document_title: Leaders of the Vietnam War

question_text: leader of north vietnam in the vietnam war

text: Leaders of the Vietnam War

text: Ho Chi Minh (19 May 1890 – 2 September 1969)[edit]

text: Ho Chi Minh whose birth name was Nguyen Sinh Cung and also known as Nguyen Tat Thanh and Nguyen Ai Quoc was a Vietnamese revolutionary leader following the path of communism.

text: He left his country on a French steamer in 1911 and traveled extensively around the world participating actively in the Communist International before returning to Vietnam in 1941. He then organized and led the Viet Minh to fight for Vietnamese Independence. He became more popular for his declaration of Vietnam independence from France, which paraphrased a part of the U.S declaration of independence that says “All men are created equal…” Since 1945, he became a prime minister and president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). In the late 1950s, Ho Chi Minh organized another communist guerrilla movement widely known as Viet Cong in South Vietnam.

text: Ho Chi Minh was the key figure and held the main leadership of North Vietnam during both wars in the country. He remained as a great source of inspiration for the Vietnamese who were fighting for a united Vietnam as in his wish after he officially stepped aside in 1965 and even after his death in 1969. The final offensive against Saigon – the capital of South Vietnam in 1975 was named after him (the Ho Chi Minh Campaign). Vietnam was reunified under the Communist rule after the fall of Saigon in April 1975, nearly 30 years after Ho's declaration of independence and 6 years after his death. Soon after that, Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh city in honour of his vast contributions to Vietnam.

text: Vo Nguyen Giap (August 25, 1911 – October 4, 2013)[edit]

text: Vo Nguyen Giap was a General, Commander in Chief of the Vietnam People's Army (VNA) and Vietnamese politician. He played a major role as a commander in the First Indochina War (1946-1954) and the Vietnam War (1960-1975) in which he involved directly in many important campaigns such as the Border Campaign in Fall–Winter (1950), the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), the Tet Offensive (1968), the Easter Offensive (1972), the final Ho Chi Minh Campaign (1975) which led to the fall of Saigon and South Vietnam. Giap, together with Ho Chi Minh, was the most prominent figure of North Vietnam during the wars in the country.

text: After the war, he was still the Minister of Defence until 1980 and served as a member of Political Bureau of the Communist Party of Vietnam until his retirement in 1991. Giap celebrated his 100th birthday in 2011 and becomes the oldest Vietnam political and military figure that have ever lived. He is also considered by both his partisans and opponents as one of the greatest military commanders in history.

text: Ngo Dinh Diem (3 January 1901 – 2 November 1963)[edit]

text: Diem was a Vietnamese politician served as an officer in the Nguyen Dynasty. Because of his drastic ideological of anti-communism, Diem received support from the United States and became the first President of the Republic of Vietnam in 1955. However, as a Catholic, Diem pursued the persecution of Buddhists which led to many religious protests notably the self-immolation of Thich Quang Duc in 1963. As a result, Diem gradually lost U.S support and was assassinated, together with his brother Nhu, in a coup in 1963

text: Nguyen Cao Ky (8 September 1930 – 23 July 2011)[edit]

text: Nguyen Cao Ky was a senior army officer and a former politician of Republic of Vietnam. He served as a prime minister (1965-1967) and Vice President (1967-1971) of the Republic of Vietnam. From an ally, he then became the opponent of President Nguyen Van Thieu and was mostly sidelined during Thieu's presidency. Ky had been seen as an aggressive anti-Communist person in the period before 1975 and but then was regarded as a symbol of national reconciliation by the Vietnamese Communist Party since 2004 when he became the first South Vietnamese leader returning to the country.

text: Nguyen Van Thieu (5 April 1923 – 29 September 2001)[edit]

text: Thieu was the Leadership Committee Chairman (1965-1967) and President of the Republic of Vietnam (1967-1975). In 1963, Thieu joined a military coup to overthrow Diem. During his years as president, Thieu was accused of indulging in corruption. His struggle for power with Ky led to the decisions of side-lining Ky's supporters and choosing loyalists instead of decent commanders to lead the Army of Public of Vietnam (APVN) forces. He strongly opposed the Paris Peace Accords (1973) and publicly blamed the U.S not keeping its promise for fall of Saigon and South Vietnam in 1975.

text: Anti-Communist forces[edit]

text: South Vietnam[edit]

text: Political[edit]

text:
Ngô Đình Diệm was the President of South Vietnam from 1955 until his assassination in 1963.
Ngô Đình Nhu was Diệm's younger brother and generally regarded as the architect of the Ngô family's rule.
Dương Văn Minh led the South Vietnamese Army under President Diệm and was briefly leader of South Vietnam in 1963 and 1975. He was the last president.
Nguyễn Thành was a general who was in power from early 1964 to 1965.
Nguyễn Văn Thiệu was the President of South Vietnam from 1967 to 1975.
Nguyễn Cao Kỳ was the Prime Minister of South Vietnam from 1965 to 1967 and the Vice President from 1967 to 1971.
Trần Văn Hương was the second to last President of South Vietnam before its surrender in 1975.

