document_title: X-Men: Days of Future Past

question_text: who plays warpath in days of future past

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past

text: Plot[edit]

text: In a dystopian future, Sentinels have been programmed to identify and hunt down mutants and their human allies who carry the mutant gene for extermination. During a Sentinel raid which overwhelms nearly every mutant in Russia, Kitty Pryde sends Bishop's consciousness back in time a few days before the attack, in an effort to warn the X-Men so as to ensure their survival.

text: Professor Charles Xavier meets Kitty Pryde at a remote Chinese temple with other mutant survivors. Xavier explains the history of the Sentinels, which were designed by Bolivar Trask, shortly after his assassination at the hands of Mystique in 1973, her DNA modified by scientists to advance the Sentinel program. Using Kitty's ability to send a mutant's consciousness back in time, Xavier and Magneto plan to alter history by preventing Trask’s assassination. While Xavier initially plans to be the candidate, Wolverine volunteers instead since his regenerative powers would allow him to survive the process.

text: After awakening in his younger body in 1973, Wolverine arrives at the X-Mansion, discovering the school has been shut down, and that the younger Xavier can walk, lacking his powers under a specialized serum suppressing his mutant abilities. Hoping to reunite with Mystique, Xavier agrees to help Wolverine bust Erik Lensherr out of his prison cell under the Pentagon, aided by Hank McCoy and Peter Maximoff.

text: Mystique discovers Trask has been experimenting on mutants and in revenge plots to assassinate him at the Paris Peace Accords. Her vengeance results in failure after Xavier, Hank, and Wolverine intervene and Erik attempts to kill her to prevent the Sentinel takeover from happening. During a fight, Hank, Erik, and Mystique expose themselves as mutants to the world. Trask takes advantage of this event and successfully convinces President Richard Nixon to initialize the Sentinel program.

text: Erik (now Magneto) obtains his signature helmet to block out Xavier’s psychic powers, and secretly takes control of the constructed Sentinels. Xavier abandons the serum, regaining his mutant power, and communicates with his future self, who inspires him to protect the relationship between mutants and mankind. After using Cerebro to track Mystique, he, Hank and Wolverine take flight to Washington, D.C. and put an end to her assassination plot on Trask.

text: At a ceremony where Nixon unveils the Sentinels, Xavier, Hank, and Wolverine search for Mystique, disguised as a Secret Service agent. Magneto appears, controlling the Sentinels, and uses the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium to surround the White House. Hank transforms into Beast and fights a Sentinel. Wolverine confronts Magneto, but is thrown far into the Potomac River. Nixon, Trask, and Mystique hide in a safe room beneath the White House, but Magneto rips it out of the building with the intention of killing the U.S. President.

text: In the future, the Sentinels launch an attack on the X-Men, slaying most of them, including Storm, while Magneto is wounded. In the present, Xavier persuades Mystique to spare Trask after she saves President Nixon from Magneto, altering history and erasing the Sentinels from existence. Magneto and Mystique both leave, one a criminal, the other a hero. Trask is put behind bars for attempting to sell U.S military secrets to Vietnamese officials.

text: Wolverine wakes up at the mansion in the present day to find Iceman, Rogue, Colossus, Kitty, Beast, Storm, Jean Grey, Scott Summers and Xavier all alive. Wolverine speaks to Xavier, aware of the changes in history. Back in 1973, the younger Wolverine is rescued by Mystique, disguised as William Stryker.

text: In a post-credits scene, an Egyptian crowd is seen chanting to En Sabah Nur, who telekinetically elevates building blocks to forge pyramids as four horsemen observe him from afar.[5][6]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine

text: James McAvoy and Patrick Stewart as Charles Xavier / Professor X

text: Michael Fassbender and Ian McKellen as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto

text: Jennifer Lawrence as Raven Darkhölme / Mystique

text: Nicholas Hoult and Kelsey Grammer as Dr. Henry "Hank" McCoy / Beast

text: Halle Berry as Ororo Munroe / Storm

text: Anna Paquin as Marie / Rogue

text: Ellen Page as Kitty Pryde / Shadowcat

text: Shawn Ashmore as Bobby Drake / Iceman

text: Peter Dinklage as Bolivar Trask

text: Evan Peters as Peter Maximoff / Quicksilver

text: Josh Helman as Major William Stryker

text: Omar Sy as Bishop

text: Daniel Cudmore as Peter Rasputin / Colossus

text: Fan Bingbing as Blink

text: Adan Canto as Sunspot

text: Booboo Stewart as Warpath

text: Additionally, Famke Janssen and James Marsden reprise their roles as Jean Grey and Scott Summers / Cyclops respectively in cameo appearances. Lucas Till reprises his role as Alex Summers / Havok. Evan Jonigkeit portrays Mortimer Toynbee / Toad. Gregg Lowe portrays Eric Gitter / Ink. X-Men comic-book writers Len Wein and Chris Claremont appear as United States congressmen. Michael Lerner plays Senator Brickman. Mark Camacho portrays U.S. President Richard Nixon. Singer cameos as a man with a small film camera as Magneto walks away after Mystique's escape in Paris. In a post-credits scene, Brendan Pedder portrays the ancient mutant, En Sabah Nur.[41]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Producer Lauren Shuler Donner stated in August 2006 that a continuation of the X-Men main film series would require a renegotiation. New cast members of X-Men: The Last Stand were signed, while the older cast members were not.[42] Donner said, "There is forty years worth of stories. I've always wanted to do 'Days of Future Past' and there are just really a lot of stories yet to be told".[43] She later pitched the idea of a fourth installment of the X-Men franchise to director Bryan Singer, following the completion of the 2011 prequel X-Men: First Class.[44] In March 2011, Donner said the film was in "active development at Fox"; she said, "We took the treatment to Fox and they love it... And X4 leads into X5".[45]

text: 20th Century Fox saw X-Men: First Class as the first film of a new X-Men trilogy.[46] Donner compared the franchise plans to the darker, more mature content of the Harry Potter film series.[47] Early reports said Matthew Vaughn and Singer were returning to direct and produce the sequel, respectively.[48] While still attached to the project as a director, Vaughn said, "First Class is similar to Batman Begins, where you have the fun of introducing the characters and getting to know them, but that takes time. But with the second one, you can just get on with it and have a rollicking good time. That's the main difference between Batman Begins and The Dark Knight".[49] Describing the possible beginning of the film, Vaughn said, "I thought it would be fun to open with the Kennedy assassination, and we reveal that the magic bullet was controlled by Magneto".[50] Singer said the film could be set around the civil rights movement or the Vietnam War,[51] and that Wolverine could once again be featured.[52] Singer also talked about "changing history" in an interview with Empire magazine. He said he does not want people to panic about events in the past "erasing" the storylines of the previous X-Men films, as he believes in multiverses, explaining the possibility of certain events can exist equally in the histories of alternate universes.[53]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Kinberg said the main focus of this film was the future of the X-Men film series. With the use of cast members from the original trilogy and from First Class, they needed to decide the sequels' destination.[19] In preparation for the film, Kinberg studied films about time travel, including Back to the Future, The Terminator, and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Singer originated a philosophy and a set of rules for the time travel in the film so the story would be as plausible as possible.[19]

text: According to Kinberg, as they were writing the script, they thought it is sensible that Wolverine was traveling between time periods, because of his ageless look and ability to heal rapidly.[19] He further stated of making Wolverine the time traveler, "We made the decision for a lot of reasons ... he's the protagonist of the franchise, and probably the most beloved character to a mass audience".[54] Kinberg and Vaughn considered Bishop and Cable candidates for the role of time traveler.[9] Kinberg said Rachel Summers was in the first draft of the script; she sent Wolverine back to 1973. The character was later replaced with Kitty Pryde, to whom Kinberg gave a secondary power of sending people's consciousnesses into the past.[55] Juggernaut, Jubilee, Nightcrawler and Psylocke were also considered for the film.[56][57][58][59]

text: Singer was asked how the film integrates the themes of the earlier X-Men films; he said, "It establishes that some villain characters may have been right with their fears. It confronts the notions of hope and second chances. It's characters that are lost trying to find themselves. In X-Men 1 and 2, the characters had come into their own and knew who they were. In this one, they're all lost and they're trying to keep it together".[60]

text: Pre-production[edit]

text: In November 2011, Simon Kinberg—co-writer of X-Men: The Last Stand and co-producer of X-Men: First Class—was hired to write the film's screenplay.[61] In May 2012, 20th Century Fox announced the film would be released on July 18, 2014.[62] The release was later moved forward to May 23, 2014.[63] In August 2012, the title for the film was confirmed to be X-Men: Days of Future Past. The film is inspired by Chris Claremont and John Byrne's X-Men comic book storyline, "Days of Future Past", which introduced the idea of an alternate future for mutants that grew from the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants' killing of a senator, leading to a future in which mutants are hunted by Sentinels.[64]

