document_title: Fresh water

question_text: where is the largest amount of fresh water found

text: Fresh water

text: Systems

text: Fresh water habitats are divided into lentic systems, which are the stillwaters including ponds, lakes, swamps and mires; lotic, or running-water systems; and groundwater which flows in rocks and aquifers. There is, in addition, a zone which bridges between groundwater and lotic systems, which is the hyporheic zone, which underlies many larger rivers and can contain substantially more water than is seen in the open channel. It may also be in direct contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of fresh water on Earth is in ice caps.

text: Sources

text: The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain and snow. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea and land over which the rain bearing clouds have traveled. In industrialized areas rain is typically acidic because of dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen formed from burning of fossil fuels in cars, factories, trains and aircraft and from the atmospheric emissions of industry. In some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers.

text: In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate as well as many other compounds in smaller concentrations.

text: In desert areas, or areas with impoverished or dusty soils, rain-bearing winds can pick up sand and dust and this can be deposited elsewhere in precipitation and causing the freshwater flow to be measurably contaminated both by insoluble solids but also by the soluble components of those soils. Significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa.

text: Water distribution

text: Water is a critical issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use salt water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants and most mammals must have access to fresh water to live. Some terrestrial mammals, especially desert rodents appear to survive without drinking but they do generate water through the metabolism of cereal seeds and they also have mechanisms to conserve water to the maximum degree.

text: Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers.[2][3] Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes. Swamps have most of the balance with only a small amount in rivers, most notably the Amazon River. The atmosphere contains 0.04% water.[4] In areas with no fresh water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density, overlie saline ground water in lenses or layers. Most of the world's fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of fresh water, such as deserts.

text: Numerical definition

text: Fresh water can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.[5]

text:
Part of a series on

Water salinity

Salinity levels

Fresh water (< 0.05%)
Brackish water (0.05–3%)
Saline water (3–5%)
Brine (> 5%)

Bodies of water

Seawater • Salt lake • Hypersaline lake • Salt pan • Brine pool • Bodies by salinity

v
t
e

text: Other sources give higher upper salinity limits for fresh water, e.g. 1000 ppm[6] or 3000 ppm.[7]

text: Aquatic organisms

text: Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney.[8] Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin,[9] while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.[10]

text: Many sea birds have special glands at the base of the bill through which excess salt is excreted. Similarly the marine iguanas on the Galápagos Islands excrete excess salt through a nasal gland and they sneeze out a very salty excretion.

text: Fresh water as a resource

text: An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing minimum streamflow, especially preserving and restoring instream water allocations.[11] Fresh water is an important natural resource necessary for the survival of all ecosystems. The use of water by humans for activities such as irrigation and industrial applications can have adverse impacts on down-stream ecosystems. Chemical contamination of fresh water can also seriously damage eco-systems.

text: Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources. The largest petroleum spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a Royal Dutch Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina, on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.[12]

text: Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.[13]

text: Agriculture

text: Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water,[14] this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems. In Australia, over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination.[14] With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.[15]

text: Limited resource

text: Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource. Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle, in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.

text: Fresh water withdrawal

text: Fresh water withdrawal is the quantity of water removed from available sources for use in any purpose, excluding evaporation losses. Water drawn off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream.

text: Causes of limited fresh water

text: The increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources avialability of clean fresh water The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in the others as well.[16] Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication also reduces the availability of fresh water.[17]

text: Fresh water in the future

text: Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability. Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.[18]

text: Choices in the use of fresh water

text: With one in eight people in the world not having access to safe water[19] it is important to use this resource in a prudent manner. Making the best use of water on a local basis probably provides the best solution. Local communities need to plan their use of fresh water and should be made aware of how certain crops and animals use water.

text: As a guide the following tables provide some indicators.

text: Table 1 Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person) [20]

text:
Activity
Minimum, litres / day
Range / day

Drinking Water
5
2–5

Sanitation Services
20
20–75

Bathing
15
5–70

Cooking and Kitchen
10
10–50

text: Table 2. Water Requirements of different classes of livestock [21]

text:
Animal
Average / day
Range / day

Dairy cow
76 L (20 US gal)
57 to 95 L (15 to 25 US gal)

Cow-calf pair
57 L (15 US gal)
8 to 76 L (2 to 20 US gal)

Yearling cattle
38 L (10 US gal)
23 to 53 L (6 to 14 US gal)

Horse
38 L (10 US gal)
30 to 53 L (8 to 14 US gal)

Sheep
8 L (2 US gal)
8 to 11 L (2 to 3 US gal)

text: Table 3 Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs [22]

text:
Crop
Crop water needs mm / total growing period

Banana
1200–2200

Barley/Oats/Wheat
450–650

Cabbage
350–500

Citrus
900–1200

Onions
350–550

Pea
350–500

Potato
500–700

Sugar Cane
1500–2500

Tomato
400–800


document_title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014 film)

question_text: who did the voices of the new ninja turtles

root

text: Plot[edit]

text: April O'Neil, a local reporter for Channel 6 Eyewitness News in New York City, investigates a crime wave by a group of criminals called the Foot Clan. At a dock at night, she sees the Foot raiding cargo containers. After an unseen vigilante attacks the thieves, April notices a symbol left behind. April's supervisor Bernadette Thompson and her coworkers are oblivious to her story. Later while covering a charity event thrown by Sacks Industries, April expresses gratitude to the company's CEO Eric Sacks, who was her late father's lab partner.

tag: p

text: Frustrated by the vigilante, the Foot Clan's leader Shredder has the Foot Soldiers take hostages at a subway station in order to draw him out. April, at the scene, becomes a hostage herself. Four mysterious figures arrive, take out the Clan, and free the hostages. April follows them to a rooftop and is shocked to see that the vigilantes are anthropomorphic mutant turtles, causing her to pass out. When she regains consciousness, they advise her not to tell anyone of them. As they leave, April hears Raphael and Leonardo's names.

text: April returns to her apartment and remembers "Project Renaissance", her father's science experiment, which involved four turtles named Leonardo, Donatello, Michelangelo, Raphael, and a mutated rat called Splinter. Unable to convince Bernadette of the Turtles' existence, April is dismissed. Her coworker Vern Fenwick drives her to Sacks' estate where she confides in him about her discovery. Sacks believes her and reveals that he and April's father had been experimenting on a mutagen created to cure disease, which was thought lost in the fire that killed her dad.

text: At Splinter's behest, the Turtles bring April to their sewer lair. Splinter explains April had saved them all from the fire and freed them into the sewers. The mutagen caused the five of them to grow and develop humanoid attributes. Splinter took on the role of their father, using April's father as an example. After finding a book on Ninjutsu in a storm drain, he proceeded to teach himself, then the Turtles, in the fighting style. When April reveals she told Sacks about her discovery of the Turtles, Splinter informs her that Sacks turned on her father and killed him.

text: Then, Shredder and the Foot Soldiers attack the lair, defeating Splinter and incapacitating Raphael while the other Turtles are captured. April comes out of hiding and she and Raphael plan to save the others. At Sacks' estate, he has the Turtles' blood drained in order to create an antidote to a deadly virus that Sacks hopes to flood New York with, believing he will become rich from people seeking his cure. Raphael, April, and Vern storm the estate and free the other Turtles. The group then escapes the compound in pursuit of Sacks.

text: On a radio tower in the city, Sacks and Shredder plant a device that will flood the city with the virus while Sacks is preparing to convert the mutagen to healing factor. April and Vern subdue Sacks in the lab, while the Turtles are battling Shredder on the roof. During the fight, the tower's support beams collapse. As the turtles try to keep it from falling and infecting the city, April confronts Shredder with the mutagen. In the struggle, the tower collapses and the Turtles pull April onto it with them, while Shredder falls to the street and is captured by the police. Believing they are about to die, the Turtles confess their secrets, while Raphael gives an impassioned speech of his love for his brothers before they land harmlessly on the street. They vanish before the humans find them and return to the sewers, where they give Splinter the mutagen and he begins to recover.