text: Military[edit]

text:
Hoàng Xuân Lãm was a general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, commander of I Corps.
Lê Nguyên Khang was the commander of the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps.
Ngo Quang Truong a lieutenant general and commander of the I Corps.

text: United States of America[edit]

text: Political[edit]

text:
Dwight D. Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.
John F. Kennedy was the 35th President of the United States from 1961 until his death in 1963.
Lyndon B. Johnson was the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969.
Richard Nixon was the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until he resigned in 1974.
Gerald Ford was the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977.
Robert McNamara was the 8th Secretary of Defense, serving under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson from 1961 to 1968.
Clark Clifford was the 9th Secretary of Defense, serving under President Lyndon B. Johnson from 1968 to 1969.
Melvin R. Laird was the 10th Secretary of Defense, serving under President Richard Nixon from 1969 to 1973.
James R. Schlesinger was the 12th Secretary of Defense, serving under President Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford from 1973 to 1975.
Henry Kissinger was the 8th National Security Advisor and the 56th Secretary of State, serving under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford from 1969 to 1977.

text: Military[edit]

text:
Earle Wheeler was a United States Army General who served as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1964 to 1970.
Thomas Hinman Moorer was a U.S. admiral who served as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1970 to 1974.
William Westmoreland was an American General who commanded American military operations in the Vietnam War from 1964 to 1968.
Creighton Abrams was an American General who commanded American military operations in the Vietnam War from 1968 to 1972.
Frederick C. Weyand was a U.S. Army General who was the last commander of American military operations in the Vietnam War from 1972 to 1973.
Elmo Zumwalt was an American naval officer and commander of American naval forces in Vietnam.
William W. Momyer was commander of the U.S. Air Force Tactical Air Command and the commander of the 7th Air Force.
John S. McCain, Jr. was an American admiral and Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Command.
George Stephen Morrison was an American Rear Navy Admiral in Command during the Gulf of Tonkin incident, which escalated the U.S involvement in Vietnam.

text: Republic of Korea[edit]

text:
Park Chung-hee was the President of South Korea from 1963 until his assassination in 1979.
Chae Myung-shin was the Commander of the Republic of Korea Armed Forces in Vietnam from 1965 to 1969.
Lee Se-ho was the Commander of the Republic of Korea Armed Forces in Vietnam from 1969 to 1973.

text: Australia[edit]

text:
Sir Robert Menzies was the Prime Minister of Australia from 1949 to 1966.
Harold Holt was the Prime Minister of Australia from 1966 to 1967.
John Gorton was the Prime Minister of Australia from 1968 to 1971.
Gough Whitlam was the Prime Minister of Australia from 1972 to 1975.
Air Chief Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger was Chairman, Chiefs of Staff Committee from 1961 to 1966.
Lieutenant General Sir Reginald Pollard was Chief of Army from 1960 to 1963.
Ted Serong was a senior officer of the Australian Army and commander of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam from 1962 to 1965.
Donald Dunstan was an Australian Army officer, who was commander of Australian Forces in Vietnam in 1971 and 1972.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text:
Keith Holyoake was the Prime Minister of New Zealand from 1960 to 1972.
Jack Marshall was the Prime Minister of New Zealand in 1972.
Norman Kirk was the Prime Minister of New Zealand from 1972 to 1974.

text: Philippines[edit]

text: Ferdinand Marcos was the President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986.

text: Taiwan[edit]

text: Chiang Kai Shek was the President of Taiwan from 1948 to 1975

text: Thailand[edit]

text:
Sarit Thanarat prime minister of Thailand from 1958 to 1963 against the communist Pathet Lao guerrillas in the neighboring Kingdom of Laos. During his years as prime minister Sarit was a patron of his cousin, the Lao strongman General Phoumi Nosavan, against the communist Pathet Lao guerrillas in the neighboring Kingdom of Laos.
Thanom Kittikachorn was the prime minister of Thailand from 1963 to 1973 and Royal Thai Armed Forces in Vietnam from 1967 to 1972.

text: Khmer Republic[edit]

text:
Lon Nol was the Prime Minister of Cambodia from 1966 to 1967 and then again in 1969 to 1972, after which he was President until 1975.
Sosthene Fernandez was the commander-in-chief of the Khmer National Armed Forces of Lon Nol's Khmer Republic.

