document_title: Kentucky–Louisville rivalry

question_text: when was the last time louisville beat kentucky in basketball

text: Kentucky–Louisville rivalry

text: Men's basketball[edit]

text: The Kentucky–Louisville rivalry has been ranked the 2nd best rivalry in college basketball by Bleacher Report and 3rd best rivalry in all of college sports by Basketball Hall of Fame contributor Dick Vitale.[1] Kentucky and Louisville first played against each other in 1913 but stopped playing each other in the 1920s, playing only twelve times between 1913 and 1983. The rivalry was generally dormant with only occasional matchups until the teams met in the 1983 NCAA Tournament. Since then, the two teams have met each year in late December or early January.

text: Much like the Iron Bowl, the Kentucky–Louisville rivalry is all the more intense because the two schools have consistently been among the nation's elite men's basketball teams for most of the last 50 years. Both schools are also two of the most victorious programs in NCAA men's basketball history; Kentucky is #1 on the list of all-time winningest programs in Division I Men's Basketball and Louisville #11. Kentucky has eight national championships and Louisville three. Combining for eight national championships over the last 38 years, Kentucky and Louisville have captured 22% of the national championships, or greater than one every five years.

text: History[edit]

text: The rivalry was fueled when Rick Pitino was hired as Louisville's head men's basketball coach in 2001, as he had served in that same role with Kentucky from 1989 to 1997.[2] Kentucky leads the all-time basketball series with Louisville 32 games to 15, and Kentucky leads the modern series 23 games to 12.[3] In six tournament meetings as of 2014, Kentucky leads the series four games to two with their most recent win coming in the 2014 sweet sixteen 74-69. The teams met in the 2012 Final Four, and Kentucky defeated Louisville with a score of 69-61 en route to the national title. This was the deepest ever tournament meeting between the two schools and their first tournament meeting since 1984.

text: Results[edit]

text:
Date
Site
Winning team
Losing team
Series
Notes

1913-02-15
Lexington, KY
Kentucky
34
Louisville
10
UK 1-0

1914-02-07
Lexington, KY
Kentucky
22
Louisville
17
UK 2-0

1914-03-03
Louisville, KY
Kentucky
26
Louisville
13
UK 3-0

1915-01-23
Lexington, KY
Kentucky
18
Louisville
14
UK 4-0

1915-02-27
Louisville, KY
Louisville
26
Kentucky
15
UK 4-1

1916-02-12
Lexington, KY
Louisville
28
Kentucky
22
UK 4-2

1916-02-22
Louisville, KY
Kentucky
32
Louisville
24
UK 5-2

1922-01-17
Louisville, KY
Kentucky
38
Louisville
14
UK 6-2

1922-01-21
Lexington, KY
Kentucky
29
Louisville
22
UK 7-2

1948-03-27
New York City, NY
Kentucky
91
Louisville
57
UK 8-2

1951-03-20
Raleigh, NC
Kentucky (1)
79
Louisville
68
UK 9-2
1951 NCAA First Round

1959-03-13
Evanston, IL
Louisville
76
Kentucky (2)
61
UK 9-3
1959 NCAA Sweet Sixteen

1983-03-26†
Knoxville, TN
Louisville (2)
80
Kentucky (12)
68
UK 9-4
1983 NCAA Elite Eight

1983-11-26
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (1)
65
Louisville (6)
44
UK 10-4

1984-03-22
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (3)
72
Louisville
67
UK 11-4
1984 NCAA Sweet Sixteen

1984-12-15
Louisville, KY
Louisville (14)
71
Kentucky
64
UK 11-5

1985-12-28
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (13)
69
Louisville (15)
64
UK 12-5

1986-12-27
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (18)
85
Louisville
51
UK 13-5

1987-12-12
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (1)
76
Louisville
75
UK 14-5

1988-12-31
Louisville, KY
Louisville (14)
97
Kentucky
75
UK 14-6

1989-12-30
Lexington, KY
Louisville (8)
86
Kentucky
79
UK 14-7

1990-12-29
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (18)
93
Louisville
85
UK 15-7

1991-12-28
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (17)
103
Louisville (21)
89
UK 16-7

1992-12-12
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (3)
88
Louisville (9)
68
UK 17-7

1993-11-27
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (2)
78
Louisville (7)
70
UK 18-7

1995-01-01
Louisville, KY
Louisville
88
Kentucky (5)
86
UK 18-8

1995-12-23
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (4)
89
Louisville (25)
66
UK 19-8

1996-12-31
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (3)
74
Louisville (16)
54
UK 20-8

1997-12-27
Lexington, KY
Louisville
79
Kentucky (4)
76
UK 20-9

1998-12-26
Louisville, KY
Louisville
83
Kentucky (3)
74
 UK 20-10

1999-12-18
Lexington, KY
Kentucky
76
Louisville
46
UK 21-10

2001-01-02
Louisville, KY
Kentucky
64
Louisville
62
UK 22-10

2001-12-29
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (6)
82
Louisville
62
UK 23-10

2002-12-28
Louisville, KY
Louisville
81
Kentucky (14)
63
UK 23-11

2003-12-27
Lexington, KY
Louisville (20)
65
Kentucky (2)
56
UK 23-12

2004-12-18
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (9)
60
Louisville (13)
58
UK 24-12

2005-12-17
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (23)
73
Louisville (4)
61
UK 25-12

2006-12-16
Louisville, KY
Kentucky
61
Louisville
49
UK 26-12

2008-01-05
Lexington, KY
Louisville
89
Kentucky
75
UK 26-13

2009-01-04
Louisville, KY
Louisville (18)
74
Kentucky
71
UK 26-14

2010-01-02
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (3)
71
Louisville
62
UK 27-14

2010-12-31
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (11)
78
Louisville (22)
63
UK 28-14

2011-12-31
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (3)
69
Louisville (4)
62
UK 29-14

2012-03-31
New Orleans, LA
Kentucky (1)
69
Louisville (17)
61
UK 30-14
2012 NCAA Final Four

2012-12-29
Louisville, KY
Louisville (4)
80
Kentucky
77
UK 30-14
*****VACATED*****

2013-12-28
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (18)
73
Louisville (6)
66
UK 31-14

2014-03-28
Indianapolis, IN
Kentucky
74
Louisville (5)
69
UK 32-14
2014 NCAA Sweet Sixteen

2014-12-27
Louisville, KY
Kentucky (1)
58
Louisville (4)
50
UK 33-14

2015-12-26
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (12)
75
Louisville (16)
73
UK 34-14

2016-12-21
Louisville, KY
Louisville (10)
73
Kentucky (6)
70
UK 34-14

2017-12-29
Lexington, KY
Kentucky (16)
90
Louisville
61
UK 35-14.

text: Kentucky victories are shaded ██ blue. Louisville victories shaded in ██ red. † indicates overtime. Numbers in parentheses indicate a team's Associated Press Top 25 rank at the time of the games.

text: Game MVP[edit]

text: NOTE:. The 2010 game was the inaugural year for the award. The Bluegrass Sports Commission (BSC) names the Most Valuable Player of the men's basketball game between the University of Kentucky and the University of Louisville.

text:
Date
Player
Team
Position
Statistics

 12-31-2010
Josh Harrellson
Kentucky
C
23 Points, 14 Rebounds [4]

 12-31-2011
Michael Kidd-Gilchrist
Kentucky
F
24 Points, 19 Rebounds[5]

 12-29-2012
Russ Smith
Louisville
G
21 Points, 3 Assists[6]

 12-28-2013
James Young
Kentucky
F
18 Points, 10 Rebounds[7]

 12-27-2014
Tyler Ulis
Kentucky
G
14 Points, 2 Assists[8]

 12-26-2015
Tyler Ulis
Kentucky
G
21 Points, 8 Assists[9]

 12-21-2016
Quentin Snider
Louisville
G
22 Points, 6 Rebounds, 5 Assists[10]

 12-29-2017
Shai Gilgeous-Alexander
Kentucky
G
24 Points, 5 Rebounds, 4 Assists, 3 Steals[11]

text: Broadcast History[edit]

text:
Date
Network
Play-by-play
Analyst(s)

