document_title: Hanukkah

question_text: what is the most important night of hanukkah

question_tokens: what is the most important night of hanukkah

root

text: Hanukkah

text: Etymology

text: The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew verb "חנך", meaning "to dedicate". On Hanukkah, the Maccabean Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple.[3][4] Many homiletical explanations have been given for the name:[5]

tag: p

text:
The name can be broken down into חנו כ"ה, "[they] rested [on the] twenty-fifth", referring to the fact that the Jews ceased fighting on the 25th day of Kislev, the day on which the holiday begins.[6]
חנוכה (Hanukkah) is also the Hebrew acronym for ח נרות והלכה כבית הלל — "Eight candles, and the halakha is like the House of Hillel". This is a reference to the disagreement between two rabbinical schools of thought — the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai — on the proper order in which to light the Hanukkah flames. Shammai opined that eight candles should be lit on the first night, seven on the second night, and so on down to one on the last night (because the miracle was greatest on the first day). Hillel argued in favor of starting with one candle and lighting an additional one every night, up to eight on the eighth night (because the miracle grew in greatness each day). Jewish law adopted the position of Hillel.[7]

tag: ul

text: Alternative spellings

text: In Hebrew, the word Hanukkah is written חֲנֻכָּה or חנוכה (Ḥănukkāh). It is most commonly transliterated to English as Chanukah or Hanukkah, the latter because the sound represented by "CH" ([χ], similar to the Scottish pronunciation of "loch") is not native to the English language. Furthermore, the letter "ḥet" (ח), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew (voiceless uvular fricative) from in classical Hebrew (voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ]), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. Moreover, the 'kaf' consonant is geminate in classical (but not modern) Hebrew. Adapting the classical Hebrew pronunciation with the geminate and pharyngeal Ḥeth can lead to the spelling "Hanukkah"; while adapting the modern Hebrew pronunciation with no gemination and uvular Ḥeth leads to the spelling "Chanukah".[citation needed]

text: Historical sources

text: Maccabees, Mishna, and Talmud

text: The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees, which describe in detail the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem and the lighting of the menorah. These books are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) which came from the Palestinian canon; however, they were part of the Alexandrian canon which is also called the Septuagint (sometimes abbreviated LXX).[8] Both books are included in the Old Testament used by the Catholic and Orthodox Churches,[9] since those churches consider the books deuterocanonical. They are not included in the Old Testament books in most Protestant Bibles since most Protestants consider the books apocryphal. Multiple references to Hanukkah are also made in the Mishna (Bikkurim 1:6, Rosh HaShanah 1:3, Taanit 2:10, Megillah 3:4 and 3:6, Moed Katan 3:9, and Bava Kama 6:6), though specific laws are not described. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud, committed to writing about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.[10]

text: Rav Nissim Gaon postulates in his Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud that information on the holiday was so commonplace that the Mishna felt no need to explain it. A modern-day scholar Reuvein Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kochba revolt, its editors were reluctant to include explicit discussion of a holiday celebrating another relatively recent revolt against a foreign ruler, for fear of antagonizing the Romans.[11]

text: The Gemara (Talmud), in tractate Shabbat, page 21b, focuses on Shabbat candles and moves to Hanukkah candles and says that after the forces of Antiochus IV had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still sealed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, yet it burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready).[12]

text: The Talmud presents three options:[13]

text:
The law requires only one light each night per household,
A better practice is to light one light each night for each member of the household
The most preferred practice is to vary the number of lights each night.

tag: ol

text: Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door, on the opposite side of the mezuza, or in the window closest to the street. Rashi, in a note to Shabbat 21b, says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. The blessings for Hanukkah lights are discussed in tractate Succah, p. 46a.[14]

text: Narrative of Josephus

text: The Jewish historian Titus Flavius Josephus narrates in his book, Jewish Antiquities XII, how the victorious Judas Maccabeus ordered lavish yearly eight-day festivities after rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem that had been profaned by Antiochus IV Epiphanes.[15] Josephus does not say the festival was called Hanukkah but rather the "Festival of Lights":

text: Other ancient sources

text: The story of Hanukkah is alluded to in the book of 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees. The eight-day rededication of the temple is described in 1 Maccabees 4:36–4:59, though the name of the festival and the miracle of the lights do not appear here. A story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1:18–1:36 according to which the relighting of the altar fire by Nehemiah was due to a miracle which occurred on the 25th of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee.[citation needed] The above account in 1 Maccabees 4, as well as 2 Maccabees 1:9 portrays the feast as a delayed observation of the eight-day Feast of Booths (Sukkot)"; similarly 2 Maccabees 10:6 explains the length of the feast as "in the manner of the Feast of Booths".

text: Another source is the Megillat Antiochus. This work (also known as "Megillat Benei Ḥashmonai", "Megillat Hanukkah", or "Megillat Yevanit") is extant in both the Aramaic and Hebrew languages; the Hebrew version is a literal translation from the Aramaic original. Recent scholarship dates it to somewhere between the 2nd and 5th Centuries, probably in the 2nd century,[17] with the Hebrew dating to the 7th century.[18] It was published for the first time in Mantua in 1557. Saadia Gaon, who translated it into Arabic in the 9th century, ascribed it to the elders of the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel.[19] The Hebrew text with an English translation can be found in the Siddur of Philip Birnbaum.

text: The Scroll of Antiochus concludes with the following words:

text: ...After this, the sons of Israel went up to the Temple and rebuilt its gates and purified the Temple from the dead bodies and from the defilement. And they sought after pure olive oil to light the lamps therewith, but could not find any, except one bowl that was sealed with the signet ring of the High Priest from the days of Samuel the prophet and they knew that it was pure. There was in it [enough oil] to light [the lamps therewith] for one day, but the God of heaven whose name dwells there put therein his blessing and they were able to light from it eight days. Therefore, the sons of Ḥashmonai made this covenant and took upon themselves a solemn vow, they and the sons of Israel, all of them, to publish amongst the sons of Israel, [to the end] that they might observe these eight days of joy and honour, as the days of the feasts written in [the book of] the Law; [even] to light in them so as to make known to those who come after them that their God wrought for them salvation from heaven. In them, it is not permitted to mourn, neither to decree a fast [on those days], and anyone who has a vow to perform, let him perform it.

