document_title: Emma (novel)

question_text: who does emma end up with jane austen

question_tokens: who does emma end up with jane austen

text: Emma (novel)

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Emma Woodhouse has just attended the wedding of Miss Taylor, her friend and former governess, to Mr. Weston. Having introduced them, Emma takes credit for their marriage and decides that she likes matchmaking. After she returns home to Hartfield with her father, Emma forges ahead with her new interest against the advice of her sister's brother-in-law, Mr. Knightley, and tries to match her new friend Harriet Smith to Mr. Elton, the local vicar. First, Emma must persuade Harriet to refuse the marriage proposal from Robert Martin, a respectable, educated, and well-spoken young farmer, which Harriet does against her wishes. However, Mr. Elton, a social climber, thinks Emma is in love with him and proposes to her. When Emma tells him that she had thought him attached to Harriet, he is outraged. After Emma rejects him, Mr. Elton leaves for a stay at Bath and returns with a pretentious, nouveau-riche wife, as Mr. Knightley expected. Harriet is heartbroken, and Emma feels ashamed about misleading her.

text: Frank Churchill, Mr. Weston's son, arrives for a two-week visit to his father and makes many friends. Frank was adopted by his wealthy and domineering aunt, and he has had very few opportunities to visit before. Mr. Knightley suggests to Emma that, while Frank is intelligent and engaging, he is also a shallow character. Jane Fairfax also comes home to see her aunt, Miss Bates, and grandmother, Mrs. Bates, for a few months, before she must go out on her own as a governess due to her family's financial situation. She is the same age as Emma and has been given an excellent education by her father's friend, Colonel Campbell. Emma has not been as friendly with her as she might because she envies Jane's talent and is annoyed to find all, including Mrs. Weston and Mr. Knightley, praising her. The patronizing Mrs. Elton takes Jane under her wing and announces that she will find her the ideal governess post before it is wanted. Emma begins to feel some sympathy for Jane's predicament.

text: Emma decides that Jane and Mr. Dixon, Colonel Campbell's new son-in-law, are mutually attracted, and that is why she has come home earlier than expected. She shares her suspicions with Frank, who met Jane and the Campbells at a vacation spot a year earlier, and he apparently agrees with her. Suspicions are further fueled when a piano, sent by an anonymous benefactor, arrives for Jane. Emma feels herself falling in love with Frank, but it does not last to his second visit. The Eltons treat Harriet poorly, culminating with Mr. Elton publicly snubbing Harriet at the ball given by the Westons in May. Mr. Knightley, who had long refrained from dancing, gallantly steps in to dance with Harriet. The day after the ball, Frank brings Harriet to Hartfield, she had fainted after a rough encounter with local gypsies. Harriet is grateful, and Emma thinks this is love, not gratitude. Meanwhile, Mrs. Weston wonders if Mr. Knightley has taken a fancy to Jane, but Emma dismisses that idea. When Mr. Knightley mentions the link he sees between Jane and Frank, Emma denies them, while Frank appears to be courting her instead. He arrives late to the gathering at Donwell in June, while Jane leaves early. Next day at Box Hill, a local beauty spot, Frank and Emma continue to banter together and Emma, in jest, thoughtlessly insults Miss Bates.

text: When Mr. Knightley scolds Emma for the insult to Miss Bates, she is ashamed and tries to atone with a morning visit to Miss Bates, which impresses Mr. Knightley. On the visit, Emma learns that Jane had accepted the position of governess from one of Mrs. Elton's friends after the outing. Jane now becomes ill and refuses to see Emma or receive her gifts. Meanwhile, Frank was visiting his aunt, who dies soon after he arrives. Now he and Jane reveal to the Westons that they have been secretly engaged since the autumn, but Frank knew that his aunt would disapprove. The strain of the secrecy on the conscientious Jane had caused the two to quarrel, and Jane ended the engagement. Frank's easygoing uncle readily gives his blessing to the match, and the engagement becomes public, leaving Emma chagrined to discover that she had been so wrong.

text: Emma is confident that Frank's engagement will devastate Harriet, but instead, Harriet tells her that she loves Mr. Knightley, although she knows the match is too unequal, Emma's encouragement and Mr. Knightley's kindness have given her hope. Emma is startled and realizes that she is the one who wants to marry Mr. Knightley. Mr. Knightley returns to console Emma from Frank and Jane's engagement thinking her heartbroken. When she admits her foolishness, he proposes, and she accepts. Now Harriet accepts Robert Martin's second proposal, and they are the first couple to marry. Jane and Emma reconcile, and Frank and Jane visit the Westons. Once the period of deep mourning ends, they will marry. Before the end of November, Emma and Mr. Knightley are married with the prospect of "perfect happiness."

text: Principal characters[edit]

text: Emma Woodhouse, the protagonist of the story, is a beautiful, high-spirited, intelligent, and 'slightly' spoiled young woman of twenty when the story opens. Her mother died when she was young. She has been mistress of the house (Hartfield) since her older sister got married. Although intelligent, she lacks the discipline to practice or study anything in depth. She is portrayed as compassionate to the poor, but at the same time has a strong sense of class status. Her affection for and patience towards her valetudinarian father are also noteworthy. While she is in many ways mature, Emma makes some serious mistakes, mainly due to her lack of experience and her conviction that she is always right. Although she has vowed she will never marry, she delights in making matches for others. She has a brief flirtation with Frank Churchill, however, she realises at the end of the novel that she loves Mr Knightley.

text: George Knightley is a neighbour and close friend of Emma, aged 37 years (16 years older than Emma). He is her only critic. Mr Knightley is the owner of the estate of Donwell Abbey, which includes extensive grounds and farms. He is the elder brother of Mr John Knightley, the husband of Emma's elder sister Isabella. He is very considerate, aware of the feelings of the other characters and his behaviour and judgement is extremely good. Mr Knightley is furious with Emma for persuading Harriet to turn down Mr Martin, a farmer on the Donwell estate; he warns Emma against pushing Harriet towards Mr Elton, knowing that Mr Elton seeks a bride with money. He is suspicious of Frank Churchill and his motives; he suspects that Frank has a secret understanding with Jane Fairfax.

text: Mr Frank Churchill, Mr Weston's son by his first marriage, is an amiable young man, who at age 23 is liked by almost everyone, although Mr Knightley sees him as immature and selfish for failing to visit his father after his father's wedding. After his mother's death, he was raised by his wealthy aunt and uncle, the Churchills, at the family estate Enscombe. His uncle was his mother's brother. By his aunt's decree, he assumed the name Churchill on his majority. Frank is given to dancing and living a carefree, gay life and is secretly engaged to Miss Fairfax at Weymouth, although he fears his aunt will forbid the match because Jane is not wealthy. He manipulates and plays games with the other characters to ensure his engagement to Jane remains concealed.

text: Jane Fairfax is an orphan whose only family consists of her aunt, Miss Bates, and her grandmother, Mrs Bates. She is a beautiful, bright, and elegant woman, with the best of manners. She is the same age as Emma. She is extraordinarily well-educated and talented at singing and playing the piano; she is the sole person whom Emma envies. An army friend of her late father, Colonel Campbell, felt responsible for her, and has provided her with an excellent education, sharing his home and family with her since she was nine years old. She has little fortune, however, and is destined to become a governess – a prospect she dislikes. The secret engagement goes against her principles and distresses her greatly.

text: Harriet Smith, a young friend of Emma, just seventeen when the story opens, is a beautiful but unsophisticated girl. She has been a parlour boarder at a nearby school, where she met the sisters of Mr Martin. Emma takes Harriet under her wing early on, and she becomes the subject of Emma's misguided matchmaking attempts. She is revealed in the last chapter to be the natural daughter of a decent tradesman, although not a "gentleman". Harriet and Mr Martin are wed. The now wiser Emma approves of the match.

text: Robert Martin is a well-to-do, 24-year-old farmer who, though not a gentleman, is a friendly, amiable and diligent young man, well esteemed by Mr George Knightley. He becomes acquainted and subsequently smitten with Harriet during her 2-month stay at Abbey Mill Farm, which was arranged at the invitation of his sister, Elizabeth Martin, a school friend of Harriet's. His first marriage proposal, in a letter, is rejected by Harriet under the direction and influence of Emma, (an incident which puts Mr Knightley and Emma in a disagreement with one another), who had convinced herself that Harriet's class and breeding were above associating with the Martins, much less marrying one. His second proposal of marriage is later accepted by a contented Harriet and approved by a wiser Emma; their joining marks the first out of the three happy couples to marry in the end.

text: Philip Elton is a good-looking, initially well-mannered, and ambitious young vicar, 27 years old and unmarried when the story opens. Emma wants him to marry Harriet; however, he aspires to secure Emma's hand in marriage to gain her dowry of £30,000. Mr Elton displays his mercenary nature by quickly marrying another woman of lesser means after Emma rejects him.

