document_title: Air conditioning

question_text: when did a/c first appear in homes

question_tokens: when did a / c first appear in homes

text: Air conditioning

text: History[edit]

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling. The business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century.[4] This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines.

text: The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window. This process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season.[5]

text: The 2nd-century Chinese mechanical engineer and inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners of the time.[6] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Tian) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song Dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[7]

text: In the 17th century, the Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" as an early form of modern air conditioning for James I of England by adding salt to water.[8]

text: Development of mechanical cooling[edit]

text: Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by American inventor Willis Carrier. The introduction of residential air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States.[citation needed]

text: In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to speed up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F). Franklin noted that, soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (1⁄4 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."[9]

text: In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. Though his process improved the artificial production of ice, his hopes for its success vanished soon afterwards when his chief financial backer died and Gorrie did not get the money he needed to develop the machine. According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855, and the dream of commonplace air conditioning went away for 50 years.[citation needed]

text: James Harrison's first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong (Australia). His first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1853, and his patent for an ether vapor compression refrigeration system was granted in 1855. This novel system used a compressor to force the refrigeration gas to pass through a condenser, where it cooled down and liquefied. The liquefied gas then circulated through the refrigeration coils and vaporized again, cooling down the surrounding system. The machine produced 3,000 kilograms of ice per day.[citation needed]

text: Though Harrison had commercial success establishing a second ice company back in Sydney in 1860, he later entered the debate over how to compete against the American advantage of ice refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom. He wrote: "Fresh meat frozen and packed as if for a voyage, so that the refrigerating process may be continued for any required period", and in 1873 prepared the sailing ship Norfolk for an experimental beef shipment to the United Kingdom. His choice of a cold room system instead of installing a refrigeration system upon the ship itself proved disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than expected.[citation needed]

text: Electrical air conditioning[edit]

text: In 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo, New York. After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo Forge Company. While there, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an application problem for the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began working on 17 July 1902.[citation needed]

text: Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, Carrier's invention controlled not only temperature but also humidity. Carrier used his knowledge of the heating of objects with steam and reversed the process. Instead of sending air through hot coils, he sent it through cold coils (filled with cold water). The air was cooled, and thereby the amount of moisture in the air could be controlled, which in turn made the humidity in the room controllable. The controlled temperature and humidity helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over time, air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles as well. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s.[citation needed]

text: In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.[10]

text: Shortly thereafter, the first private home to have air conditioning was built in Minneapolis in 1914, owned by Charles Gates.[11] Realizing that air conditioning would one day be a standard feature of private homes, particularly in regions with warmer climate, David St. Pierre DuBose (1898-1994) designed a network of ductwork and vents for his home Meadowmont, all disguised behind intricate and attractive Georgian-style open moldings.[when?] This building is believed to be one of the first private homes in the United States equipped for central air conditioning.[12]

text: In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[13]

text: Refrigerant development[edit]

text: The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such as ammonia, methyl chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The name is a trademark name owned by DuPont for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant. The refrigerant names include a number indicating the molecular composition (e.g., R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort cooling is an HCFC known as chlorodifluoromethane (R-22).

text: Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12) was the most common blend used in automobiles in the US until 1994, when most designs changed to R-134A due to the ozone-depleting potential of R-12. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US for this type of application, so the only source for air-conditioning repair purposes is the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems. Several non-ozone-depleting refrigerants have been developed as alternatives, including R-410A. It was first commercially used by Carrier Corp. under the brand name Puron.[citation needed]

text: Modern refrigerants have been developed to be more environmentally safe than many of the early chlorofluorocarbon-based refrigerants used in the early- and mid-twentieth century. These include HCFCs (R-22, as used in most U.S. homes even before 2011) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs, in turn, are supposed to have been in the process of being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by HFCs such as R-410A, which lack chlorine.[14] HFCs, however, contribute to climate change problems. Moreover, policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted change.[15][16] Corporations insisted that no alternatives to HFCs existed. The environmental organization Greenpeace solicited a European laboratory to research an alternative ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant in 1992, gained patent rights to a hydrocarbon mix of isopentane and isobutane, but then left the technology as open access.[17][18] Their activist marketing first in Germany led to companies like Whirlpool, Bosch, and later LG and others to incorporate the technology throughout Europe, then Asia, although the corporate executives resisted in Latin America, so that it arrived in Argentina produced by a domestic firm in 2003, and then finally with giant Bosch's production in Brazil by 2004.[19][20]

text: In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.[21] DuPont and other companies blocked the refrigerant in the U.S. with the U.S. E.P.A., disparaging the approach as "that German technology."[20][22] Nevertheless, in 2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and others, to create a corporate coalition called Refrigerants Naturally!.[21][23] Then, four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.[24] Only in 2011 did the E.P.A. finally decide in favor of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.[17][25][26]

text: Operating principles[edit]

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text: Refrigeration cycle[edit]

text: In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from a colder location to a hotter area. As heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction, work is required to achieve this. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into its environment. The refrigerant is used as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently ejects that heat elsewhere.

text: Circulating refrigerant vapor enters the compressor, where its pressure and temperature are increased. The hot, compressed refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed and is routed through a condenser. Here it is cooled by air flowing across the condenser coils and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating refrigerant removes heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air. The removal of this heat can be greatly augmented by pouring water over the condenser coils, making it much cooler when it hits the expansion valve.

text: The condensed, pressurized, and still usually somewhat hot liquid refrigerant is next routed through an expansion valve (often nothing more than a pinhole in the system's copper tubing) where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, greatly lowering its temperature. Aircraft air conditioners use turbines for cooling, more efficient but more complex. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator. A fan blows the interior warm air (which is to be cooled) across the evaporator, causing the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled and is pumped by an exhaust fan/ blower into the room. To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the compressor. In order for the process to have any efficiency, the cooling/evaporative portion of the system must be separated by some kind of physical barrier from the heating/condensing portion, and each portion must have its own fan to circulate its own "kind" of air (either the hot air or the cool air).

text: Modern air conditioning systems are not designed to draw air into the room from the outside, they only recirculate the increasingly cool air on the inside. Because this inside air always has some amount of moisture suspended in it, the cooling portion of the process always causes ambient warm water vapor to condense on the cooling coils and to drip from them down onto a catch tray at the bottom of the unit from which it must then be routed outside, usually through a drain hole. As this moisture has no dissolved minerals in it, it will not cause mineral buildup on the coils. This will happen even if the ambient humidity level is low. If ice begins to form on the evaporative fins, it will reduce circulation efficiency and cause the development of more ice, etc. A clean and strong circulatory fan can help prevent this, as will raising the target cool temperature of the unit's thermostat to a point that the compressor is allowed to turn off occasionally. A failing thermistor may also cause this problem. Refrigerators without a defrost cycle may have this same issue. Dust can also cause the fins to begin blocking air flow with the same undesirable result: ice.

text: By running an air conditioner's compressor in the opposite direction, the overall effect can be completely reversed and the indoor compartment will become heated instead of cooled (see heat pump). The engineering of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas–vapor mixtures is called psychrometrics.

text: Heat pump unit[edit]

text: A heat pump is an air conditioner in which the refrigeration cycle can be reversed, producing heating instead of cooling in the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as a "reverse cycle air conditioner". The heat pump is significantly more energy efficient than electric resistance heating. Some homeowners elect to have a heat pump system installed as a feature of a central air conditioner. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator, and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

text: Air-source heat pumps are more popular in milder winter climates where the temperature is frequently in the range of 40–55 °F (4–13 °C), because heat pumps become inefficient in more extreme cold. This is because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to being the condenser coil, so that it can heat up and defrost. A heat pump system will therefore have a form of electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode in order to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter.

text: The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are commonly installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as a natural gas or oil furnace, which is used instead of the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during the milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

text: Absorption heat pumps are a kind of air-source heat pump, but they do not depend on electricity to power them. Instead, gas, solar power, or heated water is used as a main power source. An absorption pump dissolves ammonia gas in water, which gives off heat. Next, the water and ammonia mixture is depressurized to induce boiling, and the ammonia is boiled off, which absorbs heat from the outdoor air.[citation needed]

text: Some more expensive fixed window air conditioning units have a true heat pump function. However, a window unit may only have an electric resistance heater.

