document_title: One Direction

question_text: what time did one direction became a band

text: One Direction

text: History

text: 2010–2011: The X Factor

text: In 2010, Niall Horan, Zayn Malik, Liam Payne, Harry Styles, and Louis Tomlinson auditioned as solo candidates for the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor.[16] They failed to progress to the "Boys" category at "judges' houses" but were put together to form a five-piece boy band at Wembley Arena, in London, England, in July 2010, during the "bootcamp" stage of the competition,[17] thus qualifying for the "Groups" category. Nicole Scherzinger, a guest judge,[16][18][19] and Simon Cowell have both claimed to have come up with the idea of forming the band. In 2013, Cowell said that it "took him 10 minutes to put them together as a group".[20] Subsequently, the group got together for two weeks to get to know each other and to practice.[21][22] Styles came up with the name One Direction.[21] For their qualifying song at "judges' houses", and their first song as a group, One Direction sang an acoustic version of "Torn".[23] Cowell later commented that their performance convinced him that they "were confident, fun, like a gang of friends, and kind of fearless as well."[24] Within the first four weeks of the live shows, they were his last act in the competition.[25] The group quickly gained popularity in the UK.[24]

text: One Direction achieved third place in the competition and immediately after the final, their song "Forever Young", which would have been released if they had won The X Factor, was leaked onto the internet.[26] Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported £2 million Syco Records record contract.[27][28] Recording for their debut album began in January 2011, as they flew to Los Angeles to work with RedOne, a record producer.[29] A book licensed by One Direction, One Direction: Forever Young (Our Official X Factor Story), was published by HarperCollins in February 2011,[30] subsequently topping The Sunday Times Best Seller list.[31] The same month, the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour.[32] During the tour, the group performed for 500,000 people throughout the UK.[33] After the tour concluded in April 2011, the group continued working on their debut album.[29] Recording took place in Stockholm, London and Los Angeles, as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk, Savan Kotecha, Steve Mac, and Rami Yacoub, among others.[34][35]

text:
showThe X Factor performances and results

Episode

Song choice

Theme

Result

Auditions

Harry Styles: "Isn't She Lovely"

Free choice (caught singing while driving)

Through to bootcamp

Zayn Malik: "Let Me Love You"

Liam Payne: "Cry Me a River"

Niall Horan: "So Sick"

Louis Tomlinson: "Hey There Delilah"

Bootcamp (Hollywood)

Harry: —

Solo performances (dance rounds)

Through to judges' houses

Zayn: —

Liam: "Your Smile"

Niall: —

Louis: —

Judges' houses (top 24)

1D: Final showdown song, "Torn"

Free choice (semi-finalists)

Eliminated, but through to live shows as 1D

Call-backs (top 16)

Formed One Direction[36]

Live show 1/top 12

"Viva la Vida"

Number-one singles

Safe

Live show 2/top 11

"My Life Would Suck Without You"

Heroes

Safe

Live show 3/top 10

"Nobody Knows"

Guilty pleasures

Safe

Live show 4/top 9

"Total Eclipse of the Heart"

Halloween

Safe

Live show 5/top 8

"Kids in America"

American anthems

Safe

Live show 6/top 7

"Something About the Way You Look Tonight"

Songs by Elton John

Safe

Live show 7/top 6

"All You Need Is Love"

Songs by The Beatles

Safe

Live show 8/top 5

"Summer of '69"

Rock

Safe

"You Are So Beautiful"

Semi-final/top 4

"Only Girl (In the World)"

Club classics

Safe

"Chasing Cars"

Song to get you to the final

"Torn"

Final showdown

Final and finale live shows/top 3

"Your Song"

Contestant's choice

Safe

"She's the One" (with Robbie Williams)

Celebrity duet

"Forever Young"

Winner's single

Eliminated

"Heroes"

Top 3 finalists' charity single

text: 2011–2012: Up All Night

text: Released in September 2011, One Direction's debut single, "What Makes You Beautiful", reached number one on the UK Singles Chart, after becoming the most pre-ordered Sony Music Entertainment single in history.[37][38] Subsequent singles, "Gotta Be You" and "One Thing", peaked in the UK Singles Chart top ten.[39][40] In November 2011, they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America.[41] Steve Barnett, the co-chairman of Columbia Records, said it was not a difficult decision to sign One Direction; "I just thought there was a void, and maybe they could seize and hold it."[42] "What Makes You Beautiful" was released in the United States in February 2012,[43] where it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 28, becoming the highest debut for a British act since 1998.[44] It has sold over 4 million copies in the US[45] Upon arrival in the US in February 2012, One Direction embarked on a radio promotion spree, as well as their first North American concert tour as an opening act for Big Time Rush.[46][47] They made their first US television appearance on The Today Show, at the Rockefeller Center; an estimated 15,000 fans descended on the plaza.[48] Critically commended for its appeal to the teenage audience,[49][50][51] One Direction's first studio album, Up All Night, was released globally in early 2012. It became the UK's fastest-selling debut album of 2011,[52] and topped the charts in sixteen countries.[53] The album bowed atop the Billboard 200 chart, making One Direction the first British group in US chart history to enter at number one with their debut album.[54] They were inducted into the Guinness World Records as a result.[55] Up All Night also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500,000 digital copies in the US and, by August 2012, had sold over 3 million copies worldwide.[56][57]