text: Original language (Aramaic):

text: In the Christian Greek Scriptures, John 10:22–23 says Jesus walked in Solomon's Porch at the Jerusalem Temple during "the Feast of Dedication and it was winter." The Greek term that is used is "the renewals" (Greek ta enkainia τὰ ἐγκαίνια). [21] The Hebrew word for "dedication" is Hanukkah. The Aramaic New Testament uses the Aramaic word Khawdata (a close synonym), which literally means "renewal" or "to make new." [22]Josephus refers to the festival as "lights."[23]

text: Story

text: Background

text: Judea was part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Panium. Judea then became part of the Seleucid Empire of Syria.[24] King Antiochus III the Great wanting to conciliate his new Jewish subjects guaranteed their right to "live according to their ancestral customs" and to continue to practice their religion in the Temple of Jerusalem.[25] However, in 175 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus III, invaded Judea, at the request of the sons of Tobias.[26] The Tobiads, who led the Hellenizing Jewish faction in Jerusalem, were expelled to Syria around 170 BCE when the high priest Onias and his pro-Egyptian faction wrested control from them. The exiled Tobiads lobbied Antiochus IV Epiphanes to recapture Jerusalem. As Flavius Josephus relates:

text: The king being thereto disposed beforehand, complied with them, and came upon the Jews with a great army, and took their city by force, and slew a great multitude of those that favored Ptolemy, and sent out his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the temple, and put a stop to the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation for three years and six months.

text: Traditional view

text: When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and services stopped, Judaism was outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He banned brit milah (circumcision) and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the temple.[28]

text: Antiochus's actions provoked a large-scale revolt. Mattathias (Mattityahu), a Jewish priest, and his five sons Jochanan, Simeon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. It started with Mattathias killing first, a Jew who wanted to comply with Antiochus's order to sacrifice to Zeus, and then a Greek official who was to enforce the government's behest (1 Mac. 2, 24–25[29]). Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer"). By 166 BCE Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 165 BCE the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted to celebrate this event.[30] Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the Talmud, unadulterated and undefiled pure olive oil with the seal of the kohen gadol (high priest) was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was required to burn throughout the night every night. The story goes that one flask was found with only enough oil to burn for one day, yet it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of kosher oil for the menorah. An eight-day festival was declared by the Jewish sages to commemorate this miracle.[31]

text: The version of the story in 1 Maccabees states that an eight-day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon re-dedication of the altar, and makes no specific mention of the miracle of the oil.[32]

text: Academic sources

text: Some modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in an internal civil war between the Maccabean Jews and the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem.[33][34][35][36]

text: These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contesting with Hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like Jason and Menelaus.[37] In particular, Jason's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism.[38] Other authors point to possible socioeconomic reasons in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war.[39]

text: What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews in their conflict with the traditionalists.[40] As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned a traditional religion.[41]

text: The miracle of the oil is widely regarded as a legend and its authenticity has been questioned since the Middle Ages.[42] However, given the famous question Rabbi Yosef Karo posed concerning why Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days when the miracle was only for seven days (since there was enough oil for one day),[43] it was clear that he believed it was a historical event. This belief has been adopted by most of Orthodox Judaism, in as much as Rabbi Karo's Shulchan Aruch is a main Code of Jewish Law.

text: Timeline

text:
198 BCE: Armies of the Seleucid King Antiochus III (Antiochus the Great) oust Ptolemy V from Judea and Samaria.[24]
175 BCE: Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) ascends the Seleucid throne. [44]
168 BCE: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the second Temple is looted, Jews are massacred, and Judaism is outlawed.[45]
167 BCE: Antiochus orders an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. Mattathias and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah lead a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabee ("Judah the Hammer").
166 BCE: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom begins; It lasts until 63 BCE.
165 BCE: The Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy is successful in recapturing the Temple, which is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah).
142 BCE: Re-establishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledged. This inaugurates a period of population growth and religious, cultural and social development. This included the conquest of the areas now covered by Transjordan, Samaria, Galilee, and Idumea (also known as Edom), and the forced conversion of Idumeans to the Jewish religion, including circumcision.[46]
139 BCE: The Roman Senate recognizes Jewish autonomy.[47]
134 BCE: Antiochus VII Sidetes besieges Jerusalem. The Jews under John Hyrcanus become Seleucid vassals but retain religious autonomy.[48]
129 BCE: Antiochus VII dies.[49] The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom throws off Syrian rule completely
96 BCE: Beginning of an eight-year civil war between Sadducee king Alexander Yanai and the Pharisees.[50]
85–82 BCE: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the Jordan River.[51]
63 BCE: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end because of a rivalry between the brothers Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, both of whom appeal to the Roman Republic to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. 12 thousand Jews are massacred in the Roman Siege of Jerusalem. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea.[52]

text: Battles of the Maccabean Revolt

text: Selected battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks:

text:
Battle of Adasa (Judas Maccabeus leads the Jews to victory against the forces of Nicanor.)
Battle of Beth Horon (Judas Maccabeus defeats the forces of Seron.)
Battle of Beth-zechariah (Elazar the Maccabee is killed in battle. Lysias has success in battle against the Maccabees, but allows them temporary freedom of worship.)
Battle of Beth Zur (Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of Lysias, recapturing Jerusalem.)
Dathema (A Jewish fortress saved by Judas Maccabeus.)
Battle of Elasa (Judas Maccabeus dies in battle against the army of King Demetrius and Bacchides. He is succeeded by Jonathan Maccabaeus and Simon Maccabaeus who continue to lead the Jews in battle.)
Battle of Emmaus (Judas Maccabeus fights the forces of Lysias and Georgias).
Battle of Wadi Haramia

text: Characters and heroes

text:
Matityahu the High Priest, also referred to as Mattathias and Mattathias ben Johanan. Matityahu was a Jewish High Priest who, together with his five sons, played a central role in the story of Hanukkah.[53]
Judah the Maccabee, also referred to as Judas Maccabeus and Y'hudhah HaMakabi. Judah was the eldest son of Matityahu and is acclaimed as one of the greatest warriors in Jewish history alongside Joshua, Gideon, and David.[54]
Eleazar the Maccabee, also referred to as Eleazar Avaran, Eleazar Maccabeus and Eleazar Hachorani/Choran.
Simon the Maccabee, also referred to as Simon Maccabeus and Simon Thassi.
Johanan the Maccabee, also referred to as Johanan Maccabeus and John Gaddi.
Jonathan the Maccabee, also referred to as Jonathan Apphus.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Seleucid emperor controlling the region during this period.
Judith. Acclaimed for her heroism in the assassination of Holofernes.[55][56]
Hannah and her seven sons. Arrested, tortured and killed one by one, by Antiochus IV Epiphanes for refusing to bow to an idol.[57]