text: Sometime later, April meets with Vern, who tries and fails to ask her on a date. The Turtles appear in a special modified "Turtle Van", and Michelangelo accidentally blows up Vern's new car with a rocket. As police respond to the explosion, the Turtles leave, but not before Mikey tries to serenade April with "Happy Together" by the band The Turtles, much to his brothers' annoyance and April's amusement.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Live-action actors[edit]

text: Megan Fox as April O'Neil

tag: ul

text: Malina Weissman as Young April O'Neil

text:
Will Arnett as Vern Fenwick
William Fichtner as Eric Sacks
Tohoru Masamune as The Shredder [8]
Whoopi Goldberg as Bernadette Thompson
Minae Noji as Karai
Abby Elliott as Taylor
Taran Killam as McNaughton
K. Todd Freeman as Dr. Baxter Stockman
Paul Fitzgerald as Dr. O'Neil
Derek Mears as Dojo Ninja

text: Voice actors and motion-capture[edit]

text:
Pete Ploszek (motion-capture) and Johnny Knoxville (voice) as Leonardo
Alan Ritchson as Raphael
Noel Fisher as Michelangelo
Jeremy Howard as Donatello
Danny Woodburn (motion-capture) and Tony Shalhoub (voice) as Splinter

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In October 2009, following the news of Nickelodeon purchasing all of Mirage's rights to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles property, it was announced that Nickelodeon would produce a new film through corporate sibling Paramount Pictures with an expected release date sometime in 2012.[9] In late May 2010, it was announced that Paramount and Nickelodeon had brought Michael Bay and his Platinum Dunes partners Bradley Fuller and Andrew Form on to produce the next film that will reboot the film series. Bay, Fuller, and Form would produce alongside Walker and Mednick.[10] For the script, the studio originally hired Art Marcum and Matt Holloway to write the film for close to a million dollars. According to TMNT co-creator Kevin Eastman, the John Fusco version was a little too edgy for what Paramount wanted.[11] A year later, the studio turned to writers Josh Appelbaum and André Nemec to rewrite the script.[12][13] In February 2012, Jonathan Liebesman began negotiations to direct the film, beating out Brett Ratner.[14] Later in March, it was announced that Paramount had pushed back the film's release date to Christmas Day 2013.[15] In early March 2012, Bay revealed at Nickelodeon's 2012 upfront presentation that the film will be simply titled Ninja Turtles and that the turtles would be "from an alien race".[16][17] News of Bay's creative change was met with criticism from within the fan community.[18]

text: In response to the announcement, actor Robbie Rist, who voiced Michelangelo in the first three films, wrote to Bay accusing him of "sodomizing" the franchise. Rist later remarked that he could have been out of line since Bay makes more money than he does.[19] In response to the feedback, Bay issued a statement asking fans to calm down since a script had not been revealed, his team was working closely with the creators, and would include all the elements that made them fans to begin with.[20] Both Brian Tochi, who voiced Leonardo in the first three films, and Judith Hoag, who played April O'Neil in the first film, have voiced their support towards the creative change.[21] TMNT co-creator Peter Laird expressed his thoughts on the change asking fans to take Bay's advice and wait until more of Bay's plan is made available. Laird also stated that he felt the "ill-conceived plan" could be a "genius notion," as it would allow fans to have the multitude of bipedal anthropomorphic turtles that they have been asking for. He would point out that while the concept of a turtle-planet backstory made for a great run-of-the-mill science fiction story, it had no real place in the Ninja Turtles universe.[22]

text: Franchise's co-creator Kevin Eastman stated that he had been invited behind the scenes of the film, and concluded that he was officially on board with the project and that, although he could not say much, he believes it to be "awesome".[23] Via Twitter, Corey Feldman, who voiced Donatello in the first and third films, voiced his support for the film saying that he loves Bay's remakes and he is eager to reprise his role.[24] In response to the backlash, Liebesman stated that he was glad to hear about the fans' response, since he and Eastman had been locked in a room working on ideas that, from his own perspective as a fan, everybody would love.[25] While he would not confirm whether or not Bay's comment did represent the film's premise, he did stress on the ooze itself and its background in the original comic, reminding that the ooze was the product of alien technology. In regards to how the Turtles would be rendered, Liebesman would not say exactly what visual direction would be taken, but he did state that he enjoyed Weta Digital's work in Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He also pointed out that the film would not be exclusively about action but will also focus on brotherhood, friendship, and responsibility.[26]

text: In late March 2012, Bay posted on his website explaining the title change and stressing that nothing had changed regarding the Turtles. He stated the reason the title was shortened was a request by Paramount to make the title "simple". He continued that the Turtles were the same as fans remember and regardless of the title change they still act like teenagers. He urged everyone to give everybody who was involved a chance, as they had the fans interest at top priority and would not let anybody down.[27] On June 12, 2012, Eastman revealed some of the things for the film stating that April would not be 16 years old like in the 2012 cartoon series, he feels Ken Watanabe would make a great Shredder, he would like to bring Reyes back as a Foot lieutenant, and martial arts wise they are looking at Fist of Legend and The Raid: Redemption.[28] Three days later, it was reported that production for this project had been shut down. While the release date had been pushed back five months, the work stoppage for the film was said to be "indefinite".[29] However, other sources said that the film would be released on May 16, 2014, due to problems in that script that need to be corrected.[30][31] In July 2012, Eastman called it "easily the best Turtle movie yet".[32] Kevin Eastman stated that the movie is creating its own story but has to be true to the source material or else they will get "murdered".[33]

text: In August 2012, an early version of the script, dated January 30, 2012, titled "The Blue Door" and written by Appelbaum and Nemec, was leaked online. It featured major changes to the origins: the Turtles hail from another dimension that consists of turtle warriors, Splinter is an alien from the same dimension as well, Shredder is "Colonel Schrader", a government agent who is secretly an alien who can grow blades from his body, "The Foot Clan" is just "The Foot", an elite Black Ops unit led by Col. Schrader, Casey Jones is an 18-year-old security guard/amateur ice hockey player that finds the Turtles and is the focus of the film, April is also 18 and is having relationship troubles with Casey because she is moving to New York City due to an internship at CBS, Raphael is the comic relief instead of Michelangelo, and Michelangelo falls in love with a turtle woman from his home planet.[34] A cease and desist order was sent by Paramount Pictures to a website that was hosting the script.[35] Peter Laird read the script and commented on his blog that "all true TMNT fans should be grateful to the new 'powers that be' that they did not allow this wretched thing to go any further."[36] In response to The Blue Door, Bay stated that the draft had been written before he and Platinum Dunes joined the project and was promptly rejected some time before.[37] On January 12, 2013, Production Weekly revealed the film would start filming in April 2013 in New York.[38][39] The following month, the studio pushed back the film's release date until June 6, 2014, and a new writer, Evan Daugherty, was brought on board.[40] On August 15, 2013, Paramount postponed the release date to August 8, 2014, in order to avoid competition with family-friendly films released in June 2014 as well as one of Paramount and Michael Bay's other releases, Transformers: Age of Extinction.[41]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In mid-February 2013, actress Megan Fox was reported to be cast as April O'Neil,[42] marking her first collaboration with Bay since her remark comparing him to Adolf Hitler.[43] Bay confirmed Fox is back in good terms with him as early as April 2011.[43] Jessica Biel had expressed interest in playing the part.[44] In regards to Fox's casting, Laird commented that he felt there were better choices to play April, but that he would prefer not to get too worked up over the issue.[45]

text: A month later, it was reported that Alan Ritchson, Pete Ploszek, Jeremy Howard and Noel Fisher were cast as Raphael, Leonardo, Donatello and Michelangelo respectively.[46][47] In early April, Will Arnett was cast in a role that was being kept secret until leaked photos revealed that he had been cast as April's cameraman and rival, Vern Fenwick.[48][49] Soon after that, actor Danny Woodburn joined the cast as Splinter.[50]

text: In early May, William Fichtner was cast in the film as "a lead with iconic stature in the Turtles' mythology," marking his third collaboration with Bay following Armageddon and Pearl Harbor.[51] On June 22, 2013, Fichtner revealed to the Huffington Post that his character was named "Eric Sacks."[52][53] At this point in production, Sacks was intended to be the film's version of the Shredder, but this idea was subsequently abandoned in favour of casting actor Tohoru Masamune as an authentically Japanese incarnation of the character. The movie underwent reshoots to change this element of the plot, with Sacks being changed to the Shredder's adopted son.[54]