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: In very dry climates, evaporative coolers, sometimes referred to as swamp coolers or desert coolers, are popular for improving coolness during hot weather. An evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water. The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The temperature of the incoming air is reduced, but it is also more humid, so the total heat (sensible heat plus latent heat) is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite substantial.

text: Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.[27] These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.

text: Free cooling[edit]

text: Air conditioning can also be provided by a process called free cooling which uses pumps to circulate a coolant (typically water or a glycol mix) from a cold source, which in turn acts as a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Common storage media are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter boreholes, equipped with heat exchanger. Some systems with small storage capacity are hybrid systems, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added because the temperature of the storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining its effectiveness.

text: Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Free cooling and hybrid systems are mature technology.[28]

text: Humidity control[edit]

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text: Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 50% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.[citation needed]

text: Dehumidification and cooling[edit]

text: Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dewpoint) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, much like an ice-cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass. Therefore, water vapor is removed from the cooled air and the relative humidity in the room is lowered. The water is usually sent to a drain or may simply drip onto the ground outdoors. The heat is rejected by the condenser which is located outside of room to be cooled.

text: Dehumidification Program[edit]

text: On most modern air-conditioning systems there is a dehumidification cycle; the compressor is on and the fan is slowed as much as possible (lowest speed under normal conditions).[citation needed] This reduces the evaporator temperature and therefore condenses more water than if it were to have a high fan speed. To help mitigate temperature drops when the temperature falls below a threshold, both the fan and compressor turn off,[clarification needed] this stops moisture on the evaporator being blown back into the room.[citation needed] When the temperature rises[clarification needed] again the compressor comes and the fan goes back to low speed. However occasionally the fan will stay on and compressor go off to thaw any ice produced (hence why the program doesn't work in cool conditions).

text: Inverter type air Conditioners use the inside coil temperature sensor (typically used for heat pump operation where it regulates fan speed according to how warm the evaporator is) to adjust compressor speed to keep the evaporator as cold as possible, when the evaporator is too cold[clarification needed] the compressor is slowed or stopped with the indoor fan running.

text: Dehumidifier[edit]

text: A specialized air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. It also uses a refrigeration cycle, but differs from a standard air conditioner in that both the evaporator and the condenser are placed in the same air path. A standard air conditioner transfers heat energy out of the room because its condenser coil releases heat outside. However, since all components of the dehumidifier are in the same room, no heat energy is removed. Instead, the electric power consumed by the dehumidifier remains in the room as heat, so the room is actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power.

text: In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier always will warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity directly by condensing and removing water.

text: Inside the unit, the air passes over the evaporator coil first, and is cooled and dehumidified. The now dehumidified, cold air then passes over the condenser coil where it is warmed up again. Then the air is released back into the room. The unit produces warm, dehumidified air and can usually be placed freely in the environment (room) that is to be conditioned.

text: Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors, especially in basements. They are also used to protect sensitive equipment from the adverse effects of excessive humidity in tropical countries.

text: Energy transfer[edit]

text: In a thermodynamically closed system, any power dissipated into the system that is being maintained at a set temperature (which is a standard mode of operation for modern air conditioners) requires that the rate of energy removal by the air conditioner increase. This increase has the effect that, for each unit of energy input into the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system), the air conditioner removes that energy.[29] To do so, the air conditioner must increase its power consumption by the inverse of its "efficiency" (coefficient of performance) times the amount of power dissipated into the system. As an example, assume that inside the closed system a 100 W heating element is activated, and the air conditioner has an coefficient of performance of 200%. The air conditioner's power consumption will increase by 50 W to compensate for this, thus making the 100 W heating element cost a total of 150 W of power.

text: It is typical for air conditioners to operate at "efficiencies" of significantly greater than 100%.[30] However, it may be noted that the input electrical energy is of higher thermodynamic quality (lower entropy) than the output thermal energy (heat energy).

text: Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration". A ton of refrigeration is approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2000 pounds or 907 kilograms) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is defined as 12,000 BTU per hour, or 3517 watts.[31] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3 to 20 kilowatts (kW)) in capacity.

text: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio[edit]

text: For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER). The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of cooling output during its normal annual usage divided by the total electric energy input in watt hours (W·h) during the same period.[32]

text: this can also be rewritten as:

text: For example, a 5000 BTU/h air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10, would consume 5000/10 = 500 Watts of power on average.

text: The electrical energy consumed per year can be calculated as the average power multiplied by the annual operating time:

text: Assuming 1000 hours of operation during a typical cooling season (i.e., 8 hours per day for 125 days per year).

text: Another method that yields the same result, is to calculate the total annual cooling output:

text: Then, for a SEER of 10, the annual electrical energy usage would be:

text: SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics and also to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair of external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole range of external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of the SEER test). SEER is unusual in that it is composed of an Imperial unit divided by an SI unit. The COP is a ratio with the same metric units of energy (joules) in both the numerator and denominator. They cancel out, leaving a dimensionless quantity. Formulas for the approximate conversion between SEER and EER or COP are available.[33]

text: From equation (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43, which means that 3.43 units of heat energy are pumped per unit of work energy.

text: The United States now requires that residential systems manufactured in 2006 have a minimum SEER rating of 13 (although window-box systems are exempt from this law, so their SEER is still around 10).

text: Installation types[edit]

text: Window unit and packaged terminal[edit]

text: Window unit air conditioners are installed in an open window. The interior air is cooled as a fan blows it over the evaporator. On the exterior the heat drawn from the interior is dissipated into the environment as a second fan blows outside air over the condenser. A large house or building may have several such units, allowing each room to be cooled separately.

text: In 1971, General Electric introduced a popular portable in-window air conditioner designed for convenience and portability.[34]

text: Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) systems are also known as wall-split air conditioning systems.[35] They are ductless systems. PTACs, which are frequently used in hotels, have two separate units (terminal packages), the evaporative unit on the interior and the condensing unit on the exterior, with an opening passing through the wall and connecting them. This minimizes the interior system footprint and allows each room to be adjusted independently. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. While room air conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when used to cool many rooms at a time it is generally more expensive than central air conditioning.

text: The first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and offered for sale starting in 1935.[36]

text: Split systems[edit]

text: Split-system air conditioners come in two forms: mini-split and central systems. In both types, the inside-environment (evaporative) heat exchanger is separated by some distance from the outside-environment (condensing unit) heat exchanger.

text: Mini-split (ductless) system[edit]

text: A mini-split system typically supplies air conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a building.[37] Multi-zone systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to 8 rooms (zones) to be conditioned from a single outdoor unit. Multi-zone systems typically offer a variety of indoor unit styles including wall-mounted, ceiling-mounted, ceiling recessed, and horizontal ducted. Mini-split systems typically produce 9,000 to 36,000 Btu (9,500–38,000 kJ) per hour of cooling. Multi-zone systems provide extended cooling and heating capacity up to 60,000 Btu's.

text: Advantages of the ductless system include smaller size and flexibility for zoning or heating and cooling individual rooms. The inside wall space required is significantly reduced. Also, the compressor and heat exchanger can be located farther away from the inside space, rather than merely on the other side of the same unit as in a PTAC or window air conditioner. Flexible exterior hoses lead from the outside unit to the interior one(s); these are often enclosed with metal to look like common drainpipes from the roof. In addition, ductless systems offer higher efficiency, reaching above 30 SEER.[38]

text: The primary disadvantage of ductless air conditioners is their cost. Such systems cost about US$1,500 to US$2,000 per ton (12,000 BTU per hour) of cooling capacity. This is about 30% more than central systems (not including ductwork) and may cost more than twice as much as window units of similar capacity."[39]

text: An additional possible disadvantage that the cost of installing mini splits can be higher than some systems, although lower operating costs and rebates or other financial incentives—offered in some areas—can help offset the initial expense.[40]

text: Central (ducted) air conditioning[edit]

text: Central (ducted) air conditioning offers whole-house or large-commercial-space cooling, and often offers moderate multi-zone temperature control capability by the addition of air-louver-control boxes.

