document_title: Lung

question_text: airways that supply one lobe of a lung are called

question_tokens: airways that supply one lobe of a lung are called

text: Lung

text: Structure of the human lungs[edit]

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: The lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart in the rib cage. They are conical in shape with a narrow rounded apex at the top, and a broad concave base that rests on the convex surface of the diaphragm.[1] The apex of the lung extends into the root of the neck, reaching shortly above the level of the sternal end of the first rib. The lungs stretch from close to the backbone in the rib cage to the front of the chest and downwards from the lower part of the trachea to the diaphragm.[1] The left lung shares space with the heart, and has an indentation in its border called the cardiac notch of the left lung to accommodate this.[2][3] The front and outer sides of the lungs face the ribs, which make light indentations on their surfaces. The medial surfaces of the lungs face towards the centre of the chest, and lie against the heart, great vessels, and the carina where the trachea divides into the two main bronchi.[3] The cardiac impression is an indentation formed on the surfaces of the lungs where they rest against the heart.

text: Both lungs have a central recession called the hilum at the root of the lung, where the blood vessels and airways pass into the lungs.[1] There are also bronchopulmonary lymph nodes on the hilum.[3]

text: The lungs are surrounded by the pulmonary pleurae. The pleurae are two serous membranes; the outer parietal pleura lines the inner wall of the rib cage and the inner visceral pleura directly lines the surface of the lungs. Between the pleurae is a potential space called the pleural cavity containing a thin layer of lubricating pleural fluid. Each lung is divided into lobes by the infoldings of the pleura as fissures. The fissures are double folds of pleura that section the lungs and help in their expansion.[4]

text:
Lobes and bronchopulmonary segments [5]

Right lung
Left lung

Upper

Apical
Anterior
Posterior

Middle

Medial
Lateral

Lower

Superior
Anterior
Posterior
Medial
Lateral

Upper

Anterior
Apicoposterior

Lower

Superior
Anterior
Posterior
Medial
Lateral

Lingula

Superior
Inferior

text: The main or primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum and initially branch into secondary bronchi also known as lobar bronchi that supply air to each lobe of the lung. The lobar bronchi branch into tertiary bronchi also known as segmental bronchi and these supply air to the further divisions of the lobes known as bronchopulmonary segments. Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own (segmental) bronchus and arterial supply.[6] Segments for the left and right lung are shown in the table.[5] The segmental anatomy is useful clinically for localising disease processes in the lungs.[5] A segment is a discrete unit that can be surgically removed without seriously affecting surrounding tissue.[7]

text: Right lung[edit]

text: The right lung has both more lobes and segments than the left. It is divided into three lobes, an upper, middle, and a lower, by two fissures, one oblique and one horizontal.[8] The upper, horizontal fissure, separates the upper from the middle lobe. It begins in the lower oblique fissure near the posterior border of the lung, and, running horizontally forward, cuts the anterior border on a level with the sternal end of the fourth costal cartilage; on the mediastinal surface it may be traced backward to the hilum.[1]

text: The lower, oblique fissure, separates the lower from the middle and upper lobes, and is closely aligned with the oblique fissure in the left lung.[1][4]

text: The mediastinal surface of the right lung is indented by a number of nearby structures. The heart sits in an impression called the cardiac impression. Above the hilum of the lung is an arched groove for the azygos vein, and above this is a wide groove for the superior vena cava and right brachiocephalic vein; behind this, and close to the top of the lung is a groove for the brachiocephalic artery. There is a groove for the esophagus behind the hilum and the pulmonary ligament, and near the lower part of the esophageal groove is a deeper groove for the inferior vena cava before it enters the heart.[3]

text: Left lung[edit]

text: The left lung is divided into two lobes, an upper and a lower, by the oblique fissure, which extends from the costal to the mediastinal surface of the lung both above and below the hilum.[1] The left lung, unlike the right, does not have a middle lobe, though it does have a homologous feature, a projection of the upper lobe termed the "lingula". Its name means "little tongue". The lingula on the left serves as an anatomic parallel to the right middle lobe, with both areas being predisposed to similar infections and anatomic complications.[9][10] There are two bronchopulmonary segments of the lingula: superior and inferior.[1]

text: The mediastinal surface of the left lung has a large cardiac impression where the heart sits. This is deeper and larger than that on the right lung, at which level the heart projects to the left.[3]

text: On the same surface, immediately above the hilum, is a well-marked curved groove for the aortic arch, and a groove below it for the descending aorta. The left subclavian artery, a branch off the aortic arch, sits in a groove from the arch to near the apex of the lung. A shallower groove in front of the artery and near the edge of the lung, lodges the left brachiocephalic vein. The esophagus may sit in a wider shallow impression at the base of the lung.[3]

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract, and accommodate the bronchial airways when they branch from the trachea. The lungs include the bronchial airways that terminate in alveoli, the lung tissue in between, and veins, arteries, nerves and lymphatic vessels.[3][11] The trachea and bronchi have plexuses of lymph capillaries in their mucosa and submucosa. The smaller bronchi have a single layer and they are absent in the alveoli.[12]

text: All of the lower respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is lined with respiratory epithelium. This is a ciliated epithelium interspersed with goblet cells which produce mucus, and club cells with actions similar to macrophages. Incomplete rings of cartilage in the trachea and smaller plates of cartilage in the bronchi, keep these airways open.[13] Bronchioles are too narrow to support cartilage and their walls are of smooth muscle, and this is largely absent in the narrower respiratory bronchioles which are mainly just of epithelium.[13] The respiratory tract ends in lobules. Each lobule consists of a respiratory bronchiole, which branches into alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs, which in turn divide into alveoli.[3]

text: The epithelial cells throughout the respiratory tract secrete epithelial lining fluid (ELF), the composition of which is tightly regulated and determines how well mucociliary clearance works.[14][15]:Section 4 pages 7–8 (Page 4–7ff)

text: Alveoli consist of two types of alveolar cell and an alveolar macrophage. The two types of cell are known as type I and type II alveolar cells[16] (also known as pneumocytes).[3] Types I and II make up the walls and alveolar septa. Type I cells provide 95% of the surface area of each alveoli and are flat ("squamous"), and Type II cells generally cluster in the corners of the alveoli and have a cuboidal shape.[17] Despite this, cells occur in a roughly equal ratio of 1:1 or 6:4.[16][17]

text: Type I are squamous epithelial cells that make up the alveolar wall structure. They have extremely thin walls that enable an easy gas exchange.[16] These type I cells also make up the alveolar septa which separate each alveolus. The septa consist of an epithelial lining and associated basement membranes.[17] Type I cells are not able to divide, and consequently rely on differentiation from Type II cells.[17]

text: Type II are larger and they line the alveoli and produce and secrete epithelial lining fluid, and lung surfactant.[16] Type II cells are able to divide and differentiate to Type 1 cells.[17]

text: The alveolar macrophages have an important immunological role. They remove substances which deposit in the alveoli including loose red blood cells that have been forced out from blood vesels.[17]

text: The lung is surrounded by a serous membrane of visceral pleura, which has an underlying layer of loose connective tissue attached to the substance of the lung.[18]

text: Respiratory tract[edit]

text: The lower respiratory tract is part of the respiratory system, and consists of the trachea and the structures below this including the lungs.[16] The trachea receives air from the pharynx and travels down to a place where it splits (the carina) into a right and left bronchus. These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the respiratory bronchioles. These in turn supply air through alveolar ducts into the alveoli, where the exchange of gases take place.[16] Oxygen breathed in, diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping capillaries and into the circulation,[19] and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs to be breathed out.

text: Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from 50 to 75 square metres (540 to 810 sq ft);[16][17] roughly the same area as one side of a tennis court.[17][20]

text: The bronchi in the conducting zone are reinforced with hyaline cartilage in order to hold open the airways. The bronchioles have no cartilage and are surrounded instead by smooth muscle.[17] Air is warmed to 37 °C (99 °F), humidified and cleansed by the conducting zone; particles from the air being removed by the cilia on the respiratory epithelium lining the passageways.[21]

text: Pulmonary stretch receptors in the smooth muscle of the airways initiate a reflex known as the Hering–Breuer reflex that prevents the lungs from over-inflation, during forceful inspiration.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The lungs have a dual blood supply[16] provided by a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the airways of the lungs, through the bronchial arteries that leave the aorta. There are usually three arteries, two to the left lung and one to the right, and they branch alongside the bronchi and bronchioles.[16] The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns the oxygenated blood to the heart to supply the rest of the body.[16]

text: The blood volume of the lungs, is about 450 millilitres on average, about 9 per cent of the total blood volume of the entire circulatory system. This quantity can easily fluctuate from between one-half and twice the normal volume.[22]