text: Rituals

text: Hanukkah is celebrated with a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8-day holiday, some are family-based and others communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals.[58]

text: Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath, as specified in the Shulkhan Arukh.[59][60] Adherents go to work as usual but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although in Israel schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah.[61][62] Many families exchange gifts each night, such as books or games, and "Hanukkah Gelt" is often given to children. Fried foods (such as latkes (potato pancakes), jelly doughnuts (sufganiyot), and Sephardic bimuelos) are eaten to commemorate the importance of oil during the celebration of Hanukkah. Some also have a custom of eating dairy products to remember Judith and how she overcame Holofernes by feeding him cheese, which made him thirsty, and giving him wine to drink. When Holofernes became very drunk, Judith cut off his head.[63]

text: Kindling the Hanukkah lights

text: Each night throughout the 8 day holiday, a candle or oil-based light is lit. As a universally practiced "beautification" (hiddur mitzvah) of the mitzvah, the number of lights lit is increased by one each night.[64] An extra light called a shamash, meaning "attendant" or "sexton,"[65] is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher, lower, or to the side of the others.[66]

text: Among Ashkenazim the tendency is for every male member of the household (and in many families, girls as well) to light a full set of lights each night,[67][68] while among Sephardim the prevalent custom is to have one set of lights for the entire household.[69]

text: The purpose of the shamash is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 21b–23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah miracle. This differs from Sabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination and lighting. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the shamash candle would be available, and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some, especially Ashkenazim, light the shamash candle first and then use it to light the others.[70] So altogether, including the shamash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the shamash). It is Sephardic custom not to light the shamash first and use it to light the rest. Instead, the shamash candle is the last to be lit, and a different candle or a match is used to light all the candles. Some Hasidic Jews follow this Sephardic custom as well.[71]

text: The lights can be candles or oil lamps.[70] Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room, or for the very elderly and infirm; however, those who permit reciting a blessing over electric lamps only allow it if it is incandescent and battery operated (an incandescent flashlight would be acceptable for this purpose), while a blessing may not be recited over a plug-in menorah or lamp. Most Jewish homes have a special candelabrum referred to as either a Chanukiah (the modern Israeli term) or a menorah (the traditional name, simply Hebrew for 'lamp'). Many families use an oil lamp (traditionally filled with olive oil) for Hanukkah. Like the candle Chanukiah, it has eight wicks to light plus the additional shamash light.[72]

text: In the United States, Hanukkah became a more visible festival in the public sphere from the 1970s when Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson called for public awareness and observance of the festival and encouraged the lighting of public menorahs.[73][74][75][76] Diane Ashton attributed the increased visibility and reinvention of Hanukkah by some of the American Jewish community as a way to adapt to American life, re-inventing the festival in "the language of individualism and personal conscience derived from both Protestantism and the Enlightenment".[77]

text: The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without," so that passersby should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle (i.e. that the sole cruse of pure oil found which held enough oil to burn for one night actually burned for eight nights). Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some Ashkenazi Jews to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most Sephardi Jews light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of antisemitic persecution were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in Persia under the rule of the Zoroastrians, or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, most Hasidic groups light lamps near an inside doorway, not necessarily in public view. According to this tradition, the lamps are placed on the opposite side from the mezuzah, so that when one passes through the door s/he is surrounded by the holiness of mitzvot (the commandments).[citation needed]

text: Generally, women are exempt in Jewish law from time-bound positive commandments, although the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles “for they too were involved in the miracle.”[78][79]

text: Candle-lighting time

text: Hanukkah lights should usually burn for at least half an hour after it gets dark.[80] The custom of many is to light at sundown, although most Hasidim light later.[80] Many Hasidic Rebbes light much later to fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights.[81]

text: Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour so should be lit no earlier than nightfall.[80] Friday night presents a problem, however. Since candles may not be lit on Shabbat itself, the candles must be lit before sunset.[80] However, they must remain lit through the lighting of the Shabbat candles. Therefore, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first with larger candles than usual,[80] followed by the Shabbat candles. At the end of the Shabbat, there are those who light the Hanukkah lights before Havdalah and those who make Havdalah before the lighting Hanukkah lights.[82]

text: If for whatever reason one didn't light at sunset or nightfall, the lights should be kindled later, as long as there are people in the streets.[80] Later than that, the lights should still be kindled, but the blessings should be recited only if there is at least somebody else awake in the house and present at the lighting of the Hannukah lights.[83]

text: Blessings over the candles

text: Typically two blessings (brachot; singular: brachah) are recited during this eight-day festival when lighting the candles. On the first night, the shehecheyanu blessing is added, making a total of three blessings.[84]

text: The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle or oil) is lit on the right side of the menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first but it is lit first, and so on, proceeding from placing candles right to left but lighting them from left to right over the eight nights.[85]

text: Blessing for lighting the candles

text: [86]בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה', אֱ-לֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, אֲשֶׁר קִדְּשָׁנוּ בְּמִצְוֹתָיו, וְצִוָּנוּ לְהַדְלִיק נֵר חֲנֻכָּה.

text: Transliteration: Barukh ata Adonai Eloheinu, melekh ha'olam, asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu l'hadlik ner shel Hanukkah.

text: Translation: "Blessed are You, LORD our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to kindle the Hanukkah light[s]."

text: Blessing for the miracles of Hanukkah

text: [86]בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה' אֱ-לֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, שֶׁעָשָׂה נִסִּים לַאֲבוֹתֵֽינוּ בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה.

text: Transliteration: Barukh ata Adonai Eloheinu, melekh ha'olam, she'asa nisim la'avoteinu ba'yamim ha'heim ba'z'man ha'ze.

text: Translation: "Blessed are You, LORD our God, King of the universe, Who performed miracles for our ancestors in those days at this time..."

text: Hanerot Halalu

text: After the lights are kindled the hymn Hanerot Halalu is recited. There are several different versions; the version presented here is recited in many Ashkenazic communities:[87]

text:
Ashkenazi version:

Hebrew
Transliteration
English

הנרות הללו אנו מדליקין על הנסים ועל הנפלאות ועל התשועות ועל המלחמות שעשית לאבותינו בימים ההם, בזמן הזה על ידי כהניך הקדושים. וכל שמונת ימי חנוכה הנרות הללו קודש הם, ואין לנו רשות להשתמש בהם אלא להאיר אותם בלבד כדי להודות ולהלל לשמך הגדול על נסיך ועל נפלאותיך ועל ישועותיך.