text: In central air conditioning, the inside heat-exchanger is typically placed inside the central furnace/AC unit of the forced air heating system which is then used in the summer to distribute chilled air throughout a residence or commercial building.

text: Multi-split system[edit]

text: Multi-split system[41] - is a conventional split system, which is divided into two parts (evaporator and condenser) and allows cooling or heating of several rooms with one external unit. In the outdoor unit of this air conditioner there is a more powerful compressor, ports for connecting several traces and automation with locking valves for regulating the volume of freon supplied to the indoor units located in the room.

text: Difference between split system and multi-split system:

text: Other common types of air conditioning system are multi-split systems, the difference between separate split system and multi-split system in several indoor units. All of them are connected to the main external unit, but the principle of their operation is similar to a simple split-system.

text: Its unique feature is the presence of one main external unit that connected to several indoor units. Such systems might be the right solution for maintaining the microclimate in several offices, shops, large living spaces. Just few of outdoor units do not worsen the aesthetic appearance of the building.The main external unit can be connected to several different indoor types: floor, ceiling, cassette, etc.

text: Multi-split system Installation:

text: Before selecting the installation location of air conditioner, several main factors need to be considered.[42] First of all, the direction of air flow from the indoor units should not fall on the place of rest or work area. Secondly, there should not be any obstacles on the way of the airflow that might prevent it from covering the space of the premises as much as possible. The outdoor unit must also be located in an open space, otherwise the heat from the house will not be effectively discharged outside and the productivity of the entire system will drop sharply. It is highly advisable to install the air conditioner units in easily accessible places, for further maintenance during operation.

text: The main problem when installing a multi-split system is the laying of long freon lines for connecting the external unit to the internal ones. While installing a separate split system, workers try to locate both units opposite to each other, where the length of the line is minimal. Installing a multi-split system creates more difficulties, since some of indoor units can be located far from the outside. The first models of multi-split systems had one common control system that did not allow you to set the air conditioning individually for each room. However, now the market has a wide selection of multi-split systems, in which the functional characteristics of indoor units operate separately from each other.

text: The selection of indoor units has one restriction - their total power should not exceed the capacity of the outdoor unit. In practice, however, it’s very common to see a multi-split system with a total capacity of indoor units greater than the outdoor capacity by at least 20%. But, it is wrong to expect better performance when all indoor units are turned on at the same time, since the total capacity of the whole system is limited by the capacity of the outdoor unit. Simply put, the outdoor unit will distribute all its power to all operating indoor units in such a way that some of the rooms may not have a very comfortable temperature level. However, the calculation of the total power is not simple, since it takes into account not only the nominal power of the units, but also the cooling capacity, heating, dehumidification, humidification, venting, etc.

text: Portable units[edit]

text: A portable air conditioner can be easily transported inside a home or office. They are currently available with capacities of about 5,000–60,000 BTU/h (1,500–18,000 W) and with or without electric-resistance heaters. Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.

text: The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.

text: Portable split system[edit]

text: A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit.

text: Portable hose system[edit]

text: Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose and can run continuously.

text: A single-hose unit uses air from within the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside. This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms (due to the negative pressure inside the room), thus reducing the unit's overall efficiency.[43]

text: Modern units might have a coefficient of performance of approximately 3 (i.e., 1 kW of electricity will produce 3 kW of cooling). A dual-hose unit draws air to cool its condenser from outside instead of from inside the room, and thus is more effective than most single-hose units. These units create no negative pressure in the room.

text: Portable evaporative system[edit]

text: Evaporative coolers, sometimes called "swamp coolers", do not have a compressor or condenser. Liquid water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into the cooled area. Evaporating water absorbs a significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporisation, cooling the air. Humans and animals use the same mechanism to cool themselves by sweating.

text: Evaporative coolers have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area, making them truly portable. They are also very cheap to install and use less energy than refrigerative air conditioners.

text: Uses[edit]

text: Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process applications.

text: Comfort applications[edit]

text: Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.

text: Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they would have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces received sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller, since wind speed increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings.[citation needed] Comfort applications are quite different for various building types and may be categorized as:

text:
Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc.
High-rise residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks
Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired
Cars, aircraft, boats, which transport passenger or fresh goods
Institutional buildings, which includes government buildings, hospitals, schools, etc.
Low-rise residential buildings, including single-family houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings
Sports stadiums, such as the University of Phoenix Stadium[44] and in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[45]

text: Women have, on average, a significantly lower resting metabolic rate than men.[46] Using inaccurate metabolic rate guidelines for air conditioning sizing can result in oversized and less efficient equipment,[46] and setting system operating setpoints too cold can result in reduced worker productivity.[47]

text: In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation, including automobiles, buses and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

text: Domestic usage[edit]

text: Air conditioning is common in the US, with 88% of new single-family homes constructed in 2011 including air conditioning, ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West.[48] In Canada, air conditioning use varies by province. In 2013, 55% of Canadian households reported having an air conditioner, with high use in Manitoba (80%), Ontario (78%), Saskatchewan (67%), and Quebec (54%) and lower use in Prince Edward Island (23%), British Columbia (21%), and Newfoundland and Labrador (9%).[49] In Europe, home air conditioning is generally less common. Southern European countries such as Greece have seen a wide proliferation of home air-conditioning units in recent years.[50] In another southern European country, Malta, it is estimated that around 55% of households have an air conditioner installed.[51] In India AC sales have dropped by 40% [clarification needed] due to higher costs and stricter energy efficiency regulations.[52]

text: Process applications[edit]

text: Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. It is the needs of the process that determine conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these:

text:
Chemical and biological laboratories
Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits, pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required for the success of the process.
Environmental control of data centers
Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals normally reproduce only in spring, holding them in rooms in which conditions mirror those of spring all year can cause them to reproduce year-round.
Food cooking and processing areas
Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort range, some specialist procedures, such as open heart surgery, require low temperatures (about 18 °C, 64 °F) and others, such as neonatal, relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82 °F).
Industrial environments
Mining
Nuclear power facilities
Physical testing facilities
Plants and farm growing areas
Textile manufacturing

text: In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not only control temperature, but also humidity, air quality, and air movement from space to space.

text: Health effects[edit]

text: Air-conditioning systems can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms,[53] such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease, or thermophilic actinomycetes; however, this is only prevalent in poorly maintained water cooling towers. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced.

text: Conversely, air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. Excessive air conditioning can have a negative effect on skin, causing it to dry out, and can also cause dehydration.[citation needed]

text: Environmental impacts[edit]

text: Power consumption[edit]

text: Innovation in air conditioning technologies continues, with much recent emphasis placed on energy efficiency. Production of the electricity used to operate air conditioners has an environmental impact, including the release of greenhouse gases.

text: Cylinder unloaders are a method of load control used mainly in commercial air conditioning systems.[54] On a semi-hermetic (or open) compressor, the heads can be fitted with unloaders which remove a portion of the load from the compressor so that it can run better when full cooling is not needed. Unloaders can be electrical or mechanical.

text: Use of programmable thermostats[edit]

text: In the United States, 87 percent of the homes use air conditioning and 65 percent of those homes having central air conditioning. Most of the homes with central air conditioning have programmable thermostats, but approximately two-thirds of the homes with central air do not use the features of them to make their homes more energy efficient.[55]

text: Automobile power consumption[edit]

text: In an automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine's power, thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.[56]

text: Refrigerants[edit]

text: Most refrigerants used for air conditioning contribute to global warming, and many also deplete the ozone layer.[57] CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are potent greenhouse gases when leaked to the atmosphere.