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: The lungs are supplied by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Input from the parasympathetic nervous system occurs via the vagus nerve. When stimulated by acetylcholine, this causes constriction of the smooth muscle lining the bronchus and bronchioles, and increases the secretions from glands.[23][page needed] The lungs also have a sympathetic tone from norepinephrine acting on the beta 2 receptors in the respiratory tract, which causes bronchodilation.[23][page needed]

text: The action of breathing takes place because of nerve signals sent by the respiratory centres in the brainstem, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.[24][page needed]

text: Development[edit]

text: The development of the human lungs arise from the laryngotracheal groove and develop to maturity over several weeks in the foetus and for several years following birth.[25]

text: The larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs that make up the respiratory tract, begin to form during the fourth week of embryogenesis[26] from the lung bud which appears ventrally to the caudal portion of the foregut.[27]

text: The respiratory tract has a branching structure like that of a tree.[28] In the embryo this structure is developed in the process of branching morphogenesis, and is generated by the repeated splitting of the tip of the branch. In the development of the lungs (as in some other organs) the epithelium forms branching tubes.The lung has a left-right symmetry and each bud known as a bronchial bud grows out as a tubular epithelium that becomes a bronchus. Each bronchus branches into bronchioles.[29] The branching is a result of the tip of each tube bifurcating.[28] The branching process forms the bronchi, bronchioles, and ultimately the alveoli.[28] The four genes mostly associated with branching morphogenesis in the lung are the intercellular signalling protein – sonic hedgehog (SHH), fibroblast growth factors FGF10 and FGFR2b, and bone morphogenetic protein BMP4. FGF10 is seen to have the most prominent role. FGF10 is a paracrine signalling molecule needed for epithelial branching, and SHH inhibits FGF10.[28][29] The development of the alveoli is influenced by a different mechanism whereby continued bifurcation is stopped and the distal tips become dilated to form the alveoli.

text: At the end of the fourth week the lung bud divides into two, the right and left primary bronchial buds on each side of the trachea.[30][31] During the fifth week the right bud branches into three secondary bronchial buds and the left branches into two secondary bronchial buds. These give rise to the lobes of the lungs, three on the right and two on the left. Over the following week, the secondary buds branch into tertiary buds, about ten on each side.[31] From the sixth week to the sixteenth week, the major elements of the lungs appear except the alveoli.[32] From week 16 to week 26, the bronchi enlarge and lung tissue becomes highly vascularised. Bronchioles and alveolar ducts also develop. By week 26 the terminal bronchioles have formed which branch into two respiratory bronchioles.[33] During the period covering the 26th week until birth the important blood–air barrier is established. Specialised type I alveolar cells where gas exchange will take place, together with the type II alveolar cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant, appear. The surfactant reduces the surface tension at the air-alveolar surface which allows expansion of the alveolar sacs. The alveolar sacs contain the primitive alveoli that form at the end of the alveolar ducts,[34] and their appearance around the seventh month marks the point at which limited respiration would be possible, and the premature baby could survive.[25]

text: After birth[edit]

text: At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the lungs and are not inflated. After birth the infant's central nervous system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment. This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery.[35] Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid.[36] After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The resistance in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies other changes which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.[35]

text: At birth the lungs are very undeveloped with only around one sixth of the alveoli of the adult lung present.[25] The alveoli continue to form into early adulthood, and their ability to form when necessary is seen in the regeneration of the lung.[37][38] Alveolar septa have a double capillary network instead of the single network of the developed lung. Only after the maturation of the capillary network can the lung enter a normal phase of growth. Following the early growth in numbers of alveoli there is another stage of the alveoli being enlarged.[39]

text: Function[edit]

text: Gas exchange[edit]

text: The major function of the lungs is gas exchange between the lungs and the blood.[40] The alveolar and pulmonary capillary gases equilibrate across the thin blood–air barrier.[41][42] This thin membrane (about 0.5 –2 μm thick) is folded into about 300 million alveoli, providing an extremely large surface area (estimates varying between 70 and 145 m2) for gas exchange to occur.[41][43]

text: The lungs are not capable of expanding to breathe on their own, and will only do so when there is an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity.[44] This is achieved by the muscles of respiration, through the contraction of the diaphragm, and the intercostal muscles which pull the rib cage upwards as shown in the diagram.[45] During breathing out the muscles relax, returning the lungs to their resting position.[46] At this point the lungs contain the functional residual capacity (FRC) of air, which, in the adult human, has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 litres.[46]

text: During heavy breathing as in exertion, a large number of accessory muscles in the neck and abdomen are recruited, that during exhalation pull the ribcage down, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.[46] The FRC is now decreased, but since the lungs cannot be emptied completely there is still about a litre of residual air left.[46] Lung function testing is carried out to evaluate lung volumes and capacities.

text: Protection[edit]

text: The lungs possess several characteristics which protect against infection. The respiratory tract is lined by epithelia with hair-like projections called cilia that beat rhythmically and carry mucus. This mucociliary clearance is an important defence system against air-borne infection. The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucosal surface of the airways, and are moved up towards the pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia.[17][47][48] The lining of the lung also secretes immunoglobulin A which protects against respiratory infections;[47] goblet cells secrete mucus[17] which also contains several antimicrobial compounds such as defensins, antiproteases, and antioxidates.[47] In addition, the lining of the lung also contains macrophages, immune cells which engulf and destroy debris and microbes that enter the lung in a process known as phagocytosis; and dendritic cells which present antigens to activate components of the adaptive immune system such as T-cells and B-cells.[47]

text: The size of the respiratory tract and the flow of air also protect the lungs from larger particles. Smaller particles deposit in the mouth and behind the mouth in the oropharynx, and larger particles are trapped in nasal hair after inhalation.[47]

text: Other[edit]

text: In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs have a number of other functions. They are involved in maintaining homeostasis, helping in the regulation of blood pressure as part of the renin–angiotensin system. The inner lining of the blood vessels secretes angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II.[49] The lungs are involved in the blood's acid-base homeostasis by expelling carbon dioxide when breathing.[44][50]

text: The lungs also serve a protective role. Several blood-borne substances, such as a few types of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, serotonin and bradykinin, are excreted through the lungs.[49] Drugs and other substances can be absorbed, modified or excreted in the lungs.[44][51] The lungs filter out small blood clots from veins and prevent them from entering arteries and causing strokes.[50]

text: The lungs also play a pivotal role in speech by providing air and airflow for the creation of vocal sounds,[44][52] and other paralanguage communications such as sighs and gasps.

text: New research suggests a role of the lungs in the production of blood platelets.[53]

text: Gene and protein expression[edit]

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 75% of these genes are expressed in the normal lung.[54][55] A little less than 200 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the lung with less 20 genes being highly lung specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed within different cellular compartments such as pneumocytes in alveoli, and ciliated and mucus secreting goblet cells in the respiratory mucosa. The highest expression of lung specific proteins are different surfactant proteins, such as SFTPA1, SFTPB and SFTPC, and napsin, expressed in type II pneumocytes. Other proteins with elevated expression in the lung are the dynein protein DNAH5 in ciliated cells, and the secreted SCGB1A1 protein in mucus secreting goblet cells of the airway mucosa.[56]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Lungs can be affected by a variety of diseases. Pulmonology is the medical speciality that deals with diseases involving the respiratory tract,[57] and cardiothoracic surgery is the surgical field that deals with surgery of the lungs.[58]

text: Inflammatory conditions of the lung tissue are pneumonia, of the respiratory tract are bronchitis and bronchiolitis, and of the pleurae surrounding the lungs pleurisy. Inflammation is usually caused by infections due to bacteria or viruses. When the lung tissue is inflamed due to other causes it is called pneumonitis. One major cause of bacterial pneumonia is tuberculosis.[47] Chronic infections often occur in those with immunodeficiency and can include a fungal infection by Aspergillus fumigatus that can lead to an aspergilloma forming in the lung.[47][59]

text: A pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that becomes lodged in the pulmonary arteries. The majority of emboli arise because of deep vein thrombosis in the legs. Pulmonary emboli may be investigated using a ventilation/perfusion scan, a CT scan of the arteries of the lung, or blood tests such as the D-dimer.[47] Pulmonary hypertension describes an increased pressure at the beginning of the pulmonary artery that has a large number of differing causes.[47] Other rarer conditions may also affect the blood supply of the lung, such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis, which causes inflammation of the small blood vessels of the lungs and kidneys.[47]

text: A lung contusion is a bruise caused by chest trauma. It results in hemorrhage of the alveoli causing a build-up of fluid which can impair breathing, and this can be either mild or severe. The function of the lungs can also be affected by compression from fluid in the pleural cavity pleural effusion, or other substances such as air (pneumothorax), blood (hemothorax), or rarer causes. These may be investigated using a chest X-ray or CT scan, and may require the insertion of a surgical drain until the underlying cause is identified and treated.[47]

text: Asthma, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are all obstructive lung diseases characterised by airway obstruction. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with pulmonary function tests such as spirometry. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as dust mites or smoking), with symptom control such as bronchodilators, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through corticosteroids) in severe cases. One common cause of COPD and emphysema is smoking, and common causes of bronchiectasis include severe infections and cystic fibrosis. The definitive cause of asthma is not yet known.[47]

text: Some types of chronic lung diseases are classified as restrictive lung disease, because of a restriction in the amount of lung tissue involved in respiration. These include pulmonary fibrosis which can occur when the lung is inflamed for a long period of time. Fibrosis in the lung replaces functioning lung tissue with fibrous connective tissue. This can be due to a large variety of occupational diseases such as Coalworker's pneumoconiosis, autoimmune diseases or more rarely to a reaction to medication.[47]

text: Lung cancer can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of metastasis from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either small-cell or non-small-cell lung carcinomas. The major risk factor for cancer is smoking. Once a cancer is identified it is staged using scans such as a CT scan and a sample of tissue (a biopsy) is taken. Cancers may be treated by surgically removing the tumour, radiotherapy, chemotherapy or combinations thereof, or with the aim of symptom control.[47]Lung cancer screening is being recommended in the United States for high-risk populations.[60]

text: Congenital disorders include cystic fibrosis, pulmonary hypoplasia (an incomplete development of the lungs)[61]congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and infant respiratory distress syndrome caused by a deficiency in lung surfactant. An azygos lobe is a congenital anatomical variation which though usually without effect can cause problems in thoracoscopic procedures.[62]

text: A pneumothorax (collapsed lung) is an abnormal collection of air in the pleural space that causes an uncoupling of the lung from the chest wall.[63] The lung cannot expand against the air pressure inside the pleural space. An easy to understand example is a traumatic pneumothorax, where air enters the pleural space from outside the body, as occurs with puncture to the chest wall. Similarly, a scuba diver ascending while holding their breath with their lungs fully inflated can cause air sacs (alveoli) to burst and leak high pressure air into the pleural space.