text: Augusta Elton, formerly Miss Hawkins, is Mr Elton's wife. She has 10,000 pounds, but lacks good manners, committing common vulgarities such as using people's names too intimately (as in "Jane", not "Miss Fairfax"; "Knightley", not "Mr Knightley"). She is a boasting, pretentious woman who expects her due as a new bride in the village. Emma is polite to her but does not like her. She patronises Jane, which earns Jane the sympathy of others. Her lack of social graces shows the good breeding of the other characters, particularly Miss Fairfax and Mrs Weston, and shows the difference between gentility and money.

text: Mrs Weston was Emma's governess for sixteen years as Miss Anne Taylor and remains her closest friend and confidante after she marries Mr Weston. She is a sensible woman who loves Emma. Mrs Weston acts as a surrogate mother to her former charge and, occasionally, as a voice of moderation and reason. The Westons and the Woodhouses visit almost daily. Near the end of the story, the Westons' baby Anna is born.

text: Mr. Weston is a widower and a business man living in Highbury who marries Miss Taylor in his early 40s, after he bought the home called Randalls. By his first marriage, he is father to Frank Weston Churchill, who was adopted and raised by his late wife's brother and his wife. He sees his son in London each year. He married his first wife, Miss Churchill, when he was a Captain in the militia, posted near her home. Mr Weston is a sanguine, optimistic man, who enjoys socialising, making friends quickly in business and among his neighbours.

text: Miss Bates is a friendly, garrulous spinster whose mother, Mrs Bates, is a friend of Mr Woodhouse. Her niece is Jane Fairfax, daughter of her late sister. She was raised in better circumstances in her younger days as the vicar's daughter; now she and her mother rent rooms in the home of another in Highbury. One day, Emma humiliates her on a day out in the country, when she alludes to her tiresome prolixity.

text: Mr Henry Woodhouse, Emma's father, is always concerned for his health, and to the extent that it does not interfere with his own, the health and comfort of his friends. He is a valetudinarian (i.e., similar to a hypochondriac but more likely to be genuinely ill). He assumes a great many things are hazardous to his health. His daughter Emma gets along with him well, and he loves both his daughters. He laments that "poor Isabella" and especially "poor Miss Taylor" have married and live away from him. He is a fond father and fond grandfather who did not remarry when his wife died; instead he brought in Miss Taylor to educate his daughters and become part of the family. Because he is generous and well-mannered, his neighbors accommodate him when they can.

text: Isabella Knightley (née Woodhouse) is the elder sister of Emma, by seven years, and daughter of Henry. She is married to John Knightley. She lives in London with her husband and their five children (Henry, 'little' John, Bella, 'little' Emma, and George). She is similar in disposition to her father and her relationship to Mr. Wingfield, (her and her family's physician) mirrors that of her father's to Mr. Perry.

text: John Knightley is Isabella's husband and George's younger brother, 31 years old (10 years older than Jane Fairfax and Emma). He is an attorney by profession. Like the others raised in the area, he is a friend of Jane Fairfax. He greatly enjoys the company of his family, including his brother and his Woodhouse in-laws, but is not the very sociable sort of man who enjoys dining out frequently. He is forthright with Emma, his sister-in-law, and close to his brother.

text: Minor characters[edit]

text: Mr. Perry is the apothecary in Highbury who spends a significant amount of time responding to the health issues of Mr. Woodhouse. He and Mrs. Perry have several children. He is also the subject of a discussion between Miss Bates and Jane Fairfax that is relayed in a letter to Mr. Frank Churchill that he inadvertently discloses to Emma. He is described as an "...intelligent, gentlemanlike man, whose frequent visits were one of the comforts of Mr. Woodhouse's life.[6]"

text: Mrs. Bates is the widow of the former vicar of Highbury, the mother of Miss Bates and the grandmother of Jane Fairfax. She was very old and hard of hearing, but was a frequent companion to Mr. Woodhouse when Emma attended social activities without him.

text: Mr. & Mrs. Cole were residents of Highbury who had been there for several years, but had recently benefited from a significant increase in their income that allowed them to increase the size of their house, number of servants and other expenses. In spite of their "low origin" in trade, their income and style of living made them the second highest in Highbury, the most senior being the Woodhouses at Hartfield. They hosted a dinner party that was a significant plot element.

text: Mrs. Churchill was the wife of the brother of Mr. Weston's first wife. She and her husband, Mr. Churchill live at Enscombe and raised Mr. Weston's son, Mr. Frank Churchill. Although never seen directly, her demands on Frank Churchill's time and attention prevent him from visiting his father. Her disapproval is the reason for keeping the engagement between Frank Churchill and Jane Fairfax secret and her death provides the opportunity for the secret to be revealed.

text: Colonel and Mrs. Campbell were friends of Jane Fairfax's late father. After a period of time when Jane was their guest for extended visits, they offered to take over her education in preparation for potentially serving as a governess when she grew up. They provided her every advantage possible, short of adopting, and were very fond of her.

text: Mrs. Goddard is the mistress of a boarding school for girls in which Harriet Smith is one of the students. She is also a frequent companion to Mr. Woodhouse along with Mrs. Bates.

text: Mr. William Larkins is an employee on the Donwell Abbey estate of Mr. Knightley. He frequently visits the Bates, bringing them gifts, such as apples, from Mr. Knightley.

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Emma was written after the publication of Pride and Prejudice and was submitted to the London publisher John Murray II in the fall of 1815. He offered Austen £450 for this plus the copyrights of Mansfield Park and Sense and Sensibility, which she refused. Instead, she published two thousand copies of the novel at her own expense, retaining the copyright and paying a 10% commission to Murray. The publication in December 1815 (dated 1816) consisted of a three volume set at the selling price of £1.1s per set.[7]

text: Prior to publication, Austen's novels had come to the attention of the Prince Regent whose Librarian at Carlton House, a Mr. Clarke, showed her around the Library at the Prince Regent's request, and who suggested a dedication to the Prince Regent in a future publication. This resulted in a dedication of Emma to the Prince Regent at the time of publication and a dedication copy of the novel sent to Carlton House in December 1815.[8]

text: In America, copies of this first publication were sold in 1818 for $4 per copy, as well as an American edition published by Mathew Carey of Philadelphia in 1816. The number of copies of this edition are not known. A later American edition was published in 1833[9] and again in 1838 by Carey, Lea, and Blanchard.[10] A French version was published in 1816 by Arthus Bertrand, publisher for Madame Isabelle De Montolieu.[11] A second French version for the Austrian market was published in 1817 Viennese publisher Schrambl.[12]

text: Richard Bentley reissued Emma in 1833, along with Austen's five other novels, in his series of Standard Novels. This issue did not contain the dedication page to the Prince Regent.[13] These editions were frequently reprinted up until 1882 with the final publication of the Steventon Edition.[14] Emma has remained in continuous publication in English throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In addition to the French translation already mentioned, Emma was translated into Swedish and German in the nineteenth century and into fifteen other languages in the twentieth century including Arabic, Chinese, Danish, Dutch, German and Italian.[15]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Prior to publishing, John Murray's reader, William Gifford, who was also the editor of the Quarterly Review, said of the novel that "Of Emma I have nothing but good to say. I was sure of the writer before you mentioned her. The MS though plainly written has yet some, indeed many little omissions, and an expression may not and then be amended in passing through the press. I will readily undertake the revision."[16] Early reviews of Emma were generally favourable, and were more numerous than those of any other of Austen's novels.[17] One important review, requested by John Murray prior to publication by Sir Walter Scott, appeared anonymously in March 1816 in the Quarterly Review, although the date of the journal was October 1815.[18][17] He writes:[19]

text: The author is already known to the public by the two novels announced in her title page, and both, the last especially, attracted, with justice, an attention from the public far superior to what is granted to the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering- places and circulating libraries. They belong to a class of fictions which has arisen almost in our own tines, and which draws the characters and incidents introduced more immediately from the current of ordinary life than was permitted by the former rules of the novel...Emma has even less story than either of the preceding novels...The author's knowledge of the world, and the peculiar tact with which she presents characters that the reader cannot fail to recognize, reminds us something of the merits of the Flemish school of painting. The subjects are not often elegant, and certainly never grand: but they are finished up to nature, and with a precision which delights the reader.

text: Two other unsigned reviews appeared in 1816, one in The Champion, also in March, and another in September of the same year in Gentleman's Magazine.[20] Other commenters include Thomas Moore, an Irish poet, singer and entertainer who was a contemporary of Austen's; he wrote to Samuel Rogers, an English poet, in 1816:[21]

text: "Let me entreat you to read Emma - it is the very perfection of novel-writing - and I cannot praise it more highly than by saying it is often extremely like your own method of describing things - so much effect with so little effort!"

text: A contemporary Scottish female novelist, Susan Edmonstone Ferrier, wrote to a friend, also in 1816:[22]

text: "I have been reading Emma, which is excellent; there is no story whatever, and the heroine is not better than other people; but the characters are all true to life and the style so piquant, that it does not require the adventitious aids of mystery and adventure."

text: There was some criticism about the lack of story. John Murray remarked that it lacked "incident and Romance";[23] Maria Edgeworth, the author of Belinda, to whom Austen had sent a complimentary copy, wrote:[23]

text: there was no story in it, except that Miss Emma found that the man whom she designed for Harriet's lover was an admirer of her own – & he was affronted at being refused by Emma & Harriet wore the willow – and smooth, thin water-gruel is according to Emma's father's opinion a very good thing & it is very difficult to make a cook understand what you mean by smooth, thin water-gruel!!

