document_title: List of Olympic medalists in figure skating

question_text: who won the silver medal in mens figure skating

text: Medalists[edit]

text: Men's singles[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1908 London
details
Ulrich Salchow
 Sweden
Richard Johansson
 Sweden
Per Thorén
 Sweden

1912 Stockholm
not included in the Olympic program

1920 Antwerp
details
Gillis Grafström
 Sweden
Andreas Krogh
 Norway
Martin Stixrud
 Norway

1924 Chamonix
details
Gillis Grafström
 Sweden
Willy Böckl
 Austria
Georges Gautschi
 Switzerland

1928 St. Moritz
details
Gillis Grafström
 Sweden
Willy Böckl
 Austria
Robert van Zeebroeck
 Belgium

1932 Lake Placid
details
Karl Schäfer
 Austria
Gillis Grafström
 Sweden
Montgomery Wilson
 Canada

1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
details
Karl Schäfer
 Austria
Ernst Baier
 Germany
Felix Kaspar
 Austria

1948 St. Moritz
details
Dick Button
 United States
Hans Gerschwiler
 Switzerland
Edi Rada
 Austria

1952 Oslo
details
Dick Button
 United States
Helmut Seibt
 Austria
James Grogan
 United States

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
Hayes Alan Jenkins
 United States
Ronnie Robertson
 United States
David Jenkins
 United States

1960 Squaw Valley
details
David Jenkins
 United States
Karol Divín
 Czechoslovakia
Donald Jackson
 Canada

1964 Innsbruck
details
Manfred Schnelldorfer
 United Team of Germany
Alain Calmat
 France
Scott Allen
 United States

1968 Grenoble
details
Wolfgang Schwarz
 Austria
Timothy Wood
 United States
Patrick Péra
 France

1972 Sapporo
details
Ondrej Nepela
 Czechoslovakia
Sergei Chetverukhin
 Soviet Union
Patrick Péra
 France

1976 Innsbruck
details
John Curry
 Great Britain
Vladimir Kovalev
 Soviet Union
Toller Cranston
 Canada

1980 Lake Placid
details
Robin Cousins
 Great Britain
Jan Hoffmann
 East Germany
Charles Tickner
 United States

1984 Sarajevo
details
Scott Hamilton
 United States
Brian Orser
 Canada
Jozef Sabovčík
 Czechoslovakia

1988 Calgary
details
Brian Boitano
 United States
Brian Orser
 Canada
Viktor Petrenko
 Soviet Union

1992 Albertville
details
Viktor Petrenko
 Unified Team
Paul Wylie
 United States
Petr Barna
 Czechoslovakia

1994 Lillehammer
details
Alexei Urmanov
 Russia
Elvis Stojko
 Canada
Philippe Candeloro
 France

1998 Nagano
details
Ilia Kulik
 Russia
Elvis Stojko
 Canada
Philippe Candeloro
 France

2002 Salt Lake City
details
Alexei Yagudin
 Russia
Evgeni Plushenko
 Russia
Timothy Goebel
 United States

2006 Torino
details
Evgeni Plushenko
 Russia
Stéphane Lambiel
 Switzerland
Jeffrey Buttle
 Canada

2010 Vancouver
details
Evan Lysacek
 United States
Evgeni Plushenko
 Russia
Daisuke Takahashi
 Japan

2014 Sochi
details
Yuzuru Hanyu
 Japan
Patrick Chan
 Canada
Denis Ten
 Kazakhstan

2018 Pyeongchang
details
Yuzuru Hanyu
 Japan
Shoma Uno
 Japan
Javier Fernández
 Spain

text: Men's special figures[edit]

text: Men's special figures was only included in one Olympic Games before being discontinued. The sole winner of the event was Russian Nikolai Panin, who gave his country its first ever Olympic gold medal.[2]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1908 London
details
Nikolai Panin
 Russian Empire
Arthur Cumming
 Great Britain
Geoffrey Hall-Say
 Great Britain

text: Ladies' singles[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1908 London
details
Madge Syers
 Great Britain
Elsa Rendschmidt
 Germany
Dorothy Greenhough-Smith
 Great Britain

1920 Antwerp
details
Magda Julin
 Sweden
Svea Norén
 Sweden
Theresa Weld
 United States

1924 Chamonix
details
Herma Szabo
 Austria
Beatrix Loughran
 United States
Ethel Muckelt
 Great Britain

1928 St. Moritz
details
Sonja Henie
 Norway
Fritzi Burger
 Austria
Beatrix Loughran
 United States

1932 Lake Placid
details
Sonja Henie
 Norway
Fritzi Burger
 Austria
Maribel Vinson
 United States

1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
details
Sonja Henie
 Norway
Cecilia Colledge
 Great Britain
Vivi-Anne Hultén
 Sweden

1948 St. Moritz
details
Barbara Ann Scott
 Canada
Eva Pawlik
 Austria
Jeannette Altwegg
 Great Britain

1952 Oslo
details
Jeannette Altwegg
 Great Britain
Tenley Albright
 United States
Jacqueline du Bief
 France

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
Tenley Albright
 United States
Carol Heiss
 United States
Ingrid Wendl
 Austria

1960 Squaw Valley
details
Carol Heiss
 United States
Sjoukje Dijkstra
 Netherlands
Barbara Roles
 United States

1964 Innsbruck
details
Sjoukje Dijkstra
 Netherlands
Regine Heitzer
 Austria
Petra Burka
 Canada

1968 Grenoble
details
Peggy Fleming
 United States
Gabriele Seyfert
 East Germany
Hana Mašková
 Czechoslovakia

1972 Sapporo
details
Beatrix Schuba
 Austria
Karen Magnussen
 Canada
Janet Lynn
 United States

1976 Innsbruck
details
Dorothy Hamill
 United States
Dianne de Leeuw
 Netherlands
Christine Errath
 East Germany

1980 Lake Placid
details
Anett Pötzsch
 East Germany
Linda Fratianne
 United States
Dagmar Lurz
 West Germany

1984 Sarajevo
details
Katarina Witt
 East Germany
Rosalynn Sumners
 United States
Kira Ivanova
 Soviet Union

1988 Calgary
details
Katarina Witt
 East Germany
Elizabeth Manley
 Canada
Debi Thomas
 United States

1992 Albertville
details
Kristi Yamaguchi
 United States
Midori Ito
 Japan
Nancy Kerrigan
 United States

1994 Lillehammer
details
Oksana Baiul
 Ukraine
Nancy Kerrigan
 United States
Chen Lu
 China

1998 Nagano
details
Tara Lipinski
 United States
Michelle Kwan
 United States
Chen Lu
 China

2002 Salt Lake City
details
Sarah Hughes
 United States
Irina Slutskaya
 Russia
Michelle Kwan
 United States

2006 Torino
details
Shizuka Arakawa
 Japan
Sasha Cohen
 United States
Irina Slutskaya
 Russia

2010 Vancouver
details
Yuna Kim
 South Korea
Mao Asada
 Japan
Joannie Rochette
 Canada

2014 Sochi
details
Adelina Sotnikova
 Russia
Yuna Kim
 South Korea
Carolina Kostner
 Italy

2018 Pyeongchang
details
Alina Zagitova
 Olympic Athletes from Russia
Evgenia Medvedeva
 Olympic Athletes from Russia
Kaetlyn Osmond
 Canada

text: Pairs[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1908 London
details
 Anna Hübler
and Heinrich Burger (GER)
 Phyllis Johnson
and James H. Johnson (GBR)
 Madge Syers
and Edgar Syers (GBR)

1912 Stockholm
not included in the Olympic program

1920 Antwerp
details
 Ludowika Jakobsson
/ Walter Jakobsson (FIN)
 Alexia Bryn
and Yngvar Bryn (NOR)
 Phyllis Johnson
and Basil Williams (GBR)

1924 Chamonix
details
 Helene Engelmann
and Alfred Berger (AUT)
 Ludowika Jakobsson
and Walter Jakobsson (FIN)
 Andrée Joly
and Pierre Brunet (FRA)

1928 St. Moritz
details
 Andrée Joly
and Pierre Brunet (FRA)
 Lilly Scholz
and Otto Kaiser (AUT)
 Melitta Brunner
and Ludwig Wrede (AUT)

1932 Lake Placid
details
 Andrée Brunet
and Pierre Brunet (FRA)
 Beatrix Loughran
and Sherwin Badger (USA)
 Emília Rotter
and László Szollás (HUN)

1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
details
 Maxi Herber
and Ernst Baier (GER)
 Ilse Pausin
and Erik Pausin (AUT)
 Emília Rotter
and László Szollás (HUN)

1948 St. Moritz
details
 Micheline Lannoy
and Pierre Baugniet (BEL)
 Andrea Kékesy
and Ede Király (HUN)
 Suzanne Morrow
and Wallace Diestelmeyer (CAN)

1952 Oslo
details
 Ria Falk
and Paul Falk (GER)
 Karol Kennedy
and Peter Kennedy (USA)
 Marianna Nagy
and László Nagy (HUN)

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
 Sissy Schwarz
and Kurt Oppelt (AUT)
 Frances Dafoe
and Norris Bowden (CAN)
 Marianna Nagy
and László Nagy (HUN)

1960 Squaw Valley
details
 Barbara Wagner
and Robert Paul (CAN)
 Marika Kilius
and Hans-Jürgen Bäumler (EUA)
 Nancy Ludington
and Ronald Ludington (USA)

1964 Innsbruck
details
 Ludmila Belousova
and Oleg Protopopov (URS)
 Marika Kilius
and Hans-Jürgen Bäumler (EUA)
 Debbi Wilkes
and Guy Revell (CAN)[a]
 Vivian Joseph
and Ronald Joseph (USA)