text: Lung function testing[edit]

text: Lung function testing is carried out by evaluating a person's capacity to inhale and exhale in different circumstances.[64] The volume of air inhaled and exhaled by a person at rest is the tidal volume (normally 500-750mL); the inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume are the additional amounts a person is able to forcibly inhale and exhale respectively. The summed total of forced inspiration and expiration is a person's vital capacity. Not all air is expelled from the lungs even after a forced breath out; the remainder of the air is called the residual volume. Together these terms are referred to as lung volumes.[64]

text: Pulmonary plethysmographs are used to measure functional residual capacity.[65] Functional residual capacity cannot be measured by tests that rely on breathing out, as a person is only able to breathe a maximum of 80% of their total functional capacity.[66] The total lung capacity depends on the person's age, height, weight, and sex, and normally ranges between 4 and 6 litres.[64] Females tend to have a 20–25% lower capacity than males. Tall people tend to have a larger total lung capacity than shorter people. Smokers have a lower capacity than nonsmokers. Thinner persons tend to have a larger capacity. Lung capacity can be increased by physical training as much as 40% but the effect may be modified by exposure to air pollution.[66][67]

text: Other lung function tests include spirometry, measuring the amount (volume) and flow of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. The maximum volume of breath that can be exhaled is called the vital capacity. In particular, how much a person is able to exhale in one second (called forced expiratory volume (FEV1)) as a proportion of how much they are able to exhale in total (FEV). This ratio, the FEV1/FEV ratio, is important to distinguish whether a lung disease is restrictive or obstructive.[47][64] Another test is that of the lung's diffusing capacity – this is a measure of the transfer of gas from air to the blood in the lung capillaries.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Birds[edit]

text: The lungs of birds are relatively small, but are connected to 8 or 9 air sacs that extend through much of the body, and are in turn connected to air spaces within the bones. On inhalation, air travels through the trachea of a bird into the air sacs. Air then travels continuously from the air sacs at the back, through the lungs, which are relatively fixed in size, to the air sacs at the front. From here, the air is exhaled. These fixed size lungs are called "circulatory lungs", as distinct from the "bellows-type lungs" found in most other animals.[68][70]

text: The lungs of birds contain millions of tiny parallel passages called parabronchi. Small sacs called atria radiate from the walls of the tiny passages; these, like the alveoli in other lungs, are the site of gas exchange by simple diffusion.[70] The blood flow around the parabronchi and their atria forms a cross-current process of gas exchange (see diagram on the right).[68][69]

text: The air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.[71]

text: Parabronchi in which the air flow is unidirectional are called paleopulmonic parabronchi and are found in all birds. Some birds, however, have, in addition, a lung structure where the air flow in the parabronchi is bidirectional. These are termed neopulmonic parabronchi.[70]

text: Reptiles[edit]

text: The lungs of most reptiles have a single bronchus running down the centre, from which numerous branches reach out to individual pockets throughout the lungs. These pockets are similar to alveoli in mammals, but much larger and fewer in number. These give the lung a sponge-like texture. In tuataras, snakes, and some lizards, the lungs are simpler in structure, similar to that of typical amphibians.[71]

text: Snakes and limbless lizards typically possess only the right lung as a major respiratory organ; the left lung is greatly reduced, or even absent. Amphisbaenians, however, have the opposite arrangement, with a major left lung, and a reduced or absent right lung.[71]

text: Both crocodilians and monitor lizards have developed lungs similar to those of birds, providing an unidirectional airflow and even possessing air sacs.[72] The now extinct pterosaurs have seemingly even further refined this type of lung, extending the airsacs into the wing membranes and, in the case of lonchodectids, tupuxuara, and azhdarchoids, the hindlimbs.[73]

text: Reptilian lungs typically receive air via expansion and contraction of the ribs driven by axial muscles and buccal pumping. Crocodilians also rely on the hepatic piston method, in which the liver is pulled back by a muscle anchored to the pubic bone (part of the pelvis) called the diaphragmaticus,[74] which in turn creates negative pressure in the crocodile's thoracic cavity, allowing air to be moved into the lungs by Boyle's law. Turtles, which are unable to move their ribs, instead use their forelimbs and pectoral girdle to force air in and out of the lungs.[71]

text: Amphibians[edit]

text: The lungs of most frogs and other amphibians are simple and balloon-like, with gas exchange limited to the outer surface of the lung. This is not very efficient, but amphibians have low metabolic demands and can also quickly dispose of carbon dioxide by diffusion across their skin in water, and supplement their oxygen supply by the same method. Amphibians employ a positive pressure system to get air to their lungs, forcing air down into the lungs by buccal pumping. This is distinct from most higher vertebrates, who use a breathing system driven by negative pressure where the lungs are inflated by expanding the rib cage.[75] In buccal pumping, the floor of the mouth is lowered, filling the mouth cavity with air. The throat muscles then presses the throat against the underside of the skull, forcing the air into the lungs.[76]

text: Due to the possibility of respiration across the skin combined with small size, all known lungless tetrapods are amphibians. The majority of salamander species are lungless salamanders, which respirate through their skin and tissues lining their mouth. This necessarily restrict their size: all are small and rather thread-like in appearance, maximising skin surface relative to body volume.[77] Other known lungless tetrapods are the Bornean flat-headed frog[78] and Atretochoana eiselti, a caecilian.[79]

text: The lungs of amphibians typically have a few narrow internal walls (septa) of soft tissue around the outer walls, increasing the respiratory surface area and giving the lung a honey-comb appearance. In some salamanders even these are lacking, and the lung has a smooth wall. In caecilians, as in snakes, only the right lung attains any size or development.[71]

text: Lungfish[edit]

text: The lungs of lungfish are similar to those of amphibians, with few, if any, internal septa. In the Australian lungfish, there is only a single lung, albeit divided into two lobes. Other lungfish and Polypterus, however, have two lungs, which are located in the upper part of the body, with the connecting duct curving around and above the esophagus. The blood supply also twists around the esophagus, suggesting that the lungs originally evolved in the ventral part of the body, as in other vertebrates.[71]

text: Invertebrates[edit]

text: Some invertebrates have lung-like structures that serve a similar respiratory purpose as, but are not evolutionarily related to, vertebrate lungs. Some arachnids, such as spiders and scorpions, have structures called book lungs used for atmospheric gas exchange. Some species of spider have four pairs of book lungs but most have two pairs.[80] Scorpions have spiracles on their body for the entrance of air to the book lungs.[81]

text: The coconut crab is terrestrial and uses structures called branchiostegal lungs to breathe air.[82] They cannot swim and would drown in water, yet they possess a rudimentary set of gills. They can breathe on land and hold their breath underwater.[83] The branchiostegal lungs are seen as a developmental adaptive stage from water-living to enable land-living, or from fish to amphibian.[84]

text: Pulmonates are mostly land snails and slugs that have developed a simple lung from the mantle cavity. An externally located opening called the pneumostome allows air to be taken into the mantle cavity lung.[85][86]

text: Evolutionary origins[edit]

text: The lungs of today's terrestrial vertebrates and the gas bladders of today's fish are believed to have evolved from simple sacs, as outpocketings of the esophagus, that allowed early fish to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions.[87] These outpocketings first arose in the bony fish. In most of the ray-finned fish the sacs evolved into closed off gas bladders, while a number of carp, trout, herring, catfish, and eels have retained the physostome condition with the sack being open to the esophagus. In more basal bony fish, such as the gar, bichir, bowfin and the lobe-finned fish, the bladders have evolved to primarily function as lungs.[87] The lobe-finned fish gave rise to the land-based tetrapods. Thus, the lungs of vertebrates are homologous to the gas bladders of fish (but not to their gills).[88]


document_title: Charmed (season 6)

question_text: when do you find out chris is piper's son

question_tokens: when do you find out chris is piper 's son

root

text: Charmed (season 6)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Alyssa Milano as Phoebe Halliwell
Rose McGowan as Paige Matthews
Holly Marie Combs as Piper Halliwell
Brian Krause as Leo Wyatt
Drew Fuller as Chris Halliwell[a]
Dorian Gregory as Darryl Morris[b]

