document_title: Anheuser-Busch brands

question_text: what type of beer is michelob amber bock

question_tokens: what type of beer is michelob amber bock

text: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Budweiser[edit]

text: Budweiser is a 5.0% ABV Adjunct pale lager introduced in 1876 by Adolphus Busch and has become one of the best selling beers in the United States.[3] It is made with up to 30% rice in addition to hops and barley malt.[4] Budweiser is produced in various breweries located around the United States and the rest of the world. It is a filtered beer available in draught and packaged forms. Lower strength versions are distributed in regions with restrictive alcohol laws.

text: Bud Light[edit]

text: Introduced in 1982 as Budweiser Light, Budweiser's flagship light beer with 4.2% ABV and 110 calories per 12 US fl oz (355 mL) serving (1,300 kJ/L).[5] From 1993 to 1998, Bud Light aired 30-second commercials featuring Rob and Laura from the CBS series The Dick Van Dyke Show.

text: Bud Light Platinum[edit]

text: A slightly sweeter, higher alcohol version of Bud Light launched in early 2012, with 6% ABV. This product is noted for being packaged in a new translucent blue glass bottle. Bud Light Platinum has 137 calories per 12 ounce serving, 8 fewer than a regular Budweiser.

text: Bud Light Apple[edit]

text: Bud Light with apple flavor added. It has 151 calories per 355 ml serving. Released in 2015 with 4.2% ABV.

text: Bud Light Lime[edit]

text: Bud Light with lime flavor added. It has 116 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,370 kJ/L). Released in May 2008 with 4.2% alcohol content, the same alcohol content as Bud Light.

text: Bud Light Lime-A-Ritas[edit]

text: Since April 2012, AB has released a line of 8% alcohol by volume (6% ABV in Canada[6])flavored malt beverages titled "Bud Light Lime Ritas," with its flagship flavor being the "Lime-a-Rita," a lime flavored beverage. The drinks are available in a twenty-five ounce can, as well as a twelve-pack of eight ounce cans. Since then, AB has released the strawberry-flavored "Straw-Ber-Rita," the mango flavored "Mang-o-Rita," and the raspberry flavored "Raz-Ber-Rita." For the winter 2013 season, AB released the cranberry-flavored "Cran-Brrr-Rita" as well, and wound up extending it through January and February 2014 due to strong sales.[7] After the release of the "Mang-o-Rita" and "Raz-Ber-Rita," A-B released an eighteen-pack case containing six "Lime-a-Ritas," four "Straw-Ber-Ritas," four "Mang-o-Ritas," and four "Raz-Ber-Ritas."

text: In August 2014, A-B released a new fall seasonal extension for their "Rita" line, "Apple-Ahh-Rita," an apple-flavored margarita sold until October 2014.

text: In February 2015, A-B released a new summer seasonal extension for their "Rita" line, "Lemon-Ade-Rita," a lemonade flavored margarita.

text: In summer 2016, A-B released the newest "rita" flavor of their line named "Water-melon-rita", a watermelon flavored margarita. A-B also released the "Grape-Ahh-Rita," a grape flavored margarita.

text: In fall 2016, A-B released the new "Cherry-Ahh-Rita," a cherry-flavored margarita.

text: In summer 2017, A-B released the new "Peach-A-Rita," a peach-flavored margarita. A-B also released the new "Orange-A-Rita," an orange-flavored margarita but only available in MI, OH, TX, FL, and GA. The "Grape-Ahh-Rita" was also renamed "Grape-A-Rita"

text: In summer 2017, A-B introduced "Splash by Lime-A-Rita," a line of lighter their Lime-A-Ritas with less alcohol, calories, and carbs available in three flavors; the existing "Straw-Ber-Rita" and the two new flavors "Pine-Apple-Rita" and "Coco-Nut-Rita."

text: Budweiser Select[edit]

text: Budweiser Select, or Bud Select, is a light pale lager that contains 4.3% ABV and 99 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,170 kJ/L).[8] Anheuser-Busch has aggressively promoted Budweiser Select. Its slogan was "The Real Deal". The company hired Jay-Z as a spokesman for the brand.

text: Budweiser Select 55[edit]

text: A version of Budweiser Select that contains 55 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (650 kJ/L) is "a direct counterstrike to Miller's MGD 64" according to Anheuser-Busch officials. Budweiser currently claims that it is the lightest beer in the world. The food energy in both Miller's MGD 64 and Budweiser's Select 55 have been reduced simply by lowering the fermentables content. MGD 64 has only 2.8% alcohol content and some Select 55 states "alcohol content not more than 3.2% by weight / 4% by volume", possibly to allow its sale in areas where that is the limit. The actual alcohol content of "55" is reported to be 2.4% ABV; by comparison, most American lagers have around 5%.

text: Budweiser 66[edit]

text: Budweiser Brew No. 66 is a 4% alcohol by volume lager that is brewed and distributed in the United Kingdom by InBev UK Limited. Launched in July 2010, Budweiser 66 has 84 Calories in a 300 ml serving (just over 10 oz).[9]

text: Budweiser 1933 Repeal Reserve[edit]

text: A 6% ABV amber lager style introduced in November 2017, inspired by a pre-prohibition recipe.

text: Bud Ice[edit]

text: Introduced in October 1993[10] as "Ice by Budweiser", it has more alcohol (5.5% ABV) than Budweiser. It is best known for an advertising campaign that involved a malevolent penguin that stalked Bud Ice drinkers and stole their beer, announcing its presence by singing the "doo-be-doo-be-doo" phrase from "Strangers in the Night".

text: Bud Extra[edit]

text: A beer with caffeine, ginseng, guarana and alcohol. It contains 6.6% ABV. It was marketed as a caffeinated malt beverage, similar to Sparks. On June 26, 2008, Anheuser-Busch announced that it would remove caffeine and guarana from the beverage in response to concerns that the product was being marketed to consumers under the age of 21.

text: Budweiser/Bud Light Chelada[edit]

text: A blend of Budweiser or Bud Light and Clamato. This beverage became available nationally in late 2007.[citation needed]

text: Budweiser Prohibition Brew[edit]

text: A non-alcoholic beer introduced into the Canadian market in 2016. It is anticipated to be available in the United States soon.[11] In 2015, AB InBev committed to ensuring that low-alcohol and nonalcoholic beers would represent at least 20% of its global beer volume by 2025.[12]

text: Budweiser NA[edit]

text: Non-alcoholic version of Budweiser developed for the Middle Eastern market. Also available in Green Apple and Tropical Fruits versions.

text: Discontinued[edit]

text: Budweiser American Ale[edit]

text: Budweiser American Ale debuted in September 2008. The beer claims to offer complex taste without much bitterness. American Ale has a distinctive hoppier flavor than other Anheuser-Busch beers, in an attempt to capture some of the American craft beer market, although most American craft beers are hoppier. American Ale is the first beer under the Budweiser name that is brewed with a top fermenting yeast. The beer's darker color is a departure from the other Budweiser brands. Production was discontinued prior to 2015.

text: Budweiser Brew Masters' Private Reserve[edit]

text: Budweiser Brew Masters' Private Reserve is an all-malt lager with a honey color and robust taste. It is based on a "Budweiser brewmaster holiday tradition of collecting the richest part of the batch which [clarification needed] is tapped to the brew kettles to toast the holiday season."[13]

text: Bud Dry[edit]

text: Bud Dry was introduced nationally in the U.S. in April 1990[14] with the slogan of "Why ask why? Try Bud Dry." It was originally successful in test markets and was expected to be a popular beer with the rise in light lager popularity. Dry beer is a form of pale lager where the sugars are more fully fermented to give a less sweet beer. It is also known as the Diät-Pils style. However, after the introduction of Bud Ice in 1994, Bud Dry was not heavily marketed. Production was discontinued in December 2010.

text: Bud Ice Light[edit]

text: Bud Ice Light contains 5.0% ABV and 115 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,360 kJ/L). It undergoes fractional freezing, which Bud Light does not undergo. It was discontinued in 2010.

text: Bud Light Golden Wheat[edit]

text: On October 5, 2009, Budweiser officially released Bud Light Golden Wheat, a response to the increase in the amount of wheat beers produced from craft brewers around the country. This beer had 118 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,390 kJ/L), 8.3 grams of carbohydrates and 4.1% alcohol by volume. It was an American Hefeweizen which is based on the classic German Hefeweizen style. Production was discontinued in 2012.[15]

text: Bud Silver[edit]

text: An attempt to appeal to the tastes of beer drinkers in the United Kingdom, this specially brewed beer contained 4.2% alcohol by volume. It was discontinued in 2006 after it failed to meet sales expectations.[16]

text: Michelob[edit]

text: Michelob is a 4.7% ABV pale lager developed by Adolphus Busch in 1896 as a "draught beer for connoisseurs".[17] In 1961, Anheuser-Busch produced a pasteurized version of Michelob which allowed legal shipment of the beer across state lines. Bottled beer began to be shipped soon after, and the brand was introduced in cans in 1966. Bottled Michelob was originally sold in a uniquely shaped bottle named the teardrop bottle because it resembled a water droplet. The teardrop bottle was awarded a medal from the Institute of Design in 1962. Five years later the bottle was redesigned for efficiency in the production line. This bottle was used until 2002 when it was dropped in favor of a traditional bottle. The teardrop bottle was used again from January 2007 to October 2008.

text: Brand variation[edit]

text: The company introduced Michelob Light in 1978. Michelob Classic Dark was made available in 1981 in kegs, with a bottled version following three years later. In 1991, Michelob Golden Draft was introduced to compete against Miller Genuine Draft in the Midwest.

text: 1997 saw the introduction of several specialty beers under the Michelob marquee. These include:

text:
Michelob Honey Lager
Michelob Pale Ale
Michelob Marzen
Michelob Pumpkin Spice Ale
Michelob Winter's Bourbon Cask Ale

text: AmberBock is a 5.1% ABV amber lager which uses roasted black barley malt in the ingredients, and which received a World Beer Cup Bronze Medal in 1998.

