document_title: Masoretic Text

question_text: what were the scribes called who preserved the old testament text

text: Masoretic Text

text: Origin and transmission[edit]

text: The Talmud and Karaite manuscripts[7] state that a standard copy of the Hebrew Bible was kept in the court of the Temple in Jerusalem for the benefit of copyists; there were paid correctors of Biblical books among the officers of the Temple (Talmud, tractate Ketubot 106a).[8] This copy is mentioned in the Letter of Aristeas (§ 30; comp. Blau, Studien zum Althebr. Buchwesen, p. 100), in the statements of Philo (preamble to his "Analysis of the Political Constitution of the Jews"), and in Josephus (Contra Ap. i. 8).[7][8]

text: A Talmudic story, perhaps referring to an earlier time, relates that three Torah scrolls were found in the Temple court but were at variance with each other. The differences were then resolved by majority decision among the three.[9]

text: Second Temple period[edit]

text: The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran, dating from c. 150 BCE-75 CE, shows that in this period there was not always the scrupulous uniformity of text that was so stressed in later centuries. According to Menachem Cohen, the Dead Sea scrolls decided these issues 'by showing that there was indeed a Hebrew text-type on which the Septuagint-translation was based and which differed substantially from the received MT'.[10] The scrolls show numerous small variations in orthography, both as against the later Masoretic text, and between each other. It is also evident from the notings of corrections and of variant alternatives that scribes felt free to choose according to their personal taste and discretion between different readings.[10]

text: However, despite these variations, most of the Qumran fragments can be classified as being closer to the Masoretic text than to any other text group that has survived. According to Lawrence Schiffman, 60% can be classed as being of proto-Masoretic type, and a further 20% Qumran style with bases in proto-Masoretic texts, compared to 5% proto-Samaritan type, 5% Septuagintal type, and 10% non-aligned.[11][page needed] Joseph Fitzmyer noted the following regarding the findings at Qumran Cave 4 in particular: "Such ancient recensional forms of Old Testament books bear witness to an unsuspected textual diversity that once existed; these texts merit far greater study and attention than they have been accorded till now. Thus, the differences in the Septuagint are no longer considered the result of a poor or tendentious attempt to translate the Hebrew into the Greek; rather they testify to a different pre-Christian form of the Hebrew text".[12] On the other hand, some of the fragments conforming most accurately to the Masoretic text were found in Cave 4.[13]

text: Rabbinic period[edit]

text: An emphasis on minute details of words and spellings, already used among the Pharisees as bases for argumentation, reached its height with the example of Rabbi Akiva (died 135 CE). The idea of a perfect text sanctified in its consonantal base quickly spread throughout the Jewish communities via supportive statements in Halakha, Aggadah, and Jewish thought;[10] and with it increasingly forceful strictures that a deviation in even a single letter would make a Torah scroll invalid.[14] Very few manuscripts are said to have survived the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE.[15] This both drastically reduced the number of variants in circulation, and gave a new urgency that the text must be preserved. New Greek translations were also made. Unlike the Septuagint, large-scale deviations in sense between the Greek of Aquila of Sinope and Theodotion and what we now know as the Masoretic text are minimal. Detailed variations between different Hebrew texts in use still clearly existed though, as witnessed by differences between the present-day Masoretic text and versions mentioned in the Gemara, and often even halachic midrashim based on spelling versions which do not exist in the current Masoretic text.[10]

text: The Age of the Masoretes[edit]

text: The current received text finally achieved predominance through the reputation of the Masoretes, schools of scribes and Torah scholars working between the 7th and 11th centuries, based primarily in the Land of Israel in the cities of Tiberias and Jerusalem, and in Babylonia. According to Menachem Cohen these schools developed such prestige for the accuracy and error-control of their copying techniques that their texts established an authority beyond all others.[10] Differences remained, sometimes bolstered by systematic local differences in pronunciation and cantillation. Every locality, following the tradition of its school, had a standard codex embodying its readings. In Babylonia the school of Sura differed from that of Nehardea; and similar differences existed in the schools of the Land of Israel as against that at Tiberias, which in later times increasingly became the chief seat of learning. In this period living tradition ceased, and the Masoretes in preparing their codices usually followed the one school or the other, examining, however, standard codices of other schools and noting their differences.[8]

text: Ben Asher and ben Naphtali[edit]

text: In the first half of the 10th century Aaron ben Moses ben Asher and Ben Naphtali were the leading Masoretes in Tiberias. Their names have come to symbolise the variations among Masoretes, but the differences between ben Asher and ben Naphtali should not be exaggerated. There are hardly any differences between them regarding the consonants, though they differ more on vocalization and accents. Also, there were other authorities such as Rabbi Pinchas and Moshe Moheh, and ben Asher and ben Naphtali often agree against these others. Further, it is possible that all variations found among manuscripts eventually came to be regarded as disagreements between these figureheads. Ben Asher wrote a standard codex[8] (the Aleppo Codex) embodying his opinions. Probably ben Naphtali did too, but it has not survived.[citation needed]

text: It has been suggested that there never was an actual "ben Naphtali"; rather, the name was chosen (based on the Bible, where Asher and Naphtali are the younger sons of Zilpah and Bilhah) to designate any tradition different from ben Asher's.[citation needed]

text: Ben Asher was the last of a distinguished family of Masoretes extending back to the latter half of the 8th century. Despite the rivalry of ben Naphtali and the opposition of Saadia Gaon, the most eminent representative of the Babylonian school of criticism, ben Asher's codex became recognized as the standard text of the Bible.[8] See Aleppo Codex, Codex Cairensis.

text: Most of the secular scholars conclude that Aaron ben Asher was a Karaite, though there is evidence against this view.[16]

text: The Middle Ages[edit]

text: The two rival authorities, ben Asher and ben Naphtali, practically brought the Masorah to a close. Very few additions were made by the later Masoretes, styled in the 13th and 14th centuries Naḳdanim, who revised the works of the copyists, added the vowels and accents (generally in fainter ink and with a finer pen) and frequently the Masorah.[8]

text: Considerable influence on the development and spread of Masoretic literature was exercised during the eleventh, twelfth, and 13th centuries by the Franco-German school of Tosafists. Rabbi Gershom ben Judah, his brother Machir ben Judah, Joseph ben Samuel Bonfils (Tob 'Elem) of Limoges, Rabbeinu Tam (Jacob ben Meïr), Menahem ben Perez of Joigny, Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil, Marne, Judah ben Isaac Messer Leon, Meïr Spira, and Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg made Masoretic compilations, or additions to the subject, which are all more or less frequently referred to in the marginal glosses of Biblical codices and in the works of Hebrew grammarians.[8]

text: Masorah[edit]

text: By long tradition, a ritual Sefer Torah (Torah scroll) could contain only the Hebrew consonantal text – nothing added, nothing taken away. The Masoretic codices however, provide extensive additional material, called masorah, to show correct pronunciation and cantillation, protect against scribal errors, and annotate possible variants. The manuscripts thus include vowel points, pronunciation marks and stress accents in the text, short annotations in the side margins, and longer more extensive notes in the upper and lower margins and collected at the end of each book.

text: These notes were added because the Masoretes recognized the possibility of human error in copying the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes were not working with the original Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible and corruptions had already crept into the versions they copied.[17]

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The Hebrew word masorah is taken from the Book of Ezekiel 20:37 and means originally "legcuffs". The fixation of the text was considered to be in the nature of legcuffs upon its exposition. When, in the course of time, the Masorah had become a traditional discipline, the term became connected with the verb מסר "to hand down" and acquired the general meaning of "tradition."[8]

text: Language and form[edit]

text: The language of the Masoretic notes is primarily Aramaic but partly Hebrew. The Masoretic annotations are found in various forms: (a) in separate works, e.g., the Oklah we-Oklah; (b) in the form of notes written in the margins and at the end of codices. In rare cases, the notes are written between the lines. The first word of each Biblical book is also as a rule surrounded by notes. The latter are called the Initial Masorah; the notes on the side margins or between the columns are called the Small (Masora parva or Mp) or Inner Masorah (Masora marginalis); and those on the lower and upper margins, the Large or Outer Masorah (Masora magna or Mm[Mas.M]). The name "Large Masorah" is applied sometimes to the lexically arranged notes at the end of the printed Bible, usually called the Final Masorah,[8] (Masora finalis), or the Masoretic Concordance.[citation needed]

text: The Small Masorah consists of brief notes with reference to marginal readings, to statistics showing the number of times a particular form is found in Scripture, to full and defective spelling, and to abnormally written letters. The Large Masorah is more copious in its notes. The Final Masorah comprises all the longer rubrics for which space could not be found in the margin of the text, and is arranged alphabetically in the form of a concordance. The quantity of notes the marginal Masorah contains is conditioned by the amount of vacant space on each page. In the manuscripts it varies also with the rate at which the copyist was paid and the fanciful shape he gave to his gloss.[8]

text: There was accordingly an independent Babylonian Masora which differed from the Palestinian in terminology and to some extent in order. The Masora is concise in style with a profusion of abbreviations, requiring a considerable amount of knowledge for their full understanding. It was quite natural that a later generation of scribes would no longer understand the notes of the Masoretes and consider them unimportant; by the late medieval period they were reduced to mere ornamentation of the manuscripts. It was Jacob ben Chayyim who restored clarity and order to them.[18]

text: In most manuscripts, there are some discrepancies between the text and the masorah, suggesting that they were copied from different sources or that one of them has copying errors. The lack of such discrepancies in the Aleppo Codex is one of the reasons for its importance; the scribe who copied the notes, presumably Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, probably wrote them originally.[citation needed]

text: Numerical Masorah[edit]

text: In classical antiquity, copyists were paid for their work according to the number of stichs (lines of verse). As the prose books of the Bible were hardly ever written in stichs, the copyists, in order to estimate the amount of work, had to count the letters.[8] For the Masoretic Text, such statistical information more importantly also ensured accuracy in the transmission of the text with the production of subsequent copies that were done by hand.[citation needed]

text: Hence the Masoretes contributed the Numerical Masorah.[8] These notes are traditionally categorized into two main groups, the marginal Masorah and the final Masorah. The category of marginal Masorah is further divided into the Masorah parva (small Masorah) in the outer side margins and the Masorah magna (large Masorah), traditionally located at the top and bottom margins of the text.[citation needed]

text: The Masorah parva is a set of statistics in the outer side margins of the text. Beyond simply counting the letters, the Masorah parva consists of word-use statistics, similar documentation for expressions or certain phraseology, observations on full or defective writing, references to the Kethiv-Qere readings and more. These observations are also the result of a passionate zeal to safeguard the accurate transmission of the sacred text.[citation needed]

text: Even though often cited as very exact, the Masoretic "frequency notes" in the margin of Codex Leningradiensis contain several errors.[19][20][21]