January 2, 2001
ESPN
Bob Carpenter
Jay Bilas

December 29, 2001
CBS
Jim Nantz
Billy Packer

December 28, 2002
ESPN
Dan Shulman
Dick Vitale

December 27, 2003
CBS
Gus Johnson
Billy Packer

December 18, 2004
ESPN
Dan Shulman
Dick Vitale

December 17, 2005
CBS
Verne Lundquist
Billy Packer

December 16, 2006
CBS
Verne Lundquist
Billy Packer

January 5, 2008
CBS
Verne Lundquist
Billy Packer

January 4, 2009
CBS
Kevin Harlan
Clark Kellogg

January 3, 2010
CBS
Verne Lundquist
Clark Kellogg

December 31, 2010
CBS
Gus Johnson
Clark Kellogg

December 31, 2011
CBS
Ian Eagle
Clark Kellogg

March 31, 2012
CBS
Jim Nantz
Clark Kellogg
Steve Kerr

December 29, 2012
CBS
Tim Brando
Greg Anthony
Clark Kellogg

December 28, 2013
CBS
Jim Nantz
Greg Anthony

March 28, 2014
CBS
Jim Nantz
Greg Anthony

December 27, 2014
ESPN2
Dan Shulman
Jay Bilas

December 26, 2015
CBS
Tom McCarthy
Bill Raftery

December 21, 2016
ESPN
Dan Shulman
Jay Bilas

December 29, 2017
CBS
Spero Dedes
Bill Raftery

text: Notes[edit]

text: Football[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The football rivalry between Kentucky and Louisville started one year earlier than the basketball rivalry but also had a long dormant period. Kentucky and Louisville first played each other in football in 1912. Kentucky dominated six meetings between the teams from 1912 until 1924, holding Louisville scoreless in all six games, after which the teams stopped playing. In 1994, with former Kentucky player Howard Schnellenberger coaching Louisville, the series was revived after a 70-year dormancy. The series is currently tied at 15–15 but Louisville leads the Governors Cup series 15-9.

text: From 1994 to 2006 the annual matchup was the first game of the season for Kentucky and was the first game for all but two of those years for Louisville. In 2007 the game was moved to the third game of the season when played in Lexington but remained the first game when played in Louisville. Starting in 2014, which marked Louisville's inaugural season in the Atlantic Coast Conference, the Governor's Cup became the last game of the regular season for both teams to coincide with several other ACC-SEC same-state rivalries.

text: The 2017 game was won by Louisville, 44–17. Louisville quarterback Lamar Jackson was named MVP of the showdown.

text: Other sports[edit]

text:
Women's basketball: Kentucky leads the series 34–20 as of the 2017–18 season. Most recently, no. 3 Louisville beat Kentucky 87-63 in Lexington on December 17, 2017.[12] Kentucky entered that game having won five of the past six meetings with Louisville.[13] The series dates back to the 1911–12 season, long before Kentucky and Louisville's programs became varsity in 1974–75, from which the series has been continuously active.[14]
Women's volleyball: Most recently winning 3-0 in Lexington, Kentucky leads the series 29–25 as of 2017 in a series that initially was played every year from 1977 to 2005 except in 1981 and resumed in 2009 after a hiatus.[15][16]
Men's soccer: The two men's soccer programs have met 31 times. Kentucky leads 14–13–5. The last meeting between the two was on September 5, 2017 which ended in a 2–2 tie.[17]
Baseball: As of 2017, Kentucky leads the series 70–44–1 in a series dating back to 1925.[18][19] In 2017, Louisville won the season series 3–1, including a sweep of Kentucky in the NCAA Tournament Louisville Super Regional.[19]


document_title: List of largest sports contracts

question_text: who has the biggest nba contract in history

root

text: List of largest sports contracts

text: Largest sports contracts[edit]

text:
Rank
Player
Team
Sport
Length of contract
Contract value (USD)
Average per year (USD)
Average per game5 (USD)
Ref
[1]

01
Giancarlo Stanton
Miami Marlins
Baseball
13 years (2014-2027)
$325,000,000
$25,000,000
$154,320.99
[1]

02
Rodriguez, AlexAlex Rodriguez1R
New York Yankees*
Baseball
10 years (2008–2017)
$275,000,000
$27,500,000
$169,753.09
[2]

03
Neymar
Paris Saint Germain
Association football
5 years (2017-2022)
$270,000,000
$54,000,000
$1,080,000
[3][4][5]

04
Rodriguez, AlexAlex Rodriguez2R
Texas Rangers*
Baseball
10 years (2001–2010)
$252,000,000
$25,200,000
$155,555.56
[6]

05
Cabrera, MiguelMiguel Cabrera
Detroit Tigers
Baseball
08 !8 years (2016–2023)
$248,000,000
$31,000,000
$191,358.02
[7]

005 !06 (tie)
Cano, RobinsonRobinson Cano
Seattle Mariners
Baseball
10 years (2014–2023)
$240,000,000
$24,000,000
$148,148.15
[8]

005 !06 (tie)
Pujols, AlbertAlbert Pujols
Los Angeles Angels
Baseball
10 years (2012–2021)
$240,000,000
$24,000,000
$148,148.15
[9]

007 !07
Harden, JamesJames Harden
Houston Rockets
Basketball
6 years (2017-2023)
$228,000,000
$38,000,000
$463,414.64
[10]

007 !08
Votto, JoeyJoey Votto
Cincinnati Reds
Baseball
10 years (2014-2024)
$225,000,000
$22,500,000
$138,889
[11]

008 !08
Price, DavidDavid Price
Boston Red Sox
Baseball
07 !7 years (2016–2022)
$217,000,000
$31,000,000
$191,358.02
[12]

009 !09
Kershaw, ClaytonClayton Kershaw
Los Angeles Dodgers
Baseball
07 !7 years (2014–2020)
$215,000,000
$30,714,285
$186,120.37
[13]

010 !10
Fielder, PrincePrince FielderInjury
Detroit Tigers*
Baseball
09 !9 years (2012–2020)
$214,000,000
$23,777,777
$146,776.40
[14]

011 !11
Scherzer, MaxMax Scherzer
Washington Nationals
Baseball
07 !7 years (2015–2021)
$210,000,000
$30,000,000
$185,185.19
[15]

012 !12
Greinke, ZackZack Greinke
Arizona Diamondbacks
Baseball
06 !6 years (2016–2021)
$206,500,000
$34,416,667
$212,448.56
[16]

014 !14
Westbrook , RusselRussel Westbrook 6
Oklahoma City Thunder
Basketball
05 !5 years (2018–2023)
$205,000,000
$41,000,000
$491,000.00
[17]

015 !15
Curry, StephSteph Curry6
Golden State Warriors
Basketball
05 !5 years (2017–2022)
$201,200,000
$40,200,000
$490,243.90
[18]

016 !16
Jeter, DerekDerek JeterR
New York Yankees*
Baseball
10 years (2001–2010)
$189,000,000
$18,900,000
$116,666.67
[19]

017 !17 (tie)
Mauer, JoeJoe Mauer
Minnesota Twins
Baseball
08 !8 years (2011–2018)
$184,000,000
$23,000,000
$141,975.31
[20]

017 !17 (tie)
Heyward, JasonJason Heyward
Chicago Cubs
Baseball
08 !8 years (2016–2023)
$184,000,000
$23,000,000
$141,975.31
[21]

018 !18
Mayweather, FloydFloyd MayweatherR
Showtime*
Boxing
02 !2 years (2013–2015)
$180,000,000+
$72,000,000+
$30,000,000+
[22]

018 !18 (tie)
Teixeira, MarkMark TeixeiraR
New York Yankees*
Baseball
08 !8 years (2009–2016)
$180,000,000
$22,500,000
$138,888.89
[23]

018 !18 (tie)
Verlander, JustinJustin Verlander
Detroit Tigers
Baseball
07 !7 years (2013–2019)
$180,000,000
$25,714,286
$158,730.16
[24]

019 !19 (tie)
Hernández, FélixFélix Hernández
Seattle Mariners
Baseball
07 !7 years (2013–2019)
$175,000,000
$25,000,000
$154,320.99
[25]

020 !20 (tie)
Strasburg, StephenStephen Strasburg
Washington Nationals
Baseball
07 !7 years (2017–2023)
$175,000,000
$25,000,000
$154,320.99
[26]

022 !22
Griffin, BlakeBlake Griffin6
Los Angeles Clippers
Basketball
05 !5 years (2017–2022)
$172,260,000
$34,452,000
$420,146.34
[27]

023 !23
Posey, BusterBuster Posey
San Francisco Giants
Baseball
09 !9 years (2013–2021)
$167,000,000
$18,555,556
$114,540.47
[28]

024 !24 (tie)
Sabathia, CCCC Sabathia
New York Yankees
Baseball
07 !7 years (2009–2015)
$161,000,000
$23,000,000
$141,975.31
[29]

024 !24 (tie)
Davis, ChrisChris Davis
Baltimore Orioles
Baseball
07 !7 years (2016–2022)
$161,000,000
$23,000,000
$141,975.31
[30]

026 !26 (tie)
Kemp, MattMatt Kemp
Los Angeles Dodgers*
Baseball
08 !8 years (2012–2019)
$160,000,000
$20,000,000
$123,456.79
[31]

026 !26 (tie)
Ramírez, MannyManny RamírezR
Boston Red Sox*
Baseball
08 !8 years (2001–2008)
$160,000,000
$20,000,000
$123,456.79
[32]

028 !28
Tulowitzki, TroyTroy Tulowitzki
Colorado Rockies*
Baseball
10 years (2011–2020)
$157,750,000
$15,775,000
$97,376.54
[33]

029 !29 (tie)
Tanaka, MasahiroMasahiro Tanaka
New York Yankees
Baseball
07 !7 years (2014–2020)
$155,000,000
$22,141,857
$136,684.30
[34]

029 !29 (tie)
Lester, JonJon Lester
Chicago Cubs
Baseball
06 !6 years (2015–2020)
$155,000,000
$25,833,333
$159,465.02
[35]