text: Austen also collected comments from friends and family on their opinions of Emma.[24] Writing several years later, John Henry Newman observed in a letter about the novel:

text: Everything Miss Austen writes is clever, but I desiderate something. There is a want of body to the story. The action is frittered away in over-little things. There are some beautiful things in it. Emma herself is the most interesting to me of all her heroines. I feel kind to her whenever I think of her...That other women, Fairfax, is a dolt- but I like Emma.

text: Later reviewers or commenters on the novel include Charlotte Brontë, George Henry Lewes, Juliet Pollock, Anne Ritchie, Henry James, Reginald Farrer, Virginia Woolf, and E.M. Forster.[26] Other reviewers include Thomas Babington Macauley who considered Austen to be a "Prose Shakespeare",[27] and Margaret Oliphant who stated in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine in March that she prefers Emma to Austen's other works and that it is "the work of her mature mind".[28] Although Austen's Pride and Prejudice is usually recognized as the author's masterpiece, critics such as Susan Morgan of Stanford University have placed Emma as being their personal favourite among all of Austen's novels.[29]

text: Themes[edit]

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text: Highbury as a character[edit]

text: The British critic Robert Irvine wrote that unlike Austen's previous novels, the town of Highbury in Surrey emerges as a character in its own right.[30] Irvine wrote that: "In Emma, we find something much closer to a genuinely communal voice, a point of view at work in the narrative that cannot be reduced to the subjectivity of any one character. This point of view appears both as something perceived by Emma, an external perspective on events and characters that the reader encounters as and when Emma recognises it; and as an independent discourse appearing in the text alongside the discourse of the narrator and characters".[30] Irvine used as an example the following passage: "The charming Augusta Hawkins, in addition to all the usual advantages of perfect beauty and merit, was in possession of as many thousands as would always be called ten; a point of some dignity, as well as some convenience: the story told well; he had not thrown himself away-he had gained a woman of £10,000 or therebouts; and he had gained with delightful rapidity-the first hour of introduction he had been so very soon followed by distinguishing notice; the history which he had to give Mrs. Cole of the rise and progress of the affair was so glorious".[31] Irvine points out the adjective "charming" appears to the narrator speaking, but notes the sentence goes on to associate "perfect" with "usual", which he pointed out was an incongruity.[32] Irvine suggested the next sentence "would always be called ten" is in fact the voice of the community of Highbury, which wants the fiancée of Mr. Elton to be "perfect", whom the narrator sarcastically calls the "usual" sort of community gossip is about a new arrival in Highbury, whom everyone thinks is "charming".[32] Since the character of Mrs. Elton is in fact far from "charming", the use of the term "charming" to describe her is either the gossip of Highbury and/or the narrator being sarcastic.[32]

text: Likewise, the Australian school John Wiltshire wrote one of Austen's achievements to "give depth" to the "Highbury world".[33] Wiltshire noted that Austen put the population of Highbury as 352 people, and wrote though clearly most of these people don't appear as characters or as minor characters at best, that Austen created the impression of Highbury as a "social commonwealth".[33] Wiltshire used as an example of Mr. Perry, the town doctor who is frequently mentioned in the town gossip, but never appears in the book, having a "kind of familiarity by proxy".[33] Wiltshire also noted that the scene where Emma and Harriet visit a poor cottage on the outskirts of Highbury, and during their walk, it is made clear from Emma's remarks that this part of Highbury is not her Highbury.[33]

text: The character of Frank is a member of the "discursive community" of Highbury long before he actually appears, as his father tells everyone in Highbury about him.[32] Emma forms her judgement of Frank based on what she hears about him in Highbury before she meets him.[34] Irvine wrote that Austen's use of three different voices in Emma—the voice of Highbury, the narrator's voice, and Emma's voice, can at times make it very confusing to the reader about just whom is actually speaking.[34] However, Irvine wrote that one accepts that the voice of Highbury is often speaking, then much of the book makes sense, as Emma believes she has a power that she does not, to make Frank either love or not via her interest or indifference, which is explained as the result of the gossip of Highbury, which attributes Emma this power.[34]

text: This is especially the case as Emma is born into the elite of Highbury, which is portrayed as a female-dominated world.[35] Irvine wrote that Elizabeth Bennet in Pride and Prejudice and Fanny Price in Mansfield Park enjoy the moral authority of being good women, but must marry a well-off man to have the necessary social influence to fully use this moral authority whereas Emma is born with this authority.[35] Emma herself acknowledges this when she says to Harriet that she possesses: "none of the usual inducements to marry...Fortune I do not want; employment I do not want; consequence I do not want".[35] However, political power still resides with men in the patriarchal society of Regency England as the book notes that Mr. Knightley is not only a member of the gentry, but also serves as the magistrate of Highbury.[35] Emma clashes with Knightley at the beginning of the novel over the all-important "distinctions of rank", namely does Harriet Smith belong with the yeoman class together with Robert Martin, or the gentry class that Emma and Knightley are both part of.[36] Knightley declares his respect for both Smith and Martin, but argues that as part of the yeomen class, that neither belongs with the gentry, while Emma insists on including her best friend/protegee in with the gentry.[37] In Regency England and in Emma, the term friendship describes a power relationship where one higher party can do favors for the lower party while the term "claim intimacy" is a relationship of equals.[37] Mrs. Elton has "friendship" with Jane Fairfax while "claims intimacy" with Mr. Knightley.[38] The use of the these terms "friendship" and "claim intimacy" refers to the question of who belongs to the local elite.[39] Neither Emma nor Mr. Knightley question the right of the elite to dominate society, but rather their power struggle is over who belongs to the elite, and who has the authority to make the decision about who to include and who to exclude, which shows that in a certain sense that Emma is just as powerful socially as is Mr. Knightley.[40] Further complicating this power struggle is the arrival of Mrs. Elton, who attempts to elevate Jane Fairfax into the elite.[40] This is a cruel struggle as Jane is not rich enough to have properly belong to the elite, and Mrs. Elton is showing Jane a world that she can never really belong, no matter how much parties and balls she attends.[40] In addition to her annoyance at Mrs. Elton's relationship with Jane, Emma finds Mrs. Elton an "upstart", "under-bred" and "vulgar", which adds venom to the dispute between the two women.[41] Mrs. Elton is only a first generation gentry, as her father bought the land that she grew up on with money he had raised in trade. Her snobbery is therefore that of a nouveau riche, desperately insecure of her status.[41] When Mrs. Elton boasted that her family had owned their estate for a number of years, Emma responds that a true English gentry family would count ownership of their estate in generations, not years.[41]

text: Of Emma's two rivals for social authority, one shares a common class while the other a common sex.[41] The marriage of Emma to Mr. Knightley consolidates her social authority by linking herself to the dominant male of Highbury and pushes Mrs. Elton's claims aside.[41] Irvine wrote: "On this view, and in contrast to Austen's two previous novels, Emma works to legitimate established gentry power defined in opposition to an autonomous feminine authority over the regulation of social relations, and not through the vindication of such autonomous authority".[41] However, as the novel goes, such a reading is countered by the way that Emma begins to take in the previously excluded into the realm of the elite, such as visiting the poor Miss Bates and her mother, and the Coles, whose patriarch is a tradesman.[41] Likewise, Jane Fairfax, who is too poor to live off her wealth and must work forever as a governess, which excludes her from the female social elite of Highbury, does marry well after all, which makes her the story of one real feminine worth triumphing over the lack of wealth in Emma.[42]

text: Gendered space[edit]

text: Wiltshire wrote about Austen's use of "gendered space" in Emma, noting the female characters have a disproportionate number of scenes in the drawing rooms of Highbury while the male characters often have scenes outdoors.[43] Wiltshire noted that Jane Fairfax cannot walk to the post office in the rain to pick up the mail without becoming the object of town gossip while Mr. Knightley can ride all the way to London while attracting any gossip.[43] Wiltshire described the world that the women of Highbury live in as a sort of prison, writing in the novel "...women's imprisonment is associated with deprivation, with energies and powers perverted in their application, and events, balls and outings are linked with the arousal and satisfaction of desire".[43]

text: Wealth[edit]

text: Emma unlike other heroines in Jane Austen's novels is a wealthy young lady having a personal fortune amounting to £30,000. Therefore, there is little pressure on her to find a wealthy partner.