text: The Masorah magna, in measure, is an expanded Masorah parva. It is not printed in the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS).[citation needed]

text: The final Masorah is located at the end of biblical books or after certain sections of the text, such as at the end of the Torah. It contains information and statistics regarding the number of words in a book or section, etc. Thus, Book of Leviticus 8:23 is the middle verse in the Pentateuch. The collation of manuscripts and the noting of their differences furnished material for the Text-Critical Masorah. The close relation which existed in earlier times (from the Soferim to the Amoraim inclusive) between the teacher of tradition and the Masorete, both frequently being united in one person, accounts for the Exegetical Masorah. Finally, the invention and introduction of a graphic system of vocalization and accentuation gave rise to the Grammatical Masorah.[8]

text: The most important of the Masoretic notes are those that detail the Qere and Ketiv that are located in the Masorah parva in the outside margins of BHS. Given that the Masoretes would not alter the sacred consonantal text, the Kethiv-Qere notes were a way of "correcting" or commenting on the text for any number of reasons (grammatical, theological, aesthetic, etc.) deemed important by the copyist.[22]

text: Fixing of the text[edit]

text: The earliest labors of the Masoretes included standardizing division of the text into books, sections, paragraphs, verses, and clauses (probably in the chronological order here enumerated); the fixing of the orthography, pronunciation, and cantillation; the introduction or final adoption of the square characters with the five final letters; some textual changes to guard against blasphemy and the like (though these changes may pre-date the Masoretes – see Tikkune Soferim below); the enumeration of letters, words, verses, etc., and the substitution of some words for others in public reading.[8]

text: Since no additions were allowed to be made to the official text of the Bible, the early Masoretes adopted other expedients: e.g., they marked the various divisions by spacing, and gave indications of halakic and haggadic teachings by full or defective spelling, abnormal forms of letters, dots, and other signs. Marginal notes were permitted only in private copies, and the first mention of such notes is found in the case of R. Meïr (c. 100–150 CE).[8]

text: Scribal emendations – Tikkune Soferim[edit]

text: Early rabbinic sources, from around 200 CE, mention several passages of Scripture in which the conclusion is inevitable that the ancient reading must have differed from that of the present text. The explanation of this phenomenon is given in the expression "Scripture has used euphemistic language" (כנה הכתוב), i.e. to avoid anthropomorphism and anthropopathism.[8]

text: Rabbi Simon ben Pazzi (3rd century) calls these readings "emendations of the Scribes" (tikkune Soferim; Midrash Genesis Rabbah xlix. 7), assuming that the Scribes actually made the changes. This view was adopted by the later Midrash and by the majority of Masoretes. In Masoretic works these changes are ascribed to Ezra; to Ezra and Nehemiah; to Ezra and the Soferim; or to Ezra, Nehemiah, Zechariah, Haggai, and Baruch. All these ascriptions mean one and the same thing: that the changes were assumed to have been made by the Men of the Great Synagogue.[8]

text: The term tikkun Soferim (תקון סופרים) has been understood by different scholars in various ways. Some regard it as a correction of Biblical language authorized by the Soferim for homiletical purposes. Others take it to mean a mental change made by the original writers or redactors of Scripture; i.e. the latter shrank from putting in writing a thought which some of the readers might expect them to express.[8]

text: The assumed emendations are of four general types:

text:
Removal of unseemly expressions used in reference to God; e.g., the substitution of ("to bless") for ("to curse") in certain passages.
Safeguarding of the Tetragrammaton; e.g. substitution of "Elohim" or "Adonai" for "YHWH" in some passages.
Removal of application of the names of pagan gods, e.g. the change of the name "Ishbaal" to "Ish-bosheth."
Safeguarding the unity of divine worship at Jerusalem.[8]

text: Mikra and ittur[edit]

text: Among the earliest technical terms used in connection with activities of the Scribes are the mikra Soferim and ittur Soferim. In the geonic schools, the first term was taken to signify certain vowel-changes which were made in words in pause or after the article; the second, the cancellation in a few passages of the "vav" conjunctive, where it had by some been wrongly read. The objection to such an explanation is that the first changes would fall under the general head of fixation of pronunciation, and the second under the head of Qere and Ketiv (i.e. "What is read" and "What is written"). Various explanations have, therefore, been offered by ancient as well as modern scholars without, however, succeeding in furnishing a completely satisfactory solution.[8]

text: Suspended letters and dotted words[edit]

text: There are four words having one of their letters suspended above the line. One of them, מנשה (Judges 18:30), is due to an alteration of the original משה out of reverence for Moses; rather than say that Moses' grandson became an idolatrous priest, a suspended letter nun ( נ ) was inserted to turn Mosheh into Menasheh (Manasseh). The origin of the other three (Psalms 80:14; Job 38:13, 38:15) is doubtful. According to some, they are due to mistaken majuscular letters; according to others, they are later insertions of originally omitted weak consonants.[8]

text: In fifteen passages in the Bible, some words are stigmatized; i.e., dots appear above the letters. (Genesis 16:5, 18:9, 19:33, 33:4, 37:12, Numbers 3:39, 9:10, 21:30, 29:15, Deuteronomy 29:28, 2 Samuel 19:20, Isaiah 44:9, Ezekiel 41:20, 46:22, Psalms 27:13) The significance of the dots is disputed. Some hold them to be marks of erasure; others believe them to indicate that in some collated manuscripts the stigmatized words were missing, hence that the reading is doubtful; still others contend that they are merely a mnemonic device to indicate homiletic explanations which the ancients had connected with those words; finally, some maintain that the dots were designed to guard against the omission by copyists of text-elements which, at first glance or after comparison with parallel passages, seemed to be superfluous. Instead of dots some manuscripts exhibit strokes, vertical or else horizontal. The first two explanations are unacceptable for the reason that such faulty readings would belong to Qere and Ketiv, which, in case of doubt, the majority of manuscripts would decide. The last two theories have equal probability.[8]

text: Inverted letters[edit]

text: In nine passages of the Masoretic Text are found signs usually called inverted nuns, because they resemble the Hebrew letter nun ( נ )[8] written in some inverted fashion. The exact shape varies between different manuscripts and printed editions. In many manuscripts, a reversed nun is found—referred to as a nun hafucha by the masoretes. In some earlier printed editions, they are shown as the standard nun upside down or rotated, because the printer did not want to bother to design a character to be used only nine times. The recent scholarly editions of the Masoretic Text show the reversed nun as described by the masoretes. In some manuscripts, however, other symbols are occasionally found instead. These are sometimes referred to in rabbinical literature as simaniyot (markers).[citation needed]

text: The primary set of inverted nuns is found surrounding the text of Numbers 10:35–36. The Mishna notes that this text is 85 letters long and dotted. This demarcation of this text leads to the later use of the inverted nun markings. Saul Lieberman demonstrated that similar markings can be found in ancient Greek texts where they are also used to denote 'short texts'. During the Medieval period, the inverted nuns were actually inserted into the text of the early Rabbinic Bibles published by Bomberg in the early 16th century. The talmud records that the markings surrounding Numbers 10:35–36 were thought to denote that this 85 letter text was not in its proper place.[citation needed]

text: Bar Kappara considered the Torah known to us as composed of seven volumes in the Gemara "The seven pillars with which Wisdom built her house (Prov. 9:1) are the seven Books of Moses". Genesis, Exodus and Leviticus and Deuteronomy as we know them but Numbers was really three separate volumes Numbers 1:1–10:35 followed by Numbers 10:35–36 and the third text from there to the end of Numbers.[citation needed]

text: The 85 letter text is also said to be denoted because it is the model for the least number of letters which constitute a 'text' which one would be required to save from fire due to its holiness.[citation needed]

text: History of the Masorah[edit]

text: The history of the Masorah may be divided into three periods: (1) creative period, from its beginning to the introduction of vowel-signs; (2) reproductive period, from the introduction of vowel-signs to the printing of the Masorah[8] (1525); (3) critical period, from 1525 to the present time.[citation needed]

text: The materials for the history of the first period are scattered remarks in Talmudic and Midrashic literature, in the post-Talmudical treatises Masseket Sefer Torah and Masseket Soferim, and in a Masoretic chain of tradition found in ben Asher's Diḳduḳe ha-Ṭe'amim, § 69 and elsewhere.[8]

text: Critical study[edit]

text: Jacob ben Hayyim ibn Adonijah, having collated a vast number of manuscripts, systematized his material and arranged the Masorah in the second Bomberg edition of the Bible (Venice, 1524–25). Besides introducing the Masorah into the margin, he compiled at the close of his Bible a concordance of the Masoretic glosses for which he could not find room in a marginal form, and added an elaborate introduction – the first treatise on the Masorah ever produced. In spite of its numerous errors, this work has been considered by some as the "Textus Receptus" of the Masorah[8] (Würthwein 1995:39), and was used for the English translation of the Old Testament for the King James Version.[citation needed]

text: Next to Ibn Adoniyah, the critical study of the Masorah has been most advanced by Elia Levita, who published his famous "Massoret ha-Massoret" in 1538. The Tiberias of the elder Johannes Buxtorf (1620) made Levita's researches more accessible to a Christian audience. The eighth introduction to Walton's Polyglot Bible is largely a reworking of the Tiberias. Levita compiled likewise a vast Masoretic concordance, Sefer ha-Zikronot, which still lies in the National Library at Paris unpublished. The study is indebted also to R. Meïr b. Todros ha-Levi (RaMaH), who, as early as the 13th century, wrote his Sefer Massoret Seyag la-Torah (correct ed. Florence, 1750); to Menahem Lonzano, who composed a treatise on the Masorah of the Pentateuch entitled "Or Torah"; and in particular to Jedidiah Norzi, whose "Minḥat Shai" contains valuable Masoretic notes based on a careful study of manuscripts.[8]

text: The Dead Sea Scrolls have shed new light on the history of the Masoretic Text. Many texts found there, especially those from Masada, are quite similar to the Masoretic Text, suggesting that an ancestor of the Masoretic Text was indeed extant as early as the 2nd century BCE. However, other texts, including many of those from Qumran, differ substantially, indicating that the Masoretic Text was but one of a diverse set of Biblical writings (Lane Fox 1991:99–106; Tov 1992:115). Among the rejected books by both the Judaic and Catholic canons was found the Book of Enoch, the Community Rule (1QS) and War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness (1QM).[23]

text: In a recent finding, the Masoretic Text is discovered to be completely identical with text recovered from an ancient scroll. The approximately 1,700-year-old En-Gedi Scroll was found in 1970 but had not had its content reconstructed until 2016. Researchers were able to recover 35 complete and partial lines of text from the Book of Leviticus and the text deciphered is completely identical with the consonantal framework of the Masoretic Text.[24] The En-Gedi scroll is the first time a biblical scroll has been discovered in an ancient synagogue's holy ark, where it would have been stored for prayers, and not in desert caves like the Dead Sea Scrolls.[25]