text: The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, including the refrigerants R-11 and R-12 (sold under the brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th century in air conditioners due to their superior stability and safety properties. When they are released accidentally or deliberately, these chlorine-bearing refrigerants eventually reach the upper atmosphere.[58] Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun homolytically cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine radicals catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable molecule and quenching the chain reaction.

text: Prior to 1994, most automotive air conditioning systems used R-12 as a refrigerant. It was replaced with R-134a refrigerant, which has no ozone depletion potential. Old R-12 systems can be retrofitted to R-134a by a complete flush and filter/dryer replacement to remove the mineral oil, which is not compatible with R-134a.

text: R22 (also known as HCFC-22) has a global warming potential about 1,800 times higher than CO2.[59] It was phased out for use in new equipment by 2010, and is to be completely discontinued by 2020. Although these gasses can be recycled when air conditioning units are disposed of, uncontrolled dumping and leaking can release gas directly into the atmosphere.

text: In the UK, the Ozone Regulations[60] came into force in 2000 and banned the use of ozone depleting HCFC refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-up" fluid for maintenance between 2010 (for virgin fluid) and 2015 (for recycled fluid). This means that equipment that uses R22 can still operate, as long as it does not leak. Although R22 is now banned, units that use the refrigerant can still be serviced and maintained.[61]

text: The manufacture and use of CFCs has been banned or severely restricted due to concerns about ozone depletion (see also Montreal Protocol).[62][63] In light of these environmental concerns, beginning on November 14, 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerant to only licensed technicians, per rules under sections 608 and 609 of the Clean Air Act.[64]

text: As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, other gases, such as CO2 (R-744), have been proposed.[65] R-744 is being adopted as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan. It is an effective refrigerant with a global warming potential of 1, but it must use higher compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect.[citation needed]

text: In 1992, a non-governmental organization, Greenpeace, was spurred by corporate executive policies and requested that a European lab find substitute refrigerants. This led to two alternatives, one a blend of propane (R290) and isobutane (R600a), and one of pure isobutane.[18][21] Industry resisted change in Europe until 1993, and in the U.S. until 2011, despite some supportive steps in 2004 and 2008 (see Refrigerant Development above).[26][66]


document_title: Kim Jong-un

question_text: where did north korean leader go to college

root

text: Kim Jong-un

text: Early life

text: Scarce information on Kim Jong-un's early life comes from North Korean defectors and people who have claimed to witness him abroad, such as during his school attendance in Switzerland. Some of the information has been conflicting and contradictory, perhaps confusing him with his brother, Kim Jong-chul, who also attended school in Switzerland around the same time. Nevertheless, there has been some consensus on information about his early life. North Korean authorities have stated that his birthdate is 8 January 1982, but South Korean intelligence officials believe the actual date is a year later. Former basketball star Dennis Rodman said that the birthdate is 8 January 1983 after meeting Kim in September 2013 in North Korea.[2] Kim Jong-Un was the second of three children Ko Yong-hui bore to Kim Jong-il; his elder brother Kim Jong-chul was born in 1981, while his younger sister, Kim Yo-jong, is believed to have been born in 1987.[17][18]

tag: p

text: According to reports first published in Japanese newspapers, he went to school in Switzerland near Bern. First reports claimed he attended the private English-language International School in Gümligen under the name "Chol-pak" or "Pak-chol" from 1993 to 1998.[19] He was described as shy, a good student who got along well with his classmates and was a basketball fan.[20] He was chaperoned by an older student, who was thought to be his bodyguard.[21]

text: Later, it was reported that Kim Jong-un attended the Liebefeld Steinhölzli school in Köniz near Bern under the name "Pak-un" or "Un-pak" from 1998 until 2000 as the son of an employee of the North Korean embassy in Bern. Authorities of Köniz confirmed that a student from North Korea, registered as the son of a member of the embassy, attended the school from August 1998 until the autumn of 2000, but were unable to give details about his identity. Pak-un first attended a special class for foreign-language children and later attended the regular classes of the 6th, 7th, 8th, and part of the final 9th year, leaving the school abruptly in the autumn of 2000. He was described as a well-integrated and ambitious student who liked to play basketball.[22] However, his grades and attendance rating are reported to have been poor.[23] The ambassador of North Korea in Switzerland, Ri Chol, had a close relationship with him and acted as a mentor.[24] One of Pak-un's classmates told reporters that he had told him that he was the son of the leader of North Korea.[25][26] According to some reports, Jong-un was described by classmates as a shy child who was awkward with girls and indifferent to political issues, but who distinguished himself in sports and had a fascination with the American National Basketball Association and Michael Jordan. One friend claimed that he had been shown pictures of Pak-un with Kobe Bryant and Toni Kukoč.[27]

text: In April 2012, new documents came to light indicating that Kim Jong-un had lived in Switzerland since 1991 or 1992, earlier than previously thought.[28]

text: The Laboratory of Anatomic Anthropology at the University of Lyon, France, after comparing the picture of the boy Pak-un taken at the Liebefeld Steinhölzli school in 1999 with a picture of Kim Jong-un from 2012 came to the conclusion that the two faces show a conformity of 95%. The head of the institute, Raoul Perrot, a forensic anthropologist, considers it most likely that the two pictures show the same person.[29]

text: It is believed that the student at the Gümligen International School may not have been Kim Jong-un, but his elder brother Kim Jong-chul. It is not known whether the student known as Pak-un in Liebefeld Steinhölzli lived in Switzerland prior to 1998.[30] All the children of Kim Jong-il are said to have lived in Switzerland, as well as the mother of the two youngest sons, who lived in Geneva for some time.[24]

text: Most analysts agree that Kim Jong-un attended Kim Il-sung University, a leading officer-training school in Pyongyang, from 2002 to 2007.[31]

text: For many years, only one confirmed photograph of him was known to exist outside North Korea, apparently taken in the mid-1990s, when he was eleven.[32] Occasionally other supposed images of him surfaced but were often disputed.[33] It was only in June 2010, shortly before he was given official posts and publicly introduced to the North Korean people, that more pictures were released of Kim, taken when he was attending school in Switzerland.[34] The first official image of him as an adult was a group photograph released on 30 September 2010, at the end of the party conference that effectively anointed him, in which he is seated in the front row, two places from his father. This was followed by newsreel footage of him attending the conference.[35]

text: In 2013, Kim Jong-un was awarded an honorary doctorate in Economics by HELP University, a private Malaysian university.[36]

text: Succession

text: Pre-2010 Party Conference speculation

text: Kim Jong-un's eldest half-brother, Kim Jong-nam, had been the favorite to succeed, but reportedly fell out of favor after 2001, when he was caught attempting to enter Japan on a fake passport to visit Tokyo Disneyland.[37] Kim Jong-nam was killed in Malaysia in 2017 by suspected North Korean agents.[38]

text: Kim Jong-il's former personal chef, Kenji Fujimoto, revealed details regarding Kim Jong-un, with whom he had a good relationship,[39] stating that he was favored to be his father's successor. Fujimoto also said that Jong-un was favored by his father over his elder brother, Kim Jong-chul, reasoning that Jong-chul is too feminine in character, while Jong-un is "exactly like his father".[40] Furthermore, Fujimoto stated that "If power is to be handed over then Jong-un is the best for it. He has superb physical gifts, is a big drinker and never admits defeat." Also, according to Fujimoto, Jong-un smokes Yves Saint Laurent cigarettes, loves Johnnie Walker whisky and has a Mercedes-Benz 600 luxury sedan.[41] When Jong-un was 18, Fujimoto described an episode where Jong-un once questioned his lavish lifestyle and asked, "We are here, playing basketball, riding horses, riding jet skis, having fun together. But what of the lives of the average people?"[40] On 15 January 2009 the South Korean news agency Yonhap reported that Kim Jong-il had appointed Kim Jong-un to be his successor.[37][42]