Hanneirot hallalu anu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha.

We kindle these lights for the miracles and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your holy priests. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make ordinary use of them except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for Your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations.

tag: table

text: Maoz Tzur

text: In the Ashkenazi tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn Ma'oz Tzur is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in Jewish history, and praises God for survival despite these tragedies (the exodus from Egypt, the Babylonian captivity, the miracle of the holiday of Purim, the Hasmonean victory), and a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over Rome.[88]

text: The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the first letters of the original five stanzas of the song: Mordechai. The familiar tune is most probably a derivation of a German Protestant church hymn or a popular folk song.[89]

text: Other customs

text: After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Some Hasidic and Sephardi Jews recite Psalms, such as Psalms 30, Psalms 67, and Psalms 91. In North America and in Israel it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. In addition, many families encourage their children to give tzedakah (charity) in lieu of presents for themselves.[90][91]

text: Special additions to daily prayers

text:
"We thank You also for the miraculous deeds and for the redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts wrought by You, as well as for the wars which You waged for our ancestors in ancient days at this season. In the days of the Hasmonean Mattathias, son of Johanan the high priest, and his sons, when the iniquitous Greco-Syrian kingdom rose up against Your people Israel, to make them forget Your Torah and to turn them away from the ordinances of Your will, then You in your abundant mercy rose up for them in the time of their trouble, pled their cause, executed judgment, avenged their wrong, and delivered the strong into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the wicked into the hands of the righteous, and insolent ones into the hands of those occupied with Your Torah. Both unto Yourself did you make a great and holy name in Thy world, and unto Your people did You achieve a great deliverance and redemption. Whereupon your children entered the sanctuary of Your house, cleansed Your temple, purified Your sanctuary, kindled lights in Your holy courts, and appointed these eight days of Hanukkah in order to give thanks and praises unto Your holy name."

Translation of Al ha-Nissim[92]

tag: div

text: An addition is made to the "hoda'ah" (thanksgiving) benediction in the Amidah (thrice-daily prayers), called Al ha-Nissim ("On/about the Miracles").[93] This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons.[94][95]

text: The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the Hallel (praise) (Psalms 113 – Psalms 118) are sung during each morning service and the Tachanun penitential prayers are omitted.[94][96]

text: The Torah is read every day in the shacharit morning services in synagogue, on the first day beginning from Numbers 6:22 (according to some customs, Numbers 7:1), and the last day ending with Numbers 8:4. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, Jewish Sabbaths (Saturdays). The weekly Torah portion for the first Sabbath is almost always Miketz, telling of Joseph's dream and his enslavement in Egypt. The Haftarah reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is Zechariah 2:14 – Zechariah 4:7. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the Haftarah reading is from 1Kings 7:40 – 1Kings 7:50.

text: The Hanukkah menorah is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings.[97]

text: The menorah is not lit during Shabbat, but rather prior to the beginning of Shabbat as described above and not at all during the day. During the Middle Ages "Megillat Antiochus" was read in the Italian synagogues on Hanukkah just as the Book of Esther is read on Purim. It still forms part of the liturgy of the Yemenite Jews.[18]

text: Zot Hanukkah

text: The last day of Hanukkah is known by some as Zot Hanukkah and by others as Chanukat HaMizbeach, from the verse read on this day in the synagogue Numbers 7:84, Zot Hanukkat Hamizbe'ach: "This was the dedication of the altar". According to the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism, this day is the final "seal" of the High Holiday season of Yom Kippur and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other Gmar chatimah tovah ("may you be sealed totally for good"), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers.[98]

text: Other related laws and customs

text: It is customary for women not to work for at least the first half-hour of the candles' burning, and some have the custom not to work for the entire time of burning. It is also forbidden to fast or to eulogize during Hanukkah.[99]

text: Customs

text: Music

text: A large number of songs have been written on Hanukkah themes, perhaps more so than for any other Jewish holiday. Some of the best known are "Ma'oz Tzur" (Rock of Ages), "Latke'le Latke'le" (Yiddish song about cooking Latkes), "Hanukkiah Li Yesh" ("I Have a Hanukkah Menorah"), "Ocho Kandelikas" ("Eight Little Candles"), "Kad Katan" ("A Small Jug"), "S'vivon Sov Sov Sov" ("Dreidel, Spin and Spin"), "Haneirot Halolu" ("These Candles which we light"), "Mi Yimalel" ("Who can Retell") and "Ner Li, Ner Li" ("I have a Candle"). Among the most well known songs in English-speaking countries are "Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel"[100] and "Oh Chanukah".[101]

text: Among the Rebbes of the Nadvorna Hasidic dynasty, it is customary for the Rebbes to play violin after the menorah is lit.[102]

text: Penina Moise's Hannukah Hymn published in the 1842 Hymns Written for the Use of Hebrew Congregations was instrumental in the beginning of Americanization of Hanukkah.[77][103][104]

text: Foods

text: There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably olive oil) to commemorate the miracle of a small flask of oil keeping the Second Temple's Menorah alight for eight days.[105] Traditional foods include potato pancakes, known as latkes in Yiddish, especially among Ashkenazi families. Sephardi, Polish, and Israeli families eat jam-filled doughnuts (Yiddish: פאנטשקעס pontshkes), bimuelos (fritters) and sufganiyot which are deep-fried in oil. Hungarian Jews eat cheese pancakes known as "cheese latkes".[106]

text: Latkes are not popular in Israel, having been largely replaced by sufganiyot due to local economic factors, convenience and the influence of trade unions.[107] Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for sufganiyot besides the traditional strawberry jelly filling, including chocolate cream, vanilla cream, caramel, cappuccino and others.[108] In recent years, downsized, "mini" sufganiyot containing half the calories of the regular, 400-to-600-calorie version, have become popular.[109]

text: Rabbinic literature also records a tradition of eating cheese and other dairy products during Hanukkah.[110] This custom, as mentioned above, commemorates the heroism of Judith during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews and reminds us that women also played an important role in the events of Hanukkah.[111] The deuterocanonical book of Judith (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the Tanakh, records that Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews was cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the beheading of Holofernes by Judith has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated.[112]