text: In April 2012, an American band that went by the same name filed a trademark infringement lawsuit.[58] According to the lawsuit, the US band had been using the name since 2009, recorded two albums and filed an application to register the trademark name in the US in February 2011.[58] The US band said they were entitled to three times the profits made by the UK band, as well as compensatory damages in excess of US$1 million.[58] The lawsuit claimed that Syco and Sony Music "chose to ignore the plaintiff's rights and wilfully infringed them" after they realised in early 2011 that the two bands shared the same name.[58] Syco Records subsequently counter-sued, suggesting the US group was trying to make money from One Direction's success and that the boy band was the first to use the name in US interstate commerce.[59] The BBC reported in September 2012 that the UK group won the legal dispute over the right to keep using their band name; the US band changed its name to Uncharted Shores.[59] The change of name was announced in a joint statement that also noted both groups were happy with the outcome.[59]

text: In December 2011, One Direction embarked on their first headlining UK concert tour, the Up All Night Tour.[60] In early 2012, they announced Australasian and North American legs of the concert tour, with dates from April to July 2012.[61][62] The tour, comprising 62 shows, was met with positivity both critically and commercially.[63][64][65][66][67][68][69] A recording of a concert from the tour, Up All Night: The Live Tour, was released in May 2012.[70] In addition to the DVD topping the charts in twenty-five countries, its global sales had exceeded 1 million copies by August 2012.[57][71] One Direction's first book to be licensed in America, Dare to Dream: Life as One Direction, published in the United States in May 2012, topped The New York Times Best Seller list.[72] In June 2012, Nick Gatfield, the chairman and chief executive officer of Sony Music Entertainment UK, stated how he expects One Direction to represent a $100 million business empire over 2013.[73] Gatfield was quoted as saying, "What you might not know about One Direction is that they already represent a $50 million business and that's a figure we expect to double next year".[73] In August 2012, the group's record sales exceeded 8 million singles, 3 million albums, and 1 million DVDs, and they performed "What Makes You Beautiful" at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London, which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics.[57][74] One Direction were the biggest winners of the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards winning their three nominations on 6 September 2012, including Best New Artist.[75]

text: 2012–2013: Take Me Home

text: One Direction's second studio album, Take Me Home, was released in November 2012.[76] Take Me Home was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track. Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub, and Carl Falk, who composed One Direction's hits "What Makes You Beautiful" and "One Thing", spent six months in Stockholm developing songs for the album, and were able to shape melodies around their tones.[77] One Direction began recording the album in May 2012, in Stockholm at Kinglet Studios.[78][79][80] The album cover artwork features the group surrounding a traditional British K2 red telephone box, a familiar sight on the streets of the UK.[81] Take Me Home garnered mixed reviews from music critics. There was praise for its quality of production, while it was criticised for its generic, rushed nature.[82][83][84][85][86][87] The album's lead single, "Live While We're Young", released in September 2012, reached the top ten in almost every country it charted in and recorded the highest one-week opening sales figure for a song by a non-US artist in the US[88] The album and its second single, "Little Things", both debuted at number one in the UK simultaneously; something that One Direction became the youngest act in British chart history to achieve.[89] Take Me Home sold 540,000 copies in its first week in the US, debuted atop the Billboard 200, and topped the charts in more than thirty-four other countries.[90][91] Additionally, Up All Night and Take Me Home were the number three and number four best-selling albums of 2012 globally, each album selling over 5 million units worldwide.[92]

text: One Direction performed "Little Things" at the 2012 Royal Variety Performance in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II, and headlined a sold-out show at New York City's Madison Square Garden on 3 December 2012.[93][94] In February 2013, One Direction released a cover version of "One Way or Another" and "Teenage Kicks", "One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks)", as the 2013 Comic Relief single.[95] As part of their involvement with the UK charity, One Direction travelled to Ghana to volunteer at a children's hospital, visit a school and make donations.