031 !31
González, AdriánAdrián González
Boston Red Sox*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2012–2018)
$154,000,000
$22,000,000
$135,802.67
[36]

032 !32 (tie)
Räikkönen, KimiKimi Räikkönen
Ferrari
Auto racing
03 !3 years (2007–2009)
$153,000,000
$51,000,000
$2,942,307.69

[37]

032 !32 (tie)
Ellsbury, JacobyJacoby Ellsbury
New York Yankees
Baseball
07 !7 years (2014–2020)
$153,000,000
$21,857,142
$134,920.64
[38]

034 !34
Conley Jr., MikeMike Conley Jr.
Memphis Grizzlies
Basketball
5 years (2016–2020)
$152,605,576
$30,521,115
$372,208.72
[39]

035 !35
Cabrera, MiguelMiguel Cabrera
Detroit Tigers
Baseball
08 !8 years (2008–2015)
$152,300,000
$19,037,500
$117,515.43
[40]

036 !36
Helton, ToddTodd HeltonR
Colorado Rockies*
Baseball
11 years (2001–2011)
$151,500,000
$13,772,727
$85,016.83
[41]

037 !37
Greinke, ZackZack Greinke
Los Angeles Dodgers*
Baseball
06 !6 years (2013–2019)
$147,000,000
$24,500,000
$151,234.57
[42]

038 !38
Bale, GarethGareth Bale
Real Madrid C.F.
Association football
06 !6 years (2013–2019)
$146,280,000
$24,380,000
$406,333.33
[43]

039 !39
Trout, MikeMike Trout
Los Angeles Angels
Baseball
06 !6 years (2015–2020)
$144,500,000
$24,083,333
$148,662.55
[44]

040 !40
Hamels, ColeCole Hamels
Philadelphia Phillies*
Baseball
06 !6 years (2013–2018)
$144,000,000
$24,000,000
$148,148.15
[45]

041 !41
Crawford, CarlCarl CrawfordR
Boston Red Sox*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2011–2017)
$142,000,000
$20,285,714
$125,220.46
[46]

042 !42
Lillard, DamianDamian Lillard
Portland Trail Blazers
Basketball
05 !5 years (2016–2021)
$139,888,445
$27,977,689
$341,191.33
[47]

043 !43
Luck, AndrewAndrew Luck
Indianapolis Colts
American football
06 !6 years (2016–2021)
$139,125,000
$23,187,500
$1,449,218.75
[48]

044 !44
DeRozan, DeMarDeMar DeRozan
Toronto Raptors
Basketball
05 !5 years (2016–2021)
$139,000,000
$27,800,000
$339,024.39
[49]

045 !45
Wright, DavidDavid Wright
New York Mets
Baseball
08 !8 years (2013–2020)
$138,000,000
$17,250,000
$106,481.48
[50]

046 !46
Santana, JohanJohan Santana
New York Mets*
Baseball
06 !6 years (2008–2013)
$137,500,000
$22,916,667
$141,460.91
[51]

047 !47
Bryant, KobeKobe BryantR
Los Angeles Lakers*
Basketball
07 !7 years (2004–2011)
$136,400,000
$19,485,714
$237,630.66
[52]

048 !48
Soriano, AlfonsoAlfonso SorianoR
Chicago Cubs*
Baseball
08 !8 years (2007–2014)
$136,000,000
$17,000,000
$104,938.27
[53]

049 !49 (tie)
Freeman, FreddieFreddie Freeman
Atlanta Braves
Baseball
08 !8 years (2014–2021)
$135,000,000
$16,875,000
$104,166.67
[54]

049 !49 (tie)
Stafford, MatthewMatthew Stafford
Detroit Lions
American football
05 !5 years (2018–2022)
$135,000,000
$27,000,000
$1,687,500.00
[55]

050 !50
Upton, JustinJustin Upton
Detroit Tigers
Baseball
06 !6 years (2016–2021)
$132,750,000
$22,125,000
$136,574.07
[56]

051 !51
Johnson, CalvinCalvin JohnsonR
Detroit Lions*
American football
08 !8 years (2007–2015)
$132,000,000
$16,500,000
$1,031,250.00
[57]

052 !52 (tie)
Choo, Shin-SooShin-Soo Choo
Texas Rangers
Baseball
07 !7 years (2014–2020)
$130,000,000
$18,571,428
$114,638.45
[58]

052 !52 (tie)
Vick, MichaelMichael Vick3 R
Atlanta Falcons*
American football
10 years (2005–2014)
$130,000,000
$13,000,000
$812,500.00
[59]

052 !52 (tie)
Cueto, JohnnyJohnny Cueto
San Francisco Giants
Baseball
06 !6 years (2016–2021)
$130,000,000
$21,666,667
$133,744.86
[60]

055 !55 (tie)
Davis, AnthonyAnthony Davis
New Orleans Pelicans
Basketball
05 !5 years (2016–2021)
$127,171,313
$25,434,262
$310,173.93
[61]

055 !55 (tie)
Drummond, AndreAndre Drummond
Detroit Pistons
Basketball
05 !5 years (2016–2021)
$127,171,313
$25,434,262
$310,173.93
[62]

055 !55 (tie)
Beal, BradleyBradley Beal
Washington Wizards
Basketball
05 !5 years (2016–2021)
$127,171,313
$25,434,262
$310,173.93
[63]

058 !58
Cutler, JayJay CutlerR
Chicago Bears*
American football
07 !7 years (2014–2020)
$126,700,000
$18,100,000
$1,131,250.00
[64]

059 !59
O'Neal, JermaineJermaine O'NealR
Indiana Pacers*
Basketball
07 !7 years (2003–2010)
$126,558,000
$18,079,714
$220,484.32
[65]

060 !60 (tie)
Garnett, KevinKevin GarnettR
Minnesota Timberwolves*
Basketball
06 !6 years (1999–2005)
$126,000,000
$21,000,000
$256,097.56
[66]

060 !60 (tie)
Lewis, RashardRashard LewisR
Orlando Magic*
Basketball
06 !6 years (2007–2013)
$126,000,000
$21,000,000
$256,097.56
[67]

060 !60 (tie)
Wells, VernonVernon WellsR
Toronto Blue Jays*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2008–2014)
$126,000,000
$18,000,000
$111,111.11
[68]

060 !60 (tie)
Zito, BarryBarry ZitoR
San Francisco Giants*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2007–2013)
$126,000,000
$18,000,000
$111,111.11
[68]

060 !60 (tie)
Werth, JaysonJayson Werth
Washington Nationals
Baseball
07 !7 years (2011–2017)
$126,000,000
$18,000,000
$111,111.11
[69]

060 !60 (tie)
Kaepernick, ColinColin Kaepernick
San Francisco 49ers*
American football
06 !6 years (2015–2020)
$126,000,000
$21,000,000
$1,312,500.00
.[70]

060 !60 (tie)
Holiday, JrueJrue Holiday6
New Orleans Pelicans
Basketball
05 !5 years (2017–2022)
$126,000,000
$25,200,000
$307,317.07
[71]

067 !67 (tie)
Howard, RyanRyan Howard
Philadelphia Phillies*
Baseball
05 !5 years (2012–2016)
$125,000,000
$25,000,000
$154,320.99
[72]

067 !67 (tie)
Hamilton, JoshJosh Hamilton
Los Angeles Angels*
Baseball
05 !5 years (2013–2017)
$125,000,000
$25,000,000
$154,320.99
[73]

067 !67 (tie)
Carr, DerekDerek Carr
Oakland Raiders
American football
05 !5 years (2018–2022)
$125,000,000
$25,000,000
$1,562,500.00
[74]

070 !70
Anthony, CarmeloCarmelo Anthony
New York Knicks
Basketball
05 !5 years (2014–2019)
$124,064,280
$24,812,856
$302,595.81
[75]

071 !71 (tie)
Schumacher, MichaelMichael SchumacherR
Ferrari*
Auto racing
04 !4 years (1996–1999)
$124,000,000
$31,000,000
$1,907,692.30
[76]

071 !71 (tie)
Ovechkin, AlexanderAlexander Ovechkin
Washington Capitals
Hockey
13 years (2008–2021)
$124,000,000
$9,538,461
$116,322.70
[77]

073 !73
Johnson, JoeJoe Johnson
Atlanta Hawks*
Basketball
06 !6 years (2010–2017)
$123,658,089
$20,609,681
$251,337.58
[78]

074 !74
Webber, ChrisChris WebberR
Sacramento Kings*
Basketball
07 !7 years (2001–2007)
$122,718,750
$17,531,250
$213,795.73
[79]

075 !75
Duncan, TimTim DuncanR
San Antonio Spurs*
Basketball
07 !7 years (2003–2010)
$122,007,704
$17,429,672
$212,556.98
[80]

076 !76
Hampton, MikeMike HamptonR
Colorado Rockies*
Baseball
08 !8 years (2001–2008)
$121,000,000
$15,125,000
$93,364.20
[41]

077 !77
Flacco, JoeJoe Flacco
Baltimore Ravens
American football
06 !6 years (2013–2018)
$120,600,000
$20,100,000
$1,256,250.00
[81]