text: From the beginning, the specialty beers have had a very limited distribution. The chief outlet has been through a "holiday sampler pack" produced during the Christmas holiday season. Other specialty beers that are no longer in production include Michelob Hefeweizen and Michelob Black & Tan. Some (notably Michelob AmberBock) have subsequently gone into larger production, while others have not. The brewery continues to experiment with specialty beers—in 2005 an oak-aged vanilla beer was sold under the Michelob logo, available in single pints. In 2006 Michelob added a chocolate beer to the oak-aged vanilla Celebrate holiday season beer released a year earlier. Michelob also brewed Michelob Bavarian Style Wheat and Michelob Porter for its "holiday sampler pack". In 2007, Michelob launched its Seasonal Specialty Line. These include:

text:
Michelob Bavarian Wheat (summer)
Michelob Marzen (fall)
Michelob Porter (winter)
Michelob Pale Ale (spring)

text: The early 21st century saw in the U.S. a demand for diet beer similar to that of the early 1970s, and in 2002 the Michelob line responded with the introduction of Michelob Ultra, advertised as being low in carbohydrates. Later Michelob Ultra Amber, a darker, more flavorful beer, was added to this sub-line.

text: According to a report by Beer Marketer's Insights and published by USA Today on December 9, 2013, sales of Michelob Light declined by nearly 70% between 2007 and 2012. The article listed Michelob Light as one of "nine beers many Americans no longer drink."[18]

text: Michelob 5% alcohol; Michelob Golden Draft 4.7% alcohol; Michelob Golden Draft Light 4.3% alcohol; Michelob Ultra 4.2% alcohol; Michelob Ultra Amber 4.0% alcohol; Michelob: ULTRA Lime Cactus A fruit-infused light pilsner with natural lime flavor and a floral essence derived from the cactus; Michelob: ULTRA Pomegranate Raspberry A pilsner with a berry aroma, raspberry flavor, and a hint of pomegranate; Michelob: ULTRA Tuscan Orange Grapefruit A pilsner with fresh juicy orange notes and a slight pink-grapefruit finish.

text: All fruit flavors have the following nutrition content: 107 calories, 6.0g carbs, 0.5g protein and 0.0g fat, per 12 oz bottle.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Advertisements for Michelob Ultra feature people engaged in sporting activities. The Michelob ULTRA Open at Kingsmill and Michelob Ultra Futures Players Championship, were sponsored by Michelob Ultra. Michelob Ultra serves as a presenting sponsor of the Tour of Missouri bicycle race and sponsors the King of the Mountains jersey. Michelob also sponsors the Rugby Super League, and many of its teams have shirt sponsorships with its AmberBock brand. PGA Tour player Sergio García is sponsored by Michelob. Lance Armstrong signed on October 6, 2009 a three-year agreement to become Michelob Ultra's new spokesperson and ambassador, but was dropped by the company in 2012 after being accused of using performance-enhancing drugs.[19]

text: Michelob sponsored several episodes of the Diggnation podcast. The hosts, Kevin Rose and Alex Albrecht, sampled the beer during the show and several episodes included interviews with the company's head brew-master to discuss the different products that can be found in the sampler packs. Also, an episode of the show was filmed inside the Michelob brewery.

text: Michelob is most notably famous for its late-1980s TV commercials that used the slogan, "The night belongs to Michelob", which centered on its "night" theme and used songs that had the word "night" or a form of the word "night" in its title, including "Move Better in the Night" by Roger Daltrey, "Tonight, Tonight, Tonight" by Genesis, "Don't You Know What the Night Can Do?" by Steve Winwood and a new recording of "After Midnight" by Eric Clapton. In the 1980s and 1990s, Michelob used the slogan "Some days are better than others".

text: Rolling Rock[edit]

text: Rolling Rock is a 4.5% ABV pale lager launched in 1939 by the Latrobe Brewing Company. In May, 2006, Anheuser-Busch purchased the Rolling Rock brand from InBev for $82 million and began brewing Rolling Rock at its Newark facility in mid July, 2006.[20] Other pale lagers marketed under the Rolling Rock brand name are Rock Green Light, 3.7% ABV, and Rock Light, 3.5%; the company also produces a 5% ABV amber lager, Rolling Rock Red. Ingredients are pale barley malt, rice, corn and hops.[21]

text: Busch[edit]

text: Busch Beer, a 4.3% ABV economy brand pale lager was introduced in 1955 as Busch Bavarian Beer;[22] the brand name was changed in 1979 to Busch Beer.[23] Other beers marketed under the Busch brand name are Busch Light, a 4.1% pale lager introduced in 1989, Busch Ice, a 5.9% ice beer introduced in 1995,[24] and Busch NA, a non-alcoholic brew. Ingredients are a mix of American-grown and imported hops and a combination of malt and corn.[25] At a slightly lower price point than flagship brand Budweiser, it serves as Anheuser-Busch's second most popular brand.

text: Shock Top[edit]

text: Shock Top is a 5.2% ABV Belgian-style wheat ale introduced under the name Spring Heat Spiced Wheat brewed in Fort Collins, Colorado as a seasonal beer in 2006, then all year from 2007.[26][27] The beer is brewed with wheat malt, two-row barley, orange, lemon, lime peel, coriander and Cascade and Willamette hops. Entering as the Spring Heat Spiced Wheat, Shock Top Belgian White won gold and bronze medals in the Belgian Wit (White) category at the 2006 and 2007 North American Beer Awards, earning the reputation as America's Beer respectively. The brand now includes some seasonals and specialties that have replaced the Michelob Seasonals. Such varieties include Shock Top Pumpkin Wheat, Shock Top Raspberry Wheat, Shock Top Wheat IPA, Shock Top Lemon Shandy, Shock Top Honeycrisp Apple Wheat, Shock Top Chocolate Wheat, Ginger Wheat, Pretzel Wheat and Shock Top End of the World Midnight Wheat.[28] It competes directly with the MillerCoors brand Blue Moon.

text: Natural[edit]

text: Natural Light is an economy brand 4.2% ABV reduced-calorie pale lager introduced in 1977.[29] The brand was originally called Anheuser-Busch Natural Light. In 2008 The Wall Street Journal listed it as the fifth largest selling beer in the U.S.[30] Natural Ice is an economy brand 5.9% ABV ice beer, introduced in 1995. Nearly two decades after the introduction of Natural Ice, a malt liquor, Natty Daddy (8% and 5.9ABV), was added to the market in 2012.

text: Johnny Appleseed[edit]

text: Johnny Appleseed is a 5.5% ABV cider produced by Anheuser-Busch subsidiary Brokenstraw Beverage LLC and introduced in April 2014. Brokenstraw Beverage was created by Anheuser-Busch in 2014 as a corporate identity to manufacture and distribute Johnny Appleseed out of their Baldwinsville, N.Y. brewery.[31]

text: LandShark Lager[edit]

text: LandShark Lager, brewed in Jacksonville, Florida, is a 4.6% ABV island-style lager launched in 2006 as the house lager for "Jimmy Buffett's Margaritaville" restaurant chain, to compete with Grupo Modelo's Corona. Under a sponsorship deal, Dolphin Stadium, home of the Miami Dolphins, Florida Marlins and the Miami Hurricanes, was renamed "Land Shark Stadium" for the 2009 football season. The contract ended in early 2010, and the stadium has been renamed "Sun Life Stadium" as of January 18, 2010, in time for both the 2010 NFL Pro Bowl and Super Bowl XLIV. The stadium was renamed Hard Rock Stadium in 2016.[32][33][34]

text: LandShark also has Bar & Grill locations in Pensacola, Florida, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina,[35] Atlantic City, New Jersey,[36] and Biloxi, Mississippi.

text: The name is derived from the Jimmy Buffett song "Fins", where men in a beach town trying to woo a vacationing woman are referred to as "sharks that can swim on the land".

text: Craft Ownership[edit]

text: Goose Island Brewery[edit]

text: Goose Island started in 1988 as a brewpub in Chicago, and opened a separate bottling plant there in 1995. The brewery and its beers were purchased by Anheuser-Busch InBev in 2011.[37] The Chicago brewery continues to produce and sell small batch beers while their national offerings are made in bulk at various Anheuser-Busch facilities.

text: Blue Point[edit]

text: On February 5, 2014, it was announced that Blue Point Brewing Company was being sold to Anheuser-Busch InBev for nearly $24 million. As of the time of sale, the brewery will continue to operate in its Patchogue, New York, location.[38]

text: 10 Barrel[edit]

text: in November 2014, it was reported that 10 Barrel Brewing, with brewpubs in Bend, Oregon, and Boise, Idaho, would be acquired by Anheuser-Busch. This was the second small brewing company acquired by the company in that calendar year.[39]

text: Elysian Brewing Company[edit]

text: Elysian was founded in Seattle, Washington, in 1995 by Dave Buhler, Joe Bisacca, and Dick Cantwell. On January 23, 2015, it was announced that Elysian would be sold to Anheuser-Busch in a deal expected to close within three months.[40]

text: Golden Road Brewing[edit]

text: The purchase of Golden Road Brewery in Los Angeles was announced on September 23, 2015.[41]

text: Four Peaks Brewery[edit]

text: Four Peaks announced on December 18, 2015, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.[42]

text: Breckenridge Brewery[edit]

text: Several days after acquiring the Four Peaks brand and assets, InBev announced the purchase of Breckenridge Brewery, with brewpubs based in Colorado.[43]

text: Devils Backbone Brewing Company[edit]

text: Devils Backbone announced on April 12, 2016, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.[44]

text: Karbach Brewing Company[edit]

text: Karbach Brewing Company announced on November 3, 2016, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.[45]

text: Wicked Weed Brewing[edit]

text: Wicked Weed Brewing announced on May 3, 2017, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.[46]

text: Malt liquors[edit]

text: King Cobra[edit]

text: King Cobra is a 6% alcohol by volume malt liquor introduced in 1984. It is brewed with a warmer fermentation than used for the company's pale lagers, and the ingredients include barley malt and corn.[47] Shortly after its launch, King Cobra was supported by an advertising campaign featuring actor, martial artist, and former American football player Fred Williamson and the tag-line "Don't let the smooth taste fool you!"