text: The Official Charts Company revealed that One Direction had sold 2,425,000 records in the UK by February 2013.[96] One Direction embarked on their second concert tour in February 2013, the Take Me Home Tour.[97] The concert tour consists of over 100 shows in Europe, North America and Australasia. Ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release in the UK and Ireland, which included a six-date sell-out at the O2 Arena in London.[98] In the Australian and New Zealand markets, tickets grossed US$15.7 million, with all 190,000 tickets being sold for the eighteen shows to be held.[99] The tour received critical acclaim from music critics who praised the band's live vocals and their performance abilities and was a commercial success, selling 1,635,000 tickets from 134 shows.[100]

text: 2013–2014: Midnight Memories and This Is Us

text: One Direction: This Is Us, a 3D documentary and concert film about the group directed by Morgan Spurlock and produced by Spurlock, Ben Winston, Adam Milano and Simon Cowell, was released by TriStar Pictures on 30 August 2013.[101] The film features the song "Best Song Ever", released on 22 July 2013. "Best Song Ever" was the lead single of the group's third studio album Midnight Memories.[102][103] The film was a box office success, topping the UK and US box offices and grossing over $60 million worldwide, and became the fourth highest-grossing concert movie.[104] "Best Song Ever" broke the 24-Hour Vevo Record with 10.9 million views on YouTube (this was the second time the band held the record with "Live While We're Young" attaining 8.2 million views on 20 September 2012).[105][106] On 16 May 2013, the band announced their first stadium tour, the Where We Are Tour, which began in April 2014. On 30 May 2013, the band announced a partnership with Office Depot on a limited-edition capsule collection of back to school supplies. They also confirmed that a portion of the proceeds from the alliance would go toward an anti-bullying educational program intended to promote kinder behaviour in schools.[107]

text: On 23 November 2013, in support of Midnight Memories, the band participated in "1D Day",[108][109] a day dedicated to One Direction fans. The day constituted of a landmark 7.5-hour socially interactive YouTube live-stream featuring live band performances, celebrity guests including, Simon Cowell, Cindy Crawford, Piers Morgan, Jerry Springer and many more. The event was unique not only because of its long runtime but the unprecedented use of social media whereby fans got to participate in the show interact directly with the band via Google+ Hangout.

text: Midnight Memories was released globally on 25 November 2013. It debuted at number one in the UK and in the US, making them the first group to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 with its first three albums, and the second to reach the top after The Monkees in 1967.[110] The album was described by the band as edgier and as having a "slightly rockier tone" than their previous efforts.[111] "Story of My Life" was revealed as the second single of the album with each member posting a photo from their childhood.[112][113] To promote the album, the band performed on both the American and British versions of The X Factor.[114]

text: In December 2013, One Direction broke yet another UK sales record with the DVD and Blu-ray release of their 3-D concert film This is Us. Nearly 270,000 copies of the film were sold in the UK within three days of its release, beating the record previously set by Michael Jackson's This Is It in 2010 by 10,000 copies.[115] The group was named among the Top Global artists of 2013 by the IFPI because of strong digital downloads, physical albums, on-demand streams, and music videos.[4]

text: 2014–2015: Four and Malik's departure

text: On 21 July 2014, One Direction announced One Direction: Where We Are - The Concert Film, a film which documents the concerts of 28 and 29 June 2014 that took place in San Siro Stadium during their Where We Are Tour. After the announcement, the band announced the film would also have a limited 10–11 October 2014 international cinema release before its home media release in November 2014.[116] The group also released an autobiography book titled Who We Are on 25 September 2014.[117]

text: On 8 September 2014, One Direction announced their fourth studio album to be titled Four, set to be released on 17 November 2014.[118][119][120] As part of the announcement, one of the songs from the album, "Fireproof" was released for free download for 24 hours on their official website.[118][119][120] "Steal My Girl", the album's lead single, was released on 29 September 2014,[121] and the music video was released on 24 October 2014. The second single from the album, "Night Changes", was released on 14 November, three days before the album's release.[122] Four was released on 17 November 2014, topping the Billboard 200 and the UK Album Chart.[123][124]

text: On 22 November 2014, Paul Higgins, the group's tour manager who has been with them since its formation, parted ways with the band.[125] The band confirmed at the BBC Music Awards that following the success of Four, they had hopes to continue to go "somewhere else" on their fifth album.[126] In support of Midnight Memories and Four, the band's Where We Are Tour was the highest-grossing concert tour in 2014, and the highest-grossing tour ever by a vocal group, generating $282 million.[9]

text: On 25 March 2015, the band released a statement announcing Malik's departure.[127][128][129] They admitted that they were angry at first because of Zayn Malik's decision.[130] The group made their first official public appearance as a four-piece on The Late Late Show with James Corden on 14 May, where they confirmed that they would continue working without a new fifth member.[131] Since leaving the band, Malik has gone on to have solo success with his number one debut single "Pillowtalk" and album Mind of Mine.[132]