078 !78 (tie)
Giambi, JasonJason GiambiR
New York Yankees*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2002–2008)
$120,000,000
$17,142,857
$105,820.10
[82]

078 !78 (tie)
Andrus, ElvisElvis Andrus
Texas Rangers
Baseball
08 !8 years (2015–2022)
$120,000,000
$15,000,000
$92,592.59
[83]

078 !78 (tie)
Lee, CliffCliff LeeR
Philadelphia Phillies*
Baseball
05 !5 years (2011–2015)
$120,000,000
$24,000,000
$148,148.15
[84]

078 !78 (tie)
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'NealR
Los Angeles Lakers*
Basketball
07 !7 years (1996–2003)
$120,000,000
$17,142,857
$209,059.23
[85]

078 !78 (tie)
Holliday, MattMatt Holliday
St. Louis Cardinals*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2010–2016)
$120,000,000
$17,142,857
$105,820.10
[86]

078 !78 (tie)
Fitzgerald, LarryLarry Fitzgerald
Arizona Cardinals
American football
08 !8 years (2011–2018)
$120,000,000
$15,000,000
$937,500.00
[87]

078 !78 (tie)
Batum, NicolasNicolas Batum
Charlotte Hornets
Basketball
05 !5 years (2016–2021)
$120,000,000
$24,000,000
$292,682.93
[88]

085 !85
Palmer, CarsonCarson Palmer
Cincinnati Bengals*
American football
09 !9 years (2006–2014)
$119,750,000‡
$13,305,555
$831,597.19
[89]

086 !86
Beltrán, CarlosCarlos Beltrán
New York Mets*
Baseball
07 !7 years (2005–2011)
$119,000,000
$17,000,000
$104,938.27
[90]

087 !87
Harden, JamesJames Harden
Houston Rockets
Basketball
04 !4 years (2016–2020)
$118,103,446
$29,525,861
$360,071.48
[91]

088 !88
Bosh, ChrisChris Bosh
Miami Heat
Basketball
05 !5 years (2014–2019)
$118,000,000
$23,600,000
$287,804.88
[92]

089 !89
Griffey, Jr., KenKen Griffey, Jr.R
Cincinnati Reds*
Baseball
09 !9 years (2000–2008)
$116,500,000
$12,944,444
$79,903.98
[41]

090 !90 (tie)
McNabb, DonovanDonovan McNabbR
Philadelphia Eagles*
American football
12 !12 years (2002–2013)
$115,000,000‡
$9,583,333
$598,958.31
[93]

090 !90 (tie)
Dalton, AndyAndy Dalton
Cincinnati Bengals
American football
06 !6 years (2015–2020)
$115,000,000‡
$19,166,667
$1,197,916.67
[94]

092 !92
Miller, VonVon Miller
Denver Broncos
American football
06 !6 years (2016–2021)
$114,500,000
$19,083,333
$1,192,708.33
[95]

093 !93
Suh, NdamukongNdamukong Suh
Miami Dolphins
American football
06 !6 years (2015–2020)
$114,000,000
$19,000,000
$1,187,500.00
[96]

094 !94
Horford, AlAl Horford
Boston Celtics
Basketball
04 !4 years (2016–2020)
$113,326,228
$28,331,557
$345,506.79
[97]

095 !95 (tie)
Love, KevinKevin Love
Cleveland Cavaliers
Basketball
05 !5 years (2015–2020)
$113,211,750
$22,642,350
$276,126.22
[98]

095 !95 (tie)
Gasol, MarcMarc Gasol
Memphis Grizzlies
Basketball
05 !5 years (2015–2020)
$113,211,750
$22,642,350
$276,126.22
[99]

097 !97
Cain, MattMatt Cain
San Francisco Giants
Baseball
06 !6 years (2012–2017)
$112,500,000
$18,666,667
$115,226.34
[100]

098 !98
Arenas, GilbertGilbert Arenas4 R
Washington Wizards*
Basketball
06 !6 years (2008–2013)
$111,000,000
$18,500,000
$225,609.76
[101]

099 !99 (tie)
Weber, SheaShea Weber
Nashville Predators*
Hockey
14 !14 years (2012–2026)
$110,000,000
$7,857,143
$95,818.82
[102]

099 !99 (tie)
Rodgers, AaronAaron Rodgers
Green Bay Packers
American football
05 !5 years (2015–2019)
$110,000,000
$22,000,000
$1,375,000.00
[103]

099 !99 (tie)
Zimmermann, JordanJordan Zimmermann
Detroit Tigers
Baseball
05 !5 years (2016–2020)
$110,000,000
$22,000,000
$135,802.47
[104]

099 !99 (tie)
Cespedes, YoenisYoenis Cespedes
New York Mets
Baseball
04 !4 years (2017–2020)
$110,000,000
$27,500,000
$169,753.09
[105]

099 !99 (tie)
Vettel, SebastianSebastian Vettel
Ferrari
Auto racing
03 !3 years (2015–2017)
$110,000,000
$36,666,667
$1,833,333.33
[106]

104 !104 (tie)
James, LeBronLeBron James
Miami Heat*
Basketball
06 !6 years (2010–2016)
$109,837,500
$18,306,250
$223,246.95
[107]

104 !104 (tie)
Bosh, ChrisChris Bosh
Miami Heat
Basketball
06 !6 years (2010–2016)
$109,837,500
$18,306,250
$223,246.95
[107]

106 !106
Romo, TonyTony RomoR
Dallas Cowboys*
American football
06 !6 years (2014–2019)
$108,000,000
$18,000,000
$1,125,000.00
[108]

107 !107
Paul, ChrisChris Paul
Los Angeles Clippers*
Basketball
05 !5 years (2013–2018)
$107,343,478
$21,468,696
$261,813.36
[109]

108 !108
Wade, DwyaneDwyane Wade
Miami Heat*
Basketball
06 !6 years (2010–2016)
$107,186,000
$17,864,333
$217,857.72
[110]

109 !109
Kemp, ShawnShawn KempR
Cleveland Cavaliers*
Basketball
07 !7 years (1997–2004)
$107,000,000
$15,285,714
$186,411.15
[111]

110 !110
McCollum, C.J.C.J. McCollum
Portland Trail Blazers
Basketball
04 !4 years (2017–2021)
$106,663,450
$26,665,862
$325,193.45
[112]

111
Porter, OttoOtto Porter
Washington Wizards
Basketball
4 years (2017-2021)
$106,524,975
$26,631,244
$324,771.27
[113]

112
Reyes, JoséJosé Reyes
Miami Marlins*
Baseball
06 !6 years (2012–2017)
$106,000,000
$17,666,666
$109,053.50
[114]

113
Howard, JuwanJuwan HowardR
Washington Bullets*
Basketball
07 !7 years (1996–2003)
$105,375,000
$15,053,571
$183,580.14
[115]

114 (tie)
Brown, KevinKevin BrownR
Los Angeles Dodgers*
Baseball
07 !7 years (1999–2005)
$105,000,000
$15,000,000
$92,592.59
[41]

114 !114 (tie)
Bailey, HomerHomer Bailey
Cincinnati Reds
Baseball
06 !6 years (2014–2019)
$105,000,000
$17,500,000
$108,024.61
[116]

114 !114 (tie)
Braun, RyanRyan Braun
Milwaukee Brewers
Baseball
05 !5 years (2016–2020)
$105,000,000
$21,000,000
$129,629.63
[117]

114 !114 (tie)
Mourning, AlonzoAlonzo MourningR
Miami Heat*
Basketball
07 !7 years (1996–2003)
$105,000,000
$15,000,000
$182,926.83
[118]

118 !118
Crosby, SidneySidney Crosby
Pittsburgh Penguins
Hockey
12 !12 years (2013–2025)
$104,400,000
$8,700,000
$106,097.56
[119]

119 !119
Rooney, WayneWayne Rooney
Manchester United
Association football
04 !4 years (2015–2019)
$104,000,000
$26,000,000
$498,000.00
[120]

120 !120
Newton, CamCam Newton
Carolina Panthers
American football
05 !5 years (2015–2020)
$103,800,000
$20,760,000
$1,297,500.00
[121]

121 !121
Ryan, MattMatt Ryan
Atlanta Falcons
American football
05 !5 years (2014–2018)
$103,750,000
$20,750,000
$1,296,875.00
[122]

122 !122
Kidd, JasonJason KiddR
New Jersey Nets*
Basketball
06 !6 years (2003–2009)
$103,572,000
$17,262,000
$210,512.20
[123]

123 !123
Bledsoe, DrewDrew BledsoeR
New England Patriots*
American football
10 !10 years (2001–2010)
$103,000,000
$10,300,000
$643,750.00
[124]

124 !124
Cox, FletcherFletcher Cox
Philadelphia Eagles
American football
06 !6 years (2017–2022)
$102,600,000
$17,100,000
$1,068,750.00
[125]

125 !125
Finley, MichaelMichael FinleyR
Dallas Mavericks*
Basketball
07 !7 years (2001–2008)
$102,265,625
$14,609,375
$178,163.11
[126]