text: On 8 March 2009, BBC News reported that Kim Jong-un was on the ballot for elections to the Supreme People's Assembly, the rubber stamp parliament of North Korea.[43] Subsequent reports indicated that his name did not appear on the list of lawmakers,[44] but he was later elevated to a mid-level position in the National Defense Commission, which is a branch of the North Korean military.[45]

text: From 2009, it was understood by foreign diplomatic services that Kim was to succeed his father Kim Jong-il as the head of the Korean Workers' Party and de facto leader of North Korea.[47] He has been named "Yŏngmyŏng-han Tongji" (영명한 동지), which loosely translates to "Brilliant Comrade".[48] His father had also asked embassy staff abroad to pledge loyalty to his son.[49] There have also been reports that citizens in North Korea were encouraged to sing a newly composed "song of praise" to Kim Jong-un, in a similar fashion to that of praise songs relating to Kim Jong-il and Kim Il-sung.[50] Later, in June, Kim was reported to have visited China secretly to "present himself" to the Chinese leadership, who later warned against North Korea conducting another nuclear test.[51] The Chinese foreign ministry has strongly denied that this visit occurred.[52]

text: In September 2009, it was reported that Kim Jong-il had secured support for the succession plan, after a propaganda campaign.[53] It is believed by some that Kim Jong-un was involved in the Cheonan sinking[54] and the bombardment of Yeonpyeong[55] to strengthen his military credentials and facilitate a successful transition of power from his father.[56]

text: Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission

text: Kim Jong-un was made a daejang, the equivalent of a four-star general in the United States,[57] on 27 September 2010, a day ahead of a rare Workers' Party of Korea conference in Pyongyang, the first time North Korean media had mentioned him by name and despite his having no previous military experience.[58] Despite the promotion, no further details, including verifiable portraits of Kim, were released.[59] On 28 September 2010, he was named vice chairman of the Central Military Commission and appointed to the Central Committee of the Workers' Party, in an apparent nod to become the successor to Kim Jong-il.[60]

text: On 10 October 2010, alongside his father, Kim Jong-un attended the ruling Workers' Party's 65th anniversary celebration. This was seen as confirming his position as the next leader of the Workers' Party. Unprecedented international press access was granted to the event, further indicating the importance of Kim Jong-un's presence.[61] In January 2011, the regime reportedly began purging around 200 protégés of both Jong-un's uncle-in-law Jang Song-thaek and O Kuk-ryol, the vice chairman of the National Defence Commission, by either detention or execution to further prevent either man from rivaling Jong-un.[62]

text: Ruler of North Korea

text: On 17 December 2011, Kim Jong-il died. Despite the elder Kim's plans, it was not immediately clear after his death whether Jong-un would in fact take full power, and what his exact role in a new government would be.[63] Some analysts had predicted that when Kim Jong-il died, Jang Song-thaek would act as regent, as Jong-un was too inexperienced to immediately lead the country.[64][65]

text: Following his father's death, Kim Jong-un was hailed as the "great successor to the revolutionary cause of Juche", "outstanding leader of the party, army and people"[66] and "respected comrade who is identical to Supreme Commander Kim Jong-il",[67] and was made chairman of the Kim Jong-il funeral committee. The Korean Central News Agency described Kim Jong-un as "a great person born of heaven", a propaganda term only his father and grandfather had enjoyed.[68] And the ruling Workers' Party said in an editorial, "We vow with bleeding tears to call Kim Jong-un our supreme commander, our leader."[69]

text: He was publicly declared Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army on 24 December 2011[70] and formally appointed to the position on 30 December when the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party "courteously proclaimed that the dear respected Kim Jong Un, vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission of the WPK, assumed the supreme commandership of the Korean People's Army".[1]

text: On 26 December 2011, the leading North Korean newspaper Rodong Sinmun reported that Kim Jong-un had been acting as chairman of the Central Military Commission,[71] and supreme leader of the country, following his father's demise.[72]

text: On 9 January 2012, a large rally was held by Korean People's Army in front of Kumsusan Palace of the Sun to honor Kim Jong-un and demonstrate loyalty.[73]

text: In 2013, Forbes named Kim Jong-un the World's 46th Most Powerful Person.[74]

text: Assuming official titles

text: On 27 March 2012, Kim was elected to the Fourth Conference of the Workers' Party of Korea. On 11 April, that conference elected him as leader of the party under the newly created title of First Secretary. This position replaced the post of general secretary, which was awarded "eternally" to Kim Jong-il. At the conference, Kim Jong-un also took his father's post as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, as well as his father's old seat on the Politburo Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea.[75] In a speech made prior to the Conference, Kim Jong-un declared that "Imbuing the whole society with Kimilsungism-Kimjongilism is the highest programme of our Party". On 13 April 2012, the 5th Session of the 12th Supreme People's Assembly appointed Kim Jong-un Chairman of the National Defence Commission.

text: On 15 April 2012, during a military parade to commemorate Kim Il-sung's centenary, Kim Jong-un made his first public speech.[76] That speech became the basis of "Onwards Toward the Final Victory".[77]

text: In July 2012,[78] Kim Jong-un was promoted to wonsu (roughly translated to marshal), the highest active rank in the military. The decision was jointly issued on by the Central Committee and the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea, the National Defence Commission, and the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, the Korean Central News Agency subsequently announced.[10] The only higher rank is Dae Wonsu (roughly translated as Grand Marshal or Generalissimo) which was held by Kim's grandfather, Kim Il-sung, and which was awarded posthumously to his father, Kim Jong-il, in February 2012.[10][78] The promotion confirmed Kim's role as top leader of the North Korean military and came days after the replacement of Chief of General Staff Ri Yong-ho by Hyon Yong-chol.[10]

text:
External image

 Satellite imagery show the message "Long Live General Kim Jong-un, the Shining Sun!" in Korean on a hillside.

tag: table

text: In November 2012, satellite photos revealed a half-kilometer-long (1,600 ft) propaganda message carved into a hillside in Ryanggang Province, reading, "Long Live General Kim Jong-un, the Shining Sun!".[79]

text: Kim Jong-il's personal chef Kenji Fujimoto stated, "Stores in Pyongyang were brimming with products and people in the streets looked cheerful. North Korea has changed a lot since Kim Jong-un assumed power. All of this is because of leader Kim Jong-un."[80]

text: Officially, Kim Jong-un is part of a triumvirate heading the executive branch of the North Korean government along with Premier Pak Pong-ju and parliament chairman Kim Yong-nam (no relation). Each nominally holds powers equivalent to a third of a president's powers in most other presidential systems. Kim Jong-un commands the armed forces, Pak Pong-ju heads the government, and Kim Yong-nam handles foreign relations. Nevertheless, it is generally understood that Kim Jong-un, like his father and grandfather before him, exercises absolute control over the government and the country. Indeed, a constitutional amendment enacted by his father explicitly named the NDC (first) chairman as "the supreme leader of the Democratic People's Republic of North Korea".[81]

text: On 30 November 2012, Kim met with Li Jianguo, who "briefed Kim on the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China", according to the state's official news agency, the Korean Central News Agency.[82] A letter from Xi Jinping was hand-delivered during the discussion.[82]

text: In 2013, Kim re-established his grandfather's style when he made his first New Year's address, a break from the approach of his father. Kim Jong-il never made televised addresses during his 17 years in power.[83] In lieu of delivering a speech, Kim Jong-il contributed to and approved a New Year's Day editorial, jointly published by Rodong Sinmun (the daily newspaper of the Korean Workers' Party), Joson Inmingun (the newspaper of the Korean People's Army), and Chongnyon Jonwi (the newspaper of the Kimilsungist-Kimjongilist Youth League).[84] At the extraordinary meeting with his top defense and security officials on 26 January 2013, Kim issued orders on preparations for a new nuclear test and introduced martial law in North Korea effective from 29 January.[85]

text: On 9 March 2014, Kim Jong-un was elected to a seat in the Supreme People's Assembly, the country's unicameral legislature. He ran unopposed, but voters had the choice of voting yes or no. There was a record turnout of voters and, according to government officials, all voted "yes" in his home district of Mount Paekdu.[86] The Supreme People's Assembly subsequently elected him first chairman of the National Defense Commission.[87]

text: In May 2014, following the collapse of an apartment building in Pyongyang, Kim Jong-un was said to be very upset at the loss of life that resulted. A statement issued by the country's official news agency the Korean Central News Agency used the rare expression "profound consolation and apology". An unnamed government official was quoted by the BBC as saying Kim Jong-un had "sat up all night, feeling painful".[88] While the height of the building and the number of casualties was not released, media reports described it is a 23-story building and indicated that more than a hundred people may have died in the collapse.[89]

text: Economic policies

text: In August 2012, Kim Jong-un announced economics reforms similar to China's.[90] Kim began to be mentioned by the North Korean state media as "supreme leader" (chego ryongdoja) at this time.