text: Also in May, former Saturday Night Live star Abby Elliott was cast in the film.[55] Also, it was revealed that Whoopi Goldberg appeared on set, and that she is portraying Bernadette Thompson, a female version of Burne Thompson.[56] In October 2013, William Fichtner revealed that Bebop and Rocksteady would not be appearing in the film.[57] In March 2014, it was revealed that Abby Elliott would be playing April O'Neil's roommate.[58] In April 2014, Elliott revealed that her character will be named Taylor, and on April 3, actors Johnny Knoxville and Tony Shalhoub joined the film to dub Ploszek and Woodburn as the voices of Leonardo and Splinter respectively.[59][60]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography commenced March 22, 2013, in Tupper Lake, New York.[61] Shooting began in April in New York City and at Jones Beach State Park in Wantagh on Long Island, New York under the code words "four squared" (4SQ).[62] On April 20, 2013, the film was renamed Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.[63] On April 29, 2013, Michael Bay retracted comments that the turtles would be aliens.[64] Early set photos were made public showing the turtles' actors in black and grey motion capture suits, complete with life-sized turtle shells, with each actor wearing arm bands and accents of their corresponding turtle's signature color.[65] Brazilian cinematographer Lula Carvalho, who was invited to work in the film during production of the 2014 remake of RoboCop, described the process as "demanding much imagination and participation of the visual effects supervisor", given that despite their presence on the set the actors would effectively be replaced by computer-generated creatures.[66] Production for the film wrapped on August 6, 2013.[67] Additional filming occurred in January and April 2014.[68][69][70]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: The visual effects of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles were handled by Industrial Light & Magic, who had previously worked with Michael Bay before, doing the special effects for the Transformers film series. To make sure the digital turtles had more nuanced facial expressions, the technicians employed a new motion capture system that captured the actors' faces with two high-definition cameras, which captured roughly 1 terabyte of data per day.[71] Along with a more realistic design, the effects artists wanted the Ninja Turtles to be "charming, intimidating and individually recognizable".[72] Thus each had a distinctive body figure resembling their personalities and physicality. According to effects supervisor Pablo Helman, “Donatello is more like a basketball player, Raph is more like a football player and Mikey is a very short Messi and plays soccer.”[73]

text: Music[edit]

text: The film's score was composed by Brian Tyler. The soundtrack was released by Atlantic Records on August 5, 2014.

text: Release[edit]

text: The release date was moved around several times until it was set for August 8, 2014.[5] The film premiered on July 29, 2014, in Mexico City.[1][74][75] Premiere events also occurred in Los Angeles and New York City.[76][77] On September 12, 2014, the film was released in IMAX 3D for a one-week limited engagement.[78]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: A teaser trailer for the film was shown at Cinema Con on March 24, 2014,[79] before its public release on March 27.[80] The trailer reached over 31.4 million views on YouTube in its first week.[81] On April 13, 2014, the first TV spot for the movie was released.[82] A second version of the teaser trailer was released on April 30, 2014.[83] Footage of the film was shown at CineEurope with an introduction from Megan Fox.[84] On June 18, 2014, Playmates Toys announced they have a new product line of toys based entirely on the film, including action figures, vehicles and role play gear.[85] Nickelodeon Consumer Products also announced a complete merchandise lineup of movie-based products that will be available in all major retailers from July 2014 through the holiday season.[86] On June 23, 2014, Paramount gave fans the opportunity to see new posters and a new trailer by voting for their favorite turtle on Twitter.[87] The following day, Paramount released a new trailer which includes the single "Reptile's Theme Song" by Skrillex.[88][89] A second TV spot for the film was released on July 3, 2014.[90] On July 7, 2014, Pizza Hut announced a new advertising campaign for the film, which included the return of the chain’s Cheesy Bites Pizza, social media contests themed around the film, and a television advertisement featuring the new movie incarnations of the characters.[91] On July 10, 2014, four motion posters of the turtles were released and new TV spot debuted that day as well.[92][93] Another new TV spot was released on July 15, 2014.[94] An extended behind-the-scenes featurette was shown after the 2014 Kids' Choice Sports Awards.[95] On July 21, 2014, a single titled "Shell Shocked" by Juicy J, Wiz Khalifa, and Ty Dolla $ign featuring Kill the Noise and Madsonik was released, as it is part of the movie's soundtrack.[96] An extended TV spot debuted the following day.[97] Paramount promoted the film on July 24, 2014, at San Diego Comic-Con International.[98][99] Five new TV spots were released that day as well.[100] The music video for the song, "Shell Shocked" debuted on July 28, 2014.[101] On August 1, 2014, Paramount debuted eleven new TV spots for the film.[102] On August 4, 2014, Pentatonix released a new song titled "We Are Ninjas" and a music video as part of the promotion for the film.[103][104]

text: In Australia, a poster was released which featured the four turtles jumping from an exploding skyscraper as promotion for its September 11 release.[105] The poster offended many people since the World Trade Center was destroyed back in 2001 during the September 11 attacks.[105] Paramount apologized and removed the poster.[106]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles was released on Digital HD on November 25, 2014, and was released on DVD and 2D and 3D Blu-ray on December 16, 2014.[107][108] The film topped the home video sales charts in its first week and achieved the highest ratio of disc sales to theatrical tickets sales its first week in stores.[109] It retained the top spot on the home video sales chart in its second weekend.[110]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles grossed $191.2 million in North America and $302.1 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $493.3 million, against a budget of $125 million.[4] Deadline.com estimated that it was the 15th most profitable film of 2014.[111]

text: On its opening day, the film grossed $25.6 million, including $4.6 million from Thursday night showings.[112][113] In its first weekend, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles opened in first place with $65.6 million,[114] which exceeded Paramount and box office analysts's predictions of a $40 to $45 million opening,[115] and achieved the fourth highest weekend debut for the month of August.[114] The movie remained at the number one spot in its second weekend by grossing $28.5 million (down 56.5%),[116] but slipped to number two for its third weekend (grossing $16.7 million, down 41.4%), as Guardians of the Galaxy reclaimed the top spot.[117]

text: The film led the foreign box office during the weekend lasting from October 31 through November 2, 2014, by grossing $34.7 million ($26.5 million coming from China).[118]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 22% of 143 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average score is 4.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Neither entertaining enough to recommend nor remarkably awful, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles may bear the distinction of being the dullest movie ever made about talking bipedal reptiles."[119] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 31 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[120] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an scale of A+ to F.[121]

text: Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film one out of four stars, saying "The comedy-action mash-up is as weird as if the Dark Knight took a break from belting the Joker to plug Pizza Hut and bang out a hiphop beat on his nunchucks."[122] Sandie Angulo Chen of the Washington Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "While this reboot is fun, it's also forgettable and occasionally infuriating."[123] Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film zero stars, saying "Even youngsters may wonder why any hint of charm or fun has scurried away. Those new to the franchise may withdraw their head into their neck, turtle-like."[124] Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Rougher and slightly funnier than the 1990 original, but still harmless junk at best."[125] Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film one and half stars out of four, saying "Not much of an effort is made to differentiate the personalities of the turtles, who all frankly look as grotesque as a Terry Gilliam cartoon."[126] Nicolas Rapold of The New York Times said "Attached to this movie, the title no longer sounds zany; it looks like a series of keywords."[127] Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times said "There is something half-hearted about the entire film, as if those behind it were involved not because they wanted to make it, not because they should make it, but just because they could."[128] Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C+, saying "Too-brief thrills only shine a harsher light on the film's laborious pacing and cringeworthy one-liners spilling from the maws of the ninja teens."[129]

text: Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News gave the film a B, writing "The turtles (engagingly voiced by Alan Ritchson, Noel Fisher, Johnny Knoxville and Jeremy Howard) look terrific" and "The best part is that the film has heart".[130] Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "Liebesman relies on his genre-film resume to keep events moving at a brisk clip and the motion-capture process employed to facilitate live-action integration with cutting-edge VFX looks superior onscreen."[131] Justin Chang of Variety said the film is "Neither a particularly good movie nor the pop-cultural travesty that some were dreading."[132] A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "What the new Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles lacks is not fidelity, but a spirit of genuine boyish fun -- the sense that anyone involved saw more than a very specific shade of green in the freshly digital scales of these 30-year-old characters."[133] Soren Anderson of The Seattle Times gave the film one out of four stars, saying "If ever there was a movie that should not have been made, this is that movie."[134] Drew Hunt of Chicago Reader said "The light, comedic tone is weighed down by unimaginative pop-culture references and half-witted one-liners."[135] Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film two out of five stars, saying "It's just kind of a mess, as unfocused and immature as the four mutant turtles at its core. Stuff happens, stuff blows up and this is probably a good time to mention that Michael Bay produced the film."[136] Alonso Duralde of The Wrap gave the film a negative review, saying "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles is a movie that takes its characters and its premise seriously, until it doesn't, and that operates at two speeds: tortoise (ponderous) and hare (head-spinning)."[137]

text: Adam Graham of The Detroit News gave the film a B-, saying "There's enough turtle power to please kids and fans of the original series."[138] Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film two out of four stars, saying "The kind of cliched, misfit crimefighters-versus-demented villains scenario that Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird happily parodied when they came up with the original Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comic books way back in the 1980s."[139] Tom Russo of The Boston Globe gave the film one and a half stars out of five, saying "The repartee, as ever, is weak. Even with all the extra layers of digital detail, it's still tough to keep these four straight."[140] Cliff Lee of The Globe and Mail gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "For having gone to the trouble of making a self-descriptive movie called Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, its producers seem ultimately unsure about its most basic concept."[141] James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles doesn't so much provide brainless enjoyment as it pummels the viewer into submission. "Shell-shocked" is a reasonable description of the experience."[142] Chris Cabin of Slant Magazine gave the film one out of four stars, saying Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles only leaves one with the dim afterglow of forced normalcy, of a film so overworked to ensure mass-market appeal that it loses the charming oddness and loose goofiness that has allowed these characters, and their "frothy" appeal, to endure."[143]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Year
Award
Category
Recipients
Result