text: Kingdom of Laos[edit]

text:
Souvanna Phouma was the prince of Laos and a political figure.
Vang Pao was a major general in the Royal Lao Army and commander of the Hmong guerrilla forces that had a large impact on the war.

text: Spain[edit]

text: Francisco Franco was the Caudillo of Spain from 1939 to 1975.

text: Communist forces[edit]

text: North Vietnam[edit]

text: Political[edit]

text:
Hồ Chí Minh was prime minister from 1946 to 1955 and president from 1945 until his death in 1969 of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam).
Lê Duẩn was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam and leader of North Vietnam and later the unified Vietnam from 1969 until his death in 1986.
Tôn Đức Thắng was the second and final President of North Vietnam and the first President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Phạm Văn Đồng was the Prime Minister of North Vietnam from 1955 to 1976.
Lê Đức Thọ was a Vietnamese politician who, as North Vietnam's representative, negotiated the Paris Peace Accords.
Trường Chinh was ranked in the top 3 of the Vietnamese Politburo from 1941 to 1986 and both preceded and succeeded Le Duan as General Secretary.

text: Military[edit]

text:
Võ Nguyên Giáp was the Vietnamese General in the Vietnam People's Army (NVA), Commander-in-Chief of PAVN and was one of the most prominent military leaders during the war.
Văn Tiến Dũng was a Vietnamese general in the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), PAVN chief of staff (1954–1974); PAVN commander in chief (1974–1980); and Socialist Republic of Vietnam defense minister (1980–1986).
Hoàng Văn Thái was the General Staff formed National Army, after holding The first Chief of General Staff of the People's Army of Vietnam.
Nguyễn Hữu An was a general in the Vietnamese People's Army, commander of the 2nd Army Corps.
Lê Trọng Tấn was a general and key figure of the Vietnamese People's Army, he was the deputy commander of the Viet Cong and held senior commands in the Easter Offensive and the Ho Chi Minh campaign.
Hoàng Minh Thảo was a general and military theorist of Vietnamese People's Army and an advisor to the Viet Cong.

text: Viet Cong (National Liberation Front)[edit]

text:
Nguyễn Hữu Thọ was the chairman of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam.
Hoàng Văn Thái was one of the leading commanders of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (1967–1973, during the U.S. buildup in South Vietnam), during the Tet Offensive he was the most senior North Vietnamese Officer in South Vietnam.
Trần Văn Trà was one of the leading commanders of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and a member of the Central Committee of the Lao Dong Party.
Tran Do was the deputy commander of the Viet Cong.
Nguyễn Văn Linh was a political leader of the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War who served as party secretary of South Vietnam for Communist Party of Vietnam.
Võ Chí Công was a Vietnamese Communist political figure who was one of the founding members of the Viet Cong.
Huỳnh Tấn Phát chairman of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam from 1969 to 1976.

text: Khmer Rouge[edit]

text:
Pol Pot was the leader of the Cambodian communist movement known as the Khmer Rouge.
Khieu Samphan was the head of the CPNLAF, the Khmer Rouge armed forces.

text: Pathet Lao[edit]

text:
Souphanouvong was the figurehead leader of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, and upon its successful seizure of power in 1975, he became the first President of the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
Phoumi Vongvichit was a leading figure of the Pathet Lao and an elder statesman of the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
Kaysone Phomvihane was the actual head of the LPRP from 1955 to his death in 1992 and Prime Minister and then President after the takeover.
Khamtai Siphandon was the military commander of the Pathet Lao and Defense Minister after the takeover before succeeding Kaysone Phomvihane.

text: People's Republic of China[edit]

text: Mao Zedong was the leader of the People's Republic of China from 1949 until his death in 1976.

text: Soviet Union[edit]

text:
Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. He was the leader of USSR when JFK was U.S. president.
Leonid Brezhnev was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1964 until his death in 1982. He was leader of USSR when Lyndon B. Johnson was U.S. president.
Rodion Malinovsky was the Marshal of the Soviet Union and Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union in 1957–1967.
Andrei Grechko was the Marshal of the Soviet Union Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union in 1967–1976.
Anatoliy Hiuppinen was the commander of the Soviet forces stationed in Vietnam.

text: North Korea[edit]

text: Kim Il-sung was the leader of North Korea from 1948 until his death in 1994.