text: In October 2012, Vaughn left the role of director to focus on Mark Millar's Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014).[65] Singer was later announced as the film's director; it was his third directorial role in the X-Men film series.[66] In preparation for the film, Singer approached James Cameron to discuss time travel, string theory and multiverses.[67] In the same month, Richard Stammers was approached to be the visual effects supervisor, as Singer liked his work in the 2012 film Prometheus.[68]

text: Singer brought back most of the crew he had in X-Men and X2. In December 2012, two long-absent designers were hired: production designer John Myhre, who had only done X-Men, and costume designer Louise Mingenbach —who also did X2 and X-Men Origins: Wolverine.[69][70] In February 2013, John Ottman—who aside from X-Men, collaborated on all of Singer's works since the 1995 film The Usual Suspects—was confirmed to work on the music and the editing of the film.[71]

text: Casting[edit]

text:
"I decided that the next time I got myself involved in a movie that had a huge amount of attention already that I would use Twitter. As a way of connecting with fans, principally. And also as a way of clearing up misunderstandings so that people know. You know, they may hear that an actor is cast or hear somebody is going to be in it, but until I say it's so, that's the confirmation".[72]

—Bryan Singer explaining the Twitter presence of the film.

text: Singer used the online social networking service Twitter to announce casting of the film.[72] In November 2012, he announced that James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence and Nicholas Hoult would reprise their roles from X-Men: First Class. Later the same month, he announced that Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen would reprise their respective roles as the older versions of the characters played by McAvoy and Fassbender.[73][74][75] In December, Singer announced that Hugh Jackman would reprise his role as Wolverine.[76]

text: In January 2013, Singer announced that Anna Paquin, Shawn Ashmore, and Ellen Page would reprise their roles of Rogue, Iceman, and Kitty Pryde.[77][78] In February, Singer announced that Peter Dinklage would star in the film as the main antagonist.[79] In March, Singer announced that French actor Omar Sy had joined the cast.[80] Halle Berry said in an interview that she would reprise her role as Storm, which was followed by an announcement from Singer that Berry would be in the film.[81][82] Singer tweeted a picture of the cast, which confirmed that Daniel Cudmore would return as Colossus and that Fan Bingbing and Booboo Stewart had joined the cast.[83]

text: In April, Singer announced that American singer and songwriter Lady Gaga had joined the cast as Dazzler,[84] but it was later revealed as an April Fools' Day prank.[72] Singer retweeted a photograph of himself, Adan Canto, and confirmed cast members Patrick Stewart, McKellen, and Ashmore, which was followed by a confirmation from Canto that he had joined the cast.[85] In May, Singer announced that Evan Peters had been cast as Quicksilver.[86] In June, Australian actor Josh Helman was cast in a role.[87] In July, Singer tweeted a picture of actor Lucas Till on the set of the film, which confirmed that he was returning as Havok.[88] In January 2014, Evan Jonigkeit had been cast as the younger version of Toad.[89]

text: Filming[edit]

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past had a production budget of $200 million.[3] Principal photography began on April 15, 2013, at Mel's Cité du Cinema in Montreal, Canada, and ended on August 17, 2013.[90][91][92] Filming had to begin in April 2013 to accommodate the cast's individual schedules.[19] Olympic Stadium, Montreal City Hall, and McGill University were also used as filming locations.[93][94] An aerial plate unit was sent to film in Washington, D.C.[68] Additional filming took place in Montreal in November 2013 and February 2014.[95][96] According to the Calgary Herald, the film is the second most expensive produced by 20th Century Fox after Avatar (2009).[97] Comic book writer Chris Claremont said in an interview that he was consulted for the film.[98]

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past is the first X-Men film to be filmed in native 3D; it was shot using Arri Alexa-M cameras with Leica Prime lenses and Fujinon Zoom lenses, along with 3ality Technica TS-35 camera rigs and Stereo Image Processor (SIP) technology systems.[99][100] Director of photography Newton Thomas Sigel was asked about using Arri Alexa-M cameras; he said, "For Bryan and myself, the Alexa has been almost the gateway to getting the look we like in film". Sigel added that the Arri Alexa-M camera's small size was a big advantage to the film's main unit, which carried three 3D rigs. The film also used the Alexa XTs for the production's 2D work.[101]

text: Production designer John Myhre said his work load was "six months squeeze[d] down in to 3-4 months", given the sets were massive but he did not have the usual time to design and build before principal photography began. The lue underground hallways and Cerebro sets were faithful recreations of the sets seen in the first X-Men, albeit ransacked and damaged to imply the government had raided the mansion.[69] The sets had many hidden "Xs", including the staircase of the X-Mansion. Myrhe said he wanted to embrace the 1970s setting in the same way First Class embraced its 1960s setting,[19] and costume designer Louise Mingenbach also drew heavily from 1970s styles for the clothing seen in the 1973 scenes. Hoult wore corduroys, Jackman a wooden-paneled buckle and a peacock-print shirt, and McAvoy wore a brown leather jacket. Peters wore 1981-inspired clothing; this was Mingenbach's way of showing Quicksilver's irreverence for the exact time and place. In one scene, Mingenbach gave Fassbender as the younger Erik Lehnsherr a fedora as a nod to the one the character wore in the first X-Men film.[12] For the future period of the film, Mingenbach wanted a darker, slightly futuristic and tactical look for the characters. This included changing the suit Patrick Stewart had previously worn as Xavier to battle fatigues.[12]

text: The Sentinels had two separate versions, to depict how the earlier prototypes built by Trask in the 1970s evolved into the adaptable killing machines of the dystopian future.[102] Singer described the 1973 version as "a little fun and stylish but also a little retro", with a key element being that they are made of plastic to be unaffected by Magneto's powers. Myhre used styles from molded plastics from the 1970s to design Sentinels from that period,[19] and cited inspiration from both the cars of the decade and "those wonderful TV sets that were round with smoked glass panels". The overall style was bulky to fit "the traditional idea of a robot looks like",[102] and drew the most from the comics version, such as the purple color and a humanoid shape, while trying to stand out on its own with its retro design.[103] The robots' ability to fly was compared to a Harrier Jump Jet, as the Sentinels had vertical takeoff and could glide. Life-sized Sentinels were built by Legacy Effects to be featured on the set, and had articulated joints to be fully poseable. The sound effects averted metallic noises, while adding woof effects on the Sentinels' footsteps to display its weight on the ground.[102]

text: On the other hand, the future Sentinels would resemble "giant versions of Mystique" to show how their technological development was based on studying the shapeshifting mutant's DNA. Thus their design is sleek and feminine, with a body covered in mechanical scales that move during the process of adapting to a mutant's attack, while also featuring angular and dark faces to enhance the intimidation. The future robots would feature what Singer described as "biomechanical technology to transform to adapt to other mutants, to take on their physicality and some of their powers to use against mutantkind", which the director imagined to be fueled by nanotechnology and "the ability to really change things almost at a molecular level". The Sentinels' heads would also open up as an extra weapon, and for straighter combat the robots could create blades and spikes out of their limbs. The crackling sound of the robots' scales was made by rubbing riveted belts on shale rocks.[14][102]

text: For the future setting of the film, a set featuring a hillside monastery was built. Myhre was inspired by Chinese temples built on the sides of cliffs. The future set also featured a mixture of architectural styles from China, India, and Indonesia. Part of the set was a big wall, which was inspired by the Great Wall of China.[103]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past had 1,311 visual effects shots produced by twelve studios. Richard Stammer served as the overall effects supervisor based on his work for Prometheus.[68] The leading company was Moving Picture Company, who created the future Sentinels and worked on the sequences involving the X-Jet and Cerebro's red virtual world.[68] The Sentinels' scaled bodies were created by adapting a tool originally developed to create hair and fur, which would later evolve into creating a proxy representation of each individual scale as a "follicle".[14] Another major contributor was Digital Domain, with effects from the 1973 portion that encompassed nearly a third of the work. These included the Sentinels, Mystique's transformations and eyes, and various digital environments. Digital augmentation turned a remote airstrip into a Vietnam prisoner camp and added Paris' famed mansard rooftops to the Montreal locations. The environment work based on Washington, D.C. required the team to study period references of the National Mall and White House, and photograph almost all of RFK Stadium to create a detailed digital replica.[104] Rising Sun Pictures created a sequence considered by many reviewers the centerpiece of the film's effects, where Quicksilver uses his super speed in the Pentagon kitchen. Depicting how, to a speedster, actions in real time come down to a virtual standstill, objects float around in slow motion. After doing LIDAR scan of the kitchen set, the digital recreation added many computer generated props - cooking gear, cutlery, vegetables and water released by a fire sprinkler system - rendered in near microscopic detail regarding placement and lighting, particularly because the footage had to work in 3D. To simulate Quicksilver running on the walls, Evan Peters and a stunt double were filmed in both the set being suspended by a harness and on a treadmill that stood in front of a chroma key green screen. Only Peters' legs were digitally replaced.[14][105] Despite the sequence only having 29 effects shots,[68] it required nearly seven months of work from RSP's team of 70 artists.[106]