2015

35th Golden Raspberry Awards
Worst Picture
Nominated

Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel

Worst Director
Jonathan Liebesman

Worst Screenplay
Josh Appelbaum, André Nemec and Evan Daugherty

Worst Supporting Actress
Megan Fox
Won

28th Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite Movie
Nominated

Favorite Movie Actor
Will Arnett (also for The Lego Movie)

Favorite Movie Actress
Megan Fox

tag: table

text: Video games[edit]

text: Magic Pockets released a Nintendo 3DS game based on the film on August 8, 2014, to coincide with the movie.[144] A mobile game, also based on the film, was released on July 24, 2014.[145]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Noel Fisher revealed in an interview that all four of the turtle actors have signed on for three films.[146]

text: Liebesman and Fuller have confirmed that Casey Jones as well as Bebop and Rocksteady will appear in the sequels.[147][148][149] There are also plans for Krang and Dimension X in the sequels as well.[150] On August 10, 2014, Paramount announced that a sequel will be released on June 3, 2016, with Michael Bay returning as producer and Josh Appelbaum and André Nemec coming back as screenwriters and executive producers.[6][7] Fox and Arnett returned in the sequel along with the character Shredder.[149]

text: In December 2014, it was revealed that Dave Green, director of Earth to Echo, is in talks to direct the sequel.[151][152] Green was confirmed as the film's director three months later.[153] In January 2015, Fuller and Form told that the sequel would start filming in New York and Buffalo in April 2015.[153][154][155] In March 2015, Victoria's Secret's supermodel Alessandra Ambrosio was cast as herself and a love interest to Vern, also Los Angeles Clippers and Charlotte Hornets players DeAndre Jordan, Matt Barnes, J.J. Redick, Austin Rivers and Spencer Hawes made cameos in the film. It was also announced that actor Stephen Amell has been cast as Casey Jones for the sequel.[156][157][158] In April 2015, Paramount officially confirmed that Bebop and Rocksteady would appear in the sequel and showed the first images of them at CinemaCon.[159] Variety announced that Tyler Perry was cast as Baxter Stockman and Brian Tee portrayed Shredder in the sequel.[160][161] In May 2015, Gary Anthony Williams and Stephen "Sheamus" Farrelly were cast as Bebop and Rocksteady respectively.[162][163] Brittany Ishibashi also replaced Noji as Karai in the sequel.[164] Johnny Knoxville did not return to voice Leonardo in the sequel as he was not asked to reprise the role.[165] Instead, Pete Ploszek did both motion-capture and voice.


document_title: Pennsylvania State University

question_text: how many students go to penn state main campus

question_tokens: how many students go to penn state main campus

text: Pennsylvania State University

text: History[edit]

text: Early years[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The school was founded as a degree-granting institution on February 22, 1855, by act P.L. 46, No. 50 of the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as the Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania. Centre County, Pennsylvania, became the home of the new school when James Irvin of Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, donated 200 acres (0.8 km2) of land – the first of 10,101 acres (41 km2) the school would eventually acquire. In 1862, the school's name was changed to the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, and with the passage of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts, Pennsylvania selected the school in 1863 to be the state's sole land-grant college. The school's name changed to the Pennsylvania State College in 1874; enrollment fell to 64 undergraduates the following year as the school tried to balance purely agricultural studies with a more classic education.[25]

text: George W. Atherton became president of the school in 1882, and broadened the curriculum. Shortly after he introduced engineering studies, Penn State became one of the ten largest engineering schools in the nation.[26] Atherton also expanded the liberal arts and agriculture programs, for which the school began receiving regular appropriations from the state in 1887.[27] A major road in State College has been named in Atherton's honor. Additionally, Penn State's Atherton Hall, a well-furnished and centrally located residence hall, is named not after George Atherton himself, but after his wife, Frances Washburn Atherton.[28] His grave is in front of Schwab Auditorium near Old Main, marked by an engraved marble block in front of his statue.

text: Early 20th century[edit]

text: In the years that followed, Penn State grew significantly, becoming the state's largest grantor of baccalaureate degrees and reaching an enrollment of 5,000 in 1936.[25] Around that time, a system of commonwealth campuses was started by President Ralph Dorn Hetzel to provide an alternative for Depression-era students who were economically unable to leave home to attend college.[25]

text: In 1953, President Milton S. Eisenhower, brother of then-U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, sought and won permission to elevate the school to university status as The Pennsylvania State University.[29] Under his successor Eric A. Walker (1956–1970), the university acquired hundreds of acres of surrounding land, and enrollment nearly tripled.[25] In addition, in 1967, the Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, a college of medicine and hospital, was established in Hershey with a $50 million gift from the Hershey Trust Company.[25]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: In the 1970s, the university became a state-related institution. As such, it now belongs to the Commonwealth System of Higher Education. In 1975, the lyrics in Penn State's alma mater song were revised to be gender-neutral in honor of International Women's Year; the revised lyrics were taken from the posthumously-published autobiography of the writer of the original lyrics, Fred Lewis Pattee, and Professor Patricia Farrell acted as a spokesperson for those who wanted the change.[30]

text: In 1989, the Pennsylvania College of Technology in Williamsport joined ranks with the university, and in 2000, so did the Dickinson School of Law.[31] The university is now the largest in Pennsylvania, and in 2003, it was credited with having the second-largest impact on the state economy of any organization, generating an economic effect of over $17 billion on a budget of $2.5 billion.[32] To offset the lack of funding due to the limited growth in state appropriations to Penn State, the university has concentrated its efforts on philanthropy (2003 marked the end of the Grand Destiny campaign—a seven-year effort that raised over $1.3 billion).[33]

text: Child sex abuse scandal[edit]

text: In 2011, the university and its football team garnered major international media attention and criticism due to a sex abuse scandal in which university officials were alleged to have covered up incidents of child sexual abuse by former football team defensive coordinator Jerry Sandusky. Athletic director Timothy Curley and Gary Schultz, Senior Vice President for Finance and Business, were indicted for perjury. In the wake of the scandal, coach Joe Paterno was fired[34] and school president Graham B. Spanier was forced to resign[35] by the Board of Trustees. Sandusky, who maintained his innocence,[36] was indicted and subsequently convicted in June 2012 on 45 counts for the abuse.