text: Hurricane[edit]

text: Hurricane High Gravity Lager is an 8.1% alcohol malt liquor beverage available primarily in the United States. It is available in 40 ounce bottles, as well as 12, 16, 24, and 25 ounce cans. Recently, Hurricane High Gravity 8.1% has gone from a Black Label to a Silver Label in all of its serving sizes. Hurricane also comes in a lower alcohol content just called Hurricane malt liquor usually sold in a 40-ounce bottle Emina with an ABV of 5.9%.

text: Spykes[edit]

text: The company introduced a flavored 12% ABV malt liquor under the name Spykes in 2007. It was sold in colorful, 2-ounce bottles. Available flavors included mango, lime, melon and chocolate.[48] It was withdrawn in the same year after criticism from alcohol industry watchdog groups that it was being marketed to underage customers, and the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau found that the labeling of Spykes was illegal.[49][50][51]

text: Others[edit]

text:
Tequiza was a 4.5% ABV fruit flavored pale lager introduced in 1998 in limited markets in the USA, then withdrawn in January 2009.[52] Tequiza Extra, with more Tequila flavor and less lime, was test-marketed in 2000
Green Valley Brewing Company, has a craft beer appearance; "Anheuser-Busch" does not appear on labels of its products.
O'Doul's, introduced in 1990, it is a low-alcohol beer of less than 0.5% ABV.
O'Doul's Amber, introduced in 1997.
Redbridge, a gluten-free beer made from sorghum.
Tilt, a line of fruit flavored malt beverages.
Wild Blue Lager, a strong lager with blueberries.
Ziegenbock, sold in Texas and nearby states.

text: Minority ownership brands[edit]

text: As of January 2013, Anheuser-Busch InBev had 32.2% ownership in the Craft Brew Alliance, a beer brewing company[53] that is composed of several beer and cider brands.

text:
Redhook Ale Brewery founded by Gordon Bowker and Paul Shipman in 1981 in Seattle, Washington;
Widmer Brothers Brewery founded by brothers Kurt and Rob Widmer in 1984 in Portland, Oregon;
Kona Brewing Company founded by father and son team Cameron Healy and Spoon Khalsa in 1994 in Kona, Hawaii;
Omission Beer developed internally in 2012 in Portland, Oregon; and
Square Mile Cider, launched in 2013

text: Craft beer distribution alliances[edit]

text: Beers made by smaller "craft" breweries which are co-distributed with A-B brands by select distributors:[54]

text:
Fordham Brewing Company
Old Dominion Brewing Company


document_title: North by Northwest

question_text: where was roger thornhill's identity mistaken in north by northwest

question_tokens: where was roger thornhill 's identity mistaken in north by northwest

root

text: North by Northwest

text: Plot[edit]

text: At a New York City hotel bar in 1958, two thugs looking for a "George Kaplan" see a waiter calling out for him at the same time advertising executive Roger Thornhill summons the waiter. Thornhill is then mistaken for "George Kaplan" and is kidnapped. Thornhill is brought to the Long Island estate of Lester Townsend and is interrogated by spy Phillip Vandamm. Despite Thornhill denying he is George Kaplan, Vandamm thinks he is lying and has his henchman Leonard arrange Thornhill's death in a staged drunken driving accident. Thornhill manages to miraculously steer away from danger but is soon arrested for driving under the influence.

tag: p

text: The next morning, Thornhill tries but fails to convince his mother and the police that he had been kidnapped and forcibly inebriated. Journeying to the scene of the crime with police, a woman at Townsend's home, presumed to be Mrs. Townsend, says he showed up drunk at her dinner party. She also informs them that Townsend is a United Nations diplomat. While searching Kaplan's hotel room with his mother, Thornhill answers a phone call from the thugs who are in the hotel lobby. He escapes and visits the U.N. General Assembly building to meet Townsend. He discovers that Townsend is not the man he met on Long Island, and that Townsend is a widower. As Thornhill questions Townsend, one of the thugs throws a knife, hitting Townsend in the back, killing him. Thornhill catches Townsend as he falls and grabs the knife, giving the appearance that he murdered Townsend. Thornhill flees and attempts to find the real Kaplan.

text: Meanwhile, a government intelligence agency in Washington, D.C. read the news and realize that Thornhill has been mistaken for "George Kaplan", a fictional persona created by the agency to thwart Vandamm. However, Thornhill is not rescued for fear of compromising their operation.

text: Thornhill sneaks onto the 20th Century Limited train. He meets Eve Kendall, who hides him from the police. Kendall and Thornhill begin to establish a relationship but Kendall, unbeknownst to Thornhill, is actually working with Vandamm and his thugs. In Chicago, Kendall tells Thornhill she has arranged a meeting with Kaplan at an isolated bus stop. Thornhill waits at the bus stop, but Kaplan never shows up. He is then attacked by a crop duster plane. After unsuccessfully trying to hide in the fields, he steps in front of a speeding tank truck and the airplane crashes into it, leaving Thornhill to escape in a stolen pickup truck when traffic stops.

text: When he reaches Kaplan's hotel in Chicago, he discovers that Kaplan had checked out and left before Kendall said she talked to him on the phone. Thornhill goes to her room and confronts her, but she leaves. He tracks her to an art auction, where he finds Vandamm and his thugs. Vandamm purchases a Mexican Purépecha statue and leaves his thugs to deal with Thornhill. To engineer an escape from the thugs, Thornhill disrupts the auction by acting erratically; the police are summoned and take him away. When he tries to tell them he is the fugitive murderer, the police release him to the government agency's chief Professor (Leo G. Carroll). The Professor reveals that Kaplan does not exist and was invented to distract Vandamm from the real government agent: Kendall. Thornhill agrees to help maintain her cover.

text: At the Mount Rushmore visitor center, Thornhill (as Kaplan) negotiates Vandamm's turnover of Kendall for her prosecution as a spy. When "Kaplan" confronts Kendall, she shoots him "fatally" with a handgun (loaded with blanks) and flees. Thornhill and Kendall meet in a forest. Thornhill discovers Kendall must depart with Vandamm and Leonard on a plane. When Thornhill tries to dissuade her from going, he is knocked unconscious and locked in a hospital room. Thornhill escapes the Professor's custody, and goes to Vandamm's house to rescue Kendall.

text: At the house, Thornhill overhears that the sculpture holds microfilm, and that Leonard discovered that the gun used by Kendall to kill Thornhill was filled with blanks. Vandamm indicates that he will kill Kendall during the flight. Thornhill warns her with a surreptitious note. Vandamm, Leonard and Kendall depart the house to board the plane. Thornhill attempts to follow, but is stopped by Anna, the housekeeper, who holds him at bay with a gun—until he realizes it is the one loaded only with blanks. As Vandamm is boarding the plane, Kendall takes the sculpture and runs to the pursuing Thornhill. They flee to the top of Mount Rushmore. As they begin to climb down the mountain, they are pursued by Vandamm's two thugs, Leonard and Valerian. After a harrowing chase, Valerian falls to his death, while Leonard is fatally shot by a park ranger.

text: Later, Thornhill invites Kendall, now the new Mrs. Thornhill, onto the upper berth of a train, which then, suggestively, enters a tunnel.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Cary Grant as Roger Thornhill
Eva Marie Saint as Eve Kendall
James Mason as Phillip Vandamm
Jessie Royce Landis as Clara Thornhill
Leo G. Carroll as The Professor
Josephine Hutchinson as "Mrs. Townsend"
Philip Ober as Lester Townsend
Martin Landau as Leonard
Adam Williams as Valerian
Edward Platt as Victor Larrabee
Robert Ellenstein as Licht
Les Tremayne as Auctioneer
Philip Coolidge as Dr. Cross
Patrick McVey as Sergeant Flamm
Edward Binns as Captain Junket
Ken Lynch as Charlie

Uncredited cast

Maudie Prickett as Elsie the Maid
Malcolm Atterbury as Man at the crossroads[8]
Tol Avery as State Police Detective
John Beradino as Sergeant Emile Klinger[9]
Ned Glass as Ticket Seller
Doreen Lang as Maggie, Roger's Secretary
Nora Marlowe as Anna
Ralph Reed as Bellboy
Olan Soule as Assistant Auctioneer
Frank Wilcox as Herman Weitner
Sara Berner as Telephone Operator (voice)

tag: table

text: Hitchcock's cameo appearances are a signature occurrence in most of his films. In North by Northwest, he is seen getting a bus door slammed in his face, just as his credit is appearing on the screen.[10] There has been some speculation as to whether he made one of his rare second appearances, this time at around the 44-minute mark in drag as a woman in a turquoise dress on the train.[11] In fact, the woman was played by Jesslyn Fax, who went on to appear in many episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents. She had previously appeared in Rear Window.