text: Nationhood and the "Irish Question"[edit]

text: The novel is set in England, but there are several references to Ireland, which were related to the ongoing national debate about the "Irish Question".[44] In 1801, the Act of Union had brought Ireland into the United Kingdom, but there was a major debate about what was Ireland's precise status in the United Kingdom; another kingdom, province or a colony?[44] Austen satirizes this debate by having Miss Bates talk about Mrs. Dixon's new house in Ireland, a place that she cannot decide is a kingdom, a country or a province, but is merely very "strange" whatever its status may be.[44] Austen also satirized the vogue for "Irish tales" that become popular after the Act of Union as English writers started to produce picturesque, romantic stories set in Ireland to familiarize the English people with the newest addition to the United Kingdom.[45] The travel itinerary that Miss Bates sketches out for the Campbells' visit to Ireland is satire of a typical "Irish tale" novel, which was Austen's way of mocking those who had a superficial appreciation of Irish culture by buying the "Irish tales" books that presented Ireland in a very stereotypical way.[44] Austen further alludes to the Society of United Irishmen uprising in 1798 by having the other characters worry about what might happen to the Dixons when they visit a place in the Irish countryside called "Baly-craig", which appears to be Ballycraig in County Antrim in what is now Northern Ireland, which had been the scene of much bloody fighting between the United Irishmen Society and the Crown in 1798, an enduring testament to Ireland's unsettled status with much of the Irish population not accepting British rule.[46] The American scholar Colleen Taylor wrote about Austen's treatment of the "Irish Question": "That Emma applies a distant and fictionalized Irish space to her very limited and dissimilar English circle, turning a somewhat ordinary English young woman, Jane Fairfax, into an Irish scandal, proves that the object of English humor is--for once--not the stage Irishman but the privileged English woman who presumes to know what he and his culture are really like."[44]

text: Romance[edit]

text: In contrast to other Austen heroines, Emma seems immune to romantic attraction, at least until her final self-revelation concerning her true affections. Unlike Marianne Dashwood, who is attracted to the wrong man before she settles on the right one, Emma generally shows no romantic interest in the men she meets and even her flirting with Churchill seems tame. She is genuinely surprised (and somewhat disgusted) when Mr Elton declares his love for her, much in the way Elizabeth Bennet reacts to the obsequious Mr Collins, also a parson. Her fancy for Frank Churchill represents more of a longing for a little drama in her life than a longing for romantic love. For example, at the beginning of Chapter XIII, Emma has "no doubt of her being in love", but it quickly becomes clear that, even though she spends time "forming a thousand amusing schemes for the progress and close of their attachment", we are told that "the conclusion of every imaginary declaration on his side was that she refused him".[47]

text: It is only Mr Knightley who can willingly share the burden of Emma's father, as well as providing her with guidance, love and companionship. He has been in love with her since she was 13 years old, but neither he nor she have realized that there is a natural bond between them. He declares his love for her, and she says 'just what a lady ought'. Mr Woodhouse is reconciled to the wedding a marriage of his mother/daughter because Mr Knightley will come and live with him and therefore protect him from chicken thieves.

text: Female Empowerment[edit]

text: In Emma, Emma Woodhouse serves as a direct reflection of Jane Austen’s feminist characterization of female heroines, in terms of both female individuality and independence (romantically, financially, etcetera). In terms of romantic independence, Emma’s father, Henry Woodhouse, very consistently preaches against the idea of marriage. He plays an integral role in Emma’s own initial perception of matrimony, leading her to make use of her free time by becoming the town “matchmaker,” which leaves her happily single and unwed for the majority of the novel. One of the predominant reasons Emma is able to live a comfortable and independent lifestyle is her gifted inheritance—given to her by a past family member—which allows her to depend on no one other than herself for a sustainable, wealthy, and self-sufficient life. Austen portrays Emma as educated and capable, and despite not constantly being in pursuit of/pursued by a man, is extremely popular and well-liked in her hometown of Highbury.

text: Literary scholar Laurence Mazzeno addresses Austen’s narrative in regard to female individualism and empowerment, stating, “…Austen deals honestly and with skill in treating relationships between men and women, and insists Austen presents women of real passion — but not the flamboyant, sentimental kind that populate conventional romances...Austen is not “narrow” in her treatment of character, either; her men and women furnish as broad a view of humanity as would be obtained by traveling up and down the world...Austen was conservative in both her art and her politics — suggesting that, even from a woman’s point of view, Austen was hardly out to subvert the status quo."[48]

text: Parenting[edit]

text: Mr. Woodhouse adopted a laissez faire parenting style when it came to raising Emma. In fact, most of the time it seems that Emma is parenting her father, taking on the role of both daughter and mother, at the young age of twelve, in the wake of her mother’s death. Emma is entirely responsible for the wellbeing of her father and therefore encumbered to stay with him. Her father is a selfish but gentle man and does not approve of matrimony. If Emma were to marry he would lose his caretaker. This is not to say that Emma feels restrained by her father, in fact quite the opposite, Emma has the power over the world she inhabits. The narrator announces at the start of the novel: “The real evils of Emma’s situation were the power of having rather too much of her own way, and a disposition to think a little too well of herself; these were the disadvantages which threatened alloy to her many enjoyments” (Austen, 1). While Mr. Woodhouse lacks as a father figure, Mr. Knightley acts as a surrogate father to Emma.[49] Mr. Knightley is not afraid to correct Emma’s behavior and tell her what she needs to hear. Mr. Knightley reprimands Emma when he learns of her match-making games and later when Emma is extremely rude to Ms. Bates. Still, the reader cannot ignore the developmental damage that has been caused by Mr. Woodhouse’s indifferent parenting style as Emma struggles to form healthy adult relationships.

text: Class[edit]

text: Class is an important aspect to Emma. The distinctions between the classes is made explicitly clear to the reader by Emma and by Austen’s descriptions. The social class structure has the Woodhouses and Mr. Knightley at the top, the Eltons, the Westons, Frank Churchill and Jane Fairfax below them, and even further down the line Harriet, Robert Martin, and the Bates. This social class map becomes important when Emma tries to match Mr. Elton and Harriet together. Harriet is not considered a match for Elton due to her lowly class standing, despite what Emma encourages her to believe. Emma’s initial disregard for class standing (in regards to Harriet at least) is brought to light by Mr. Knightley who tells her to stop encouraging Harriet.

text: The scholar James Brown argued the much quoted line where Emma contemplates the Abbey-Mill Farm, which is the embodiment of "English verdure, English culture, English comfort, seen under a sun bright, without being oppressive" is a fact mean to be ironic.[50] Brown wrote Austen had a strong appreciation of the land as not only a source of aesthetic pleasure, but also a source of money, an aspect of pre-industrial England that many now miss.[51] In this sense, the beauty of the Abbey-Mill Farm is due to the hard work of Mr. Knightley's tenant, the farmer Robert Martin, a man whom Emma dismisses as the sort of person "with whom I feel I can have nothing to do with" while Knightley praises him as "open, straight forward, and very well judging".[52] Brown argued that the disconnect between's Emma's contempt for Mr. Martin as a person and her awe at the beauty that is the result of his hard work was Austen's way of mocking those in the upper classes who failed to appreciate the farmers who worked the land.[53]

text: Food[edit]

text: There is an abundance of food language in Jane Austen’s Emma. Food is given, shared, and eaten by characters in almost every chapter. Most of the research on Jane Austen’s food language is found in Maggie Lane’s book titled Jane Austen and Food.[54] Lane’s text provides a general examination of the symbolism of food in Emma and invites further interpretations. Food is used as a symbol to convey class hierarchy, stereotypes and biases throughout the novel.[55] The language and actions that surround food bring the characters of Highbury’s inner circle closer together. For Emma Woodhouse, food is a symbol of human interdependence and goodwill.[54] No one in Highbury is starving; everyone is well-fed and takes part in the giving and receiving of food. However, food is a strong class divider though it is rarely openly discussed by characters in the novel. There are a few instances when characters allude to lower class individuals outside of their well-fed society. For instance, when Emma discusses her charitable visit with a poor family, Harriet’s encounter with the gypsy children, and Highbury’s mysterious chicken thieves. For the most part, the poor in Emma are overlooked by the characters in the novel due to their socioeconomic status.

text: The constant giving and receiving of food in this novel does not occur without motive.[54] Characters are either trying to climb the social ladder or gain the approval or affections of another. The interpretation of the giving and receiving of food in Emma can be taken in these different directions; however in terms of love: “The novel (...) is stuffed with gifts of food: Mr. Knightley sends the Bates family apples; Mr. Martin woos Harriet with some walnuts; and, to further her son's suit, Mrs. Martin brings Mrs. Goddard a goose”.[56] These gifts are not without motive, and food - as it pertains to Emma Woodhouse - only becomes interesting when it pertains to love. “[R]omance is a far more interesting subject than food. Emma quickly reduces the topic of eating to a bottom-of-the-barrel ‘any thing,’ and arbitrary and empty screen that only becomes interesting when projected on by those in love”.[57] This becomes evident to the reader when Emma overestimates Mr. Elton’s affections for Harriet from their engaging conversation about the food at the Cole’s party. Emma Woodhouse interprets food conversation and gifts of food as means of affection between two lovers.

text: Masculinity[edit]

text: Austen explores the idea of redefining manhood and masculinity with her male characters: particularly Mr. Knightley, Mr. Woodhouse, and Frank Churchill. In Emma, Austen includes typical ideals of English masculinity, including, “familial responsibility, sexual fidelity, and leadership transition…”[58] Mr. Woodhouse is portrayed chiefly as a fool and an incompetent father figure. Clark comments on Mr. Woodhouse’s age and how this affects his masculine identity. He resists change and pleasure, yet he is still respected in the community. Mr. Knightley is Jane Austen’s perfect gentleman figure in Emma. He has manners, class, and money. Further, he is presented as, “a well-adjusted alternative to these more polarized understandings of masculinity seen in characters of John Willoughby and Edward Ferrars.”[58] Men in Emma are more representative of modern-day intersectionalities of masculinity.