text: A subcommittee of the Board of Trustees engaged former FBI director Louis Freeh to head an independent investigation on the university's handling of the incidents. Freeh released his findings in July 2012, announcing that Paterno, along with Spanier, Curley and Schultz "conceal[ed] Sandusky's activities from the Board of Trustees, the University community and authorities" and "failed to protect against a child sexual predator harming children for over a decade".[37][38] On July 23, 2012, the National Collegiate Athletic Association announced a series of sanctions against Penn State and the Nittany Lions football team for the role of their leadership in the Penn State sex abuse scandal. The NCAA penalized Penn State football with a $60 million fine, a ban from bowl games and post-season play for 4 years, a reduction in scholarships from 25 to 15 per year for four years, the vacating of all wins from 1998 to 2011 and a 5-year probationary period.[39]

text: The validity of the sanctions later came into question, and emails surfaced that indicated highly ranked officials within the NCAA did not believe the organization had the jurisdiction to pass down the original sanctions.[40] Subsequent emails, brought forward under subpoena, quoted Mark Emmert, the NCAA President, as agreeing the original sanctions were possible due to a bluff by the NCAA.[41] On September 8, 2014, the sanctions, following a report by former U.S. Senator and athletics integrity monitor George J. Mitchell citing progress by Penn State in implementing reforms,[42] were officially repealed by the NCAA and all previous records were restored.[43]

text: An investigation led by former U.S. Attorney General Richard Thornburgh, who was retained by the Paterno family to review the Freeh report,[44] concluded that the report that placed so much blame on Penn State and Paterno was a "rush to injustice" that could not be relied upon.[45] He found that not only did the evidence "fall far short" of showing Paterno attempted to conceal the Sandusky scandal, but rather that "the contrary is true".[44] In November 2014, state Sen. Jake Corman released emails showing "regular and substantive" contact between NCAA officials and Freeh's investigators, suggesting that the Freeh conclusions were orchestrated.[46]

text: Paterno was posthumously honored by Penn State during the September 17, 2016 football game that marked the 50th anniversary of his first game as head coach.[47][48] The controversial tribute was met with both a standing ovation by fans and protests inside and outside of the stadium.[49][50]

text: Campuses[edit]

text: University Park[edit]

text: The largest of the university's 24 campuses, University Park is almost entirely within the boundaries of State College borough, a site chosen because it is near the geographic center of the state. With an undergraduate acceptance rate of 23 percent,[51] it is the most selective campus in the Penn State system, due primarily to the fact that students select University Park as their first-choice campus at a far greater rate than the university's other undergraduate campuses.[52] During the fall 2016 semester, 41,359 undergraduate students and 8,955 graduate students were enrolled at University Park.[53] Of those, 46.3 percent were female[54] and 40.5 percent were not Pennsylvania residents.[55]

text: Transportation access[edit]

text: The main University Park campus is centrally located at the junction of Interstate 99 and U.S. Route 322, and is due south of Interstate 80. Before the arrival of the Interstates the University was a short distance from a Lock Haven – Altoona branch line of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The last run of long distance trains from Buffalo or Harrisburg through Lock Haven was in 1971.[56] Today, the nearest passenger rail access is in Lewistown 31 miles to the southeast. The University Park Airport, serving four regional airlines, is near University Park.

text: Commonwealth campuses[edit]

text: In addition to the University Park campus, 19 campus locations throughout the state offer enrollment for undergraduate students. Over 60 percent of Penn State first-year students begin their education at a location other than University Park.[57] Each of these commonwealth campuses offer a unique set of degree programs based on the student demographics. Any student in good academic standing is guaranteed a spot at University Park to finish his or her degree if required or desired, known as "change of campus" or more accurately "the 2+2 program"; where a Penn State student may start at any Penn State campus, including University Park, for 2 years and finish at any Penn State the final 2 years.[58]

text: Special-mission campuses[edit]

text: The Dickinson School of Law, which was split in 2014 into Dickinson Law and Penn State Law,[59] was founded in 1834 and is the oldest law school in Pennsylvania. Its merger with Penn State was completed in 2000. It has produced a number of governors, members of congress, and judges. A number of attorneys comprise the faculties at both schools and lead several centers and institutes devoted to specific practice areas. Penn State Law also houses the School of International Affairs.

text: The Penn State Great Valley School of Graduate Professional Studies is a special mission campus offering master's degrees, master's certification, and continuing professional education. Located in Malvern, Pennsylvania, it also offers classes at the old Philadelphia Naval Shipyard.

text: Penn State College of Medicine in Hershey, Pennsylvania, is the university's medical school and teaching hospital. Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center has become only the ninth hospital in the United States and 16th worldwide to implant the CardioWest temporary Total Artificial Heart when a 60-year-old man suffering from end-stage heart failure received the device in May 2008.

text: Pennsylvania College of Technology, in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, offers certificates as well as degrees in over 10 technical fields.

text: In 1998, the university launched Penn State World Campus, or Penn State Online, which offers more than 60 online education programs, degrees, and certificates. Distance education has a long history at Penn State, one of the first universities in the country to offer a correspondence course for remote farmers in 1892. Examples of online programs include an MBA, master of professional studies in homeland security, a bachelor of science in nursing, and postbaccalaureate certificates in geographic information systems and applied behavior analysis. Penn State's World Campus offers 18 graduate degrees, 21 graduate certificates, 17 undergraduate degrees, and 11 undergraduate certificates. World Campus students come from all 50 U.S. states, more than 40 countries, and six continents.

text: Organization and administration[edit]

text: Penn State is a "state-related" university, part of Pennsylvania's Commonwealth System of Higher Education. As such, although it receives funding from the Commonwealth and is connected to the state through its board of trustees, it is otherwise independent and not subject to the state's direct control. For the 2006–2007 fiscal year, the university received 9.7 percent of its budget from state appropriations, the lowest of the four state-related institutions in Pennsylvania.[60] Initial reports concerning the 2007–2008 fiscal year indicated that Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell is recommending a 1.6 percent increase in state appropriations.[61] Penn State's appropriation request, submitted to the Pennsylvania Department of Education in September, requested a 6.8 percent increase in funding.[62][needs update]

text: Colleges[edit]

text: The University Park campus is organized into fourteen distinct colleges:[63]

text:
College of Agricultural Sciences
College of Arts and Architecture
Smeal College of Business
Donald P. Bellisario College of Communications
College of Earth and Mineral Sciences
College of Education
College of Engineering

College of Health and Human Development
College of Information Sciences and Technology
College of the Liberal Arts
Eberly College of Science
Graduate School
Schreyer Honors College
College of Nursing

text: In addition, the university's Board of Trustees voted in January 2007 to create a School of International Affairs, with the first classes admitted in the fall 2008 semester.[64] The school is part of Penn State Law.[65]

text: Formerly the School of Nursing, on September 25, 2013, the Board of Trustees granted the nursing program college status.[66]

text: Board of Trustees[edit]

text: The university is governed by the 32-member board of trustees. Its members include the university's president, the Governor of the Commonwealth, and the state Secretaries of Agriculture, Conservation and Natural Resources, and Education. The other members include six trustees appointed by the Governor, nine elected by alumni, and six elected by Pennsylvania agricultural societies. Six additional trustees are elected by a board representing business and industry enterprises.[67] Undergraduate students do not elect any trustees; the court case Benner v. Oswald ruled that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment did not require the undergraduate students be allowed to participate in the selection of trustees.

text: As of 2013, the chair of the board of trustees is Keith E. Masser, a graduate of Penn State and the Chairman & Chief Executive Officer of Sterman Masser, Inc.[68]

text: The main responsibilities of the board are to select the president of Penn State, to determine the goals and strategic direction of the University, and to approve the annual budget.[69] Regular meetings of the board are held bi-monthly and take place primarily on the University Park campus, although on occasion meetings are held at other locations within the Commonwealth.[70]

text: Administration[edit]

text: The president of the University is selected by the board and is given the authority for actual control of the university, including day-to-day management. In practice, part of this responsibility is delegated by the president to other departments of the administration, to the faculty, and to the student body.[69] Eric J. Barron became the university's 18th and current president on May 12, 2014, upon the departure of Rodney Erickson.[4][71]

text: The executive vice president and provost is the chief academic officer of the University. The current provost, Nicholas P. Jones, assumed office on July 1, 2013.[72] The current Associate Vice President and Senior Associate Dean For Undergraduate Education is Robert N. Pangborn[73]

text: Student government[edit]

text: Penn State has a long history of student governance. Elected student leaders remain directly involved in the decision-making of the University administration, as provided for in the Board of Trustee's Standing Orders.[74] Currently, there are three Student Governments recognized by the University administration: the University Park Undergraduate Association (UPUA), the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA), and the Council of Commonwealth Student Governments (CCSG).

text: The University Park Undergraduate Association (UPUA) is the representative student government of the 39,102[75] undergraduate students at Penn State's University Park campus,[76] which was established in 2006 after the former student government, Undergraduate Student Government (USG), lost its recognition by way of a student referendum.[77]

text: The UPUA is composed of an Assembly of Student Representatives, an Executive Board, and a Judicial Board. The Executive Board is the bureaucratic branch of the UPUA and is led by Student Body President Katie Jordan. The Assembly, which is led by Chair Brent Rice, is the legislative body of UPUA and is composed of elected representatives whose constituencies include the academic units of Penn State, Greek Life, Freshmen Representatives, and At-Large Representatives.[78] The UPUA meets every Wednesday at 8:00 pm in 233A HUB. These meetings are open to the public.[79] Additionally, students are able to reach out to the UPUA regarding issues at the University through its "What to Fix PSU (WTFPSU)" social media campaign.