text: Some important editions[edit]

text: There have been very many published editions of the Masoretic Text, some of the most important being:

text: Daniel Bomberg, ed. Jacob ben Hayyim ibn Adonijah, 1524–1525, Venice

text: Everard van der Hooght, 1705, Amsterdam and Utrecht

text: Benjamin Kennicott, 1776, Oxford

text: Wolf Heidenheim, 1818, Frankfurt-am-Main

text: Max Letteris, 1852; 2nd edition, 1866 (published British and Foreign Bible Society)

text:
Seligman Baer and Franz Delitzsch, 1869–1895 (Exodus to Deuteronomy never appeared)
Christian David Ginsburg, 1894; 2nd edition, 1908–1926

text:
Biblia Hebraica, first two editions, 1906, 1912; virtually identical to the second Bomberg edition, but with variants from Hebrew sources and early translations in the footnotes
Biblia Hebraica, third edition based on the Leningrad Codex, 1937; later reprints listed some variant readings from the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Umberto Cassuto, 1953 (based on Ginsburg 2nd edition, but revised based on the Aleppo Codex, Leningrad Codex and other early manuscripts)
Norman Snaith, 1958 (published British and Foreign Bible Society)

text: Hebrew University Bible Project, 1965–

text: The Koren Bible by Koren Publishers Jerusalem, 1962

text:
Aron Dotan, based on the Leningrad Codex but correcting obvious errors, 1976
Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, revision of Biblia Hebraica (third edition), 1977. The second edition of Stuttgartensia (published 1983) was the source text for the Old Testament portion of the English Standard Version, published in 2001.
Mordechai Breuer, based on the Aleppo Codex, 1977–1982
The Jerusalem Crown, 2001: this is a revised version of Breuer, and is the official version used in inaugurating the President of Israel
Biblia Hebraica Quinta, revision of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia; fascicles published as of 2016 are: Five Megilloth, Ezra and Nehemiah, Deuteronomy, Proverbs, Twelve Minor Prophets, Judges, Genesis.


document_title: List of Liv and Maddie characters

question_text: who plays the principal on liv and maddie

question_tokens: who plays the principal on liv and maddie

root

text: List of Liv and Maddie characters

text: Main characters[edit]

text: Liv Rooney[edit]

text: Olivia "Liv" Rooney[1] (Dove Cameron) is one of a pair of identical twins of the Rooney family. She is the eldest child of the family and older sister to Joey and Parker. Liv left the family for four years, beginning at the age of 11, to star in a popular television program, Sing It Loud!, to which she continually refers. During her time on that show, Liv was living with her Aunt Dena. Liv is a sophomore at Ridgewood High. When Liv and Maddie celebrate their sweet sixteen in "Sweet 16-a-Rooney", Karen states that Liv, who was born at 11:56 PM, is six minutes older than Maddie, who was technically born a day later. Liv's siblings affectionately call her "Hollywood". In "Skate-a-Rooney", it is referenced that in-between seasons of Sing It Loud!, Liv filmed a movie called The Skateboard Bandit. In "Brain-a-Rooney", Liv shows that she is smarter than people think she is by helping Joey and Artie win the Brain Olympics. It is shown that Liv shares the personality quirks of her mother, Karen, as seen in "Shoe-a-Rooney", when the pair reveals their affinity for shoes.

tag: p

text: At the end of the first season, Liv began production on Space Werewolves, a film adaptation of a fictional graphic novel series of the same name. Liv stars as Tristan Lycanth in the film adaptation after being able to fully master all the traits of the wolf with the help of writer/wolf girl Emmy "Fangs" Wulfert. Although the protagonist of the story was originally a boy in the graphic novels, Liv was picked for the role because of her acting career on Sing It Loud! and the role of Tristan was changed from a boy to a girl.

text: In the episode "Voltage-a-Rooney", Liv starts starring in a TV series adaption of the comic series Voltage that was mentioned in "Continued-a-Rooney". She portrays a cheerleader named Tess who was struck by lightning and becomes the superhero SkyVolt.

text: In the episode "Californi-a-Rooney", Liv and Maddie have a falling out at the time when Maddie goes to live with Aunt Dena after being accepted to the same college that Willow is at. After the two of them reconcile, Liv is persuaded by Maddie to stay with her.

text: In the episode "Linda and Heather-a-Rooney", the effects of Liv leaving Voltage to be with Maddie caused her to have a hard time finding another role. She does get a guest role on "Linda and Heather" which she nearly causes to stop production until she and Parker come up with a plan to keep it from ending. By the end of the episode, Liv is told that they want her to reprise her character for the sequel to Sing It Loud! called Sing It Louder!!

text: The back of Emmy Buckner's head is used to help create the character of Liv. She is Dove Cameron's look-alike double.[2]

text: Maddie Rooney[edit]

text: Madison "Maddie" Rooney[3] (Dove Cameron) is Liv's identical twin sister and the second eldest child of the Rooney family. Like Liv, she is older sister to Joey and Parker, as well as a sophomore at Ridgewood High. She is captain of the girls' basketball team of Ridgewood High and is equally diligent to her team captain duties as her studies. Her main love interest is Diggie, captain of Ridgewood High's boys' basketball team. But because of his constant moving, they break up. Her new love interest is Liv's co-star in Voltage, Josh. Her catchphrase is "Bam! What?!", a phrase she came up with once at age 11 when she was telling Karen that she beat the boys at basketball. She is sometimes called Mads by Diggie and Willow, such as in "Slump-a-Rooney" and "Shoe-a-Rooney". In "Sleep-a-Rooney", it was revealed that Maddie's full first name is "Madison". It is shown that Maddie shares the personality quirks of her father, Pete, as seen in "Dump-a-Rooney", when the pair shows their competitive side while preparing for a two-on-two basketball tournament. In "Shoe-a-Rooney", Maddie becomes addicted to a comfortable pair of high heel shoes that she borrowed from Liv. When the addiction becomes problematic, Liv, Willow, Diggie, and Stains stage an intervention which ends with Liv dropping the shoes into a woodchipper.

text: In "Space-Werewolf-a-Rooney", Maddie injures her leg and is unable to play basketball. In "Pottery-a-Rooney", Maddie tries taking up the new hobby of pottery; however, it does not work out and she ends up going back to basketball. In "Helgaween-a-Rooney", Karen uses hypnotherapy to try to get Maddie over her fear of using her injured knee to shoot a three-pointer, but Maddie instead has a nightmare that she and Liv have a triplet named Helga. Maddie temporarily becomes the new sensei for Parker's karate class in "Match-a-Rooney". In "Muffler-a-Rooney", Maddie recovers from her knee injury and successfully plays basketball again.

text: The back of Shelby Wulfert's head is used to help create the character of Maddie. She is Dove Cameron's look-alike double.[2]

text: Joey Rooney[edit]

text: Joseph Gilligan "Joey" Rooney[4] (Joey Bragg) is the middle child of the Rooney family. He is the middle brother to Liv and Maddie and older brother to Parker. Joey is a student at Ridgewood High. Parker affectionately calls him "munch". Although close in age to his older twin sisters, only a school year younger as a freshman, Joey is perceived as immature and awkward, but also somewhat of a brainiac. Joey has a close relationship with his younger brother, Parker, especially in pranking or being manipulative, but with Liv and Maddie's assistance, there is hope for growth. He is bitter rivals with Artie, one of his classmates. In "Helgaween-a-Rooney", Joey and Parker want to see a haunted house magic show and use a magic amulet to clone themselves so they can sneak out for the night, but later the clones try to cook and eat the parents. In the same episode, Karen tries her hypnotherapy on Joey to make him feel ready to take on the world, but all Joey can say is "Ooey, ooey, ooey!" Around near the end of season 3 and into Liv and Maddie Cali Style he realized that he was starting to develop a crush on Willow and they start dating then they officially become boyfriend and girlfriend.

text: Parker Rooney[edit]

text: Parker Rooney (Tenzing Norgay Trainor) is the youngest child of the Rooney family. He is 13 years old and a sixth-grader at an undisclosed school. However, he attends Joey's robotics club at Liv and Maddie's school twice a week. Parker is an intelligent and clever child with growing "playground buzz" who does karate and is somewhat manipulative. Parker even created his own set of tunnels which run to different parts of the house, Ridgewood High, and other locations. He is not a troublesome child, but somewhat of a trickster, as shown in "Fa-La-La-a-Rooney", when he swindles money from Joey in order to purchase an expensive toy he suspects no one would give him. In "Kathy Kan-a-Rooney", one of Parker's dojo buddies, Splat, caught Parker watching Linda and Heather, a show about two girls who are besties. It is eventually revealed that his other dojo buddies, including Splat, watch the show as well. Both Splat and Reggie go to Parker's house and they all watch the show together and enjoy it. In "Gift-a-Rooney", it was revealed Parker has an embarrassing middle name, which is skipped over by Parker's cutaway when Karen says it due to how much Parker hates it.

text: Around the end of "Californi-a-Rooney", Parker's tunnels collapsed due to Joey's bad move to preserve them, causing the entire family to move in with Aunt Dena as revealed in the final fourth-wall cutaway. When Parker plans to recreate his tunnels, the rest of the Rooneys shout "No tunnels!" This causes Parker to make plans to take his projects to the sky.

text: Karen Rooney[edit]

text: Karen Rooney (Kali Rocha) is the wife of Pete, the mother of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker, and the older sister of Dena Rooney. She is the school psychologist for Ridgewood High and later the vice principal as of the second season. Karen often ineptly uses her knowledge of family psychology at home, sometimes forming family meetings and sharing her "punching pillows". In "Sweet 16-a-Rooney", it is revealed that Karen had kept a secret that the twins were born on opposite sides of midnight and technically have separate birthdays, with Maddie being born six minutes and one day after Liv. In "BFF-a-Rooney", it was revealed that she chomps on ice when she is nervous. She has also demonstrated a tendency for blatant manipulation, compulsive hoarding, as shown in "Brain-a-Rooney", when she refuses to sell stuff that used to belong to members of the family, such as a box of toothbrushes that they have used, and "Rate-a-Rooney", when she refuses to get rid of unnecessary house decorations. In "Helgaween-a-Rooney", it was revealed that both Maddie and Joey have been hypnotized by Karen. In "California-A-Rooney", Karen has nastily taken over Parker's tunnels, which collapse (along with the house) when Joey cleans out Karen's belongings, one of which was holding the entire house up.