text: Rhythm and Hues Studios worked on Beast's transformations, the creation of Xavier's plane, and speed effects for Quicksilver. They also worked with Digital Domain on the sequence featuring the inside of the 1973 Sentinel. Mokko Studio worked on Mystique's eyes and costume fixes. Cinesite worked on the future New York City in the opening prologue along with clean-ups, wire removals, and production fixes. Fuel VFX worked on holographic effects and Havok's mutant powers. Vision Globale worked on visual effects relating to a dream and flashback sequence. Hydraulx, Lola and Method Studios handled a number of compositions and production fixes. The Third Floor worked on extensive story-boarding and visualisation.[68]

text: Music[edit]

text: Director Bryan Singer’s regular collaborator John Ottman worked on the score of the film, in addition to being its editor.[107] Ottman is the first composer to score more than one film in the X-Men film series, having previously scored X2 (2003). This also marked the first time a theme from a previous X-Men film has been retained; Ottman re-used some of his themes from X2, most notably the main title theme. While Ottman retained the same style of "lyrical and build upon character themes that would weave in and out of the film and done in a straight orchestral sense" that he had used in X2, following Singer's request he tried to compose "something more 'modern'" that could be compared to other contemporary superhero scores, and not follow Henry Jackman' score for First Class. The 1970s setting inspired the inclusion of "synthesized elements with some analog synths and electric piano and bass and some guitar".[108] The film score was released on digital download on May 16, 2014, on CD on May 26, 2014, and on vinyl on August 4, 2014.[109][110][111] The Rogue Cut also got a soundtrack album, released on July 10, 2015, by Sony Classical Records.[112]

text:
X-Men: Days of Future Past (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)

Film score by John Ottman

Released
May 26, 2014 (2014-05-26)

Genre
Film score

Length
76:28

Label
Sony Classical

John Ottman chronology

Non-Stop
(2014)Non-Stop2014
X-Men: Days of Future Past
(2014)
Krampus
(2015)Krampus2015

X-Men soundtrack chronology

The Wolverine
(2013) The Wolverine2013
X-Men: Days of Future Past
(2014) X-Men: Days of Future Past2014
Deadpool
(2016) Deadpool2016

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"The Future – Main Titles"
2:44

2.
"Time's Up"
4:18

3.
"Hope (Xavier's Theme)"
4:48

4.
"I Found Them"
2:52

5.
"Saigon/Logan Arrives"
4:36

6.
"Pentagon Plan/Sneaky Mystique"
3:25

7.
"He Lost Everything"
1:51

8.
"Springing Erik"
3:33

9.
"How Was She"
1:47

10.
"All Those Voices"
3:19

11.
"Paris Pandemonium"
7:45

12.
"Contacting Raven"
1:48

13.
"Rules of Time"
3:07

14.
"Hat Rescue"
1:30

15.
"Time's Up" (Film Version)
3:34

16.
"The Attack Begins"
5:04

17.
"Join Me"
3:20

18.
"Do What You Were Made For"
2:56

19.
"I Have Faith in You/Goodbyes"
2:27

20.
"Welcome Back/End Titles"
3:58

21.
"Time in a Bottle" (Performed by Jim Croce)
2:27

22.
"The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" (Performed by Roberta Flack)
5:20

Total length:
76:28

text: Release[edit]

text: The world premiere of X-Men: Days of Future Past occurred at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center in New York City on May 10, 2014.[113][114] It was released in international markets in 2D and 3D theaters on May 21, 2014, and in the United States on May 23, 2014.[3] Premiere events were also held in London, Beijing, Moscow, Singapore, São Paulo, Melbourne, and Tokyo.[115]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: In June 2013, 20th Century Fox presented a set tour video of X-Men: Days of Future Past at the CineEurope conference in Barcelona; director Bryan Singer acted as the tour guide.[116] The set tour video was included with the home video release of the 2013 film The Wolverine.[117] In July 2013, Singer, writer Simon Kinberg, producers Lauren Shuler Donner and Hutch Parker, together with cast members Jennifer Lawrence, Evan Peters, Omar Sy, Ellen Page, Shawn Ashmore, Anna Paquin, Halle Berry, Ian McKellen, Patrick Stewart, Hugh Jackman, James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Nicholas Hoult, and Peter Dinklage presented at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con International. Footage from the film was screened.[118] In August 2013, Singer presented footage from the film at the Fantasia International Film Festival.[119] In March 2014, 20th Century Fox presented footage from the film at CinemaCon.[120] In April 2014, Page presented footage from the film at the 2014 MTV Movie Awards. Kinberg and Dinklage attended WonderCon to discuss the film.[121][122] Singer withdrew from the publicity rounds for the film because of a lawsuit alleging sexual abuse filed against him.[123] In July 2014, 20th Century Fox and Oculus Rift presented a "virtual reality experience" in 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International. Attendees were given a chance to sit in a replica of Professor X's wheelchair and virtually hunt Mystique in the San Diego Convention Center.[124]

text: In July 2013, a mid-credits scene teasing X-Men: Days of Future Past was attached to the theatrical release of The Wolverine.[125] The scene, set two years after the events of The Wolverine, depicts Wolverine going through an airport security checkpoint while a commercial for Trask Industries plays in the background. Suddenly, Wolverine notices that all the metal objects around him start to shake and levitate. He turns around to see Magneto, who says he needs Wolverine's help to combat a threat to all mutants. When Wolverine asks Magneto why he should trust him, the people around them freeze as Xavier approaches Wolverine and assures him that Magneto is telling the truth. Adam Pockross of Yahoo! Movies described the mid-credits scene as the coolest part of The Wolverine and wrote, "Boom! And that's how you tease the next film: by giving us so much to chew on, yet so few answers".[126]

text: The first official trailer for X-Men: Days of Future Past was released in October 2013.[127] Jason Callina of Herald News gave the trailer a positive response, saying, "it is fantastic to see characters that I grew up with in the flesh ... we still have to wait till the end of May to see if Fox succeeded, but for now they have my interest".[128] Ben Child of The Guardian criticized the trailer for the number of characters that will appear in the film. Child wrote, "overloading the movie with superheroes might please fans of the comic books, but the rest of us will be chewing on our own spleens when the umpteenth brightly coloured dude turns up to spout one line of dialogue, then drop off the map".[129]

text: A mid-credits scene teasing X-Men: Days of Future Past was attached to the theatrical release of The Amazing Spider-Man 2 in April 2014. In the scene, which is set during the Vietnam War, Mystique tries to infiltrate a military camp led by William Stryker to recruit fellow mutants Havok, Ink, and Toad. The Amazing Spider-Man 2 director Marc Webb had an existing contract with Fox Searchlight Pictures to direct another film following 500 Days of Summer (2009). After The Amazing Spider-Man, Webb's negotiations with Sony Pictures Entertainment stalled because of his commitment to Fox. Fox eventually agreed to allow Webb to direct the sequel of The Amazing Spider-Man, and in exchange, Sony promoted the X-Men film without charge.[130] In addition, three viral websites were launched before the release of the film—Trask-Industries.com in July 2013, TheBentBullet.com in November 2013 and 25Moments.com in April 2014.[131][132][133] To further promote the film, Jackman made a guest appearance on the April 28, 2014, episode of WWE Raw.[134][135][136] The segment received mixed reactions.[137]

text: Promotional partners[edit]

text: In July 2013, CKE Restaurant Holdings, Inc. and 20th Century Fox announced a promotional partnership for the theatrical release of X-Men: Days of Future Past. The promotion included advertising, in-restaurant merchandising, collectors' cups, and a film-themed burger—The Western "X-Tra" Bacon Thickburger[138] sold it CKE Restaurants outlets Hardee's and Carl's Jr.. Zachary Eller, senior vice president of marketing partnerships & promotions at 20th Century Fox, said, "their fun and irreverent advertising campaigns are a great fit with our film and we couldn't be more thrilled to join together to feed mutants everywhere!".[139]