text: 2015–present: Made in the A.M. and hiatus

text: On 31 July 2015, the group released "Drag Me Down" without promotional material or announcement. The single is the first single from their fifth studio album, Made in the A.M., and the first material released by the group after Malik's departure.[133] Following the release, it was revealed that the group would going on hiatus in 2016 to take a break.[134] On 22 September, the title for the fifth studio album, Made in the A.M., was officially announced along with promotional single "Infinity" being released.[135] The group began to reveal the track listing on their Snapchat stories to which it was later confirmed on iTunes.[136] The album was released on 13 November 2015.[137] At the 2015 American Music Awards on 22 November, One Direction won the award for Artist of the Year for the second year in succession.[138] Louis Tomlinson later confirmed that the break would be around 18 months. On 13 December, One Direction performed on The X Factor final. Their last televised performance as a group, before their hiatus, was on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve on 31 December 2015.[139]

text: On 13 January 2016, Us Weekly published a report claiming that the group's hiatus would become a permanent split, with a "source" citing that each of the four remaining group members did not renew their contracts following the completion of the On The Road Again Tour in October 2015.[140] Representatives for the group denied said-report in a statement to Billboard, stating, "nothing has changed regarding hiatus plans for the group, and all will be revealed in due time from the band members' own mouths."[141][142] By May 2017, all members of the group had released solo singles.[143] Despite saying the hiatus would last 18 months, the band still are yet to confirm when they will reform.

text: At the 2017 Brit Awards, One Direction won the Video of the Year award for their song "History". Payne accepted the award on the behalf of the band.[144] In February 2018, it was reported that the group has folded its touring company after having applied for removal within the Companies House registry in October 2017.[145][146]

text: Artistry

text:
"What Makes You Beautiful"

One Direction's debut single, "What Makes You Beautiful", features a prominent guitar-based chorus and riff.[147] It also contains cowbell instrumentation,[148] and the middle eight consists of an "oh na na na" hook.[149] It is among the best-selling singles of all time, selling over 5 million copies.[150]
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: One Direction's debut studio album, Up All Night (2011), is predominantly a pop music record, containing elements of teen pop, dance-pop, pop rock, with electropop and rock influences.[151][152][153][154] Digital Spy's Robert Copsey described the album as a "collection of PG pop rock with killer choruses",[155] while The New York Times considered it "full of easy rock-inflected pop, blithe and sometimes clever."[156] Jason Lipshutz of Billboard acknowledged that the album demonstrates an originality in sound that was "necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement".[154] The songs "One Thing" and "What Makes You Beautiful" were particularly noted for the genres of power pop and pop rock, for their "powerhouse" guitar riffs and "forceful" choruses.[147][148][151][157]

text: Their second studio album, Take Me Home (2012), is characterised by rock-inherited pop, prominent electric guitar riffs, bright synthesisers, a homogeneous sound and message, and the pitch-correcting software Auto-Tune.[85][86][87][158][159] Alexis Petridis of The Guardian interpreted its signature sound as a "peppy, synth-bolstered take on early-80s new-wave pop, heavy on clipped rhythms and chugging guitars," which, he said, is at least an improvement on the substitute contemporary R&B "that was once the grim lot of the boyband."[86] Jon Caramanica, writing in The New York Times, considered the album "far more mechanical" than their debut album, although noted that it is sonically and lyrically similar.[85] The album's lyricism speaks of falling in love, unrequited love, the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique, commitment, jealousy and longing for past significant others.[85][86][87][160]

text: Erica Futterman for Rolling Stone favoured their live acoustic performances as both showing, "Horan's ability to play guitar, as well as One Direction's admirable live vocals. There was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note, a pleasant realization at a pop show."[161] Herald Sun's Cameron Adams opined that One Direction have "strong pop voices".[162] Melody Lau of the National Post wrote, "It's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost-too-put-together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love-struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and, to a certain extent, entertain."[163] Jane Stevenson of the portal site Canoe concurred: "What I didn't really prepare myself for was that they all can actually sing in concert."[164] Chris Richards, writing in The Washington Post, dissented from the approval: "As the five traded couplets, it was tough to imagine a future Justin Timberlake, Ricky Martin or Bobby Brown emerging from the pack. No one voice stood out."[165] Mike Wass of Idolator felt One Direction's "surprisingly accomplished effort" of Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody" proved that One Direction are "more than capable" of evolving their sound.[166]

text: Their third album Midnight Memories (2013) is a pop rock record, a slight departure from the band's original teen pop sound. Liam Payne called Midnight Memories a "slightly rockier and edgier" album than their previous material. The album is heavily influenced by 80's rock[167] and folk music and briefly integrates elements of dubstep, notably in "Little White Lies". The album's lyrical themes primarily revolve around love, heartbreak and sexual intercourse. Many critics praised its lyrical depth and musical composition, as well as the group's level of involvement in the production process.[168]