text: Pete Rooney[edit]

text: Pete Rooney (Benjamin King) is married to Karen and is the father of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker. He is the gym teacher at Ridgewood High and coach of the girls' basketball team. Pete enjoys bringing competition into the home, often wearing his whistle and pushing Maddie to improve her basketball ability. Pete shows typical father characteristics, such as his misunderstandings of his daughters' emotional development. He shares his sons' creative mentality and becomes overprotective whenever Liv and Maddie have love interests. He also can disagree with Karen frequently, such as in "Rate-a-Rooney", when he wants to get rid of useless house decorations of which Karen cannot let go. In "Ridgewood-a-Rooney", he becomes the coach of a college team in Beloit which Maddie later decides to attend in "Dream-a-Rooney". As a result of Pete's new job in "Coach-a-Rooney", he was succeeded in the coaching of the girls' basketball team by Mrs. Snodgrass.

text: In "Sorta Sisters-a-Rooney", Pete is no longer a series regular and is said to be overseeing the rebuilding of the Rooney home while continuing his job in Beloit.

text: Ruby[edit]

text: Ruby (Lauren Lindsey Donzis) is the cousin of the Rooney children and the daughter of Dena who resides in California. She is younger than Parker and plans to follow in Liv's footsteps by becoming an actress herself. She joins the series as a series regular in the fourth season.

text: Recurring characters[edit]

text: Diggie[edit]

text: Digbert "Diggie" Smalls[5] (Ryan McCartan) is Maddie's main love interest. He is the captain of the boys' basketball team of Ridgewood High and is perceived as confident and strong. Diggie affectionately calls Maddie simply as "Rooney", though in "Twin-a-Rooney", he calls her "Rooney classic" to distinguish her from Liv. In "Move-a-Rooney", Diggie finally expresses his feelings toward Maddie after she tells him they are moving. Diggie is also seen as a mentor for Joey when it comes to anything related to being "cool". Diggie was also the manager of the local frozen yogurt shop. In the second season, he left Wisconsin to go to the nation of "Tundrabania" after Maddie injured her knee. In "Gift-a-Rooney", he makes his first physical appearance since the first season for his and Maddie's "meet-a-versary", courtesy of Liv. In "Flugelball-a-Rooney", he returns from Tundrabania only to break up with Maddie after he thinks she does not support his decision to go to Australia. It is revealed that he still has feelings for Maddie in "Video-a-Rooney".

text: In "Frame-a-Rooney", it is revealed that Diggie is Artie's older brother when Diggie is annoyed with Artie's habits.

text: In "Champ-a-Rooney", Diggie decides he wants to get back together with Maddie. In "Continued-a-Rooney", he and Maddie officially break up.

text: In "Scoop-a-Rooney", Diggie returns where he tells Maddie about him seeing a picture of Maddie with Josh, making Diggie jealous with the fact that Maddie has moved on and has a new boyfriend – that being Josh. In "Choose-A-Rooney", Diggie and Maddie get back together.

text: Willow[edit]

text: Winifred "Willow" Cruz[6][7] (Jessica Marie Garcia) is Maddie's best friend and teammate. She plays center and often exclaims that she "doesn't go down!" She and Maddie share a special high-five. Willow's only weakness is her obsessive crush on Joey, as seen in "Slump-a-Rooney", when she misdirects a love note to be from him. Later in the series, Willow competes in the Battle of the Bands with Liv, Andie, and Holden, where she plays drums. They win the battle and continue to perform as a band. Around the end of season 3 and into Liv and Maddie Cali Style she and Joey are officially boyfriend and girlfriend.

text: Stains[edit]

text: Astrid "Stains" Stanislowski[8] (Bridget Shergalis) is a teammate and friend of Maddie's. She is a petite girl with a hearty appetite. She gets her name because her clothing gets inadvertently dirty in each episode she appears in. She has a recurring tendency to rub the side of her nose with her thumb whenever she gets involved in a scheme, as seen in "Team-a-Rooney", when the team rallies against Principal Fickman, in "Sweet 16-a-Rooney", when she helps plan a surprise party for Maddie, and in "Shoe-a-Rooney", when she has to take over for Maddie in a game because Maddie was too busy obsessing with her new shoes. She also has a habit of ending each sentence with "man", even when referring to Maddie and her other teammates.

text: Artie[edit]

text: Artie Smalls[9] (Jimmy Bellinger) is a classmate and proclaimed nemesis of Joey's. They are often competitive in proving who is smarter than the other, with Joey usually falling short, but they have worked together before, as shown in "Brain-a-Rooney" and "BFF-a-Rooney". Artie has some unnamed student followers who serve as his "minions".

text: In "Moms-a-Rooney", it is revealed that Artie has a crush on Joey's famous sister Liv. He is also a sci-fi fanatic, showing up at a promotional event for Space Werewolves. In "Frame-a-Rooney", it was revealed that Artie is Diggie's brother. In the episode "Match-a-Rooney" Liv turns down Artie's invitation to the Sadie Hawkins dance and was originally Willow's date but then Liv decided to ask Artie herself to take Willow's place to be his date so she can be Joey's date. In the episode "Voice-a-Rooney" it revealed that he has a kitten that he named after Liv and he thanked Joey for taking care of her when she got lost.

text: Ocean[edit]

text: Ocean (Cozi Zuehlsdorff) is Liv's first friend from school who first appeared in "Steal-a-Rooney", when Maddie organized for Ocean to befriend Liv since Liv felt that people only liked her because she is famous. Later, Liv realizes that the whole friendship was a setup by Maddie and she temporarily gets upset. Over time, however, Liv later realizes that Ocean likes her genuinely and they become good friends. Ocean is of a bohemian-style family, lives on a sunflower farm, and has limited use of technology, thus not knowing of Liv's former television career before befriending her. Ocean loves the environment, school and learning. She and Liv take a German language course together.

text: Evan[edit]

text: Evan (Carter Hastings) is one of Parker's "dojo buddies" and a close friend. Evan is an underhandedly polite child, whose mother (an unseen character) is perceived as mildly overprotective. A year younger than Parker, the pair tends to get into difficult situations, with Parker often protecting Evan, as seen in "Slump-a-Rooney", when Parker helps Evan stand up to his mother. Evan also helped Karen "reprogram" Parker in "Shoe-a-Rooney", when Parker tried to avoid having to do chores by pretending to be incapable.

text: Reggie[edit]

text: Reggie (Herbie Jackson) is one of Parker's dojo buddies and also his best friend. He takes karate classes with Parker and Splat and is often seen at the Rooney house. He refers to Parker as "Doctor P" and is often up for Parker's schemes. He assists Parker in creating a skin cream for Karen in exchange for baloney in "Gift-a-Rooney". At the end of the episode, Karen tells Reggie Parker's middle name as Parker's punishment for creating a skin cream that grew long hair on her elbows and swelled up her feet.

text: Reggie and Parker love the show "Linda and Heather" and are often seen watching it together singing the theme song for the show. "Boom chicken soup!", Reggie and Parker say together several times. Reggie's parents are never seen and Reggie is often in the Rooney household doing experiments with "Doctor P".

text: Andie[edit]

text: Andie Bustamante[10] (Victoria Moroles) is a friend Liv makes in the second season. She first appeared in "Upcycle-a-Rooney". She plays the bass in a band that includes Liv, Willow, and Holden. In "Prom-a-Rooney", Andie is seen to like Holden and asks him to the prom. A few episodes later they are seen dating. In "Triangle-a-Rooney", Holden breaks up with Andie and asks out Liv, but she denies because of her friendship with Andie. In "SPARF-a-Rooney", Liv helps Andie get over her breakup. She later shows interest in Dump Truck in "Cowbell-a-Rooney", and it was mentioned in "Ridgewood-a-Rooney" that he gave her his leather jacket.

text: Dump Truck[edit]

text: Marion "Dump Truck" Truckberg[11] (Shak Ghacha) is a misbehaving student at Ridgewood High who Parker meets in detention. In his first appearance in "Detention-a-Rooney", Dump Truck tells Parker to do his cleaning for him, but gains a newfound respect for Parker and becomes his friend after seeing him scrape gum off all the desks in school nicknaming him "Gumball Machine". In "Flugelball-a-Rooney", it is revealed that Dump Truck cannot ride a bike, but Parker teaches him how to by the end of the episode.

text: Holden[edit]

text: Holden (Jordan Fisher) is Liv's main love interest. His first appearance was in "Neighbors-a-Rooney", where he has just come back from boarding school. At first Liv dislikes him because when they were younger he stole her Goodbye Puppy pen, but later in the episode he confesses that he only took her pen because he had a childhood crush on her. By the end of the episode, Liv develops strong romantic feelings towards him. However, in "Prom-a-Rooney", Holden goes to the prom with Liv's friend Andie and they begin a relationship that lasts for the remaining episodes of the second season. In "Band-a-Rooney", Holden, Liv, Andie, and Willow start a band together called The Dream.

text: In "Triangle-a-Rooney", Holden begins to realize his true feelings toward Liv after he sees that he and Andie aren't right for each other. During the episode, Holden and Liv come close to sharing their first kiss after singing a duet of True Love together, but are interrupted and caught by Willow. Holden finally figures out his feelings for Liv and breaks up with Andie, but ends up breaking up with her on live television. At the end of the episode, Holden admits his feelings and asks out Liv and although Liv admits her feelings for him in return, she denies his request to start a relationship because of her friendship with Andie. However, Liv and Holden are shown to still harbor deep feelings for each other. Eventually in "Coach-a-Rooney", Liv and Holden finally became a romantic couple after Andie assured Liv that she no longer possessed any romantic feelings for him. Liv and Holden broke up in "Scoop-a-Rooney".

text: Alex[edit]

text: Alex (Brianne Ashleigh Tju) is an emotionless science wiz student who is one of Joey's love interests and is also admired by Parker. She is also seen in Liv's song "What a Girl Is".

text: Aubrey[edit]

text: Aubrey (Audrey Whitby) is a female student who is the latest member of the Weekly Intergalactic Council meeting that is attended by Joey and Artie. Aubrey first appeared in "Neighbors-a-Rooney", where she recommends a cute robot character for a cameo in the upcoming movie The Revengers II: Age of Fultron (a parody of Avengers: Age of Ultron) and later befriends Joey becoming one of Joey's love interests.

text: In "Dream-a-Rooney", Aubrey wanted Liv in her SkyVolt costume to handle the recent cafeteria food crisis. Liv's schedule in "Voltage" at the time when the Dream is asked to get back together causes the rest of the band to enlist Aubrey to cover for Liv. After some in-group disputes is solved, the Dream performs at Karen's event with Aubrey assisting them on tambourine.

text: Principal Fickman[edit]

text: Principal Fickman (Larry Miller) is the principal of Ridgewood High. He is close to his mother and somewhat stern when it comes to school related matters, as seen in "Team-a-Rooney", when he had cut the girls' basketball team's budget.