text: Roast goose has historically been a traditional Hanukkah food among Eastern European and American Jews, although the custom has declined in recent decades.[113]

text: Dreidel

text: After lighting the candles, it is customary to play (or spin) the dreidel. The dreidel, or sevivon in Hebrew, is a four-sided spinning top that children play with during Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter which is an abbreviation for the Hebrew words נס גדול היה שם (Nes Gadol Haya Sham, "A great miracle happened there"), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the Beit Hamikdash. On dreidels sold in Israel, the fourth side is inscribed with the letter פ (Pe), rendering the acronym נס גדול היה פה (Nes Gadol Haya Po, "A great miracle happened here"), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel, although this is a relatively recent innovation. Stores in Haredi neighborhoods sell the traditional Shin dreidels as well, because they understand "there" to refer to the Temple and not the entire Land of Israel, and because the Hasidic Masters ascribe significance to the traditional letters.[114][115]

text: Hanukkah gelt

text: Chanukkah gelt (Yiddish for "Chanukkah money") known in Israel by the Hebrew translation dmei Hanukkah, is often distributed to children during the festival of Hanukkah. The giving of Hanukkah gelt also adds to the holiday excitement. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or relatives may give larger sums. The tradition of giving Chanukah gelt dates back to a long-standing East European custom of children presenting their teachers with a small sum of money at this time of year as a token of gratitude. One minhag favors the fifth night of Hanukkah for giving Hanukkah gelt.[116] Unlike the other nights of Hanukkah, the fifth does not ever fall on the Shabbat, hence never conflicting with the Halachic injunction against handling money on the Shabbat.[117]

text: Hanukkah in the White House

text: The United States has a history of recognizing and celebrating Hanukkah in a number of ways. The earliest Hanukkah link with the White House occurred in 1951 when Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion presented United States President Harry Truman with a Hanukkah Menorah. In 1979 president Jimmy Carter took part in the first public Hanukkah candle-lighting ceremony of the National Menorah held across the White House lawn. In 1989, President George H.W. Bush displayed a menorah in the White House. In 1993, President Bill Clinton invited a group of schoolchildren to the Oval Office for a small ceremony.[118]

text: The United States Postal Service has released several Hanukkah-themed postage stamps. In 1996 the United States Postal Service (USPS) issued a 32 cent Hanukkah stamp as a joint issue with Israel.[119] In 2004 after 8 years of reissuing the menorah design, the USPS issued a dreidel design for the Hanukkah stamp. The dreidel design was used through 2008. In 2009 a Hanukkah stamp was issued with a design featured a photograph of a menorah with nine lit candles.[120]

text: In 2001, President George W. Bush held an official Hanukkah reception in the White House in conjunction with the candle-lighting ceremony, and since then this ceremony has become an annual tradition attended by Jewish leaders from around the country.[121] In 2008, George Bush linked the occasion to the 1951 gift by using that menorah for the ceremony, with a grandson of Ben-Gurion and a grandson of Truman lighting the candles.[122]

text: In December 2014, two Hanukkah celebrations were held at the White House. The White House commissioned a menorah made by students at the Max Rayne school in Israel and invited two of its students to join U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama as they welcomed over 500 guests to the celebration. The students' school in Israel had been subjected to arson by extremists. President Obama said these "students teach us an important lesson for this time in our history. The light of hope must outlast the fires of hate. That’s what the Hanukkah story teaches us. It’s what our young people can teach us— that one act of faith can make a miracle, that love is stronger than hate, that peace can triumph over conflict.”[123] Rabbi Angela Warnick Buchdahl, in leading prayers at the ceremony commented on the how special the scene was, asking the President if he believed America's founding fathers could possibly have pictured that a female Asian-American rabbi would one day be at the White House leading Jewish prayers in front of the African-American president.[124]

text: Dates

text: The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the Hebrew calendar. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of Kislev and concludes on the 2nd or 3rd day of Tevet (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset. Hanukkah begins at sunset of the date listed.

text:
27 November 2013
16 December 2014
6 December 2015
24 December 2016
12 December 2017
2 December 2018
22 December 2019
10 December 2020

text: In 2013, on 28 November, the American holiday of Thanksgiving fell during Hanukkah for only the third time since Thanksgiving was declared a national holiday by President Abraham Lincoln. The last time was 1899; and due to the Gregorian and Jewish calendars being slightly out of sync with each other, it will not happen again in the foreseeable future.[125] This convergence prompted the creation of the portmanteau neologism Thanksgivukkah.[126][127][128]

text: Symbolic importance

text: Major Jewish holidays are those when all forms of work are forbidden, and that feature traditional holiday meals, kiddush, holiday candle-lighting, etc. Only biblical holidays fit these criteria, and Chanukah was instituted some two centuries after the Hebrew Bible was completed. Nevertheless, though Chanukah is of rabbinic origin, it is traditionally celebrated in a major and very public fashion. The requirement to position the menorah, or Chanukiah, at the door or window, symbolizes the desire to give the Chanukah miracle a high-profile.[129]

text: Some Jewish historians suggest a different explanation for the rabbinic reluctance to laud the militarism. First, the rabbis wrote after Hasmonean leaders had led Judea into Rome’s grip and so may not have wanted to offer the family much praise. Second, they clearly wanted to promote a sense of dependence on God, urging Jews to look toward the divine for protection. They likely feared inciting Jews to another revolt that might end in disaster, like the CE 135 experience.[130]

text: With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, however, these themes were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant.[131][132]

text: In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter part of the 20th century, including among large numbers of secular Jews, who wanted a Jewish alternative to the Christmas celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah. Though it was traditional among Ashkenazi Jews to give "gelt" or money to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has been supplemented with other gifts so that Jewish children can enjoy gifts just as their Christmas-celebrating peers do.[133]

text: While Hanukkah is a relatively minor Jewish holiday, as indicated by the lack of religious restrictions on work other than a few minutes after lighting the candles, in North America, Hanukkah in the 21st century has taken a place equal to Passover as a symbol of Jewish identity. Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday.[134]

text: Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah's "miracle of the oil", emphasizing reflection on energy conservation and energy independence. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life's renewable energy campaign.[135][136][137]

text: Gallery

text: An entire room of Paris's Museum of Jewish Art and History is dedicated to Hanukkah, through an exceptional collection of Hanukkiyot, in a variety of shapes and designs, origins and periods. This panorama stands as a metaphor for the great diversity of Jewish customs throughout the world.

text:
France, 14th century

France, 16th century

Germany, 17th century

Italy, 18th century

Poland, 18th century

France, 19th century

Europe, 19th century

Yemen, 20th century

Tunisia, 20th century

Israel, 20th century


document_title: List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom

question_text: what was the last colony to leave the british empire

text: Colonies[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year of Independence

 Afghanistan
08-19 !19 August
1919
Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919

 Antigua and Barbuda
11-01 !1 November
1981

 Australia
03-03 !3 March
1986
Australia Act 1986

 Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia on 16 September 1975.