text: MGM wanted Cyd Charisse for the role of Eve Kendall. Hitchcock stood by his choice of Eva Marie Saint.[12]

text: Production[edit]

text: John Russell Taylor's official biography of Hitchcock, Hitch: The Life and Times of Alfred Hitchcock (1978), suggests that the story originated after a spell of writer's block during the scripting of another film project:

text: Alfred Hitchcock had agreed to do a film for MGM and they had chosen an adaptation of the novel The Wreck of the Mary Deare by Hammond Innes. Composer Bernard Herrmann had recommended that Hitchcock work with his friend Ernest Lehman. After a couple of weeks, Lehman offered to quit saying he didn't know what to do with the story. Hitchcock told him they got along great together and they would just write something else. Lehman said that he wanted to make the ultimate Hitchcock film. Hitchcock thought for a moment then said he had always wanted to do a chase across Mount Rushmore. Lehman and Hitchcock spitballed more ideas: a murder at the United Nations Headquarters; a murder at a car plant in Detroit; a final showdown in Alaska. Eventually they settled on the U.N. murder for the opening and the chase across Mount Rushmore for the climax. For the central idea, Hitchcock remembered something an American journalist had told him about spies creating a fake agent as a decoy. Perhaps their hero could be mistaken for this fictitious agent and end up on the run. They bought the idea from the journalist for $10,000.

text: Lehman would sometimes repeat this story himself, as in the documentary Destination Hitchcock that accompanied the 2001 DVD release of the film. In his 2000 book Which Lie Did I Tell?, screenwriter William Goldman, commenting on the film, insists that it was Lehman who created North by Northwest and that many of Hitchcock's ideas were not used. Hitchcock had the idea of the hero being stranded in the middle of nowhere, but suggested the villains try to kill him with a tornado. Lehman responded, "but they're trying to kill him. How are they going to work up a cyclone?" Then, as he told an interviewer; "I just can't tell you who said what to whom, but somewhere during that afternoon, the cyclone in the sky became the crop-duster plane."[13]

text: In fact, Hitchcock had been working on the story for nearly nine years prior to meeting Lehman. The "American journalist" who had the idea that influenced the director was Otis C. Guernsey, a respected reporter who was inspired by a true story during World War II when British Intelligence obtained a dead body, created a fictitious officer who was carrying secret papers and arranged for the body, carrying misleading papers, to be discovered by the Germans as a disinformation exercise (Operation Mincemeat). Guernsey turned his idea into a story about an American traveling salesman who travels to the Middle East and is mistaken for a fictitious agent, becoming "saddled with a romantic and dangerous identity." Guernsey admitted that his treatment was full of "corn" and "lacking logic." He urged Hitchcock to do what he liked with the story. Hitchcock bought the sixty pages for $10,000.

text: Hitchcock often told journalists of an idea he had about Cary Grant hiding out from the villains inside Abraham Lincoln's nose and being given away when he sneezes. He speculated that the film could be called "The Man in Lincoln's Nose" (Lehman's version is that it was "The Man on Lincoln's Nose"[14]) or even "The Man who Sneezed in Lincoln's Nose", though he probably felt the latter was insulting to his adopted America. Hitchcock sat on the idea, waiting for the right screenwriter to develop it. At one stage "The Man in Lincoln's Nose" was touted as a collaboration with John Michael Hayes. When Lehman came on board, the traveling salesman—which had previously been suited to James Stewart—was adapted to a Madison Avenue advertising executive, a position which Lehman had formerly held. In an interview in the book Screenwriters on Screenwriting (1995), Lehman stated that he had already written much of the screenplay before coming up with critical elements of the climax.[15]

text: This was the only Hitchcock film released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. It is currently owned by Turner Entertainment—since 1996 a division of Warner Bros.—which owns the pre-1986 MGM film library. Production costs on North by Northwest were seriously escalated when a delay in filming put Cary Grant into the penalty phase of his contract, resulting in an additional $5,000 per day in fees for the actor, before shooting even began.[16]

text: Filming[edit]

text: At Hitchcock's insistence, the film was made in Paramount's VistaVision widescreen process, making it one of only two VistaVision films made at MGM; the other was High Society.[17]

text: The scene of Cary Grant going to the United Nations in New York was filmed illicitly because UN authorities—after reviewing the script—denied filming on or near its property. After two failed attempts to get the required shots, Hitchcock had Grant pull up in taxicab right outside the general assembly building while a hidden camera crew filmed him exiting the vehicle and walking across the plaza.[18]

text: The car chase scene in which Thornhill is drunkenly careening along the edge of cliffs of Long Island, high above the ocean, was actually shot on the California coast, and in Griffith Park in Los Angeles, according to DVD audio commentary.

text: The crop-duster sequence, meant to take place in northern Indiana, was shot on location on Garces Highway (155) near the towns of Wasco and Delano, north of Bakersfield in Kern County, California (35°45′39″N 119°33′41″W / 35.76083°N 119.56139°W / 35.76083; -119.56139).[19] Years later, in a show at the Pompidou Centre called "Hitchcock and Art: Fatal Coincidences", an aerial shot of Grant in the cornfield, with a "road cutting straight through the cornrows to the edge of the screen", was said to draw on Léon Spilliaert's "Le Paquebot ou L'Estran", which features "alternating strips of sand and ocean blue bands stretch[ed] to the edge of the canvas."[20]

text: The aircraft seen flying in the scene is a Naval Aircraft Factory N3N Canary, a World War II Navy pilot trainer sometimes converted for crop-dusting.[21] The aircraft that hits the truck and explodes is a wartime Stearman (Boeing Model 75) trainer. Like its N3N lookalike, many were used for agricultural purposes through the 1970s. The plane was piloted by Bob Coe, a local crop-duster from Wasco.[22] Hitchcock placed replicas of square Indiana highway signs in the scene. In an extensive list of "1001 Greatest Movie Moments" of all time, the British film magazine Empire in its August 2009 issue ranked the crop-duster scene as the best.[23]

text: Set design[edit]

text: The house near the end of the film was not real. Hitchcock asked the set designers to make the set resemble a house by Frank Lloyd Wright, the most popular architect in America at the time, using the materials, form and interiors associated with him.[24] The set was built in Culver City, California, where MGM's studios were located. House exteriors were matte paintings.[25]

text: Costuming[edit]

text: A panel of fashion experts convened by GQ in 2006 said the gray suit worn by Cary Grant throughout almost the entire film was the best suit in film history, and the most influential on men's style, stating that it has since been copied for Tom Cruise's character in Collateral and Ben Affleck's character in Paycheck.[26] This sentiment has been echoed by writer Todd McEwen, who called it "gorgeous", and wrote a short story "Cary Grant's Suit" which recounts the film's plot from the viewpoint of the suit.[27] There is some disagreement as to who tailored the suit; according to Vanity Fair magazine, it was Norton & Sons of London,[28] although according to The Independent it was Quintino of Beverly Hills.[29]

text: Eva Marie Saint's wardrobe for the film was originally entirely chosen by MGM. Hitchcock disliked MGM's selections and the actress and director went to Bergdorf Goodman in New York to select what she would wear.[30]

text: Editing and post-production[edit]

text: In François Truffaut's book-length interview, Hitchcock/Truffaut (1967), Hitchcock said that MGM wanted North by Northwest cut by 15 minutes so the film's length would run under two hours. Hitchcock had his agent check his contract, learned that he had absolute control over the final cut, and refused.[31]

text: One of Eva Marie Saint's lines in the dining-car seduction scene was redubbed. She originally said "I never make love on an empty stomach", but it was changed in post-production to "I never discuss love on an empty stomach", as the censors considered the original version too risqué.[32]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film opened in 1959 with a two-week run at Radio City Music Hall and the film had a successful gross of $404,056 for that period.[33] One trailer for North by Northwest features Hitchcock presenting himself as the owner of Alfred Hitchcock Travel Agency and telling the viewer he has made a motion picture to advertise these wonderful vacation stops.[34]

text: Home media[edit]

text: North by Northwest was released on the Blu-ray Disc format in the United States on November 3, 2009 by Warner Bros. with a 1080p VC-1 encoding.[35][36] This release is a special 50th-anniversary edition, restored and remastered from original VistaVision elements. A DVD edition was also released.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: During its two-week run at Radio City Music Hall, the film grossed $404,056, setting a record in that theater's non-holiday gross.[33] According to MGM records the film earned $5,740,000 in the US and Canada and $4.1 million elsewhere, resulting in a profit of $837,000.[1]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: North by Northwest currently holds a 100% approval rating on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 64 reviews. The site states the critical consensus as, "Gripping, suspenseful and visually iconic, this late-period Hitchcock classic laid the groundwork for countless action thrillers to follow."[37] The film ranks at number 98 in Empire magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Films of All Time.[38] The Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay No. 21 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written.[39] It is ranked the 40th-greatest American film by the American Film Institute.[40]

text: Time magazine called the film "smoothly troweled and thoroughly entertaining."[41] A. H. Weiler of The New York Times made it a "Critic's Pick" and said it was the "year's most scenic, intriguing and merriest chase"; Weiler complimented the two leads:

text: Cary Grant, a veteran member of the Hitchcock acting varsity, was never more at home than in this role of the advertising-man-on-the-lam. He handles the grimaces, the surprised look, the quick smile, … and all the derring-do with professional aplomb and grace, In casting Eva Marie Saint as his romantic vis-à-vis, Mr. Hitchcock has plumbed some talents not shown by the actress heretofore. Although she is seemingly a hard, designing type, she also emerges both the sweet heroine and a glamorous charmer.[42]

text: Film critic Charles Champlin saw the film as an "anthology of typical Hitchcockian situations", and was particularly taken by the scene and suspense in which Grant's character avoids death when attacked by a crop-dusting plane in the cornfields, which he believed was representative of Hitchcock's finest work.[43]

text: The London edition of Time Out magazine, reviewing the film nearly a half-century after its initial release, commented:

text: Fifty years on, you could say that Hitchcock's sleek, wry, paranoid thriller caught the zeitgeist perfectly: Cold War shadiness, secret agents of power, urbane modernism, the ant-like bustle of city life, and a hint of dread behind the sharp suits of affluence. Cary Grant's Roger Thornhill, the film's sharply dressed ad exec who is sucked into a vortex of mistaken identity, certainly wouldn't be out of place in Mad Men. But there's nothing dated about this perfect storm of talent, from Hitchcock and Grant to writer Ernest Lehman (Sweet Smell of Success), co-stars James Mason and Eva Marie Saint, composer Bernard Herrmann and even designer Saul Bass, whose opening-credits sequence still manages to send a shiver down the spine.[44]

text: Author and journalist Nick Clooney praised Lehman's original story and sophisticated dialogue, calling the film "certainly Alfred Hitchcock's most stylish thriller, if not his best".[45]

text: Awards reception[edit]

text: North by Northwest was nominated for three Academy Awards—for Best Film Editing (George Tomasini), Best Art Direction – Set Decoration, Color (William A. Horning, Robert F. Boyle, Merrill Pye, Henry Grace, Frank McKelvy), and Best Original Screenplay (Ernest Lehman)—at the 32nd Academy Awards ceremony.[46] Two of the three awards went instead to Ben-Hur, and the other went to Pillow Talk. The film also won a 1960 Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay, for Lehman.