text: Mrs. Kneebauer[edit]

text: Mrs. Kneebauer (Tara Karsian) is the superintendent of Ridgewood High who was first seen in "Kathy Kan-a-Rooney" interviewing Karen for the role of vice-principal. In "Detention-a-Rooney", Superintendent Kneebauer gave Parker detention for ripping off her top skirt as his way of getting out of an event that Karen wanted to partake with him. She oversaw the detention class where Parker, Dump Truck, and some students played a suspended chair prank on her while she slept. Superintendent Kneebauer informed Karen of this action. In "Frame-a-Rooney", Superintendent Kneebauer replaced the porcupine mascot with a butter mascot which ended up getting vandalized with the Rooney family being suspects. Maddie found evidence that Artie was responsible which led to him and his minions getting punished by Superintendent Kneebauer and the Porcupine Mascot being reinstated.

text: Johnny Nimbus[edit]

text: Johnny Nimbus (Kurt Long) is the local television weatherman who is often selected to host various events around town. Johnny is known to mispredict the weather.

text: In "Secret-Admirer-a-Rooney", it is revealed that Johnny is dating Gemma. In "Choose-a-Rooney", Johnny Nimbus and Gemma get married.

text: Lacey[edit]

text: Lacey (Miranda May) is a basketball teammate of Maddie's. Her favorite animal is the starfish. She often starts to talk and then get off-topic.

text: Mrs. Snodgrass[edit]

text: Mrs. Snodgrass (Miriam Flynn) is a strict woman and expert basketball player who has taught sixth grade back when Liv, Maddie, Willow, Stains and Cruz were her students. Mrs. Snodgrass is known to punish her students by having them sit in front of one part of the whiteboard while revealing a thought bubble that lists what they have done wrong.

text: In "Repeat-a-Rooney", Liv had to repeat the sixth grade in Mrs. Snodgrass' class in order to officially pass it. Liv and Parker's group had done a rap version of one of William Shakespeare's plays which impressed Mrs. Snodgrass enough to pass Liv.

text: In "Coach-a-Rooney", Karen Rooney hired Mrs. Snodgrass to be the new basketball coach while Pete is coaching at a college. She was shown to have skills in basketball that even surpassed Maddie's skills.

text: Gemma[edit]

text: Gemma (Chloé Wepper) is the television director of Voltage. Liv considers her as the cooler version of Joey.

text: In "Secret-Admirer-a-Rooney", it is revealed that Gemma is dating Johnny Nimbus. In "Choose-a-Rooney", Gemma is married to Johnny Nimbus.

text: Josh[edit]

text: Josh Wilcox[12] (Lucas Adams) is a recurring character in the third season. He was Liv Rooney's co-star in Voltage from California, where he played Tess' love interest, Garrison, until "Skyvolt-a-Rooney", when Liv quits the show, allowing Josh to become the new Skyvolt. In "Cowbell-a-Rooney", Liv tries to help Josh become more active and creates a Pilates arena in her backyard. Josh later develops a crush on Maddie after he goes against her in the Cowbell competition, but instead ends up instantly falling in love with her, he almost kisses her in "Secret-Admirer-a-Rooney", and they start dating in "Vive-la-Rooney" They finally go on their first date in "Home Run-a-Rooney", and Josh reveals one of the things he likes about Maddie—her competitive side.

text: In "Scoop-a-Rooney", just as Maddie and Josh's relationship was growing, Maddie was mistaken for Liv when she and Josh were mistaken by Nancy O'Dell to be dating each other. Later, Diggie had returned upon seeing the photos of Maddie with Josh, and Maddie and Josh break up in "Choose-a-Rooney" after Diggie sings how he feels about Maddie. Josh still loves Maddie, which is stated in "Friend-a-Rooney", causing him to lose his confidence and almost completely stop breathing.

text: Josh returns in the season 4 episode "Ex-A-Rooney", where he and Maddie manage to rekindle their friendship.

text: Val[edit]

text: Val Wishart[13] (Chloe East) is a girl in season 4 who goes to BOOMS and is Parker's love interest. In "Stand-Up-A-Rooney" Val and Parker goes to prom school and then to the Chemistry Challenge.

text: Guest characters[edit]

text: Bernard[edit]

text: Bernard (Dwight Howard) is Joey's short-lived personal trainer who appears in "Dump-a-Rooney". He is apparently good at basketball and Maddie decides to pair with him instead of Pete in the two-on-two tournament. Pete feels pushed aside and pairs with Diggie instead. Maddie, in turn, feels betrayed and apologizes to her father. Bernard eventually partners up with Diggie and the pair wins the tournament.

text: Skippy Ramirez[edit]

text: Skippy Ramirez (Allen Alvarado) is Joey's childhood friend who re-emerged as a professional skateboarder called "The Masked Shredder". The pair is suddenly classmates at Ridgewood High and was once in charge of guarding the school mascot Paulie the Porcupine.

text: Emmy "Fangs" Wulfert[edit]

text: Emmy "Fangs" Wulfert (Laura Marano) is a teenage "wolf girl" who was raised by wolves ever since she wandered away from her camp when she was little. She penned a book about her experience and still has some of her wolf traits like rolling around in the dirt, marking her territory, traveling in a dog cage when being flown out to locations because it was cheaper to fly this way for Fangs, getting used to how new people smell, eating meat off the ground, and howling enough to cause every dog in the area to howl. Fangs' appearance has her with dirty skin, dirty and ripped clothes, dirty and messy hair, fake claws on her fingers, and is always barefoot.

text: In "Howl-a-Rooney", she is invited to Stevens Point by Liv in an effort to teach her how to act like a wolf in preparation for Liv's audition for Space Werewolves. She eventually helps Liv master her howling by competing for the role of Tristan Lycanth.

text: Fangs' real name is a hybrid combination of Emmy Buckner and Shelby Wulfert, the acting doubles who play Liv and Maddie, respectively.

text: Q-Pop[edit]

text: Q-Pop (Kel Mitchell) is a hip-hop dance instructor who appears in "Howl-a-Rooney". In the episode, Maddie and Diggie decide to try more adventurous things and choose to take up hip-hop dancing. When Joey expresses his own interest, Maddie tells him to take the class instead. Maddie soon feels left out and the three take the lessons together.

text: South Salamanca[edit]

text: South Salamanca (Raquel Castro) is Liv's co-star from Sing It Loud! on whom Parker has a crush. She appears in "BFF-a-Rooney" and "SPARF-a-Rooney" in which she is invited to Stevens Point by Liv for a short visit to meet Liv's family and friends. At the party, Maddie tells Diggie to be kind to her, but mistakes Diggie and South's friendliness for flirting. South later apologizes.

text: Kylie Kramer[edit]

text: Kylie Kramer (Anne Winters) is a troublesome student and classmate of Liv's who appears in "Steal-a-Rooney". When Maddie tells Liv to start befriending other students, Ocean is pushed upon her, but Liv tries to embrace her wild side by befriending Kylie. Maddie follows the pair as they skip school at the mall, but gets caught mistakenly as Liv who was presumed to have stolen sunglasses which were actually stolen by Kylie.

text: Chambers[edit]

text: Chambers (Samm Levine) is the manager of the Happy Carrot juice bar. He appears in "Steal-a-Rooney", where Joey gets a job at the juice bar in an effort to help pay the bill for his new cell phone. Joey becomes so engrossed in the phone, that Chambers eventually fires him, citing the endangerment of the customers.

text: Skyler[edit]

text: Skyler (Gabrielle Elyse) is Joey's one-time crush who appears in "Kang-a-Rooney". During Ridgewood High's Screamfest, Maddie tells Joey to try talking to girls in costume to heighten his self-esteem when he talks to girls on a regular day. Inadvertently, he unwittingly begins flirting with Liv instead.

text: Miller White[edit]

text: Miller White (Connor Weil) is Liv's ex-boyfriend from Hollywood who appears in "Skate-a-Rooney", where he comes to Stevens Point to attend a competition. When he discovers that Liv is a guest judge, he breaks up with her in an effort to not skew the votes, but in an attempt to get back together, he inadvertently talks to Maddie who eventually cuts off his signature ponytail.

text: Jenny Keene[edit]

text: Jenny Keene (Ella Anderson) is a young girl who won a contest to sing with Liv at the Stevens Point Holiday Spectacular. She appears in "Fa-La-La-a-Rooney". Prior to their performance, the pair would rehearse together and Liv taught her how to embrace the limelight. Eventually, Liv feels she is being out-shined by the seven-year-old, and the pair struggles to share the stage. In the episode, Liv and Jenny sing a duet of Up on the House Top by Benjamin Hanby.

text: Bree[edit]

text: Bree (Dorie Barton) is the actress who portrayed Liv's mother on Sing It Loud! who appears in "Moms-a-Rooney". When Liv discovers that she was not invited to Maddie and Karen's mother–daughter weekend held by Steven's Point's historical society, she calls Bree and the pair joins them. Bree appears to be "too Hollywood" and runs away when she finds Liv's legs covered with leeches, allowing Karen to remove the leeches from her.

text: Amy Becker[edit]

text: Amy Becker (Marla Maples) is Pete's high school girlfriend who appears in "BFF-a-Rooney". While attending Pete's high school reunion, Karen meets Amy for the first time and feels that Pete settled on marrying her instead of his former flame. Eventually, Karen apologizes for her actions.

text: Vic DeFazerelli[edit]

text: Vic DeFazerelli (Garry Marshall) is a three-time Oscar-winning director who appears in "Space-Werewolf-a-Rooney". He was hired to direct Liv in the Space Werewolves movie at a nearby studio in Wisconsin rather than Hollywood.

text: Fahim Anwar[edit]

text: Fahim Anwar appears as himself and is the original director of the Space Werewolves movie.

text: Kathy Kan[edit]

text: Kathy Kan (Piper Curda) is a Korean pop star who comes to Wisconsin to study Liv to prepare for the Korean version of Sing It Loud!. She appears in "Kathy Kan-a-Rooney", where she quickly becomes good friends with Liv and they get along well. Kathy presumably goes back to Korea at the end of the episode.

text: Mr. Clodfelter[edit]

text: Mr. Clodfelter (Kevin James) is Maddie's Home Economics teacher who appears in "Cook-a-Rooney". When Maddie is failing Home Economics, she has to make it up for her grades. Mr. Clodfelter states that she can raise her grades if he can beat his top student Artie in a cooking competition. In the end, Mr. Clodfelter passes Maddie where she created a "Snackatorium". In the final scene, Mr. Clodfelter is shown to pretend to have his own cooking show when not teaching his classes. He is nearly caught by Liv and Maddie when Maddie wanted to show Liv the "Snackatorium". Due to Mr. Clodfelter having already eaten it, he and Liv show the imaginary viewers how to make it.