126 !126 (tie)
Roethlisberger, BenBen Roethlisberger
Pittsburgh Steelers
American football
08 !8 years (2008–2015)
$102,000,000‡
$12,750,000
$796,875.00
[127]

126 !126 (tie)
Ronaldo, CristianoCristiano Ronaldo
Real Madrid C.F.
Association football
06 !6 years (2009–2015)
$102,000,000
$17,000,000
$400,000.00
[128]

tag: table

text:
1 – Rodriguez's 2014 salary was reduced to $2,868,853 due to his season-long suspension related to the Biogenesis baseball scandal[129] 2 – Rodriguez opted out of this contract after the 2007 season 3 – Vick's contract was terminated by the Atlanta Falcons after the 2006 season 4 – Arenas was suspended without pay for the majority of the 2009-10 season 5 – Based on regular season games only (excludes any playoff games), also in baseball, starting pitchers usually pitch every five games, resting during the interval between starts 6 - Exact contract figures will be available once the 2017–18 salary cap is set and contracts are officially signed R – retired Injury - While still technically under contract, injury has ended his career * – no longer on team
‡ – entirety of contract salary not guaranteed

tag: p


document_title: History of psychology

question_text: who established the first american psychology research lab

question_tokens: who established the first american psychology research lab

text: History of psychology

text: Early psychological thought[edit]

text: Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit, brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (though in a medical/surgical context). Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil.

text: Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuchẽ (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms – nous, thumos, logistikon, etc.[1] The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in the Republic),[2] Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. Peri Psyches, better known under its Latin title, De Anima).[3] Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind.[4] The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic.

text: In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC–61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments or opposing spirits of either veracity or perversity [5]

text: Walter M Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal Mind and Matter entitled "Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas."[6]

text: In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system. In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early experiment, in which he asked people to draw a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other (ostensibly to test people's vulnerability to distraction). Some have claimed that this is the first psychology experiment, and, therefore, the beginnings of psychology as an experimental science.[7]

text: India, too, had an elaborate theory of "the self" in its Vedanta philosophical writings.[8]

text: Medieval Muslim physicians also developed practices to treat patients suffering from a variety of "diseases of the mind".[9]

text: Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850–934) was among the first, in this tradition, to discuss disorders related to both the body and the mind, arguing that "if the nafs [psyche] gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness."[10] Al-Balkhi recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced". He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other bodily illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other nafs-related symptoms. He recognized two types of what we now call depression: one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure, which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine.[10]

text: The scientist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) carried out experiments in visual perception and the other senses, including variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colors, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.[11] Al-Biruni also employed such experimental methods in examining reaction time.[12]

text: Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of nafs-related illnesses, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings. Avicenna also described phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.[13]

text: Other medieval thinkers who discussed issues related to psychology included:

text:
Ibn Sirin, who wrote a book on dreams and dream interpretation;[14]
Al-Kindi (Alkindus), who developed forms of music therapy[citation needed]
Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-‘ilaj al-nafs (sometimes translated as "psychotherapy"),[15]
Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), who discussed subjects related to social psychology and consciousness studies;[16]
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas), described neuroanatomy and neurophysiology;[16]
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), described neurosurgery;[17]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who described reaction time;[18]
Ibn Tufail, who anticipated the tabula rasa argument and nature versus nurture debate.[19]

tag: ul

text: Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) described disorders similar to meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors; Averroes attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina; and Maimonides described rabies and belladonna intoxication.[17]

text: Witelo is considered a precursor of perception psychology. His Perspectiva contains much material in psychology, outlining views that are close to modern notions on the association of ideas and on the subconscious.

text: Beginnings of Western psychology[edit]

text: Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the Christian, Jewish and Persian translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions in the Islamic Golden Age, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the 12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to be used during the Renaissance, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate.[20]

text: Etymology and early usage of word[edit]

text: The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547–1628, often known under the Latin form Rodolphus Goclenius), who published the Psychologia hoc est: de hominis perfectione, animo et imprimis ortu hujus… in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450–1524) in the title of his Latin treatise, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae. Although the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krstić, 1964).

text: The term did not come into popular usage until the German Rationalist philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679–1754) used it in his works Psychologia empirica (1732) and Psychologia rationalis (1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in Denis Diderot's (1713–1780) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's (1717–1783) Encyclopédie (1751–1784) and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran (1766–1824). In England, the term "psychology" overtook "mental philosophy" in the middle of the 19th century, especially in the work of William Hamilton (1788–1856).[21]

text: Enlightenment psychological thought[edit]

text: Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term).[22] The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul (1649) and Treatise on Man (completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of The World, withheld from publication after Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published posthumously, in 1664).

text: Although not educated as a physician, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts and was considered important enough that William Harvey responded to him. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without the soul, thus contradicting the "Doctrine of the Soul". The emergence of psychology as a medical discipline was given a major boost by Thomas Willis, not only in his reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, but through his detailed 1672 anatomical work, and his treatise De anima brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac sentitiva est: exercitationes duae ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"—meaning "beasts"). However, Willis acknowledged the influence of Descartes's rival, Pierre Gassendi, as an inspiration for his work.

text: The philosophers of the British Empiricist and Associationist schools had a profound impact on the later course of experimental psychology. John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), George Berkeley's Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710), and David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–1740) were particularly influential, as were David Hartley's Observations on Man (1749) and John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic. (1843). Also notable was the work of some Continental Rationalist philosophers, especially Baruch Spinoza's (1632–1677) On the Improvement of the Understanding (1662) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's (1646–1716) New Essays on Human Understanding (completed 1705, published 1765). Also was an important contribution Friedrich August Rauch's (1806–1841) book Psychology: Or, A View of the Human Soul; Including Anthropology (1840),[23][24] the first English exposition of Hegelian philosophy for an American audience.[25]

text: The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard also influenced the humanistic, existential, and modern psychological schools with his works The Concept of Anxiety (1844) and The Sickness Unto Death (1849).

text: Transition to contemporary psychology[edit]

text: Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind’ by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient. Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of the physician John Elliotson (1791–1868), and the surgeons James Esdaile (1808–1859), and James Braid (1795–1860) (who reconceptualized it as property of the subject's mind rather than a "power" of the Mesmerist's, and relabeled it "hypnotism"). Mesmerism also continued to have a strong social (if not medical) following in England through the 19th century (see Winter, 1998). Faria's approach was significantly extended by the clinical and theoretical work of Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernheim of the Nancy School. Faria's theoretical position, and the subsequent experiences of those in the Nancy School made significant contributions to the later autosuggestion techniques of Émile Coué.[26] It was adopted for the treatment of hysteria by the director of Paris's Salpêtrière Hospital, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893).

text: Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brain structure developed by the German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large number of functional "organs", each responsible for particular human mental abilities and dispositions – hope, love, spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre Flourens (1794–1867), who conducted ablation studies (on chickens) which purported to demonstrate little or no cerebral localization of function. Although Gall had been a serious (if misguided) researcher, his theory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology, which soon spawned, especially in Britain, a thriving industry of independent practitioners. In the hands of Scottish religious leader George Combe (1788–1858) (whose book The Constitution of Man was one of the best-sellers of the century), phrenology became strongly associated with political reform movements and egalitarian principles (see, e.g., Shapin, 1975; but also see van Wyhe, 2004). Phrenology soon spread to America as well, where itinerant practical phrenologists assessed the mental well-being of willing customers (see Sokal, 2001).

text: Emergence of German experimental psychology[edit]

text: Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier on: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) declared in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a "proper" natural science because its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons.[27] Kant proposed an alternative conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73-1795/96). His Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical psychology in many respects.[28]

text: Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–18 78) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics.

text: Meanwhile, individual differences in reaction time had become a critical issue in the field of astronomy, under the name of the "personal equation". Early researches by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846) in Königsberg and Adolf Hirsch led to the development of a highly precise chronoscope by Matthäus Hipp that, in turn, was based on a design by Charles Wheatstone for a device that measured the speed of artillery shells (Edgell & Symes, 1906). Other timing instruments were borrowed from physiology (e.g., Carl Ludwig's kymograph) and adapted for use by the Utrecht ophthalmologist Franciscus Donders (1818–1899) and his student Johan Jacob de Jaager in measuring the duration of simple mental decisions.

text: The 19th century was also the period in which physiology, including neurophysiology, professionalized and saw some of its most significant discoveries. Among its leaders were Charles Bell (1774–1843) and François Magendie (1783–1855) who independently discovered the distinction between sensory and motor nerves in the spinal column, Johannes Müller (1801–1855) who proposed the doctrine of specific nerve energies, Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818–1896) who studied the electrical basis of muscle contraction, Pierre Paul Broca (1824–1880) and Carl Wernicke (1848–1905) who identified areas of the brain responsible for different aspects of language, as well as Gustav Fritsch (1837–1927), Eduard Hitzig (1839–1907), and David Ferrier (1843–1924) who localized sensory and motor areas of the brain. One of the principal founders of experimental physiology, Hermann Helmholtz (1821–1894), conducted studies of a wide range of topics that would later be of interest to psychologists – the speed of neural transmission, the natures of sound and color, and of our perceptions of them, etc. In the 1860s, while he held a position in Heidelberg, Helmholtz engaged as an assistant a young M.D. named Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt employed the equipment of the physiology laboratory – chronoscope, kymograph, and various peripheral devices – to address more complicated psychological questions than had, until then, been investigated experimentally. In particular he was interested in the nature of apperception – the point at which a perception occupies the central focus of conscious awareness.