text: In 1995, North by Northwest was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "10 Top 10"—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. North by Northwest was acknowledged as the seventh-best film in the mystery genre.[47] It was also listed as No. 40 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies, No. 4 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills, and No. 55 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition).

text: Themes and motifs [edit]

text: Hitchcock planned the film as a change of pace after his dark romantic thriller Vertigo a year earlier. In his book-length interview Hitchcock/Truffaut (1967) with François Truffaut, Hitchcock said that he wanted to do "something fun, light-hearted, and generally free of the symbolism permeating his other movies."[48] Writer Ernest Lehman has also mocked those who look for symbolism in the film.[49] Despite its popular appeal, the film is considered to be a masterpiece for its themes of deception, mistaken identity, and moral relativism in the Cold War era.

text: The title North by Northwest is a subject of debate. Many have seen it[citation needed] as having been taken from a line ("I am but mad north-north-west: when the wind is southerly I know a hawk from a handsaw") in Hamlet, a work also concerned with the shifty nature of reality.[50] Hitchcock noted, in an interview with Peter Bogdanovich in 1963, "It's a fantasy. The whole film is epitomized in the title—there is no such thing as north-by-northwest on the compass."[51] ("Northwest by north", however, is one of 32 points of the compass.) Lehman states that he used a working title for the film of "In a Northwesterly Direction", because the film's action was to begin in New York and climax in Alaska. Then the head of the story department at MGM suggested "North by Northwest", but this was still to be a working title. Other titles were considered, including "The Man on Lincoln's Nose", but "North by Northwest" was kept because, according to Lehman, "We never did find a [better] title."[14] The Northwest Airlines reference in the film plays on the title.

text: The film's plot involves a "MacGuffin", a term popularized by Hitchcock: a physical object that everyone in the film is chasing but which has no deep relationship to the plot. Late in North by Northwest, it emerges that the spies are attempting to smuggle microfilm containing government secrets out of the country. They have been trying to kill Thornhill, whom they believe to be the agent on their trail, 'George Kaplan'.

text: North by Northwest has been referred to as "the first James Bond film"[52] due to its similarities with splashily colorful settings, secret agents, and an elegant, daring, wisecracking leading man opposite a sinister yet strangely charming villain. The crop-duster scene inspired the helicopter chase in From Russia with Love.[53]

text: The film's final shot—that of the train speeding into a tunnel during a romantic embrace onboard—is a famous bit of self-conscious Freudian symbolism reflecting Hitchcock's mischievous sense of humor. In the book Hitchcock / Truffaut (p. 107–108), Hitchcock called it a "phallic symbol… probably one of the most impudent shots I ever made."

text: Influences[edit]

text: The film's title is reported to have been the influence for the name of the popular annual live-music festival South by Southwest in Austin, Texas, started in 1987, with the name idea coming from Louis Black, editor and co-founder of the local alternative weekly The Austin Chronicle, as a play on the Hitchcock film title.[54]

text: The third episode of the Doctor Who serial "The Deadly Assassin" includes an homage to North by Northwest, when the Doctor, who like Hitchcock's hero is falsely accused of a politically motivated murder, is attacked by gunfire from a biplane piloted by one of his enemy's henchmen.[55]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: North by Northwest was adapted as a stage play by Carolyn Burns. The adaptation premiered at the Melbourne Theatre Company in 2015.[56]


document_title: Cotton mill

question_text: who established the first textile mill where spinning and weaving occurred in one place

question_tokens: who established the first textile mill where spinning and weaving occurred in one place

text: Cotton mill

text: History[edit]

text: In the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere.[7] The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation.

text: Key inventions[edit]

text: During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to a mechanised industry, made possible by inventions and advances in technology. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kay's flying shuttle in 1733. The manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process.[8] The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwright's spinning frame and water frame, patented in 1769.[9] The principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792.[10] Many mills were built after Arkwright's patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, there were about 210 mills in Great Britain.[11] The development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774, 30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the domestic system in cotton manufacture. Handloom weaving lingered into the mid-19th century but cotton spinning in mills relying on water power and subsequently steam power using fuel from the Lancashire Coalfield began to develop before 1800.[12]

text: First mills (1740–1815)[edit]

text: The Paul-Wyatt mills[edit]

text: The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt.[15][16][17][18] The machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically "without the intervention of human fingers".[19] They were driven by a single non-human power source which allowed the use of larger machinery and made it possible to concentrate production into organised factories.[20] Four mills were set up to house Paul and Wyatt's machinery in the decade following its patent in 1738: the short-lived, animal-powered Upper Priory Cotton Mill in Birmingham in 1741;[21] Marvel's Mill in Northampton operated from 1742 until 1764 and was the first to be powered by a water wheel;[22] Pinsley Mill in Leominster probably opened in 1744 and operated until it burned down in 1754;[23] and a second mill in Birmingham set up by Samuel Touchet in 1744, about which little is known, but which was sufficiently successful for Touchet later to seek the lease on the mill in Northampton.[24] The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable,[25][26] becoming the ancestors of the cotton mills that followed.[16][27]

text: Arkwright-type mills[edit]

text: Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769.[28] Although its technology was similar to that of Lewis Paul, John Wyatt, James Hargreaves and Thomas Highs, Arkwright's powers of organisation, business acumen and ambition established the cotton mill as a successful business model and revolutionary example of the factory system.[29][28][30] Arkwright's first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatt's first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers.[29][28] In 1771, while the Nottingham mill was at an experimental stage, Arkwright and his partners started work on Cromford Mill in Derbyshire, which "was to prove a major turning point in the history of the factory system".[31] It resembled the Paul-Wyatt water-powered mill at Northampton in many respects,[32] but was built on a different scale, influenced by John Lombe's Old Silk Mill in Derby[33] and Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory in Birmingham.[34] Constructed as a five-storey masonry box; high, long and narrow, with ranges of windows along each side and large relatively unbroken internal spaces, it provided the basic architectural prototype that was followed by cotton mills and English industrial architecture through to the end of the 19th century.[35]

text: Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies and cultivated mass consumer markets for his products.[36] By 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000,[37] and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills.[38] He licensed his technology to other entrepreneurs[39] and in 1782 boasted that his machinery was being used by "numbers of adventurers residing in the different counties of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford, York, Hertford and Lancashire"[40] and by 1788 there were 143 Arkwright-type mills nationwide.[41] The early mills were of light construction, narrow – about 9 feet (2.7 m) wide – and low in height, with ceiling heights of only 6–8 ft.[42] The mills were powered by water wheels and lit by daylight. Mills were made by millwrights, builders and iron founders.[43] By the end of the 18th century there were about 900 cotton mills in Britain, of which approximately 300 were large Arkwright-type factories employing 300 to 400 workers, the rest, smaller mills using jennies or mules, were hand- or horse-driven and employed as few as 10 workers.[44]

text: Early steam mills[edit]

text: Before 1780, only water power was available to drive large mills,[45] but they were dependent on a constant flow of water and built in rural locations, causing problems of labour supply, transportation of materials and access to urban merchants for large mill-owners.[46] Steam engines had been used to pump water since the invention of the atmospheric engine by Thomas Newcomen in 1712[47] and, starting with the engine installed at Arkwright's Haarlem Mill in Wirksworth, Derbyshire in 1780, were used to supplement the supply of water to the water wheels of cotton mills.[48]

text: In 1781 James Watt registered a patent for the first rotative steam engine designed to "give motion to the wheels of mills or other machines".[49] Concerns remained over the smoothness of the power supplied by a steam engine to cotton mills, where  the regularity of the yarn produced was dependent on the regularity of the power supply,[50] and it was not until 1785 at Papplewick, in Robinson's Mill near Nottingham that a steam engine was successfully used to drive a cotton mill directly.[51] Boulton and Watt's engines enabled mills to be built in urban contexts and transformed the economy of Manchester, whose importance had previously been as a centre of pre-industrial spinning and weaving[52] based on the domestic system.[4] Manchester had no cotton mills until the opening of Arkwright's Shudehill Mill in 1783 and in 1789 Peter Drinkwater opened the Piccadilly Mill – the town's first mill to be directly powered by steam – and by 1800 Manchester had 42 mills, having eclipsed all rival textile centres to become the heart of the cotton manufacturing trade.[53]

text: Water continued to be used to drive rural mills but mills, driven by steam, were built in towns alongside streams or canals to provide water for the engine. Murrays' Mills alongside the Rochdale Canal, in Ancoats were powered by 40 hp Boulton and Watt beam engines.[54]b Some were built as room and power mills, which let space to entrepreneurs. The mills, often 'L' or U-shaped, were narrow and multi-storeyed. The engine house, warehousing and the office were inside the mill, although stair towers were external. Windows were square and smaller than in later mills. The walls were of unadorned rough brick. Construction was sometimes to fireproof designs. The mills are distinguished from warehouses in that warehouses had taking-in doors on each storey with an external hoist beam.[55] Only the larger mills have survived.

text: Mills of this period were from 25 to 68 m long and 11.5 m to 14 m wide. They could be eight storeys high and had basements and attics. Floor height varied from 3.3 to 2.75 m on the upper storeys.