text: Krahgg[edit]

text: Craig "Krahgg" (Cameron Boyce) is Liv and Maddie's cousin who appears in "Prom-a-Rooney". He was invited by Karen to the Ridgewood High prom because Maddie did not have anyone with whom to go to the prom. He is an illusionist who operates under the name "Krahgg the Insidious". Every magic trick he does fails epically.

text: Andy Grammer[edit]

text: Andy Grammer performs at the annual Stevens Point music festival in "SPARF-a-Rooney".

text: Grandma Janice[edit]

text: Grandma Janice (Patty Duke) is the twin sister of Hilary, the mother of Karen, the mother-in-law of Pete, and the grandmother of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker. She appeared in "Grandma-a-Rooney" where she has Hillary pose as her as she was running late. In her youth, Janice was a part of the U.S. Olympics Women's Diving Team. Another portion of Janice's life has her working as a globetrotting nature photographer where she has a lot of photographs of rhinoceroses. When Janice later encountered Joey in Willow's clutches during the viewing of a comet, Janice quoted that what Willow is doing to him is how she had met the man who became his grandfather. The dual role was actress Patty Duke's final TV appearance before she died in 2016. Grandma Janice's picture is displayed in Aunt Dena's living room.

text: Great Aunt Hilary[edit]

text: Great Aunt Hilary (Patty Duke) is the twin sister of Janice, the aunt of Karen, the aunt-in-law of Pete, and the great aunt of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker. She appeared in "Grandma-a-Rooney" where she posed as Janice who was running late.

text: Nancy O'Dell[edit]

text: Nancy O'Dell appears as herself and interviews Liv in "Scoop-a-Rooney", where she even asks if Liv is dating someone. She later mistakes Maddie for Liv when she sees her with Josh.

text: Mr. Bustamante[edit]

text: Mr. Bustamante (Erik Estrada) is the father of Andie who appears in "Friend-a-Rooney".


document_title: Mining in Australia

question_text: australia is the world's major producer of

question_tokens: australia is the world 's major producer of

text: Mining in Australia

text: History[edit]

text: Mining contributed significantly to preventing potential bankruptcy for the early colonies in Australia. Silver and later copper were discovered in South Australia in the 1840s, leading to the export of ore and the immigration of skilled miners and smelters. The first economic minerals in Australia were silver and lead in February 1841 at Glen Osmond, now a suburb of Adelaide in South Australia. Mines including Wheal Gawler and Wheal Watkins opened soon after.[1] The value of these mines was soon overshadowed by the discovery of copper at Kapunda (1842),[2] Burra (1845)[3] and in the Copper Triangle (Moonta, Kadina and Wallaroo) area at the top of Yorke Peninsula (1861).[4]

text: Gold rushes[edit]

text: In 1851, gold was found near Ophir, New South Wales. Weeks later, gold was found in the newly established colony of Victoria. Australian gold rushes, in particular the Victorian Gold Rush, had a major lasting impact on Victoria, and on Australia as a whole. The influx of wealth that gold brought soon made Victoria Australia's richest colony by far, and Melbourne the island's largest city. By the middle of the 1850s, 40% of the world's gold was produced in Australia.[5]

text: Australia's population changed dramatically as a result of the gold rushes: in 1851 the population was 437,655 and a decade later it was 1,151,957; the rapid growth was predominantly a result of the new chums (recent immigrants from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth states) who contributed the 'rush'.[6] Although most Victorian goldfields were exhausted by the end of the 19th century, and although much of the profit was sent back to the UK, sufficient wealth remained to fund substantial development of industry and infrastructure.

text: Location[edit]

text: Australia has mining activity in all of its states and territories.  The Minerals Council of Australia estimates that 0.02% of Australia's land surface is directly impacted by mining.[7]

text: Particularly significant areas today include the Goldfields, Peel and Pilbara regions of Western Australia, the Hunter Region in New South Wales, the Bowen Basin in Queensland and Latrobe Valley in Victoria and various parts of the outback. Places such as Kalgoorlie, Mount Isa, Mount Morgan, Broken Hill and Coober Pedy are known as mining towns.

text: Major active mines in Australia include:

text:
Olympic Dam in South Australia, a copper, silver and uranium mine believed to have the world's largest uranium resource.
Super Pit gold mine, which has replaced a number of underground mines near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia

tag: ul

text: Minerals and resources[edit]

text: Large quantities of minerals and resources :

text:
Iron ore – Australia was the world's second largest supplier in 2015 after China, supplying 824 million metric tonnes, 25% of the world's output.[8]
Nickel – Australia was the world's fourth largest producer in 2015, producing 9% of world output.[9]
Aluminium – Australia was the world's largest producer of bauxite in 2015 (29% of world production), and the second largest producer of alumina after China.[10]
Copper – Australia was the world's 5th largest producer in 2015[11]
Gold – Australia is the second largest producer after China, producing 287.3 metric tonnes in 2016, 9.2% of the world's output.[12]
Silver –  In 2015 Australia was the fourth largest producer, producing 1,700 metric tonnes, 6% of the world's output.[13]
Uranium – Australia is responsible for 11% of the world's production and was the world's third largest producer in 2010 after Kazakhstan and Canada.[14]
Diamond – Australia has the third largest commercially viable deposits after Russia and Botswana.[citation needed] Australia also boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 LT/46 ST) per year in the 1990s.[citation needed]
Opal – Australia is the world's largest producer of opal, being responsible for 95% of production.[15]
Zinc – Australia was second only to China in zinc production in 2015, producing 1.58 million tonnes, 12% of world production.[16]
Coal – Australia is the world's largest exporter of coal and fourth largest producer of coal behind China, USA and India.[17]
Oil shale – Australia has the sixth largest defined oil shale resources.[18]
Petroleum – Australia is the twenty-ninth largest producer of petroleum.[citation needed]
Natural gas – Australia is world's third largest producer of LNG and forecast to be world leader by 2020.
Silica
Rare earth elements – In 2015 Australia was the second largest producer after China, with 8% of the world's output.[19]

text: Much of the raw material mined in Australia is exported overseas to countries such as China for processing into refined product. Energy and minerals constitute two-thirds of Australia's total exports to China, and more than half of Australia's iron ore exports are to China.[20]

text: Statistical chart of Australia's major mineral resources[edit]

text: Australia ranks among the top 4 in economic resources for 21 primary industrial minerals, more than any other nation. Statistics are for December 2016.[21]

text: Units of measurement:  t = tonne; kt = kilotonne (1,000 t); Mt = million tonne (1,000,000 t); Mc = million carat (1,000,000 c)

text:
Mineral

Unit of Measurement

DemonstratedEconomic Resources

WorldRanking ofResources

% ofWorldResources

Production (2016)

World Ranking of Production

% ofWorldProduction

Years of Resourcesat Current ProductionRate

Antimony

kt content

139

4

9

5.5

4

4

25

Bauxite

Mt ore

6,005

2

22

82.15

1

31

73

Coal, Black

Mt

64,045

4

10

566.3

4

7

113

Coal, Brown (lignite)

Mt

66,439

2

24

63.3

5

6

1,050

Cobalt

kt content

1164

2

14

5.47

5

4

213

Copper

Mt content

87.78

2

12

.95

5

5

92

Diamond (industrial)

Mc

115.84

3

18

13.96

2

24

8

Gold

t content

9,800

1

17

288

2

9

34

Iron ore

Mt ore

49,588

1

29

858

1

38

58

Lead

Mt content

24.09

1

40

.45

2

9

54

Lithium

kt content

2,730

3

18

14

1

41

195

Manganese

Mt ore

219

4

13

3.2

4

9

68

Nickel

Mt content

18.5

1

24

.204

5

9

91

Rare Earth Elements

Mt ore

3.43

6

3

.014

2

11

245

Silver

kt content

89.29

2

16

1.42

5

5

63

Tin

kt content

486

4

10

6.64

7

2

73

Titanium
(Ilmenite & Rutile)

Mt ore

276.1

2

17

1.7

2

10

162

Tungsten

kt content

391

2

12

.11

12

.40

1,151

Uranium

kt content

1,212

1

29

6.31

3

10

192

Vanadium

kt content

2,111

4

11

0

0

NA

NA

Zinc

Mt content

63.5

1

28

.884

3

7

75

Zircon

Mt ore

72.1

1

67

.60

1

31

120

tag: table

text: Coal mining[edit]

text: Coal is mined in every state of Australia except South Australia. It is used to generate electricity and is exported. 54% of the coal mined in Australia is exported, mostly to eastern Asia. In 2000/01, 258.5 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 193.6 million tonnes exported, rising to 261 million tonnes of exports in 2008–09.[17] Coal also provides about 85% of Australia's electricity production.[22] Australia is the world's leading coal exporter.[23]

text: Uranium mining[edit]

text: Uranium mining in Australia began in the early 20th century in South Australia. At 2016 Australia contained 29% of the world's defined uranium resources. The three largest uranium mines in the country are Olympic Dam, Ranger Uranium Mine and Beverley Uranium Mine. Future production is expected from Honeymoon Uranium Mine and the planned Four Mile uranium mine.

text: Natural gas[edit]

text: Based on 2008 CSIRO report, Australia estimated to have stranded gas reserves with about 140 trillion cubic feet or enough to fulfil the needs of a city with one million people for 2,800 years.[24]

text: Entrepreneurs and magnates[edit]

text: At various stages in the history of the mining industry in Australia, individual mining managers, directors and investors have gained significant wealth and the subsequent publicity. In most cases the individuals are designated Mining Magnates or Australian mining entrepreneurs.

text: Economics[edit]

text: A number of large multinational mining companies including BHP Billiton, Newcrest, Rio Tinto, Alcoa, Chalco, Shenhua (a Chinese mining company), Alcan and Xstrata operate in Australia. There are also a lot of small mining and mineral exploration companies listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). Overall, the resources sector represents almost 20% of the ASX market by capitalisation, and almost one third of the companies listed.[25]

text:
Mining contributes about 5.6% of Australia's Gross Domestic Product. This is up from only 2.6% in 1950, but down from over 10% at the time of federation in 1901.[26] In contrast, mineral exports contribute
around 35% of Australia's exports. Australia is the world's largest exporter of coal (35% of international trade), iron ore, lead, diamonds, rutile, zinc and zirconium, second largest of gold and uranium, and third largest of aluminium.[27] Japan was the major purchaser of Australian mineral exports in the mid-1990s.[5]

text: Of the developed countries, perhaps only Canada and Norway have mining as such a significant part of the economy; for comparison, in Canada mining represents about 3.6% of the Canadian economy and 32% of exports,[28] and in Norway mining, dominated by petroleum, represents about 19% of GDP and 46% of exports.[29] By comparison, in the United States mining represents only about 1.6% of GDP.[30]

text: Despite its export importance, the mining sector employs only a small proportion of the workforce – roughly 129,000 Australians, representing only about 2.2% of the total labour force.[31]

text: Technology and services[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Australia's high labour costs and first-world safety regulations, distinctive geology, and the importance placed on mining research by successive governments and businesses has meant that the Australian mining sector is quite technologically advanced.[citation needed] A large proportion of mines worldwide make use of Australian-developed computer software, such as specialised Geological Database and Resource Estimation Modelling software by Micromine and geology/mine planning software by RungePincockMinarco and Maptek Pty Ltd.[citation needed] Australia is also home to other tech companies that offer mine planning software, such as Paradyn. Mines in Australia are leading the market globally[according to whom?] deploying mine production data management software such as Corvus developed by Intov8 Pty Ltd, which displays real-time production data from multiple source systems on dashboards, and includes comprehensive dynamic analysis and reporting, driving process and cost efficiencies at the shift level.  Caterpillar's proprietary end-to-end mine management and information management system, MineStar, is also developed in its Brisbane office.
Australia's mining services, equipment, and technology exports are over $2 billion annually.[32]

text: The world first large scale remote operations centre for operation of the Rio Tinto mines in the Pilbara is located in the airport precinct in Perth – operating mines sites, ports, rail and logistics from a central remote location.