text: A set of comprehensive economic measures, the "Socialist Corporate Responsible Management System", were introduced in 2013.[91] The measures increase the autonomy of enterprises by granting them "certain rights to engage in business activities autonomously and elevate the will to labor through appropriately implementing the socialist distribution system". Another priority of economic policies that year was agriculture, where the pojon (vegetable garden) responsibility system was implemented. The system reportedly achieved a major increase in output in some collective farms.[91]

text: North Korean media were describing the economy as a "flexible collectivist system" where enterprises were applying "active and evolutionary actions" to achieve economic development.[92] These reports reflect Kim's general economic policy of reforming management, increasing the autonomy and incentives for economic actors. This set of reforms known as the "May 30th measures" reaffirms both socialist ownership and "objective economic laws in guidance and management" to improve living standards. Other objectives of the measures are to increase the availability of domestically manufactured goods on markets, introduction of defence innovations into the civilian sector and boost international trade.[92]

text: Nuclear weapons

text: Under Kim Jong-un, North Korea has continued to develop nuclear weapons. At a plenary meeting of the WPK Central Committee held on 31 March 2013, Kim Jong-un announced that North Korea will adopt "a new strategic line on carrying out economic construction and building nuclear armed forces simultaneously".[93] According to several analysts, North Korea sees the nuclear arsenal as vital to deter an attack, and it is unlikely that North Korea would launch a nuclear war.[94] During the 7th Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea in 2016, Kim Jong-un stated that North Korea would "not use nuclear weapons first unless aggressive hostile forces use nuclear weapons to invade on our sovereignty".[95] However, on other occasions, North Korea has threatened "pre-emptive" nuclear attacks against a US-led attack.[96]

text: North Korea probably does possess a dozen or so nuclear bombs.[97] However, there is no consensus on whether it has acquired intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) with nuclear warheads, capable of reaching the United States.[98] It is estimated that North Korea will have sixty nuclear warheads by 2020.[99] North Korea has rockets strong enough to power ICBMs, and, according to the US Defense Intelligence Agency, has nuclear warheads miniaturized enough to be delivered by ICBM,[100] but, according to the South Korean defense department, the ICBMs would not be able to re-enter the atmosphere intact.[101] If North Korea has sufficient nuclear warhead miniaturization technology, its Rodong medium-range missiles could probably launch nuclear strikes as far as Japan.[102]

text: In December 2015, in a release from the official Korean Central News Agency, Kim announced that his country had developed a hydrogen bomb. Kim's claim is considered unlikely.[103] Kim stated that his family "turned the DPRK into a powerful nuclear weapons state ready to detonate a self-reliant A-bomb and H-bomb to reliably defend its sovereignty and the dignity of the nation".[104]

text: As of 2016, the United Nations has enacted five cumulative rounds of sanctions against North Korea for its nuclear program and missile tests.[105]

text: Purges and executions

text: As with all reporting on North Korea, reports of purges and executions are difficult to verify.[106] In May 2016, analysts were surprised to find that General Ri Yong-gil, reported by South Korea to have been executed earlier in the year, was, in fact, alive and well.[107]

text: In December 2013, Kim Jong-un's uncle Jang Song-thaek was arrested and executed for treachery.[108] Jang is believed to have been executed by firing squad. Yonhap has stated that, according to multiple unnamed sources, Kim Jong-un has also put to death members of Jang's family, to completely destroy all traces of Jang's existence through "extensive executions" of his family, including the children and grandchildren of all close relatives. Those reportedly killed in Kim's purge include Jang's sister Jang Kye-sun, her husband and ambassador to Cuba, Jon Yong-jin, and Jang's nephew and ambassador to Malaysia, Jang Yong-chol. The nephew's two sons were also said to have been killed.[109] At the time of Jang's removal, it was announced that "the discovery and purge of the Jang group ... made our party and revolutionary ranks purer ..."[110] and after his execution on 12 December 2013 state media warned that the army "will never pardon all those who disobey the order of the Supreme Commander".[111]

text: O Sang-hon (Chosŏn'gŭl: 오상헌; RR: O Sangheon; MR: O Sanghŏn) was a deputy security minister in the Ministry of People's Security in the government of North Korea who was reportedly killed in a political purge in 2014. According to the Korean newspaper The Chosun Ilbo, O was executed by flamethrower for his role in supporting Kim Jong-un's uncle Jang Song-taek.[112]

text: Human rights violations

text: Human rights violations under the leadership of Kim Jong-il were condemned by the UN General Assembly.[113] Press reports indicate that they are continuing under Kim Jong-un.[114]

text: The 2013 report on the situation of human rights in North Korea[115] by United Nations Special Rapporteur Marzuki Darusman proposed a United Nations commission of inquiry[116] to document the accountability of Kim Jong-un and other individuals in the North Korean government for alleged crimes against humanity.[117] The report of the commission of inquiry[118] was published in February 2014 and recommends making him accountable for crimes against humanity at the International Criminal Court.[119]

text: In July 2016, the United States Department of the Treasury imposed personal sanctions on Kim. Although his involvement in human rights abuses was cited as the reason,[120] officials said the sanctions target the country's nuclear and missile programs.[121]

text: Alleged 2017 CIA assassination attempt

text: In May 2017, the North Korean government stated that the CIA and the South Korean National Intelligence Service hired a North Korean lumberjack who worked in Russia to assassinate Kim Jong-un with a "biochemical weapon"[122] that was both radioactive and nano-poisonous, and whose effect would have been delayed by a few months. North Korea said that it would seek extradition of anyone involved in the assassination attempt.[123]

text: Personality

text: Kenji Fujimoto, a Japanese chef who used to work as Kim Jong-il's personal cook, described Kim Jong-un as "a chip off the old block, a spitting image of his father in terms of face, body shape, and personality".[124]

text: The Washington Post reported in 2009 that Kim Jong-un's school friends recalled he "spent hours doing meticulous pencil drawings of Chicago Bulls superstar Michael Jordan".[125] He was obsessed with basketball and computer games.[27][126] On 26 February 2013, Kim Jong‑un met Dennis Rodman,[127] leading many reporters to speculate that Rodman was the first American that Kim had met.[128] Rodman described his trip to Kim Jong-un's private island, "It's like Hawaii or Ibiza, but he's the only one that lives there."[129] Kim Jong-un’s net worth is estimated at US$5 billion.[130]

text: In July 2012, Kim Jong-un showed a change in cultural policy from his father by attending a Moranbong Band concert. The concert contained several elements of pop culture from the West, particularly the United States. Kim used this event to debut his wife to the public, an unprecedented move in North Korea.[131]

text: According to diplomatic sources, "Kim Jong-un likes to drink and party all night like his father and ordered the [imported sauna] equipment to help him beat hangovers and fatigue."[132] Kim Jong-un is reportedly recruiting young, female companions to form a “pleasure troupe” to entertain him.[133]