text: Boilers were of the wagon type; chimneys were square or rectangular, attached to the mill, and in some cases part of the stair column. The steam engines were typically low-pressure single-cylinder condensing beam engines.[56] The average power in 1835 was 48 hp.[57] Power was transmitted by a main vertical shaft with bevel gears to the horizontal shafts. The later mills had gas lighting using gas produced on site.[58] The mules with 250–350 spindles were placed transversely to get as much light as possible.

text: Early weaving mills[edit]

text: The development of mills to mechanise the weaving process was more gradual partly because of the success of John Kay's 1733 invention of the flying shuttle, which increased the productivity of domestic hand loom weavers.[59] Kay took out a patent for the application of water power to a Dutch loom in 1745 and opened a weaving factory in Keighley in 1750, but nothing is known of its success.[59] A further attempt to mechanise the weaving process took place at Garrett Hall in Manchester in 1750 but was unsuccessful in enabling one worker to operate more than a single loom.[59] The first feasible power loom was patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785, although it was initially a primitive device it established the basic principle that would be used in powered weaving until the 20th century.[60] In 1788 Cartwright opened Revolution Mill in Doncaster which was powered by a Boulton and Watt steam engine and had 108 power looms on three floors as well as spinning machinery, but it was not a commercial success and closed in 1790.[61] A second mill using Cartwright's machinery, opened in Manchester in 1790 but was burned to the ground by hand loom weavers within two years.[62] By 1803 there were only 2,400 power looms operating in Britain.[63]

text: Early American mills[edit]

text: In the United States, the early horse-powered Beverly Cotton Manufactory was designed by Thomas Somers, who started construction and testing of the facility in 1787, finishing the factory's equipment in 1788. Experience from this factory led Moses Brown of Providence to request the assistance of a person skilled in water-powered spinning. Samuel Slater, an immigrant and trained textile worker from England, accepted Brown's proposal, and assisted with the design and construction of Slater Mill, built in 1790 on the Blackstone River in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Slater evaded restrictions on emigration put in place to allow England to maintain its monopoly on cotton mills. Slater Mill resembled the Beverly Cotton Manufactory and a mill in Derbyshire in which he had worked.[64][65]

text: Remodelling and expansion (1815–1855)[edit]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: From 1825 the steam engine was able to power larger machines constructed from iron using improved machine tools. Mills from 1825 to 1865 were generally constructed with wooden beamed floors and lath and plaster ceilings. William Fairbairn experimented with cast iron beams and concrete floors. Mills were of red brick or sometimes local stone with a greater attention to decoration and the main gate was often highlighted with stone decoration. The stair columns were exterior to the main floors.[66] During this period the mules got wider and the width of the bays increased. Specialised mill architects appeared.

text: Mills of this period were tall, narrow, and wide. They were commonly built with one or two wings to form an 'L' or 'U' shape. Brunswick Mill was a 28-bay mill, 6 storeys of 16 m by 92 m. Each self-acting spinning mule had 500 spindles.[66] Single-storey north light weaving sheds were sometimes added to the mills. The looms caused vibrations that damaged the structure of multi-storey buildings,[67] and specialised weaving mills became common. They were single-storey sheds with an engine house and offices, and preparation and warehousing in a two-storey ancillary building.[citation needed]

text: Large mills remained the exception during this period. In 1833 the largest mill was that of McConnel and Company in Ancoats, Manchester with 1,545 workers, but in 1841 there were still only 25 mills in Lancashire with 1,000 workers or more, and the number of workers in the average mill was 193.[68]

text: The Lancashire boiler was patented in 1844, and the economiser in 1845. This can be seen as a square brick structure between the boiler house and the chimney. The engines were double compound upright beam engines of the type patented by McNaught in 1845. Each room in the mill would have line shafts suitable for the type of frame, connected by belt drives or gearing.[69]

text: In 1860, there were 2650 cotton mills in the Lancashire region, employing 440,000 people. The workers, 90 per cent of whom were adults and 56 per cent females, were paid a total of  ₤11.5 million per annum. The mills used 300,000 hp of power, of which 18,500 was generated by waterpower. The mills had 30,387,467 spindles and 350,000 power looms. The industry imported 1,390,938,752 lb of raw cotton a year. It exported 2,776,218,427 yards of cotton cloth and 197,343,655 pounds (89,513,576 kg) of twist and yarn. The total value of its exports was ₤32,012,380.

text: 1860 saw the end of this period of rapid growth. The Cotton Famine of 1861–1865 was a period when American long staple cotton became unavailable due to an American Civil War. After the war, the economics of the industry had changed, and a new larger mill was required.

text: United States[edit]

text: In 1814 the Boston Manufacturing Company of New England established a "fully integrated" mill on the Charles River at Waltham, Massachusetts. Despite the ban on exporting technology from the UK, one of its proprietors, Francis Cabot Lowell, had travelled to Manchester to study the mill system and memorised some of its details. In the same year, Paul Moody built the first successful power loom in the US. Moody used a system of overhead pulleys and leather belting, rather than bevel gearing, to power his machines.[70] The group devised the Waltham System of working, which was duplicated at Lowell, Massachusetts and several other new cities throughout the state. Mill girls, some as young as ten, were paid less than men, but received a fixed wage for their 73-hour week. They lived in company-owned boarding houses, and attended churches supported by the companies.[71][72]

text: In the 1840s George Henry Corliss of Providence, Rhode Island improved the reliability of stationary steam engines. He replaced slide valves with valves that used cams. These Corliss valves were more efficient and more reliable than their predecessors. Initially, steam engines pumped water into a nearby reservoir that powered the water wheel, but were later used as the mill's primary power source. The Corliss valve was adopted in the UK, where in 1868 more than 60 mill engines were fitted with them.[73]

text: India[edit]

text: The large steam-powered Bowreath Cotton Mills opened at Fort Gloster near Calcutta by British interests in the 1820s, using British women to impart machine-spinning skills to the local workforce.[74] They closed down in 1837 but reopened with Dwarkanath Tagore as a major shareholder, and by 1840 lay at the centre of a major industrial complex powered by five steam engines, that included a twist mill, foundry and a rum distillery.[74]

text: Golden Age (1855–1898)[edit]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Just before 1870, a mill was built by a joint-stock spinning company and this financial structure led to a new wave of mill construction. The phrase Oldham Limiteds describes these companies. Family-run firms continued to build, but grouped into associations such as the Fine Spinners' and Doublers' Association. Joseph Stott of Oldham perfected a method of fireproof floor construction using steel beams supporting brick vaults that in turn supported concrete floors that would support heavier equipment. Ring frames replaced mule frames; they were heavier and larger and were placed transversely, the floors became larger (up to 130 feet (40 m) wide) and higher to provide light. The bay size in a mill was defined by the positioning of machines. In an 1870 mill the bay was typically 10 feet 6 inches (3.20 m), and the brick vaults 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) though there were variations.[75]

text: Engines were run at higher pressures and from 1875, powered horizontal shafts on each floor by means of ropes. This was a prominent change as a rope race had to be built running the height of the mill. The engine needed more space and the engine house, boiler house and economiser were external to the main mill.[76] Mills continued to get bigger, and were sometimes paired; two mills being driven by one engine. Another change was the trend of having carding on one floor. To achieve this, the ground floor was extended outwards behind the mill often a full mill width.[77] In a single mill, the crosswall divided the blowing room from the rest, as it was here that there was greatest risk of fire.

text: Mills became wider, Houldsworth Mill, Reddish (1865) was 35 m wide and accommodated 1200 spindle mules. It was of four storeys and had sixteen bays on each side of a central engine house; a double mill. The central block provided offices and warehousing. A mill had a range of ancillary buildings.[77]  Stair columns often extending above the mill and housed a water tank for the sprinkler system. The floors were higher allowing for taller windows. Accrington brick was used from 1890, decorated with yellow sandstone with moulded brick and terracotta features. Etched and stained glass was used in the offices. Mills were designed by specialist architects and architectural quality became a major consideration.[78]

text: The power needed and provided to drive these mills was increasing. Beam engines were installed until the 1870s when horizontal engines took over. Abbey Mill Oldham (1876) needed 700 hp, Nile Mill (1896) needed 2500 hp. By the 1890, boilers produced 160 psi, and the triple expansion horizontals became standard. Chimneys were octagonal.[79]

text: United States[edit]

text: Following the American Civil War, mills grew larger. They were built in the southern states of South Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi where cheap labour and plentiful water power made operations profitable. Cotton could be processed into fabric where it grew, saving transportation costs. The mills were usually combination mills, (spinning and weaving) that were water powered and used a slow burn design technique. They used a belt and pulley drive system, and heavier ring frames rather than mules. At this point they only spun and wove coarse counts. The mills were mainly in open country and mill towns were formed to support them. New England mills found it increasingly difficult to compete, and as in Lancashire, went into gradual decline until bankrupted during the Great Depression. Cotton mills and their owners dominated the economy and politics of the Piedmont well into the 20th century.

text: Asia[edit]

text: The modern Indian mechanised textile industry was born in 1854, when a steam-powered mill was opened in Bombay by Cowasjee N. Davar.[80] More followed: there were 10 by 1865 and 47 by 1875.[80] By 1880 there were 58 mills in India employing 40,000 workers, with over 80% of them in the cities of Bombay and Ahmedabad.[81] From the 1870s India's own markets for finished yarn and cloth ceased to be dominated by imports from Lancashire, and during the 1870s and 1880s the Bombay cotton industry began to replace exports of yarn from Britain to China.[82]

text: Edwardian mills (1898–1914)[edit]

text: The cotton industry was subject to cycles of boom and slump, which caused waves of mill building. There was an optimism that dictated that slumps had to be endured and then there would be a period of even greater prosperity. The limited companies took control of spinning, while the room and power system was the norm for the weaving sheds. One point of view in the 1880s was that vertically integrating the weaving sheds into new mills would reduce costs and lead to greater profits. This route had been followed in New England, where it was successful, but not in Lancashire. The industry peaked in 1907. There was a severe slump in 1908, which endured until 1918, but the years 1919 and 1920 were more profitable than the peak year of 1907 had been.[83]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Production peaked in 1912. The war of 1914–1918 put the Lancashire industry into reverse. The British government, starved of raw cotton, established mills in south Asia exporting the spinning technology - which was copied, and became a low-labour cost competitor. In Germany, Flanders and Brazil, mills were built to the designs of the Oldham architects. The only new mills were very large to benefit from the economies of scale. Older mills were re-equipped with rings, and machines were powered by individual electric motors.