text: In 1874 Wundt took up a professorship in Zürich, where he published his landmark textbook, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology, 1874). Moving to a more prestigious professorship in Leipzig in 1875, Wundt founded a laboratory specifically dedicated to original research in experimental psychology in 1879, the first laboratory of its kind in the world. In 1883, he launched a journal in which to publish the results of his, and his students', research, Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies) (For more on Wundt, see, e.g., Bringmann & Tweney, 1980; Rieber & Robinson, 2001). Wundt attracted a large number of students not only from Germany, but also from abroad. Among his most influential American students were G. Stanley Hall (who had already obtained a PhD from Harvard under the supervision of William James), James McKeen Cattell (who was Wundt's first assistant), and Frank Angell (who founded laboratories at both Cornell and Stanford). The most influential British student was Edward Bradford Titchener (who later became professor at Cornell).

text: Experimental psychology laboratories were soon also established at Berlin by Carl Stumpf (1848–1936) and at Göttingen by Georg Elias Müller (1850–1934). Another major German experimental psychologist of the era, though he did not direct his own research institute, was Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909).

text: Psychoanalysis[edit]

text: Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria." He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness – yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are examples of the existence of mental processes in which the individual is not conscious, through choice or lack of understanding, of some aspects of their personality and subsequent behavior.

text: Psychoanalysis examines mental processes which affect the ego. An understanding of these theoretically allows the individual greater choice and consciousness with a healing effect in neurosis and occasionally in psychosis, both of which Richard von Krafft-Ebing defined as "diseases of the personality". Carl G. Jung was an associate of Freud's who later broke with him over Freud's emphasis on sexuality. Working with concepts of the unconscious first noted during the 1800s (by John Stuart Mill, Krafft-Ebing, Pierre Janet, Théodore Flournoy and others), Jung defined four mental functions which relate to and define the ego, the conscious self:

text:
Sensation, which tell consciousness that something is there.
Feelings, which consist of value judgments, and motivate our reaction to what we have sensed.
Intellect, an analytic function that compares the sensed event to all known others and gives it a class and category, allowing us to understand a situation within a historical process, personal or public.
And intuition, a mental function with access to deep behavioral patterns, being able to suggest unexpected solutions or predict unforeseen consequences, "as if seeing around corners" as Jung put it.

tag: ol

text: Jung insisted on an empirical psychology on which theories must be based on facts and not on the psychologist's projections or expectations.

text: Early American[edit]

text: Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, contra Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume The Principles of Psychology would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889).

text: In 1879 Charles Sanders Peirce was hired as a philosophy instructor at Johns Hopkins University. Although better known for his astronomical and philosophical work, Peirce also conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color vision, published in 1877 in the American Journal of Science (see Cadwallader, 1974). Peirce and his student Joseph Jastrow published "On Small Differences in Sensation" in the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G. Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology, which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. In 1888 Hall left his Johns Hopkins professorship for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University, where he remained for the rest of his career.

text: Soon, experimental psychology laboratories were opened at the University of Pennsylvania (in 1887, by James McKeen Cattell), Indiana University (1888, William Lowe Bryan), the University of Wisconsin (1888, Joseph Jastrow), Clark University (1889, Edmund Sanford), the McLean Asylum (1889, William Noyes), and the University of Nebraska (1889, Harry Kirke Wolfe). However, it was Princeton University's Eno Hall, built in 1924, that became the first university building in the United States to be devoted entirely to experimental psychology when it became the home of the university's Department of Psychology.[29]

text: In 1890, William James' The Principles of Psychology finally appeared, and rapidly became the most influential textbook in the history of American psychology. It laid many of the foundations for the sorts of questions that American psychologists would focus on for years to come. The book's chapters on consciousness, emotion, and habit were particularly agenda-setting.

text: One of those who felt the impact of James' Principles was John Dewey, then professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan. With his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts (who founded the psychology laboratory at Michigan) and George Herbert Mead, and his student James Rowland Angell, this group began to reformulate psychology, focusing more strongly on the social environment and on the activity of mind and behavior than the psychophysics-inspired physiological psychology of Wundt and his followers had heretofore. Tufts left Michigan for another junior position at the newly founded University of Chicago in 1892. A year later, the senior philosopher at Chicago, Charles Strong, resigned, and Tufts recommended to Chicago president William Rainey Harper that Dewey be offered the position. After initial reluctance, Dewey was hired in 1894. Dewey soon filled out the department with his Michigan companions Mead and Angell. These four formed the core of the Chicago School of psychology.

text: In 1892, G. Stanley Hall invited 30-some psychologists and philosophers to a meeting at Clark with the purpose of founding a new American Psychological Association (APA). (On the history of the APA, see Evans, Staudt Sexton, & Cadwallader, 1992.) The first annual meeting of the APA was held later that year, hosted by George Stuart Fullerton at the University of Pennsylvania. Almost immediately tension arose between the experimentally and philosophically inclined members of the APA. Edward Bradford Titchener and Lightner Witmer launched an attempt to either establish a separate "Section" for philosophical presentations, or to eject the philosophers altogether. After nearly a decade of debate, a Western Philosophical Association was founded and held its first meeting in 1901 at the University of Nebraska. The following year (1902), an American Philosophical Association held its first meeting at Columbia University. These ultimately became the Central and Eastern Divisions of the modern American Philosophical Association.

text: In 1894, a number of psychologists, unhappy with the parochial editorial policies of the American Journal of Psychology approached Hall about appointing an editorial board and opening the journal out to more psychologists not within Hall's immediate circle. Hall refused, so James McKeen Cattell (then of Columbia) and James Mark Baldwin (then of Princeton) co-founded a new journal, Psychological Review, which rapidly grew to become a major outlet for American psychological researchers.[30][31]

text: Beginning in 1895, James Mark Baldwin (Princeton, Hopkins) and Edward Bradford Titchener (Cornell) entered into an increasingly acrimonious dispute over the correct interpretation of some anomalous reaction time findings that had come from the Wundt laboratory (originally reported by Ludwig Lange and James McKeen Cattell). In 1896, James Rowland Angell and Addison W. Moore (Chicago) published a series of experiments in Psychological Review appearing to show that Baldwin was the more correct of the two. However, they interpreted their findings in light of John Dewey's new approach to psychology, which rejected the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one views the situation. The full position was laid out in Dewey's landmark article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which also appeared in Psychological Review in 1896.

text: Titchener responded in Philosophical Review (1898, 1899) by distinguishing his austere "structural" approach to psychology from what he termed the Chicago group's more applied "functional" approach, and thus began the first major theoretical rift in American psychology between Structuralism and Functionalism. The group at Columbia, led by James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, was often regarded as a second (after Chicago) "school" of American Functionalism (see, e.g., Heidbredder, 1933), although they never used that term themselves, because their research focused on the applied areas of mental testing, learning, and education. Dewey was elected president of the APA in 1899, while Titchener dropped his membership in the association. (In 1904, Titchener formed his own group, eventually known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists.) Jastrow promoted the functionalist approach in his APA presidential address of 1900, and Angell adopted Titchener's label explicitly in his influential textbook of 1904 and his APA presidential address of 1906. In reality, Structuralism was, more or less, confined to Titchener and his students.[citation needed] (It was Titchener's former student E. G. Boring, writing A History of Experimental Psychology [1929–1950, the most influential textbook of the 20th century about the discipline], who launched the common idea that the structuralism/functionalism debate was the primary fault line in American psychology at the turn of the 20th century.) Functionalism, broadly speaking, with its more practical emphasis on action and application, better suited the American cultural "style" and, perhaps more important, was more appealing to pragmatic university trustees and private funding agencies.[citation needed]

text: Early French[edit]

text: In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napoléon (president, 1848–1852; emperor as "Napoléon III", 1852–1870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (1792–1867), Thédodore Jouffroy (1796–1842), and Paul Janet (1823–1899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napoléon III after the débacle of the Franco-Prussian War, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From the 1870 forward, a steadily increasing interest in positivist, materialist, evolutionary, and deterministic approaches to psychology developed, influenced by, among others, the work of Hyppolyte Taine (1828–1893) (e.g., De L'Intelligence, 1870) and Théodule Ribot (1839–1916) (e.g., La Psychologie Anglaise Contemporaine, 1870).

text: In 1876, Ribot founded Revue Philosophique (the same year as Mind was founded in Britain), which for the next generation would be virtually the only French outlet for the "new" psychology (Plas, 1997). Although not a working experimentalist himself, Ribot's many books were to have profound influence on the next generation of psychologists. These included especially his L'Hérédité Psychologique (1873) and La Psychologie Allemande Contemporaine (1879). In the 1880s, Ribot's interests turned to psychopathology, writing books on disorders of memory (1881), will (1883), and personality (1885), and where he attempted to bring to these topics the insights of general psychology. Although in 1881 he lost a Sorbonne professorship in the History of Psychological Doctrines to traditionalist Jules Soury (1842–1915), from 1885 to 1889 he taught experimental psychology at the Sorbonne. In 1889 he was awarded a chair at the Collège de France in Experimental and Comparative Psychology, which he held until 1896 (Nicolas, 2002).