text: People of the Vietnam War

text: Articles lacking sources from January 2012All articles lacking sources


document_title: History of anatomy

question_text: who was the anatomist that taught anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s

root

text: History of anatomy

text: Ancient anatomy[edit]

text: Egypt[edit]

text: The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BC, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. This treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder were recognized, and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart. Other vessels are described, some carrying air, some mucus, and two to the right ear are said to carry the "breath of life",[clarification needed] while two to the left ear the "breath of death".[citation needed]The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC) features a treatise on the heart. It notes that the heart is the center of blood supply, and attached to it are vessels for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little about the function of the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids of the body – blood, tears, urine and semen.  However, they did not have a theory as to where saliva and sweat came from.[2]

tag: p

text: Greek advances in anatomy[edit]

text: Nomenclature, methods and applications for the study of anatomy all date back to the Greeks.[3]   The early scientist Alcmaeon began to construct a background for medical and anatomical science with the dissection of animals. He identified the optic nerves and the tubes later termed the Eustachius.[4] Others such as Acron (480 BC), Pausanias (480 BC), and Philistion of Locri made investigations into anatomy. One important figure during this time was Empedocles (480 BC) who viewed the blood as the innate heat which he acquired from previous folklore. He also argued that the heart was the chief organ of both the vascular system and the pneuma (this could refer to either breath or soul; it was considered to be distributed by the blood vessels).[5]

text: Many medical texts by various authors are collected in the Hippocratic Corpus, none of which can definitely be ascribed to Hippocrates himself. The texts show an understanding of musculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs, such as the kidneys. The tricuspid valve of the heart and its function is documented in the treatise On the Heart.[citation needed]

text: In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded system, based on animal dissection. Through his work with animal dissections and evolutionary biology, Aristotle founded comparative anatomy. Around this time, Praxagoras is credited as the first to identify the difference between arteries and veins, and the relations between organs are described more accurately than in previous works.[citation needed]

text: The first recorded school of anatomy was in Alexandria from about 300 to the 2nd century BC.[6] Ptolemy I Soter was the first to allow for medical officials to cut open and examine dead bodies for the purposes of learning how human bodies operated. On some occasions King Ptolemy even took part in these dissections. Most of the early dissections were done on executed criminals. The first use of human cadavers for anatomical research occurred later in the 4th century BCE when Herophilos and Erasistratus gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection, on criminals in Alexandria under the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty.  Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more informed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been. Herophilos was the first physician to dissect human bodies and is considered to be the founder of Anatomy. He reversed the longstanding notion made by Aristotle that the heart was the "seat of intelligence". He argued instead that this seat was the brain.[7] He established the brain as the center of intelligence, distinguished between veins and arteries, and made many other accurate observations about the structure of the human body, especially the nervous system.[8] However, Herophilos was eventually accused by his contemporaries of dissecting live criminals. The number of victims is said to be around 600 prisoners.[9]

text: From ancient to medieval[edit]

text: Galen[edit]

text: The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen, active in the 2nd century.[6] He compiled much of the knowledge obtained by previous writers, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by performing vivisection on animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through animal dissection were broadly applied to human anatomy as well.  Galen served as chief physician to the gladiators in Pergamum (AD 158). Through his position with the gladiators, Galen was able to study all kinds of wounds without performing any actual human dissection. By default, Galen was able to view much of the abdominal cavity. His study on pigs and apes, however, gave him more detailed information about the organs and provided the basis for his medical tracts. Around 100 of these tracts survive and fill 22 volumes of modern text. His two great anatomical works are On anatomical procedure and On the uses of the parts of the body of man.[10] The information in these tracts became the foundation of authority for all medical writers and physicians for the next 1300 years until they were challenged by Vesalius and Harvey in the 16th century.[11][12]

text: It was through his experiments that Galen was able to overturn many long-held beliefs, such as the theory that the arteries contained air which carried it to all parts of the body from the heart and the lungs. This belief was based originally on the arteries of dead animals, which appeared to be empty. Galen was able to demonstrate that living arteries contain blood, but in his error, which became the established medical orthodoxy for centuries, was to assume that the blood goes back and forth from the heart in an ebb-and-flow motion.[13]

text: Early modern anatomy[edit]

text: From the 3rd century BCE until the 12th century,human anatomy was mainly learned through books and animal dissection.[14] While it was claimed by 19th century polemicists that human dissection became restricted after Boniface VIII passed a papal bull that forbade the dismemberment and boiling of corpses for funerary purposes and this is still repeated in some generalist works, this claim has been debunked as a myth by modern historians of science.[15] For many decades human dissection was thought unnecessary when all the knowledge about a human body could be read about from early authors such as Galen.[16] In the 12th century, as universities were being established in Italy, Emperor Frederick II made it mandatory for students of medicine to take courses on human anatomy and surgery.[17] Students who had the opportunity to watch Vesalius in dissection at times had the opportunity to interact with the animal corpse. At the risk of letting their eagerness to participate become a distraction to their professors, medical students preferred this interactive teaching style at the time.[18] In the universities the lectern would sit elevated before the audience and instruct someone else in the dissection of the body, but in his early years Mondino de Luzzi performed the dissection himself making him one of the first and few to use a hands on approach to teaching human anatomy.[19]Specifically in 1315, Mondino de' Liuzzi is credited with having "performed the first human dissection recorded for Western Europe."[20]