1968 Grenoble
details
 Ludmila Belousova
and Oleg Protopopov (URS)
 Tatyana Zhuk
and Aleksandr Gorelik (URS)
 Margot Glockshuber
and Wolfgang Danne (FRG)

1972 Sapporo
details
 Irina Rodnina
and Alexei Ulanov (URS)
 Lyudmila Smirnova
and Andrei Suraikin (URS)
 Manuela Groß
and Uwe Kagelmann (GDR)

1976 Innsbruck
details
 Irina Rodnina
and Alexander Zaitsev (URS)
 Romy Kermer
and Rolf Österreich (GDR)
 Manuela Groß
and Uwe Kagelmann (GDR)

1980 Lake Placid
details
 Irina Rodnina
and Alexander Zaitsev (URS)
 Marina Cherkasova
and Sergei Shakhrai (URS)
 Manuela Mager
and Uwe Bewersdorf (GDR)

1984 Sarajevo
details
 Elena Valova
and Oleg Vasiliev (URS)
 Kitty Carruthers
and Peter Carruthers (USA)
 Larisa Selezneva
and Oleg Makarov (URS)

1988 Calgary
details
 Ekaterina Gordeeva
and Sergei Grinkov (URS)
 Elena Valova
and Oleg Vasiliev (URS)
 Jill Watson
and Peter Oppegard (USA)

1992 Albertville
details
 Natalia Mishkutenok
and Artur Dmitriev (EUN)
 Elena Bechke
and Denis Petrov (EUN)
 Isabelle Brasseur
and Lloyd Eisler (CAN)

1994 Lillehammer
details
 Ekaterina Gordeeva
and Sergei Grinkov (RUS)
 Natalia Mishkutenok
and Artur Dmitriev (RUS)
 Isabelle Brasseur
and Lloyd Eisler (CAN)

1998 Nagano
details
 Oksana Kazakova
and Artur Dmitriev (RUS)
 Elena Berezhnaya
and Anton Sikharulidze (RUS)
 Mandy Wötzel
and Ingo Steuer (GER)

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Elena Berezhnaya
and Anton Sikharulidze (RUS)
 Jamie Salé
and David Pelletier (CAN)
None awarded[b]
 Shen Xue
and Zhao Hongbo (CHN)

2006 Torino
details
 Tatiana Totmianina
and Maxim Marinin (RUS)
 Zhang Dan
and Zhang Hao (CHN)
 Shen Xue
and Zhao Hongbo (CHN)

2010 Vancouver
details
 Shen Xue
and Zhao Hongbo (CHN)
 Pang Qing
and Tong Jian (CHN)
 Aliona Savchenko
and Robin Szolkowy (GER)

2014 Sochi
details
 Tatiana Volosozhar
and Maxim Trankov (RUS)
 Ksenia Stolbova
and Fedor Klimov (RUS)
 Aliona Savchenko
and Robin Szolkowy (GER)

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Aliona Savchenko
and Bruno Massot (GER)
 Sui Wenjing
and Han Cong (CHN)
 Meagan Duhamel
and Eric Radford (CAN)

text: Ice dancing[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1976 Innsbruck
details
 Lyudmila Pakhomova
and Aleksandr Gorshkov (URS)
 Irina Moiseyeva
and Andrei Minenkov (URS)
 Colleen O'Connor
and James Millns (USA)

1980 Lake Placid
details
 Natalia Linichuk
and Gennadi Karponossov (URS)
 Krisztina Regőczy
and András Sallay (HUN)
 Irina Moiseyeva
and Andrei Minenkov (URS)

1984 Sarajevo
details
 Jayne Torvill
and Christopher Dean (GBR)
 Natalia Bestemianova
and Andrei Bukin (URS)
 Marina Klimova
and Sergei Ponomarenko (URS)

1988 Calgary
details
 Natalia Bestemianova
and Andrei Bukin (URS)
 Marina Klimova
and Sergei Ponomarenko (URS)
 Tracy Wilson
and Robert McCall (CAN)

1992 Albertville
details
 Marina Klimova
and Sergei Ponomarenko (EUN)
 Isabelle Duchesnay
and Paul Duchesnay (FRA)
 Maya Usova
and Alexander Zhulin (EUN)

1994 Lillehammer
details
 Oksana Grishuk
and Evgeny Platov (RUS)
 Maya Usova
and Alexander Zhulin (RUS)
 Jayne Torvill
and Christopher Dean (GBR)

1998 Nagano
details
 Oksana Grishuk
and Evgeny Platov (RUS)
 Anjelika Krylova
and Oleg Ovsyannikov (RUS)
 Marina Anissina
and Gwendal Peizerat (FRA)

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Marina Anissina
and Gwendal Peizerat (FRA)
 Irina Lobacheva
and Ilia Averbukh (RUS)
 Barbara Fusar-Poli
and Maurizio Margaglio (ITA)

2006 Torino
details
 Tatiana Navka
and Roman Kostomarov (RUS)
 Tanith Belbin
and Benjamin Agosto (USA)
 Elena Grushina
and Ruslan Goncharov (UKR)

2010 Vancouver
details
 Tessa Virtue
and Scott Moir (CAN)
 Meryl Davis
and Charlie White (USA)
 Oksana Domnina
and Maxim Shabalin (RUS)

2014 Sochi
details
 Meryl Davis
and Charlie White (USA)
 Tessa Virtue
and Scott Moir (CAN)
 Elena Ilinykh
and Nikita Katsalapov (RUS)

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Tessa Virtue
and Scott Moir (CAN)
 Gabriella Papadakis
and Guillaume Cizeron (FRA)
 Maia Shibutani
and Alex Shibutani (USA)

text: Team event[edit]

text: The team event is the newest Olympic figure skating event, first contested in the 2014 Games. It combines the four Olympic figure skating disciplines (men's singles, ladies' singles, pairs, and ice dancing) into a single event with the team earning the most placement points winning gold.

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

2014 Sochi
details
 Russia (RUS)
Evgeni Plushenko
Yulia Lipnitskaya
Ksenia Stolbova
Fedor Klimov
Elena Ilinykh
Nikita Katsalapov
Tatiana Volosozhar
Maxim Trankov
Ekaterina Bobrova
Dmitri Soloviev
 Canada (CAN)
Patrick Chan
Kevin Reynolds
Kaetlyn Osmond
Meagan Duhamel
Eric Radford
Kirsten Moore-Towers
Dylan Moscovitch
Tessa Virtue
Scott Moir
 United States (USA)
Jeremy Abbott
Jason Brown
Ashley Wagner
Gracie Gold
Marissa Castelli
Simon Shnapir
Meryl Davis
Charlie White

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Canada (CAN)
Patrick Chan
Kaetlyn Osmond
Gabrielle Daleman
Meagan Duhamel
Eric Radford
Tessa Virtue
Scott Moir
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
Mikhail Kolyada
Evgenia Medvedeva
Alina Zagitova
Evgenia Tarasova
Vladimir Morozov
Natalia Zabiiako
Alexander Enbert
Ekaterina Bobrova
Dmitri Soloviev
 United States (USA)
Nathan Chen
Adam Rippon
Bradie Tennell
Mirai Nagasu
Alexa Scimeca Knierim
Chris Knierim
Maia Shibutani
Alex Shibutani

text: Multi-medalists[edit]

text: Most medals[edit]

text: Gillis Grafström earned the most medals in a single event: four medals, three of which gold, in men's singles. The only other skaters to have earned three golds in a single discipline are Sonja Henie in ladies' singles and Irina Rodnina in pairs.

text: Counting multiple events, Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir hold the record for the most medals, with a total of five medals including two golds in ice dancing and a team event gold. Evgeni Plushenko earned four medals, including a gold in men's singles and a team event gold.

text: Figure skaters who won three or more medal at the Olympics are listed below:[6]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Events
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Virtue, TessaTessa Virtue / Moir, ScottScott Moir
 Canada (CAN)
ice dancing & team
2010–2018
3
2
0
5

Grafström, GillisGillis Grafström
 Sweden (SWE)
men's singles
1920–1932
3
1
0
4

Henie, SonjaSonja Henie
 Norway (NOR)
ladies' singles
1928–1936
3
0
0
3

Rodnina, IrinaIrina Rodnina[c]
 Soviet Union (URS)
pairs
1972–1980
3
0
0
3

Plushenko, EvgeniEvgeni Plushenko
 Russia (RUS)
men's singles & team
2002–2014
2
2
0
4

Dmitriev, ArturArtur Dmitriev[d]
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
pairs
1992–1998
2
1
0
3

Brunet, AndréeAndrée Brunet / Brunet, PierrePierre Brunet
 France (FRA)
pairs
1924–1932
2
0
1
3

Chan, PatrickPatrick Chan
 Canada (CAN)
men's singles & team
2014–2018
1
2
0
3

Klimova, MarinaMarina Klimova / Ponomarenko, SergeiSergei Ponomarenko
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
ice dancing
1984–1992
1
1
1
3

Davis, MerylMeryl Davis / White, CharlieCharlie White
 United States (USA)
ice dancing & team
2010–2014
1
1
1
3

Meagan Duhamel !Meagan Duhamel / Eric Radford !Eric Radford
 Canada (CAN)
pairs & team
2014–2018
1
1
1
3

Kaetlyn Osmond !Kaetlyn Osmond
 Canada (CAN)
ladies' singles & team
2014–2018
1
1
1
3

Shen Xue !Shen Xue / Zhao Hongbo !Zhao Hongbo
 China (CHN)
pairs
2002–2010
1
0
2
3

Savchenko, AlionaAliona Savchenko[e]
 Germany (GER)
pairs
2010–2018
1
0
2
3

Loughran, BeatrixBeatrix Loughran
 United States (USA)
ladies' singles & pairs
1924–1932
0
2
1
3

text: Multiple golds[edit]

text: The only skaters with three consecutive titles are Gillis Grafström in men's singles, Sonja Henie in ladies' singles, and Irina Rodnina in pairs. The most consecutive titles in ice dance is two, which has only been achieved by Oksana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov. In addition, one ladies' singles skater, three men's singles skaters, and five pairs skaters have earned consecutive titles. Two ice dancers and three pair skaters have earned non-consecutive titles.

text: Five skaters have won Olympic gold medals in multiple events. Evgeni Plushenko won gold in men's singles in 2006 and team event gold in 2014. Tatiana Volosozhar and Maxim Trankov were the first skaters to win multiple events at a single Olympics, winning both pairs and team event. Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir matched this feat four years later, earning golds in ice dancing and team event.