text:
Mills of this period were large, their decoration was lavish reflecting Edwardian taste and prosperity.[84] Most mills were built for mules. Kent Mill Chadderton (1908) was a five storey, 11 bay mill, 84.6m x 43.9m. It had 90,000 spindles. Ring frames were smaller and heavier than mules so the mills were narrower with fewer storeys. Pear Mill Bredbury (1912) was planned to be a 210,000 spindle double mill.[85] Only the first mill was completed, it had 137,000 spindles. They had more stair columns than earlier mills, it had dust flues often built into the rope race. There were two or three windows per bay. Decoration was often in terracotta and the mill name displayed in white brick on the stair tower or chimney.[86] Stott and Sons employed Byzantine styling in Broadstone Mill, Reddish.
Specialist architects built new mills and then created extensions. The last steam-powered mill, Elk Mill, was built by Arthur Turner

text: Mules were built with 1300 spindles, but were gradually replaced by rings.

text: The increasingly powerful engines required more boilers with economisers and superheaters.[87] Mills needed reservoirs to supply the boilers and condense the steam. The chimneys were round and taller. Three types of engines were used: triple expansion horizontal cross compound engines, Inverted marine type compounds which were more compact, and Manhattans with vertical and horizontal cylinders such as the 3500 hp engine at New Pear Mill. Rope drives were used exclusively. Electricity was gradually introduced firstly on group drives driving a shaft (Little Mill, 1908), and then later on individual machines.[88]

text: United States[edit]

text: Mills constructed in South Carolina increased in size. At Rutledge Ford the Saluda River was dammed and a power plant constructed. It was completed in 1904 before the construction of a state-of-the-art textile mill in 1906. That power plant provided for 4,800 horse power. The mill contained 30,000 spindles. By 1916 a new mill was constructed, containing 70,200 spindles and 1,300 looms. The town was named Ware Shoals. Between 1904 and 1916, the population of Ware Shoals grew from 2 men employed to maintain the newly constructed power plant, to 2,000. By the 1960s the mill employed 5,000 people. It closed in 1985.

text: Consolidation (1918–50)[edit]

text: Though business revived in 1919, a shortage of building materials restricted the building of new mills, and activity was financial with the mills seeking recapitalisation. There is no clear concession on the reason for the final decline. Some say that the cotton men concentrated on making easy money ignoring the possibility of foreign competition best countered by larger mills by re-equipping the mills with more modern ring frames. Daniels and Jewkes argued the fundamental cause of the depression was a change in demand for cotton goods. J. M. Keynes suggested that there was over capacity, and the industry should be reorganised into larger units that would scrap the excess capacity.[89]

text: The Lancashire Cotton Corporation was a company set up by the Bank of England in 1929, to rescue the Lancashire spinning industry by means of consolidation. In merged 105 companies, ending up in 1950 with 53 operating mills. These were the later larger mills. It was bought up by Courtaulds in August 1964.

text: The later mills were on the fringe of the spinning area in Wigan and Stockport, Availability of labour was cited as a reason.The last mills were completed in 1927, these were Holden Mill (Astley Bridge Mill)[90] and Elk Mill.[91]

text: In 1929, for the first time there were more spindles in the USA than in the UK. In 1972, India had greater spindleage than the USA, and it was in turn surpassed by China in 1977.[92]

text: Cotton mills in the late 20th century (1950–2000)[edit]

text: Decline of spinning in England[edit]

text:
Though there was a slight revival after 1945, mills closed. The most efficient mills had abandoned their steam engines, and were working the frames with individual electric motors. Broadstone Mills Stockport, was built as a double mill with 265,000  mule spindles, but by 1959 it was running 37,500 mule spindles and 70,000 ring spindles. It closed in 1959 taking advantage of the Cotton Industry Act 1959 and was then used by the John Myers mail order company. One mill was later demolished leaving the other to be used as a Shopping Outlet Centre and Craft Village.
The reduction of capacity led to a legacy of redundant mills, which were readily reused for other industrial purposes.

text:
Ring spinning technology had successfully replaced the spinning mule, with mills having been converted mules to rings. However in the 1970s, the depleted industry was challenged by a new technology open-end or break spinning. In 1978 Carrington Viyella opened a factory to do open-end spinning in Atherton. This was the first new textile production facility in Lancashire since 1929. Immediately Pear Mill, Stockport and Alder Mill, Leigh were closed. These were both Edwardian mills designed by Stott and Sons.[91]
The mill built in 1978 was built on the Howe Bridge mills site and was named Unit One. It was not an open end mill but a combed cotton ring mill.

text: Modern cotton mills[edit]

text: Modern spinning mills are mainly built around open end spinning techniques using rotors or ring spinning techniques using spindles. In 2009 there were 202,979,000 ring spinning spindles installed worldwide, with 82% of these being in Asia or Oceania and 44% being within China. In the same year there were 7,975,000 open end spinning rotors installed, with 44% of these being within Asia or Oceania and 29% within Eastern Europe.[93] The average age of installed rotors is much lower than that of spindles and as rotors are between 7 and 10 times more productive they are responsible for 20% of the cotton spun worldwide.[93]

text: Modern cotton mills are increasingly automated. One large mill in Virginia in the United States employs 140 workers in 2013 to produce an output that would have required more than 2,000 workers in 1980.[94]

text: Locations[edit]

text: Cotton mills were not confined to Lancashire but were built in northeast Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, the West Riding of Yorkshire, Bristol, Durham and the west of Scotland.[12] The availability of streams or rivers to provide power determined the location of the early mills some of which were in isolated areas. In Lancashire they were built on the rivers and streams descending from the Pennines and Rossendale moorland. In some places quite small streams powered a string of small mills such as in the Cheesden Valley between Ramsbottom and Heywood.[95] where 14 mills and their associated leats and ponds were concentrated along a four-mile stretch of the brook. Mills were built around Rochdale and Littleborough. North of Bury, ten mills occupied a mile long stretch of a stream in the Shuttleworth Valley.[96] Other mills were built north of the River Ribble and a cluster of five mills in Caton near the port at Lancaster, one of which belonged to Samuel Greg who built Quarry Bank Mill at Styal in Cheshire. Not all water-powered mills were in rural areas, after 1780 mills were built in Blackburn and Burnley.[97]

text: In Scotland, four cotton mills were built in Rothsay on the Isle of Bute using labour that had experience of the linen industry.[98] By 1800 there were two water-powered mills at Gatehouse of Fleet employing 200 children and 100 adults.[99] Robert Owen who had worked for Peter Drinkwater in Manchester, developed the mills at New Lanark built by his father-in-law, David Dale under licence from Arkwright.[100]

text:
Cotton Mills in 1860[101]

Lancashire
Cheshire
Derbyshire

Mills
1920
200
25

Workers
310000
38000
12000

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Fireproof construction[edit]

text: Cotton mills were huge fire risks, cotton fibres in the air could form an explosive mixture in their gas-lit interiors. The first mills using fireproof construction were built in Shropshire and Derbyshire in the 1790s and Philips & Lee's mill built in Salford in 1801-2. Fireproofing took the form of cast iron columns and beams from which sprang jack arches that were infilled with ash or sand and covered with stone flags or floorboards. In some mills timber was also eliminated from the roof structure which was supported by cast or wrought iron trusses.[102] Until the properties of cast iron were properly understood some mills constructed using the early technology collapsed. In Manchester extensive testing of cast iron as a structural material was carried out by Eaton Hodgkinson and William Fairbairn in the early 1820s.[103] Fireproof construction was expensive and timber, sometimes clad in plaster or metal continued to be used throughout the 19th century. Rolled steel beams and reinforced concrete flooring was introduced in a limited way in the 1880s but not widely adopted in Lancashire mills until the 20th century.[102]

text: Other factors[edit]

text: Cotton is sensitive to temperature and humidity. Heating systems used wrought iron pipes suspended at a height of 7 feet (2.1 m) to carry steam under pressure. In summer the system was barely used but in winter the boilers would be fired up two hours before the shift started to warm up the mill. As heat was applied the humidity dropped and system of humidifiers, either atomisers which played an air jet against a jet of water or ones that injected a stream/air mixture into the room.[104]

text: Early fire fighting systems used sprinklers supplied by water captured on flat roofs in shallow tanks. Later mills had a water tank at the top of the stair tower. Water for the sprinklers had to be protected from freezing and evaporation. Water pressure needed to be above 7 psi, and the header tank at least 15 feet (4.6 m) above the highest sprinkler.[105] The provision of light, water tanks and heating system defined the structure and shape of the mill.

text: Machinery[edit]

text: Power[edit]

text: The earliest cotton mills were driven by water, so needed to be situated on fast flowing streams. From about 1820, the stationary steam engine became the normal form of power for a cotton mill, water was still needed to produce the steam and to condense it, to maintain the humidity, for many of the finishing processes and for firefighting. Water was extracted from rivers and canals, then later mills requiring ever more water, built and maintained their own reservoirs.