text: Their fourth album Four (2014) was released on 17 November 2014. Payne once again claimed that the album would be "edgier" and that the group had written most of the songs for it; Horan came up with the name of the album, commemorating the fact that it is One Direction's fourth record to date and that it has been four years since the band's formation. Signifying a further maturation of their pop sound, the album's first single, Steal My Girl, was dubbed by Billboard as "no What Makes You Beautiful, but its Coldplay-like piano pop could be a good direction",[169] and that the band was "not entirely ready to let go of its bubble-gum days". Rolling Stone described the record as "saturated with retro vibes"; its songs "split the difference between big, splashy Eighties pop rock and more elegant Seventies flavours – a very pesky whipper-snapper move that's not so far from what Haim's hit Days Are Gone did last year."[170]

text: Other ventures

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text: Endorsements

text: In 2011, One Direction became the face of Pokemon Black and White, starring in a series of television adverts.[171] They were the first installments in the fifth generation of the Pokémon series of role-playing games.[172] They also launched Nokia C3 and Nokia C2-02 phones. To promote the launch Nokia has made a series of photos of the band members using the phones to take photos of themselves.[173]

text: In 2012, They teamed up with Colgate to launch their own One Direction Colgate MaxFresh Power Toothbrush, the One Direction Colgate Maxfresh Manual Toothbrush, and the One Direction Colgate MaxFresh Toothpaste.[174] The band was signed by Pepsi in a multi-million dollar advertising deal in 2012.[175] Pepsi's 'Live for Now' campaign starring One Direction battling NFL player Drew Brees has premiered on the brand's social media channels. It aired on TV in the US during the MLB playoffs, the World Series, NFL season and The X Factor, which is sponsored by Pepsi Max. Additional social media marketing includes a tie up with Shazaam, whereby consumers that use the digital music app in conjunction with the ad both on TV and online will be able to view exclusive content and link back to iTunes to buy One Direction’s single, 'Live While We're Young'.[176] Mini figures based on members of the group was launched for the band's US fans after the agreement was signed by American firm Hasbro.[177] Hasbro's girls business posted a 23 percent quarterly revenue gain, with One Direction products, such as dolls and a board game tied to the boy band, and My Little Pony toys contributing to the growth.[178] The band has signed up to endorse Filipino clothing brand, Penshoppe.[179]

text: In 2013, one direction have announced that fans will get a chance to enter their very own 1D World in their brand new pop-up shop. The store will sell exclusive never seen before merchandise. One offer will be life-size cardboard cut-outs of the boys, phone cases, T-shirts and even the 1D Onesie.[180] The pop-up 1D World stores have become a huge success around the world, opening up in cities including Brisbane, Toronto, Vancouver, Chicago and Stockholm.[181] Nabisco became the title sponsor of One Direction’s North American tour[182] The band became the new faces of Toyota VIOS, releasing behind-the-scenes look at their commercial for the vehicle.[183] One Direction's debut fragrance, Our Moment, launched exclusively at Harrods and in their website, due to the band's busy schedule, the boys will not be in attendance at the in-store launch.[184] There were 4-second trailers released from the week beginning Monday 12 August, one for each member. The full length advert for the fragrance was released on 24 August 2013. It features the song "My Favourite Things" which originally by Julie Andrews from The Sound of Music covered by Diana Vickers.[185] Payne has reported that the idea came from a fan's petition. "A Twitter fan started an online petition for us to launch a fragrance, and we talked to our management", he said.[186] The perfume is the best selling famous fragrance of Christmas 2013. Its sales have beaten fragrances from other celebrities such as Lady Gaga's Fame, Nicki Minaj's Pink Friday and Britney Spears' Fantasy.[187][188]

text: In 2014, following the success of their previous scent Our Moment, the band has creatively named their second scent That Moment. The news was delivered via a video featuring Styles.[189] There will be a matching shower gel and body lotion. The band released a short, 6-minute film to promote the new fragrance.[190] They released a commercial for their third fragrance, "You & I." The name, taken from their Midnight Memories hit of the same name. The announcement of the fragrance commercial was teased on Twitter, with pieces of the cover art which shows all five of the guys being tweeted out one at a time. The commercial, which premiered on the One Direction fragrance site, is a bit goofier than "J'adore Dior,"[191] In the clip, a hexagonal pink bottle can be seen sitting in the centre of a highly fortified white room with motion lasers covering the floor. The boys are seen entering through the ceiling, suspended by wires and clad in all-black.[192]

