphasizing social struggle, such as neo-Marxism and second-wave feminism.[56] Ralf Dahrendorf and Ralph Miliband presented pioneering theory on class conflict and industrialized nation states. The sociology of religion saw a renaissance in the decade with new debates on secularisation thesis, globalization, and the very definition of religious practise. Theorists such as Lenski and Yinger formulated 'functional' definitions of religion; enquiring as to what a religion does rather than what it is in familiar terms. Thus, various new social institutions and movements could be examined for their religious role. Marxist theorists continued to scrutinize consumerism and capitalist ideology in analogous terms. Antonio Gramsci's Selections from the Prison Notebooks [1929–1935] was finally published in English during the early 1970s.[57]

text: In the 1960s and 1970s so-called post-structuralist and postmodernist theory, drawing upon structuralism and phenomenology as much as classical social science, made a considerable impact on frames of sociological enquiry.[citation needed] Often understood simply as a cultural style 'after-Modernism' marked by intertextuality, pastiche and irony, sociological analyses of postmodernity have presented a distinct era relating to (1) the dissolution of metanarratives (particularly in the work of Lyotard), and (2) commodity fetishism and the 'mirroring' of identity with consumption in late capitalist society (Debord; Baudrillard; Jameson).[58] Postmodernism has also been associated with the rejection of enlightenment conceptions of the human subject by thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Claude Lévi-Strauss and, to a lesser extent, in Louis Althusser's attempt to reconcile Marxism with anti-humanism. Most theorists associated with the movement actively refused the label, preferring to accept postmodernity as a historical phenomenon rather than a method of analysis, if at all. Nevertheless, self-consciously postmodern pieces continue to emerge within the social and political sciences in general.

text: In the 1980s, theorists outside France tended to focus on globalization, communication, and reflexivity in terms of a 'second' phase of modernity, rather than a distinct new era per se. Jürgen Habermas established communicative action as a reaction to postmodern challenges to the discourse of modernity, informed both by critical theory and American pragmatism. Fellow German sociologist, Ulrich Beck, presented The Risk Society (1992) as an account of the manner in which the modern nation state has become organized. In Britain, Anthony Giddens set out to reconcile recurrent theoretical dichotomies through structuration theory. During the 1990s, Giddens developed work on the challenges of "high modernity", as well as a new 'third way' politics that would greatly influence New Labour in U.K. and the Clinton administration in the U.S. Leading Polish sociologist, Zygmunt Bauman, wrote extensively on the concepts of modernity and postmodernity, particularly with regard to the Holocaust and consumerism as historical phenomena.[59] While Pierre Bourdieu gained significant critical acclaim for his continued work on cultural capital,[60] certain French sociologists, particularly Jean Baudrillard and Michel Maffesoli, were criticised for perceived obfuscation and relativism.[61][62]

text: Functionalist systems theorists such as Niklas Luhmann remained dominant forces in sociology up to the end of the century. In 1994, Robert K. Merton won the National Medal of Science for his contributions to the sociology of science.[63] The positivist tradition is popular to this day, particularly in the United States.[64] The discipline's two most widely cited American journals, the American Journal of Sociology and the American Sociological Review, primarily publish research in the positivist tradition, with ASR exhibiting greater diversity (the British Journal of Sociology, on the other hand, publishes primarily non-positivist articles).[64]  The twentieth century saw improvements to the quantitative methodologies employed in sociology.  The development of longitudinal studies that follow the same population over the course of years or decades enabled researchers to study long-term phenomena and increased the researchers' ability to infer causality. The increase in the size of data sets produced by the new survey methods was followed by the invention of new statistical techniques for analyzing this data. Analysis of this sort is usually performed with statistical software packages such as SAS, Stata, or SPSS.

text: Social network analysis is an example of a new paradigm in the positivist tradition. The influence of social network analysis is pervasive in many sociological sub fields such as economic sociology (see the work of J. Clyde Mitchell, Harrison White, or Mark Granovetter, for example), organizational behavior, historical sociology, political sociology, or the sociology of education. There is also a minor revival of a more independent, empirical sociology in the spirit of C. Wright Mills, and his studies of the Power Elite in the United States of America, according to Stanley Aronowitz.[65]


document_title: Los Angeles Olympics

question_text: when was the last time los angeles hosted the olympics

text: Los Angeles Olympics

text: Los Angeles Olympics may refer to three different Olympic Games held in Los Angeles:

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1932 Summer Olympics, games of the X Olympiad
1984 Summer Olympics, games of the XXIII Olympiad
2028 Summer Olympics, games of the XXXIV Olympiad

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This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Los Angeles Olympics.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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text: Disambiguation pages

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