 The Bahamas
07-10 !10 July
1973

 Bahrain
08-15 !15 August
1971

 Barbados
11-30 !30 November
1966
Barbados Independence Act 1966

 Belize
09-21 !21 September
1981
September Celebrations of Belize

 Botswana
09-30 !30 September
1966

 Brunei
01-01 !1 January
1984

 Canada
07-01 !1 July
1867
British North America Act 1867, Canada Day

 Cyprus
10-01 !1 October
1960
16 August 1960, but Cyprus Independence Day is commonly celebrated on 1 October.[1]

 Dominica
11-03 !3 November
1978

 Egypt
02-28 !28 February
1922

 Fiji
10-10 !10 October
1970

 The Gambia
02-18 !18 February
1965

 Ghana
03-06 !6 March
1957

 Grenada
02-07 !7 February
1974
Independence Day (Grenada)

 Guyana
05-26 !26 May
1966

 India
08-15 !15 August
1947
Independence Day (India)

 Ireland
06-12 !6 December
1922
Republic of Ireland Act and Ireland Act 1949

 Israel
05-14 !14 May
1948
Yom Ha'atzmaut

 Iraq
10-3 !3 October
1932

 Jamaica
08-06 !6 August
1962
Independence Day (August 6)

 Jordan
05-25 !25 May
1946

 Kenya
12 December !12 December
1963

 Kiribati
12-7 !12 July
1979

 Kuwait
06-26 !25 February
1961

 Lesotho
10-04 !4 October
1966

 Libya
12-24 !24 December
1951
Libya had been under the rule of the Ottoman Empire since the middle of the sixteenth century. Following the Italo-Turkish war of 1912, Libya became an Italian colony. With their defeat in World War II, the Italians lost control of Libya. The country came under UN administration. Control was split between France and Britain, with France administering the province Fezzan while the British administered the provinces of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. In 1949, the UN General Assembly declared that Libya should become an independent country by 1 January 1952. On 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence from France and Britain becoming the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris.

 Malawi
07-06 !6 July
1964

 Malaysia
08-31 !31 August
1957
Hari Merdeka

 Singapore gained independence from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.

 Maldives
07-26 !26 July
1965

 Malta
09-21 !21 September
1964

 Mauritius
03-12 !12 March
1968

 Myanmar
01-04 !4 January
1948
Gained independence as Burma. Renamed Myanmar in 1989, but still officially known by the United Kingdom government as Burma.

 Nauru
01-31 !31 January
1968
Independence from the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand on 31 January 1968.

 New Zealand
09-26 !26 September
1907
Dominion Day

 Samoa gained independence from New Zealand on 1 January 1962.

New Zealand has responsibilities for two freely associated states:
 Cook Islands (from 4 August 1965)
 Niue (from 19 October 1974)

 Nigeria
10-01 !1 October
1960

 Pakistan
08-14 !14 August
1947
Independence Day (Pakistan)

 Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan in 1971 (recognized in 1972).

 Qatar
03-09 !3 September
1971
Qatar National Day

 Saint Lucia
04-18 !22 February
1979

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
09-19 !19 September
1983

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
10-27 !27 October
1979

 Seychelles
06-29 !29 June
1976

 Sierra Leone
04-27 !27 April
1961

 Solomon Islands
07-07 !7 July
1978

 Somalia
07-01 !1 July
1960
The State of Somaliland gained independence from Britain on June 26, 1960 and later was unified with the Trust Territory of Somaliland which was under Italian administration to form the Somali Republic on July 1, 1960.

 South Africa
12-11 !11 December
1910
1931 adoption of Statute of Westminster. Not a public holiday. Union of South Africa formed on 31 May 1910 and Republic declared on 31 May 1961 and left the British Commonwealth on the same day.

 Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990.

 Sri Lanka
02-04 !4 February
1948
Gained independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972.

 Sudan
01-01 !1 January
1956
 South Sudan gained independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011.

 Swaziland
09-06 !6 September
1968

 Tanzania
12-09 !9 December
1961

 Tonga
06-04 !4 June
1970

 Trinidad and Tobago
08-31 !31 August
1962

 Tuvalu
04-18 !1 October
1978

 Uganda
04-18 !9 October
1962

 United Arab Emirates
12-02 !2 December
1971
National Day (United Arab Emirates)

 United States
09-03 !3 September
1783
Fourth of July. Declaration of Independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1776. Independence achieved de facto 1781, and de jure 1783.

 Vanuatu
07-30 !30 July
1980
Independence from United Kingdom and France in 1980

 Yemen
11-30 !30 November
1967
South Yemen 1967

 Zambia
10-24 !24 October
1964

 Zimbabwe
04-18 !18 April
1980
Responsible self-government 1923. Unilateral Declaration of Independence 11 November 1965. Recognized Independence 1980.

text: Evolution of Dominions to Independence[edit]

text:
Country
Date of Dominion Status
Date of adoption of the Statute of Westminster
Date of final relinquish of British powers
Final Event in question.
Other important Dates

 Australia
01-01-1901 !1 January 1901
09-10-1942 !9 October 1942 (effective from 1939)
03-03-1986 !3 March 1986
Australia Act 1986

 Canada
01-07-1867 !1 July 1867
11-12-1931 !11 December 1931
17-04-1982 !17 April 1982
Canada Act 1982

 Ireland
06-12-1922 !6 December 1922
11-12-1931 !11 December 1931
18 April 1949
Republic of Ireland Act and Ireland Act 1949
The 1916 Proclamation of the Irish Republic and 1919 Irish Declaration of Independence were never recognised by the UK but given symbolic priority by post-1922 Irish leaders. From the 1932 Irish election, successive governments unilaterally amended the state's status: the Constitution (Removal of Oath) Act on 3 May 1933 implicitly abrogated the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty; the 27th amendment and External Relations Act, both on 12 December 1936, attenuated the role of the monarchy; the enactment of the Constitution on 29 December 1937 established the office of President; the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949 with Ireland formally leaving the British Commonwealth. Related UK statutes included the Éire (Confirmation of Agreements) Act 1938 and the Ireland Act 1949.