text: During Dennis Rodman's trip, Vice magazine correspondent Ryan Duffy observed that "the leader was 'socially awkward' and didn't make eye contact when shaking hands".[134]

text: According to Cheong Seong-chang of the Sejong Institute, Kim Jong-un has greater visible interest in the welfare of his people and engages in greater interaction with them than his father did.[135]

text: Health

text: In 2009, reports suggested that Kim Jong-un was a diabetic and suffered from hypertension.[49][136] He is a smoker.[137]

text: Kim Jong-un did not appear in public for six weeks in September and October 2014. State media reported that he was suffering from an "uncomfortable physical condition". Previously he had been seen limping.[138] When he reappeared, he was using a walking stick.[139]

text: In September 2015, the South Korean government commented that Kim appeared to have gained 30 kg in body fat over the previous five years, reaching a total estimated body weight of 130 kg (290 lb).[140]

text: Family

text: On 25 July 2012, North Korean state media reported for the first time that Kim Jong-un is married to Ri Sol-ju (리설주).[141][142] Ri, who appears to be in her early 20s, had been accompanying Kim Jong-un to public appearances for several weeks prior to the announcement.[142] According to a South Korean analyst, Kim Jong-il had hastily arranged the marriage after suffering a stroke in 2008, the two married in 2009, and they had a child in 2010.[143] Dennis Rodman, after visiting in 2013, reported that they had a daughter named Ju-ae.[144][145] However, South Korean sources speculated that they could have many children.[146]

text: Kim is sometimes accompanied by his younger sister Kim Yo-jong,[17][18] who is said to be instrumental in creating his public image and organising public events for him.[147]

text: On 13 February 2017, Kim Jong-nam, the exiled half-brother of Kim Jong-un, was assassinated with the nerve agent VX while walking through Terminal 2 at Kuala Lumpur International Airport.[148]

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Select[α] family tree of North Korea's ruling[β] Kim family[γ][δ][ε]

Kim Bo-hyon
1871–1955

Kim Hyong-jik
1894–1926

Kang Pan-sok
1892–1932

Kim Jong-suk
1919[ζ]–1949

Kim Il-sung
1912–1994

Kim Sung-ae
1928–?

Kim Yong-ju
1920–

Kim Young-sook
1947–

Song Hye-rim
1937–2002

Kim Jong-il
1941[ζ]–2011

Ko Yong-hui
1952–2004

Kim Ok
1964–

Kim Kyong-hui
1946–

Jang Song-thaek
1946–2013

Kim Pyong-il
1954–

Kim Sul-song
1974–

Kim Jong-nam
1971–2017

Kim Jong-chul
1981–

Kim Jong-un
1984–

Ri Sol-ju
c. 1986–

Kim Yo-jong
1987–

Kim Han-sol
1995–

Kim Ju-ae
c. 2012[ζ]–

Notes:

Jump up ^ To keep the tree of manageable size, it omits some members, e. g., brothers and sisters of Kim Jong-il.
Jump up ^ Names of Supreme Leaders of the DPRK (and the name of the article being viewed, if any) are in bold font.
Jump up ^ Korean names often have a variety of transliterations into English, which can be confusing. For example, "Kim Jong-chul" may also be written "Gim Jeong-cheol" or "Kim Jŏng-ch'ŏl" among many other variations. See Korean romanization for more information.
Jump up ^ Huss, Kan; Frost, Clay. "North Korea's First Family: Mapping the personal and political drama of the Kim clan". msnbc.com. Retrieved 20 January 2013.  (Confirms many, but not all, of the birth and death years. See individual articles for more references.)
Jump up ^ Yan, Holly (16 February 2017). "The world's most mysterious family tree: Kim Jong Un's secretive dynasty is full of drama, death". Design by Alberto Mier. CNN. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Official biographies of Kim Jong-suk and Kim Jong-il give birth years of 1917 and 1942, respectively. Kim Ju-ae may have been born in late 2012 or early 2013.


document_title: Bo (Lost Girl)

question_text: who does bo end up with on lost girl

question_tokens: who does bo end up with on lost girl

text: Bo (Lost Girl)

text: Biography[edit]

text: Childhood and early years[edit]

text: Bo is a succubus who grew up in an adopted human family, unaware of her non-human nature and of the Fae world she descended from. In "Raging Fae", she told Kenzi that she began to feel "different" when she entered puberty and didn't know she was not normal until she accidentally killed her high school boyfriend by draining his life energy during her first sexual activity. When she told her parents what had happened, they broke the news to Bo that she had been adopted. Not knowing what she was and what she had done, Bo hated herself and ran away from home, exchanging her previous life for one without family or friends, moving from place to place and assuming a false identity whenever she killed again.

text: Powers[edit]

text: As a succubus, she can seduce and manipulate both humans and Fae with the touch of her skin; and has the power to absorb the life force (the "chi", or Qi) of humans and Fae by drawing it out through their mouths. She feeds and heals from oral chi intake, and chi absorbed from the sexual energy created with males or females. At first she could not feed without killing her sexual partners; but with Lauren's help Bo learned to control her sexual drive and chi-drawing powers so that she could have sex with both Fae and humans without injuring or killing them. Although Fae are stronger than humans and can better endure her feeding on them, they are not immune from being drained. Without self-control Bo can render them comatose or dead. In "(Dis)Members Only", Dyson's chi is drained by Bo's succubus birth mother, Aife, and Bo brings him back to life by transferring some of her own life energy into him.

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Kenzi[edit]

text: A young human woman who becomes Bo’s best friend and sidekick after Bo saved her from a rapist who had surreptitiously drugged her with a "roofie" in her drink. A pickpocket and scam artist with a long rap sheet, she can speak Russian fluently, possesses excellent street-smarts, and has family connections in organized crime. Kenzi ran away from home and lived on the streets and underground for a long time before meeting Bo. During the "trial" by the local Fae leaders to choose alignment with either the Light or Dark, Bo chose to side with humanity after Kenzi risked her life to discover where Bo had been taken by force and what they were doing to her, and called out to Bo to help her break out of a spell she had been put under during the trial. Kenzi suggested to Bo that she should take advantage of her bewitching powers and neutrality to become a private investigator, with her as partner. She was declared Bo's "property" and pet to allow her to participate within Fae society. Kenzi does not care about fae politics.

text: Dyson[edit]

text: A Wolf-Shapeshifter and homicide detective in the human police force. He is over 1,500 years old, very strong, possesses a sharp sense of smell, and is acutely knowledgeable about Fae politics. A member of the Light Fae, his true allegiance is to Trick rather than The Ash. He fell in love with Bo while under orders from Trick to keep an eye on her, and is best friends with Hale, his Light Fae detective partner. In the Season One finale, he involuntarily sacrificed his love for Bo when he offered his wolf to the Norn in return for her giving Bo the strength to defeat her maniacal mother, Aife; but the Norn, who demanded his wolf the first time he supplicated her intervention, realized that his wolf was no longer what he valued most and instead took Dyson's love for Bo and ability to love anyone else again; leaving him with the memory of their relationship but unable to feel his passion for her. He has since made efforts to remain friends with Bo, which was initially awkward when Bo couldn't understand why he had become distant. After being reunited with his old love, Ciara, they began a relationship which was hampered by Dyson's reluctance to reveal his encounter with the Norn and what he had lost in the exchange; however, he eventually admitted to her that he had offered his wolf but it had cost him his being able to love anyone. His ability to love was restored by the Norn after Kenzi threatened to mutilate and cut down her Ancient Tree with a chainsaw. It is revealed in Season 5 that he has a son named Mark. He is scornful of humans

text: Dr. Lauren Lewis[edit]

text: A Human owned by the Ash as his property, she serves as a doctor and scientist for the Light Fae. She was seduced by Bo during their first meeting and hence fell in love with her. She has extensive knowledge of the different types of Fae and their abilities. In the first season, she helped Bo learn how to control her powers so that she could have sex with both Fae and humans without hurting or killing them. It is later revealed that she had a human girlfriend, Nadia, who had fallen into a coma five years earlier after contracting a mysterious virus while in the Congo with her. In exchange for her servitude, The Ash offered Lauren access to the Light Fae's laboratory and resources to find a cure for Nadia's condition. Lauren learned from Lachlan in "Masks" that she was tricked by the previous Ash: he ordered a Dark Fae Shaman to curse Nadia into a coma to insure that Lauren would do everything in her power to find an antidote to the fever that was killing Fae, and then pulled her into the Light clan's fold. After Bo (unbeknownst to Lauren) removed the curse, Lauren and Nadia reunited; but their relationship was soon shattered when it was revealed that Nadia had been infected by the Garuda and he could control her mind and body. Bo was forced to kill Nadia when she threatened Lauren's life leaving Lauren devastated. Grieving, Lauren seeks comfort in Bo and the two grow closer emotionally. In the Season 2 finale, Lauren relinquishes her chance for freedom from the Light Fae to stay with Bo, despite encouragement from Dyson to leave while she can.