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Golds
Event(s)

Grafström, GillisGillis Grafström
 Sweden (SWE)
1920–1928
3
men's singles

Henie, SonjaSonja Henie
 Norway (NOR)
1928–1936
3
ladies' singles

Rodnina, IrinaIrina Rodnina[c]
 Soviet Union (URS)
1972–1980
3
pairs

Virtue, TessaTessa Virtue / Moir, ScottScott Moir
 Canada (CAN)
2010, 2018
3
2 in ice dancing (2010, 2018)
1 in team event (2018)

Schäfer, KarlKarl Schäfer
 Austria (AUT)
1932–1936
2
men's singles

Button, DickDick Button
 United States (USA)
1948–1952
2
men's singles

Hanyu, YuzuruYuzuru Hanyu
 Japan (JPN)
2014–2018
2
men's singles

Plushenko, EvgeniEvgeni Plushenko
 Russia (RUS)
2006, 2014
2
1 in men's singles (2006)
1 in team event (2014)

Witt, KatarinaKatarina Witt
 East Germany (GDR)
1984–1988
2
ladies' singles

Brunet, AndréeAndrée Brunet / Brunet, PierrePierre Brunet
 France (FRA)
1928–1932
2
pairs

Belousova, LudmilaLudmila Belousova / Protopopov, OlegOleg Protopopov
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1968
2
pairs

Zaitsev, AlexanderAlexander Zaitsev[c]
 Soviet Union (URS)
1976–1980
2
pairs

Gordeeva, EkaterinaEkaterina Gordeeva / Grinkov, SergeiSergei Grinkov
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Russia (RUS)
1988, 1994
2
pairs

Dmitriev, ArturArtur Dmitriev[d]
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
1992, 1998
2
pairs

Volosozhar, TatianaTatiana Volosozhar / Trankov, MaximMaxim Trankov
 Russia (RUS)
2014
2
1 in pairs
1 in team event

Grishuk, OksanaOksana Grishuk / Platov, EvgenyEvgeny Platov
 Russia (RUS)
1994–1998
2
ice dancing

text: Multi-medalists by event[edit]

text: Men's singles[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Grafström, GillisGillis Grafström
 Sweden (SWE)
1920–1932
3
1
0
4

Schäfer, KarlKarl Schäfer
 Austria (AUT)
1932–1936
2
0
0
2

Button, DickDick Button
 United States (USA)
1948–1952
2
0
0
2

Hanyu, YuzuruYuzuru Hanyu
 Japan (JPN)
2014–2018
2
0
0
2

Plushenko, EvgeniEvgeni Plushenko
 Russia (RUS)
2002–2014
1
2
0
3

Jenkins, DavidDavid Jenkins
 United States (USA)
1956–1960
1
0
1
2

Petrenko, ViktorViktor Petrenko
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
1988–1992
1
0
1
2

Böckl, WillyWilly Böckl
 Austria (AUT)
1924–1928
0
2
0
2

Orser, BrianBrian Orser
 Canada (CAN)
1984–1988
0
2
0
2

Stojko, ElvisElvis Stojko
 Canada (CAN)
1994–1998
0
2
0
2

Péra, PatrickPatrick Péra
 France (FRA)
1968–1972
0
0
2
2

Candeloro, PhilippePhilippe Candeloro
 France (FRA)
1994–1998
0
0
2
2

text: Ladies' singles[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Henie, SonjaSonja Henie
 Norway (NOR)
1928–1936
3
0
0
3

Witt, KatarinaKatarina Witt
 East Germany (GDR)
1984–1988
2
0
0
2

Albright, TenleyTenley Albright
 United States (USA)
1952–1956
1
1
0
2

Heiss, CarolCarol Heiss
 United States (USA)
1956–1960
1
1
0
2

Dijkstra, SjoukjeSjoukje Dijkstra
 Netherlands (NED)
1960–1964
1
1
0
2

Kim, YunaYuna Kim
 South Korea (KOR)
2010–2014
1
1
0
2

Altwegg, JeannetteJeannette Altwegg
 Great Britain (GBR)
1948–1952
1
0
1
2

Burger, FritziFritzi Burger
 Austria (AUT)
1928–1932
0
2
0
2

Loughran, BeatrixBeatrix Loughran
 United States (USA)
1924–1928
0
1
1
2

Kerrigan, NancyNancy Kerrigan
 United States (USA)
1992–1994
0
1
1
2

Kwan, MichelleMichelle Kwan
 United States (USA)
1998–2002
0
1
1
2

Slutskaya, IrinaIrina Slutskaya
 Russia (RUS)
2002–2006
0
1
1
2

Chen, Lu !Chen Lu
 China (CHN)
1994–1998
0
0
2
2

text: Pairs[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Rodnina, IrinaIrina Rodnina[c]
 Soviet Union (URS)
1972–1980
3
0
0
3

Dmitriev, ArturArtur Dmitriev[d]
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
1992–1998
2
1
0
3

Brunet, AndréeAndrée Brunet / Brunet, PierrePierre Brunet
 France (FRA)
1924–1932
2
0
1
3

Belousova, LudmilaLudmila Belousova / Protopopov, OlegOleg Protopopov
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1968
2
0
0
2

Zaitsev, AlexanderAlexander Zaitsev[c]
 Soviet Union (URS)
1976–1980
2
0
0
2

Gordeeva, EkaterinaEkaterina Gordeeva / Grinkov, SergeiSergei Grinkov
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Russia (RUS)
1988, 1994
2
0
0
2

Jakobsson, LudowikaLudowika Jakobsson / Jakobsson, WalterWalter Jakobsson
 Finland (FIN)
1920–1924
1
1
0
2

Mishkutenok, NataliaNatalia Mishkutenok[d]
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
1992–1994
1
1
0
2

Berezhnaya, ElenaElena Berezhnaya / Sikharulidze, AntonAnton Sikharulidze
 Russia (RUS)
1998–2002
1
1
0
2

Shen, Xue !Shen Xue / Zhao, Hongbo !Zhao Hongbo
 China (CHN)
2002–2010
1
0
2
3

Savchenko, AlionaAliona Savchenko[e]
 Germany (GER)
2010–2018
1
0
2
3

Kilius, MarikaMarika Kilius / Bäumler, Hans-JürgenHans-Jürgen Bäumler
 United Team of Germany (EUA)
1960–1964
0
2
0
2

Johnson, PhyllisPhyllis Johnson[f]
 Great Britain (GBR)
1908–1920
0
1
1
2

Rotter, EmíliaEmília Rotter / Szollás, LászlóLászló Szollás
 Hungary (HUN)
1932–1936
0
0
2
2

Nagy, MariannaMarianna Nagy / Nagy, LászlóLászló Nagy
 Hungary (HUN)
1952–1956
0
0
2
2

Groß, ManuelaManuela Groß / Kagelmann, UweUwe Kagelmann
 East Germany (GDR)
1972–1976
0
0
2
2

Brasseur, IsabelleIsabelle Brasseur / Eisler, LloydLloyd Eisler
 Canada (CAN)
1992–1994
0
0
2
2

Szolkowy, RobinRobin Szolkowy[e]
 Germany (GER)
2010–2014
0
0
2
2

text: Ice dancing[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Virtue, TessaTessa Virtue / Moir, ScottScott Moir
 Canada (CAN)
2010–2018
2
1
0
3

Grishuk, OksanaOksana Grishuk / Platov, EvgenyEvgeny Platov
 Russia (RUS)
1994–1998
2
0
0
2

Klimova, MarinaMarina Klimova / Ponomarenko, SergeiSergei Ponomarenko
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
1984–1992
1
1
1
3

Bestemianova, NataliaNatalia Bestemianova / Bukin, AndreiAndrei Bukin
 Soviet Union (URS)
1984–1988
1
1
0
2

Davis, MerylMeryl Davis / White, CharlieCharlie White
 United States (USA)
2010–2014
1
1
0
2

Torvill, JayneJayne Torvill / Dean, ChristopherChristopher Dean
 Great Britain (GBR)
1984, 1994
1
0
1
2

Anissina, MarinaMarina Anissina / Peizerat, GwendalGwendal Peizerat
 France (FRA)
1998–2002
1
0
1
2

Usova, MayaMaya Usova / Zhulin, AlexanderAlexander Zhulin
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
1992–1994
0
1
1
2

text: Team event[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Bobrova, EkaterinaEkaterina Bobrova / Soloviev, DmitriDmitri Soloviev
 Russia (RUS)
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
2014–2018
1
1
0
2

Chan, PatrickPatrick Chan
Osmond, KaetlynKaetlyn Osmond
Duhamel, MeaganMeagan Duhamel / Radford, EricEric Radford
Virtue, TessaTessa Virtue / Moir, ScottScott Moir
 Canada (CAN)
2014–2018
1
1
0
2

text: Multiple events[edit]

text: Only three skaters have won Olympic medals in multiple figure skating disciplines. All other multi-event medalists won medals in their discipline plus the team event (which, while being a separate event, is not considered its own skating discipline).