 Dominion of Newfoundland
26-09-1907 !26 September 1907
—
17-04-1982 !17 April 1982
Canada Act 1982
Newfoundland voted to join Canada in 1948 in a 52-48 vote; this became effective on 31 March 1949.

 South Africa
31-05-1910 !31 May 1910
11-12-1931 !11 December 1931
21-05-1961 !21 May 1961
South African Constitution of 1961

 New Zealand
26-09-1907 !26 September 1907
25-11-1947 !25 November 1947
13-12-1986 !13 December 1986
Constitution Act 1986
Declaration of Independence of New Zealand 1835, Treaty of Waitangi 1840

text: Former British Crown Colonies that became part of another British Crown Colony then later restored previous status[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Anguilla
July
1971

Anguilla declared independence from St Kitts and Nevis in 1967, following a revolution; in favour of returning to British authority in 1971 with full British Crown Colony status (renamed in 2002 as British Overseas Territory status) returning in 1980.

text: British Overseas Territories that have voted against another independent country sharing sovereignty over the territory with the British Crown[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Gibraltar
7 November
2002
Gibraltar held a referendum on whether or not to share sovereignty with Spain. They rejected the proposal by 98.48% to 1.02% in favour of remaining solely a British overseas territory.

text: British Overseas Territories that have voted to retain their British Overseas Territory status[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Falkland Islands
11 March
2013
Falkland Islanders voted in favour of remaining a British overseas territory by 99.8% to 0.2%.

text: British Overseas Territories that have voted not to be an independent country[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Bermuda
16 August
1995
Bermudians voted against independence for the territory in a 1995 referendum by 73.6% to 25.7%.

text: Countries or province forming part of the United Kingdom that have voted to remain part of the United Kingdom[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Northern Ireland
8 March
1973
In the Northern Ireland sovereignty referendum, 1973, voters in Northern Ireland were asked to decide if they wanted to remain in the United Kingdom or to leave and join with the Republic of Ireland. They voted in favour of the United Kingdom by 98.9% to 1.1%, although Irish Republicans boycotted the vote.

text: Countries forming part of the United Kingdom that have voted not to be an independent country[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Scotland
18 September
2014
In the Scottish independence referendum, 2014, 55.3% of voters who qualified as residents of Scotland, chose 'No' to the question: 'Should Scotland be an independent country?' 44.7% of voters chose 'Yes'. In March 2017, permission to run a second referendum was requested from Westminster by the Scottish Parliament, triggered by the Brexit vote, which saw England and Wales vote to leave the EU while Scotland and Northern Ireland voted to remain.

text: Countries which did not vote to terminate British rule yet were relinquished to another sovereign power[edit]

text:
Country
Date
Year
Notes

 Hong Kong
30 June
1997
In 1984 the British government signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration with China and agreed to turn over Hong Kong and its dependencies in 1997. It was never put forward to the people of the territory to decide in the form of a referendum, and neither was it ever agreed by an elected legislature. British rule ended on 30 June 1997, with China taking over at midnight, 1 July 1997.


document_title: Ventricle (heart)

question_text: where does the right ventrical pump blood to

text: Ventricle (heart)

text: Structure[edit]

text: Ventricles have thicker walls than atria and generate higher blood pressures. The physiological load on the ventricles requiring pumping of blood throughout the body and lungs is much greater than the pressure generated by the atria to fill the ventricles. Further, the left ventricle has thicker walls than the right because it needs to pump blood to most of the body while the right ventricle fills only the lungs.

text: On the inner walls of the ventricles are irregular muscular columns called trabeculae carneae which cover all of the inner ventricular surfaces except that of the conus arteriosus, in the right ventricle. There are three types of these muscles. The third type, the papillary muscles give origin at their apices to the chordae tendinae which attach to the cusps of the tricuspid valve and to the mitral valve.

text: The mass of the left ventricle, as estimated by magnetic resonance imaging, averages 143 g ± 38.4 g, with a range of 87–224 g.[1]

text: The right ventricle is equal in size to that of the left ventricle[citation needed], and contains roughly 85 millilitres (3 imp fl oz; 3 US fl oz) in the adult. Its upper front surface is circled and convex, and forms much of the sternocostal surface of the heart. Its under surface is flattened, forming part of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart that rests upon the diaphragm.

text: Its posterior wall is formed by the ventricular septum, which bulges into the right ventricle, so that a transverse section of the cavity presents a semilunar outline. Its upper and left angle forms a conical pouch, the conus arteriosus, from which the pulmonary artery arises. A tendinous band, called the tendon of the conus arteriosus, extends upward from the right atrioventricular fibrous ring and connects the posterior surface of the conus arteriosus to the aorta.

text: Shape[edit]

text: The left ventricle is longer and more conical in shape than the right, and on transverse section its concavity presents an oval or nearly circular outline. It forms a small part of the sternocostal surface and a considerable part of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart; it also forms the apex of the heart. The left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than the right ventricle because it pumps blood at a higher pressure.

text: The right ventricle is triangular in shape and extends from the tricuspid valve in the right atrium to near the apex of the heart. Its wall is thickest at its base and thins towards the atrium.

text: Development[edit]

text: By early maturity, the walls of the left ventricle have thickened from three to six times greater than that of the right ventricle. This reflects the typical five times greater pressure workload this chamber performs while accepting blood returning from the pulmonary veins at ~80mmHg pressure (equivalent to around 11 kPa) and pushing it forward to the typical ~120mmHg pressure (around 16.3 kPa) in the aorta during each heartbeat. (The pressures stated are resting values and stated as relative to surrounding atmospheric which is the typical "0" reference pressure used in medicine.)

text: Function[edit]

text: During systole, the ventricles contract, pumping blood through the body. During diastole, the ventricles relax and fill with blood again.

text: The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium via the mitral valve and pumps it through the aorta via the aortic valve, into the systemic circulation. The left ventricular muscle must relax and contract quickly and be able to increase or lower its pumping capacity under the control of the nervous system. In the diastolic phase, it has to relax very quickly after each contraction so as to quickly fill with the oxygenated blood flowing from the pulmonary veins. Likewise in the systolic phase, the left ventricle must contract rapidly and forcibly to pump this blood into the aorta, overcoming the much higher aortic pressure. The extra pressure exerted is also needed to stretch the aorta and other arteries to accommodate the increase in blood volume.