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Jennifer Rhodes as Penny Halliwell
James Read as Victor Bennett
Rebecca Balding as Elise Rothman
Sandra Prosper as Sheila Morris
Eric Dane as Jason Dean
Balthazar Getty as Richard Montana
Christopher Neiman as Sigmund
Betsy Randle as Mrs. Winterbourne
Gildart Jackson as Gideon
Billy Drago as Barbas
Jenya Lano as Inspector Sheridan

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Melissa George as Freyja
Ivana Miličević as Mist
Evan Marriott as Oscar
Jenny McCarthy as Mitzy Stillman
Rachelle Lefevre as Olivia Callaway
Michael Muhney as Seth
Mako as Potion Sorcerer
Gina Ravera as Mary
Kathryn Joosten as Old Magician's Wife
Keith Szarabajka as Zahn
Marisol Nichols as Bianca
Jake Busey as Nigel
Patrick Cassidy as Allen Halliwell
Eduardo Verástegui as Mr. Right
Sarah Rafferty as  Carol
Scott Adsit as Transformed Male Nymph
Ian Abercrombie as Aramis
Ken Page as Adair
Gabriel Olds as Vincent Right / Vincent Wrong
Elaine Hendrix as Clea
David Ramsey as Upper-Level Demon

text: Special Musical Guest[edit]