text: Two disciplines[edit]

text: In 1908, Madge Syers became the first skater to medal in multiple figure skating disciplines at a single Olympics. The only skater to match this feat was Ernst Baier in 1936. The only other skater to medal in multiple disciplines was Beatrix Loughran who did so at separate Olympics.

text: No skater has won gold medals in multiple disciplines.

text:
Athlete
Nation
Disciplines
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Baier, ErnstErnst Baier
 Germany (GER)
men's singles

pairs
1936
0

1
1

0
0

0
2

Syers, MadgeMadge Syers
 Great Britain (GBR)
ladies' singles

pairs
1908
1

0
0

0
0

1
2

Loughran, BeatrixBeatrix Loughran
 United States (USA)
ladies' singles

pairs
1924–1928

1932
0

0
1

1
1

0
3

text: One discipline plus team event[edit]

text: The team event was introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics. It allowed skaters to medal twice while skating one discipline.

text: On 9 February 2014, Evgeni Plushenko became the first skater to win multiple figure skating events. On 12 February 2014, Tatiana Volosozhar and Maxim Trankov became the first skaters to win multiple events at a single Olympics. Four years later, Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir matched this feat.

text: The below table lists all skaters who have medaled in their own discipline and in the team event. (Team event medals are indicated by "T" in the gold, silver, and bronze columns.)

text:
Athlete
Nation
Discipline
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Virtue, TessaTessa Virtue / Moir, ScottScott Moir
 Canada (CAN)
ice dancing
2010–2018
2 + 1T
1 + 1T
0
5

Plushenko, EvgeniEvgeni Plushenko
 Russia (RUS)
men's singles
2002–2014
1 + 1T
2
0
4

Volosozhar, TatianaTatiana Volosozhar / Trankov, MaximMaxim Trankov
 Russia (RUS)
pairs
2014
1 + 1T
0
0
2

Chan, PatrickPatrick Chan
 Canada (CAN)
men's singles
2014–2018
0 + 1T
1 + 1T
0
3

Davis, MerylMeryl Davis / White, CharlieCharlie White
 United States (USA)
ice dancing
2010–2014
1
1
0 + 1T
3

Duhamel, MeaganMeagan Duhamel / Radford, EricEric Radford
 Canada (CAN)
pairs
2014–2018
0 + 1T
0 + 1T
1
3

Osmond, KaetlynKaetlyn Osmond
 Canada (CAN)
ladies' singles
2014–2018
0 + 1T
0 + 1T
1
3

Stolbova, KseniaKsenia Stolbova / Klimov, FedorFedor Klimov
 Russia (RUS)
pairs
2014
0 + 1T
1
0
2

Zagitova, AlinaAlina Zagitova
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
ladies' singles
2018
1
0 + 1T
0
2

Ilinykh, ElenaElena Ilinykh / Katsalapov, NikitaNikita Katsalapov
 Russia (RUS)
ice dancing
2014
0 + 1T
0
1
2

Medvedeva, EvgeniaEvgenia Medvedeva
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
ladies' singles
2018
0
1 + 1T
0
2

Shibutani, MaiaMaia Shibutani / Shibutani, AlexAlex Shibutani
 United States (USA)
ice dancing
2018
0
0
1 + 1T
2

text: Summer and Winter Games[edit]

text: Since figure skating was held during the Summer Olympic Games in 1908 and 1920 before being moved to the Winter Olympics Games, three skaters medeled in figure skating in both the Summer and Winter Games.

text: Men's singles skater Gillis Grafström's first gold medal was earned at the 1920 Summer Olympics. His other three medals were won at the 1924–1932 Winter Games. Pair skaters Ludowika Jakobsson and Walter Jakobsson also earned gold during the 1920 Summer Olympics. They later medaled at the 1924 Winter Games.

text: Country records[edit]

text: Winning streak[edit]

text: From 1964 to 2006, Russian figure skaters—representing the Soviet Union, the Unified Team, or Russia—won the gold medal in the pairs event, in what is the longest series of victories for one country in one winter event.[7]

text: Events won[edit]

text: Russian figure skaters, counting both Russian Federation (IOC code RUS) and Russian Empire (IOC code RU1), hold the unique record for earning gold medals in all six Olympic figure skating events. Since men's special figures was discontinued, this record can not be matched.

text: Russia (IOC code RUS) is the only NOC to have earning gold medals in all five current Olympic figure skating events. Canada has earned gold medals in four of the events (all except men's singles). Great Britain, Unified Team, and United States have earned gold medals in three of the events.

text: Russia and the Unified Team are the only NOCs to have won three events at the same Olympics, at the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 1992 Winter Olympics respectively. No NOC has won more than three figure skating events at a single Olympics.

text: Podium sweeps[edit]

text: There has been two podium sweeps in Olympic figure skating history. This is when athletes from one NOC win all three medals in a single event.

text:
Games
Event
NOC
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1908 London
Men's singles
 Sweden (SWE)
Ulrich Salchow
Richard Johansson
Per Thorén

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
Men's singles
 United States (USA)
Hayes Alan Jenkins
Ronnie Robertson
David Jenkins

text: Medal totals by country[edit]

text: Men's singles[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 United States (USA)
7
3
5
15

2
 Sweden (SWE)
4
2
1
7

3
 Russia (RUS)
4
2

6

4
 Austria (AUT)
3
3
2
8

5
 Japan (JPN)
2
1
1
4

6
 Great Britain (GBR)
2

2

7
 Czechoslovakia (TCH)
1
1
2
4

8
 Unified Team (EUN)
1

1

 United Team of Germany (EUA)
1

1

10
 Canada (CAN)

5
4
9

11
 Soviet Union (URS)

2
1
3

 Switzerland (SUI)

2
1
3

13
 France (FRA)

1
4
5

14
 Norway (NOR)

1
1
2

15
 East Germany (GDR)

1

1

/ Germany (GER)

1

1

17
 Belgium (BEL)

1
1

 Kazakhstan (KAZ)

1
1

 Spain (ESP)

1
1

text: Men's special figures[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Russian Empire (RU1)
1

1

2
 Great Britain (GBR)

1
1
2

text: Ladies' singles[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 United States (USA)
7
8
8
23

2
 East Germany (GDR)
3
1
1
5

3
 Norway (NOR)
3

3

4
 Austria (AUT)
2
4
1
7

5
 Great Britain (GBR)
2
1
3
6

6
 Canada (CAN)
1
2
3
6

7
 Japan (JPN)
1
2

3

 Netherlands (NED)
1
2

3

9
 Russia (RUS)
1
1
1
3

 Sweden (SWE)
1
1
1
3

11
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
1
1

2

 South Korea (KOR)
1
1

2

13
 Ukraine (UKR)
1

1

14
/ Germany (GER)

1

1

15
 China (CHN)

2
2

16
 Czechoslovakia (TCH)

1
1

 France (FRA)

1
1

 Italy (ITA)

1
1

 Soviet Union (URS)

1
1

 West Germany (FRG)

1
1

text: Pairs[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Soviet Union (URS)
7
4
1
12

2
 Russia (RUS)
5
3

8

3
// Germany (GER)
4

3
7

4
 Canada (CAN)
2
2
4
8

5
 Austria (AUT)
2
2
1
5

6
 France (FRA)
2

1
3

7
 China (CHN)
1
3
2
6

8
 Finland (FIN)
1
1

2

 Unified Team (EUN)
1
1

2

10
 Belgium (BEL)
1

1

11
 United States (USA)

3
3
6

12
 United Team of Germany (EUA)

2

2

13
 Hungary (HUN)

1
4
5

14
 East Germany (GDR)

1
3
4

15
 Great Britain (GBR)

1
2
3

16
 Norway (NOR)

1

1

17
 West Germany (FRG)

1
1

text: Ice dancing[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Russia (RUS)
3
3
2
8

 Soviet Union (URS)
3
3
2
8

3
 Canada (CAN)
2
1
1
4

4
 United States (USA)
1
2
2
5

5
 France (FRA)
1
2
1
4

6
 Unified Team (EUN)
1

1
2

 Great Britain (GBR)
1

1
2

8
 Hungary (HUN)

1

1

9
 Italy (ITA)

1
1

 Ukraine (UKR)

1
1

text: Team event[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Canada (CAN)
1
1

2

2
 Russia (RUS)
1

1

3
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)

1

1

4
 United States (USA)

2
2

text: Age records[edit]

text:
Title
Age
Name
Nation
Games
Medal
Date of Birth
Date of Event
Event

Youngest female champion
7003560600000000000♠15 years, 128 days
Maxi Herber
 Nazi Germany
1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
Gold
October 8, 1920
February 13, 1936
Pairs

Youngest female medalist
7003548800000000000♠15 years, 10 days
Manuela Groß
 East Germany
1972 Sapporo
Bronze
January 29, 1957
February 8, 1972
Pairs

Youngest male champion
7003677600000000000♠18 years, 202 days
Dick Button
 United States
1948 St Moritz
Gold
July 18, 1929
February 5, 1948
Men's singles

Youngest male medalist
7003547600000000000♠14 years, 363 days
Scott Allen
 United States
1964 Innsbruck
Bronze
February 8, 1949
February 6, 1964
Men's singles

Oldest female champion
7004130580000000000♠35 years, 276 days
Ludowika Jakobsson
 Finland
1920 Antwerp
Gold
July 25, 1884
April 26, 1920
Pairs

Oldest female medalist
7004144330000000000♠39 years, 190 days
Ludowika Jakobsson
 Finland
1924 Chamonix
Silver
July 25, 1884
January 31, 1924
Pairs