text: Allusions to real places[edit]

text: The fictional Highbury is said to be in Surrey, 16 miles (26 km) from London and 8 miles (13 km) from Richmond. (It must not be confused with the real Highbury, which is 4.5 miles (7.2 km) north of Charing Cross, now part of inner London but in Austen's day was in Middlesex). Highbury was not modelled on a specific village; however, it is likely that it is modelled after several that Austen knew, such as Cobham and Box Hill. Leatherhead, Surrey is another town that could have been a source of inspiration for Highbury. There is a Randalls Road in the town, which is an important name within Emma. It has also been noted that there is a Mr. Knightly mentioned in Leatherhead Church.[59] Emma's sister Isabella and her family live in Brunswick Square, between the City of London and the West End; the fields had just been transformed at the turn of the century into terraces of Georgian houses. Richmond, where Frank Churchill's aunt and uncle settle in the summer, is now part of the greater London area, but then was a separate town in Surrey.

text: Most of the other places mentioned are in southern England, such as the seaside resort towns of Weymouth, Dorset, South End, and Cromer in Norfolk. Box Hill, Surrey is still a place of beauty, popular for picnics. Bath, where Mr Elton went to find a bride, is a well-known spa city in the southwest. The place furthest away is the fictional Enscombe, the estate of the Churchills, in the real Yorkshire, in the north.

text: Mrs Elton frequently refers to the upcoming visit of her well-married sister, who will certainly arrive in their barouche-landau. This was an expensive carriage for summer use.[60][61]

text: The school is based on Reading Abbey Girls' School, which Austen and her sister attended briefly[62]:

text: "not of a seminary, or an establishment, or any thing which professed, in long sentences of refined nonsense, to combine liberal acquirements with elegant morality upon new principles and new systems — and where young ladies for enormous pay might be screwed out of health and into vanity — but a real, honest, old-fashioned Boarding-school, where a reasonable quantity of accomplishments were sold at a reasonable price, and where girls might be sent to be out of the way and scramble themselves into a little education, without any danger of coming back prodigies."

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Emma has been the subject of many adaptations for film, TV, radio and the stage. The profusion of adaptations based on Jane Austen's novels has not only created a large contemporary fan base but has also sparked extensive scholarly examination on both the process and effect of modernizing the narratives and moving them between mediums. Examples of this critical, academic work can be found in texts such as Recreating Jane Austen by John Wiltshire,[63] Jane Austen in Hollywood edited by Troost and Greenfield,[64] and Jane Austen and Co.: Remaking the Past in Contemporary Culture edited by Pucci and Thompson[65] and Adapting Jane Austen: The Surprising Fidelity of 'Clueless' by William Galperin[66] to name a few.

text: Film[edit]

text:
1995: Clueless, a loose American modern adaptation of the novel, set in Beverly Hills and starring Alicia Silverstone as Cher Horowitz (Emma)[67][68]
1996: Emma, an American comedy starring Gwyneth Paltrow as Emma
2010: Aisha, an Indian modern adaptation of the novel, starring Sonam Kapoor as Aisha (Emma).[69]

text: Television[edit]

text:
1948: Emma, live BBC TV broadcast, starring Judy Campbell (who also wrote the screenplay) as Emma, and directed and produced by Michael Barry[70]
1954: Emma, live NBC TV broadcast, starring Felicia Montealegre as Emma[70]
1957: Emma, another live NBC TV broadcast in their Matinee Theater series, starring Sarah Churchill as Emma[70]
1960: Emma, live BBC TV serial in six parts, starring Diana Fairfax as Emma and directed by Campbell Logan[70]
1960: Emma, live CBS TV broadcast in their Camera Three series, starring Nancy Wickwire as Emma.[70]
1972: Emma, a six-part BBC miniseries, starring Doran Godwin as Emma
1996: Emma, an ITV TV film, starring Kate Beckinsale as Emma
2009: Emma, a four-part BBC miniseries, starring Romola Garai as Emma

text: Web[edit]

text: 2013: Emma Approved, a YouTube web series produced by Pemberley Digital and developed by Bernie Su, starring Joanna Sotomura as Emma.[71][72]

text: Stage[edit]

text:
1991: Emma, a stage adaptation by British playwright Michael Fry, first produced by the Cloucester Stage Company in 1991, and since then produced by a number of theatre companies in Britain and the US[73][74]
2000: Emma, a musical written by Stephen Karam and first showed by the Brownbrokers student theatre group at Brown University under the direction of Darius Pierce.[75] In 2004 Karam's musical was played at the New York Musical Theatre Festival under the direction of Patricia Birch.[76]
A theatrical adaptation by Michael Napier Brown was performed at the Royal Theatre in Northampton in 2000[77]
2007: Jane Austen's Emma – A Musical Romantic Comedy, a musical written by Paul Gordon, which premiered at TheatreWorks in Menlo Park, California.[78] This musical has since been performed at the Cincinnati Playhouse, The Repertory Theatre of St. Louis and the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego.[70]
2009: Emma, a stage adaption by Rachel Atkins for the Book-It Repertory Theatre in Seattle, directed by Marcus Goodwin with Sylvie Davidson in the title role[70][79]

text: Fiction[edit]

text:
Joan Aiken wrote a companion novel, Jane Fairfax: The Secret Story of the Second Heroine in Jane Austen's Emma.[80]
Alexander McCall Smith has written a modern version, titled Emma: A Modern Retelling (2014)[81]
Reginald Hill wrote Poor Emma in 1987, included in the 2007 paperback There is no ghost in the Soviet Union, where finance plays a crucial role.
The importance of being Emma, a novel published in 2008 by Juliet Archer, is a modern version of Emma
Emma and the Werewolves: Jane Austen and Adam Rann, Adam Rann, is a parody of Emma which by its title, its presentation and its history, seeks to give the illusion that the novel had been written jointly by Adam Rann and Jane Austen, that is, a mash-up novel.
Emma and the Vampires, a 2010 installation of the Jane Austen Undead Novels by Wayne Josephson, preserves the basic plot of Austen's original while adding contemporary humor and a thematic flair for the undead.[82]

text: Critical editions[edit]

text: Jane Austen, Emma (Wordsworth Classics, 2000), ed. Nicola Bradbury, ISBN 978-1853260285


document_title: Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory

question_text: according to hofstede's framework a culture with large power distance tends to be characterized by

question_tokens: according to hofstede 's framework a culture with large power distance tends to be characterized by

root

text: Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory

text: History[edit]

text: In 1965 Hofstede founded the personnel research department of IBM Europe (which he managed until 1971). Between 1967 and 1973, he executed a large survey study regarding national values differences across the worldwide subsidiaries of this multinational corporation: he compared the answers of 117,000 IBM matched employees samples on the same attitude survey in different countries. He first focused his research on the 40 largest countries, and then extended it to 50 countries and 3 regions, "at that time probably the largest matched-sample cross-national database available anywhere.".[2] The theory was one of the first quantifiable theories that could be used to explain observed differences between cultures.[citation needed]

tag: p

text: This initial analysis identified systematic differences in national cultures on four primary dimensions: power distance (PDI), individualism (IDV), uncertainty avoidance (UAI) and masculinity (MAS), which are described below. As Hofstede explains on his academic website,[3] these dimensions regard "four anthropological problem areas that different national societies handle differently: ways of coping with inequality, ways of coping with uncertainty, the relationship of the individual with her or his primary group, and the emotional implications of having been born as a girl or as a boy ". In 1984 he published Culture's Consequences,[4] a book which combines the statistical analysis from the survey research with his personal experiences.

text: In order to confirm the early results from the IBM study and to extend them to a variety of populations, six subsequent cross-national studies have successfully been conducted between 1990 and 2002. Covering between 14 and 28 countries, the samples included commercial airline pilots, students, civil service managers, 'up-market' consumers and 'elites'. The combined research established value scores on the four dimensions for a total of 76 countries and regions.

text: In 1991 Michael Harris Bond and colleagues conducted a study among students in 23 countries, using a survey instrument developed with Chinese employees and managers. The results from this study led Hofstede to add a new fifth dimension to his model: long term orientation (LTO) initially called Confucian dynamism. In 2010 the scores for this dimension have been extended to 93 countries thanks to the research of Michael Minkov who used the recent World Values Survey.[5] Further research has refined some of the original dimensions, and introduced the difference between country-level and individual-level data in analysis.