text: France's primary psychological strength lay in the field of psychopathology. The chief neurologist at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), had been using the recently revivied and renamed (see above) practice of hypnoisis to "experimentally" produce hysterical symptoms in some of his patients. Two of his students, Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and Pierre Janet (1859–1947), adopted and expanded this practice in their own work.

text: In 1889, Binet and his colleague Henri Beaunis (1830–1921) co-founded, at the Sorbonne, the first experimental psychology laboratory in France. Just five years later, in 1894, Beaunis, Binet, and a third colleague, Victor Henri (1872–1940), co-founded the first French journal dedicated to experimental psychology, L'Année Psychologique. In the first years of the 20th century, Binet was requested by the French government to develop a method for the newly founded universal public education system to identify students who would require extra assistance to master the standardized curriculum. In response, with his collaborator Théodore Simon (1873–1961), he developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, first published in 1905 (revised in 1908 and 1911). Although the test was used to effect in France, it would find its greatest success (and controversy) in the United States, where it was translated into English by Henry H. Goddard (1866–1957), the director of the Training School for the Feebleminded in Vineland, New Jersey, and his assistant, Elizabeth Kite (a translation of the 1905 edition appeared in the Vineland Bulletin in 1908, but much better known was Kite's 1916 translation of the 1908 edition, which appeared in book form). The translated test was used by Goddard to advance his eugenics agenda with respect to those he deemed congenitally feeble-minded, especially immigrants from non-Western European countries. Binet's test was revised by Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman (1877–1956) into the Stanford-Binet IQ test in 1916. With Binet's death in 1911, the Sorbonne laboratory and L'Année Psychologique fell to Henri Piéron (1881–1964). Piéron's orientation was more physiological that Binet's had been.

text: Pierre Janet became the leading psychiatrist in France, being appointed to the Salpêtrière (1890–1894), the Sorbonne (1895–1920), and the Collège de France (1902–1936). In 1904, he co-founded the Journale de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique with fellow Sorbonne professor Georges Dumas (1866–1946), a student and faithful follower of Ribot. Whereas Janet's teacher, Charcot, had focused on the neurologial bases of hysteria, Janet was concerned to develop a scientific approach to psychopathology as a mental disorder. His theory that mental pathology results from conflict between unconscious and conscious parts of the mind, and that unconscious mental contents may emerge as symptoms with symbolic meanings led to a public priority dispute with Sigmund Freud.

text: Early British[edit]

text: Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology – Mind, founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson – it was quite a long while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of "mental philosophy." The experimental reports that appeared in Mind in the first two decades of its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell.

text: Francis Galton's (1822–1911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity) attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help interpret the mounds of data he accumulated, Galton developed a number of important statistical techniques, including the precursors to the scatterplot and the product-moment correlation coefficient (later perfected by Karl Pearson, 1857–1936).

text: Soon after, Charles Spearman (1863–1945) developed the correlation-based statistical procedure of factor analysis in the process of building a case for his two-factor theory of intelligence, published in 1901. Spearman believed that people have an inborn level of general intelligence or g which can be crystallized into a specific skill in any of a number of narrow content area (s, or specific intelligence).

text: Laboratory psychology of the kind practiced in Germany and the United States was slow in coming to Britain. Although the philosopher James Ward (1843–1925) urged Cambridge University to establish a psychophysics laboratory from the mid-1870s forward, it was not until the 1891 that they put so much as £50 toward some basic apparatus (Bartlett, 1937). A laboratory was established through the assistance of the physiology department in 1897 and a lectureship in psychology was established which first went to W. H. R. Rivers (1864–1922). Soon Rivers was joined by C. S. Myers (1873–1946) and William McDougall (1871–1938). This group showed as much interest in anthropology as psychology, going with Alfred Cort Haddon (1855–1940) on the famed Torres Straits expedition of 1898.

text: In 1901 the Psychological Society was established (which renamed itself the British Psychological Society in 1906), and in 1904 Ward and Rivers co-founded the British Journal of Psychology.

text: Second generation German[edit]

text: Würzburg School[edit]

text: In 1896, one of Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862–1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, most notably Narziß Ach (1871–1946), Karl Bühler (1879–1963), Ernst Dürr (1878–1913), Karl Marbe (1869–1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879–1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation (Selbstbeobachtung) in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception (innere Wahrnehmung) in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image (Vorstellung). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through Völkerpsychologie (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation.

text: The Würzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (for example a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and after processing it for a time (for example interpreting the aphorism or solving the problem), retrospectively reported to the experimenter all that had passed through his consciousness during the interval. In the process, the Würzburgers claimed to have discovered a number of new elements of consciousness (over and above Wundt's sensations, feelings, and images) including Bewußtseinslagen (conscious sets), Bewußtheiten (awarenesses), and Gedanken (thoughts). In the English-language literature, these are often collectively termed "imageless thoughts", and the debate between Wundt and the Würzburgers, the "imageless thought controversy".

text: Wundt referred to the Würzburgers' studies as "sham" experiments and criticized them vigorously. Wundt's most significant English student, Edward Bradford Titchener, then working at Cornell, intervened in the dispute, claiming to have conducted extended introspective studies in which he was able to resolve the Würzburgers' imageless thoughts into sensations, feelings, and images. He thus, paradoxically, used a method of which Wundt did not approve in order to affirm Wundt's view of the situation.[32]

text: The imageless thought debate is often said to have been instrumental in undermining the legitimacy of all introspective methods in experimental psychology and, ultimately, in bringing about the behaviorist revolution in American psychology. It was not without its own delayed legacy, however. Herbert A. Simon (1981) cites the work of one Würzburg psychologist in particular, Otto Selz (1881–1943), for having inspired him to develop his famous problem-solving computer algorithms (such as Logic Theorist and General Problem Solver) and his "thinking out loud" method for protocol analysis. In addition, Karl Popper studied psychology under Bühler and Selz, and appears to have brought some of their influence, unattributed, to his philosophy of science.[33]

text: Gestalt psychology[edit]

text: Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named Gestalt, a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration." It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element Gestalt-qualität or "form-quality." For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them which binds them together into a tune – the Gestalt-qualität. It is the presence of this Gestalt-qualität which, according to Von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, but still retain its identity. Wertheimer took the more radical line that "what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly in vision, one sees the form of the circle first – it is given "im-mediately" (i.e. its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars.

text: Gestalt-Theorie was officially initiated in 1912 in an article by Wertheimer on the phi-phenomenon; a perceptual illusion in which two stationary but alternately flashing lights appear to be a single light moving from one location to another. Contrary to popular opinion, his primary target was not behaviorism, as it was not yet a force in psychology. The aim of his criticism was, rather, the atomistic psychologies of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), and other European psychologists of the time.

text: The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiment were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max Planck (1858–1947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (1848–1936). Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917 Köhler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively.

text: The terms "structure" and "organization" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Köhler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials.

text: In 1921 Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, Growth of the Mind. With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in Psychological Bulletin. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935 Koffka published his Principles of Gestalt Psychology. This textbook laid out the Gestalt vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the Gestaltists was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to swallow not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other "scientific categories": questions of order and questions of Sinn, a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings.

text: Having survived the onslaught of the Nazis up to the mid-1930s,[34] all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935.[35] Köhler published another book, Dynamics in Psychology, in 1940 but thereafter the Gestalt movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, Productive Thinking, was published posthumously in 1945 but Köhler was now left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.[36]

text: Emergence of behaviorism in America[edit]

text: As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William James' 1904 Journal of Philosophy.... article "Does Consciousness Exist?", laid out the worries explicitly.

text: Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in American Journal of Psychology). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 Journal of Philosophy... article "Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (1878–1959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, Psychological Review Monograph Supplement; Carr & Watson, 1908, J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology). Another important rat study was published by Henry H. Donaldson (1908, J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology). The year 1909 saw the first English-language account of Ivan Pavlov's studies of conditioning in dogs (Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909, Psychological Bulletin).

text: A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin. In addition to heading the Johns Hopkins department, Baldwin was the editor of the influential journals, Psychological Review and Psychological Bulletin. Only months after Watson's arrival, Baldwin was forced to resign his professorship due to scandal. Watson was suddenly made head of the department and editor of Baldwin's journals. He resolved to use these powerful tools to revolutionize psychology in the image of his own research. In 1913 he published in Psychological Review the article that is often called the "manifesto" of the behaviorist movement, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." There he argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods..." and "The behaviorist... recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". The following year, 1914, his first textbook, Behavior went to press. Although behaviorism took some time to be accepted as a comprehensive approach (see Samelson, 1981), (in no small part because of the intervention of World War I), by the 1920s Watson's revolution was well underway. The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals. Watson himself, however, was forced out of Johns Hopkins by scandal in 1920. Although he continued to publish during the 1920s, he eventually moved on to a career in advertising (see Coon, 1994).