text: The graduate and professional students of the University are governed by the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA), which is the oldest continuously existing student governance organization at Penn State.[80] GPSA "work[s] on the behalf of the students to make sure that the graduate voice is heard by all levels of the administration and faculty at Penn State and to put on events geared towards graduate and professional students."[80]

text: The 19 commonwealth campuses of the university are governed by the Council of Commonwealth Student Governments (CCSG), formerly known as the Council of Branch Campus Student Governments (CBCSG).[81]

text: Academics[edit]

text: Penn State is regionally accredited by The Middle States Commission on Higher Education.

text: As of September 2009, only 24 Pennsylvania colleges and universities held Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business accreditation in business and only four in accounting. The Smeal College of Business, The Sam and Irene Black School of Business, Penn State Harrisburg, and Penn State Great Valley were among the institutions accredited.[82]

text: The university offers an accelerated Premedical-Medical Program in cooperation with Sidney Kimmel Medical College.[83] Students in the program spend two or three years at the university before attending medical school at Jefferson.

text: Recently, a joint venture between the Eberly College of Science and the Smeal College of Business created an integrated undergraduate/graduate program to give highly motivated students the opportunity to receive a bachelor's degree in Science and an MBA two to five years sooner than those pursuing a traditional path. The BS/MBA Program prepares individuals to be future leaders of the world's scientific organizations and is led by Mr. Peter Tombros and Dr. James Gardner.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: As of fall 2010, the racial makeup of the Penn State system including all campuses and special-mission colleges, was 75.4 percent white, 5.5 percent black, 4.3 percent Asian, 4.4 percent Hispanic, 0.2 percent Native American, 0.1 percent Native Hawaiian/Pac Island, 1.7 percent two or more races, 5.8 percent international students and 3.1 percent of an unknown race. Over the period 2000–2010, minority enrollment as a percentage of total enrollments has risen 5.3 percentage points,[84] while minorities as a percentage of total teaching positions rose 2.0 percentage points from 1997 to 2002.[85]

text: Penn State has been the subject of controversy for several issues of discrimination. Following some violent attacks on African-Americans in downtown State College in 1988 and complaints that Penn State was not adequately recruiting African-American faculty and students to representative population levels, student activists occupied Old Main and demanded that Penn State do more to recruit minority students and address intolerance toward minority students on campus, as well as in the local community. After President Bryce Jordan canceled a promised meeting with students and organizations in the Paul Robeson Cultural Center on April 8, 1988, 250 students and activists nonviolently occupied Penn State's Telecommunications building on campus. The following morning, 50 state troopers and 45 local and campus police, equipped with helmets, batons, and rubber gloves, entered the building as the crowd outside sang “We Shall Overcome”, arresting 89 individuals for trespassing.[86] All charges were later dismissed.

text: In 1990 a vice provost for educational equity was appointed to lead a five-year strategic plan to "create an environment characterized by equal access and respected participation for all groups and individuals irrespective of cultural differences."[87][88] Since then, discrimination issues include the handling of death threats in 1992 and 2001,[89][90][91][92] controversy around LGBT issues,[93] and the investigation of a 2006 sexual discrimination lawsuit filed by former Lady Lions basketball player Jennifer Harris, alleging that head coach Rene Portland dismissed her from the team in part due to her perceived sexual orientation.[94][95]

text: Six-year graduation rates for the 2004 cohort at University Park was 85.3 percent. Graduation rates by race among this group are 86.6 percent white, 75.0 percent black, 81.9 percent Asian, 77.4 percent Hispanic, 57.1 percent Native American and 76.1 percent international students.[84] According to a 2006 survey by USA Today, the university's flagship campus, University Park, has the highest in-state tuition rates among comparable institutions nationwide.[96] While a task force formed in 2001 to study options for tuition projections determined that the university's operating efficiency is among the highest in postsecondary education,[97] it found that tuition increases at Penn State still consistently outpaced increases at other Big Ten Conference institutions.[98] Student leaders of The Council of Commonwealth Student Governments (CCSG) have led annual rallies to support lower rate hikes at each of the nineteen commonwealth campuses and at the Pennsylvania state capitol in Harrisburg.[99][100] In 2005, the board of trustees proposed a tuition freeze at the commonwealth campus locations as part of its state appropriation request.[101]

text: Rankings[edit]

text:
University rankings

National

ARWU[102]
41

Forbes[103]
142

U.S. News & World Report[104]
50

Washington Monthly[105]
168

Global

ARWU[106]
85

QS[107]
93

Times[108]
68

U.S. News & World Report[109]
56

text:
University Rankings

University Park

QS Arts & Humanities[110]
81

QS Life Sciences & Medicine[111]
125

QS Natural Sciences[112]
84

THE-WUR World[113]
68

THE-WUR Reputation[114]
61-70

THE-WUR Arts/Humanities[115]
91

THE-WUR Life Sciences[116]
53

THE-WUR Physical Sciences[117]
54

THE-WUR Social Sciences[118]
46

THE-WUR Engineering/Tech.[119]
48

ARWU World[120]
85

ARWU Natural Science & Math[121]
49

ARWU Engineering & CS[122]
51-75

ARWU Life Sciences[123]
51-75

ARWU Social Sciences[124]
29

Leiden World[125]
43

text: The 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranks the university 77th among universities worldwide and 41st nationally. U.S. News & World Report ranks the university's undergraduate program 50th in its 2017 American's Best College[126] and 14th among Top Public Schools in the United States.[127] In 2015, the university was also ranked 101st in the QS World University Rankings.[128] A more updated 2013–2014 World University Ranking by Times Higher Education ranks Penn State as the 49th best university in the world.[129] Similarly, the 2013 report by the Center for World University Rankings ranks the university as Top 50 in the world.[130]

text: According to a Wall Street Journal survey released in September 2010, the university was ranked number 1 by 479 corporate recruiting executives who were asked to identify "whose bachelor degree graduates were the best-trained and educated, and best able to succeed once hired."[131][132]

text: Research[edit]

text: According to the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the university is a research university with very high research activity.[133] Over 10,000 students are enrolled in the university's graduate school (including the law and medical schools), and over 70,000 degrees have been awarded since the school was founded in 1922.[134]

text: Penn State's research and development expenditure has been on the rise in recent years. For fiscal year 2013, according to institutional rankings of total research expenditures for science and engineering released by the National Science Foundation, Penn State stands second in the nation, behind only Johns Hopkins and tied with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the number of fields in which it is ranked in the top ten. Overall, Penn State ranked 17th nationally in total research expenditures across the board. In 12 individual fields, however, the University achieved rankings in the top ten nationally. The fields and sub-fields in which Penn State ranked in the top ten are materials (1st), psychology (2nd), mechanical engineering (3rd), sociology (3rd), electrical engineering (4th), total engineering (5th), aerospace engineering (8th), computer science (8th), agricultural sciences (8th), civil engineering (9th), atmospheric sciences (9th), and earth sciences (9th). In eleven of these fields, moreover, the University has repeated top-ten status every year since at least 2008.[135] For fiscal year 2011, the National Science Foundation reported that Penn State had spent $794,846,000 on R&D and ranked 15th among U.S. universities and colleges in R&D spending.[136] For the 2008–2009 fiscal year, Penn State was ranked ninth among U.S. universities by the National Science Foundation, with $753 million in research and development spending for science and engineering.[137] During the 2015–2016 fiscal year, Penn State received $836 million in research expenditures.[138]

text: The Applied Research Lab (ARL), located near the University Park campus, has been a research partner with the United States Department of Defense since 1945 and conducts research primarily in support of the United States Navy. It is the largest component of Penn State's research efforts statewide, with over 1,000 researchers and other staff members.[139][140]

text: The Materials Research Institute was created to coordinate the highly diverse and growing materials activities across Penn State's University Park campus. With more than 200 faculty in 15 departments, 4 colleges, and 2 Department of Defense research laboratories, MRI was designed to break down the academic walls that traditionally divide disciplines and thereby enable faculty to collaborate across departmental and even college boundaries. MRI has become a model for this interdisciplinary approach to research, both within and outside the university. Dr Richard E. Tressler, was an international leader in the development of high temperature materials. He pioneered high temperature fiber testing and use, advanced instrumentation and test methodologies for thermostructural materials, and design and performance verification of ceramics and composites in high temperature aerospace, industrial and energy applications. He was founding director of the Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) which supported many faculty and students from the College of Earth and Mineral Science, the Eberly College of Science, the College of Engineering, the Materials Research Laboratory and the Applied Research Laboratories at Penn State on high temperature materials. His vision for Interdisciplinary research played a key role in the creation of the Materials Research Institute, and the establishment of Penn State as an acknowledged leader among major universities in materials education and research.[141][142][143]