text: In 2015, One Direction appeared in an advert for the Toyota Vios. the commercial aired in Thailand.[193] Coca-Cola Mexico launched the session and full interview with One Direction, with a series of commercials in which Tomlinson, Payne, Styles and Horan showed us what it means to be a True Friend.[194] One Direction revealed their fourth fragrance ‘Between Us’ at The Sanderson in London, England on 24 June. Along with the bottle image, the band released a new commercial. Between Us comes after the band’s successful fragrances Our Moment, That Moment and You & I, which was the US’s number one celebrity women’s fragrance launch of 2014.[195] The band appeared in a Honda Civic ad, testing the sedan out for all the group's pop-star needs. The TV spot shows the quartet testing out the car's stereo, style and trunk space with a humorous tone and the tagline "It's all One Direction approved." The ad is set to the 1D single Drag Me Down. The commercial celebrates the launch of the new 2016 Honda Civic sedan and coincides with the release of One Direction's new album, Made in the A.M.. The group's 2015 U.S. tour was also supported by Honda.[196]

text: Philanthropy

text: In 2011, the band performed on the BBC's Children in Need 2011 charity telethon, helping raise over 26 million pounds.[197] In 2012 they extended their involvement with Children in Need as they opened the telecast with a performance of their single "Live While We're Young". A prominent annual event in British culture, the group said it was "incredible" to be involved in Children in Need as it was something that they had "always watched as children".[198]

text: In February 2013, One Direction released "One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks)" (a medley of "One Way or Another" and "Teenage Kicks") as the 2013 single for the UK's other major charity telethon Comic Relief.[95] For ITV's Santa charity Christmas campaign, they filmed a set of pleas to their fans and the general public, asking them to donate £2.[199] The band have made numerous other appearances for charitable causes, including the 2011 Pride of Britain Awards where they presented 13-year-old quadruple amputee Danielle Bailey the Child of Courage award at her school assembly, and the 2014 Royal Variety Performance where they played in front of Prince William and Catherine at the London Palladium.[200][201]

text: In September 2012, Niall Horan organised an event to raise money for Irish Autism Action and another charity, called Temporary Emergency Accommodation Mullingar, based in his hometown. Due to overwhelming demand to participate in the fundraising, the ticket website for the event broke down. Horan's brother Greg commented on the website crash, saying that "there were 500 tickets and they were all snapped up pretty quick".[202]

text: In 2013, band members Liam Payne and Harry Styles partnered with Trekstock, a leading cancer charity to help raise money for cancer research.[203] As ambassadors of the charity, the duo collaborated to offer the chance for one fan and a friend to win an evening out with them in return for a donation to the charity as part of an exclusive "#HangwithLiam&Harry" global campaign. They had originally set a goal of raising $500,000 and ended up raising $784,984. Trekstock later added that this amount would allow them to "complete funding of their Hodgkin's lymphoma trial, in the hope of offering a much brighter future to thousands of children and young people affected by this form of disease." One Direction were named the most charitable in 2013 behind Taylor Swift by social change organisation DoSomething.org.[204]

text: In 2014, One Direction donated £600,000 for the Stand up to Cancer campaign by giving portions of their ticket sales revenues from their Where We Are Tour.[205] On 15 November 2014, One Direction joined the charity group Band Aid 30 along with other British and Irish pop acts, recording the latest version of the track "Do They Know It's Christmas?" at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in Western Africa.[206]

text: In 2015, One Direction launched 'Action 1D' campaign to raise awareness of global issues. The initiative aims to end extreme poverty, tackle inequality and slow down climate change with the help of their millions of fans. It is part of the wider action/2015 campaign, a global citizen’s movement that is all about the idea that 2015 can be the year when the world can set the agenda to end major global issues. One Direction will be asking their fans to describe the kind of world they want to live in by sharing powerful pieces of creative content, including videos and photos, using the hashtag #Action1D.[207] The quartet also starred in a campaign video, appealing to fans to join the movement.[208]

text: Image

text: Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph, in an article on One Direction's success in North America, notes that Americans had left a gap in the market and it took the prominence of Justin Bieber to demonstrate that there still was a market for "clean cut, wholesome, whiter-than-white, middle class parent friendly pop: cute boys advocating puppy love. And what could be better than one cute boy, if not five?"[209] One Direction have been described as sparking a resurgence in the interest in boy bands, and as forming part of a new "British Invasion" in the United States.[210][211][212][213][214][215] Bill Werde, a representative of Billboard magazine, commented, "There's a lot of possibility here, there's a lot of upside, that level of talent with those kinds of looks, it's really a perfect storm for a massive, massive successful phenomenon."[216]