Oldest male champion
7004139580000000000♠38 years, 80 days
Walter Jakobsson
 Finland
1920 Antwerp
Gold
February 6, 1882
April 26, 1920
Pairs

Oldest male medalist
7004166610000000000♠45 years, 225 days
Edgar Syers
 Great Britain
1908 London
Bronze
March 18, 1863
October 29, 1908
Pairs


document_title: Jai Hind

question_text: who gave the slogan jai hind to the nation

root

text: Jai Hind

text: Jai Hind (Hindi: जय हिन्द) is a salutation, slogan, and battle cry most commonly used in India to indicate patriotism towards India (also known as Hind). It translates roughly to "Victory to India"[1] or "Long live India".[2] The term was coined by Abid Hasan, and was used by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose[3][4] of the Indian National Army as a shortened version of Jai Hindustan Ki.

tag: p

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: A follower of Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose, Ramchandra Moreshwar Karkare, of Gwalher (Gwalior) Madhya Bharat, wrote a patriotic drama Jai Hind in March 1947 and published a book in Hindi, with the same title. Later, Karkare became Congress president of Central India Province.[citation needed]

text: The Jai Hind postmark was the first commemorative postmark of Independent India, and was issued on the day of independence, 15 August 1947.[citation needed] "जय हिन्द" is also stated on the first, Independence series of Indian stamps.

text: The phrase is used on All India Radio at the end of a broadcast.[citation needed] It occurs in the patriotic song "Aye Mere Watan Ke Logo" sung by Lata Mangeshkar in 1963.[5]

text: Mahatma Gandhi sent a piece of crocheted, cotton lace made from yarn personally spun by himself, with the central motif Jai Hind, to British Royal couple Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip as a wedding gift in 1947.[6]

text: The phrase has also given its name to

text:
Jai Hind (1999), a Hindi film, made by actor-director Manoj Kumar[7]
The comedy show Jay Hind! (2009)
Jai Hind College, Mumbai
Jai Hind, a Gujarati newspaper
JaiHind TV.

tag: ul


document_title: Doctrine of lapse

question_text: doctrine of lapse was one of the case for which rebellion

text: Doctrine of lapse

text: History[edit]

text: At the time of its adoption, the British East India Company had imperial administrative jurisdiction over wide regions of the subcontinent. The company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854), Tanjore and Arcot (1855) and Udaipur (Chhattisgarh) under the terms of the doctrine of lapse. Oudh (1856) is widely believed to have been annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse. However it was annexed by Lord Dalhousie under the pretext of mis-governance. Mostly claiming that the ruler was not ruling properly, the Company added about four million pounds sterling to its annual revenue by virtue of this doctrine.[2] Udaipur State, however, would have local rule reinstated by the British in 1860.[3]

text: With the increasing power of the East India Company, discontent simmered among many sections of Indian society and the largely indigenous armed forces; these rallied behind the deposed dynasties during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. Following the rebellion, in 1858, the new British Viceroy of India, whose rule replaced that of the British East India Company, renounced the doctrine.[4]

text: The princely state of Kittur was taken over by the East India Company in 1824 by imposing a 'doctrine of lapse'. So it is debatable whether it was devised by Lord Dalhousie in 1848, though he arguably made it official by documenting it. Dalhousie's annexations and the doctrine of lapse had caused suspicion and uneasiness among most ruling princes in India.

text: Doctrine of lapse before Dalhousie[edit]

text: Dalhousie applied the doctrine of lapse vigorously for annexing Indian princely states, but the policy was not solely of his invention. The Court of Directors of the East India Company had articulated this early in 1834.[5] As per this policy, the Company annexed Mandvi in 1839, Kolaba and Jalaun in 1840 and Surat in 1842.

text: Princely states annexed under the doctrine[edit]

text:
Angul (1848)
Arcot (1855)
Banda (1858)
Guler (1813)
Jaintia (1835)
Jaitpur (1849)
Jalaun (1840)
Jaswan (1849)
Jhansi (1854)
Kachari (1830)
Kangra (1846)
Kannanur (1819)
Kittur (1824)
Kodagu (1834)
Kolaba (1840)
Kozhikode (1806)
Kullu (1846)
Kurnool (1839)
Kutlehar (1825)
Makrai (1890); local rule reinstated by the British in 1893
Nagpur (1854)
Nargund (1858)
Oudh (1854)
Punjab (1849)
Ramgarh (1858)
Sambalpur (1849)
Satara (1848)
Surat (1842)
Siba (1849)
Tanjore (1855)
Tulsipur (1854)
Udaipur, Chhattisgarh (1854); local rule reinstated by the British in 1860


document_title: Bell Labs

question_text: operating system developed in 1969 at at&t's bell laboratories

question_tokens: operating system developed in 1969 at at&t 's bell laboratories

text: Bell Labs

text: Origin and historical locations[edit]

text: Early namesake[edit]

text: In 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time (about $260,000 in current dollars[1]) for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory (Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory) in Washington, D.C., in collaboration with Sumner Tainter and Bell's cousin Chichester Bell.[2] The laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound. Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the "[increased] diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf".[2] This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c. 1887, located at Bell's father's house at 1527 35th Street N.W. in Washington, D.C., where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889.[2] In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th Street N.W., specifically to house the lab.[2] The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972.[3][4][5]

text: Early antecedent[edit]

text: In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical and Patent Department formed a year earlier.

text: Formal organization[edit]

text: In 1925, Western Electric Research Laboratories and part of the engineering department of the American Telephone & Telegraph company (AT&T) were consolidated to form Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., as a separate entity.

text: The first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940. Ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies. This included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company and U.S. government work. A few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the company's principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City, but many of these were moved to suburban areas of New Jersey.

text: Among the later Bell Laboratories locations in New Jersey were Murray Hill, Holmdel, Crawford Hill, the Deal Test Site, Freehold, Lincroft, Long Branch, Middletown, Neptune, Princeton, Piscataway, Red Bank, Chester, and Whippany. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence (the Piscataway and Red Bank locations were transferred to and are now operated by Telcordia Technologies and the Whippany site was purchased by Bayer[6]).

text: The largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees (about 11,000) prior to 2001. There also were groups of employees in Indianapolis, Indiana; Columbus, Ohio; North Andover, Massachusetts; Allentown, Pennsylvania; Reading, Pennsylvania; and Breinigsville, Pennsylvania; Burlington, North Carolina (1950s–1970s, moved to Greensboro 1980s) and Westminster, Colorado. Since 2001, many of the former locations have been scaled down or closed.

text: The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007. The mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a mixed commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinen's design and by the current glut of aging and abandoned office parks.[7]

text: Discoveries and developments[edit]

text: At its peak, Bell Laboratories was the premier facility of its type, developing a wide range of revolutionary technologies, including radio astronomy, the transistor, the laser, information theory, the operating system Unix, the programming languages C and C++. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories.[8]

text:
1937: Clinton J. Davisson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for demonstrating the wave nature of matter.
1956: John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William Shockley received the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing the first transistors.
1977: Philip W. Anderson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing an improved understanding of the electronic structure of glass and magnetic materials.
1978: Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics. Penzias and Wilson were cited for their discovering cosmic microwave background radiation, a nearly uniform glow that fills the Universe in the microwave band of the radio spectrum.
1997: Steven Chu shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light.
1998: Horst Störmer, Robert Laughlin, and Daniel Tsui, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering and explaining the fractional quantum Hall effect.
2009: Willard S. Boyle, George E. Smith shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Charles K. Kao. Boyle and Smith were cited for inventing charge-coupled device (CCD) semiconductor imaging sensors.
2014: Eric Betzig shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in super-resolved fluorescence microscopy which he began pursuing while at Bell Labs.

text: The Turing Award has been won three times by Bell Labs researchers.

text:
1968: Richard Hamming for his work on numerical methods, automatic coding systems, and error-detecting and error-correcting codes.
1983: Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie for their work on operating system theory, and for developing Unix.
1986: Robert Tarjan with John Hopcroft, for fundamental achievements in the design and analysis of algorithms and data structures.

text: During its first year of operation, facsimile (fax) transmission, invented elsewhere, was first demonstrated publicly by the Bell Laboratories.[clarification needed] In 1926, the laboratories invented an early example synchronous-sound motion picture system, in competition with Fox Movietone and DeForest Phonofilm.[9]

text: In 1924, Bell Labs physicist Walter A. Shewhart proposed the control chart as a method to determine when a process was in a state of statistical control. Shewhart's methods were the basis for statistical process control (SPC): the use of statistically based tools and techniques to manage and improve processes. This was the origin of the modern quality movement, including Six Sigma.

text: In 1927, a Bell team headed by Herbert E. Ives successfully transmitted long-distance 128-line television images of Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover from Washington to New York. In 1928 the thermal noise in a resistor was first measured by John B. Johnson, and Harry Nyquist provided the theoretical analysis; this is now termed Johnson noise. During the 1920s, the one-time pad cipher was invented by Gilbert Vernam and Joseph Mauborgne at the laboratories. Bell Labs' Claude Shannon later proved that it is unbreakable.

text: In 1931, a foundation for radio astronomy was laid by Karl Jansky during his work investigating the origins of static on long-distance shortwave communications. He discovered that radio waves were being emitted from the center of the galaxy. In 1931 and 1932, experimental high fidelity, long playing, and even stereophonic recordings were made by the labs of the Philadelphia Orchestra, conducted by Leopold Stokowski.[10] In 1933, stereo signals were transmitted live from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C. In 1937, the vocoder, the first electronic speech synthesizer was invented and demonstrated by Homer Dudley. Bell researcher Clinton Davisson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with George Paget Thomson for the discovery of electron diffraction, which helped lay the foundation for solid-state electronics.