text: Mondino de Luzzi "Mundinus" was born around 1276 and died in 1326; from 1314 to 1324 he presented many lectures on human anatomy at Bologna university.[21] Mondino de'Luzzi put together a book called "Anathomia" in 1316 that consisted of detailed dissections that he had performed, this book was used as a text book in universities for 250 years.[22] "Mundinus" carried out the first systematic human dissections since  Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier.[23][24] The first major development in anatomy in Christian Europe since the fall of Rome occurred at Bologna, where anatomists dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description of organs and the identification of their functions.  Following de Liuzzi's early studies, 15th century anatomists included Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni.[23][25] Pathological anatomy[26][clarification needed]

text: Leonardo da Vinci[edit]

text: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. In 1489 Leonardo began a series of anatomical drawings depicting the ideal human form. This work was carried out intermittently for over 2 decades. During this time he made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.[27][28] Initially adopting an Aristotlean understanding of anatomy, he later studied Galen and adopted a more empirical approach, eventually abandoning Galen altogether and relying entirely on his own direct observation.[29] His surviving 750 drawings represent groundbreaking studies in anatomy. Leonardo dissected around thirty human specimens until he was forced to stop under order of Pope Leo X.[citation needed]

text: As an artist-anatomist, Leonardo made many important discoveries, and had intended to publish a comprehensive treatise on human anatomy.[29] For instance, he produced the first accurate depiction of the human spine, while his notes documenting his dissection of the Florentine centenarian contain the earliest known description of cirrhosis of the liver and arteriosclerosis.[29][30] He was the first to develop drawing techniques in anatomy to convey information using cross-sections and multiple angles, although centuries would pass before anatomical drawings became accepted as crucial for learning anatomy.[31] None of Leonardo's Notebooks were published during his lifetime, many being lost after his death, with the result that his anatomical discoveries remained unknown until they were later found and published centuries after his death.[32]

text: Vesalius[edit]

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tag: table

text:
The Galenic doctrine in Europe was first seriously challenged in the 16th century. Thanks to the printing press, all over Europe a collective effort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and later publish criticisms on their works. Vesalius openly denied Galen's anatomical teachings that is based on observations of other mammals, not human bodies.[33] Andreas Vesalius, born and educated in Belgium, contributed the most to human anatomy. Vesalius's success was due in large part to him exercising the skills of mindful dissections for the sake of understanding anatomy, much to the tune of Galen's "anatomy project" instead of focusing on the work of other scholars of the time in recovering the ancient texts of Hippocrates, Galen and others (which much of the medical community was focused around at the time).[34]Vesalius was the first to publish a treatise, De humani corporis fabrica, that challenged Galen "drawing for drawing". These drawings were a detailed series of explanations and vivid drawings of the anatomical parts of human bodies. Vesalius traveled all the way from Leuven[35] to Padua for permission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear of persecution. His superbly executed drawings are triumphant descriptions of the differences between dogs and humans, but it took a century for Galen's influence to fade. His work led to anatomy marked a new era in the study of anatomy and its relation to medicine. Under Vesalius, anatomy became an actual discipline.  "His skill in and attention to dissection featured prominently in his publications as well as his demonstrations, in his research as well as his teaching."[36]
In 1540, Vesalius gave a public demonstration of the inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories, which are still the orthodoxy of the medical profession. Vesalius now has on display, for comparison purposes, the skeletons of a human being alongside that of an ape of which he was able to show, that in many cases, Galen's observations were indeed correct for the ape, but bear little relation to man. Clearly what was needed was a new account of human anatomy. While the lecturer explained human anatomy, as revealed by Galen more than 1000 years earlier, an assistant pointed to the equivalent details on a dissected corpse. At times, the assistant was unable to find the organ as described, but invariably the corpse rather than Galen was held to be in error. Vesalius then decided that he will dissect corpses himself and trust to the evidence of what he found. His approach was highly controversial, but his evident skill led to his appointment as professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua.

text: A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a number of anatomical structures along the way.  The 16th and 17th centuries also witnessed significant advances in the understanding of the circulatory system, as the purpose of valves in veins was identified, the left-to-right ventricle flow of blood through the circulatory system was described, and the hepatic veins were identified as a separate portion of the circulatory system.  The lymphatic system was also identified as a separate system at this time.