text: Mines[edit]

text: Many mines in remote areas have a traditional company town (for example Roxby Downs or Leigh Creek), or support towns that used to be company towns such as Broken Hill and Mount Isa.

text: Most mines in remote areas are operated on a fly-in-fly-out basis where the miners' "home" and family remains in a major city, and the miners fly out to their mine for two weeks of 12 hours a day solid work, then fly home for one week of rest.[citation needed] The rosters vary from company to company and from site to site. Every site has people on different rosters, mainly due to the fact that many aspects of a whole mine operation are carried out by contracting companies and they may / will offer different working conditions. 3 weeks on / 1 week off rosters are not uncommon and the working away period can be, but seldom is, for much longer than 2 or 3 weeks.

text: However, in recognition of the stresses and strains that "fly in fly out" rosters can often put upon the miners' social and family life, and in an attempt to retain staff for the medium to long term, rosters of 9 days work followed by 5 days off ("9 & 5") and 8 days work with 6 off ("8 & 6") are becoming more widespread. A fly-in-fly-out roster is normal on offshore oil platforms,(not least because people cannot live there permanently, unlike many onshore mining towns ) as well as minesites located inland of Australia, such as Century, Challenger, Bronzewing and Yandicoogina minesites.

text:
Free meals and motel style accommodation are provided as is any work related transport, including air fares. Breakfast, lunch and dinner are consumed and collected from the mess hall at the mining camp. Living quarters provided at camp sites range from 2 by 4-metre portable homes to permanent 6 by 8-metre rooms with ensuites. Fridges, single beds, television, electricity and water are also provided with rooms.
Every camp has a bar facility and a gym, most have swimming pools and some have outdoor sports courts / fields too.

text: Environment and politics[edit]

text: Mining has created major economic benefits for the country, but has also had a substantial environmental impact in some areas of Australia. Historically, the Victorian gold rush was the start of the economic growth of the country, leading to major increases in population. However, it also resulted in deforestation, consequent erosion, and pollution in the areas that were mined.[33] The effects on the landscape near Bendigo and Ballarat can still be seen today.  Queenstown, Tasmania's mountains were also completely denuded through a combination of logging and pollution from a mine smelter, and remain bare today. It is estimated that 10 million hectares of land have been affected throughout the history of mining in Australia.[7] Because Australia's mines are distributed across varying climates the knowledge gained from one mine's restoration does not easily extrapolate to other sites.[7]

text: Uranium mining has been controversial, partly for its alleged environmental impact but more so because of its end uses in nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The Australian Labor Party, one of Australia's two major parties, maintains a policy of "no new uranium mines". As of 2006, the increased world demand for uranium has seen some pressure, both internally and externally on the ALP, for a policy change.[34] Australia is a participant in international anti-proliferation efforts designed to ensure that no exported uranium is used in nuclear weapons.[35]

text: Mining disasters[edit]

text: New Australian Gold Mine[edit]

text: Creswick in the Victorian goldfields was the site of The New Australasian No.2 Deep Lead Gold Mine. At 4:45 am, Tuesday 12 December 1882, 29 miners became trapped underground by flood waters that came from the flooded parallel-sunk No.1 mine shaft, only five men survived and made it to the surface. Despite two days of frantic pumping the waters filled the mine shaft. The trapped men scrawled last notes to their loved ones on billy cans before they drowned. Some of these have been kept and still bear the messages. The men that perished left 17 widows and 75 dependent children.[36]

text: Mount Kembla[edit]

text: In 1883 a coal mine was opened near Mount Kembla in the Illawarra District of New South Wales. In 1902 there was an explosion in the mine and 96 men and boys lost their lives, either while at work or in the course of trying to save the lives of others. Every family in the village lost a relative. A service of commemoration is held annually on 31 July at the Mount Kembla Soldiers' and Miners' Memorial Church. This is the worst mining disaster in Australia's history.[37]

text: Balmain Colliery[edit]

text: Balmain Colliery was located in Birchgrove, New South Wales and produced coal from 1897 until 1931 and natural gas until 1945. During this period, 10 miners lost their lives in three separate incidents:

text:
1900
On 17 March 1900, six miners were being lowered down the Birthday shaft. At 1,424 feet the bucket they were travelling in caught on a projection, tipped over and five of the six men fell to their death in the shaft. As a result of this accident, the Mining Act was amended to provide guide rails in shafts to prevent bucket swinging or overturning.[38]

text:
1932
In 1932, a year after the mine closed, a six-inch bore was sunk below the Birthday shaft to pipe Natural Gas to the surface. During the sinking of the bore, two men were killed when the gas ignited and exploded.[38]

text:
1945
During the sealing of the Birthday shaft on 20 April 1945, a rudimentary test was being undertaken which ignited escaping gas and caused an explosion below the seal. The company manager and two men were killed in the accident and another two men injured.[38]

text: North Mount Lyell[edit]

text: On 12 October 1912, the North Mount Lyell Fire caused the death of 42 miners, and required breathing apparatus to be transported from Victorian mines at great speed, to rescue trapped miners. The subsequent royal commission was inconclusive as to the cause

text: Mount Mulligan[edit]

text: The 1921 Mount Mulligan mine disaster occurred in Far North Queensland. The coal dust explosion killed seventy-five men.

text: Moura[edit]

text: Four serious accidents have occurred at mines in the Central Queensland town of Moura. The first accident took the lives of 13 men in September 1975. In July 1986 there was an explosion at Moura Number 4 Mine. 12 coal miners lost their lives in this disaster that sparked controversy after experts claimed the accident was avoidable. Another explosion killed two men in January 1994 and just eight months later another explosion deep underground took the lives of 11 men.[39]

text: Bronzewing[edit]

text: On 26 June 2000, at the Bronzewing Gold Mine in Western Australia (400 kilometres from Kalgoorlie), 18,000 cubic metres of sand-slurry, sludge, mud and rock broke through a storage wall. Two men (Timothy Lee Bell, 21, Shane Hamill, 45) were killed and eight escaped the 'accident'. It took over a month to retrieve the men from the site.

text: Beaconsfield[edit]

text: On 25 April 2006, part of an underground gold mine at Beaconsfield in Tasmania collapsed. One miner, Larry Knight, was killed by the rock fall, and two others, Brant Webb and Todd Russel, were trapped, leading to a rescue mission that took two weeks to get them out alive.

text: Bulli[edit]

text:
1887
At 2.30 pm on 23 March 1887, an explosion at the mine in Bulli in New South Wales killed 81 people.[40] A special commission was set up to investigate the explosion and concluded:

text: ..that the explosion was caused by marsh gas or carbonic hydrate that had accumulated at the face. That the immediate cause was probably the flame from an overcharged shot fired by a miner in the coal in No. 2 Heading.

text: This gas explosion propagated a coal dust explosion and travelled towards the fresh air at the surface. The commission was also of the opinion that the Deputy, Overman and to a lesser extent the Manager, were all guilty of contributing negligence.[41]

text:
1965
On 9 November 1965, a pocket of gas ignited in a panel several hundred yards from the main shaft and killed four miners. Ten mining rescue teams and the Southern Mines Rescue Station worked all night to extinguish the fire.[42]

text: Box Flat Mine[edit]

text: At the Box Flat Mine in Swanbank, South East Queensland, 17 miners were lost after an underground gas explosion occurred on 31 July 1972.[43] Another man died later from injuries sustained in the explosion. The mine tunnel mouths were sealed and the mine closed shortly after.[43]

text: Australian mining in literature, art and film[edit]

text:
Henry Lawson, His Father's Mate from While The Billy Boils, 1896 (short story)
Nickel Queen, based on the Western Australian nickel boom of the late 1960s
Colin Thiele, The Fire in the Stone (book which became a film)
Wendy Richardson, Windy Gully 1989 Currency Press (play)
Conal Fitzpatrick, Kembla- The Book of Voices 2002 Kemblawarra Press (poetry) ISBN 0-9581287-0-7
Henry Handel Richardson, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony: Australia Felix Takes place in the chaos of the early Ballarat goldrush.
Richard Lowenstein, Strikebound (1984 film).
Tim Burstall, The Last of the Knucklemen (1979 film, based on the play by John Power, who also wrote a novelisation of the film).
Kriv Stenders, Red Dog (2011 film, based on the true story).


document_title: Wilder Penfield

question_text: with electrical stimulation during brain surgery penfield reported that patients

text: Wilder Penfield

text: Biography[edit]

text: Early life and education[edit]

text: Penfield was born in Spokane, Washington on January 26,[Notes 1] 1891, but spent most of his early life in Hudson, Wisconsin.[2] He studied at Princeton University, where he was a member of Cap and Gown Club[3] and played on the football team. After graduation in 1913, he was hired briefly as the team coach. In 1915 he obtained a Rhodes Scholarship to Merton College, Oxford,[4] where he studied neuropathology under Sir Charles Scott Sherrington. After one term at Merton, Penfield went to France where he served as a dresser in a military hospital in the suburbs of Paris.[4] He was wounded in 1916 when the ferry he was aboard, the SS Sussex, was torpedoed.[4] The following year, he married Helen Kermott, and began studying at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, taking his medical degree in 1918; this was followed by a short period as a house surgeon at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston.[4] Returning to Merton College in 1919,[4] Penfield spent the next two years completing his studies; during this time he met William Osler. In 1924, he worked for five months with Pío del Río Hortega characterising the type of glial cells known as oligodendroglia.[5] He also studied in Germany and New York City.[6]

text: Medical career[edit]

text: After taking a surgical apprenticeship under Harvey Cushing, he obtained a position at the Neurological Institute of New York, where he carried out his first solo operations to treat epilepsy. While in New York, he met David Rockefeller, who wished to endow an institute where Penfield could further study the surgical treatment of epilepsy. Academic politics amongst the New York neurologists, however, prevented its establishment in New York, so, in 1928, Penfield accepted an invitation from Sir Vincent Meredith to move to Montreal, Quebec, Canada. There, Penfield taught at McGill University and the Royal Victoria Hospital, becoming the city's first neurosurgeon.