text: In 1781 James Watt marketed a rotary-motion steam engine that could be adapted to drive all sorts of machinery, Richard Arkwright pioneered its use in his cotton mills. Possibly the first steam engine to be used in a cotton mill was a Newcomen engine which was used at Shudehill Mill in 1783 to raise water between storage ponds  so it could drive a water wheel. By 1795 most similar engines around Manchester had been replaced by Boulton and Watt or Bateman and Sherratt engines.[106]

text: Electricity was introduced in 1877. Steam engine drove generators to provide electric lighting. By the 1890s this was common.[107] Electricity was used to drive the mills machinery by 1906. It was generated in the engine house, and one group-drive electric motor was placed on each floor to drive the shafts. Generators were placed exterior to the mill as it was thought that they were a fire risk. Mains driven mills started about 1907. Later mills used individual electric motors to power the machinery.

text: Transmission[edit]

text: The early mills had a vertical shaft to take the power from the flywheel. On each floor horizontal shafts engaged with the main shaft using bevel gearing. American mills used thick leather bands instead of shafts. A new approach was to use thick cotton ropes. A rope drum was attached to the flywheel with a channel cut for each rope. The profile was such to give maximum adherence.[108]

text: Spinning[edit]

text: A spinning mill opened raw cotton bales and cleaned the cotton in the blowing room. The cotton staples are carded into lap and straightened and drawn into roving which is spun using either a mule or ring frame. The yarn can be doubled and processed into thread, or prepared for weaving.

text: Minerva Mill, Ashton-under-Lyne was designed by P. S. Stott and equipped by John Hetherington and Son, it produced 40's twists and 65 wefts. It was typical of a mill of the 1890s.

text:
Number
Machines
Ratio

2
Vertical Openers and scutchers
1 : 43,434

4
Intermediate Scutchers
1 :21,717

93
Carding Engines
1 :934

63
finishing deliveries of drawing
1 :1,380

792
Slubbing spindles
1 :109.7

1716
Intermediate spindles
1 :50.6

6680
Roving spindles
1 :13

86,868
Mule spindles
1 :1

text: Self acting mule frame (Roberts 1830) was an improvement on Crompton's Mule (1779) which derived from earlier inventions.[111] Mules were used in the 19th century mills for the finest counts, these needed skilled workers to operate them.

text:
Ring frame (1929) developed out of the Throstle frame (19th century) an improvement on the Arkwright's Water frame. Originally rings were only suitable for coarse counts, they were lower and heavier than mules so needed stronger floors but lower rooms. Over time, rings became suitable for finer counts and because of cheaper labour costs they replaced mules. By 1950 all mills had converted to the Ring frame. The Hawk mill in Shaw near Oldham was still operating cotton mule frames in 1964/65.
[112]

text: Weaving[edit]

text: A weaving mill needed yarn suitable for the warp and the weft. The warp had to delivered on the beam, or was wound on the beam from cheeses by a beamer. To obtain the extra strength needed, the yarn was sized on a sizer. The weft was wound onto the pirns for the shuttle on a pirner. These preparatory processes completed the yarn was woven on a loom. One weaver would operate 4 or six looms. A self-acting loom would stop when any thread broke, and the thread had to be retied or pieced. The process required greater levels of light than spinning, and weaving sheds would often be single storey, with overhead north facing lights. Placing a loom onto the ground also reduced the problems caused by the vibrations of operation.

text: The  Cartwright's powerloom (1785) was made reliable by Robert's cast iron power loom (1822) and became perfected by the Kenworthy and Bullough Lancashire Loom (1854). The Northrop or Draper Loom (1895) replaced these older designs.[67]

text:
Number of power looms in Britain 1803–57, and 1926[113]

Year
1803
1820
1829
1833
1857
-
1926

No. of Power Looms in UK
2,400
14,650
55,500
100,000
250,000

767,500

text:
Comparison of output of 24 yard shirtings 1823–33[113]

Year
1823
1823
1826
1833

good hand loom weaver
power weaver
power weaver
power weaver

Aged 25
Aged 15
Aged 15
Aged 15 with 12yr old helper

Looms
1
2
2
4

Pieces woven per week
2
7
12
18

text: Labour conditions[edit]

text: The mills were notable in employing women, giving them an independent income.  In Lancashire and Piedmont, South Carolina child labour is well documented.

text: Child labour in the United Kingdom[edit]

text: The Lancashire and Derbyshire mills needed a pool of cheap labour. Pauper children were boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 21, who were dependent on the Poor Law Guardians. Mill owners made contracts with the guardians in London and the southern counties to supply them paupers, in batches of 50 or more, to be apprenticed. Living condition were poor in 'Prentice Houses', and the children who were paid 2d a day worked 15-hour shifts, hot bedding with children on the other shift.[citation needed]

text: Robert Owen was a millowner in New Lanark. He never employed children under the age of ten, and opposed physical punishment in schools and factories. He lobbied for parliamentary action, resulting in The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802.

text:
Hours of work limited to twelve a day
Boys and girls to sleep in separate dormitories with no more than two to each bed
Compulsory education to be provided in the arts of reading writing and arithmetic
Each apprentice to be provided with two suits of clothes
On Sunday children to be instructed in Christian worship
Sanitation to be improved

tag: ul

text: Regulation was ineffective until the mills were subject to inspection in 1833 with the establishment of a factory inspectorate consisting of four factory inspectors who had the power of magistrates.[114][115] This did not reduce the number of children, half-timers worked mornings in the mill and spend the afternoon in the school room. While the number of children working in spinning as tenters did decline, more were employed in weaving because weavers were expected to tenter extra looms.

text:
Percentage of children below 13 in cotton factories 1835–78 [116]

Year
1835
1838
1847
1850
1856
1862

1867
1870
1874
1878

amount
13.2
4.7
5.8
4.6
6.5
8.8
10.4
9.6
14.0
12.8

text:
From the Factory Act of 1844, until 1878 records do not distinguish between full-time and half-times.
In 1851 a sizeable number of children were working the mills. For Example, In Glossop, there were 931 children (out of 3562) between 5 and thirteen working in cotton mills. In one mill in 1859, 50.2% of the workforce were women, 24.2% were girls, 19% were men and 6.6% were boys.[117]

text: Child labor (sic) in the United States[edit]

text: The Carolinas mills developed from 1880, and would employ children in preference to adults. At Newton Mill, North Carolina, in 1909, twenty of the 150 workers observed, appeared to be twelve years old or less. As well as the usual report of hands and fingers getting severed by the machinery and insufferable heat, the dust inhaled caused a fatal condition known as brown lung.[118] Laws were rarely enforced, and the presence of small children in the factory was explained away to the inspectors saying they were visiting the mill to bring meals to their parents (meal totters), or helping but not on the payroll (helpers).[119] Wages were good for the workers who could earn $2 a day in the mill against $0.75 on a farm. In the segregated south, 'Blacks' were not allowed to work inside a mill; had they been the need for child labour would have been eliminated.[120] Child labour stopped here not only because of new laws but the change in the type of machinery caused by the Great Depression, which required greater height and skill.[121]

text: Women[edit]

text: In 1926 when it was at its peak, the Lancashire cotton industry worked 57.3 million spindles and 767,500 looms. It imported 3.3 million bales and exported 80% of its production. 61% of the 575,000 cotton operatives in Lancashire were women, of which 61% were unionised in 167 different unions[122]

text: Unions[edit]

text: The 18th-century woollen industry of small producers in southern England was far different from the Yorkshire-based worsted industry where the clothier imported and owned the raw material and sold the cloth. He put out work to small weavers, in effect, employing them. Worsted was more capital intensive. The small weavers banded together to form self-help guilds. When Lancashire adopted cotton, the same process occurred. But in Lancashire cotton mills, spinning became a male occupation, and the tradition of unions passed into the factory. As spinners were 'assisted' by several 'piecers' there was a pool of trained labour to replace any spinner the owner cared to dismiss. The well paid mule spinners were the 'barefoot aristocrats' of labour and became organised in the 19th century. They paid union dues, and were well placed to finance themselves should a strike be needed. The Yorkshire worsted industry, adopted the ring frame which required less skill. Worsted spinning was an occupation for young girls. Unionism did not develop in Yorkshire until 1914. In, 1913 figures show 50% of cotton operatives were unionised while only 10% of wool and worsted workers.

text: In Lancashire there were:

text:
Occupation
Union members

Weavers
182,000

Cardroom Operatives
55,000

Spinners
23,000

Piecers
25,000

text: The spinners union, the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton Spinners had a federal structure with strong central leadership where control was in the hands of a small group of paid officials. Their dues were high, so the fighting fund was large and the officials were skilled in defending the complex wage structures.[123]

text: Health of the workers[edit]

text: A cotton mill was not a healthy place to work. The air in the mill had to be hot and humid to prevent the thread from breaking: 18 °C to 26 °C and 85% humidity was normal. The air in the mill was thick with cotton dust, which could lead to byssinosis – a lung disease.

text: Protective masks were introduced after the war, but few workers wore them as they made them uncomfortable in the stifling conditions. The same applied to ear protectors. The air led to skin infections, eye infections, bronchitus and tuberculosis. The noise levels in a weaving shop, where the shuttles in 500 plus looms were being thumped 200 times a minute led to levels of deafness in all who worked there. The lubrication was carcinogenic and led to cancers of the mouth and cancer of the scrotum; known as mule-spinners cancer.[124]

text: A mill worker could expect to work a thirteen-hour day, six days a week with two weeks off for the wakes week holidays in summer. Unsurprisingly, a series of Factory Acts were passed to attempt to ameliorate these conditions.

text: In the early days when the cotton towns were expanding rapidly, living conditions for the workers were poor. Badly planned housing was seriously overcrowded. Open sewers and shared privies led to diseases such as cholera; Manchester was hit by an epidemic in 1831 that claimed hundreds of lives.[124]

text: Art and literature[edit]

text:
William Blake Jerusalem – dark satanic mills.
Mrs Gaskell : Mary Barton(1848), North and South (1855)
L. S. Lowry
Charles Sheeler