text: In "Caged Fae", Bo asks Lauren to be together in a committed relationship. However, in "Delinquents", Tamsin visits Lauren to furtively carry out one of her mercenary tasks, and intentionally provokes Lauren by telling her that she and Bo kissed without Bo feeding from her (not knowing that the kiss was caused by Trick and Stella touching the Dawning invitation machine at the moment they shared a first kiss in "Fae-ge Against The Machine", which made the machine spark, and propelled Tamsin towards Bo to kiss her). Overwhelmed by the all the stress and loss she had experienced, and feeling inadequate in satisfying Bo's succubus nature, Lauren tells Bo that she needs to take a "break" from the relationship. As time passes, however, Bo becomes concerned that it might not be a temporary separation. In "Adventures In Fae-bysitting", a part of Lauren's past is disclosed and we learn that her real name is Karen Beattie and that she is a fugitive wanted by the International Criminal Offences and Criminal Intelligence Bureau. In addition to English she is also fluent in Spanish, French and Swahili. In "Those Who Wander" Lauren feigns being through with Bo in the presence of Dr. Isaac Taft and rejects her to protect Bo, and herself, from him. After this encounter, Bo and Lauren go their separate ways. Lauren then sabotages Taft's plan to extract Dyson's DNA and transfer the cells into him so as to become a Wolf-Shapeshifter, and turns Taft into a human/Cabbit hybrid instead, making him an easy kill for Dyson. She goes missing thereafter. (The conversation that she and Dyson had during a phone call in "Sleeping Beauty School" showed that Dyson was aware of Lauren's motives for subjecting him to the deceptive procedure.) In "Turn to Stone", Lauren reveals to Crystal that she has a brother, they had been inseparable, and decided together "to change the world", but their cause had turned into blowing up pipelines. Lauren knew how to build pipe bombs and made them for her brother to position; however, one location was supposed to have been deserted but wasn't, and eleven people were killed in the explosion. This led Lauren (Karen Beattie) to go on the run, change her identity, and keep running ever since. Lauren confesses that not a day goes by that she doesn't hate herself for what happened. (By the details in the ICOCIB wanted poster, the incident occurred in 1998, when Lauren was 17 or 18 years old.) In "Let the Dark Times Roll", Bo and Lauren are reunited at a Dark Fae party after the passage of a month, during which Lauren's memory of Bo was removed by The Wanderer. They jump into each other's arms and kiss passionately. Lauren told Bo that she had fled for her life after the Una Mens began to kill humans. The Dark Fae (i.e. The Morrigan) came looking for her, offering refuge, protection, and freedom to come and go as she pleased in exchange for working for the clan. When Bo tells Lauren that she can offer her protection by claiming her, Lauren turns her down. After being owned by The Ash for over five years, Lauren doesn't want to be owned by anyone, even Bo. Bo walks away, stunned and bewildered by Lauren's response. In "Dark Horse", Bo and Lauren reconciled after Bo saved Lauren from Massimo. Lauren saw that Bo was wearing the necklace gift from Lauren she had found in "Turn to Stone". When a defiant Lauren tells Bo that she's not afraid of the Fae, Bo admiringly told her, "You really are Dark"; to which Lauren replied, "No, Bo. I'm yours." Bo starts to leave, but turns around and walks back to Lauren and kisses her.

text: At the start of Season 5, Bo and Lauren have remained good friends, putting behind their previous tensions. In Big in Japan, when Bo felt that she was alone, following Kenzi's departure, Lauren was among those who reassured Bo that she would never be alone, because she stole her heart. In Here Comes the Night, Bo and Lauren made love again since their breakup in Season 3. They were seen by Tamsin, who had initiated a sexual relationship with Bo and thought the two were now "girlfriends". When Bo realized their 'friends with benefits' had been misunderstood she told Tamsin that she did love her, but not in a romantic way. In "End of Faes", Tamsin told Bo that it didn't matter where her body was, because her heart will always be with Lauren; that she and Lauren will always be a couple, even when they were not. Afterwards, Bo stopped Lauren to talk about what happened between them the day before and told her, "There's always going to be a reason for us not to be together. And I don't want to put this off any longer." Bewildered, Lauren simply says, "Oh, Boy." Bo asks, "'Oh, Boy', No. Or 'Oh, Boy', Yes?" Tamsin later tells Lauren that she and Bo should get back together. Tamsin told Lauren "I entered the game and I lost. That's life. The best woman won. I'm over it. You should be, too." Later, Bo, Lauren and Dyson are searching for Mark, Dyson's son. Bo had to leave to find one of the Ancient Fae, Iris, while Lauren and Dyson search for Mark, but before they went different ways, Lauren tells Bo, "Oh, Boy, Yes"; letting her know that she, too, wanted to resume their relationship. In "Rise", as the series comes to an end, Lauren tells Bo that she wants to spend the rest of her life with her, acknowledging mistakes that she would never make again. Both admit their relationship is messy and complicated, but after Lauren assures Bo that she is willing to weather the inevitable complications of their lives, Bo, gladdened, accepts her proposal. They embrace and kiss, this time forever.

text: Fitzpatrick "Trick" McCorrigan[edit]

text: The bartender and owner of the only Fae pub in town, The Dal Riata, which is neutral ground where Light and Dark Fae can freely socialize and find sanctuary. Trick is very powerful: he is a Blood Sage and can alter fate by writing it with his blood. Once known as the Blood King, he forced the truce and wrote the decrees that ended the war between Light and Dark Fae; and though few are now aware of his former position in the Fae hierarchy, he is on equal terms with the Fae Elders. Compared to other Fae, who have contempt for humans, he is tolerant and often fond of humans, even trading away his most prized possession to help save Kenzi's life after she was infected with a lethal Fae virus. He respects Lauren and when necessary seeks her opinion and expertise with matters involving Fae. Trick is extremely reluctant to use his blood powers as it can have unforeseen consequences; for example, his writing a culmination where Aife’s maternal instincts emerge and stop her from hurting and killing Bo not only left him weakened and wounded from the loss of blood, but also signaled his whereabouts to an ancient enemy of the Fae, the Garuda. Near the end of the second season, it was revealed that Trick is Bo's maternal grandfather.

text: Hale Santiago[edit]

text: A Siren and Dyson's colleague as another Light Fae undercover agent in the human police force. He can pacify, control, and kill humans and Fae alike with his whistling; in addition, he can cure pain and heal wounds with it. He is the son of the leader of one of the three most powerful Light Fae clans, the Clan Zamora, but despite his family's high social status he disdains their social contacts and makes his own way in life (although Bo and Kenzi used his contacts when they needed to infiltrate a high-class Fae event). Hale is good friends with Kenzi, with an undercurrent of mutual attraction gradually developing between them. He helped save Kenzi's life by using his siren's whistle to cauterize her wound in the Season Two finale. In the third season, he became the acting Ash after Lachlan's death.