text: Finally, Minkov's World Values Survey data analysis of 93 representative samples of national populations also led Geert Hofstede to identify a sixth last dimension: indulgence versus restraint.[citation needed]

text: Dimensions of national cultures[edit]

text:
Power distance index (PDI): The power distance index is defined as “the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.” In this dimension, inequality and power is perceived from the followers, or the lower level. A higher degree of the Index indicates that hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society, without doubt or reason. A lower degree of the Index signifies that people question authority and attempt to distribute power.[6]
Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV): This index explores the “degree to which people in a society are integrated into groups.” Individualistic societies have loose ties that often only relates an individual to his/her immediate family. They emphasize the “I” versus the “we.” Its counterpart, collectivism, describes a society in which tightly-integrated relationships tie extended families and others into in-groups. These in-groups are laced with undoubted loyalty and support each other when a conflict arises with another in-group.[6][7]
Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI): The uncertainty avoidance index is defined as “a society's tolerance for ambiguity,” in which people embrace or avert an event of something unexpected, unknown, or away from the status quo. Societies that score a high degree in this index opt for stiff codes of behavior, guidelines, laws, and generally rely on absolute Truth, or the belief that one lone Truth dictates everything and people know what it is. A lower degree in this index shows more acceptance of differing thoughts/ideas. Society tends to impose fewer regulations, ambiguity is more accustomed to, and the environment is more free-flowing.[6][7]
Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS): In this dimension, masculinity is defined as “a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success.” Its counterpart represents “a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life.” Women in the respective societies tend to display different values. In feminine societies, they share modest and caring views equally with men. In more masculine societies, women are more emphatic and competitive, but notably less emphatic than the men. In other words, they still recognize a gap between male and female values. This dimension is frequently viewed as taboo in highly masculine societies.[6][7]
Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO): This dimension associates the connection of the past with the current and future actions/challenges. A lower degree of this index (short-term) indicates that traditions are honored and kept, while steadfastness is valued. Societies with a high degree in this index (long-term) views adaptation and circumstantial, pragmatic problem-solving as a necessity. A poor country that is short-term oriented usually has little to no economic development, while long-term oriented countries continue to develop to a point.[6][7]
Indulgence vs. restraint (IND): This dimension is essentially a measure of happiness; whether or not simple joys are fulfilled. Indulgence is defined as “a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun.” Its counterpart is defined as “a society that controls gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.” Indulgent societies believe themselves to be in control of their own life and emotions; restrained societies believe other factors dictate their life and emotions.[6][7]

tag: ul

text: Differences between cultures on the values dimensions[edit]

text: Putting together national scores (from 1 for the lowest to 120 for the highest), Hofstede's six-dimensions model allows international comparison between cultures, also called comparative research:[8]

text: Power distance index shows very high scores for Latin and Asian countries, African areas and the Arab world. On the other hand, Anglo and Germanic countries have a lower power distance (only 11 for Austria and 18 for Denmark).

text:
Masculinity is extremely low in Nordic countries: Norway scores 8 and Sweden only 5. In contrast, Masculinity is very high in Japan (95), and in European countries like Hungary, Austria and Switzerland influenced by German culture. In the Anglo world, masculinity scores are relatively high with 66 for the United Kingdom for example. Latin countries present contrasting scores: for example Venezuela has a 73-point score whereas Chile's is only 28.
High long term orientation scores are typically found in East Asia, with China having 118, Hong Kong 96 and Japan 88. They are moderate in Eastern and Western Europe, and low in the Anglo countries, the Muslim world, Africa and in Latin America. However, there are less data about this dimension.
There are even less data about the sixth dimension. Indulgence scores are highest in Latin America, parts of Africa, the Anglo world and Nordic Europe; restraint is mostly found in East Asia, Eastern Europe and the Muslim world.

text: Correlations of values with other country differences[edit]

text: Researchers have grouped some countries together by comparing countries' value scores with other country difference such as geographical proximity, shared language, related historical background, similar religious beliefs and practices, common philosophical influences, identical political systems, in other words everything which is implied by the definition of a nation's culture. For example, low power distance is associated with consultative political practices and income equity, whereas high power distance is correlated with unequal income distribution, as well as bribery and corruption in domestic politics. Individualism is positively correlated with mobility and national wealth. As a country becomes richer, its culture becomes more individualistic.

text: Another example of correlation was drawn by the Sigma Two Group[9] in 2003. They have studied the correlation between countries' cultural dimensions and their predominant religion[10] based on the World Factbook 2002. On average predominantly Catholic countries show very high uncertainty avoidance, relatively high power distance, moderate masculinity and relatively low individualism, whereas predominantly atheist countries have low uncertainty avoidance, very high power distance, moderate masculinity, and very low individualism. Coelho (2011) found inverse correlations between rates of specific kinds of innovation in manufacturing companies and the percentage of large companies per country as well as the employment of a specific kind of manufacturing strategy. The national culture measure of power distance is positively correlated with the ratio of companies with process innovation only over the companies with any of the three types of innovation considered in the country (determinant of correlation: 28%). Hence in countries with higher power distance, innovative manufacturing companies are somewhat more bound to resort to process innovations.

text: The quantification of cultural dimensions enables us to make cross-regional comparisons and form an image of the differences between not just countries but entire regions. For example, the cultural model of the Mediterranean countries is dominated by high levels of acceptance of inequalities, with uncertainty aversion influencing their choices. With regard to individualism, Mediterranean countries tend to be characterized by moderate levels of individualistic behavior. The same applies to masculinity. Future orientation places Mediterranean countries in a middle ranking, and they show a preference for indulgence values.[11]

text: Applications of the model[edit]

text: Importance of cultural-difference awareness[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: "Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster."[12]

text: Despite the evidence that groups are different from each other, we tend to believe that deep inside all people are the same. In fact, as we are generally not aware of other countries' cultures, we tend to minimize cultural differences. This leads to misunderstandings and misinterpretations between people from different countries.

text: Instead of the convergence phenomena we expected with information technologies availability (the "global village culture"), cultural differences are still significant today and diversity tends to increase. So, in order to be able to have respectful cross-cultural relations, we have to be aware of these cultural differences.

text: With this model, Geert Hofstede shed light on these differences. The tool can be used to give a general overview and an approximate understanding of other cultures, what to expect from them and how to behave towards groups from other countries.

text: Practical applications of theory[edit]

text: Geert Hofstede is perhaps the best known sociologist of culture and anthropologist in the context of applications for understanding international business.[citation needed] Many articles and research papers refer to his publications,[citation needed] with over 20,000 citations[citation needed] to his 2003 book Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations[13] (which is an updated version of his first publication[4]). The five dimensions model is widely used in many domains of human social life,[citation needed] and particularly in the field of business. Practical applications were developed almost immediately.[citation needed] In fact, when it comes to business, promoting cultural sensitivity will help people work more effectively when interacting with people from other countries, and will participate to make sure transactions are successful.

text: International communication[edit]

text: In business it is commonly agreed that communication is one of the primary concerns. So, for professionals who work internationally; people who interact daily with other people from different countries within their company or with other companies abroad; Hofstede's model gives insights into other cultures. In fact, cross-cultural communication requires being aware of cultural differences because what may be considered perfectly acceptable and natural in one country, can be confusing or even offensive in another. All the levels in communication are affected by cultural dimensions: verbals (words and language itself), non verbals (body language, gestures) and etiquette do's and don'ts (clothing, gift-giving, dining, customs and protocol). And this is also valid for written communication as explained in William Wardrobe's essay "Beyond Hofstede: Cultural applications for communication with Latin American Businesses".[14]

text: International negotiation[edit]

text: In international negotiations, communication style, expectation, issue ranking and goals will change according to the negotiators' countries of origin. If applied properly, an understanding of cultural dimensions should increase success in negotiations and reduce frustration and conflicts.[15] For example, in a negotiation between Chinese and Canadians, the Canadian negotiators may want to reach an agreement and sign a contract, whereas the Chinese negotiators may want to spend more time for non-business activities, small talks and hospitality with preferences for protocol and form in order to first establish the relationship.

text: "When negotiating in Western countries, the objective is to work toward a target of mutual understanding and agreement and 'shake-hands' when that agreement is reached – a cultural signal of the end of negotiations and the start of 'working together'. In Middle Eastern countries much negotiation takes place leading into the 'agreement', signified by shaking hands. However, the deal is not complete in the Middle Eastern culture. In fact, it is a cultural sign that 'serious' negotiations are just beginning."[12]

text: International management[edit]

text: These considerations are also true in international management and cross-cultural leadership. Decisions taken have to be based on the country's customs and values.[16]

text: When working in international companies, managers may provide training to their employees to make them sensitive to cultural differences, develop nuanced business practices, with protocols across countries. Hofstede's dimensions offer guidelines for defining culturally acceptable approaches to corporate organizations.

text: As a part of the public domain, Geert Hofstede's work is used by numerous consultancies worldwide.[17]

text: International marketing[edit]

text: The six-dimension model is very useful in international marketing because it defines national values not only in business context but in general. Marieke de Mooij has studied the application of Hofstede's findings in the field of global branding, advertising strategy and consumer behavior. As companies try to adapt their products and services to local habits and preferences they have to understand the specificity of their market.[18]

text: For example, if you want to market cars in a country where the uncertainty avoidance is high, you should emphasize their safety, whereas in other countries you may base your advertisement on the social image they give you. Cell phone marketing is another interesting example of the application of Hofstede's model for cultural differences: if you want to advertise cell phones in China, you may show a collective experience whereas in the United States you may show how an individual uses it to save time and money. The variety of application of Hofstede's abstract theory is so wide that it has even been translated in the field of web designing in which you have to adapt to national preferences according to cultures' values.[19]

text: Limitations of Hofstede's model[edit]

text: Even though Hofstede's model is generally accepted as the most comprehensive framework of national cultures values by those studying business culture, its validity and its limitations have been extensively criticized.