text: The university was one of the founding members of the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN), a partnership that includes 17 research-led universities in the United States, Asia, and Europe. The network provides funding, facilitates collaboration between universities, and coordinates exchanges of faculty members and graduate students among institutions. Former Penn State president Graham Spanier is a former vice-chair of the WUN.[144][145]

text: The Pennsylvania State University Libraries were ranked 14th among research libraries in North America in the 2003–2004 survey released by The Chronicle of Higher Education.[146] The university's library system began with a 1,500-book library in Old Main.[citation needed] In 2009, its holdings had grown to 5.2 million volumes, in addition to 500,000 maps, five million microforms, and 180,000 films and videos.[147]

text: The university's College of Information Sciences and Technology is the home of CiteSeerX, an open-access repository and search engine for scholarly publications. The university is also the host to the Radiation Science & Engineering Center, which houses the oldest operating university research reactor. Additionally, University Park houses the Graduate Program in Acoustics,[148] the only freestanding acoustics program in the United States. The university also houses the Center for Medieval Studies, a program that was founded to research and study the European Middle Ages,[149] and the Center for the Study of Higher Education (CSHE), one of the first centers established to research postsecondary education.

text: Big Ten Academic Alliance[edit]

text: Penn State is a participant in the Big Ten Academic Alliance. The Big Ten Academic Alliance (BTAA) is the academic consortium of the universities in the Big Ten Conference. Engaging in $10 billion in research in 2014–2015, BTAA universities provide powerful insight into important issues in medicine, technology, agriculture, and communities. Students at participating schools are also allowed "in-house" borrowing privileges at other schools' libraries.[150] The BTAA uses collective purchasing and licensing, and has saved member institutions $19 million to date.[151] Course sharing,[152] professional development programs,[153] study abroad and international collaborations,[154] and other initiatives are also part of the BTAA.

text: Student life[edit]

text: Housing[edit]

text: There are seven housing complexes located on campus for students attending the University Park campus: East Halls, North Halls, Pollock Halls, South Halls, West Halls, Eastview Terrace, and Nittany Apartments. Each complex consists of a few separate buildings that are dormitories and a commons building, which has lounges, the help desk for the complex, mailboxes for each dormitory room, a small food shop, and a cafeteria-style room. Different floors within a building may be designated as a Special Living Option (SLO). SLOs are offered to members of certain student groups (such as sororities), students studying particular majors, students who wish to engage in a particular life style (such as the alcohol-free LIFE House), or other groups who wish to pursue similar goals.

text: Student organizations[edit]

text: As of September 2014, 864 student organizations were recognized at the University Park campus.[155] In addition, the university has one of the largest Greek systems in the country, with approximately 12 percent of the University Park population affiliated. Additional organizations on campus include Thespians, Blue Band, Chabad, Glee Club, Aish HaTorah,[156] Student Programming Association (SPA), Lion's Pantry, Boulevard, 3D Printer Club, and the Anime Organization, which hosts a Centre County anime convention, Setsucon.[157]

text: THON[edit]

text: Every February, thousands of students participate in the Penn State IFC/Panhellenic Dance Marathon (THON), which has been "dubbed by supporters as the world's largest student-run philanthropy."[23] In previous years, participants stood for 48 hours nonstop and performed a line dance at least once every hour to stay alert. In 2007, THON was moved to the Jordan Center and now lasts 46 hours. THON raises millions of dollars annually for pediatric cancer care and research, generally through the Four Diamonds Fund. In 2014, THON raised a program record of $13.3 million.

text: The Lion's Pantry[edit]

text: The Lion's Pantry is an undergraduate student run on-campus food pantry (and a registered student organization). The Lion's Pantry serves undergraduate, graduate, and professional students. With an increase awareness of hunger on college campuses, the Lion's Pantry is one of the most successful startup food pantries in the nation. They partner with groups ranging from Boulevard, UPUA, Greek Life, and more to receive over 8,000 food donations a year. The club was also awarded the Class Gift of 2017 in the form of an endowment.[158]

text: Student media[edit]

text: Student media on campus includes La Vie, the university's annual student yearbook; the student-run radio station The LION 90.7 FM (WKPS-FM); Com Radio, independently programmed and operated by university undergraduates; The Daily Collegian, a student-run newspaper; Onward State, a student-run independent news website covering the Penn State community; and Phroth, a student-run humor magazine. For additional information on media related to Penn State – including Penn State Live, the official news source of the University – see the Media section below.

text: Penn State Live is the official news source of the university published by its public relations team. The student-run newspaper is The Daily Collegian, which is published every weekday while classes are in session. Since the summer of 1996, the traditional paper publication has been supplemented by an online edition, known as The Digital Collegian. Onward State, was founded in November 2008 by Davis Shaver, Evan Kalikow, and Eli Glazier. In addition, Penn State's newspaper readership program provides free copies of USA Today, The New York Times, as well as local and regional newspapers depending on the campus location (for example, the Centre Daily Times in University Park). This program, initiated by then-President Graham Spanier in 1997,[159] has since been instituted on several other universities across the country.[160]

text: La Vie (the Life), the university's annual student yearbook, has been in production documenting student life continuously since 1890.[161] La Vie 1987, edited by David Beagin, won a College Gold Crown for Yearbooks award from the Columbia Scholastic Press Association.[162]

text: The student-run radio station is The LION 90.7 fm (WKPS-FM). Founded in 1995 as a replacement for Penn State's original student radio station WDFM, The LION broadcasts from the ground floor of the HUB–Robeson Center, serving the Penn State and State College communities with alternative music and talk programming, including live coverage of home Penn State football games. In the early 1990s, students who belonged to a sports radio journalism club covered sporting events and produced and anchored weekly sports segments for WPSU, which eventually became solely an NPR affiliate.

text: In addition, the Penn State College of Communications operates ComRadio. It was founded in the spring of 2003 as an internet-based audio laboratory and co-curricular training environment for aspiring student broadcasters. ComRadio is most well known for its coverage of most major Penn State sporting events. ComRadio also airs student-produced Penn State news. Other programming includes student talk shows, political coverage, AP syndicated news and soft rock music. In recent years, ComRadio broadcasters have won numerous state awards for their on-air work. The station's sports department prides itself on the broadcasts of every home and away football game, including bowl games, and its coverage of the NFL Draft live from New York City.

text: Onward State is a student-run blog geared towards members of the university's community. The blog provides news, features, and event-listings. Founded in November 2008, U.S. News & World Report named the blog the "Best Alternative Media Outlet" in February 2009. Alison Go, a blogger of U.S. News & World Report organized the contest "Best Alternative Media Outlet" at the beginning of 2009. Onward State, still a fledgling organization, was surprisingly nominated. Pitted against Onward State were seasoned blogs from UC Berkeley, Vassar, Wesleyan, Columbia, Georgetown, Middlebury, Yale, and an Ivy League conglomerate. Snatching 24.76 percent of the vote, Onward State finished in first place, pleasantly surprising the Penn State bloggers.[163][164] The Daily Collegian first acknowledged Onward State at the time of the blog's victory. The two Collegian articles brought greater awareness of the blog to the university's community. In an interview with The Collegian about next year's contest, Davis Shaver explained "We have big ambitions... I think that we're just going to be more established, more of a name within the Penn State community by then. There is a strong possibility of being Alternative Media repeat champions."[165]

text: The student-run humor magazine is Phroth, which publishes two to four issues each year. Its roots date back to 1909 when it was called Froth. Several Froth writers and editors have gone on to win fame: Julius J. Epstein wrote the screenplay for the film Casablanca (1942) and won three Academy Awards; Jimmy Dugan wrote for the Saturday Evening Post, National Geographic, and The New York Times; and Ronald Bonn was a producer with NBC Nightly News and CBS Evening News.[166]

text: Kalliope is an undergraduate literary magazine produced by students and sponsored by the university's English Department. Kalliope includes works of fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and visual art.[167] The student-run life and style magazine is Valley.[168]

text: Athletics[edit]

text: Penn State's mascot is the Nittany Lion, a representation of a type of mountain lion that once roamed what is now University Park. The school's official colors, now blue and white, were originally black and dark pink. Penn State participates in the NCAA Division I FBS and in the Big Ten Conference for most sports.[169]

text: Two sports participate in different conferences: men's volleyball in the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA)[170] and women's hockey in College Hockey America (CHA).[171] The fencing teams operate as independents.