text: 17th and 18th centuries[edit]

text: The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the beginning of the 17th century, the use of dissecting human cadavers influenced anatomy, leading to a spike in the study of anatomy. The advent of the printing press facilitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to take part.[37] Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin. Contrary to popular belief, the Church neither objected to nor obstructed anatomical research.[38]

text: Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections, and sometimes then only yearly. These dissections were sponsored by the city councilors and often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for scholars. Many European cities, such as Amsterdam, London, Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or some such office) tied to local government. Indeed, Nicolaes Tulp was Mayor of Amsterdam for three terms. Though it was a risky business to perform dissections, and unpredictable depending on the availability of fresh bodies, attending dissections was legal.[citation needed]

text: The supply of printed anatomy books from Italy and France led to an increased demand for human cadavers for dissections. Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, royal charters were established which allowed prominent universities to use the bodies of hung criminals for dissections. However, there was still a shortage of bodies that could not accommodate for the high demand of bodies. Until the middle of the 18th century, there was a quota of ten cadavers for each the Royal College of Physicians and the Company of Barber Surgeons, the only two groups permitted to perform dissections. During the first half of the 18th century, William Cheselden challenged the Company of Barber Surgeon’s exclusive rights on dissections. He was the first to hold regular anatomy lectures and demonstrations. He also wrote The Anatomy of the Humane Body, a student handbook of anatomy.[39] In 1752, the rapid growth of medical schools in England and the pressing demand for cadavers led to the passage of the Murder Act. This allowed medical schools in England to legally dissect bodies of executed murderers for anatomical education and research and also aimed to prevent murder. To further increase the supply of cadavers, the government increased the number of crimes in which hanging was a punishment. Although the number of cadavers increased, it was still not enough to meet the demand of anatomical and medical training.[40]

text: Since few bodies were voluntarily donated for dissection, criminals that were hung for murder were dissected. However, there was a shortage of bodies that could not accommodate the high demand of bodies.[41] To cope with shortages of cadavers and the rise in medical students during the 17th and 18th centuries, body-snatching and even anatomy murder were practiced to obtain cadavers.[42] 'Body snatching' was the act of sneaking into a graveyard, digging up a corpse and using it for study. Men known as 'resurrectionists' emerged as outside parties, who would steal corpses for a living and sell the bodies to anatomy schools. The leading London anatomist John Hunter paid for a regular supply of corpses for his anatomy school.[43] During the 17th and 18th centuries, the perception of dissections had evolved into a form of capital punishment. Dissections were considered a dishonor. The corpse was mutilated and not suitable for a funeral. By the end of the 18th century, many European countries had passed legislation similar to the Murder Act in England to meet the demand of fresh cadavers and to reduce crime. Countries allowed institutions to use unclaimed bodies of paupers, prison inmates, and people in psychiatric and charitable hospitals for dissection.[40]Unfortunately, the lack of bodies available for dissection and the controversial air that surrounded anatomy in the late 17th century and early 18th century caused a halt in progress that is evident by the lack of updates made to anatomical texts of the time between editions. Additionally, most of the investigations into anatomy were aimed at developing the knowledge of physiology and surgery. Naturally this meant that a close examination of the more detailed aspects of anatomy that could advance anatomical knowledge was not a priority.[44]

text: Paris Medicine was notorious for its influence on medical thought and its contributions to medical knowledge. The new hospital medicine in France during the late 18th century was brought about in part by the Law of 1794 which made physicians and surgeons equals in the world of medical care. The law came as a response to the increase demand for medical professionals capable of caring for the increase in injuries and diseases brought about by French Revolution. The law also supplemented schools with bodies for anatomical lessons. Ultimately this created the opportunity for the field of medicine to grow in the direction of "localism of pathological anatomy, the development of appropriate diagnostic techniques, and the numerical approach to disease and therapeutics."[citation needed]

text: The British Parliament passed the Anatomy Act 1832, which finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses by allowing legal dissection of executed murderers. The view of anatomist at the time, however, became similar to that of an executioner. Having one's body dissected was seen as a punishment worse than death, "if you stole a pig, you were hung. If you killed a man, you were hung and then dissected." Demand grew so great that some anatomist resorted to dissecting their own family members as well as robbing bodies from their graves.[45]

text: Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the centre of anatomy.  Only in Italy could certain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. Realdo Colombo (also known as Realdus Columbus) and Gabriele Falloppio were pupils of Vesalius. Columbus, as Vesalius's immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards professor at Rome, distinguished himself by describing the shape and cavities of the heart, the structure of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart.[46]