text:
Smash Mouth
Steadman
Ziggy Marley
Andy Stochansky

text: Episode list[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)11211312"Valhalley of the Dolls"James L. ConwayBrad KernSeptember 28, 2003 (2003-09-28)430111243011136.3[1]
Even though Leo is gone, Piper is in a surprisingly good 'chipper' mood, leading Paige to suspect that Leo altered Piper's memory. However, Paige's spell to restore Piper's memory clashes with Leo's and causes total amnesia. When calling upon Leo for help, Phoebe and Paige discover that he is being held captive on the Island of Valhalla, a mythical place ruled by warrior-maidens known as Valkyries. Phoebe also discovers she is an empath, where she can feel people's emotions, much to the worry of Chris. The Charmed Ones disguise themselves as Valkyries and infiltrate Valhalla to try to rescue Leo. In order for them to get close to him, they must convince the Valkyries that they are one of them. While Phoebe and Paige go to Darryl to borrow his soul, Chris killed a Valkyrie by crushing her heart through his telekinetic power, to possess a Valkyrie's necklace. The sight of Leo causes Piper's pain to come flooding back, prompting her to stay behind on the island to forget the pain while everyone else escapes.Three fallen warriors follow Paige and Phoebe across dimensions to San Francisco and wreak havoc on the city. Phoebe has to control her new power in order to convince Piper that she belongs with her sisters, not the Valkyries. Meanwhile, Paige takes a job as a dog walker and is amazed when one of her dogs is transformed back into a man. Leo later uncovered evidence that Chris had killed two Valkyries but opted not to use it because Chris had finally earned the Charmed Ones' trust.
1143"Forget Me... Not"John T. KretchmerHenry Alonso MyersOctober 5, 2003 (2003-10-05)43011145.8[2]
When Wyatt inadvertently brings a dragon to life, the Cleaners, a neutral group dedicated to protecting magic from being exposed, take him away and erase all signs and memories of his existence. Aware that they are forgetting something important but not sure of what it is, Piper, Phoebe, and Paige cast a spell to return their memory. The sisters then set out to expose magic, to strike up a deal with the Cleaners.
1154"The Power of Three Blondes"John BehringDaniel CeroneOctober 12, 2003 (2003-10-12)43011155.4[3]
When three evil sisters magically steal the Charmed Ones' identities and powers, Piper, Phoebe, and Paige must convince Chris that they are the real Charmed Ones in order to get their lives back. Meanwhile, Piper realizes that Wyatt needs time with Leo, who continues on his quest to find out who put him on the Island of Valhalla.
1165"Love's a Witch"Stuart GillardJeannine RenshawOctober 19, 2003 (2003-10-19)43011165.4[4]
When Paige's latest temp job puts her in the middle of an ongoing feud between two magical families, the Montanas and the Callaways, she falls for Richard Montana and urges both families to consider a truce. Paige, Phoebe, and Piper hold a séance with both families and everyone is stunned to learn that Richard's first love, Olivia Callaway, is the one who has been escalating the feud to avenge her death. Paige becomes possessed by Olivia's spirit, and Phoebe and Piper must banish Olivia in order to save Paige and the two families. However, Paige's abduction of Richard while possessed and the near death of his mother, cause the families to end the feud, having decided they want no more death. Olivia's dad and Richard's mom lead Phoebe and Piper to Olivia's grave where Paige tries to attack, but is prevented by Piper. Phoebe and Piper go to vanquish her but are stopped by Paige who felt Olivia's intense pain while possessed by her and Paige and Richard are able to convince her to move on peacefully. Meanwhile, Leo is suspicious when Chris travels to The Underworld in search of a potion and trails him in secret. The potion turns out to be an empath blocking potion, and Piper and Paige are able to use it to block Phoebe's new power on them, however, when they are gone, Chris secretly uses it on himself too.
1176"My Three Witches"Joel J. FeigenbaumScott Lipsey & Whip LipseyOctober 26, 2003 (2003-10-26)43011175.5[5]
Worried that the Charmed Ones are drifting apart by putting their personal lives before their "Charmed" duties, Chris tries to teach them a lesson by enlisting the help of the demon Gith, who creates an alternate reality for the sisters by tapping into their secret desires. Piper's secret desire is to live a normal life, Phoebe feels her boyfriend's, Jason Dean, desire, for her to be a famous celebrity and have her own television show, and Paige's is to not have to hide her magic. Chris tries to kill Gith, but is prevented by when he is shot with a Darklighter arrow. Wyatt ends up becoming seriously ill and when Piper tries to get him to the hospital, she ends up in a car crash while Paige gets attacked by multiple demons and insane fans try to kill Phoebe. Chris manages to put Phoebe into Paige's world and together they manage to channel themselves into Piper's. Gith, desperate, transports himself to Piper's world, but Phoebe fights him off. Gith is vanquished when Piper's SVU explodes and he is consumed in the explosion. His vanquish frees the sisters and Wyatt and they discover a near-death Chris. Piper quickly calls for Leo who heals Wyatt of his illness and Chris of his wound and they return home where the sisters have learned their lesson.
1187"Soul Survivor"Mel DamskiCurtis KheelNovember 2, 2003 (2003-11-02)43011185.2[6]
In an attempt to save her boss' soul, Paige goes behind her sisters backs and makes a deal with a demon. Meanwhile, Piper learns that Wyatt has been sabotaging her dates. Phoebe gets a new writing partner, and Chris and Leo accidentally travel back in time.
1198"Sword and the City"Derek JohansenDavid SimkinsNovember 9, 2003 (2003-11-09)43011195.2[7]
The Lady of the Lake appears before the Charmed Ones, pleading for their help in protecting Excalibur, the legendary Sword in the Stone. A dozen magical beings arrive at the manor to try their hand at pulling the sword from the stone, but it is Piper who pulls Excalibur out, causing a whirlwind that coalesces into a mysterious figure called Mordaunt. Piper is unaware that she is meant to pass it on to Wyatt, heir of Excalibur and the next King Arthur. Richard realizes that Mordaunt cannot be trusted, but before he can intervene, Mordaunt tricks Piper into relinquishing the sword and its power to him.
1209"Little Monsters"James L. ConwayJulie HessNovember 16, 2003 (2003-11-16)43011205.3[8]
After vanquishing a Manticore demon, Piper, Phoebe, and Paige become foster parents to its orphaned half-breed infant, whose human father Derek (Seth Peterson) holds Piper hostage until his son is returned. Upon Chris' plea to vanquish the child, the sisters come to believe that, by raising the child with love, they can change its destiny. Meanwhile, Phoebe surprises her boyfriend Jason when she responds to feelings he has not expressed yet, and Paige gives Darryl a superpower.
12110"Chris-Crossed"Joel J. FeigenbaumCameron LitvackNovember 23, 2003 (2003-11-23)43011216.0[9]
A mysterious woman from the future named Bianca arrives to take Chris' powers and bring him back with her forcefully. Piper feels that being witches is stopping her sisters from having the life they want, and advises them to move out and follow their hearts. Bianca is revealed to actually be Chris' fiancée who only came back as "he" would have sent someone else if she had not come. Bianca is revealed to have helped Chris come back in time in the first place and apparently met him after the unnamed evil that rules their future sent her to kill him. Chris also reveals some truth about himself after Piper tries to freeze him and Bianca and fails: he is not a true Whitelighter, he is half-Whitelighter, half-witch like Paige and Wyatt. Bianca strips his powers and brings him back to his terrible future where the evil who rules confronts Chris and Bianca alone; an evil Wyatt. Future Wyatt tries to convince Chris to join him, offering to spare his life if he does. Chris refuses and Wyatt tries to kill him, but he is saved by Bianca who switches back to his side to protect him. Using a spell the sisters left in the attic in the present, Chris reclaims his powers and defeats Wyatt temporarily, but Bianca is mortally wounded and dies. Chris manages to open a time portal and escapes as Wyatt recovers, taking the spell with him so that Wyatt cannot send another assassin back in time. In the present, the sisters forgive him and he remains their Whitelighter, but he swears that if he can't prevent Baby Wyatt from becoming evil, then he will stop him permanently.
12211"Witchstock"James A. ContnerDaniel CeroneJanuary 11, 2004 (2004-01-11)43011225.3[10]
After trying on a pair of her Grams' go-go boots, Paige finds herself transported back in time to an era of free love and free magic. She discovers Grams, a peace-loving hippie, who is on a crusade to rid the world of evil through the magical power of love, preparing for a "magical be-in" at the manor. Meanwhile in present time a magic-sucking slime attacks the manor.
12312"Prince Charmed"David JacksonHenry Alonso MyersJanuary 18, 2004 (2004-01-18)43011233.9[11]
After vanquishing a demon from Wyatt's room, Piper has an epiphany and decides to swear off men so that she can devote the rest of her life to raising and protecting Wyatt. Unable to handle Piper's revelation, Paige and Phoebe decide to remind Piper of the importance of love by conjuring up a "Mr. Right" as Piper's birthday present. The Order, a demonic brotherhood, manage to kidnap Wyatt after Chris' meddling with "Prince Charmed's" attractiveness backfires, turning a birthday dinner party into a food fight. The sisters vanquish the Order and with Chris' help restore Wyatt to normal. Doing so apparently earns Wyatt's trust for Chris and Leo confirms later that he still trusts Chris, but Chris needs to earn back the sisters' trust.
12413"Used Karma"John T. KretchmerJeannine RenshawJanuary 25, 2004 (2004-01-25)43011244.2[12]
Piper, Phoebe, and Paige inadvertently expose themselves as witches in front of Jason, causing him to leave Phoebe. Richard casts a spell to free himself of his family's negative karma, but accidentally channels the spirit of Mata Hari, a double agent against Germany for France during WWI, into Phoebe. Phoebe decides to get revenge on Jason by arranging for a demonic firing squad to kill him. Meanwhile, Piper and Paige try to vanquish a group of Swarm Demons, the last on Chris' list of the most significant threats to Wyatt.
12514"The Legend of Sleepy Halliwell"Jon ParéCameron LitvackFebruary 8, 2004 (2004-02-08)43011254.8[13]
The three sisters are railing at the complications and deleterious impact magic has on their lives when a portal opens in the middle of their stairway landing. An Elder named Gideon, Leo's old mentor at Magic School, calls upon Piper, Phoebe, and Paige to find out who cast the spell of darkness upon the school and conjured up the Headless Horseman, who has been beheading the teachers. While Piper and Paige tackle a group of surly teenagers, Piper becomes the horseman's next victim and become a functioning head on a table. Meanwhile, Phoebe is sent on a vision quest by a student Enola, who is a young shaman, and gets a glimpse into the demon free future, where she discovers she will have a child and she sees an older Wyatt and a brunette boy. Piper refers to the brunette as Wyatt's little brother. The little boy asks her for help and the vision ends and she sees Chris asking the same question which gives her a revelation. Questioning whether such a future is even possible, she is told she must be herself and accept her bad with the good about who she is and then it can happen—the advice the three sisters give the youth terrorizing the teaching staff. It is revealed that Zachary, a desperately unhappy telepath, is behind the attacks by using his power to tap into others powers. The sisters vanquish the Headless Horseman and convince Zachary to stop. Later at P3, Phoebe confronts Chris about who he really is and asks is he is really Wyatt's brother and thus Piper and Leo's son. For once Chris doesn't lie and confirms this,but only if he can get Piper and Leo back together in time.
12615"I Dream of Phoebe"John T. KretchmerCurtis KheelFebruary 15, 2004 (2004-02-15)43011264.1[14]
Phoebe frees a genie, Jinny (Saba Homayoon), from a bottle, only to find that Jinny is a demon that has tricked her into becoming a genie herself. Anxious to get Leo and Piper back together so he can be conceived, Chris uses Phoebe to make his wish come true, but she takes his instructions too literally. When Chris reveals to Paige that he made the wish to make Piper and Leo sleep together, she calls him a pervert, and he reveals to her that Piper and Leo are his parents and that Piper needs to get pregnant within a few weeks or he will perish. Feeling that he is losing Paige, Richard opportunistically covets the genie's magic and steals the bottle so he can wish Paige back into his life. Paige and Richard reconciled to permanent separation, but Richard must drink a power-stripping potion for his own good.
12716"The Courtship of Wyatt's Father"Joel J. FeigenbaumBrad KernFebruary 22, 2004 (2004-02-22)43011275.0[15]
A Darklighter named Damien sends both Leo and Piper into a trap on the ghostly plane where they are without powers and wounds Leo with his Darklighter crossbow, leaving Phoebe and Paige to fear that they are dead. Meanwhile, Chris is obsessing over the fact that he is out of time, for he must be conceived by Piper and Leo sometime in the next day before he disappears forever having never been conceived. An Angel of Death comes for Chris even as he begins fading but he manages to resist and make a communication bridge between Phoebe and Piper.. The two consult with Gideon who is convinced Leo is doomed, provides a way to access the dimension to rescue Piper thinking Leo will be dead. At the end he convinces Leo to act as an Elder and sunder himself from his family, and Gideon is revealed to have plotted the cross dimensional attack to rid himself of Leo, and to have ill intentions towards Wyatt, his real target. By being trapped on the ghostly plane causes Piper and Leo to temporarily rekindle their relationship and sleep together, conceiving Chris. Piper learns at the end of the episode that Chris is her son and that she is pregnant from Phoebe and Paige who realize what happened as Chris returns to existence.
12817"Hyde School Reunion"Jonathan WestDavid SimkinsMarch 14, 2004 (2004-03-14)43011284.8[16]
While preparing for her high school reunion, Phoebe's wild teenage personality takes over her body when she inadvertently casts a spell on herself reading a rhyme she had inscribed in her high school year book. At the reunion, aggravated by an old rival, the teenage Phoebe persona takes over, reconnects with her former gang and finds herself following a suggestion to use her magic to visit another old gang member Rick, who is in jail awaiting trial. Rick, takes advantage of their visit to break out of jail, and uses Phoebe's magic to aid his plans of fleeing justice. Meanwhile, Scabber demons requiring the Power of Three to vanquish are closing in on Chris. Earlier that evening, Piper being increasingly concerned that Chris is staying distant, had asked her father Victor to talk to him. Chris explains that Piper dies when he turns fourteen, and he has been distancing himself from his mother because he believes that to bond with her only to return to a future where she is dead would be too painful. Victor convinces Chris that he needs to spend as much time with Piper as possible so he has more fond memories of her when he goes back. All the while Phoebe is under the dual pressures of knowing one high school friend is seriously, perhaps even grievously wounded, and Rick has hidden one of their female classmates where no-one can ever find her. Both parties arrive back at the manor where Paige casts the appearance changing spell to make him look like Chris. The Scabber Demons spit their acid at what looks like Chris and Rick is melted, but not before he gives up the information on where to find the others.
12918"Spin City"Mel DamskiAndy Reaser & Doug E. JonesApril 18, 2004 (2004-04-18)4560063.8[17]
Piper is kidnapped and cocooned by the Spider Demon, a creature that emerges every hundred years to feed off a powerful magical being. During the attack, Chris is infected with the demon's venom, causing him to mutate into a spider demon himself. In need of desperate help, Paige calls Leo. Phoebe then reveals to Leo that Chris is his son. While trying to save him, Chris attacks Leo and starts repeatedly punching Leo, yelling that Leo does not know him. Later, Leo finds Chris on the Golden Gate bridge and begs him to tell him why he hates him so much. Chris replies that Leo was never there for him, but he was there for Piper, Wyatt, and half the world. Leo tells him that maybe he did not come back just to save Wyatt, but to save their relationship as well.
13019"Crimes and Witch Demeanors"John T. KretchmerHenry Alonso MyersApril 25, 2004 (2004-04-25)43011303.4[18]
When Phoebe and Paige are caught on tape using their powers by SFPD Inspector Sheridan, the Cleaners, beings who prevent the exposure of magic, cover up the situation by implicating their friend, Detective Darryl Morris, as a murderer and in a huge time jump, end up sending him to death row to cover up the exposure of magic. The Halliwells fight to have the outcome reversed, initially summoning the Cleaners by deliberate acts that would expose magic if left unfixed. Their confrontation proves inconclusive, and they learn that their only recourse is to have a hearing in front of the mysterious Tribunal, which is a council that oversees all magic and made up of demons and Elders with Barbas (Billy Drago) empaneled as the prosecutor. He turns the proceedings around on their head and puts the sisters on trial for recklessly abusing their powers.Meanwhile, Inspector Sheridan, nudged magically by Barbas, takes aim at the sisters with her partner Inspector Miles and begins looking into the trail of disappearances and odd happenings over the last half decade starting with the collection of unsolved homicides SFPD Internal Affairs had harassed Andy Trudeau about. Meanwhile, Leo and Chris work together to help free the sisters and Darryl, but the outcome leaves Phoebe stripped of her active powers as penance for occasional lapses in the past where she used magic to benefit herself.
13120"A Wrong Day's Journey into Right"Cameron LitvackMay 2, 2004 (2004-05-02)43011314.1[19]
With Piper away at Magic School and Phoebe without her powers, an overworked Paige re-conjures "Mr. Right" for stress relief, but unknowingly releases his evil twin, a demon called Vincent who immediately hatches a plot to separate the sisters while sending assassins after witches. Appealing to Paige's dark side, Mr. Wrong / Vincent uses his pheromones to trick her into realizing that the only way to achieve her secret desire is to be free and use her magic without fear of consequence, eventually killing her sisters. Chris accidentally gets arrested for stealing a car to chase Vincent and Darryl will not cover. To prevent Paige from executing his plan, Phoebe goes undercover as one of Mr. Wrong's Demonatrix assassins. Paige and Phoebe try to keep Piper out of the situation, but that backfires when Paige, under Vincent's control, kidnaps her so that the Demonatrix assassins can kill her. Phoebe regains confidence in herself when she makes Mr. Right real to test a potion that will make Vincent real so he can be vanquished and infiltrates the Demonatrixes. As the Demonatrixes are about to kill a confused Piper, Phoebe saves her and together they vanquish them. They go after Vincent who is confident they cannot harm him as they do not have the potion to make him real, but Phoebe takes the chance that making Mr. Right real will turn him real too. She proves to be right and Vincent is easily vanquished which breaks his hold over Paige. Later, Leo erases the memory of the car dealership manager to save Chris from having to go to jail.
13221"Witch Wars"David JacksonKrista VernoffMay 9, 2004 (2004-05-09)43011322.7[20]
Aware that Piper, Phoebe and Paige are on the verge of discovering that he is after Wyatt, Gideon conspires with two demons to make the girls part of Witch Wars, a new demonic reality television show where demon contestants compete to hunt down the Charmed Ones, with the winning demon acquiring the witches' powers. Gideon makes the girls believe that the game masters, Corr and Clea, are the ones after Wyatt in order to protect himself and his own agenda. In the end they find out, but the two demons grow extremely powerful due to them absorbing the powers of vanquished demon contestants. Phoebe comes up with a plan to vanquish them without the Power of Three as they do not want to risk Piper. Leo vanquishes Clea with a power-sucking athame and Phoebe takes Clea's powers for herself. Using her new powers, Phoebe shimmers to the attic and vanquishes Corr with an energy ball. She then shimmers to a demonic bar where demons have been watching Witch Wars and vanquishes many with energy balls to make a point while the rest flee before she returns home. Paige stabs her with the athame to remove the demonic powers. Later, the group celebrates the victory and believe the threat to Wyatt over. Meanwhile, Gideon's assistant has second thoughts about their plan and goes to tell the sisters the truth, but is murdered by Gideon before he can.
1331342223"It's a Bad, Bad, Bad, Bad World"Jon ParéJeannine RenshawCurtis KheelMay 16, 2004 (2004-05-16)430113343011344.7[21]
Under the guise of sending Chris back to the future, Gideon creates a portal that puts Chris and Leo in a mirrored world where evil prevails. Phoebe and Paige travel to the parallel universe to rescue Chris and Leo, only to find themselves in a battle with their evil counterparts. Unable to vanquish one another, both sets of sisters realize that Wyatt is unprotected and in danger from Gideon.Upon returning to their own world, Phoebe and Paige realize that their world is now too good, and every little infraction is a capital offense. The shift between universes causes Piper's memory to be erased, and Gideon tricks Piper into casting a spell on Phoebe and Paige so that they too, forget Gideon's evil intentions. With the Charmed sisters under the spell, and Piper having a complicated delivery, only Leo and Chris are left to stop Gideon from completing his plan. When Chris is left alone with Wyatt in the attic, Gideon attacks just as Chris goes to orb Wyatt out after suspecting something was not right. Gideon summons an athame and disappears. Chris rushes to grab Wyatt, but Gideon reappears and he stabs Chris in the stomach. While Chris lies there wounded, Gideon takes Wyatt to the Underworld. Chris calls out to Leo. When Leo arrives he tries to heal him, but Chris tells him that it will not work because it was Gideon's magic and only he can stop it. He tells Leo to find Gideon and save Wyatt. Unfortunately, Chris dies, sending Leo into a rage. He discovers the inter-dimensional mirror, meets with his analog self and realizes to return balance, a great evil needs to be done in the Charmed One's universe, and when he goes to save Wyatt he kills Gideon while his other self looks on through the mirror which at the end they both destroy, so the universes cannot be linked again in the future. Wyatt is safe, and though future Chris is dead, baby Chris is born healthy.