text: Mountain Dew partnered with the film to promote it globally; the promotion included prizes, a television commercial, online exclusives, in-store and in-theater advertisements, and commemorative packaging featuring X-Men characters from future and past. Anna Roca, senior vice president of international promotions at 20th Century Fox, stated, "The adventurous, energetic attitude of [Mountain Dew's] fan base mirrors the franchise's own—and their international reach helps bring our beloved mutants to more corners of the world than ever before".[140]

text: In March 2014, Virgin Trains launched an 11-car Pendolino train, which featured the film characters on the carriages, at London's Euston station to promote the film. Hugh Jackman and James McAvoy attended the launch.[141]

text: Kia Motors collaborated with 20th Century Fox to promote the home media release of the film with a Wolverine-themed Sorento. The SUV made its debut at the 2015 Australian Open, with a series of videos featuring Rafael Nadal teaming up with the X-Men to save the tennis event from the Sentinels.[142]

text: Home media[edit]

text: In June 2014, cable network FX acquired the television rights to X-Men: Days of Future Past.[143] The film was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on digital download on September 23, 2014, and on DVD, Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on October 14, 2014.[144] In the United Kingdom, it was released on November 10, 2014.[145] Three versions were released; a Deluxe Edition containing the Blu-ray 3D, Blu-ray and digital download; a Blu-ray and digital download combo pack; and a single-disc DVD.[144]

text: The Rogue Cut[edit]

text: 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released an alternate version of the film, titled The Rogue Cut, on July 14, 2015. It added 17 minutes of previously unused footage, including a subplot involving Anna Paquin's character Rogue, whose role was reduced to a brief cameo in the theatrical release.[146] The Rogue Cut was also screened at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International.[147]

text: In the Rogue Cut, Rogue's role is more consequential, and the narrative is more complex: When Kitty Pryde is accidentally wounded after Wolverine's consciousness experiences a phase between past and future from seeing Stryker in 1973, Bobby Drake (Iceman) proposes breaking into the heavily guarded remains of Cerebro at the former X-Mansion, the one place where Xavier's mind cannot reach others from the outside, in order to rescue Rogue, who is being held captive there. Xavier, Magneto, and Iceman succeed in rescuing Rogue, but at the cost of Iceman's life. Rogue uses her power to take over for Kitty in regards to keeping Wolverine's mind in 1973, for the remaining time until the moment history is changed, with a suggestion that Wolverine is aware of the switch as he appears to feel Rogue's presence. The Sentinels are able to find the X-Men through a tracking device inside a Sentinel's hand that was severed from the X-Jet during their escape. In another scene, Mystique visits the X-Mansion at night, revisits her previous romance with Beast, and destroys Cerebro the next morning in order to prevent Xavier from finding her. A new mid-credits scene shows Bolivar Trask imprisoned at the Pentagon cell for selling military secrets to foreign countries.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Worldwide, X-Men: Days of Future Past earned $262.8 million during its opening weekend, the highest worldwide opening weekend for an X-Men film.[148] The film grossed $233.9 million in the USA & Canada and $513.9 million in other markets for a worldwide gross of $747.9 million, making it the highest-grossing entry in the X-Men film series before being surpassed by Deadpool two years later.[3]

text: In the United States and Canada, the film earned $8.1 million from Thursday night showings, which is the highest late night opening for an X-Men film.[149] It was also the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend, earning $90.8 million, which made it the second-highest opening weekend of the series, at the time, behind X-Men: The Last Stand ($102.8 million).[150] During the four-day Memorial Day weekend, it earned $110.6 million.[150] The audience was 56% male and 59% were older than 25.[150]

text: Elsewhere, the film was the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend, taking $172 million, making it Fox International's highest opening weekend.[151] The film's highest-grossing debuts were in China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta.[152] It was also the highest-grossing debut for a 20th Century Fox film in 11 markets, including South Korea, Brazil, the Philippines, and India.[150] It became the highest-grossing X-Men film in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Lebanon, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Singapore, Slovakia, South Korea, Sweden, Thailand, the United Kingdom & Ireland, and Venezuela.[152] [153][154][155][156][157][158]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes X-Men: Days of Future Past has an approval rating of 91% based on 295 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "X-Men: Days of Future Past combines the best elements of the series to produce a satisfyingly fast-paced outing that ranks among the franchise's finest installments".[159] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 74 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[160] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[150]

text: Sean O'Connell of Cinema Blend gave the film four and a half stars out of five, and said it was "the greatest, most complete and staggeringly entertaining [X-Men film] to date".[161] Empire gave it four out of five stars and called it, "The best X-Men film since the second one".[162] Steve Rose of The Guardian rated the film three stars out of five; he said, "Non-devotees might struggle, but director Bryan Singer whips up the action towards a symphonic climax".[163] David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said, "While it's more dramatically diffuse than the reboot and lacks a definitive villain, the new film is shot through with a stirring reverence for the Marvel Comics characters and their universe".[164] Justin Chang of Variety said, "If the characters' quandaries at times feel overly circumscribed, they're also advanced with a bracing emotional directness, devoid of either cynicism or sentimentalism, that touches genuine chords of feeling over the course of the film’s fleet 130-minute [sic] running time".[165] In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film #8 on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals.[166]

text: In contrast, Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph rated the film two stars out of five and called the plot "a curate's egg, thoroughly scrambled". He concluded, "The film squanders both of its casts, reeling from one fumbled set-piece to the next. It seems to have been constructed in a stupor, and you watch in a daze of future past".[167] Simon Abrams, writing for RogerEbert.com, gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it a "visually driven and paint-by-numbers-plot". Abrams was critical of the undeveloped subplots that built up because the film's pacing left little time to develop each element of the story set in the 1970s.[168]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient
Result
Ref.

2014
Golden Trailer Awards
Best Summer 2014 Blockbuster Trailer
X-Men: Days of Future Past
Nominated
[169]

Teen Choice Awards
Choice Movie: Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Nominated
[170][171]

Choice Movie Actress: Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Halle Berry
Nominated

Choice Movie: Villain
Michael Fassbender
Nominated

Choice Movie: Scene Stealer
Nicholas Hoult
Nominated

Ellen Page
Nominated

Young Hollywood Awards
Best Cast Chemistry – Film
X-Men: Days of Future Past
Nominated
[173]

Favorite Flick
Nominated

Fan Favorite Actor – Female
Jennifer Lawrence
Nominated

Super Superhero
Nicholas Hoult
Nominated

2015
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Movie
X-Men: Days of Future Past
Nominated
[174]

Favorite Action Movie
Nominated

Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture
Nominated
[175]

AACTA Awards
Best Visual Effects
Nominated
[176]

Visual Effects Society Awards
Outstanding Visual Effects in a Visual Effects Driven Photoreal/Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Ricard Stammers, Blondel Aidoo, Lou Pecora, Anders Landlangs, Cameron Waldbauer
Nominated
[177]

Outstanding Virtual Cinematography in a Photoreal/Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Austin Bonang, Casey Schatz, Dennis Jones, Newton Thomas Sigel for the "Kitchen Scene"
Won

Outstanding Effects Simulations in a Photoreal/Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Adam Paschke, Premamurti Paetsch, Sam Hancock, Timmy Lundin for "Quicksilver Pentagon Kitchen"
Won

British Academy Film Awards
Best Special Visual Effects
X-Men: Days of Future Past
Nominated
[178]

Academy Awards
Best Visual Effects
Nominated
[179]

Saturn Awards
Best Comic-to-Film Motion Picture
Nominated
[180]

Best Director
Bryan Singer
Nominated

Best Editing
John Ottman
Nominated

Best Costume
Louise Mingenbach
Nominated

Best Make-up
Adrien Morot, Norma Hill-Patton
Nominated

Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite Female Action Star
Halle Berry
Nominated
[181]

Ellen Page
Nominated

Favorite Male Action Star
Hugh Jackman
Nominated

Favorite Movie Actor
Nominated

MTV Movie Awards
Best Villain
Peter Dinklage
Nominated
[182]

Empire Awards
Best Sci-Fi/Fantasy
X-Men: Days of Future Past
Won
[183]

2016
Saturn Awards
Best DVD/BD Special Edition
X-Men: Days of Future Past (The Rogue Cut)
Won
[184]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In December 2013, Singer announced X-Men: Apocalypse, an X-Men film acting as a sequel to X-Men: Days of Future Past.[185] Singer directed from a script by Simon Kinberg, Dan Harris, and Michael Dougherty.[186] Kinberg said it would take place in 1983 and would also complete a trilogy that began with X-Men: First Class. Released in 2016, Apocalypse features the ancient mutant En Sabah Nur, who was introduced in the Days of Future Past post-credits scene,[5] awakening in the 1980s and deciding to destroy modern civilization and take over the world.[59][187] Jennifer Lawrence, James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Nicholas Hoult, Evan Peters, Lucas Till and Hugh Jackman reprise their roles, along with Rose Byrne, who returned as Moira MacTaggert from X-Men: First Class.[188] Filming began in April 2015 in Montreal, Quebec for a May 27, 2016, release.[185][189]


document_title: Mayor–council government

question_text: if a city has a weak mayor-council form of government the mayor

root

text: Mayor–council government

text: Weak-mayor form[edit]

text: In a weak-mayor system, the mayor has no formal authority outside the council; the mayor cannot directly appoint or remove officials, and lacks veto power over council votes.[1] As such, the mayor's influence is solely based on personality in order to accomplish desired goals.