text: The rise in anatomy lead to various discoveries and findings. In 1628, English physician William Harvey observed circulating blood through dissections of his father’s and sister’s bodies. He published De moto cordis et sanguinis, a treatise in which he explained his theory.[40] In addition, during the 17th century, Galileo Galilei introduced the experimental method to scientific research. This led to innovation and change in anatomy. In Tuscany and Florence, Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, and Nils Steensen studied the anatomy of lymph nodes and salivary glands. By the end of the 17th century, Gaetano Zumbo developed anatomical wax modeling techniques.[47] Antonio Valsalva, a student of Malpighi and a professor of anatomy at University of Bologna, was one of the greatest anatomists of the time. He is known by many as the founder of anatomy and physiology of the ear.[48] In the 18th century, Giovanni Batista Morgagni related pre-mortem symptoms with post-mortem pathological findings using pathological anatomy in his book De Sedibus.[49] This led to the rise of morbid anatomy in France and Europe. The rise of morbid anatomy was one of the contributing factors to the shift in power between doctors and physicians, giving power to the physicians over patients.[50]With the invention of the Stethoscope in 1816, R.T.H. Laennec was able to help bridge the gap between a symptomatic approach to medicine and disease, to one based on anatomy and physiology. His disease and treatments were based on "pathological anatomy" and because this approach to disease was rooted in anatomy instead of symptoms, the process of evaluation and treatment were also forced to evolve.[51]From the late 18th century to the early 19th century, the work of professionals such as Giambattista Morgagni, Scott Matthew Baillie, and Xavier Bichat served to demonstrate exactly how the detailed anatomical inspection of organs could lead to a more empirical means of understanding disease and health that would combine medical theory with medical practice. This "pathological anatomy" paved the way for "clinical pathology that applied the knowledge of opening up corpses and quantifying illnesses to treatments."[52]Along with the popularity of anatomy and dissection came an increasing interest in the preservation of dissected specimens. In the 17th century, many of the anatomical specimens were dried and stored in cabinets. In the Netherlands, there were attempts to replicate Egyptian mummies by preserving soft tissue. This became known as Balsaming. In the 1660s the Dutch were also attempting to preserve organs by injecting wax to keep the organ’s shape. Dyes and mercury were added to the wax to better differentiate and see various anatomical structures for academic and research anatomy. By the late 18th century, Thomas Pole published The Anatomic Instructor, which detailed how to dry and preserve specimens and soft tissue.[53]

text: Anatomical theatres[edit]

text: In the late 16th century, anatomists began exploring and pushing for contention that the study of anatomy could contribute to advancing the boundaries of natural philosophy. However, the majority of students were more interested in the practicality of anatomy, and less so in the advancement of knowledge of the subject. Students were interested in the technique of dissection rather than the philosophy of anatomy, and this was reflected in their criticism of Professors such as Girolamo Fabrici.[54]Anatomical theatres became a popular form for anatomical teaching in the early 16th century. The University of Padua was the first and most widely known theatre, founded in 1594. As a result, Italy became the center for human dissection. People came from all over to watch as professors taught lectures on the human physiology and anatomy, as anyone was welcome to witness the spectacle. Participants "were fascinated by corporeal display, by the body undergoing dissection".[55] Most professors did not do the dissections themselves. Instead they sat in seats above the bodies while hired hands did the cutting. Students and observers would be placed around the table in a circular, stadium-like arena and listen as professors explained the various anatomical parts. As anatomy theaters gained popularity throughout the 16th century, protocols were adjusted to account for the disruptions of students. Students moved beyond simply being eager to participate, and began stealing and vandalizing cadavers. Students were thus instructed to sit quietly and were to be penalized for disrupting the dissection. Moreover, preparatory lectures were mandatory in order to introduce the "subsequent observation of anatomy". The demonstrations were structured into dissections and lectures. The dissections focused on the skill of autopsy/vivisection while the lectures would center on the philosophical questions of anatomy. This is exemplary of how anatomy was viewed not only as the study of structures but also the study of the "body as an extension of the soul".[56]The 19th century eventually saw a move from anatomical theatres to classrooms, reducing "the number of people who could benefit from each cadaver".[6]

text: 19th century anatomy[edit]

text: During the 19th century, anatomical research was extended with histology and developmental biology of both humans and animals.  Women, who were not allowed to attend medical school, could attend the anatomy theatres. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons forced unregulated schools to close.[57] Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.[58]

text: Modern anatomy[edit]

text: Anatomical research in the past hundred years has taken advantage of technological developments and growing understanding of sciences such as evolutionary and molecular biology to create a thorough understanding of the body's organs and structures.  Disciplines such as endocrinology have explained the purpose of glands that anatomists previously could not explain; medical devices such as MRI machines and CAT scanners have enabled researchers to study organs, living or dead, in unprecedented detail.  Progress today in anatomy is centered in the development, evolution, and function of anatomical features, as the macroscopic aspects of human anatomy have largely been catalogued. Non-human anatomy is particularly active as researchers use techniques ranging from finite element analysis to molecular biology.