text: Sonny Takhar, the chief executive officer of Syco Records, attributes the breakthrough to the power of social media. "Sometimes you feel the song's the star, but it's not like that here – it's the act," he said. "It's a real moment. Social media has become the new radio, it's never broken an act globally like this before."[216] Will Bloomfield, the group's manager, added, "These guys live online, and so do their fans."[215] Their management employs a social media team and the members all tweet themselves, "which helps create the illusion that they couldn't be any closer to their fans," according to Caspar Llewellyn Smith, writing for The Guardian.[216] One Direction's Twitter account had amassed 10 million followers by February 2013, with the account gaining followers at an average of 21,000 per day.[217] In an approach pioneered by The Beatles, each member is known for his feature; Horan is "the cute one", Malik is "the quiet and mysterious one", Payne is "the sensible one", Styles is "the charming one" and Tomlinson is "the funny one".[218] Each member's individual identity is reinforced by their intentionally different personal styles. Caroline Watson, the band's original stylist, spoke about styling the band, "At the beginning I didn't want them all in black or all in leather—that whole stereotypical boy band thing." Instead, her original idea was for them to be the "male equivalent to the Spice Girls", with each member being a part of the group but still having his own individual style.[219] Horan commented on One Direction as a boy band, "People think that a boy band is air-grabs and [being] dressed in all one colour. We're boys in a band. We're trying to do something different from what people would think is the typical kind of boy band. We're trying to do different kinds of music and we're just trying to be ourselves, not squeaky clean."[220] Leah Collins, writing for the National Post, remarked that One Direction had succeeded on the latter front,[220] "For the most part, that just means the group presents themselves as typical, goofy and uncensored teenage boys – posting jokey YouTube videos, for instance, or boozing at awards shows."[220] Writing for The Observer, Kitty Empire opined, "One Direction fulfill a great many boy band prerequisites (looks, soppy lyrics, tune-grasp, fame-lust) but their lack of routines points to the subtle digressions afoot here".[221]

text: Discography

text:
Up All Night (2011)
Take Me Home (2012)
Midnight Memories (2013)
Four (2014)
Made in the A.M. (2015)

text: Filmography

text:
The X Factor series 7 (finalists)
Up All Night: The Live Tour
One Direction: This Is Us
One Direction: Where We Are - The Concert Film

text: Tours

text:
Headlining

Up All Night Tour (2011–12)
Take Me Home Tour (2013)
Where We Are Tour (2014)
On the Road Again Tour (2015)

Opening act

X Factor Tour 2011 (2011)[222]
Better with U Tour (Big Time Rush) (2012)[223]

text: Awards and nominations

text: One Direction has received seven BRIT Awards,[224] seven American Music Awards,[225] six Billboard Music Awards,[226], five Billboard Touring Awards, and four MTV Video Music Awards,[227] among other awards. One Direction holds the record as the most awarded act at the Teen Choice Awards with 28 wins from 31 nominations.[228]


document_title: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

question_text: where was the most serious global nuclear power plant accident in 1986

root

text: Nuclear power plant accidents[edit]

text: One of the worst nuclear accidents to date was the Chernobyl disaster which occurred in 1986 in Ukraine. The accident killed 31 people directly and damaged approximately $7 billion of property. A study published in 2005 estimates that there will eventually be up to 4,000 additional cancer deaths related to the accident among those exposed to significant radiation levels.[21] Radioactive fallout from the accident was concentrated in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Other studies have estimated as many as over a million eventual cancer deaths from Chernobyl.[22][23] Estimates of eventual deaths from cancer are highly contested. Industry, UN and DOE agencies claim low numbers of legally provable cancer deaths will be traceable to the disaster. The UN, DOE and industry agencies all use the limits of the epidemiological resolvable deaths as the cutoff below which they cannot be legally proven to come from the disaster. Independent studies statistically calculate fatal cancers from dose and population, even though the number of additional cancers will be below the epidemiological threshold of measurement of around 1%. These are two very different concepts and lead to the huge variations in estimates. Both are reasonable projections with different meanings. Approximately 350,000 people were forcibly resettled away from these areas soon after the accident.[21]

tag: p

text: Social scientist and energy policy expert, Benjamin K. Sovacool has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear power plants from 1952 to 2009 (defined as incidents that either resulted in the loss of human life or more than US$50,000 of property damage, the amount the US federal government uses to define major energy accidents that must be reported), totaling US$20.5 billion in property damages.[10] Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and almost two-thirds (56 out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have occurred in the US. There have been comparatively few fatalities associated with nuclear power plant accidents.[10]

text:
Nuclear power plant accidents and incidents
with multiple fatalities and/or more than US$100 million in property damage, 1952-2011[10][21][24]

Date
Location of accident
Description of accident or incident
Dead
Cost
($US
millions
2006 )
INES
level[25]

000000001957-09-29-0000September 29, 1957
Mayak, Kyshtym, Russia
The Kyshtym disaster was a radiation contamination incident that occurred at Mayak, a Nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in the Soviet Union.