tag: p

text: The weak-mayor form of government may be found in small towns in the United States that do not use the more popular council–manager form used in most municipalities that are not considered large or major cities, and is frequently seen in small municipalities with few or no full-time municipal employees.

text: Strong-mayor form[edit]

text: The strong-mayor form of mayor–council government usually consists of an executive branch, a mayor elected by voters, and a unicameral council as the legislative branch.[2]

text: In the strong-mayor form the elected mayor is given almost total administrative authority and a clear, wide range of political independence, with the power to appoint and dismiss department heads without council approval and little or no public input. In this system, the strong-mayor prepares and administers the city budget, although that budget often must be approved by the council. Abuses in this form led to the development of the council–manager form of local government and its adoption widely throughout the United States.

text: In some strong-mayor governments, the mayor will appoint a chief administrative officer who will supervise department heads, prepare the budget, and coordinate departments. This officer is sometimes called a city manager; while the term city manager is used in the council–manager form of municipal government, the manager in the strong-mayor variant is responsible only to the mayor.

text: Most major and large American cities use the strong-mayor form of the mayor–council system, whereas middle-sized and small American cities tend to use the council–manager system.[3]


document_title: Rigvedic deities

question_text: who was regarded as war god of rigveda

question_tokens: who was regarded as war god of rigveda

text: Rigvedic deities

text: There are 1000 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities.

text: Indra, a heroic god, slayer of Vritra and destroyer of the Vala, liberator of the cows and the rivers; Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods; and Soma, the ritual drink dedicated to Indra, are the most prominent deities.

text: Invoked in groups are the Vishvedevas (the "all-gods"), the Maruts, violent storm gods in Indra's train and the Ashvins, the twin horsemen.

text: There are two major groups of gods: the Devas and the Asuras. Unlike in later Vedic texts and in Hinduism, the Asuras are not yet demonized, Mitra and Varuna being their most prominent members. Aditi is the mother both of Agni and of the Adityas or Asuras, led by Mitra and Varuna, with Aryaman, Bhaga, Ansa and Daksha.

text: Surya is the personification of the Sun, but Savitr, Vivasvant, the Ashvins and the Rbhus, semi-divine craftsmen, also have aspects of solar deities. Other natural phenomena deified include Vayu, (the wind), Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth), Dyaus continuing Dyeus, the chief god of the Proto-Indo-European religion, and Ushas (the dawn), the most prominent goddess of the Rigveda, and Apas (the waters).

text: Rivers play an important role, deified as goddesses, most prominently the Sapta Sindhu and the Sarasvati River.

text: Yama is the first ancestor, also worshipped as a deity, and the god of the underworld and death.

text: Vishnu and Rudra, the prominent deities of later Hinduism (Rudra being an early form of Shiva), are present as marginal gods.

text: The names of Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas are also attested in a Mitanni treaty, suggesting that some of the religion of the Mitannis was very close to that of the Rigveda.

text: Deities by prominence[edit]

text: List of Rigvedic deities by number of dedicated hymns, after Griffith (1888). Some dedications are to paired deities, such as Indra-Agni, Mitra-Varuna, Soma-Rudra, here counted doubly. Vishvadevas (all gods together) have been invoked 70 times.

text:
Indra 289
Agni 218
Soma 123 (most of them in the Soma Mandala)
The Asvins 56
Varuna 46 [1]
the Maruts 38
Mitra 28[1]
Ushas 21
Vayu (Wind) 12
Savitr 11
the Rbhus 11
Pushan 10
the Apris 9
Brhaspati 8
Surya (Sun) 8
Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth) 6, plus 5.84 dedicated to Earth alone
Apas (Waters) 6
Adityas 6
Vishnu 6
Brahmanaspati 6
Rudra 5
Dadhikras 4
the Sarasvati River / Sarasvati 3
Yama
Parjanya (Rain) 3
Vāc (Speech) 2 (mentioned 130 times, deified e.g. in 10.125)
Vastospati 2
Vishvakarman 2
Manyu 2
Kapinjala (the Heathcock, a form of Indra) 2

tag: ul

text: Minor deities (one single or no dedicated hymn)

text:
Manas (Thought), prominent concept, deified in 10.58
Dakshina (Reward for priests and poets), prominent concept, deified in 10.107
Purusha ("Cosmic Man" of the Purusha sukta 10.90)
Aditi
Bhaga
Vasukra
Atri
Apam Napat
Ksetrapati
Ghrta
Nirrti
Asamati
Urvasi
Pururavas
Vena
Aranyani
Mayabheda
Tarksya
Tvastar
Saranyu


document_title: Standby (air travel)

question_text: what does it mean when you are on standby

text: Standby (air travel)

text:
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tag: table

text: On most modern airlines, flying standby occurs when a passenger travels on a flight without a prior reservation for that specific flight. There are four circumstances in which passengers typically fly standby. First, a missed flight may require a passenger to fly standby on the next flight to the same destination, as they now lack a reservation. Secondly, a passenger may arrive at the airport early (whether accidentally or on purpose) and wish to take an earlier flight listed for that day. They will then attempt to travel standby on the earlier flight, and failing that, proceed to take their booked flight. This is referred to in the industry as "go-show".

text: Standby can also occur for upgrades. Many airlines (particularly in the United States) give free space available domestic upgrades to First Class for their elite tier fliers. If first class sells out or upgrades full with higher-tiered passengers, elite fliers can standby for a first class seat, should one open up due to a cancellation, no-show, misconnect, irregular operations or an equipment change. If a passenger clears for an upgrade, they may be given new boarding passes at the gate. Some airlines, such as American and United, have gateside monitors that show the upgrade (as well as general) standby list, and will also announce when First Class checks in full (i.e., no further upgrades will be given).

text: In some cases, when a flight compartment is overbooked, an airline will designate all passengers who do not have a seat assignment as "standby" at some time prior to boarding.

text: History[edit]

text: Airline employees and some of their family and friends may also travel standby, often at discounted fares or free of charge. They typically have lower priority than regular passengers and are only allocated a seat after all passengers paying a regular fare have been allocated seats. It can even occur that a passenger traveling standby is allowed to take their seat on the aircraft, only to then be asked to vacate it to make way for a regular passenger.

text: Travelers get themselves onto the standby list by speaking to a ticket agent or a gate agent. Almost always, this must occur in person at the airport, and not over the phone. When the flight is boarding, any unclaimed or available seats will be given to those passengers on the standby list, who must wait at the gate to be called. Any passengers on the list who are not given seats are rolled into the standby list for the next flight. Passengers on the standby list are typically given priority based on how much they paid for their tickets and their relative status in the airline's frequent flyer program.

text: A person who paid full fare will have higher priority than someone who purchased a 21-day advance fare.[citation needed] Some low-cost carriers, Southwest Airlines in particular, have policies that only allow full fares to standby. This means that if one purchased a discounted airfare, like a web-only fare or 14-day advance ticket, they would be ineligible to fly standby unless they upgraded their ticket to a full-fare (unless the original Southwest Airlines flight is delayed, in which case no upgrade would be necessary).[citation needed]

text: While standby for earlier flights began as a free service on many airlines, as of April 2010, most US airlines charge for unconfirmed standby, with a USD 50-75 fee being standard.[citation needed] Currently, United Airlines charges a USD 75 fee for standby travel to all passengers except passengers on full fare tickets, 1K passengers, Global Services passengers and premium cabin passengers. American Airlines restricts free standby to passengers who have elite status or fully refundable tickets, and charges a USD 75 fee for all other passengers who wish to secure a confirmed standby seat within 24 hours of their desired flight time.[1] In all cases, distressed passengers (passengers whose flights have been cancelled, denied boarding, etc.) are given free standby and highest priority.