text: In the early 1940s, the photovoltaic cell was developed by Russell Ohl. In 1943, Bell developed SIGSALY, the first digital scrambled speech transmission system, used by the Allies in World War II. The British wartime codebreaker Alan Turing visited the labs at this time, working on speech encryption and meeting Claude Shannon.[11]

text: Bell Labs Quality Assurance Department gave the world and the United States such statisticians as Walter A. Shewhart, W. Edwards Deming, Harold F. Dodge, George D. Edwards, Harry Romig, R. L. Jones, Paul Olmstead, E.G.D. Paterson, and Mary N. Torrey. During World War II, Emergency Technical Committee – Quality Control, drawn mainly from Bell Labs' statisticians, was instrumental in advancing Army and Navy ammunition acceptance and material sampling procedures.

text: In 1947, the transistor, probably the most important invention developed by Bell Laboratories, was invented by John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley (and who subsequently shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956). In 1947, Richard Hamming invented Hamming codes for error detection and correction. For patent reasons, the result was not published until 1950. In 1948, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", one of the founding works in information theory, was published by Claude Shannon in the Bell System Technical Journal. It built in part on earlier work in the field by Bell researchers Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley, but it greatly extended these. Bell Labs also introduced a series of increasingly complex calculators through the decade. Shannon was also the founder of modern cryptography with his 1949 paper Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems.

text: Calculators[edit]

text:
Model I: A complex number calculator, completed 1939, for doing calculations of complex numbers.
Model II: Relay calculator or relay interpolator, September 1943, for interpolating data points of flight profiles (needed for performance testing of a gun directors).[14] This model introduced error detection (self checking).[15][16][17]
Model III: Ballistic computer, June 1944, for calculations of ballistic trajectories
Model IV: Bell Laboratories relay calculator, March 1945, a second ballistic computer
Model V: Bell Laboratories general purpose relay calculator, of which two were built, July 1946 and February 1947, which were general-purpose programmable computers using electromechanical relays[18][19]
Model VI: 1949/1950,[17] an enhanced Model V

text: In 1952, William Gardner Pfann revealed the method of zone melting which enabled semiconductor purification and level doping.

text: The 1950s also saw developmental activity based upon information theory. The central development was binary code systems. Efforts concentrated more precisely on the Laboratories' prime mission of supporting the Bell System with engineering advances including N-carrier, TD Microwave radio relay, Direct Distance Dialing, E-repeaters, Wire spring relays, and improved switching systems. Maurice Karnaugh, in 1953, developed the Karnaugh map as a tool to facilitate management of Boolean algebraic expressions. In 1954, the first modern solar cell was invented at Bell Laboratories. As for the spectacular side of the business, in 1956 TAT-1, the first transatlantic telephone cable was laid between Scotland and Newfoundland, in a joint effort by AT&T, Bell Laboratories, and British and Canadian telephone companies. A year later, in 1957, MUSIC, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music, was created by Max Mathews. New greedy algorithms developed by Robert C. Prim and Joseph Kruskal, revolutionized computer network design. In 1958, the laser was first described, in a technical paper by Arthur Schawlow and Charles Hard Townes.

text: In December 1960, Ali Javan and his associates William Bennett and Donald Heriot successfully operated the first gas laser, the first continuous-light laser, operating at an unprecedented accuracy and color purity. Also in 1960, Dawon Kahng and Martin Atalla invented the metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET); the MOSFET has achieved electronic hegemony and sustains the large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs) underlying today's information society. In 1962, the electret microphone was invented by Gerhard M. Sessler and James Edward Maceo West. Also in 1962, John R. Pierce's vision of communications satellites was realized by the launch of Telstar. In 1964, the Carbon dioxide laser was invented by Kumar Patel. In 1965, Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave background, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978. Frank W. Sinden, Edward E. Zajac, Kenneth C. Knowlton, and A. Michael Noll made computer-animated movies during the early to mid-1960s. Ken C. Knowlton invented the computer animation language BEFLIX. The first digital computer art was created in 1962 by Noll. In 1966, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), a key technology in wireless services, was developed and patented by R. W. Chang. In 1968, Molecular beam epitaxy was developed by J.R. Arthur and A.Y. Cho; molecular beam epitaxy allows semiconductor chips and laser matrices to be manufactured one atomic layer at a time. In 1969, Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson created the computer operating system UNIX for the support of telecommunication switching systems as well as general purpose computing. From 1969 to 1971, Aaron Marcus, the first graphic designer involved with computer graphics, researched, designed, and programmed a prototype interactive page-layout system for the Picturephone. In 1969, the charge-coupled device (CCD) was invented by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009. In the 1960s, the New York City site was sold and became the Westbeth Artists Community complex.

text: The 1970s and 1980s saw more and more computer-related inventions at the Bell Laboratories as part of the personal computing revolution. In 1972, Dennis Ritchie developed the compiled programming language C as a replacement for the interpreted language B which was then used in a worse is better rewrite of UNIX. Also, the language AWK was designed and implemented by Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan of Bell Laboratories.

text: In 1970, A. Michael Noll invented a tactile, force-feedback system, coupled with interactive stereoscopic computer display. In 1971, an improved task priority system for computerized telephone exchange switching systems for telephone traffic was invented by Erna Schneider Hoover, who received one of the first software patents for it. In 1976, Optical fiber systems were first tested in Georgia and in 1980, the first single-chip 32-bit microprocessor, the Bellmac 32A was demonstrated. It went into production in 1982.

text: The 1970s also saw a major central office technology evolve from crossbar electromechanical relay-based technology and discrete transistor logic to Bell Labs-developed thick film hybrid and transistor–transistor logic (TTL), stored program-controlled switching systems; 1A/#4 TOLL Electronic Switching Systems (ESS) and 2A Local Central Offices produced at the Bell Labs Naperville and Western Electric Lisle, Illinois facilities. This technology evolution dramatically reduced floor space needs. The new ESS also came with its own diagnostic software that needed only a switchman and several frame technicians to maintain. The technology was often touted in the Bell Labs Technical Journals and Western Electric magazine (WE People).[citation needed]

text: In 1980, the TDMA and CDMA digital cellular telephone technology was patented. In 1982, Fractional quantum Hall effect was discovered by Horst Störmer and former Bell Laboratories researchers Robert B. Laughlin and Daniel C. Tsui; they consequently won a Nobel Prize in 1998 for the discovery. In 1985,[20] the programming language C++ had its first commercial release.[21] Bjarne Stroustrup started developing C++ at Bell Laboratories in 1979 as an extension to the original C language.[21]

text: In 1984, the first photoconductive antennas for picosecond electromagnetic radiation were demonstrated by Auston and others. This type of antenna became an important component in terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. In 1984, Karmarkar's algorithm for linear programming was developed by mathematician Narendra Karmarkar. Also in 1984, a divestiture agreement signed in 1982 with the American Federal government forced the break-up of AT&T: Bellcore (now Telcordia Technologies) was split off from Bell Laboratories to provide the same R&D functions for the newly created local exchange carriers. AT&T also was limited to using the Bell trademark only in association with Bell Laboratories. Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. became a wholly owned company of the new AT&T Technologies unit, the former Western Electric. The 5ESS Switch was developed during this transition. In 1985, laser cooling was used to slow and manipulate atoms by Steven Chu and team. In 1985, the modeling language A Mathematical Programming Language AMPL was developed by Robert Fourer, David M. Gay and Brian Kernighan at Bell Laboratories. Also in 1985, Bell Laboratories was awarded the National Medal of Technology "For contribution over decades to modern communication systems". During the 1980s, the operating system Plan 9 from Bell Labs was developed extending the UNIX model. Also, the Radiodrum, an electronic music instrument played in three space dimensions was invented. In 1988, TAT-8 became the first transatlantic fiber-optic cable. Bell Labs in Freehold, NJ developed the 1.3-micron fiber, cable, splicing, laser detector, and 280 Mbit/s repeater for 40,000 telephone-call capacity.

text: In 1991, the 56K modem technology was patented by Nuri Dağdeviren and his team. In 1994, the quantum cascade laser was invented by Federico Capasso, Alfred Cho, Jerome Faist and their collaborators. Also in 1994, Peter Shor devised his quantum factorization algorithm. In 1996, SCALPEL electron lithography, which prints features atoms wide on microchips, was invented by Lloyd Harriott and his team. The operating system Inferno, an update of Plan 9, was created by Dennis Ritchie with others, using the then-new concurrent programming language Limbo. A high performance database engine (Dali) was developed which became DataBlitz in its product form.[22]

text: In 1996, AT&T spun off Bell Laboratories, along with most of its equipment manufacturing business, into a new company named Lucent Technologies. AT&T retained a small number of researchers who made up the staff of the newly created AT&T Labs.

text: In 1997, the smallest then-practical transistor (60 nanometers, 182 atoms wide) was built. In 1998, the first optical router was invented.

text: 2000 was an active year for the Laboratories, in which DNA machine prototypes were developed; progressive geometry compression algorithm made widespread 3-D communication practical; the first electrically powered organic laser invented; a large-scale map of cosmic dark matter was compiled, and the F-15 (material), an organic material that makes plastic transistors possible, was invented.

text: In 2002, physicist Jan Hendrik Schön was fired after his work was found to contain fraudulent data. It was the first known case of fraud at Bell Labs.

text: In 2003, the New Jersey Institute of Technology Biomedical Engineering Laboratory was created at Murray Hill, New Jersey.[23]

text: In 2005, Jeong H. Kim, former President of Lucent's Optical Network Group, returned from academia to become the President of Bell Laboratories.