text: The most cited critique is McSweeney.[20] Hofstede replied to that critique[21] and McSweeney responded.[22] Also Ailon deconstructed Hofstede's book Culture's Consequences by mirroring it against its own assumptions and logic.[23] Ailon finds inconsistencies at the level of both theory and methodology and cautions against an uncritical reading of Hofstede's cultural dimensions. Hofstede replied to that critique[24] and Ailon responded.[25]

text: Questionable choice of national level[edit]

text: Aside from Hofstede's five cultural dimensions, there are other factors on which culture can be analyzed. There are other levels for assessing culture. These levels are overlooked often because of the nature of the construction of these levels. There is sampling discrepancy that disqualifies the survey from being authoritative on organizations, or societies, or nations as the interviews involved sales and engineering personnel with few, if any, women and undoubtedly fewer social minorities participating (Moussetes, 2007). Even if country indices were used to control for wealth, latitude, population size, density and growth, privileged males working as engineers or sales personnel in one of the elite organizations of the world, pioneering one of the first multinational projects in history, cannot be claimed to represent their nations.[26]

text: Individual level: cultural dimensions versus individual personalities[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Hofstede acknowledges that the cultural dimensions he identified, as culture and values, are theoretical constructions. They are tools meant to be used in practical applications. Generalizations about one country's culture are helpful but they have to be regarded as such, i.e. as guidelines for a better understanding. They are group-level dimensions which describe national averages which apply to the population in its entirety. Hofstede's cultural dimensions enable users to distinguish countries but are not about differences between members of societies. They don't necessarily define individuals' personalities. National scores should never be interpreted as deterministic for individuals. For example, a Japanese person can be very comfortable in changing situations whereas on average, Japanese people have high uncertainty avoidance. There are still exceptions to the rule. Hofstede's theory can be contrasted with its equivalence at individual level: the trait theory about human personality.

text: Variations on the typologies of collectivism and individualism have been proposed (Triandis, 1995; Gouveia and Ros, 2000). Self-expression and individualism increase with economic growth (Inglehart, 1997), independent of any culture, and they are vital in small populations faced with outside competition for resources. Entitled individuals in positions of power embrace autonomy even if they live in a “collective” culture. Like the power index, the individualism and collectivism surveys scatter countries according to predictable economic and demographic patterns (Triandis, 2004)[full citation needed], so they might not really inform us at all about any particular organizational dynamic, nor do they inform about the organizational and individual variations within similar socio-economic circumstances. Individual aggregate need careful separation from nation aggregate (Smith et al., 2008). Whereas individuals are the basic subject of psychological analysis (Smith, 2004), the socialization of individuals and their interaction with society is a matter to be studied at the level of families, peers, neighborhoods, schools, cities, and nations each with its own statistical imprint of culture (Smith, 2004). S. Schwartz controlled his value data with GNP and a social index, leading to his proposal of differentiated individual and nation indices of itemized values (Schwartz, 1992; 1994) for cross-cultural comparison. The assumed “isomorphism of constructs” has been central to deciding how to use and understand culture in the managerial sciences (Van de Vijver et al. 2008; Fischer, 2009). As no individual can create his/her discourse and sense-making process in isolation to the rest of society, individuals are poor candidates for cultural sense-making. Postmodern criticism rejects the possibility of any self-determining individual because the unitary, personal self is an illusion of contemporary society evidenced by the necessary reproductions and simulations in language and behavior that individuals engage in to sustain membership in any society (Baudrillard, 1983; Alvesson & Deetz, 2006).[26]

text: Organizational level[edit]

text: Within and across countries, individuals are also parts of organizations such as companies. Hofstede acknowledges that "the […] dimensions of national cultures are not relevant for comparing organizations within the same country".[3] In contrast with national cultures embedded in values, organizational cultures are embedded in practices.

text: From 1985 to 1987, Hofstede's institute IRIC (Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation)[27] has conducted a separate research project in order to study organizational culture. Including 20 organizational units in two countries (Denmark and the Netherlands), six different dimensions of practices, or communities of practice have been identified:

text:
Process-Oriented vs. Results-Oriented
Employee-Oriented vs. Job-Oriented
Parochial vs. Professional
Open System vs. Closed System
Loose Control vs. Tight Control
Pragmatic vs. Normative

text: Managing international organizations involves understanding both national and organizational cultures. Communities of practice across borders are significant for multinationals in order to hold the company together.

text: Occupational level[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Within the occupational level, there is a certain degree of values and convictions that people hold with respect to the national and organizational cultures they are part of. The culture of management as an occupation has components from national and organizational cultures. This is an important distinction from the organizational level.

text: Gender level[edit]

text: When describing culture, gender differences are largely not taken into consideration. However, there are certain factors that are useful to analyze in the discussion of cross-cultural communication. Within each society, men's culture differs greatly from women's culture. Although men and women can often perform the same duties from a technical standpoint, there are often symbols to which each gender has a different response. In situations where one gender responds in an alternative manner to their prescribed roles, the other sex may not even accept their deviant gender role. The level of reactions experienced by people exposed to foreign cultures can be compared similarly to the reactions of gender behaviors of the opposite sex. The degree of gender differentiation in a country depends primarily on the culture within that nation and its history.

text: The bipolar model follows typical distinctions made between liberal or socialist political philosophy. Although liberal economies value assertiveness, autonomy, materialism, aggression, money, competition and rationalism, welfare socialism seeks protection and provision for the weak, greater involvement with the environment, an emphasis on nature and well being, and a strong respect for quality of life and collective responsibilities. Masculine societies happen to include the most successful economically during the period of Hofstede’s study (USA, Japan, Germany) with the successful feminine societies having either smaller populations, less economic scale and/or strong collective and welfare philosophies (Scandinavia, Costa Rica, France, Thailand). The masculine-feminine dichotomy divides organizations into those exhibiting either compassion, solidarity, collectivism and universalism, or competition, autonomy, merit, results and responsibility. According to Gilligan, this dimension is eurocentric and sexist.[26]


question_text: who won entertainer of the year at the cma awards

text:
Country Music Association Award for Entertainer of the Year

Country
United States

Presented by
Country Music Association

First awarded
1967

Currently held by
Garth Brooks (2017)

text: The Country Music Association Awards is a major awards show in country music, with the highest honor being the award for Entertainer of the Year. Garth Brooks has won the most awards with six. In 1972, Loretta Lynn became the first female artist to be honored with this award. Barbara Mandrell became the first artist to win twice.[1]

text: Recipients[edit]

text:
Year
Winner
Nominees

2017[2]
 Garth Brooks

Luke Bryan
Eric Church
Chris Stapleton
Keith Urban

2016[3]
 Garth Brooks

Carrie Underwood
Luke Bryan
Chris Stapleton
Keith Urban

2015[4]
 Luke Bryan

Miranda Lambert
Eric Church
Kenny Chesney
Garth Brooks

2014[5]
 Luke Bryan

Miranda Lambert
Blake Shelton
George Strait
Keith Urban

2013[6]
 George Strait

Jason Aldean
Luke Bryan
Blake Shelton
Taylor Swift

2012[7]
 Blake Shelton

Jason Aldean
Kenny Chesney
Brad Paisley
Taylor Swift

2011[8]
 Taylor Swift

Jason Aldean
Brad Paisley
Blake Shelton
Keith Urban

2010[9]
 Brad Paisley

Lady Antebellum
Miranda Lambert
Keith Urban
Zac Brown Band

2009
 Taylor Swift

Kenny Chesney
Brad Paisley
George Strait
Keith Urban

2008
 Kenny Chesney

Brad Paisley
George Strait
Sugarland
Keith Urban

2007
 Kenny Chesney

Brad Paisley
Rascal Flatts
George Strait
Keith Urban

2006
 Kenny Chesney

Brooks & Dunn
Alan Jackson
Rascal Flatts
Keith Urban

2005
 Keith Urban

Kenny Chesney
Alan Jackson
Toby Keith
Brad Paisley

2004
 Kenny Chesney

Brooks & Dunn
Alan Jackson
Toby Keith
Tim McGraw

2003
 Alan Jackson

Brooks & Dunn
Kenny Chesney
Toby Keith
Tim McGraw

2002
 Alan Jackson

Brooks & Dunn
Kenny Chesney
Toby Keith
George Strait

2001
 Tim McGraw

Brooks & Dunn
Dixie Chicks
Alan Jackson
George Strait

2000
 Dixie Chicks

Faith Hill
Alan Jackson
Tim McGraw
George Strait

1999
 Shania Twain

Garth Brooks
Dixie Chicks
Tim McGraw
George Strait

1998
 Garth Brooks

Brooks & Dunn
Vince Gill
Tim McGraw
George Strait

1997
 Garth Brooks

Brooks & Dunn
Vince Gill
Alan Jackson
George Strait

1996
 Brooks & Dunn

Garth Brooks
Vince Gill
Alan Jackson
George Strait

1995
 Alan Jackson

Brooks & Dunn
Garth Brooks
Vince Gill
Reba McEntire

1994
 Vince Gill

Brooks & Dunn
Garth Brooks
Alan Jackson
Reba McEntire

1993
 Vince Gill

Brooks & Dunn
Garth Brooks
Alan Jackson
Reba McEntire

1992
 Garth Brooks

Vince Gill
Alan Jackson
Reba McEntire
Travis Tritt

1991
 Garth Brooks

Clint Black
Vince Gill
Reba McEntire
George Strait

1990
 George Strait

Clint Black
Kathy Mattea
Randy Travis
Hank Williams, Jr.