text: The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium via the tricuspid valve and pumps it into the pulmonary artery via the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary circulation.

text: Pumping volume[edit]

text: The typical healthy adult heart pumping volume is ~5 liters/min, resting. Maximum capacity pumping volume extends from ~25 liters/min for non-athletes to as high as ~45 liters/min for Olympic level athletes.

text: Volumes[edit]

text: In cardiology, the performance of the ventricles are measured with several volumetric parameters, including end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), stroke volume (SV) and ejection fraction (Ef).

text:
Ventricular volumes

view
talk
edit

Measure
Right ventricle
Left ventricle

End-diastolic volume
144 mL(± 23 mL)[2]
142 mL (± 21 mL)[3]

End-diastolic volume / body surface area (mL/m2)
78 mL/m2 (± 11 mL/m2)[2]
78 mL/m2 (± 8.8 mL/m2)[3]

End-systolic volume
50 mL (± 14 mL)[2]
47 mL (± 10 mL)[3]

End-systolic volume / body surface area (mL/m2)
27 mL/m2 (± 7 mL/m2)[2]
26 mL/m2 (± 5.1 mL/m2)[3]

Stroke volume
94 mL (± 15 mL)[2]
95 mL (± 14 mL)[3]

Stroke volume / body surface area (mL/m2)
51 mL/m2 (± 7 mL/m2)[2]
52 mL/m2 (± 6.2 mL/m2)[3]

Ejection fraction
66% (± 6%)[2]
67% (± 4.6%)[3]

Heart rate
60–100 bpm[4]
60–100 bpm[4]

Cardiac output
4.0–8.0 L/minute[5]
4.0–8.0 L/minute[5]

text: Pressures[edit]

text:
Site
Normal
pressure range
(in mmHg)[6]

Central venous pressure
3–8

Right ventricular pressure
systolic
15–30

diastolic
3–8

Pulmonary artery pressure
systolic
15–30

diastolic
4–12

Pulmonary vein/
Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure

2–15

Left ventricular pressure
systolic
100–140

diastolic
3–12

text: Ventricular pressure is a measure of blood pressure within the ventricles of the heart.[7]

text: Left[edit]

text: During most of the cardiac cycle, ventricular pressure is less than the pressure in the aorta, but during systole, the ventricular pressure rapidly increases, and the two pressures become equal to each other (represented by the junction of the blue and red lines on the diagram on this page), the aortic valve opens, and blood is pumped to the body.

text: Elevated left ventricular end-diastolic pressure has been described as a risk factor in cardiac surgery.[8]

text: Noninvasive approximations have been described.[9]

text: An elevated pressure difference between the aortic pressure and the left ventricular pressure may be indicative of Aortic stenosis.[10]

text: Right[edit]

text: Right ventricular pressure demonstrates a different pressure-volume loop than left ventricular pressure.[11]

text: Dimensions[edit]

text: The heart and its performance are also commonly measured in terms of dimensions, which in this case means one-dimensional distances, usually measured in millimeters. This is not as informative as volumes but may be much easier to estimate with (e.g., M-Mode echocardiography[12] or with sonomicrometry, which is mostly used for animal model research). Optimally, it is specified with which plane the distance is measured in, e.g. the dimension of the longitudinal plane.[13]

text:
Dimension
Abbreviation
Definition
Normally

End-diastolic dimension
EDD
The diameter across a ventricle at the end of diastole, if not else specified then usually referring to the transverse[14] (left-to-right) internal (luminal) distance, excluding thickness of walls, although it can also be measured as the external distance.

Left ventricular end-diastolic dimension

LVEDD or sometimes LVDD
The end-diastolic dimension of the left ventricle.
48 mm,[15]
Range 36 – 56 mm[16]

Right ventricular end-diastolic dimension

RVEDD or sometimes RVDD
The end-diastolic dimension of the right ventricle.
Range 10 – 26 mm[16]

End-systolic dimension
ESD
ESD is similar to the end-diastolic dimension, but is measured at the end of systole (after the ventricles have pumped out blood) rather than at the end of diastole.

Left ventricular end-systolic dimension

LVESD or sometimes LVSD
The end-systolic dimension of the left ventricle.
Range 20 – 40 mm[16]

Right ventricular end-systolic dimension

RVESD or sometimes RVSD
The end-systolic dimension of the right ventricle.
Range 10 – 26 mm[16]

Interventricular septal end diastolic dimension
IVSd
The thickness of the interventricular septum.
8.3 mm,[15]
Range 7 – 11 mm[16]

Left ventricular end diastolic posterior wall dimension
LVPWd
The thickness of the posterior left ventricular wall.
8.3 mm,[15]
Range 7 – 11 mm[16]

Left ventricular end systolic dimension

As above but measured during systole. This measurement is not commonly used clinically.
16  mm[17]

Left atrial dimension
LA

Range 24 – 40 mm[16]

text: Fractional shortening (FS) is the fraction of any diastolic dimension that is lost in systole. When referring to endocardial luminal distances, it is EDD minus ESD divided by EDD (times 100 when measured in percentage).[18] Normal values may differ somewhat dependent on which anatomical plane is used to measure the distances. Normal range is 25-45%, Mild is 20-25%, Moderate is 15-20%, and Severe is <15%.[19] Cardiology Diagnostic Tests Midwall fractional shortening may also be used to measure diastolic/systolic changes for inter-ventricular septal dimensions[20] and posterior wall dimensions. However, both endocardial and midwall fractional shortening are dependent on myocardial wall thickness, and thereby dependent on long-axis function.[21] By comparison, a measure of short-axis function termed epicardial volume change (EVC) is independent of myocardial wall thickness and represents isolated short-axis function.[21]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Cardiac dysrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat that can occur in the ventricles or atria. Normally the heartbeat is initiated in the SA node of the atrium but initiation can also occur in the Purkinje fibres of the ventricles, giving rise to premature ventricular contractions, also called ventricular extra beats. When these beats become grouped the condition is known as ventricular tachycardia.

text: Another form of arrhythmia is that of the ventricular escape beat. This can happen as a compensatory mechanism when there is a problem in the conduction system from the SA node.

text: The most severe form of arrhythmia is ventricular fibrillation which is the most common cause of cardiac arrest and subsequent sudden death.

text:
Ventricular septal defect
Atrioventricular septal defect