text: In April 2006, Bell Laboratories' parent company, Lucent Technologies, signed a merger agreement with Alcatel. On 1 December 2006, the merged company, Alcatel-Lucent, began operations. This deal raised concerns in the United States, where Bell Laboratories works on defense contracts. A separate company, LGS Innovations, with an American board was set up to manage Bell Laboratories' and Lucent's sensitive U.S. government contracts.

text: In December 2007, it was announced that the former Lucent Bell Laboratories and the former Alcatel Research and Innovation would be merged into one organization under the name of Bell Laboratories. This is the first period of growth following many years during which Bell Laboratories progressively lost manpower due to layoffs and spin-offs making the company shut down for a short period of time.

text: As of July 2008, however, only four scientists remained in physics research, according to a report by the scientific journal Nature.[24]

text: On 28 August 2008, Alcatel-Lucent announced it was pulling out of basic science, material physics, and semiconductor research, and it will instead focus on more immediately marketable areas, including networking, high-speed electronics, wireless networks, nanotechnology and software.[25]

text: In 2009, Willard Boyle and George Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention and development of the charge-coupled device (CCD).[26]

text: In February 2013, Gee Rittenhouse, former Head of Research returned from his position as Chief Operating Officer of Alcatel-Lucent's Software, Services, and Solutions business to become the 12th President of Bell Labs.[27]

text: On 4 November 2013, Alcatel-Lucent announced the appointment of Marcus Weldon as President of Bell Labs. His stated charter was to return Bell Labs to the forefront of innovation in Information and communications technology by focusing on solving the key industry challenges, as was the case in the great Bell Labs innovation eras in the past.[28]

text: In July 2014, Bell Labs announced it had broken "the broadband Internet speed record" with a new technology dubbed XG-FAST that promises 10 gigabits per second transmission speeds.[29]

text: In 2014, Eric Betzig shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in super-resolved fluorescence microscopy which he began pursuing while at Bell Labs in the Semiconductor Physics Research Department.[30]

text: On 15 April 2015, Nokia agreed to acquire Alcatel-Lucent, Bell Labs' parent company, in a share exchange worth $16.6 billion.[31][32] Their first day of combined operations was 14 January 2016.[33]

text: In September 2016, Nokia Bell Labs, along with Deutsche Telekom T-Labs and the Technical University of Munich achieved a data rate of one terabit per second by improving transmission capacity and spectral efficiency in an optical communications field trial with a new modulation technique.[34]

text: Presidents[edit]

text:
Period
Name
Lifetime

13
2013–
Marcus Weldon
b. 1968

12
2013–2013
Gee Rittenhouse

11
2005–2013
Jeong Hun Kim
b. 1961

10
2001–2005
Bill O’Shea
b. 1957

9
1999–2001
Arun Netravali
b. 1946

8
1995–1999
Dan Stanzione
b. 1945

7
1991–1995
John Sullivan Mayo
b. 1930

6
1979–1991
Ian Munro Ross
1927–2013

5
1973–1979
William Oliver Baker
1915–2005

4
1959–1973
James Brown Fisk
1910–1981[35]

3
1951–1959
Mervin Kelly
1895–1971

2
1940–1951
Oliver Buckley
1887–1959

1
1925–1940
Frank Baldwin Jewett
1879–1949

tag: table

text: Notable alumni[edit]

text:
Alumni
Notes

Arno Allan Penzias
Discovered background radiation, with Robert W. Wilson, originating from the Big Bang and won the Nobel Prize in 1978 for that.

Bishnu Atal
Developed new speech processing and encoding algorithms, including fundamental work on linear prediction of speech and the development of code-excited linear prediction (CELP) speech encoding, the basis for all speech communication codecs in mobile and Internet voice communications.

Bjarne Stroustrup
Was the head of Bell Labs Large-scale Programming Research department, from its creation until late 2002 and created the C++ programming language.

Brian Kernighan
Helped create Unix, AWK, AMPL, and The C Programming Language (book)

Claire F. Gmachl
Developed novel designs for solid-state lasers leading to advances in the development of quantum cascade lasers.

Claude Shannon
Founded information theory with the publishing of A Mathematical Theory of Communication in 1948. He is perhaps equally well known for founding both digital computer and digital circuit design theory in 1937, when, as a 21-year-old master's degree student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), he wrote his thesis demonstrating that electrical applications of Boolean algebra could construct any logical, numerical relationship.[36] Shannon contributed to the field of cryptanalysis for national defense during World War II, including his basic work on codebreaking and secure telecommunications. For two months early in 1943, Shannon came into contact with the leading British cryptanalyst and mathematician Alan Turing. Shannon and Turing met at teatime in the cafeteria.[37] Turing showed Shannon his 1936 paper that defined what is now known as the "Universal Turing machine";[38][39] this impressed Shannon, as many of its ideas complemented his own.

Clinton Davisson
Davisson and Lester Germer performed an experiment showing that electrons were diffracted at the surface of a crystal of nickel. This celebrated Davisson-Germer experiment confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis that particles of matter have a wave-like nature, which is a central tenet of quantum mechanics. Their observation of diffraction allowed the first measurement of a wavelength for electrons. shared the Nobel Prize in 1937 with George Paget Thomson, who independently discovered electron diffraction at about the same time as Davisson.

Corinna Cortes
Head of Google Research, New York.

Daniel Tsui
Along with Robert Laughlin and Horst Störmer discovered new form of quantum fluid.

David A. B. Miller

Dennis Ritchie
Created the C programming language and, with long-time colleague Ken Thompson, the Unix operating system.

Donald Cox
Received the IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal (1993)

Elizabeth Bailey
Worked in technical programming at Bell Laboratories from 1960 to 1972, before transferring to the economic research section from 1972 to 1977.

Eric Betzig
An American physicist who worked to develop the field of fluorescence microscopy and photoactivated localization microscopy. He was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy" along with Stefan Hell and fellow Cornell alumnus William E. Moerner.

Eric Schmidt
Did a complete re-write with Mike Lesk of Lex, a program to generate lexical analysers for the Unix computer operating system.

Erna Schneider Hoover
Invented the computerized telephone switching method.

Esther M. Conwell
Studied effects of high electric fields on electron transport in semiconductors, member of the National Academy of Engineering, National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Evelyn Hu
Pioneer in the fabrication of nanoscale electronic and photonic devices.

George E. Smith
Led research into novel lasers and semiconductor devices. During his tenure, Smith was awarded dozens of patents and eventually headed the VLSI device department. George E. Smith shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics with Willard Boyle for "the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit—the CCD sensor, which has become an electronic eye in almost all areas of photography".[40]

Gil Amelio
Amelio was on the team that demonstrated the first working charge-coupled device (CCD). Worked at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the semiconductor division of Rockwell International but is best remembered as a CEO of National Semiconductor and Apple Inc.

Harvey Fletcher
"father of stereophonic sound". As Director of Research at Bell Labs, he oversaw research in electrical sound recording, including more than 100 stereo recordings with conductor Leopold Stokowski in 1931–1932.[41][42]

Horst Ludwig Störmer
Along with Robert Laughlin and Daniel Tsui discovered new form of quantum fluid.

John Hopcroft
Received the Turing Award jointly with Robert Tarjan in 1986 for fundamental achievements in the design and analysis of algorithms and data structures.

Ingrid Daubechies
Developed the orthogonal Daubechies wavelet and the biorthogonal Cohen–Daubechies–Feauveau wavelet. She is best known for her work with wavelets in image compression and digital cinema.

Jessie MacWilliams
Developed the MacWilliams identities in coding theory.

John Mashey
Worked on the PWB/UNIX operating system at Bell Labs from 1973 to 1983, authoring the PWB shell, also known as the "Mashey Shell".[43]

John M. Chambers
Developed the statistical programming language S which is the forerunner to R.

John Bardeen
With William Shockley and Walter Brattain, the three scientists invented the point contact transistor in 1947 and were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Jon Hall
Executive Director of Linux International,[44]

Ken Thompson
designed and implemented the original Unix operating system. He also invented the B programming language, the direct predecessor to the C programming language, and was one of the creators and early developers of the Plan 9 operating systems. Since 2006, Thompson has worked at Google, where he co-invented the Go programming language.

Laurie Spiegel
Electronic musician and engineer known for developing the algorithmic composition software Music Mouse.

Margaret H. Wright
Pioneer in numerical computing and mathematical optimization, head of the Scientific Computing Research Department and Bell Labs Fellow, president of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.

Max Mathews
wrote MUSIC, the first widely used program for sound generation, in 1957.

Narendra Karmarkar
Developed Karmarkar's algorithm.

Osamu Fujimura
Japanese physicist, phonetician and linguist, recognized as one of the pioneers of speech science. Invented the C/D model of speech articulation.

Persi Diaconis
Known for tackling mathematical problems involving randomness and randomization, such as coin flipping and shuffling playing cards.

Philip Warren Anderson
In 1977 Anderson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his investigations into the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems, which allowed for the development of electronic switching and memory devices in computers.

Phyllis Fox
Co-wrote the DYNAMO simulation programming language, principal author of the first LISP manual, and developed the PORT Mathematical Subroutine Library.

Richard Hamming
created a family of mathematical error-correcting code, which are called Hamming codes. Programmed one of the earliest computers, the IBM 650, and with Ruth A. Weiss developed the L2 programming language, one of the earliest computer languages, in 1956.

Robert Laughlin
Along with Horst Störmer and Daniel Tsui discovered new form of quantum fluid.

Robert Tarjan
Received the Turing Award jointly with John Hopcroft in 1986 for fundamental achievements in the design and analysis of algorithms and data structures.

Robert W. Wilson
Discovered background radiation, with Arno Allan Penzias, originating from the Big Bang and won the Nobel Prize in 1978 for that.