tag: table

text: Reception[edit]

text: In 2016, Gavin Hetherington of SpoilerTV ran a series of Charmed articles in the run-up to the 10th anniversary of the series finale. The sixth was a complete season review of season six, in which Gavin comments that the season is his "least favourite".[22] Critical of the season as a whole, Gavin did note the importance of the inclusion of Chris, who called him an "exceptional addition to the cast", and he "helped make a sucky season a lot better".

tag: p

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Fuller is only credited for the episodes he appears in.

Jump up ^ Gregory is only credited for the episodes he appears in.

tag: ol


document_title: Geographic center of the contiguous United States

question_text: what city is directly in the middle of the united states

text: Overview[edit]

text: Its position as located in a 1918 survey is located at 39°50′N 98°35′W / 39.833°N 98.583°W / 39.833; -98.583 (Geographic Center of the Contiguous United States), in Kansas about 2.6 miles (4.2 km) northwest of the center of Lebanon, approximately 12 miles (19 km) south of the Kansas-Nebraska border.[1]

text: While any measurement of the exact center of a land mass will always be imprecise due to changing shorelines and other factors, the NGS coordinates are recognized in a historical marker in a small park at the intersection of AA Road and K-191. It is accessible by a turn-off from U.S. Route 281.

text: It is distinct from the geographic center of the United States, which reflects the 1959 additions of the states of Alaska and Hawaii, which is located at a point northeast of Belle Fourche, South Dakota.

text: In an unusual technical glitch, a farmstead northeast of Potwin, Kansas became the default site of 600 million IP addresses (due to their lack of fine granularity) when the Massachusetts-based digital mapping company MaxMind changed the putative geographic center of the contiguous United States from 39.8333333,-98.585522 to 38.0000,-97.0000.[2]

text: Marker[edit]

text: In order to protect the privacy of the private land owner where the point identified by the 1918 survey falls,[3] a proxy marker was erected in 1940 some half a mile away.[4]

text: Its inscription reads:

text:
The GEOGRAPHIC CENTER of the UNITED STATES
LAT. 39°50' LONG. -98°35'
NE 1/4 - SE 1/4 - S32 - T2S - R11W
Located by L.T. Hagadorn of Paulette & Wilson - Engineers and L.A. Beardslee - County Engineer. From data furnished by U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Sponsored by Lebanon Hub Club. Lebanon, Kansas. April 25, 1940

text: An American flag usually flies atop a pole placed on the monument. A covered picnic area and small four-pew chapel are nearby.

text: Method of measurement[edit]

text: In 1918, the Coast and Geodetic Survey found this location by balancing on a point a cardboard cutout shaped like the U.S.[5] Incredibly, this method was accurate to within 20 miles, but while the Geodetic Survey no longer endorses any location as the center of the U.S., the identification of Lebanon, Kansas has remained.[6][7]


document_title: Scotland at the FIFA World Cup

question_text: when did scotland last make the world cup

text: Scotland at the FIFA World Cup

text: History[edit]

text: Scotland, like the other Home Nations, did not enter the three FIFA World Cups held during the 1930s. This was because the four associations had been excluded from FIFA due to a disagreement regarding the status of amateur players.[9] The four associations, including Scotland, returned to the FIFA fold after the Second World War.[9] The readmission of the Scottish Football Association to FIFA meant that Scotland were now eligible to enter the 1950 FIFA World Cup. FIFA advised that places would be awarded to the top two teams in the 1949–50 British Home Championship, but the SFA announced that Scotland would attend the finals only if Scotland won the competition.[10] Scotland won their first two matches, but a 1–0 home defeat by England meant that the Scots finished as runners-up.[10] The SFA stood by this proclamation, despite pleas to the contrary by the Scotland players, supported by England captain Billy Wright and the other England players.[10][11] Sportswriter Brian Glanville later described the SFA as showing "baffling insularity and pique" in their refusal to send a team to the World Cup.[10]

text: The same qualification rules as in 1950 were in place for the 1954 FIFA World Cup, with the 1953–54 British Home Championship acting as a qualifying group. Scotland again finished second, but this time the SFA allowed a team to participate in the Finals, held in Switzerland. To quote the SFA website, "The preparation was atrocious".[12] The SFA only sent 13 players to the finals, even though FIFA allowed 22-man squads at the tournament.[13][14] Despite this self-imposed hardship in terms of players, the SFA dignitaries travelled in numbers, accompanied with their wives.[13] Scotland lost 1–0 against Austria in their first game in the finals.[14] After falling out with the SFA, probably due to the poor preparation of the team, manager Andy Beattie resigned hours before the game against Uruguay.[10][15][14] Uruguay were reigning champions and had never before lost a game at the World Cup finals. The gulf in class was exposed in horrific fashion as Uruguay won 7–0.[10][12][16][14]

text: Scotland qualified for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, finishing ahead of Spain.[10] Matt Busby had been due to manage the team at the World Cup, but the severe injuries he suffered in the Munich air disaster meant that trainer Dawson Walker took charge of the team instead.[10] In their first match at the finals Scotland achieved a creditable draw against Yugoslavia.[10] Players Archie Robertson and Tommy Docherty were sent to watch next opponents Paraguay and they reported back that Paraguay was a "rough, fit and good" team.[10] Walker chose to ignore this advice and left out some of his combative players, including Docherty, and Scotland lost 3–2.[10] They exited the competition after also losing to France.[10]

text: Scotland failed to qualify for another World Cup in the next 16 years.[10] A "skilful but fragile" team lost a play-off to Czechoslovakia in qualification for 1962.[10] A team managed by Jock Stein, but deprived of many of its best players due to club commitments, lost a decisive qualifier against Italy in Naples for the 1966 tournament.[10] A narrow defeat by West Germany in Hamburg then ended hopes of qualifying for 1970.[10]

text: Willie Ormond was appointed Scotland manager in 1973. Ormond lost his first match in charge 5–0 to England, but recovered to steer Scotland to their first World Cup finals in 16 years in 1974. At the 1974 World Cup finals in West Germany, Scotland achieved their most impressive performance at a World Cup tournament.[17] The team was unbeaten but failed to progress beyond the group stages on goal difference.[10][17] After beating Zaire, they drew with both Brazil and Yugoslavia, and went out because they had beaten Zaire by the smallest margin.[5] This performance has been assessed as a "gallant failure", but the choice to retain possession instead of pressing for more goals against Zaire has been criticised.[10]

text: Scotland appointed Ally MacLeod as manager in 1977.  Scotland qualified for the 1978 FIFA World Cup with victories over Czechoslovakia and Wales.[18] During the build-up to the tournament, MacLeod fuelled the hopes of the nation by stating that Scotland would come home from Argentina with a medal.[19] As the squad left for the finals, they were given an enthusiastic send off as they were paraded around a packed Hampden Park.[20] Thousands more fans lined the route to Prestwick Airport as the team set off for South America.[19] This enthusiasm was not just generated internally, as respected coaches such as Rinus Michels and Miljan Miljanić rated Scotland amongst the favourites to win the competition.[10][21] The Royal Mail commissioned designs of commemorative stamps that would have been circulated if Scotland had won the World Cup.[22]

text: Scotland's first game was against Peru in Córdoba. Two spectacular goals by Teófilo Cubillas meant that the result was a 3–1 loss. The second game was a very disappointing 1–1 draw against Iran.[19] Scotland had not even scouted Iran. The disconsolate mood of the nation was reflected by footage of Ally MacLeod in the dugout with his head in his hands.[23] MacLeod had made strange selection choices, picking inexperienced full-backs and retaining the out-of-form Bruce Rioch and Don Masson.[10]

text: After taking a single point from their opening two games, Scotland had to defeat the Netherlands by three clear goals to progress.[6] Despite the Dutch taking the lead, Scotland fought back to win 3–2 with a goal from Kenny Dalglish and two from Archie Gemmill, the second of which is considered one of the greatest World Cup goals ever;[19] Gemmill beat three Dutch defenders before lifting the ball over goalkeeper Jan Jongbloed into the net.[19][24] The victory was not sufficient to secure a place in the second round, however, as Scotland were eliminated on goal difference for the second successive World Cup.[6] This performance against strong opponents only heightened the frustration at the poor results earlier in the competition.[10] MacLeod initially retained his position, but resigned later that year.[10]

text: Jock Stein, who had won nine consecutive Scottish league titles and the European Cup as manager of Celtic, was appointed Scotland manager in 1978.[25] After failing to qualify for the 1980 European Championship,[18] Scotland qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup from a tough group including Sweden, Portugal, Israel and Northern Ireland, losing just one match in the process.[26] They were then drawn in a "Group of death" with New Zealand, Brazil and the Soviet Union.[10] Scotland beat New Zealand by 5–2 in their first game, but then lost 4–1 to a Brazil team containing Socrates, Zico, Eder and Falcão.[7] Scotland were again eliminated on goal difference, after a 2–2 draw with the Soviet Union. This match is best remembered for defenders Alan Hansen and Willie Miller colliding while chasing a long ball, which allowed the Soviets to run through and score.[10]

text: Scotland qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup, their fourth in succession, in traumatic circumstances. The squad went into their last qualification match against Wales needing a point to progress to a qualifying playoff against Australia. With only nine minutes remaining and Wales leading 1–0, Scotland were awarded a penalty kick, which was calmly scored by Davie Cooper.[27] The 1–1 draw meant that Scotland progressed, but as the players and fans celebrated, national coach Jock Stein suffered a heart attack and died shortly afterwards.[27] His assistant Alex Ferguson took over.[25] Scotland qualified by winning 2–0 against Australia in a two-leg playoff, but were again drawn into a group of death, this time with Uruguay, Denmark and West Germany.[10][28] Scotland were eliminated from the tournament with just one point from their three matches, a goalless draw with Uruguay.[29]

text: Scotland qualified for their fifth consecutive World Cup in 1990 by finishing second in their qualifying group, ahead of France.[30] Scotland were drawn in a group with Costa Rica, Sweden, and Brazil, but the Scots lost 1–0 to Costa Rica.[31] While they recovered to beat Sweden 2–1 in their second game, they lost to Brazil in their third match 1–0 and were once again eliminated after the first round.[31] Goalkeeper Jim Leighton fumbled a shot that allowed Brazil to score the only goal.[10]

text: Craig Brown guided Scotland to qualification for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, finishing as the best runners-up. Scotland were drawn against holders Brazil in the opening game of the World Cup.[32] John Collins scored from the penalty spot to level the score at 1–1, but a Tom Boyd own goal led to a 2–1 defeat. Scotland drew their next game 1–1 with Norway in Bordeaux,[2] but the final match against Morocco ended in a 3–0 defeat.[33] Scotland have not appeared at the World Cup since.

text: Statistics[edit]

text: Tournament summary[edit]

text:
Year

Final Tournament

Qualification

Round

Pld

W

D

L

F

A

Round

Pld

W

D

L

F

A

1930
Did not enter[4]

1934

1938

1950
Withdrew[8]
Group – 2nd
3
2
0
1
10
3

1954
Round 1
2
0
0
2
0
8
Group – 2nd
3
1
1
1
8
8

1958
Round 1
3
0
1
2
4
6
Group – 1st
4
3
0
1
10
9

1962
Did not qualify
Group – 2nd
5
3
0
2
12
11

1966
Group – 2nd
6
3
1
2
8
8

1970
Group – 2nd
6
3
1
2
18
7

1974
Round 1
3
1
2
0
3
1
Group – 1st
4
3
0
1
8
3

1978
Round 1
3
1
1
1
5
6
Group – 1st
4
3
0
1
6
3

1982
Round 1
3
1
1
1
8
8
Group – 1st
8
4
3
1
9
4

1986
Round 1
3
0
1
2
1
3
Play-off
8
4
2
2
10
4

1990
Round 1
3
1
0
2
2
3
Group – 2nd
8
4
2
2
12
12

1994
Did not qualify
Group – 4th
10
4
3
3
14
13

1998
Round 1
3
0
1
2
2
6
Group – 2nd
10
7
2
1
15
3

2002
Did not qualify
Group – 3rd
8
4
3
1
12
6

2006
Group – 3rd
10
3
4
3
9
7

2010
Group – 3rd
8
3
1
4
6
11

2014
Group – 4th
10
3
2
5
8
12

2018
Group – 3rd
10
5
3
2
17
12

2022
TBD

Total
8/21
23
4
7
12
25
41

125
62
28
35
192
136

text: Matches played[edit]

text:
World Cup(manager)

Round

Opponent

Score

Result

Venue

Scotland scorers

1954(Beattie)
Group stage
 Austria
0–1
L
Zürich
&—

 Uruguay
0–7
L
Basel
&—

1958(Walker)
Group stage
 Yugoslavia
1–1
D
Västerås
Murray

 Paraguay
2–3
L
Norrköping
Mudie, Collins

 France
1–2
L
Örebro
Baird

1974(Ormond)
Group stage
 Zaire
2–0
W
Dortmund
Lorimer, Jordan

 Brazil
0–0
D
Frankfurt
&—

 Yugoslavia
1–1
D
Frankfurt
Jordan

1978(MacLeod)
Group stage
 Peru
1–3
L
Córdoba
Jordan

 Iran
1–1
D
Córdoba
Eskandarian (o.g.)

 Netherlands
3–2
W
Mendoza
Dalglish, Gemmill (2)

1982(Stein)
Group stage
 New Zealand
5–2
W
Málaga
Dalglish, Wark (2), Robertson, Archibald

 Brazil
1–4
L
Seville
Narey

 Soviet Union
2–2
D
Málaga
Jordan, Souness

1986(Ferguson)
Group stage
 Denmark
0–1
L
Nezahualcóyotl
&—

 West Germany
1–2
L
Querétaro
Strachan

 Uruguay
0–0
D
Nezahualcóyotl
&—

1990(Roxburgh)
Group stage
 Costa Rica
0–1
L
Genoa
&—

 Sweden
2–1
W
Genoa
McCall, Johnston

 Brazil
0–1
L
Turin
&—

1998(Brown)
Group stage
 Brazil
1–2
L
Saint-Denis
Collins

 Norway
1–1
D
Bordeaux
Burley

 Morocco
0–3
L
Saint-Étienne
&—

text: Head to head records[edit]

text:
Final tournament head-to-head

Opponent

P

W

D

L

GF

GA

%W

%D

%L

 Austria
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
100

 Brazil
4
0
1
3
2
7
0
25
75

 Costa Rica
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
100

 Denmark
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
100

 France
1
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
100

 Iran
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
100
0

 Morocco
1
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
100

 Netherlands
1
1
0
0
3
2
100
0
0

 New Zealand
1
1
0
0
5
2
100
0
0

 Norway
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
100
0

 Paraguay
1
0
0
1
2
3
0
0
100

 Peru
1
0
0
1
1
3
0
0
100

 Soviet Union
1
0
1
0
2
2
0
100
0

 Sweden
1
1
0
0
2
1
100
0
0

 Uruguay
2
0
1
1
0
7
0
50
50

 West Germany
1
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
100

 Yugoslavia
2
0
2
0
2
2
0
100
0

 Zaire
1
1
0
0
2
0
100
0
0

text: Qualifying[edit]

text:
Qualifying head-to-head
show

Opponent

P

W

D

L

GF

GA

%W

%D

%L

 Australia
2
1
1
0
2
0
50
50
0

 Austria
4
2
1
1
4
3
50
25
25

 Belarus
4
2
1
1
5
2
50
25
25

 Belgium
4
0
1
3
2
8
0
25
75

 Croatia
4
2
2
0
4
1
50
50
0

 Cyprus
4
4
0
0
18
3
100
0
0

 Czechoslovakia
7
3
0
4
10
15
42.86
0
57.14

 Denmark
2
2
0
0
6
1
100
0
0

 England
4
0
1
3
4
10
0
25
75

 Estonia
4
3
1
0
8
1
75
25
0

 Finland
2
2
0
0
5
2
100
0
0

 France
2
1
0
1
2
3
50
0
50

 Iceland
4
4
0
0
8
2
100
0
0

 Ireland
1
1
0
0
8
2
100
0
0

 Israel
2
2
0
0
4
1
100
0
0

 Italy
6
1
2
3
3
9
16.67
33.33
50

 Latvia
4
4
0
0
7
1
100
0
0

 Lithuania
2
1
1
0
4
1
50
50
0

 Macedonia
4
1
2
1
5
3
25
50
25

 Malta
4
4
0
0
12
1
100
0
0

 Moldova
2
1
1
0
3
1
50
50
0

 Netherlands
2
0
0
2
0
4
0
0
100

 Northern Ireland
3
1
2
0
4
2
33.33
66.67
0

 Norway
6
1
2
3
4
9
16.67
33.33
50

 Poland
2
0
1
1
2
3
0
50
50

 Portugal
4
0
2
2
1
7
0
50
50

 Republic of Ireland
2
2
0
0
7
1
100
0
0

 San Marino
2
2
0
0
6
0
100
0
0

 Serbia
2
0
1
1
0
2
0
50
50

 Slovakia
2
1
0
1
1
3
50
0
50

 Slovenia
4
2
2
0
6
2
50
50
0

 Spain
4
2
0
2
8
8
50
0
50

 Sweden
4
3
0
1
5
2
75
0
25

  Switzerland
4
2
1
1
7
7
50
25
25

 Wales
8
3
2
3
4
1
37.5
25
37.5

 West Germany
2
0
1
1
3
4
0
50
50

 Yugoslavia
2
0
1
1
2
4
0
50
50

text: Appearances[edit]

text:
No.

Name

Matches

World Cups

1

Jim Leighton
9
1986, 1990 and 1998

2

Kenny Dalglish
8
1974, 1978 and 1982

3

Joe Jordan
7
1974, 1978 and 1982

4

Alan Rough
6
1978 and 1982

Graeme Souness
6
1978, 1982 and 1986

Gordon Strachan
6
1982 and 1986

Roy Aitken
6
1986 and 1990

8

Martin Buchan
5
1974 and 1978

Danny McGrain
5
1974 and 1982

Willie Miller
5
1982 and 1986

David Narey
5
1982 and 1986

Alex McLeish
5
1982, 1986 and 1990

Maurice Malpas
5
1986 and 1990

text: Top goalscorers[edit]

text:
No.

Name

Goals

World Cups

1

Joe Jordan
4
1974 (2), 1978 (1) and 1982 (1)

2

Archie Gemmill
2
1978

Kenny Dalglish
2
1978 and 1982

John Wark
2
1982

5

Thirteen players
1

text: Squads[edit]

text:
showScotland squads at FIFA World Cup finals
showvteScotland squad  –  1954 FIFA World Cup
1 Martin
2 Cunningham (c)
3 Aird
4 Evans
5 Docherty
6 Davidson
7 Cowie
8 McKenzie
9 Hamilton
10 Brown
11 Mochan
12 Fernie
13 Ormond
14 Anderson
15 Johnstone
16 Henderson
17 Mathers
18 Wilson
19 Binning
20 Combe
21 Copland
22 McMillan
Coach: Beattie

showvteScotland squad  –  1958 FIFA World Cup
1 Younger (c)
2 Docherty
3 Parker
4 Caldow
5 Hewie
6 Haddock
7 McColl
8 Turnbull
9 Evans
10 Cowie
11 Mackay
12 Brown
13 Baird
14 Leggat
15 Scott
16 Murray
17 Mudie
18 Coyle
19 Collins
20 Robertson
21 Imlach
22 Fernie
Coach: Walker

showvteScotland squad  –  1974 FIFA World Cup
1 Harvey
2 Jardine
3 McGrain
4 Bremner (c)
5 Holton
6 Blackley
7 Johnstone
8 Dalglish
9 Jordan
10 Hay
11 Lorimer
12 Allan
13 Stewart
14 Buchan
15 Cormack
16 Donachie
17 Ford
18 Hutchison
19 Law
20 Morgan
21 McQueen
22 Schaedler
Coach: Ormond

showvteScotland squad  –  1978 FIFA World Cup
1 Rough
2 Jardine
3 Donachie
4 Buchan
5 McQueen
6 Rioch (c)
7 Masson
8 Dalglish
9 Jordan
10 Hartford
11 Johnston
12 Blyth
13 Kennedy
14 Forsyth
15 Gemmill
16 Macari
17 Johnstone
18 Souness
19 Robertson
20 Clark
21 Harper
22 Burns
Coach: MacLeod

showvteScotland squad  –  1982 FIFA World Cup
1 Rough
2 McGrain
3 Gray
4 Souness (c)
5 Hansen
6 Miller
7 Strachan
8 Dalglish
9 Brazil
10 Wark
11 Robertson
12 Wood
13 McLeish
14 Narey
15 Jordan
16 Hartford
17 Evans
18 Archibald
19 Sturrock
20 Provan
21 Burley
22 Leighton
Coach: Stein

showvteScotland squad  –  1986 FIFA World Cup
1 Leighton
2 Gough
3 Malpas
4 Souness (c)
5 McLeish
6 Miller
7 Strachan
8 Aitken
9 Bannon
10 Bett
11 McStay
12 Goram
13 Nicol
14 Narey
15 Albiston
16 McAvennie
17 Archibald
18 Sharp
19 Nicholas
20 Sturrock
21 Cooper
22 Rough
Coach: Ferguson

showvteScotland squad  –  1990 FIFA World Cup
1 Leighton
2 McLeish
3 Aitken (c)
4 Gough
5 McStay
6 Malpas
7 Johnston
8 Bett
9 McCoist
10 MacLeod
11 Gillespie
12 Goram
13 Durie
14 McInally
15 Levein
16 McCall
17 McKimmie
18 Collins
19 McPherson
20 McAllister
21 Fleck
22 Gunn
Coach: Roxburgh

showvteScotland squad  –  1998 FIFA World Cup
1 Leighton
2 McNamara
3 Boyd
4 Calderwood
5 Hendry (c)
6 T. McKinlay
7 Gallacher
8 Burley
9 Durie
10 Jackson
11 Collins
12 Sullivan
13 Donnelly
14 Lambert
15 Gemmill
16 Weir
17 W. McKinlay
18 Elliott
19 Whyte
20 Booth
21 Gould
22 Dailly
Coach: Brown