text: To save time, some medical schools such as Birmingham, England have adopted prosection, where a demonstrator dissects and explains to an audience, in place of dissection by students. This enables students to observe more than one body. Improvements in colour images and photography means that an anatomy text is no longer an aid to dissection but rather a central material to learn from. Plastic models are regularly used in anatomy teaching, offering a good substitute to the real thing. Use of living models for anatomy demonstration is once again becoming popular within teaching of anatomy. Surface landmarks that can be palpated on another individual provide practice for future clinical situations. It is possible to do this on oneself; in the Integrated Biology course at the University of Berkeley, students are encouraged to "introspect"[59] on themselves and link what they are being taught to their own body.[57]

text: Donations of bodies have declined with public confidence in the medical profession.[60] In Britain, the Human Tissue Act 2004 has tightened up the availability of resources to anatomy departments. The outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) in the late 1980s and early 1990s further restricted the handling of brain tissue.[57][61]

text: The controversy with Gunther von Hagens and public displays of dissections, preserved by plastination, may divide opinions on what is ethical or legal.[62]


document_title: Food Network Star (season 13)

question_text: who won the next food network star 2017

question_tokens: who won the next food network star 2017

text: Food Network Star (season 13)

text: Contestants[edit]

text: Winner[edit]

text: Jason Smith – Grayson, Kentucky

tag: ul

text: Runners-up[edit]

text:
Rusty Hamlin – Atlanta, Georgia
Cory Bahr – Monroe, Louisiana

text: Eliminated[edit]

text: (in order of elimination)

text:
Blake Baldwin – Flemington, New Jersey
Nancy Manlove – Texas City, Texas
Toya Boudy – New Orleans, Louisiana
Suzanne Lossia – Detroit, Michigan
Trace Barnett – Brilliant, Alabama
Caodan Tran – Dallas, Texas
Addie Gundry – Lake Forest, Illinois
David Rose – Atlanta, Georgia
Cory Bahr – Monroe, Louisiana (returned to the competition after winning Star Salvation)
Amy Pottinger – Honolulu, Hawaii
Matthew Grunwald – Scottsdale, Arizona

text: Contestant progress[edit]

text:
Contestant
Week

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Mentor
Challenge
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Matthew
Addie
Amy
Jason1
Amy
Matthew
Cory
Jason
N/A

Jason
HIGH
IN
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
IN
IN
WINNER

Rusty
IN
IN
IN
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
LOW
RUNNER-UP

Cory
IN
HIGH
IN
IN
IN
LOW
IN
OUT

IN
RUNNER-UP2

Matthew
IN
LOW
IN
IN
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
IN
OUT

Amy
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
IN
HIGH
LOW
LOW
LOW
OUT

David
IN
IN
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
LOW
OUT

Addie
IN
HIGH
IN
LOW
IN
OUT

Caodan
HIGH
LOW
LOW
HIGH
OUT

Trace
IN
HIGH
LOW
OUT

Suzanne
IN
IN
OUT

Toya
LOW
OUT

Nancy
LOW
OUT

Blake
OUT

text:
^1 : Cory did not compete in the mentor challenge.
^2 : Cory was eliminated midway through the finale.

text: Comeback Kitchen[edit]

text: Contestants[edit]

text:
Rob Burmeister, Season 12
Danushka Lysek, Season 9
Emilia Cirker, Season 11
Jamika Pessoa, Season 5
Josh Lyons, Season 8
Joy Thompson, Season 12
Matthew Grunwald, Season 11

text: Contestant progress[edit]

text:
Contestant
Week

1
2
3

Matthew
HIGH
WIN
WIN

Jamika
HIGH
LOW
OUT

Joy
HIGH
WIN
OUT2

Danushka
LOW
LOW
OUT2

Rob
HIGH
WIN
OUT1

Emilia
LOW
OUT

Josh
OUT

text:
^1 : Rob was eliminated after the mentor challenge.
^2 : Danushka and Joy were eliminated after the star challenge.

text: Star Salvation[edit]

text: This season of Star Salvation was hosted by Iron Chef Alex Guarnaschelli and season 7 winner Jeff Mauro.[1]

text: Contestant progress[edit]

text:
Contestant
Week

1
2
3
4
5
6

Cory

IN
WIN

Amy

OUT

David

IN
IN
OUT

Addie

IN
IN
OUT

Trace
IN
IN
IN
OUT

Toya
IN
IN
OUT

Caodan

OUT

Blake
IN
OUT

Nancy
OUT

Suzanne
OUT