Steven Chu
known for his research at Bell Labs and Stanford University in cooling and trapping of atoms with laser light, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1997, along with his scientific colleagues Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William Daniel Phillips.[45]

Stuart Feldman
Creator of the computer software program make for UNIX systems. He was also an author of the first Fortran 77 compiler, and he was part of the original group at Bell Labs that created the Unix operating system.[46]

Trevor Hastie
Known for his contributions to applied statistics, especially in the field of machine learning, data mining, and bioinformatics.

Zhenan Bao
Development of the first all plastic transistor, or organic field-effect transistors which allows for its use in electronic paper.[47]

Walter Houser Brattain
With fellow scientists John Bardeen and William Shockley, invented the point-contact transistor in December, 1947.[48] They shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their invention.

Willard Boyle
share the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics with George E. Smith for "the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit—the CCD sensor, which has become an electronic eye in almost all areas of photography".

William B. Snow
made major contributions to acoustics from 1923-1940. Fellow of the Audio Engineering Society (AES), received its Gold Medal Award in 1968.

William Shockley
With John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, the three scientists invented the point contact transistor in 1947 and were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Yann LeCun
Recognized as a founding father of convolutional neural networks and for work on optical character recognition and computer vision.

Edward Lawry Norton
Famous for the Norton's theorem.

Maurice Karnaugh
Famous for the Karnaugh map.

text:
__ Nobel Prize in Physics[49]
__ Turing Award[50]

text: Programs[edit]

text: On May 20, 2014, Bell Labs announced the Bell Labs Prize, a competition for innovators to offer proposals in information and communication technologies, with cash awards of up to $100,000 for the grand prize.[51]

text: Bell Labs Technology Showcase[edit]

text: The Murray Hill campus features a 3000 square foot exhibit, the Bell Labs Technology Showcase, showcasing the technological discoveries and developments at Bell Labs. The exhibit is located just off the main lobby and is open to the public.[52]


document_title: Roger Craig (Jeopardy! contestant)

question_text: most money won on one episode of jeopardy

text: Roger Craig (Jeopardy! contestant)

text: Early life and career[edit]

text: Craig, who was 33 years old at the time of his initial Jeopardy! appearance in 2010,[1][2] is a native of Ferndale, Pennsylvania. He grew up there and later in Virginia, where he graduated from Annandale High School in 1995.[3]

text: He holds a first degree in biology and biochemistry from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and a master's degree and Ph.D in computer science from the University of Delaware. He was working on his doctorate at the time of his first appearance on Jeopardy!, and completed the degree later in 2010.[2][3][4]

text: In his scholarly career, he has published eight papers in the field of bioinformatics, specifically on topics of combinatorial protein synthesis and protein-protein prediction.[5][6]

text: As of November 2011 he was living in Newark, Delaware, and working as a computer scientist.[4] He is the founder of Cotinga, a company which performs data analyses and creates learning applications for smartphones.[7] Craig was a guest on KFC Radio of Barstool Sports on August 23, 2012.[8]

text: Jeopardy![edit]

text: Preparation[edit]

text: Craig prepared for Jeopardy! by studying the online archive of past questions maintained on the J! Archive website. Using data-mining and text-clustering, he identified the topics most likely to occur in game questions,[9] then used the spaced repetition program Anki for memorization and tested himself using his own program.[10][11][12][13][14]

text: Craig played quiz bowl as a student at both Virginia Tech and the University of Delaware.[15] Before his Jeopardy appearances, he played numerous Jeopardy scrimmage matches against his friends with quiz bowl experience.[14]

text: Craig believes his attendance at the two universities helped the most in his success:

text: Let's face it, for Jeopardy!, the name of the game is breadth not depth. I think the main reason both universities helped so much is that they cover just about all spheres of learning in extraordinary depth.[16]

text: Appearances[edit]

text: Craig set his record of US$77,000 on the second day of the 2010–2011 Jeopardy! season on the episode airing September 14, 2010.[17] In his record-setting appearance, he had a score of $47,000 after the game's first two rounds, then wagered and won $30,000 in the Final Jeopardy! round. Prior to Craig, the single-day record of $75,000 was held by Ken Jennings.[17]

text: Craig lost to North Carolina sportswriter Jelisa Castrodale in his seventh appearance. He had the lead going into the Final Jeopardy round, in the category "Sports and Media". Castrodale won when she gave the correct response to the Final Jeopardy question about the winner of the 2010 Super Bowl, while Craig gave an incorrect response.[18]

text: In his seven-day run, Craig earned $231,200,[19] all except $1,000 of which was from winning episodes.[20] This total is the sixth-highest amount of money won non-tournament on the show, ranking Craig behind Ken Jennings, Julia Collins, David Madden, Arthur Chu, and Austin Rogers.[1]

text: In 2011, Craig returned for the Tournament of Champions, which aired in November 2011. In the semi-final match, described as "a bloody, epic, inter-planetary death match... the Jeopardy! equivalent of a title-unification fight",[21] Craig beat Joon Pahk and Mark Runsvold, the sixth and tenth regular-play all-time money winners on the show. On the first night of the two-day finals, he became the first player in the history of the show to uncover two Daily Double items in succession, wager all of his money on both, and win both times.[22]

text: When Craig hit the first of his back-to-back Daily Doubles, he wagered his entire pot of $9,000, and won when he correctly identified Anne Brontë as the author who wrote the 1847 book Agnes Grey under the pseudonym 'Acton Bell'. After switching categories and uncovering the second daily double, he wagered his entire pot of $18,000, winning when he correctly answered, "What is Suriname?" after being given the clue "Although Dutch is the official language, Sranan Tongo is spoken by most people in this South American country." His $18,000 win was, at the time, the largest successful Daily Double wager in the show's history.[23][24]

text: Craig won the Tournament of Champions. In the finals, he defeated Buddy Wright and Tom Nissley (the latter being the show's fourth highest all-time non-tournament money winner), to win the $250,000 tournament prize.[25]

text: Craig returned for the Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades tournament on April 1, 2014, as part of the 2000s Week. Facing Vijay Balse and Stephanie Jass, he defeated Balse by $1 and advanced to the quarterfinals. He won in the quarterfinals on May 5, facing off against Robin Carroll (2000 Tournament of Champions winner) and Leszek Pawlowicz (1992 Tournament of Champions winner).

text: He defeated Pam Mueller and Colby Burnett in the semifinals and advanced to the finals where he placed third. Craig was hurt in the finals by two "true Daily Double" wagers, one on each day of the two-day final, in which he risked over $10,000 and responded incorrectly both times.

text: Records[edit]

text: During his Jeopardy! appearances, Craig set the following records:

text:
Description

Set Record

Current record

Highest 5-game total on Jeopardy!, first 5 games (unadjusted)

$195,801

$195,801

Highest single-game total on Jeopardy!

$77,000 (September 14, 2010)

$77,000

Largest true daily double bet (unadjusted)

$18,000 (November 14, 2011)

$18,000

Largest daily double bet (unadjusted)

$18,000 (November 14, 2011)

$19,000 by Philip Tiu (March 15, 2016)

text: NOTE: Unadjusted references the 2001 rule change regarding dollar values. The all-time record for a five-game total, adjusted, is $102,597 with pre-2001 rules ($205,194 adjusted) by Frank Spangenberg.[citation needed]


document_title: Three-point field goal

question_text: when did the nba 3 point line change

question_tokens: when did the nba 3 point line change

text: Three-point field goal

text: History[edit]

text: The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.

text: The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).

text: In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.

text: The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).

text: The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[5][6] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[6][7][8] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference.[9] Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986–87 men's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[10] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[11] In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's three-point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008–09 season.[12] The NCAA women's three-point distance was moved to match the men's distance in 2011–12.[11] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[13] The NCAA used the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the 2018 National Invitation Tournament.[14]

text: During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[15]

text: In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[16]

text: In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[17]

text: Rule specifications[edit]

text: A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:

text:
Arc radius
Minimum distance from sidelines

National Basketball Association
23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m)
3 feet (0.91 m)
[18]

FIBA (also used by WNBA)
6.75 meters (22 ft 2 in)
0.90 meters (2 ft 11 in)
[19]

National Collegiate Athletic Association
20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m)
4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m)
[20]

American high school basketball
19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m)
5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m)
[21]

text: A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.

text: An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[22] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.

text: If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.

text: Related concepts[edit]

text: Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.

text: In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).

text: During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.

text: The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[23]

text: The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.


document_title: Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives

question_text: who elects the speaker of the house in texas

text: Election[edit]

text: The speaker is elected from the legislature of Texas, by a vote of its fellow members.[1] On the first day of each regular session, the members may nominate a fellow member, and a record vote is held to determine who the speaker will be. The Secretary of State calls the House to order, and presides over the chamber until a speaker is elected.

text: Duties[edit]

text: The speaker is the presiding officer of the house of representatives. The Texas Constitution requires the house of representatives, each time a new legislature convenes, to choose one of its own members to serve as speaker.

text: As presiding officer, the speaker maintains order during floor debate, recognizing legislators who wish to speak and ruling on procedural matters. The constitution also requires the speaker to sign all bills and joint resolutions passed by the legislature. As a member of the house of representatives, the speaker may vote on all questions before the house.

text: The other duties and responsibilities of the speaker are determined by the members of the house in the House Rules of Procedure, which are adopted by a majority vote of the members at the beginning of each regular session of the legislature. The members give the speaker the authority to appoint the membership of each standing committee, subject to rules on seniority, and to designate the chair and vice chair for each committee. Under the rules, the speaker is responsible for referring all proposed legislation to committee, subject to the committee jurisdictions set forth in the rules. The rules also allow the speaker to appoint conference committees, to create select committees, and to direct committees to conduct interim studies when the legislature is not in session.