document_title: The Federalist Papers

question_text: who wrote the most essays in the federalist papers

text: The Federalist Papers

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: The Federal Convention sent the proposed Constitution to the Confederation Congress, which in turn submitted it to the states for ratification at the end of September 1787. On September 27, 1787, "Cato" first appeared in the New York press criticizing the proposition; "Brutus" followed on October 18, 1787.[6] These and other articles and public letters critical of the new Constitution would eventually become known as the "Anti-Federalist Papers". In response, Alexander Hamilton decided to launch a measured defense and extensive explanation of the proposed Constitution to the people of the state of New York. He wrote in Federalist No. 1 that the series would "endeavor to give a satisfactory answer to all the objections which shall have made their appearance, that may seem to have any claim to your attention."[7]

text: Hamilton recruited collaborators for the project. He enlisted John Jay, who after four strong essays (Federalist Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5), fell ill and contributed only one more essay, Federalist No. 64, to the series. He also distilled his case into a pamphlet in the spring of 1788, An Address to the People of the State of New-York; Hamilton cited it approvingly in Federalist No. 85. James Madison, present in New York as a Virginia delegate to the Confederation Congress, was recruited by Hamilton and Jay, and became Hamilton's major collaborator. Gouverneur Morris and William Duer were also apparently considered; Morris turned down the invitation, and Hamilton rejected three essays written by Duer.[8] Duer later wrote in support of the three Federalist authors under the name "Philo-Publius", or "Friend of Publius".

text: Hamilton chose "Publius" as the pseudonym under which the series would be written. While many other pieces representing both sides of the constitutional debate were written under Roman names, Albert Furtwangler contends that "'Publius' was a cut above 'Caesar' or 'Brutus' or even 'Cato.' Publius Valerius was not a late defender of the republic but one of its founders. His more famous name, Publicola, meant 'friend of the people.'"[9] It was not the first time Hamilton had used this pseudonym: in 1778, he had applied it to three letters attacking fellow Federalist Samuel Chase. Chase's patriotism was questioned when Hamilton revealed that Chase had taken advantage of knowledge gained in Congress to try to dominate the flour market.

text: Authorship[edit]

text: At the time of publication the authorship of the articles was a closely guarded secret, though astute observers discerned the identities of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. Following Hamilton's death in 1804, a list that he had drafted claiming fully two-thirds of the papers for himself became public, including some that seemed more likely the work of Madison (No. 49–58 and 62–63). The scholarly detective work of Douglass Adair in 1944 postulated the following assignments of authorship, corroborated in 1964 by a computer analysis of the text:

text:
Alexander Hamilton (51 articles: No. 1, 6–9, 11–13, 15–17, 21–36, 59–61, and 65–85)
James Madison (29 articles: No. 10, 14, 18–20,[10] 37–58 and 62–63)
John Jay (5 articles: No. 2–5 and 64).

text: A total of 85 articles were written by the three men in a span of ten months under the pseudonym "Publius" because it recalled the founder of the Roman Republic, and using it implied a positive intention.[9] Madison is now acknowledged as the father of the Constitution—despite his repeated rejection of this honor during his lifetime.[11] Madison became a leading member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia (1789–1797), Secretary of State (1801–1809), and ultimately the fourth President of the United States.[12] Hamilton, who had been a leading advocate of national constitutional reform throughout the 1780s and represented New York at the Constitutional Convention, in 1789 became the first Secretary of the Treasury, a post he held until his resignation in 1795. John Jay, who had been secretary for foreign affairs under the Articles of Confederation from 1784 through their expiration in 1789, became the first Chief Justice of the United States in 1789, stepping down in 1795 to accept election as governor of New York, a post he held for two terms, retiring in 1801.

text: Publication[edit]

text: The Federalist articles appeared in three New York newspapers: The Independent Journal, the New-York Packet, and the Daily Advertiser, beginning on October 27, 1787. Although written and published with haste, The Federalist articles were widely read and greatly influenced the shape of American political institutions.[13] Between them, Hamilton, Madison and Jay kept up a rapid pace, with at times three or four new essays by Publius appearing in the papers in a week. Garry Wills observes that the pace of production "overwhelmed" any possible response: "Who, given ample time could have answered such a battery of arguments? And no time was given."[14] Hamilton also encouraged the reprinting of the essay in newspapers outside New York state, and indeed they were published in several other states where the ratification debate was taking place. However, they were only irregularly published outside New York, and in other parts of the country they were often overshadowed by local writers.[15]

text: Because the essays were initially published in New York, most of them begin with the same salutation: "To the People of the State of New York".

text: The high demand for the essays led to their publication in a more permanent form. On January 1, 1788, the New York publishing firm J. & A. McLean announced that they would publish the first thirty-six essays as a bound volume; that volume was released on March 2 and was titled The Federalist. New essays continued to appear in the newspapers; Federalist No. 77 was the last number to appear first in that form, on April 2. A second bound volume containing the last forty-nine essays was released on May 28. The remaining eight papers were published in the New York newspapers between June 14 and August 16.[16]

text: A 1792 French edition ended the collective anonymity of Publius, announcing that the work had been written by "MM Hamilton, Maddisson E Gay", citizens of the State of New York. In 1802, George Hopkins published an American edition that similarly named the authors. Hopkins wished as well that "the name of the writer should be prefixed to each number," but at this point Hamilton insisted that this was not to be, and the division of the essays among the three authors remained a secret.[17]

text: The first publication to divide the papers in such a way was an 1810 edition that used a list left by Hamilton to associate the authors with their numbers; this edition appeared as two volumes of the compiled "Works of Hamilton". In 1818, Jacob Gideon published a new edition with a new listing of authors, based on a list provided by Madison. The difference between Hamilton's list and Madison's formed the basis for a dispute over the authorship of a dozen of the essays.[18]

text: Both Hopkins's and Gideon's editions incorporated significant edits to the text of the papers themselves, generally with the approval of the authors. In 1863, Henry Dawson published an edition containing the original text of the papers, arguing that they should be preserved as they were written in that particular historical moment, not as edited by the authors years later.[19]

text: Modern scholars generally use the text prepared by Jacob E. Cooke for his 1961 edition of The Federalist; this edition used the newspaper texts for essay numbers 1–76 and the McLean edition for essay numbers 77–85.[20]

text: Disputed essays[edit]

text: The authorship of seventy-three of The Federalist essays is fairly certain. Twelve of these essays are disputed over by some scholars, though the modern consensus is that Madison wrote essays Nos. 49–58, with Nos. 18–20 being products of a collaboration between him and Hamilton; No. 64 was by John Jay. The first open designation of which essay belonged to whom was provided by Hamilton who, in the days before his ultimately fatal gun duel with Aaron Burr, provided his lawyer with a list detailing the author of each number. This list credited Hamilton with a full sixty-three of the essays (three of those being jointly written with Madison), almost three-quarters of the whole, and was used as the basis for an 1810 printing that was the first to make specific attribution for the essays.[21]

text: Madison did not immediately dispute Hamilton's list, but provided his own list for the 1818 Gideon edition of The Federalist. Madison claimed twenty-nine numbers for himself, and he suggested that the difference between the two lists was "owing doubtless to the hurry in which [Hamilton's] memorandum was made out." A known error in Hamilton's list—Hamilton incorrectly ascribed No. 54 to John Jay, when in fact, Jay wrote No. 64—provided some evidence for Madison's suggestion.[22]

text: Statistical analysis has been undertaken on several occasions to try to ascertain the authorship question based on word frequencies and writing styles. Nearly all of the statistical studies show that the disputed papers were written by Madison, although a computer science study theorizes the papers were a collaborative effort.[23][24][25]

text: Influence on the ratification debates[edit]

text: The Federalist Papers were written to support the ratification of the Constitution, specifically in New York. Whether they succeeded in this mission is questionable. Separate ratification proceedings took place in each state, and the essays were not reliably reprinted outside of New York; furthermore, by the time the series was well underway, a number of important states had already ratified it, for instance Pennsylvania on December 12. New York held out until July 26; certainly The Federalist was more important there than anywhere else, but Furtwangler argues that it "could hardly rival other major forces in the ratification contests"—specifically, these forces included the personal influence of well-known Federalists, for instance Hamilton and Jay, and Anti-Federalists, including Governor George Clinton.[26] Further, by the time New York came to a vote, ten states had already ratified the Constitution and it had thus already passed—only nine states had to ratify it for the new government to be established among them; the ratification by Virginia, the tenth state, placed pressure on New York to ratify. In light of that, Furtwangler observes, "New York's refusal would make that state an odd outsider."[27]

text: Only 19 Federalists were elected to New York's ratification convention, compared to the Anti-Federalists' 46 delegates. While New York did indeed ratify the Constitution on July 26, the lack of public support for pro-Constitution Federalists has led historian John Kaminski to suggest that the impact of The Federalist on New York citizens was "negligible".[28]

text: As for Virginia, which only ratified the Constitution at its convention on June 25, Hamilton writes in a letter to Madison that the collected edition of The Federalist had been sent to Virginia; Furtwangler presumes that it was to act as a "debater's handbook for the convention there," though he claims that this indirect influence would be a "dubious distinction."[29] Probably of greater importance to the Virginia debate, in any case, were George Washington's support for the proposed Constitution and the presence of Madison and Edmund Randolph, the governor, at the convention arguing for ratification.

text: Structure and content[edit]

text: In Federalist No. 1, Hamilton listed six topics to be covered in the subsequent articles:

text:
"The utility of the UNION to your political prosperity" – covered in No. 2 through No. 14
"The insufficiency of the present Confederation to preserve that Union" –covered in No. 15 through No. 22
"The necessity of a government at least equally energetic with the one proposed to the attainment of this object" – covered in No. 23 through No. 36
"The conformity of the proposed constitution to the true principles of republican government" – covered in No. 37 through No. 84
"Its analogy to your own state constitution" – covered in No. 85
"The additional security which its adoption will afford to the preservation of that species of government, to liberty and to prosperity" – covered in No. 85.[30]

tag: ol

text: Furtwangler notes that as the series grew, this plan was somewhat changed. The fourth topic expanded into detailed coverage of the individual articles of the Constitution and the institutions it mandated, while the two last topics were merely touched on in the last essay.

text: The papers can be broken down by author as well as by topic. At the start of the series, all three authors were contributing; the first twenty papers are broken down as eleven by Hamilton, five by Madison and four by Jay. The rest of the series, however, is dominated by three long segments by a single writer: No. 21 through No. 36 by Hamilton, No. 37 through 58 by Madison, written while Hamilton was in Albany, and No. 65 through the end by Hamilton, published after Madison had left for Virginia.[31]

text: Opposition to the Bill of Rights[edit]

text: The Federalist Papers (specifically Federalist No. 84) are notable for their opposition to what later became the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution was originally controversial because the Constitution, as written, did not specifically enumerate or protect the rights of the people, rather it listed the powers of the government and left all that remained to the states and the people. Alexander Hamilton, the author of Federalist No. 84, feared that such an enumeration, once written down explicitly, would later be interpreted as a list of the only rights that people had[citation needed].

text: However, Hamilton's opposition to a Bill of Rights was far from universal. Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym Brutus, articulated this view point in the so-called Anti-Federalist No. 84, asserting that a government unrestrained by such a bill could easily devolve into tyranny. References in The Federalist and in the ratification debates warn of demagogues of the variety who through divisive appeals would aim at tyranny. The Federalist begins and ends with this issue.[32] In the final paper Hamilton offers "a lesson of moderation to all sincere lovers of the Union, and ought to put them on their guard against hazarding anarchy, civil war, a perpetual alienation of the States from each other, and perhaps the military despotism of a successful demagogue".[33] The matter was further clarified by the Ninth Amendment.

text: Modern approaches and interpretations[edit]

text: Judicial use[edit]

text: Federal judges, when interpreting the Constitution, frequently use The Federalist Papers as a contemporary account of the intentions of the framers and ratifiers.[34] They have been applied on issues ranging from the power of the federal government in foreign affairs (in Hines v. Davidowitz) to the validity of ex post facto laws (in the 1798 decision Calder v. Bull, apparently the first decision to mention The Federalist).[35] By 2000[update], The Federalist had been quoted 291 times in Supreme Court decisions.[36]

text: The amount of deference that should be given to The Federalist Papers in constitutional interpretation has always been somewhat controversial. As early as 1819, Chief Justice John Marshall noted in the famous case McCulloch v. Maryland, that "the opinions expressed by the authors of that work have been justly supposed to be entitled to great respect in expounding the Constitution. No tribute can be paid to them which exceeds their merit; but in applying their opinions to the cases which may arise in the progress of our government, a right to judge of their correctness must be retained."[37] Madison believed The Federalist Papers were the ideas of the Founders and not just mere expressions. In a letter to Thomas Ritchie in 1821, he stated that "the legitimate meaning of the Instrument must be derived from the text itself; or if a key is to be sought elsewhere, it must be not in the opinions or intentions of the Body which planned & proposed the Constitution, but in the sense attached to it by the people in their respective State Conventions where it recd. all the authority which it possesses." [38][39]

text: Complete list[edit]

text: The colors used to highlight the rows correspond to the author of the paper.

text:
#
Date
Title
Author

1
October 27, 1787
General Introduction
Alexander Hamilton

2
October 31, 1787
Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
John Jay

3
November 3, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
John Jay

4
November 7, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
John Jay

5
November 10, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
John Jay

6
November 14, 1787
Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States
Alexander Hamilton

7
November 15, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States
Alexander Hamilton

8
November 20, 1787
The Consequences of Hostilities Between the States
Alexander Hamilton

9
November 21, 1787
The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
Alexander Hamilton

10
November 22, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
James Madison

11
November 24, 1787
The Utility of the Union in Respect to Commercial Relations and a Navy
Alexander Hamilton

12
November 27, 1787
The Utility of the Union In Respect to Revenue
Alexander Hamilton

13
November 28, 1787
Advantage of the Union in Respect to Economy in Government
Alexander Hamilton

14
November 30, 1787
Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of Territory Answered
James Madison

15
December 1, 1787
The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
Alexander Hamilton

16
December 4, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
Alexander Hamilton

17
December 5, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
Alexander Hamilton

18
December 7, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
James Madison[10]

19
December 8, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
James Madison[10]

20
December 11, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
James Madison[10]

21
December 12, 1787
Other Defects of the Present Confederation
Alexander Hamilton

22
December 14, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: Other Defects of the Present Confederation
Alexander Hamilton

23
December 18, 1787
The Necessity of a Government as Energetic as the One Proposed to the Preservation of the Union
Alexander Hamilton

24
December 19, 1787
The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Considered
Alexander Hamilton

25
December 21, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Considered
Alexander Hamilton

26
December 22, 1787
The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered
Alexander Hamilton

27
December 25, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered
Alexander Hamilton

28
December 26, 1787
The Same Subject Continued: The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered
Alexander Hamilton

29
January 9, 1788
Concerning the Militia
Alexander Hamilton

30
December 28, 1787
Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

31
January 1, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

32
January 2, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

33
January 2, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

34
January 5, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

35
January 5, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

36
January 8, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Alexander Hamilton

37
January 11, 1788
Concerning the Difficulties of the Convention in Devising a Proper Form of Government
James Madison

38
January 12, 1788
The Same Subject Continued, and the Incoherence of the Objections to the New Plan Exposed
James Madison

39
January 18, 1788
The Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles
James Madison

40
January 18, 1788
The Powers of the Convention to Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained
James Madison

41
January 19, 1788
General View of the Powers Conferred by the Constitution
James Madison

42
January 22, 1788
The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered
James Madison

43
January 23, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered
James Madison

44
January 25, 1788
Restrictions on the Authority of the Several States
James Madison

45
January 26, 1788
The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered
James Madison

46
January 29, 1788
The Influence of the State and Federal Governments Compared
James Madison

47
January 30, 1788
The Particular Structure of the New Government and the Distribution of Power Among Its Different Parts
James Madison

48
February 1, 1788
These Departments Should Not Be So Far Separated as to Have No Constitutional Control Over Each Other
James Madison

49
February 2, 1788
Method of Guarding Against the Encroachments of Any One Department of Government
James Madison[40]

50
February 5, 1788
Periodic Appeals to the People Considered
James Madison[40]

51
February 6, 1788
The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments
James Madison[40]

52
February 8, 1788
The House of Representatives
James Madison[40]

53
February 9, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: The House of Representatives
James Madison[40]

54
February 12, 1788
The Apportionment of Members Among the States
James Madison[40]

55
February 13, 1788
The Total Number of the House of Representatives
James Madison[40]

56
February 16, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: The Total Number of the House of Representatives
James Madison[40]

57
February 19, 1788
The Alleged Tendency of the New Plan to Elevate the Few at the Expense of the Many
James Madison[40]

58
February 20, 1788
Objection That The Number of Members Will Not Be Augmented as the Progress of Population Demands Considered
James Madison[40]

59
February 22, 1788
Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members
Alexander Hamilton

60
February 23, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members
Alexander Hamilton

61
February 26, 1788
The Same Subject Continued: Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members
Alexander Hamilton

62
February 27, 1788
The Senate
James Madison[40]

63
March 1, 1788
The Senate Continued
James Madison[40]

64
March 5, 1788
The Powers of the Senate
John Jay

65
March 7, 1788
The Powers of the Senate Continued
Alexander Hamilton

66
March 8, 1788
Objections to the Power of the Senate To Set as a Court for Impeachments Further Considered
Alexander Hamilton

67
March 11, 1788
The Executive Department
Alexander Hamilton

68
March 12, 1788
The Mode of Electing the President
Alexander Hamilton

69
March 14, 1788
The Real Character of the Executive
Alexander Hamilton

70
March 15, 1788
The Executive Department Further Considered
Alexander Hamilton

71
March 18, 1788
The Duration in Office of the Executive
Alexander Hamilton

72
March 19, 1788
The Same Subject Continued, and Re-Eligibility of the Executive Considered
Alexander Hamilton

73
March 21, 1788
The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the Veto Power
Alexander Hamilton

74
March 25, 1788
The Command of the Military and Naval Forces, and the Pardoning Power of the Executive
Alexander Hamilton

75
March 26, 1788
The Treaty Making Power of the Executive
Alexander Hamilton

76
April 1, 1788
The Appointing Power of the Executive
Alexander Hamilton

77
April 2, 1788
The Appointing Power Continued and Other Powers of the Executive Considered
Alexander Hamilton

78
May 28, 1788 (book)
June 14, 1788 (newspaper)
The Judiciary Department
Alexander Hamilton

79
May 28, 1788 (book)
June 18, 1788 (newspaper)
The Judiciary Continued
Alexander Hamilton

80
June 21, 1788
The Powers of the Judiciary
Alexander Hamilton

81
June 25, 1788 and
June 28, 1788
The Judiciary Continued, and the Distribution of the Judicial Authority
Alexander Hamilton

82
July 2, 1788
The Judiciary Continued
Alexander Hamilton

83
July 5, 1788,
July 9, 1788 and
July 12, 1788
The Judiciary Continued in Relation to Trial by Jury
Alexander Hamilton

84
July 16, 1788,
July 26, 1788 and
August 9, 1788
Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the Constitution Considered and Answered
Alexander Hamilton

85
August 13, 1788 and
August 16, 1788
Concluding Remarks
Alexander Hamilton


document_title: Serrano (surname)

question_text: where does the last name serrano come from

text: Serrano (surname)

text: Serrano is a Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian surname.

text: Notable bearers of the name include:

text:
Andres Serrano, American photographer
Antonio Serrano, Mexican film writer-director
Antonio Serrano, Spanish long-distance runner
Antonio Serrano, Peruvian football striker
Dave Serrano (born 1964), American college baseball coach
Eva Serrano, French gymnast
Felix Serrano, American comic book artist
Francisco J. Serrano, Mexican civil engineer and architect
Francisco Serrano y Domínguez, Duke de la Torre, Spanish marshal and statesman
Heris Serrano, the central character in the Familias Regnant books
Irma Serrano, Mexican actress
Ismael Serrano, Spanish Singer/Songwriter
J. Francisco Serrano Cacho, Mexican architect
Jorge Serrano Elías, President of Guatemala
José Enrique Serrano, Democrat, U.S. House of Representatives
José Serrano (composer), Spanish composer of zarzuelas
José Manuel Serrano, Spanish footballer
José Mariano Serrano, Bolivian member of the Congress of Tucumán
Joseph Serrano, Puerto Rican boxer
Juan Serrano, sixteenth-century Portuguese navigator
Juan Serrano (Flamenco), Spanish flamenco guitarist
Juan René Serrano, Mexican archer
Julian Serrano, Spanish-American chef
Miguel Serrano, Chilean diplomat and writer
Nestor Serrano, American actor
Nina Serrano, American poet and storyteller
Pedro Serrano (police officer), New York City police officer
Pedro Serrano (sailor), sixteenth-century Spanish sailor
Ramón Serrano Súñer, Spanish politician
Roberto Serrano, American economist
Sebastià Serrano (es), Spanish linguist and author


document_title: Cellular respiration

question_text: at the site of cellular respiration glucose converts to

text: Cellular respiration

text: Aerobic respiration

text: Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2

text:
Simplified reaction:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + heat

ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C6H12O6

text: The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.

text: The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[2]

text: Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

text: Glycolysis

text: Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:

text: Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.

text: Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting". [3]

text: Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

text: Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO2 is formed.

text: Citric acid cycle

text: This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. [4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.

text: The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. [4] During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.

text: The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

text: Oxidative phosphorylation

text: In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.

text: Efficiency of ATP production

text: The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.

text:
Step
coenzyme yield
ATP yield
Source of ATP

Glycolysis preparatory phase

−2
Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.

Glycolysis pay-off phase

4
Substrate-level phosphorylation

2 NADH
3 or 5
Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
2 NADH
5
Oxidative phosphorylation

Krebs cycle

2
Substrate-level phosphorylation

6 NADH
15
Oxidative phosphorylation

2 FADH2
3
Oxidative phosphorylation

Total yield
30 or 32 ATP
From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.

text: Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.

text:
Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO4−; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.
The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.

text: The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.[2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons.[5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.

text: According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because:

text:
ATP : NADH+H+ and ATP : FADH2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.

ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H+. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH− or symport with H+) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H+ / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H+.
The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4).

text:
ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is

1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial NAD+

text: So finally we have, per molecule of glucose

text:
Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

2 NADH+H+ from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)
2 NADH+H+ from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP

text: Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose

text: The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.[6]

text: Fermentation

text: Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.

text: Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.

text: Anaerobic respiration

text: Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.

text: Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.


document_title: Eating utensil etiquette

question_text: which hand should you hold knife and fork

text: Eating utensil etiquette

text: Chopstick etiquette[edit]

text: In many Asian cultures, it is impolite to point with chopsticks.

text: Fork etiquette[edit]

text: When used in conjunction with a knife to cut and consume food in Western social settings, two forms of fork etiquette are common. In the European style, the diner keeps the fork in his or her left hand, while in the American style the fork is shifted between the left and right hands. The American style is most common in the United States,[1] but the European style is considered proper in other countries.[2][3]

text: Originally, the traditional European method, once the fork was adopted as a utensil, was to transfer the fork to the right hand after cutting food, as it had been considered proper for all utensils to be used with the right hand only. This tradition was brought to America by British colonists and is still in use in the United States. Europe adopted the more rapid style of eating in relatively modern times. [4]

text: European style[edit]

text: The European style is to hold the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right. Once a bite-sized piece of food has been cut, it is conducted straight to the mouth by the left hand. For other items, such as potatoes, vegetables or rice, the blade of the knife is used to assist or guide placement of the food on the back of the fork.[5] The tines remain pointing down.

text: The knife and fork are both held with the handle running along the palm and extending out to be held by thumb and forefinger. This style is sometimes called "hidden handle" because the palm conceals the handle.

text: American style[edit]

text: In the American style, also called the zig-zag method or fork switching, the knife is initially held in the right hand and the fork in the left. Holding food to the plate with the fork tines-down, a single bite-sized piece is cut with the knife. The knife is then set down on the plate, the fork transferred from the left hand to the right hand, and the food is brought to the mouth for consumption.  The fork is then transferred back to the left hand and the knife is picked up with the right.[1][6] In contrast to the European hidden handle grip, in the American style the fork is held much like a spoon or pen once it is transferred to the right hand to convey food to the mouth.  Though called "American style", this style originated in Europe. [5]

text: Hybrid style[edit]

text: Etiquette experts have noted that the American style of fork-handling is in flux, often being replaced by a hybrid of the traditional American and European styles. In this new style, the fork is not switched between hands between cutting and eating, but may be deployed "tines-up" as a scoop when convenient.[5]

text: Southeast Asian style[edit]

text: The South East Asian style is similar to the European style, wherein the spoon is held in the right hand throughout consumption (except with certain dishes when a fork is more suitable). The difference is that a spoon is often used in the right hand and knives are rarely used. Rice and soups are a staple of the diet in South East Asian countries, so using a spoon would be practical in such dishes. The spoon is the main utensil in bringing food into the mouth, in tandem with using a fork. The spoon could also be used for manipulating food in the plate and as an alternative for a knife. Often dishes require slicing before serving or sliced into small portions before cooking to relinquish the use of a knife.

text: Placement of forks[edit]

text: Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork, a meat fork, and a dessert fork. Some institutions wishing to give an impression of high formality set places with many different forks for meals of several courses, although many etiquette authorities regard this as vulgar and prefer that the appropriate cutlery be brought in with each course.[7]

text: It should not be necessary for the diner to distinguish between types of forks; forks are used in order from outside to inside, with the exception of oyster forks, which are placed on the right side, the tines nested in the bowl of a spoon.[citation needed]

text: Resting and finished positions[edit]

text: Setting the knife and fork handles in a 5 and 7 o'clock position with the fork tines turned downwards on the plate is used to indicate to the server or host that the diner has not yet finished with the meal, while placing them together, with the fork tines turned up and the blade of the knife facing inwards, is used to indicate that the diner has finished.[8]