text: Athletic teams at Penn State have won 77 national collegiate team championships (49 NCAA, 2 consensus Division I football titles, 6 AIAW, 3 USWLA, 1 WIBC, and 4 national titles in boxing, 11 in men's soccer and one in wrestling in years prior to NCAA sponsorship).[172] The 49 NCAA Championships ranks fifth all time in NCAA Division I, and is the most of any Big Ten school.[173]

text: Since joining the Big Ten in 1991, Penn State teams have won 103 conference regular season and tournament titles.[174]

text: Penn State has one of the most successful overall athletic programs in the country, as evidenced by its rankings in the NACDA Director's Cup, a list compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics that charts institutions' overall success in college sports. From the Cup's inception in the 1993–1994 season, the Nittany Lions have finished in the top 25 every year.[175]

text: Despite widespread success in the overall athletic program, however, the school is best known for its football team, which draws a very large following. Penn State's Beaver Stadium has the second largest seating capacity of any stadium in the nation,[176] with an official capacity of 106,572 slightly behind Michigan Stadium with an official capacity of 107,601. For decades, the football team was led by coach Joe Paterno. Paterno was in a close competition with Bobby Bowden, the head coach for Florida State, for the most wins ever in Division I-A (now the FBS) history. This competition effectively ended with Paterno still leading following Bowden's retirement after the 2010 Gator Bowl. In 2007, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.[177] Paterno amassed 409 victories over his career, the most in NCAA Division 1 history.[178] Paterno died on January 22, 2012, at the age of 85.

text: The school's wrestling team has also become noticed. Under Cael Sanderson, the Nittany Lions won six national titles in a seven-year span, from 2011 to 2017.

text: The university opened a new Penn State All-Sports Museum in February 2002. This two-level 10,000-square-foot (1,000 m2) museum is located inside Beaver Stadium.[179] In addition to the school funded athletics, club sports also play a major role in the University, with over 68 club sport organizations meeting regularly to date. Many club teams compete nationally in their respective sports. The Penn State Ski Team, which competes as part of the United States Collegiate Ski and Snowboard Association (USCSA) in the Allegheny Conference, as well as the Penn State Swim Club, which competes in the American Swimming Association – University League (ASAU), are just a few examples. Some other clubs include baseball, squash, karate, crew, and sailing.

text: Penn State's most well known athletic cheer is "We are...Penn State." Typically, the students and cheerleaders shout, "We are," followed by a response of "Penn State" from the rest of the fans. By tradition, this is done three times, and followed by "Thank you..." "... You're welcome!"

text: Notable people[edit]

text: The list of eminent past and present individuals associated with Penn State—as alumni, faculty, and athletic staff—can be found in the list of Pennsylvania State University people.

text: The Alumni Association[edit]

text: Established in 1870, nine years after the university's first commencement exercises, the Penn State Alumni Association has the stated mission "to connect alumni to the University and to each other, provide valuable benefits to members and support the University's mission of teaching, research and service."[180] The Alumni Association supports a number of educational and extracurricular missions of Penn State through financial support and is the network that connects alumni through over 280 "alumni groups", many of which are designated based on geographical, academic, or professional affiliation.[181]

text: As of July 1, 2010, the Alumni Association counts 496,969 members within the United States, with an additional 16,180 in countries around the globe.[182][183] About half the United States alumni reside in Pennsylvania, primarily in the urban areas of Philadelphia (and the surrounding counties), the Pittsburgh Area and in the Centre County region surrounding State College, although alumni can be found in every region of the country and abroad. About 34 percent of United States alumni and 21 percent of international alumni are members of the Alumni Association.[184][185] With membership totaling 176,426 as of FY2016, the Penn State Alumni Association is the largest dues-paying alumni association in the world, a distinction it has held since 1995.[186]

text: Since 2001, the university, along with all schools in the Big Ten, has participated in the "Big Ten Challenge" website, which is a "competitive" clearinghouse of alumni donation statistics for member schools. Results are tracked to determine a percentage of each school's alumni from the previous decade who gave to their alma mater each calendar year (during the 2005–2006 year, alumni donations from 1996 to 2005 were tallied). With the exception of 2005–2006, when Penn State fell to second behind Northwestern University,[187] Penn State has won the challenge each year since its inception.[188][189][190][191]


document_title: Carbon cycle

question_text: where is the most carbon found on earth

question_tokens: where is the most carbon found on earth

text: Carbon cycle

text: Main components[edit]

text:
Carbon pools in the major reservoirs on earth.[2]show

Pool
Quantity (gigatons)

Atmosphere
720

Ocean (total)
38,400

Total inorganic
37,400

Total organic
1,000

Surface layer
670

Deep layer
36,730

Lithosphere

Sedimentary carbonates
> 60,000,000

Kerogens
15,000,000

Terrestrial biosphere (total)
2,000

Living biomass
600 - 1,000

Dead biomass
1,200

Aquatic biosphere
1 - 2

Fossil fuels (total)
4,130

Coal
3,510

Oil
230

Gas
140

Other (peat)
250

text: The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange:[3]:5–6

text:
The atmosphere
The terrestrial biosphere
The ocean, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material.
The Earth's interior (mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact with the other components through geological processes.

text: The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth.[2] The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments is fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.[4][5]

text: Atmosphere[edit]

text: Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect.[2] Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.[6]

text: Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.[7]

text: Human activities over the past two centuries have significantly increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.[2]

text: Terrestrial biosphere[edit]

text: The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive and dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in plants and other living organisms,[4] while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon.[8] Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon,[9] while about a third of soil carbon is stored in inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate.[10] Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms living on earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it into organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.

text: Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling curve. It is strongest in the northern hemisphere, because this hemisphere has more land mass than the southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.

text: Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales. The combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also be exported into the ocean through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon.[11] Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and 2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1% per year.[12] In 2008, the global total of CO2 released by soil respiration was roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 10 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuel (this does not represent a net transfer of carbon from soil to atmosphere, as the respiration is largely offset by inputs to soil carbon). There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased the flow of CO2. The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course of climate change.

text: Ocean[edit]

text: The ocean can be conceptually divided into a surface layer within which water makes frequent (daily to annual) contact with the atmosphere, and a deep layer below the typical mixed layer depth of a few hundred meters or less, within which the time between consecutive contacts may be centuries. The dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the surface layer is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere, maintaining equilibrium. Partly because its concentration of DIC is about 15% higher[13] but mainly due to its larger volume, the deep ocean contains far more carbon--it's the largest pool of actively cycled carbon in the world, containing 50 times more than the atmosphere[2]--but the timescale to reach equilibrium with the atmosphere is hundreds of years: the exchange of carbon between the two layers, driven by thermohaline circulation, is slow.[2]

text: Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a small fraction of which is converted into carbonate. It can also enter the ocean through rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean's deeper, more carbon rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[4]

text: Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the human-caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a number of factors. CO2 absorption makes water more acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.[14][15]

text: Earth's interior[edit]

text: The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.[16]

text: Most of the earth's carbon is stored inertly in the earth's lithosphere.[2] Much of the carbon stored in the earth's mantle was stored there when the earth formed.[17] Some of it was deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere.[18] Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80% is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.[16]

text: Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots.[17] It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere.

text: Human influence[edit]

text: Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its components' functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere.[2]

text: The largest human impact on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from burning fossil fuels, which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.

text: Another direct human impact on the carbon cycle is the chemical process of calcination of limestone for clinker production, which releases CO2.[23] Clinker is an industrial precursor of cement.

text: Humans also influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic biosphere.[24] Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use and land cover change (LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere. Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store comparatively small amounts of carbon, so that the net product of the process is that more carbon stays in the atmosphere.

text: Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils and decreasing plant productivity.

text: Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle.[24] Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems[25][26][27]. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs[28][29][30], thus limiting the ocean's ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.

text: Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as climate change feedback.

text: On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide (CO2) continues to increase, reaching levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, the rate carbon dioxide release by the burning of fossil fuels is about double the net uptake by vegetation and the ocean.[19][20][21][22]