text: In 1934, Penfield,along with Dr.William Cone, founded and became the first director of the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital[4] at McGill University, established with the Rockefeller funding. That year, he also became a Canadian citizen.[4][clarification needed]

text: Penfield was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950[7] and retired ten years later in 1960. He was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1953 New Year Honours list. He turned his attention to writing, producing a novel as well as his autobiography No Man Alone.[Notes 2]

text: In 1960, the year he retired, Penfield was awarded the Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science.[8] He delivered the corresponding Lister Oration, "Activation of the Record of Human Experience", at the Royal College of Surgeons of England on April 27, 1961.[9] In 1967, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada and, in 1994, was posthumously inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame. Much of his archival material is housed in the Osler Library at McGill University.

text: Later life[edit]

text: In his later years, Penfield dedicated himself to the public interest, particularly in support of university education. With his friends Governor-General Georges Vanier and Pauline Vanier, he co-founded the Vanier Institute of the Family "to promote and guide education in the home – man's first classroom."[citation needed] He was also an early proponent of childhood bilingualism.

text: Penfield died on April 5, 1976, of abdominal cancer at Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal.[2][10]

text: Scientific contributions[edit]

text: Neural stimulation[edit]

text: Penfield was a groundbreaking researcher and original surgeon. With his colleague Herbert Jasper, he invented the Montreal procedure in which he treated patients with severe epilepsy by destroying nerve cells in the brain where the seizures originated. Before operating, he stimulated the brain with electrical probes while the patients were conscious on the operating table (under only local anesthesia), and observed their responses. In this way he could more accurately target the areas of the brain responsible, reducing the side-effects of the surgery.

text: This technique also allowed him to create maps of the sensory and motor cortices of the brain (see cortical homunculus) showing their connections to the various limbs and organs of the body. These maps are still used today, practically unaltered. Along with Herbert Jasper, he published this work in 1951 (2nd ed., 1954) as the landmark Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain. This work contributed a great deal to understanding the localization of brain function. Penfield's maps showed considerable overlap between regions (i.e. the motor region controlling muscles in the hand sometimes also controlled muscles in the upper arm and shoulder) a feature which he put down to individual variation in brain size and localisation: it has since been established that this is due to the fractured somatotropy of the motor cortex. From these results he developed his cortical homunculus map, which is how the brain sees the body from an inside perspective.[11]

text: Penfield reported[12] that stimulation of the temporal lobes could lead to vivid recall of memories. Oversimplified in popular psychology publications, including the best-selling I'm OK – You're OK, this seeded the common misconception that the brain continuously "records" experiences in perfect detail, although these memories are not available to conscious recall. Reported episodes of recall occurred in less than five percent of his patients, though these results have been replicated by modern surgeons.[13][14] Penfield's hypothesis on this subject was revised in 1970.[15] His development of the Penfield dissector, the neurosurgical technique that produced the less injurious meningo-cerebral scar, became widely accepted in the field of neurosurgery and remains in regular use.

text: Hallucinations[edit]

text: Penfield's scientific contributions go past the somatosensory and the motor cortices, his extensive work of the functions of the brain also included charting the functions of the parietal and temporal cortices.[16] Of his 520 patients, 40 reported that while their temporal lobe was stimulated with an electrode they would recall dreams, smells, visual and auditory hallucinations, as well as out-of-body experiences.[17] In his studies, Penfield found that when the temporal lobe was stimulated it produced a combination of hallucinations, dream, and memory recollection.[18] These experiences would only last as long as the electrode stimulations were present on the cortex, and in some cases when patient experienced hallucinatory experiences that evoked certain smells, sensations of flashing light, stroking the back of their hand, and many others. Other stimulations had patients experiencing deja vu, fear, loneliness, and strangeness. Certain areas of patients' temporal lobes were stimulated with an electrode in order to experience past memories. Penfield called these perceptual illusions (physical hallucinations) interpretive responses. According to Penfield, when the temporal lobe was stimulated there were two types of perceptions experienced by patients:[19]

text:
Experential experience – where the patient recorded hearing a song, or seeing a flash of light.
Strip experience – The recall seems familiar to the patient and comes from the patient's past even though the patient may not be able to pinpoint the exact occasion. The recall of a memory or memories could reenforce the emotion tied to the experience.

tag: ol

text: Penfield stressed that the "things that have been recorded are the things in which once came within the spot-light of attention".[19] Penfield had over 25 years of research using electrical stimulation to produce experiential hallucinations. His conclusions show that patients experience a range of hallucinations from simple to complex. They also show that hallucinations can be stimulated.[20]

text: Déjà vu[edit]

text: Penfield's expansion of the interpretive cortex includes the phenomena of déjà vu.[21] Déjà vu is defined as the sensation that an experience an individual is presently experiencing has previously been experienced.[22] Déjà vu is typically experienced by individuals between the ages of 15 to 25, and only affects approximately 60-70% of individuals. It is thought to be a mismatch of the sensory input individuals receive and the system in which the brain recalls memory. Another thought on the cause of déjà vu is that there is a malfunction in the brain's short- and long-term memory systems where memories become stored in incorrect systems.[23] There are a couple of ways one can recognize familiar experiences – by mentally retrieving memories of a previous experience, or by having a feeling that an experience has occurred when it actually has not. Déjà vu is having that feeling of familiarity in a situation that is completely new. Memory is good at being familiar with objects, however it does not do well with the configuration or organization of objects. Déjà vu is an extreme reaction to the mind telling an individual that they are having a familiar experience.[24] Déjà vu is thought to be a consistent phenomenon. However, it has been associated with epilepsy, and with multiple psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and anxiety,[22] but there has not been a clear, frequent diagnostic correlation between déjà vu and neurological or psychiatric disorders, except with patients that have a possibility of being epileptic.[25] Temporal lobe epilepsy affects the hippocampus. Patients that suffer from this medical diagnosis are said to have a misfiring of the brain's neurons. The neurons transmit at random which results in the false sense of experiencing a familiar situation that had previously been experienced.[26] Different types of déjà vu are difficult to pinpoint because researchers who have studied déjà vu have developed their own categories and differentiations. On a broad perspective of research that is available, déjà vu can be divided into two categories  associative déjà vu and biological déjà vu. Associative déjà vu is typically experienced by normal, healthy individuals who experience things with the senses that can be associated to other experiences or past events. Biological déjà vu occurs in individuals who suffer from temporal lobe epilepsy.[27] Their experience of déjà vu occurs usually just before they experience a seizure.[28] Recent research is looking at the new occurrence of chronic déjà vu. Chronic déjà vu is when an individual is experiencing a constant state of déjà vu. Failure of the temporal lobe is thought to be the cause of this phenomenon because the circuits that connect to memories get stuck in an active state, and create memories that never happened.[28]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Avenue du Docteur-Penfield (45°30′01″N 73°34′59″W / 45.500342°N 73.583103°W / 45.500342; -73.583103), on the slope of Mount Royal in Montreal, was named in Penfield's honour on October 5, 1978. Part of this avenue borders McGill University's campus and intersects with Promenade Sir-William-Osler – meaning medical historians and the like may amuse themselves by arranging to "meet at Osler and Penfield". A portrait of Wilder Penfield hangs in Rhodes House, Oxford. Penfield was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1943.[1]

text: Wilder Penfield Elementary school was also established as part of the Lester B. Pearson School Board in honour of Wilder Graves Penfield's contribution to the public sector in Montreal, notably alongside his interest in further developing education.

text: Honorary degrees[edit]

text: Penfield was awarded many honorary degrees in recognition of his medical career. These include:

text:
Country
Date
School
Degree

 New Jersey
1939
Princeton University
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[29]

 British Columbia
30 October 1946
University of British Columbia
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[30]

 Saskatchewan
29 September 1959
University of Saskatchewan
Doctor of Laws (LL.D)[31]

 Ontario
1953
University of Toronto
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[32]

 England
1953
University of Oxford
[33]

 Manitoba
1955
University of Manitoba
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[34]

 Ontario
1957
Queen's University
Doctor of Laws (LL.D)[35]

 Quebec
6 October 1960
McGill University
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[36][37]

 Ontario
May 1962
McMaster University
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[38]

 Alberta
29 March 1967
University of Calgary
Doctorate [39]

 Ontario
16 May 1970
Royal Military College of Canada
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[40]

 Ontario
21 September 1972
University of Western Ontario
Doctor of Science (D.Sc)[41]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
Wilder Penfield was the subject of a Heritage Minute, dramatizing his development of the Montreal procedure. When Dr. Penfield stimulates the seizure-producing part of her brain, an epileptic patient exclaims: "I can smell burnt toast!" This Heritage Minute was widely shown and again made Penfield a household name in Canada.
In Chapter 14 of Robert J. Sawyer's 2012 novel Triggers, it is revealed that the major character of Dr. Ranjip Singh, a Canadian, was inspired to pursue his career in neuroscience by having seen the "I can smell burnt toast" Heritage Minute about Penfield.
In science fiction author Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, characters use a household device called a Penfield Mood Organ to dial up emotions on demand.
The principal character in J. G. Ballard's novel Super-Cannes is a manipulative psychiatrist named Wilder Penrose.
Shirow Masamune's anime series Ghost Hound makes several references to Penfield and his studies.
The song "Wilder Penfield" by the Dead Sea Apes, a UK-based psychedelic rock, from The Sun Behind The Sun, a collaboration with Black Tempest released in February 2013 on Cardinal Fuzz records.[42]
In Ray Loriga's 1999 novel Tokio ya no nos quiere, Penfield's method of stimulating the temporal lobes is described and modified to treat the main character who has issues with memory recollection.
In the video game Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht, "Penfield Mapping" is seemingly the process of drawing a cortical homunculus, necessary for one to enter a virtual environment.
Wilder Penfield's, Sensory & Motor Homunculus 3D figures have been on permanent exhibition in the Natural History Museum London.Wilder Penfield's Homunculi have become loved exhibits which have garnered a cult following globally.

text: Head coaching record[edit]

text:
Year
Team
Overall
Conference
Standing
Bowl/playoffs

Princeton Tigers (Independent) (1914)

1914
Princeton
5–2–1

Princeton:
5–2–1

Total:
5–2–1

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ January 26 was the date supplied on his World War I draft registration, but other sources have January 25 (see PBS reference).
Jump up ^ A later biography, Something Hidden, was written by his grandson Jefferson Lewis.