text: Among the behaviorists who continued on, there were a number of disagreements about the best way to proceed. Neo-behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman, Edwin Guthrie, Clark L. Hull, and B. F. Skinner debated issues such as (1) whether to reformulate the traditional psychological vocabulary in behavioral terms or discard it in favor of a wholly new scheme, (2) whether learning takes place all at once or gradually, (3) whether biological drives should be included in the new science in order to provide a "motivation" for behavior, and (4) to what degree any theoretical framework is required over and above the measured effects of reinforcement and punishment on learning. By the late 1950s, Skinner's formulation had become dominant, and it remains a part of the modern discipline under the rubric of Behavior Analysis. Its application (Applied Behavior Analysis) has become one of the most useful fields of psychology.

text: Behaviorism was the ascendant experimental model for research in psychology for much of the 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in advertising) of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behaviour.

text: Second generation francophone[edit]

text: Genevan School[edit]

text: In 1918, Jean Piaget (1896–1980) turned away from his early training in Natural History and began post-doctoral work in psychoanalysis in Zurich. In 1919, he moved to Paris to work at the Binet-Simon Lab. However, Binet had died in 1911 and Simon lived and worked in Rouen. His supervision therefore came (indirectly) from Pierre Janet, Binet's old rival and a professor at the Collège de France.

text: The job in Paris was relatively simple: to use the statistical techniques he had learned as a natural historian, studying molluscs, to standardize Cyril Burt's intelligence test for use with French children. Yet without direct supervision, he soon found a remedy to this boring work: exploring why children made the mistakes they did. Applying his early training in psychoanalytic interviewing, Piaget began to intervene directly with the children: "Why did you do that?" (etc.) It was from this that the ideas formalized in his later stage theory first emerged.

text: In 1921, Piaget moved to Geneva to work with Édouard Claparède at the Rousseau Institute.

text: In 1936, Piaget received his first honorary doctorate from Harvard.

text: In 1955, the International Center for Genetic Epistemology was founded: an interdisciplinary collaboration of theoreticians and scientists, devoted to the study of topics related to Piaget's theory.

text: In 1969, Piaget received the "distinguished scientific contributions" award from the American Psychological Association.

text: Cognitivism[edit]

text: Noam Chomsky's (1957) review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major theoretical challenges to the type of radical (as in 'root') behaviorism that Skinner taught. Chomsky claimed that language could not be learned solely from the sort of operant conditioning that Skinner postulated. Chomsky's argument was that people could produce an infinite variety of sentences unique in structure and meaning and that these could not possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language. As an alternative, he concluded that there must be internal mental structures – states of mind of the sort that behaviorism rejected as illusory. The issue is not whether mental activities exist; it is whether they can be shown to be the causes of behavior. Similarly, work by Albert Bandura showed that children could learn by social observation, without any change in overt behaviour, and so must (according to him) be accounted for by internal representations.

text: The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as the dominant model of the mind.

text: Links between brain and nervous system function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people like Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology.

text: With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as philosophy, computer science, and neuroscience) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of cognitive science has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way.


document_title: Ultra vires

question_text: what is an ultra vires act within the context of corporate action

text: Ultra vires

text: Corporate law[edit]

text:
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text: In corporate law, ultra vires describes acts attempted by a corporation that are beyond the scope of powers granted by the corporation's objects clause, articles of incorporation or in a clause in its Bylaws, in the laws authorizing a corporation's formation, or similar founding documents. Acts attempted by a corporation that are beyond the scope of its charter are void or voidable.

text:
An ultra vires transaction cannot be ratified by shareholders, even if they wish it to be ratified.
The doctrine of estoppel usually precluded reliance on the defense of ultra vires where the transaction was fully performed by one party.
A fortiori, a transaction which was fully performed by both parties could not be attacked.
If the contract was fully executory, the defense of ultra vires might be raised by either party.
If the contract was partially performed, and the performance was held to be insufficient to bring the doctrine of estoppel into play, a suit for quasi-contract for recovery of benefits conferred was available.
If an agent of the corporation committed a tort within the scope of his or her employment, the corporation could not defend on the ground the act was ultra vires.

text: Several modern developments relating to corporate formation have limited the probability that ultra vires acts will occur. Except in the case of non-profit corporations (including municipal corporations), this legal doctrine is obsolescent; within recent years, almost all business corporations are chartered to allow them to transact any lawful business. The Model Business Corporation Act of the United States states that: "The validity of corporate action may not be challenged on the ground that the corporation lacks or lacked power to act." The doctrine still has some life among non-profit corporations or state-created corporate bodies established for a specific public purpose, such as universities or charities.

text: According to American laws, the concept of ultra vires can still arise in the following kinds of activities in some states:

text:
Charitable or political contributions
Guaranty of indebtedness of another
Loans to officers or directors
Pensions, bonuses, stock option plans, job severance payments, and other fringe benefits
The power to acquire shares of other corporations
The power to enter into a partnership

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Historically all companies in the United Kingdom were subject to the doctrine of ultra vires and any act which was outside of a company's the objects specified in a company's memorandum of association would be ultra vires and void.[3] That result was commercially unpalatable, and led to companies being formed with extremely wide and generic objects clauses permitting a company to engage in all manner of commercial activities.[7]

text: The position was changed by statute by the Companies Act 1985 which largely abolished the doctrine in relation to commercial companies. The position is now regulated by the Companies Act 2006, sections 31 and 39, which similarly greatly reduces the applicability of ultra vires in corporate law, although it can still apply in relation to charities and a shareholder may apply for an injunction, in advance only, to prevent an act which is claimed to be ultra vires.

text: In many jurisdictions, such as Australia, legislation provides that a corporation has all the powers of a natural person[8] plus others; also, the validity of acts which are made ultra vires is preserved.[9]

text: Constitutional law[edit]

text: Under constitutional law, particularly in Canada and the United States, constitutions give federal and provincial or state governments various powers. To go outside those powers would be ultra vires; for example, although the court did not use the term in striking down a federal law in United States v. Lopez on the grounds that it exceeded the Constitutional authority of Congress, the Supreme Court still declared the law to be ultra vires.[10]

text: According to Article 15.2 of the Irish constitution, the Oireachtas (parliament) is the sole lawmaking body in the Republic of Ireland. In the case of CityView Press v AnCo, however, the Irish Supreme Court held that the Oireachtas may delegate certain powers to subordinate bodies through primary legislation, so long as these delegated powers allow the delegatee only to further the principles and policies laid down by the Oireachtas in primary legislation and not craft new principles or policies themselves. Any piece of primary legislation that grants the power to make public policy to a body other than the Oireachtas is unconstitutional; however, as there is a presumption in Irish constitutional law that the Oireachtas acts within the confines of the Constitution, any legislation passed by the Oireachtas must be interpreted in such a way as to be constitutionally valid where possible.

text: Thus, in a number of cases where bodies other than the Oireachtas were found to have used powers granted to them by primary legislation to make public policy, the impugned primary legislation was read in such a way that it would not have the effect of allowing a subordinate body to make public policy. In these cases, the primary legislation was held to be constitutional, but the subordinate or secondary legislation, which amounted to creation of public policy, was held to be ultra vires the primary legislation and was struck down.

text: In UK constitutional law, ultra vires describes patents, ordinances and the like enacted under the prerogative powers of the Crown that contradict statutes enacted by the Crown-in-Parliament. Almost unheard of in modern times, ultra vires acts by the Crown or its servants were previously a major threat to the rule of law.

text: Boddington v British Transport Police is an example of an appeal heard by House of Lords that contested that a bylaw was beyond the powers conferred to it under section 67 of the Transport Act 1962.[6]

text: Administrative law[edit]

text: In administrative law, an act may be judicially reviewable for ultra vires in a narrow or broad sense. Narrow ultra vires applies if an administrator did not have the substantive power to make a decision or it was wrought with procedural defects. Broad ultra vires applies if there is an abuse of power (e.g., Wednesbury unreasonableness or bad faith) or a failure to exercise an administrative discretion (e.g., acting at the behest of another or unlawfully applying a government policy) or application of discretionary powers in irrational and wrong way.[11] Either doctrine may entitle a claimant to various prerogative writs, equitable remedies or statutory orders if they are satisfied.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the seminal case of Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission,[12] Lord Reid is accredited with formulating the doctrine of ultra vires. However, ultra vires, together with unreasonableness, was mentioned much earlier by Lord Russell in the well known case, Kruse v Johnson,[13] regarding challenging by-laws and other rules. Anisminic is better known for not depriving courts of their jurisdiction to declare a decision a nullity, even if a statute expressly prevents the decision being subject to judicial review. Further cases such as Bromley LBC v Greater London Council[14] and Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service[15] have sought to refine the doctrine.

text: In Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council v Hazell[16] the House of Lords held that interest rate swaps entered into by local authorities (a popular method of circumventing statutory restrictions on local authorities borrowing money at that time) were all ultra vires and void, sparking a raft of satellite litigation.