1989
 George Strait

Reba McEntire
Randy Travis
Ricky Van Shelton
Hank Williams, Jr.

1988
 Hank Williams, Jr.

The Judds
Reba McEntire
George Strait
Randy Travis

1987
 Hank Williams, Jr.

The Judds
Reba McEntire
George Strait
Randy Travis

1986
 Reba McEntire

The Judds
Willie Nelson
Ricky Skaggs
George Strait

1985
 Ricky Skaggs

Alabama
Lee Greenwood
Reba McEntire
George Strait

1984
 Alabama

Lee Greenwood
Barbara Mandrell
Ronnie Milsap
Oak Ridge Boys

1983
 Alabama

Merle Haggard
Barbara Mandrell
Willie Nelson
Ricky Skaggs

1982
 Alabama

Barbara Mandrell
Willie Nelson
Oak Ridge Boys
Ricky Skaggs

1981
 Barbara Mandrell

Alabama
George Jones
Oak Ridge Boys
Kenny Rogers

1980
 Barbara Mandrell

Charlie Daniels Band
Larry Gatlin & The Gatlin Brothers
Willie Nelson
Kenny Rogers

1979
 Willie Nelson

Crystal Gayle
Barbara Mandrell
Kenny Rogers
Statler Brothers

1978
 Dolly Parton

Crystal Gayle
Ronnie Milsap
Kenny Rogers
Mel Tillis

1977
 Ronnie Milsap

Merle Haggard
Waylon Jennings
Dolly Parton
Kenny Rogers

1976
 Mel Tillis

Waylon Jennings
Ronnie Milsap
Willie Nelson
Dolly Parton

1975
 John Denver

Waylon Jennings
Loretta Lynn
Ronnie Milsap
Conway Twitty

1974
 Charlie Rich

Roy Clark
Mac Davis
Loretta Lynn
Olivia Newton-John

1973
 Roy Clark

Merle Haggard
Tom T. Hall
Loretta Lynn
Charley Pride

1972
 Loretta Lynn

Merle Haggard
Freddie Hart
Charley Pride
Jerry Reed

1971
 Charley Pride

Merle Haggard
Loretta Lynn
Jerry Reed
Conway Twitty

1970
 Merle Haggard

Glen Campbell
Eddy Arnold
Johnny Cash
Charley Pride

1969
 Johnny Cash

Glen Campbell
Roy Clark
Merle Haggard
Charley Pride

1968
 Glen Campbell

Eddy Arnold
Johnny Cash
Merle Haggard
Charley Pride

1967
 Eddy Arnold

Bill Anderson
Merle Haggard
Sonny James
Buck Owens


document_title: Isabella Linton

question_text: first name of edgar lintons sister abused by heathcliff

text: Isabella Linton

text:
Isabella Linton

Created by
Emily Brontë

Information

Spouse(s)
Heathcliff

Children
Linton Heathcliff (son)

Relatives
Edgar Linton (brother)

text: Isabella Linton is a fictional character in Emily Brontë's novel Wuthering Heights. She is the sister of Edgar Linton and the wife of Heathcliff.

text: Story[edit]

text: Isabella Linton was raised in the safe, elegant environment of Thrushcross Grange with her brother, Edgar. When Catherine Earnshaw of Wuthering Heights suffers an accident while intruding on the Grange, the Lintons take her in and transform her into a lady in five weeks.

text: When Heathcliff returns to the neighbourhood to exact revenge on the Lintons for Edgar's marriage to his true love Catherine, Isabella is irresistibly attracted to him. Catherine is deeply shocked by this, and playfully tells Heathcliff, enabling him to see a route to vengeance. Isabella, hurt by Catherine's betrayal, grows cold and distant to everyone around her, and, with everyone opposing a relationship with Heathcliff, "moped around in the garden" in great distress. Even more nervous is Edgar, who is suspicious of Heathcliff's mysterious return to the neighbourhood, but does not know what to do about it. It becomes apparent that Heathcliff is seducing Isabella when he "embraces her", much to Catherine's dislike. In explanation, Heathcliff reveals to her that he "will have his vengeance", and that he does not love Isabella: if Catherine wished him to marry her, he, "would cut his throat."

text: One night, it is revealed to Nelly Dean, a servant at Wuthering Heights and the primary narrator of the novel, that Isabella has run off with Heathcliff, although Edgar has warned her that, if she does so, he will cut off all ties with her. After several months, Heathcliff and Isabella marry, but she soon realises her mistake, sending a long letter to Nelly in which she details her hostile and displeasing "welcome" at the Heights and her hatred for Heathcliff, who has made it clear that he has married her only because he is now the heir to the Grange. Isabella is reduced to the status of the abused, hurt and degraded wife, and Nelly describes Heathcliff as looking like "the only one decent" in the household, while Isabella has seemingly lost the title of Miss Linton of Thrushcross Grange.

text: Isabella grows to despise her vengeful, tyrannical husband. After Catherine dies, Isabella taunts Heathcliff by insisting that Cathy's death was entirely his fault. She also points out that Hindley Earnshaw, Catherine's brother and Heathcliff's greatest enemy, has the same eyes as her, despite Heathcliff's relentless attempts to "gouge them out". This provokes Heathcliff to a deep and passionate anger, which results in yet another brawl between himself and Hindley. Seeing it as a chance to flee, Isabella escapes Wuthering Heights and her disastrous, terrifying marriage once and for all. She describes the occurrence thus:

text: The back of the settle and Earnshaw's person interposed between me and him; so instead of endeavouring to reach me, he snatched a dinner-knife from the table and flung it at my head. It struck beneath my ear, and stopped the sentence I was uttering; but, pulling it out, I sprang to the door and delivered another; which I hope went a little deeper than his missile. The last glimpse I caught of him was a furious rush on his part, checked by the embrace of his host; and both fell locked together on the hearth. In my flight through the kitchen I bid Joseph speed to his master; I knocked over Hareton, who was hanging a litter of puppies from a chair-back in the doorway; and, blessed as a soul escaped from purgatory, I bounded, leaped, and flew down the steep road; then, quitting its windings, shot direct across the moor, rolling over banks, and wading through marshes: precipitating myself, in fact, towards the beacon-light of the Grange. And far rather would I be condemned to a perpetual dwelling in the infernal regions than, even for one night, abide beneath the roof of Wuthering Heights again.

text: After informing Nelly of how she pursued her escape, and paying one last visit to Thrushcross Grange, her childhood home, Isabella removes somewhere "south of London", where she gives birth to Heathcliff's son, Linton, who resembles Isabella in every aspect. The two lead a peaceful life for thirteen years, although no detail is given as to their activities. Edgar visits Isabella in her final illness, where she asks him to take charge of Linton, and raise him away from his father.

text: Description[edit]

text: Isabella inherits the blonde hair, blue eyes, and pale skin of the Linton family. Her son, Linton Heathcliff, also inherits these features. She is witty, sensitive, temperamental, and shallow. In the words of Nelly, Isabella "has a capacity for strong attachments", as shown in her falling hopelessly in love with Heathcliff, who in turn takes advantage of her blind affections, leading them both into their tormenting marriage.

text: She was at that time a charming young lady of eighteen; infantile in manners, though it possessed of keen wit, keen feelings, and a keen temper, too, if irritated.

text: 'I'm not envious: I never feel hurt at the brightness of Isabella's yellow hair, and the whiteness of her skin, at her dainty elegance, and the fondness all the family exhibit for her.'

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights

Characters

Heathcliff
Catherine Earnshaw
Edgar Linton
Isabella Linton
Hindley Earnshaw
Nelly Dean
Hareton Earnshaw
Catherine Linton
Lockwood

Adaptations

Film and TV

1920 film
1939 film
1954 film
1959 Australian TV play
Dil Diya Dard Liya (1966)
1964 telenovela
1970 film
1976 telenovela
1978 TV serial
1979 telenovela
Hurlevent
1988 film
Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights (1992)
1998 film
2003 film
2009 TV serial
2011 film

Stage

1951 Herrmann opera
1958 Floyd opera
1992 musical
Heathcliff (1996 musical)

Related

Location
Cultural references

text: Fictional characters introduced in 1847Characters in Wuthering Heights

text: Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters