document_title: John Donne

question_text: go and catch a falling star publication date

text: John Donne

text: Biography[edit]

text: Early life[edit]

text: Donne was born in London, into a recusant Roman Catholic family when practice of that religion was illegal in England.[5] Donne was the third of six children. His father, also named John Donne, was of Welsh descent and a warden of the Ironmongers Company in the City of London. Donne's father was a respected Roman Catholic who avoided unwelcome government attention out of fear of persecution.[6][7]

text: His father died in 1576, when Donne was four years old, leaving his son fatherless and his widow, Elizabeth Heywood, with the responsibility of raising their children alone.[2] Heywood was also from a recusant Roman Catholic family, the daughter of John Heywood, the playwright, and sister of the Reverend Jasper Heywood, a Jesuit priest and translator.[2] She was a great-niece of the Roman Catholic martyr Thomas More.[2] This tradition of martyrdom would continue among Donne's closer relatives, many of whom were executed or exiled for religious reasons.[8] Donne was educated privately; however, there is no evidence to support the popular claim that he was taught by Jesuits.[2] Donne's mother married Dr. John Syminges, a wealthy widower with three children, a few months after Donne's father died. Donne thus acquired a stepfather. Two more of his sisters, Mary and Katherine, died in 1581. Donne's mother lived her last years in the Deanery after Donne became Dean of St Paul's, and died just two months before Donne, in January 1631.[9] In 1583, the 11-year-old Donne began studies at Hart Hall, now Hertford College, Oxford. After three years of studies there, Donne was admitted to the University of Cambridge, where he studied for another three years.[10] However, Donne could not obtain a degree from either institution because of his Catholicism, since he refused to take the Oath of Supremacy required to graduate.[11]

text: In 1591 Donne was accepted as a student at the Thavies Inn legal school, one of the Inns of Chancery in London.[2] On 6 May 1592 he was admitted to Lincoln's Inn, one of the Inns of Court.[2] In 1593, five years after the defeat of the Spanish Armada and during the intermittent Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), Queen Elizabeth issued the first English statute against sectarian dissent from the Church of England, titled "An Act for restraining Popish recusants". It defined "Popish recusants" as those "convicted for not repairing to some Church, Chapel, or usual place of Common Prayer to hear Divine Service there, but forbearing the same contrary to the tenor of the laws and statutes heretofore made and provided in that behalf". Donne's brother Henry was also a university student prior to his arrest in 1593 for harbouring a Catholic priest, William Harrington, whom he betrayed under torture.[5] Harrington was tortured on the rack, hanged until not quite dead, and then subjected to disembowelment.[5] Henry Donne died in Newgate Prison of bubonic plague, leading Donne to begin questioning his Catholic faith.[7]

text: During and after his education, Donne spent much of his considerable inheritance on women, literature, pastimes and travel.[6] Although no record details precisely where Donne travelled, he did cross Europe and later fought with the Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh against the Spanish at Cadiz (1596) and the Azores (1597), and witnessed the loss of the Spanish flagship, the San Felipe.[2][12] According to Izaak Walton, who wrote a biography of Donne in 1658:

text: ... he returned not back into England till he had stayed some years, first in Italy, and then in Spain, where he made many useful observations of those countries, their laws and manner of government, and returned perfect in their languages.

text: By the age of 25 he was well prepared for the diplomatic career he appeared to be seeking.[12] He was appointed chief secretary to the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Sir Thomas Egerton, and was established at Egerton's London home, York House, Strand close to the Palace of Whitehall, then the most influential social centre in England.

text: Marriage to Anne More[edit]

text: During the next four years Donne fell in love with Egerton's niece Anne More, and they were secretly married just before Christmas[5] in 1601, against the wishes of both Egerton and George More, who was Lieutenant of the Tower and Anne's father. Upon discovery, this wedding ruined Donne's career, getting him fired and put in Fleet Prison, along with minister Samuel Brooke, who married them,[14] and the man who acted as a witness to the wedding. Donne was released shortly thereafter when the marriage was proven valid, and he soon secured the release of the other two. Walton tells us that when Donne wrote to his wife to tell her about losing his post, he wrote after his name: John Donne, Anne Donne, Un-done. It was not until 1609 that Donne was reconciled with his father-in-law and received his wife's dowry.

text: After his release, Donne had to accept a retired country life in a small house in Pyrford, Surrey, owned by Anne's cousin, Sir Francis Wooley, where they resided until the end of 1604.[2][3] In spring 1605 they moved to another small house in Mitcham, London, where he scraped a meager living as a lawyer,[15] while Anne Donne bore a new baby almost every year. Though he also worked as an assistant pamphleteer to Thomas Morton writing anti-Catholic pamphlets, Donne was in a constant state of financial insecurity.[2]

text: Anne bore John 12 children in 16 years of marriage, (including two stillbirths—their eighth and then, in 1617, their last child); indeed, she spent most of her married life either pregnant or nursing. The 10 surviving children were Constance, John, George, Francis, Lucy (named after Donne's patron Lucy, Countess of Bedford, her godmother), Bridget, Mary, Nicholas, Margaret, and Elizabeth. Three (Francis, Nicholas, and Mary) died before they were ten. In a state of despair that almost drove him to kill himself, Donne noted that the death of a child would mean one mouth fewer to feed, but he could not afford the burial expenses. During this time, Donne wrote but did not publish Biathanatos, his defense of suicide.[16] His wife died on 15 August 1617, five days after giving birth to their twelfth child, a still-born baby.[2] Donne mourned her deeply, and wrote of his love and loss in his 17th Holy Sonnet.

text: Career and later life[edit]

text: In 1602 John Donne was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Brackley, but membership was not a paid position.[2] Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, being succeeded by King James VI of Scotland as King James I of England. The fashion for coterie poetry of the period gave Donne a means to seek patronage, and many of his poems were written for wealthy friends or patrons, especially MP Sir Robert Drury of Hawsted (1575–1615), whom he met in 1610 and became Donne's chief patron, furnishing him and his family an apartment in his large house in Drury Lane.[12]

text: In 1610 and 1611 Donne wrote two anti-Catholic polemics: Pseudo-Martyr and Ignatius His Conclave for Morton.[2] He then wrote two Anniversaries, An Anatomy of the World (1611) and Of the Progress of the Soul[17] (1612) for Drury. Although James was pleased with Donne's work, he refused to reinstate him at court and instead urged him to take holy orders.[7] At length, Donne acceded to the king's wishes, and in 1615 was ordained into the Church of England.[12]

text: In 1615 Donne was awarded an honorary doctorate in divinity from Cambridge University, and became a Royal Chaplain in the same year, and a Reader of Divinity at Lincoln's Inn in 1616,[2] where he served in the chapel as minister until 1622.[18] In 1618 he became chaplain to Viscount Doncaster, who was on an embassy to the princes of Germany. Donne did not return to England until 1620.[3] In 1621 Donne was made Dean of St Paul's, a leading and well-paid position in the Church of England, which he held until his death in 1631. During his period as dean his daughter Lucy died, aged eighteen. In late November and early December 1623 he suffered a nearly fatal illness, thought to be either typhus or a combination of a cold followed by a period of fever. During his convalescence he wrote a series of meditations and prayers on health, pain, and sickness that were published as a book in 1624 under the title of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions. One of these meditations, Meditation XVII, later became well known for its phrases "No man is an Iland" (often modernised as "No man is an island") and "...for whom the bell tolls". In 1624 he became vicar of St Dunstan-in-the-West, and 1625 a prolocutor to Charles I.[2] He earned a reputation as an eloquent preacher and 160 of his sermons have survived, including the famous Death’s Duel sermon delivered at the Palace of Whitehall before King Charles I in February 1631.

text: Death[edit]

text: Donne died on 31 March 1631 and was buried in old St Paul's Cathedral, where a memorial statue of him by Nicholas Stone was erected with a Latin epigraph probably composed by himself. The memorial was one of the few to survive the Great Fire of London in 1666 and is now in St Paul's Cathedral. The statue was claimed by Izaac Walton in his biography to have been modelled from the life by Donne in order to suggest his appearance at the resurrection; it was to start a vogue in such monuments during the course of the 17th century.[19] In 2012 a bust of the poet by Nigel Boonham was unveiled outside in the cathedral churchyard.[20]

text: Writings[edit]

text: Donne's earliest poems showed a developed knowledge of English society coupled with sharp criticism of its problems. His satires dealt with common Elizabethan topics, such as corruption in the legal system, mediocre poets, and pompous courtiers. His images of sickness, vomit, manure, and plague reflected his strongly satiric view of a world populated by all the fools and knaves of England. His third satire, however, deals with the problem of true religion, a matter of great importance to Donne. He argued that it was better to examine carefully one's religious convictions than blindly to follow any established tradition, for none would be saved at the Final Judgment, by claiming "A Harry, or a Martin taught [them] this."[8]

text: Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic poetry, especially his elegies, in which he employed unconventional metaphors, such as a flea biting two lovers being compared to sex.[12] In "Elegy XIX: To His Mistris Going to Bed" he poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act of fondling to the exploration of America. In "Elegy XVIII" he compared the gap between his lover's breasts to the Hellespont.[12] Donne did not publish these poems, although he did allow them to circulate widely in manuscript form.[12]

text: ... any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankinde; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee..

text: Some have speculated that Donne's numerous illnesses, financial strain, and the deaths of his friends all contributed to the development of a more somber and pious tone in his later poems.[12] The change can be clearly seen in "An Anatomy of the World" (1611), a poem that Donne wrote in memory of Elizabeth Drury, daughter of his patron, Sir Robert Drury of Hawstead, Suffolk. This poem treats Elizabeth's demise with extreme gloominess, using it as a symbol for the Fall of Man and the destruction of the universe.[12]

text: The poem "A Nocturnal upon S. Lucy's Day, Being the Shortest Day", concerns the poet's despair at the death of a loved one. In it Donne expresses a feeling of utter negation and hopelessness, saying that "I am every dead thing ... re-begot / Of absence, darkness, death." This famous work was probably written in 1627 when both Donne's friend Lucy, Countess of Bedford, and his daughter Lucy Donne died. Three years later, in 1630, Donne wrote his will on Saint Lucy's Day (13 December), the date the poem describes as "Both the year's, and the day's deep midnight".

text: The increasing gloominess of Donne's tone may also be observed in the religious works that he began writing during the same period. His early belief in the value of scepticism now gave way to a firm faith in the traditional teachings of the Bible. Having converted to the Anglican Church, Donne focused his literary career on religious literature. He quickly became noted for his sermons and religious poems. The lines of these sermons and devotional works would come to influence future works of English literature, such as Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls, which took its title from a passage in Meditation XVII of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Merton's No Man is an Island, which took its title from the same source.

text: Towards the end of his life Donne wrote works that challenged death, and the fear that it inspired in many men, on the grounds of his belief that those who die are sent to Heaven to live eternally. One example of this challenge is his Holy Sonnet X, "Death Be Not Proud", from which come the famous lines "Death, be not proud, though some have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so." Even as he lay dying during Lent in 1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered the Death's Duel sermon, which was later described as his own funeral sermon. Death's Duel portrays life as a steady descent to suffering and death; death becomes merely another process of life, in which the 'winding sheet' of the womb is the same as that of the grave. Hope is seen in salvation and immortality through an embrace of God, Christ and the Resurrection.[12][16][21]

text: Style[edit]

text: His work has received much criticism over the years, especially concerning his metaphysical form. Donne is generally considered the most prominent member of the metaphysical poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by Samuel Johnson, following a comment on Donne by John Dryden. Dryden had written of Donne in 1693: "He affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts, and entertain them with the softnesses of love."[22] In Life of Cowley (from Samuel Johnson's 1781 work of biography and criticism Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets), Johnson refers to the beginning of the seventeenth century in which there "appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets". Donne's immediate successors in poetry therefore tended to regard his works with ambivalence, with the Neoclassical poets regarding his conceits as abuse of the metaphor. However he was revived by Romantic poets such as Coleridge and Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twentieth century by poets such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F R Leavis tended to portray him, with approval, as an anti-Romantic.[23]

text: Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical conceit, an extended metaphor that combines two vastly different ideas into a single idea, often using imagery.[8] An example of this is his equation of lovers with saints in "The Canonization". Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan poetry, most notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichéd comparisons between more closely related objects (such as a rose and love), metaphysical conceits go to a greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects. One of the most famous of Donne's conceits is found in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" where he compares two lovers who are separated like the two legs of a compass.

text: Donne's works are also witty, employing paradoxes, puns, and subtle yet remarkable analogies. His pieces are often ironic and cynical, especially regarding love and human motives. Common subjects of Donne's poems are love (especially in his early life), death (especially after his wife's death), and religion.[16]

text: John Donne's poetry represented a shift from classical forms to more personal poetry. Donne is noted for his poetic metre, which was structured with changing and jagged rhythms that closely resemble casual speech (it was for this that the more classical-minded Ben Jonson commented that "Donne, for not keeping of accent, deserved hanging").[16]

text: Some scholars believe that Donne's literary works reflect the changing trends of his life, with love poetry and satires from his youth and religious sermons during his later years. Other scholars, such as Helen Gardner, question the validity of this dating—most of his poems were published posthumously (1633). The exception to these is his Anniversaries, which were published in 1612 and Devotions upon Emergent Occasions published in 1624. His sermons are also dated, sometimes specifically by date and year.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Donne is commemorated as a priest in the calendar of the Church of England[24] and in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on 31 March.[25]

text: During his lifetime several likenesses were made of the poet. The earliest was the anonymous portrait of 1594 now in the National Portrait Gallery, London which has been recently restored.[26] One of the earliest Elizabethan portraits of an author, the fashionably dressed poet is shown darkly brooding on his love. The portrait was described in Donne's will as "that picture of myne wych is taken in the shaddowes", and bequeathed by him to Robert Kerr, 1st Earl of Ancram.[27] Other paintings include a 1616 head and shoulders after Isaac Oliver, also in the National Portrait Gallery,[28] and a 1622 head and shoulders in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[29] In 1911 the young Stanley Spencer devoted a visionary painting to John Donne arriving in heaven (1911) which is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum.[30]

text: In literature[edit]

text: After Donne's death, a number of poetical tributes were paid to him, of which one of the principal (and most difficult to follow) was his friend Lord Herbert of Cherbury's "Elegy for Doctor Donne".[31] Posthumous editions of Donne's poems were accompanied by several "Elegies upon the Author" over the course of the next two centuries.[32] Six of these were written by fellow churchmen, others by such courtly writers as Thomas Carew, Sidney Godolphin and Endymion Porter. In 1963 came Joseph Brodsky's "The Great Elegy for John Donne".[33]

text: Beginning in the 20th century, several historical novels appeared taking as their subject various episodes in Donne's life. His courtship of Anne More is the subject of Elizabeth Gray Vining's Take Heed of Loving Me: A novel about John Donne (1963)[34] and Maeve Haran's The Lady and the Poet (2010).[35] Both characters also make interspersed appearances in Mary Novik's Conceit (2007), where the main focus is on their rebellious daughter Pegge. English treatments include Garry O'Connor's Death's Duel: a novel of John Donne (2015), which deals with the poet as a young man.[36] He also plays a significant role in Christie Dickason's The Noble Assassin (2012), a novel based on the life of Donne's patron and (the author claims) his lover, Lucy Russell, Countess of Bedford.[37] Finally there is Bryan Crockett's Love's Alchemy: a John Donne Mystery (2015), in which the poet, blackmailed into service in Robert Cecil's network of spies, attempts to avert political disaster and at the same time outwit Cecil.[38]

text: Musical settings[edit]

text: There were musical settings of Donne's lyrics even during his lifetime. These included Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger ("So, so, leave off this last lamenting kisse" in his 1609 Ayres); John Cooper ("The Message"); Henry Lawes ("Break of Day"); " John Dowland ("Break of Day" and "To ask for all thy love"); and settings of "A Hymn to God the Father" by John Hilton the younger and Pelham Humfrey (1688). After the 17th century there were no more until the start of the 20th century with Havergal Brian ("A nocturnal on St Lucy's Day", first performed in 1905), Eleanor Everest Freer ("Break of Day, published in 1905) and Walford Davies ("The Cross", 1909) among the earliest. In 1945, Benjamin Britten set nine of Donne's Holy Sonnets in his song cycle for voice and piano The Holy Sonnets of John Donne. Lieder.net currently lists 162 settings of 62 texts by Donne.[39] One not recorded there is a version of the song "Go and Catch a Falling Star" on John Renbourn's debut album John Renbourn (1966) in which the last line is altered to "False, ere I count one, two, three"

text: In 1954, Priaulx Rainier set prose texts by Donne to music in her Cycle for Declamation for solo voice. On 1992's album Duality, the English Neoclassical Dark Wave band In The Nursery used the entirety of Donne's "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" for the track "Mecciano and an augmented version of "A Fever" for the track "Corruption."

text: In the 21st century there have been settings of prose texts by Donne. In 2009, the American Jennifer Higdon composed the choral piece On the Death of the Righteous based on Donne's sermons.[40] Still more recent is the Russian minimalist Anton Batagov's " I Fear No More, selected songs and meditations of John Donne" (2015).[41]

text: Works[edit]

text:
Biathanatos (1608)
Pseudo-Martyr (1610)
Ignatius His Conclave (1611)
Devotions upon Emergent Occasions (1624)
Poems (1633)

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The version of Meditation XVII found on wikiquote. Other sources change Donne's original orthography, phrasing and emphases, and have "... never ask for whom ..."

tag: ol

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Long 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Colclough, David (September 2004). Donne, John (1572–1631). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online edn, October 2007 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7819. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jokinen, Anniina (22 June 2006). "The Life of John Donne (1572-1631)". Luminarium. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ Portraits of John Donne at the National Portrait Gallery, London
^ Jump up to: a b c d Simon Schama's John Donne on YouTube
^ Jump up to: a b Langstaff, Richard W. (1988). Johnston, Bernard, ed. Donne, John. Collier's Encyclopedia. Vol 8. New York: P.F. Colliers. pp. 346–349.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kunitz & Haycraft 1952, p. 156-158.
^ Jump up to: a b c Greenblatt 2006, p. 600–602.
Jump up ^ Wood, Martin (10 July 2008). "Sir Thomas More: His Nephews and Nieces" (PDF). The Center for Thomas More Studies. The University of Dallas.
Jump up ^ "Donne, John (DN615J)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
Jump up ^ Walton 1999.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Durant & Durant 1961, p. 154.
Jump up ^ Walton 1888, p. 20.
Jump up ^  "Brooke, Samuel". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
Jump up ^ "John Donne". nndb.com. Soylent Communications. 2014. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Greenblatt 2012, pp. 1370–1372.
Jump up ^ Donne, John. "Of the Progress of the Soul: The Second Anniversary". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ Hutchings, Josephine. "John Donne (1572-1631) and Lincoln's Inn" (PDF). lincolnsinn.org.uk. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ Cottrell, Philip. "The John Donne Monument (d. 1631) by Nicholas Stone St Paul's Cathedral, London". churchmonumentssociety.org. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ "New John Donne statue unveiled in the shadow of St Paul's". St Paul's Cathedral. 15 June 2012. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 1984.
Jump up ^ Dryden 1693.
Jump up ^ Bloom 2004, pp. 138–139.
Jump up ^ "Holy Days". Church of England.
Jump up ^ Evangelical Lutheran Worship – Final Draft (PDF). Augsburg Fortress Press. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2007.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Tarnya (16 May 2012). "John Donne nearly finished... -". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ "John Donne". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ "John Donne". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ "Portrait of John Donne (1573-1631) at the age of 49". V&A.
Jump up ^ Spencer, Stanley (1911). "John Donne Arriving In Heaven". www.wikiart.org. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ "Elegy for Doctor Donne". Poetry Explorer.
Jump up ^ Donne 1633, p. 373.
Jump up ^ Maxton 1983, pp. 62-64.
Jump up ^ Hollander, John (2 April 1964). "This Is Your Life, John Donne". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ Haran 2009.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Garry (2015). Death's Duel: A Novel of John Donne. Endeavour. ASIN B019E0NQ1G.
Jump up ^ Dickason 2011.
Jump up ^ Crockett 2015.
Jump up ^ Lieder.net
Jump up ^ Webster, Daniel (31 March 2009). "Two stirring requiems: One old, the other new". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Anton Batagov - I fear no more". FANCYMUSIC. 1 June 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2015.


document_title: Adaptive immune system

question_text: where are the cells of the adaptive immune system found

root

text: Adaptive immune system

text: Functions[edit]

text: Adaptive immunity is triggered in vertebrates when a pathogen evades the innate immune system and (1) generates a threshold level of antigen and (2) generates "stranger" or "danger" signals activating dendritic cells.[2]

tag: p

text: The major functions of the adaptive immune system include:

text:
Recognition of specific "non-self" antigens in the presence of "self", during the process of antigen presentation.
Generation of responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells.
Development of immunological memory, in which pathogens are "remembered" through memory B cells and memory T cells.

tag: ul

text: Lymphocytes[edit]

text: The cells of the adaptive immune system are T and B lymphocytes; lymphocytes are a subset of leukocyte. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes. The human body has about 2 trillion lymphocytes, constituting 20–40% of white blood cells (WBCs); their total mass is about the same as the brain or liver. The peripheral blood contains 2% of circulating lymphocytes; the rest move within the tissues and lymphatic system.[1]

text: B cells and T cells are derived from the same multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, and are morphologically indistinguishable from one another until after they are activated. B cells play a large role in the humoral immune response, whereas T cells are intimately involved in cell-mediated immune responses. In all vertebrates except Agnatha, B cells and T cells are produced by stem cells in the bone marrow.[3]

text: T progenitors migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus where they are called thymocytes and where they develop into T cells. In humans, approximately 1–2% of the lymphocyte pool recirculates each hour to optimize the opportunities for antigen-specific lymphocytes to find their specific antigen within the secondary lymphoid tissues.[4] In an adult animal, the peripheral lymphoid organs contain a mixture of B and T cells in at least three stages of differentiation:

text:
naive B and naive T cells (cells that have not matured), left the bone marrow or thymus, have entered the lymphatic system, but have yet to encounter their cognate antigen,
effector cells that have been activated by their cognate antigen, and are actively involved in eliminating a pathogen.
memory cells – the survivors of past infections.

text: Antigen presentation[edit]

text: Adaptive immunity relies on the capacity of immune cells to distinguish between the body's own cells and unwanted invaders. The host's cells express "self" antigens. These antigens are different from those on the surface of bacteria or on the surface of virus-infected host cells ("non-self" or "foreign" antigens). The adaptive immune response is triggered by recognizing foreign antigen in the cellular context of an activated dendritic cell.

text: With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), all cells are capable of presenting antigen through the function of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.[3] Some cells are specially equipped to present antigen, and to prime naive T cells. Dendritic cells, B-cells, and macrophages are equipped with special "co-stimulatory" ligands recognized by co-stimulatory receptors on T cells, and are termed professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs).

text: Several T cells subgroups can be activated by professional APCs, and each type of T cell is specially equipped to deal with each unique toxin or microbial pathogen. The type of T cell activated, and the type of response generated, depends, in part, on the context in which the APC first encountered the antigen.[2]

text: Exogenous antigens[edit]

text: Dendritic cells engulf exogenous pathogens, such as bacteria, parasites or toxins in the tissues and then migrate, via chemotactic signals, to the T cell-enriched lymph nodes. During migration, dendritic cells undergo a process of maturation in which they lose most of their ability to engulf other pathogens, and develop an ability to communicate with T-cells. The dendritic cell uses enzymes to chop the pathogen into smaller pieces, called antigens. In the lymph node, the dendritic cell displays these non-self antigens on its surface by coupling them to a receptor called the major histocompatibility complex, or MHC (also known in humans as human leukocyte antigen (HLA)). This MHC: antigen complex is recognized by T-cells passing through the lymph node. Exogenous antigens are usually displayed on MHC class II molecules, which activate CD4+T helper cells.[2]

text: Endogenous antigens[edit]

text: Endogenous antigens are produced by intracellular bacteria and viruses replicating within a host cell.The host cell uses enzymes to digest virally associated proteins, and displays these pieces on its surface to T-cells by coupling them to MHC. Endogenous antigens are typically displayed on MHC class I molecules, and activate CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells. With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), MHC class I is expressed by all host cells.[2]

text: T lymphocytes[edit]

text: CD8+ T lymphocytes and cytotoxicity[edit]

text: Cytotoxic T cells (also known as TC, killer T cell, or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL)) are a sub-group of T cells that induce the death of cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional.[2]

text: Naive cytotoxic T cells are activated when their T-cell receptor (TCR) strongly interacts with a peptide-bound MHC class I molecule. This affinity depends on the type and orientation of the antigen/MHC complex, and is what keeps the CTL and infected cell bound together.[2] Once activated, the CTL undergoes a process called clonal selection, in which it gains functions and divides rapidly to produce an army of “armed” effector cells. Activated CTL then travels throughout the body searching for cells that bear that unique MHC Class I + peptide.[citation needed]

text: When exposed to these infected or dysfunctional somatic cells, effector CTL release perforin and granulysin: cytotoxins that form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions and water to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse. CTL release granzyme, a serine protease that enters cells via pores to induce apoptosis (cell death). To limit extensive tissue damage during an infection, CTL activation is tightly controlled and in general requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T-cells (see below).[2]

text: On resolution of the infection, most effector cells die and phagocytes clear them away—but a few of these cells remain as memory cells.[3] On a later encounter with the same antigen, these memory cells quickly differentiate into effector cells, dramatically shortening the time required to mount an effective response.[citation needed]

text: Helper T-cells[edit]

text: CD4+ lymphocytes, also called "helper" or "regulatory" T cells, are immune response mediators, and play an important role in establishing and maximizing the capabilities of the adaptive immune response.[2] These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; and cannot kill infected cells or clear pathogens, but, in essence "manage" the immune response, by directing other cells to perform these tasks.

text: Helper T cells express T cell receptors (TCR) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The activation of a naive helper T-cell causes it to release cytokines, which influences the activity of many cell types, including the APC (Antigen-Presenting Cell) that activated it. Helper T-cells require a much milder activation stimulus than cytotoxic T cells. Helper T cells can provide extra signals that "help" activate cytotoxic cells.[3]

text: Th1 and Th2: helper T cell responses[edit]

text: Classically, two types of effector CD4+ T helper cell responses can be induced by a professional APC, designated Th1 and Th2, each designed to eliminate different types of pathogens. The factors that dictate whether an infection triggers a Th1 or Th2 type response are not fully understood, but the response generated does play an important role in the clearance of different pathogens.[2]

text: The Th1 response is characterized by the production of Interferon-gamma, which activates the bactericidal activities of macrophages, and induces B cells to make opsonizing (coating) and complement-fixing antibodies, and leads to cell-mediated immunity.[2] In general, Th1 responses are more effective against intracellular pathogens (viruses and bacteria that are inside host cells).

text: The Th2 response is characterized by the release of Interleukin 5, which induces eosinophils in the clearance of parasites.[6] Th2 also produce Interleukin 4, which facilitates B cell isotype switching.[2] In general, Th2 responses are more effective against extracellular bacteria, parasites including helminths and toxins.[2] Like cytotoxic T cells, most of the CD4+ helper cells die on resolution of infection, with a few remaining as CD4+ memory cells.

text: Increasingly, there is strong evidence from mouse and human-based scientific studies of a broader diversity in CD4+ effector T helper cell subsets. Regulatory T (Treg) cells, have been identified as important negative regulators of adaptive immunity as they limit and suppresses the immune system to control aberrant immune responses to self-antigens; an important mechanism in controlling the development of autoimmune diseases.[3] Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are another distinct population of effector CD4+ T cells that develop from naive T cells post-antigen activation. Tfh cells are specialized in helping B cell humoral immunity as they are uniquely capable of migrating to follicular B cells in secondary lymphoid organs and provide them positive paracrine signals to enable the generation and recall production of high-quality affinity-matured antibodies. Similar to Tregs, Tfh cells also play a role in immunological tolerance as an abnormal expansion of Tfh cell numbers can lead to unrestricted autoreactive antibody production causing severe systemic autoimmune disorders.[7]

text: The relevance of CD4+ T helper cells is highlighted during an HIV infection. HIV is able to subvert the immune system by specifically attacking the CD4+ T cells, precisely the cells that could drive the clearance of the virus, but also the cells that drive immunity against all other pathogens encountered during an organism's lifetime.[3]

text: Gamma delta T cells[edit]

text: Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells) possess an alternative T cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ αβ T cells and share characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d-restricted natural killer T cells, γδ T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells may be considered a component of adaptive immunity in that they rearrange TCR genes via V(D)J recombination, which also produces junctional diversity, and develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, however, the various subsets may also be considered part of the innate immune system where a restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as a pattern recognition receptor. For example, according to this paradigm, large numbers of Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted intraepithelial Vδ1 T cells respond to stressed epithelial cells.

text: B lymphocytes and antibody production[edit]

text: B Cells are the major cells involved in the creation of antibodies that circulate in blood plasma and lymph, known as humoral immunity. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulin, Ig), are large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects. In mammals, there are five types of antibody: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, differing in biological properties; each has evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. Upon activation, B cells produce antibodies, each of which recognizing a unique antigen, and neutralizing specific pathogens.[2]

text: Antigen and antibody binding would cause five different protective mechanism:

text:
Agglutination: Reduces number of infectious units to be dealt with
Activation of complement: Cause inflammation and cell lysis
Opsonization: Coating antigen with antibody enhances phagocytosis
Antibody-dependent cell-mediate cytotoxicity: Antibodies attached to target cell cause destruction by macrophages, eosinophils, and NK cells
Neutralization: Blocks adhesion of bacteria and viruses to mucosa

text: Like the T cell, B cells express a unique B cell receptor (BCR), in this case, a membrane-bound antibody molecule. All the BCR of any one clone of B cells recognizes and binds to only one particular antigen. A critical difference between B cells and T cells is how each cell "sees" an antigen. T cells recognize their cognate antigen in a processed form – as a peptide in the context of an MHC molecule,[2] whereas B cells recognize antigens in their native form.[2] Once a B cell encounters its cognate (or specific) antigen (and receives additional signals from a helper T cell (predominately Th2 type)), it further differentiates into an effector cell, known as a plasma cell.[2]

text: Plasma cells are short-lived cells (2–3 days) that secrete antibodies. These antibodies bind to antigens, making them easier targets for phagocytes, and trigger the complement cascade.[2] About 10% of plasma cells survive to become long-lived antigen-specific memory B cells.[2] Already primed to produce specific antibodies, these cells can be called upon to respond quickly if the same pathogen re-infects the host, while the host experiences few, if any, symptoms.

text: Alternative adaptive immune system[edit]

text: Although the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g., antibodies and T cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs for short) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.[8]

text: Immunological memory[edit]

text: When B cells and T cells are activated some become memory B cells and some memory T cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal these memory cells form a database of effective B and T lymphocytes. Upon interaction with a previously encountered antigen, the appropriate memory cells are selected and activated. In this manner, the second and subsequent exposures to an antigen produce a stronger and faster immune response. This is "adaptive" because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges, but is "maladaptive" of course if the receptors are autoimmune. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.

text: Passive memory[edit]

text: Passive memory is usually short-term, lasting between a few days and several months. Newborn infants have had no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. In utero, maternal IgG is transported directly across the placenta, so that, at birth, human babies have high levels of antibodies, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother.[2] Breast milk contains antibodies (mainly IgA) that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.[2]

text: This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies: It only borrows them. Short-term passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum.

text: Active memory[edit]

text: In general, active immunity is long-term and can be acquired by infection followed by B cells and T cells activation, or artificially acquired by vaccines, in a process called immunization.

text: Immunization[edit]

text: Historically, infectious disease has been the leading cause of death in the human population. Over the last century, two important factors have been developed to combat their spread: sanitation and immunization.[3] Immunization (commonly referred to as vaccination) is the deliberate induction of an immune response, and represents the single most effective manipulation of the immune system that scientists have developed.[3] Immunizations are successful because they utilize the immune system's natural specificity as well as its inducibility.

text: The principle behind immunization is to introduce an antigen, derived from a disease-causing organism, that stimulates the immune system to develop protective immunity against that organism, but that does not itself cause the pathogenic effects of that organism. An antigen (short for antibody generator), is defined as any substance that binds to a specific antibody and elicits an adaptive immune response.[1]

text: Most viral vaccines are based on live attenuated viruses, whereas many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular components of microorganisms, including harmless toxin components.[1] Many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce an adaptive response, and most bacterial vaccines require the addition of adjuvants that activate the antigen-presenting cells of the innate immune system to enhance immunogenicity.[3]

text: Immunological diversity[edit]

text: Most large molecules, including virtually all proteins and many polysaccharides, can serve as antigens.[2] The parts of an antigen that interact with an antibody molecule or a lymphocyte receptor, are called epitopes, or antigenic determinants. Most antigens contain a variety of epitopes and can stimulate the production of antibodies, specific T cell responses, or both.[2] A very small proportion (less than 0.01%) of the total lymphocytes are able to bind to a particular antigen, which suggests that only a few cells respond to each antigen.[3]

text: For the adaptive response to "remember" and eliminate a large number of pathogens the immune system must be able to distinguish between many different antigens,[1] and the receptors that recognize antigens must be produced in a huge variety of configurations, in essence one receptor (at least) for each different pathogen that might ever be encountered. Even in the absence of antigen stimulation, a human can produce more than 1 trillion different antibody molecules.[3] Millions of genes would be required to store the genetic information that produces these receptors, but, the entire human genome contains fewer than 25,000 genes.[9]

text: Myriad receptors are produced through a process known as clonal selection.[1][2] According to the clonal selection theory, at birth, an animal randomly generates a vast diversity of lymphocytes (each bearing a unique antigen receptor) from information encoded in a small family of genes. To generate each unique antigen receptor, these genes have undergone a process called V(D)J recombination, or combinatorial diversification, in which one gene segment recombines with other gene segments to form a single unique gene. This assembly process generates the enormous diversity of receptors and antibodies, before the body ever encounters antigens, and enables the immune system to respond to an almost unlimited diversity of antigens.[2] Throughout an animal's lifetime, lymphocytes that can react against the antigens an animal actually encounters are selected for action—directed against anything that expresses that antigen.

text: Note that the innate and adaptive portions of the immune system work together, not in spite of each other. The adaptive arm, B, and T cells couldn't function without the innate system' input. T cells are useless without antigen-presenting cells to activate them, and B cells are crippled without T cell help. On the other hand, the innate system would likely be overrun with pathogens without the specialized action of the adaptive immune response.

text: Adaptive immunity during pregnancy[edit]

text: The cornerstone of the immune system is the recognition of "self" versus "non-self". Therefore, the mechanisms that protect the human fetus (which is considered "non-self") from attack by the immune system, are particularly interesting. Although no comprehensive explanation has emerged to explain this mysterious, and often repeated, lack of rejection, two classical reasons may explain how the fetus is tolerated. The first is that the fetus occupies a portion of the body protected by a non-immunological barrier, the uterus, which the immune system does not routinely patrol.[2] The second is that the fetus itself may promote local immunosuppression in the mother, perhaps by a process of active nutrient depletion.[2] A more modern explanation for this induction of tolerance is that specific glycoproteins expressed in the uterus during pregnancy suppress the uterine immune response (see eu-FEDS).

text: During pregnancy in viviparous mammals (all mammals except Monotremes), endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are activated and produced in high quantities during the implantation of the embryo. They are currently known to possess immunosuppressive properties, suggesting a role in protecting the embryo from its mother's immune system. Also, viral fusion proteins cause the formation of the placental syncytium[10] to limit exchange of migratory cells between the developing embryo and the body of the mother (something an epithelium can't do sufficiently, as certain blood cells specialize to insert themselves between adjacent epithelial cells). The immunodepressive action was the initial normal behavior of the virus, similar to HIV. The fusion proteins were a way to spread the infection to other cells by simply merging them with the infected one (HIV does this too). It is believed that the ancestors of modern viviparous mammals evolved after an infection by this virus, enabling the fetus to survive the immune system of the mother.[11]

text: The human genome project found several thousand ERVs classified into 24 families.[12]

text: Immune network theory[edit]

text: A theoretical framework explaining the workings of the adaptive immune system is provided by immune network theory, based on interactions between idiotypes (unique molecular features of one clonotype, i.e. the unique set of antigenic determinants of the variable portion of an antibody) and 'anti-idiotypes' (antigen receptors that react with the idiotype as if it were a foreign antigen). This theory, which builds on the existing clonal selection hypothesis and since 1974 has been developed mainly by Niels Jerne and Geoffrey W. Hoffmann, is seen as being relevant to the understanding of the HIV pathogenesis and the search for an HIV vaccine.

text: Stimulation of adaptive immunity[edit]

text: One of the most interesting developments in biomedical science during the past few decades has been elucidation of mechanisms mediating innate immunity. One set of innate immune mechanisms is humoral, such as complement activation. Another set comprises pattern recognition receptors such as toll-like receptors, which induce the production of interferons and other cytokines increasing resistance of cells such as monocytes to infections.[13] Cytokines produced during innate immune responses are among the activators of adaptive immune responses.[13] Antibodies exert additive or synergistic effects with mechanisms of innate immunity. Unstable HbS clusters Band-3, a major integral red cell protein;[14] antibodies recognize these clusters and accelerate their removal by phagocytic cells. Clustered Band 3 proteins with attached antibodies activate complement, and complement C3 fragments are opsonins recognized by the CR1 complement receptor on phagocytic cells.[15]

text: A population study has shown that the protective effect of the sickle-cell trait against falciparum malaria involves the augmentation of adaptive as well as innate immune responses to the malaria parasite, illustrating the expected transition from innate to adaptive immunity.[16]

text: Repeated malaria infections strengthen adaptive immunity and broaden its effects against parasites expressing different surface antigens. By school age most children have developed efficacious adaptive immunity against malaria. These observations raise questions about mechanisms that favor the survival of most children in Africa while allowing some to develop potentially lethal infections.

text: In malaria, as in other infections,[13] innate immune responses lead into, and stimulate, adaptive immune responses. The genetic control of innate and adaptive immunity is now a large and flourishing discipline.

text: Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses limit malaria parasite multiplication, and many cytokines contribute to the pathogenesis of malaria as well as to the resolution of infections.[17]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: The adaptive immune system, which has been best-studied in mammals, originated in jawed fish approximately 500 million years ago. Most of the molecules, cells, tissues, and associated mechanisms of this system of defense are found in cartilaginous fishes.[18] Lymphocyte receptors, Ig and TCR, are found in all jawed vertebrates. The most ancient Ig class, IgM, is membrane-bound and then secreted upon stimulation of cartilaginous fish B cells. Another isotype, shark IgW, is related to mammalian IgD. TCRs, both α/β and γ/δ, are found in all animals from gnathostomes to mammals. The organization of gene segments that undergo gene rearrangement differs in cartilaginous fishes, which have a cluster form as compared to the translocon form in bony fish to mammals. Like TCR and Ig, the MHC is found only in jawed vertebrates. Genes involved in antigen processing and presentation, as well as the class I and class II genes, are closely linked within the MHC of almost all studied species.

text: Lymphoid cells can be identified in some pre-vertebrate deuterostomes (i.e., sea urchins).[19] These bind antigen with pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of the innate immune system. In jawless fishes, two subsets of lymphocytes use variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) for antigen binding.[20] Diversity is generated by a cytosine deaminase-mediated rearrangement of LRR-based DNA segments.[21] There is no evidence for the recombination-activating genes (RAGs) that rearrange Ig and TCR gene segments in jawed vertebrates.

text: The evolution of the AIS, based on Ig, TCR, and MHC molecules, is thought to have arisen from two major evolutionary events: the transfer of the RAG transposon (possibly of viral origin) and two whole genome duplications.[18] Though the molecules of the AIS are well-conserved, they are also rapidly evolving. Yet, a comparative approach finds that many features are quite uniform across taxa. All the major features of the AIS arose early and quickly. Jawless fishes have a different AIS that relies on gene rearrangement to generate diversity but has little else in common with the jawed vertebrate AIS. The innate immune system, which has an important role in AIS activation, is the most important defense system of invertebrates and plants.

text: Types of adaptive immunity[edit]

text: Immunity can be acquired either actively or passively. Immunity is acquired actively when a person is exposed to foreign substances and the immune system responds. Passive immunity is when antibodies are transferred from one host to another. Both actively acquired and passively acquired immunity can be obtained by natural or artificial means.

text:
Naturally Acquired Active Immunity- when a person is naturally exposed to antigens, becomes ill, then recovers.
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity- involves a natural transfer of antibodies from a mother to her infant. The antibodies crosses the woman's placenta to the fetus. Antibodies can also be transferred through breast milk with the secretions of colostrum.
Artificially Acquired Active Immunity- is done by vaccination (introducing dead or weakened antigen to the host's cell).
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity- This involves the introduction of antibodies rather than antigens to the human body. These antibodies are from an animal or person who is already immune to the disease.

text:
Naturally acquired
Artificially acquired

Active- Antigen enters the body naturally
Active- Antigens are introduced in vaccines.

Passive-Antibodies pass from mother to fetus via placenta or infant via the mother's milk.
Passive- Preformed antibodies in immune serum are introduced by injection.

tag: table


document_title: List of Olympic Games host cities

question_text: where does the olympics take place this year

text: List of Olympic Games host cities

text: Olympic Games host cities[edit]

text:
City
Country
Continent
Summer (Olympiad)
Winter
Year
Opening Ceremony
Closing Ceremony

Athens
 Greece
Europe
S005I
—
1896
000000002018-04-06-0000April 6
000000002018-04-15-0000April 15

Paris
 France
Europe
S005II
—
1900
000000002018-05-14-0000May 14
000000002018-10-28-0000October 28

St. Louis[a]
 United States
North America
S005III
—
1904
000000002018-07-01-0000July 1
000000002018-11-23-0000November 23

London[c]
 United Kingdom
Europe
S005IV
—
1908
000000002018-04-27-0000April 27
000000002018-10-31-0000October 31

Stockholm
 Sweden
Europe
S005V
—
1912
000000002018-05-05-0000May 5
000000002018-07-22-0000July 22

Berlin
 Germany
Europe
S006VI
—
1916
Cancelled due to WWI[4]

Antwerp[d]
 Belgium
Europe
S007VII
—
1920
000000002018-04-20-0000April 20
000000002018-09-12-0000September 12[5]

Chamonix
 France
Europe
—
W001I
1924
000000002018-01-25-0000January 25
000000002018-02-04-0000February 4[6]

Paris
 France
Europe
S008VIII
—
000000002018-05-04-0000May 4
000000002018-07-27-0000July 27[7]

St. Moritz
  Switzerland
Europe
—
W002II
1928
000000002018-02-11-0000February 11
000000002018-02-19-0000February 19[8]

Amsterdam
 Netherlands
Europe
S009IX
—
000000002018-05-17-0000May 17
000000002018-08-12-0000August 12[9]

Lake Placid
 United States
North America
—
W003III
1932
000000002018-02-04-0000February 4
000000002018-02-15-0000February 15[10]

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
S010X
—
000000002018-07-30-0000July 30
000000002018-08-14-0000August 14[11]

Garmisch-Partenkirchen
 Nazi Germany
Europe
—
W004IV
1936
000000002018-02-06-0000February 6
000000002018-02-16-0000February 16[12]

Berlin
 Nazi Germany
Europe
S011XI
—
000000002018-08-01-0000August 1
000000002018-08-16-0000August 16[13]

Sapporo
Garmisch-Partenkirchen[e]
 Empire of Japan
 Nazi Germany
Asia
Europe
—
W005aV
1940
Cancelled due to WWII[4]

Tokyo
Helsinki[f]
 Empire of Japan
 Finland
Asia
Europe
S012XII
—

Cortina d'Ampezzo
 Italy
Europe
—
W005bV
1944

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
S013XIII
—

St. Moritz
  Switzerland
Europe
—
W005cV
1948
000000002018-01-30-0000January 30
000000002018-02-08-0000February 8

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
S014XIV
—
000000002018-07-29-0000July 29
000000002018-08-14-0000August 14

Oslo
 Norway
Europe
—
W006VI
1952
000000002018-02-14-0000February 14
000000002018-02-25-0000February 25

Helsinki
 Finland
Europe
S015XV
—
000000002018-07-19-0000July 19
000000002018-08-03-0000August 3

Cortina d'Ampezzo
 Italy
Europe
—
W007VII
1956
000000002018-01-26-0000January 26
000000002018-02-05-0000February 5

Melbourne
Stockholm[g]
 Australia
 Sweden
Oceania
Europe
S016XVI
—
000000002018-11-22-0000November 22
000000002018-06-10-0000June 10
000000002018-12-08-0000December 8
000000002018-06-17-0000June 17

Squaw Valley
 United States
North America
—
W008VIII
1960
000000002018-02-18-0000February 18
000000002018-02-28-0000February 28

Rome
 Italy
Europe
S017XVII
—
000000002018-08-25-0000August 25
000000002018-09-11-0000September 11

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe
—
W009IX
1964
000000002018-01-29-0000January 29
000000002018-02-09-0000February 9

Tokyo
 Japan
Asia
S018XVIII
—
000000002018-10-10-0000October 10
000000002018-10-24-0000October 24

Grenoble
 France
Europe
—
W010X
1968
000000002018-02-06-0000February 6
000000002018-02-18-0000February 18

Mexico City
 Mexico
North America
S019XIX
—
000000002018-10-12-0000October 12
000000002018-10-27-0000October 27

Sapporo
 Japan
Asia
—
W011XI
1972
000000002018-02-03-0000February 3
000000002018-02-13-0000February 13

Munich
 West Germany
Europe
S020XX
—
000000002018-08-26-0000August 26
000000002018-09-11-0000September 11

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe
—
W012XII
1976
000000002018-02-04-0000February 4
000000002018-02-15-0000February 15

Montreal
 Canada
North America
S021XXI
—
000000002018-07-17-0000July 17
000000002018-08-01-0000August 1

Lake Placid
 United States
North America
—
W013XIII
1980
000000002018-02-12-0000February 12
000000002018-02-24-0000February 24

Moscow
 Soviet Union
Europe[h]
S022XXII
—
000000002018-07-19-0000July 19
000000002018-08-03-0000August 3

Sarajevo
 Yugoslavia
Europe
—
W014XIV
1984
000000002018-02-07-0000February 7
000000002018-02-19-0000February 19

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
S023XXIII
—
000000002018-07-28-0000July 28
000000002018-08-12-0000August 12

Calgary
 Canada
North America
—
W015XV
1988
000000002018-02-13-0000February 13
000000002018-02-28-0000February 28

Seoul
 South Korea
Asia
S024XXIV
—
000000002018-09-17-0000September 17
000000002018-10-02-0000October 2

Albertville
 France
Europe
—
W016XVI
1992
000000002018-02-08-0000February 8
000000002018-02-23-0000February 23

Barcelona
 Spain
Europe
S025XXV
—
000000002018-07-25-0000July 25
000000002018-08-09-0000August 9

Lillehammer
 Norway
Europe
—
W017XVII
1994
000000002018-02-12-0000February 12
000000002018-02-27-0000February 27

Atlanta
 United States
North America
S026XXVI
—
1996
000000002018-07-19-0000July 19
000000002018-08-04-0000August 4

Nagano
 Japan
Asia
—
W018XVIII
1998
000000002018-02-07-0000February 7
000000002018-02-22-0000February 22

Sydney
 Australia
Oceania
S027XXVII
—
2000
000000002018-09-15-0000September 15
000000002018-10-01-0000October 1

Salt Lake City
 United States
North America
—
W019XIX
2002
000000002018-02-08-0000February 8
000000002018-02-24-0000February 24

Athens
 Greece
Europe
S028XXVIII
—
2004
000000002018-08-13-0000August 13
000000002018-08-29-0000August 29

Torino
 Italy
Europe
—
W020XX
2006
000000002018-02-10-0000February 10
000000002018-02-26-0000February 26

Beijing[i]
 China
Asia
S029XXIX
—
2008
000000002018-08-08-0000August 8
000000002018-08-24-0000August 24

Vancouver
 Canada
North America
—
W021XXI
2010
000000002018-02-12-0000February 12
000000002018-02-28-0000February 28

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
S030XXX
—
2012
000000002018-07-27-0000July 27
000000002018-08-12-0000August 12

Sochi
 Russia
Europe[h]
—
W022XXII
2014
000000002018-02-07-0000February 7
000000002018-02-23-0000February 23

Rio de Janeiro
 Brazil
South America
S031XXXI
—
2016
000000002018-08-05-0000August 5
000000002018-08-21-0000August 21

Pyeongchang
 South Korea
Asia
—
W023XXIII
2018
000000002018-02-09-0000February 9
000000002018-02-25-0000February 25

Tokyo
 Japan
Asia
S032XXXII
—
2020
000000002018-07-24-0000July 24
000000002018-08-09-0000August 9

Beijing
 China
Asia
—
W024XXIV
2022
000000002018-02-04-0000February 4
000000002018-02-20-0000February 20

Paris
 France
Europe
S033XXXIII
—
2024
000000002018-07-26-0000July 26
000000002018-08-11-0000August 11

TBD
TBD

—
W025XXV
2026
(TBD)

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
S034XXXIV
—
2028
000000002018-07-21-0000July 21
000000002018-08-06-0000August 6

TBD
TBD

—
W026XXVI
2030
(TBD)

text: Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games[edit]

text:
List of cities that hosted multiple editions of the Olympic Games

City
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
3 (1908, 1948, 2012)
0
3

Paris
 France
Europe
3 (1900, 1924, 2024)
0

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
3 (1932, 1984, 2028)
0

Athens
 Greece
Europe
2 (1896, 2004)
0
2

Tokyo
 Japan
Asia
2 (1964, 2020)
0

Beijing
 China
Asia
1 (2008)
1 (2022)

St. Moritz
  Switzerland
Europe
0
2 (1928, 1948)

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe
0
2 (1964, 1976)

Lake Placid
 United States
North America
0
2 (1932, 1980)

text: The 1906 Intercalated Games are not officially recognized by the IOC as an official Olympic Games.

text: Number of Olympic Games by country[edit]

text:
List of countries ranked by the number of times they hosted the Olympic Games

Rank
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total

1
 United States
North America
5 (1904, 1932, 1984, 1996, 2028)
4 (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002)
9

2
 France
Europe
3 (1900, 1924, 2024)
3 (1924, 1968, 1992)
6

3
 Japan
Asia
2 (1940, 1964, 2020)
2 (1940, 1972, 1998)
4

4
 United Kingdom
Europe
3 (1908, 1944, 1948, 2012)
0
3

 Canada
North America
1 (1976)
2 (1988, 2010)

 Italy
Europe
1 (1960)
2 (1944, 1956, 2006)

 German Empire/ Nazi Germany/ West Germany/ Germany
Europe
2 (1916, 1936, 1972)
1 (1936, 1940)

8
 China
Asia
1 (2008)
1 (2022)
2

 South Korea
Asia
1 (1988)
1 (2018)

 Soviet Union/ Russia
Europe
1 (1980)
1 (2014)

 Greece
Europe
2 (1896, 2004)
0

 Australia
Oceania
2 (1956, 2000)
0

 Norway
Europe
0
2 (1952, 1994)

 Austria
Europe
0
2 (1964, 1976)

  Switzerland
Europe
0
2 (1928, 1940, 1948)

 Sweden
Europe
2 (1912, 1956 (equestrian events only))
0

17
 Brazil
South America
1 (2016)
0
1

 Spain
Europe
1 (1992)
0

 SFR Yugoslavia/ Bosnia and Herzegovina
Europe
0
1 (1984)

 Mexico
North America
1 (1968)
0

 Finland
Europe
1 (1940, 1952)
0

 Netherlands
Europe
1 (1928)
0

 Belgium
Europe
1 (1920)
0

text: Number of Olympic Games by continent[edit]

text:
Rank
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total

1
Europe
17 (1896, 1900, 1908, 1912, 1920, 1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1960, 1972, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2012, 2024)
14 (1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1964, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1992, 1994, 2006, 2014)
31

2
North America
7 (1904, 1932, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1996, 2028)
6 (1932, 1960, 1980, 1988, 2002, 2010)
13

3
Asia
4 (1940, 1964, 1988, 2008, 2020)
4 (1940, 1972, 1998, 2018, 2022)
8

4
Oceania
2 (1956, 2000)
0
2

5
South America
1 (2016)
0
1

6
Africa
0
0
0

text: Unsuccessful cities[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Country
City
Bids

 United States
Detroit
7

 Hungary
Budapest
6

 Turkey
Istanbul
5

 Spain
Madrid
4

 Argentina
Buenos Aires
4

  Switzerland
Lausanne
4

 United States
Philadelphia
5

 United States
Chicago
4

 United States
Minneapolis
3

 Cuba
Havana
3

 Belgium
Brussels
3

 Azerbaijan
Baku
2

 Qatar
Doha
2

 Spain
Seville
2

 Yugoslavia
Belgrade
2

 Puerto Rico
San Juan
1

 Australia
Brisbane
1

 Slovakia
Poprad
1

 United States
Boston
1


document_title: List of artificial objects on the Moon

question_text: what was the first thing on the moon

question_tokens: what was the first thing on the moon

text: List of artificial objects on the Moon

text: Legend[edit]

text:
Colors

No data collection

Transmitted data

Operational

text: Table of objects[edit]

text:
Artificial object

Image

Nationality

Year

Mass (kg)

Status

Location

Luna 2

 Soviet Union

1959

390.2

Intentionally crashed

29°06′N 0°00′E / 29.1°N -0°E / 29.1; -0 [2]

Third stage of Luna 2 Vostok rocket

 Soviet Union

1959

9100

Intentionally crashed

29°06′N 0°00′E / 29.1°N -0°E / 29.1; -0 [3]

Ranger 4

 US

1962

331

Intentionally crashed

15°30′S 130°42′W / 15.5°S 130.7°W / -15.5; -130.7 [4]

Ranger 6

 US

1964

381

Intentionally crashed

9°21′29″N 21°28′48″E / 9.358°N 21.480°E / 9.358; 21.480 [5]

Ranger 7

 US

1964

365.7

Intentionally crashed

10°38′S 20°36′W / 10.63°S 20.60°W / -10.63; -20.60 [6]

Luna 5

 Soviet Union

1965

1474

Crashed

8°N 23°W / 8°N 23°W / 8; -23 [7]

Luna 7

 Soviet Union

1965

1504

Crashed

9°48′N 47°48′W / 9.8°N 47.8°W / 9.8; -47.8 [8]

Luna 8

 Soviet Union

1965

100

Crashed

9°06′N 63°18′W / 9.1°N 63.3°W / 9.1; -63.3 [9]

Ranger 8

 US

1965

367

Intentionally crashed

2°38′17″N 24°47′13″E / 2.638°N 24.787°E / 2.638; 24.787 [10]

Ranger 9

 US

1965

367

Intentionally crashed

12°49′41″S 2°23′13″W / 12.828°S 2.387°W / -12.828; -2.387 [11]

Luna 9

 Soviet Union

1966

100

Landed

7°05′N 64°22′W / 7.08°N 64.37°W / 7.08; -64.37 [12]

Luna 10

 Soviet Union

1966

1600

Crashed(post-mission)

? [13][14]

Luna 11

 Soviet Union

1966

1640

Crashed

? [13][15]

Luna 12

 Soviet Union

1966

1670

Crashed

? [13][16]

Surveyor 1

 US

1966

270

Landed

2°28′26″S 43°20′20″W / 2.474°S 43.339°W / -2.474; -43.339 [17]

Luna 13

 Soviet Union

1966

1700

Landed

18°52′N 62°03′W / 18.87°N 62.05°W / 18.87; -62.05 [18]

Lunar Orbiter 1

 US

1966

386

Crashed(post-mission)

6°42′N 162°00′E / 6.70°N 162°E / 6.70; 162 [19]

Surveyor 2

 US

1966

292

Crashed

5°30′S 12°00′W / 5.5°S 12°W / -5.5; -12 [20]

Lunar Orbiter 2

 US

1966

385

Crashed(post-mission)

3°00′N 119°00′E / 3.0°N 119°E / 3.0; 119 [21]

Lunar Orbiter 3

 US

1966

386

Crashed(post-mission)

14°18′N 97°42′W / 14.3°N 97.7°W / 14.3; -97.7 [22]

Surveyor 3

 US

1967

281[23]

Landed(portions recoveredby Apollo 12 crew)

3°00′54″S 23°25′05″W / 3.015°S 23.418°W / -3.015; -23.418 [24]

Lunar Orbiter 4

 US

1967

386

Crashed(post-mission)

? [13][25]

Surveyor 4

 US

1967

283

Crashed

0°24′N 1°20′W / 0.4°N 1.33°W / 0.4; -1.33 [26]

Explorer 35 (IMP-E)

 US

1967

104.3

Crashed  (post mission)

? [13][27]

Lunar Orbiter 5

 US

1967

386

Crashed(post-mission)

3°S 83°W / 3°S 83°W / -3; -83 [28]

Surveyor 5

 US

1967

281

Landed

1°27′40″N 23°11′42″E / 1.461°N 23.195°E / 1.461; 23.195 [29]

Surveyor 6

 US

1967

282

Landed

0°29′N 1°24′W / 0.49°N 1.40°W / 0.49; -1.40 [30]

Surveyor 7

 US

1968

290

Landed

40°52′S 11°28′W / 40.86°S 11.47°W / -40.86; -11.47 [31]

Luna 14

 Soviet Union

1968

1670

Crashed

? [13][32]

Apollo 10 LM-4 Snoopy descent stage

 US

1969

2211

Crashed(post-mission)

? [13][33]

Luna 15

 Soviet Union

1969

2718

Crashed

? [34]

Apollo 11 LM-5 Eagle descent stage

 US

1969

2034

Landed

0°40′27″N 23°28′23″E / 0.6741°N 23.4730°E / 0.6741; 23.4730 [35]

Apollo 11 LM-5 Eagle ascent stage[36]

 US

1969

2184

Crashed(post-mission)

? [37]

Apollo 12 LM-6 Intrepid descent stage

 US

1969

2211

Landed

3°00′45″S 23°25′18″W / 3.0124°S 23.4216°W / -3.0124; -23.4216 [38]

Apollo 12 LM-6 Intrepid ascent stage[36]

 US

1969

2164

Crashed(post-mission)

3°56′S 21°12′W / 3.94°S 21.20°W / -3.94; -21.20 [39]

Luna 16 descent stage[40]

 Soviet Union

1970

1380

Landed

0°41′S 56°18′E / 0.68°S 56.3°E / -0.68; 56.3 [41]

Luna 17 and Lunokhod 1

 Soviet Union

1970

5600

Landed

38°17′N 35°00′W / 38.28°N 35.0°W / 38.28; -35.0 [42]

Apollo 13 S-IVB (S-IVB-508)[43]

 US

1970

13454

Intentionally crashed

2°45′S 27°52′W / 2.75°S 27.86°W / -2.75; -27.86 [44]

Luna 18

 Soviet Union

1971

1880

Crashed

3°34′N 56°30′E / 3.57°N 56.5°E / 3.57; 56.5 [45]

Luna 19

 Soviet Union

1971

1880

Crashed

? [13][46]

Apollo 14 S-IVB (S-IVB-509)

 US

1971

14016

Intentionally crashed

8°05′S 26°01′W / 8.09°S 26.02°W / -8.09; -26.02[47]

Apollo 14 LM-8 Antares descent stage

 US

1971

2144

Landed

3°38′43″S 17°28′17″W / 3.6453°S 17.4714°W / -3.6453; -17.4714[48]

Apollo 14 LM-8 Antares ascent stage[36]

 US

1971

2132

Crashed(post-mission)

3°25′S 19°40′W / 3.42°S 19.67°W / -3.42; -19.67[49]

Apollo 15 S-IVB (S-IVB-510)

 US

1971

14036

Intentionally crashed

1°31′S 11°49′W / 1.51°S 11.81°W / -1.51; -11.81[50]

Apollo 15 LM-10 Falcon descent stage

 US

1971

2809

Landed

26°07′56″N 3°38′02″E / 26.1322°N 3.6339°E / 26.1322; 3.6339[51]

Apollo 15 Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV-001)

 US

1971

210

Landed

26°05′N 3°40′E / 26.08°N 3.66°E / 26.08; 3.66

Apollo 15 LM-10 Falcon ascent stage[36]

 US

1971

2132

Crashed(post-mission)

26°22′N 0°15′E / 26.36°N 0.25°E / 26.36; 0.25[52]

Apollo 15 subsatellite

 US

1971

36

Crashed(post-mission)

?[13][53]

Luna 20 descent stage[40]

 Soviet Union

1972

< 5727

Landed

3°34′N 56°30′E / 3.57°N 56.5°E / 3.57; 56.5[54]

Apollo 16 S-IVB (S-IVB-511)

 US

1972

14002

Intentionally crashed

1°18′N 23°48′W / 1.3°N 23.8°W / 1.3; -23.8[55]

Apollo 16 LM-11 Orion descent stage

 US

1972

2765

Landed

8°58′23″S 15°30′01″E / 8.9730°S 15.5002°E / -8.9730; 15.5002[56]

Apollo 16 Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV-002)

 US

1972

210

Landed

8°58′S 15°31′E / 8.97°S 15.51°E / -8.97; 15.51

Apollo 16 LM-11 Orion ascent stage[36]

 US

1972

2138

Crashed(post-mission)

?[57]

Apollo 16 subsatellite

 US

1972

36

Crashed(post-mission)

?[13][58]

Apollo 17 S-IVB (S-IVB-512)

 US

1972

13960

Intentionally crashed

4°13′S 12°19′W / 4.21°S 12.31°W / -4.21; -12.31[59]

Apollo 17 LM-12 Challenger descent stage

 US

1972

2798

Landed

20°11′27″N 30°46′18″E / 20.1908°N 30.7717°E / 20.1908; 30.7717[60]

Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV-003)

 US

1972

210

Landed

20°10′N 30°46′E / 20.17°N 30.77°E / 20.17; 30.77

Apollo 17 LM-12 Challenger ascent stage[36]

 US

1972

2150

Crashed(post-mission)

19°58′N 30°30′E / 19.96°N 30.50°E / 19.96; 30.50[61]

Luna 21 and Lunokhod 2[62]

 Soviet Union

1973

4850

Landed

25°51′N 30°27′E / 25.85°N 30.45°E / 25.85; 30.45[63]

Explorer 49 (RAE-B)

 US

1973

328

Crashed

?[13][64]

Luna 22

 Soviet Union

1974

4000

Crashed

?[13][65]

Luna 23

 Soviet Union

1974

5600

Landed

~12.75ºN, ~62.2ºE[66]

Luna 24 descent stage[40]

 Soviet Union

1976

< 5800

Landed

12°45′N 62°12′E / 12.75°N 62.2°E / 12.75; 62.2[67]

Hagoromo / Hiten [68]

 Japan

1990

12

Crashed(orbit / crash not confirmed)

?[69]

Hiten

 Japan

1993

143

Intentionally crashed

34°18′S 55°36′E / 34.3°S 55.6°E / -34.3; 55.6[70]

Lunar Prospector

 US

1998

126

Intentionally crashed

87°42′S 42°21′E / 87.7°S 42.35°E / -87.7; 42.35[71][72]

SMART-1

 ESA

2006

307

Intentionally crashed

34°15′43″S 46°11′35″W / 34.262°S 46.193°W / -34.262; -46.193[73]

Moon Impact Probe (MIP) / Chandrayaan-1

 India

2008

35

Intentionally crashed

89°S 30°W / 89°S 30°W / -89; -30[74][75][76]

SELENE Rstar (Okina)

 Japan

2009

53

Crashed

28°12′47″N 159°01′59″W / 28.213°N 159.033°W / 28.213; -159.033[77][78][79]

Chang'e 1

 China

2009

2000[80]

Intentionally crashed

1°30′S 52°22′E / 1.50°S 52.36°E / -1.50; 52.36[81][82]

SELENE (Kaguya) main orbiter

 Japan

2009

1984[80]

Intentionally crashed

65°30′S 80°30′E / 65.5°S 80.5°E / -65.5; 80.5[83][84][85]

LCROSS Shepherding Spacecraft

 US

2009

700

Intentionally crashed

84°43′44″S 49°21′36″W / 84.729°S 49.36°W / -84.729; -49.36, -3.80909 km elevation (Cabeus crater) [86][87]

LCROSS Centaur

 US

2009

2270

Intentionally crashed

84°40′30″S 48°43′30″W / 84.675°S 48.725°W / -84.675; -48.725, -3.82693 km elevation (Cabeus crater) [88][89]

GRAIL

 US

2012

132.6

Crashed(post-mission)

75°37′N 26°38′W / 75.62°N 26.63°W / 75.62; -26.63[90]

Chang'e 3 & Yutu

 China

2013

1200

Rover ceased transmission March 2015.[91]Lander operational as of June 2018.[92][93]

44°07′N 19°31′W / 44.12°N 19.51°W / 44.12; -19.51

LADEE

 US

2014

248.2

Intentionally crashed

Eastern rim of Sundman V crater

Total estimated dry mass (kg)

189,344

text: Image gallery[edit]

text:
Map of the Moon showing some landing sites. (Click to enlarge)

 Surveyor 3 on the Moon, photographed by Alan Bean

 Locations of retro reflector experiments

 Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment (LRRR)


document_title: Rum Tum Tugger

question_text: who played the original rum tum tugger in cats

text: Rum Tum Tugger

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Rum Tum Tugger is one of the many feline characters in the poetry book Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats by T. S. Eliot, published in 1939, and in the musical Cats, which premiered in 1981 and is based on Eliot's book.

text: Eliot draws attention to the similarities between feline and human personality traits. Rum Tum Tugger is portrayed as the rebel cat who cannot help but be difficult. He is never satisfied with what you give him;

text: He is notoriously hard to please and sets himself apart from others by trying to be different. He always does the opposite of what is expected of him and by the end of the poem the reader is left with the idea that the Rum Tum Tugger is deviously self-centered and relishes in being so. The three words that are used to describe his character given to each performer who plays the role are 'Perverse, Preening, and Independent'.

text: In the musical The Rum Tum Tugger is a black tom cat with leopard spots on his chest and a wild mane. In some Japanese productions, he is white. Mayo Kawasaki, Yuichiro Yamaguchi and Kim Hyun Joon had played the role in the Japan production. He is considered the ladies' cat and the rebel of the group. He loves the limelight, while at the same time he enjoys being seen as an individual by separating himself a little from the tribe. He may be self-obsessed, but he has great respect for those who deserve it, such as Old Deuteronomy, Munkustrap, and Mr. Mistoffelees. The younger female kittens (Victoria, Etcetera, Electra and Jemima), Cassandra, Exotica and even some of the male kittens such as Plato and Tumblebrutus are in awe of him as well as some of the older queens, chiefly Bombalurina. He flirts openly with almost every female cat in the filmed version (especially Bombalurina), although Demeter seems to dislike him very deeply. During "The Awefull Battle of the Pekes and the Pollicles", he plays the bagpipes.

text: Paul Nicholas played the role on the West End and Terrence Mann originated the role in the Broadway version. Rum Tum Tugger is played by John Partridge in the filmed version. In the 25th Anniversary tour of CATS, the role of Rum Tum Tugger was performed by Gary Watson. Right now in the Worldwide tour he is played by Adam Steiner. He is played by Tyler Hanes in the 2016 Broadway Revival. In most productions he sings 'The Rum Tum Tugger', 'Magical Mr Mistoffelees', and, along with Munkustrap he sings 'Old Deuteronomy'. In "Jellicle Songs for Jellicle Cats," he does not have his mane; he has a different wig and does not have his belt on yet. His first appearance with his mane and proper Rum Tum Tugger wig and accessories is in his own song (which he enjoys greatly - he gets to destroy the Gumbie Cat's fun.)

text: Andrew Lloyd Webber has stated that the part of the Tugger is intended to be an homage to Mick Jagger of The Rolling Stones. This homage is apparent in the way he moves on stage in the original Gillian Lynne choreography and the costume styling.

text: His type of cat was said to be Maine Coon, because of his wild mane and being portrayed as being much bigger than the other cats.[1]


document_title: Initiatives and referendums in the United States

question_text: when did oregon become the first state to pass initiative referendum laws

text: History[edit]

text: The Progressive Era was a period marked by reforms aimed at breaking the concentrated power, or monopoly, of certain corporations and trusts. Many Progressives believed that state legislatures were part of this problem and that they were essentially "in the pocket" of certain wealthy interests. They sought a method to counter this—a way in which average persons could become directly involved in the political process. One of the methods they came up with was the initiative and referendum. Between 1904 and 2007, some 2231 statewide referendums initiated by citizens were held in the USA. 909 of these initiatives have been approved. Perhaps even greater is the number of such referendums that have been called by state legislatures or mandatory—600 compared to 311 civic initiatives in 2000-2007.

text: Types of initiatives and referendums[edit]

text: Initiatives and referendums—collectively known as "ballot measures," "propositions," or simply "questions"—differ from most legislation passed by representative democracies; ordinarily, an elected legislative body develops and passes laws. Initiatives and referendums, by contrast, allow citizens to vote directly on legislation.

text: In many U.S. states, ballot measures may originate by several different processes:[2] Overall, 27 US states and Washington D.C. allow some form of direct democracy.

text: Initiatives[edit]

text: An Initiative is a means through which any citizen or organization may gather a predetermined number of signatures to qualify a measure to be placed on a ballot, and to be voted upon in a future election. (These may be further divided into constitutional amendments and statutory initiatives. Statutory initiatives typically require fewer signatures to qualify to be placed on a future ballot.)

text: Initiated state statute[edit]

text: The following US states allow initiated state statutes, also called initiative (direct) state statutes:[3]

text:
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Idaho
Maine
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Dakota
Utah
Washington
Wyoming

text: Indirect initiative state statute[edit]

text: The following US states allow indirect state statutes:[4]

text:
Maine
Massachusetts (proper term is initiative petition, for all forms of referendum voting)
Michigan
Nevada
Ohio
Utah
Washington
Wyoming

text: While the following US states allow legislative action to void a petition:

text: Alaska

text: Indirect initiated state constitutional amendment[edit]

text: The initiative process, for proposing constitutional amendments, may be "direct" or "indirect". States that permit indirect constitutional amendments, like Mississippi, permit legislators to propose an alternative amendment which is placed on the ballot alongside the direct citizen proposal.[5]

text: The following US states allow indirect initiated state constitutional amendments:

text:
Massachusetts
Mississippi

text: Initiated state constitutional amendment[edit]

text: An initiated constitutional amendment is an amendment to a state's constitution that results from petitioning by a state's citizens. By utilizing this initiative process, citizens can propose and vote on constitutional amendments directly, without need of legislative referral. When a sufficient number of citizens have signed a petition requesting it, a proposed constitutional amendment is then put to the vote.

text: In the United States, while no court or legislature needs to approve a proposal or the resultant initiated constitutional amendment, such amendments may be overturned if they are challenged and a court confirms that they are unconstitutional.[6] Most states that permit the process require a 2/3 majority vote.[6]

text: Not all amendments proposed will receive sufficient support to be placed on the ballot. Of the 26 proposed petitions filed in the state of Florida in its 1994 general election, only three garnered sufficient support to be put to the vote.[7]

text: The following US states allow initiated (direct) state constitutional amendments:

text:
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Dakota

text: Referendum[edit]

text: Popular Referendum, in which a predetermined number of signatures (typically lower than the number required for an initiative) qualifies a ballot measure for repealing a specific act of the legislature.

text: The following US states allow referendum:

text:
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Delaware
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana [8]
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Dakota
Utah
Washington

text: Legislative referral[edit]

text: Legislative referral (aka "legislative referendum"), in which the legislature puts proposed legislation up for popular vote (either voluntarily or, in the case of a constitutional amendment, as a necessary part of the procedure.)

text: Legislatively-referred state statute[edit]

text: The following US states allow legislatively-referred state statutes:[9]

text:
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Delaware
Illinois
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
Utah
Washington

text: Legislatively-referred state constitutional amendment[edit]

text: With the exception of Delaware, 49 US states allow legislatively-referred state constitutional amendments.[10]

text: Objections to the system[edit]

text: The initiative and referendums process have critics. Some argue that initiatives and referendums undermine representative government by circumventing the elected representatives of the people and allowing the people to directly make policy: they fear excessive majoritarianism (tyranny of the majority) as a result, believing that minority groups may be harmed.[11][12][13]

text: Other criticisms are that competing initiatives with conflicting provisions can create legal difficulties when both pass;[14] and that when the initiatives are proposed before the end of the legislative session, the legislature can make statutory changes that weaken the case for passing the initiative.[15] Yet another criticism is that as the number of required signatures has risen in tandem with populations, "initiatives have moved away from empowering the average citizen" and toward becoming a tool for well-heeled special interests to advance their agendas.[16] John Diaz wrote in an editorial for the San Francisco Chronicle in 2008:[17]

text: There is no big secret to the formula for manipulating California's initiative process. Find a billionaire benefactor with the ideological motivation or crass self-interest to spend the $1-million plus to get something on the ballot with mercenary signature gatherers. Stretch as far as required to link it to the issue of the ages (this is for the children, Prop. 3) or the cause of the day (this is about energy independence and renewable resources, Props. 7 and 10). If it's a tough sell on the facts, give it a sympathetic face and name such as "Marsy's Law" (Prop. 9, victims' rights and parole) or "Sarah's Law" (Prop. 4, parental notification on abortion). Prepare to spend a bundle on soft-focus television advertising and hope voters don't notice the fine print or the independent analyses of good-government groups or newspaper editorial boards...Today, the initiative process is no longer the antidote to special interests and the moneyed class; it is their vehicle of choice to attempt to get their way without having to endure the scrutiny and compromise of the legislative process.

text: In some cases, voters have passed initiatives that were subsequently repealed or drastically changed by the legislature. For instance, legislation passed by the voters as an Arizonan medical cannabis initiative was subsequently gutted by the Arizona legislature.[18] To prevent such occurrences, initiatives are sometimes used to amend the state constitution and thus prevent the legislature from changing it without sending a referendum to the voters; however, this produces the problems of inflexibility mentioned above. Accordingly, some states are seeking a middle route. For example, Colorado's Referendum O would require a two-thirds vote for the legislature to change statutes passed by the voters through initiatives, until five years after such passage. This would allow the legislature to easily make uncontroversial changes.[19]

text: An objection not so much to the initiative concept, but to its present implementations, is that signature challenges are becoming a political tool, with state officials and opposing groups litigating the process, rather than simply taking the issue fight to voters.[20] Signatures can be declared void based on technical omissions, and initiatives can be thrown out based on statistical samplings of signatures. Supporters lacking necessary funds to sustain legal battles can find their initiative taken off the ballot.

text: Legislatures themselves may tighten already arduous requirements. E.g., while California or Oregon typically have dozens of ballot measures each year, Idaho has had 28 since the 1930s, of which twelve passed. The Idaho Legislature in 2013 however increased the geographical requirements for putting an initiative on the ballot[21] after a trio of unpopular education laws ("Students Come First") were repealed by the voters. Despite the new requirement of the signatures of 6% of the registered voters in 18 of Idaho's 35 legislative districts before May,[22] as of mid-April 2018 the drive to put the Medicaid gap before the voters on the November ballot (by way of their amending the state constitution, yea or nay)[23] was well on its way to gathering the prerequisite number of signatures in the prerequisite number of legislative districts, much to the surprise of pundits.[24] Ultimately the organizers had by the April 30 deadline delivered 60,000 signatures to county clerks' offices, which if verified are far more than the 56,192 required.[25]

text: Proposed reforms[edit]

text: Some proposed reforms include paying signature gatherers by the hour, rather than by the signature (to reduce incentives for fraud) and increasing transparency by requiring major financial backers of initiatives to be disclosed to potential signatories. Other proposals include having a "cooling-off" period after an initiative qualifies, in which the legislature can make the initiative unnecessary by passing legislation acceptable to the initiative's sponsors.[26] It has also been proposed that proxy voting be  combined with initiative and referendum to form a hybrid of direct democracy and representative democracy.[27]

text: National initiative[edit]

text: The national initiative is a proposal to amend the United States Constitution to allow ballot initiatives at the federal level.

text: Citizens' Initiative Review[edit]

text: Healthy Democracy, and a similar organization in Washington State, proposed a Citizens' Initiative Review process. This brings together a representative cross-section of voters as a citizens' jury to question and hear from advocates and experts regarding a ballot measure; then deliberate and reflect together to come up with statements that support and/or oppose the measure. The state would organize such a review of each ballot measure, and include the panelists' statements in the voters' pamphlet.  Since 2009, Healthy Democracy has led efforts to develop and refine the Citizens' Initiative Review process for use by Oregon voters .

text: In 2011, the Oregon Legislature approved House Bill 2634, legislation making the Citizens' Initiative Review a permanent part of Oregon elections.[28] This marked the first time a legislature has made voter deliberation a formalized part of the election process. The CIR is a benchmark in the initiative reform and public engagement fields.

text: Each state has individual requirements to qualify initiatives for the ballot.  Generally, all 24 states and the District of Columbia follow steps similar to:

text:
File a proposed petition with a designated state official
State review of the proposal and, in several states, a review of the language of the proposal
Prepare ballot title and summary
Petition circulation to obtain the required number of signatures
Petition submitted to state election officials to verify the signatures and qualify the ballot entry