6

000000001957-07-26-0000July 26, 1957
Simi Valley, California, United States
Partial core meltdown at Santa Susana Field Laboratory’s Sodium Reactor Experiment.
0
32

000000001957-10-10-0000October 10, 1957
Sellafield aka Windscale fire, Cumberland, United Kingdom
A fire at the British atomic bomb project destroyed the core and released an estimated 740 terabecquerels of iodine-131 into the environment. A rudimentary smoke filter constructed over the main outlet chimney successfully prevented a far worse radiation leak and ensured minimal damage.
0

5

000000001961-01-03-0000January 3, 1961
Idaho Falls, Idaho, United States
Explosion at SL-1 prototype at the National Reactor Testing Station. All 3 operators were killed when a control rod was removed too far.
3
22
4

000000001966-10-05-0000October 5, 1966
Frenchtown Charter Township, Michigan, United States
Partial core meltdown of the Fermi 1 Reactor at the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station. No radiation leakage into the environment.
0
132[26]

000000001969-01-21-0000January 21, 1969
Lucens reactor, Vaud, Switzerland
On January 21, 1969, it suffered a loss-of-coolant accident, leading to a partial core meltdown and massive radioactive contamination of the cavern, which was then sealed.
0

5

000000001975-01-01-00001975
Sosnovyi Bor, Leningrad Oblast, Russia
There was reportedly a partial nuclear meltdown in Leningrad nuclear power plant reactor unit 1.

000000001975-12-07-0000December 7, 1975
Greifswald, East Germany
Electrical error causes fire in the main trough that destroys control lines and five main coolant pumps
0
443
3

000000001976-01-05-0000January 5, 1976
Jaslovské Bohunice, Czechoslovakia
Malfunction during fuel replacement. Fuel rod ejected from reactor into the reactor hall by coolant (CO2).[27]
2

4

000000001977-02-22-0000February 22, 1977
Jaslovské Bohunice, Czechoslovakia
Severe corrosion of reactor and release of radioactivity into the plant area, necessitating total decommission
0
1,700
4

000000001979-03-28-0000March 28, 1979
Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, United States
Loss of coolant and partial core meltdown due to operator errors. There is a small release of radioactive gases. See also Three Mile Island accident health effects.
0
2,400
5

000000001984-09-15-0000September 15, 1984
Athens, Alabama, United States
Safety violations, operator error, and design problems force a six-year outage at Browns Ferry Unit 2.
0
110

000000001985-03-09-0000March 9, 1985
Athens, Alabama, United States
Instrumentation systems malfunction during startup, which led to suspension of operations at all three Browns Ferry Units
0
1,830

000000001986-04-11-0000April 11, 1986
Plymouth, Massachusetts, United States
Recurring equipment problems force emergency shutdown of Boston Edison’s Pilgrim Nuclear Power Plant
0
1,001

000000001986-04-26-0000April 26, 1986
Chernobyl, Chernobyl Raion (Now Ivankiv Raion), Kiev Oblast, Ukraininan SSR, Soviet Union
Overheating, steam explosion, fire, and meltdown, necessitating the evacuation of 300,000 people from Chernobyl and dispersing radioactive material across Europe (see Effects of the Chernobyl disaster)
30 direct, 19 not entirely related and 15 minors due to thyroid cancer, as of 2008.[3][28]
6,700
7

000000001986-05-04-0000May 4, 1986
Hamm-Uentrop, West Germany
Experimental THTR-300 reactor releases small amounts of fission products (0.1 GBq Co-60, Cs-137, Pa-233) to surrounding area
0
267

000000001987-03-31-0000March 31, 1987
Delta, Pennsylvania, United States
Peach Bottom units 2 and 3 shutdown due to cooling malfunctions and unexplained equipment problems
0
400

000000001987-12-19-0000December 19, 1987
Lycoming, New York, United States
Malfunctions force Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation to shut down Nine Mile Point Unit 1
0
150

000000001989-03-17-0000March 17, 1989
Lusby, Maryland, United States
Inspections at Calvert Cliff Units 1 and 2 reveal cracks at pressurized heater sleeves, forcing extended shutdowns
0
120

000000001992-03-01-0000March 1992
Sosnovyi Bor, Leningrad Oblast, Russia
An accident at the Sosnovy Bor nuclear plant leaked radioactive gases and iodine into the air through a ruptured fuel channel.

000000001996-02-20-0000February 20, 1996
Waterford, Connecticut, United States
Leaking valve forces shutdown Millstone Nuclear Power Plant Units 1 and 2, multiple equipment failures found
0
254

000000001996-09-02-0000September 2, 1996
Crystal River, Florida, United States
Balance-of-plant equipment malfunction forces shutdown and extensive repairs at Crystal River Unit 3
0
384

000000001999-09-30-0000September 30, 1999
Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan
Tokaimura nuclear accident killed two workers, and exposed one more to radiation levels above permissible limits.
2
54
4

000000002002-02-16-0000February 16, 2002
Oak Harbor, Ohio, United States
Severe corrosion of control rod forces 24-month outage of Davis-Besse reactor
0
143
3

000000002004-08-09-0000August 9, 2004
Fukui Prefecture, Japan
Steam explosion at Mihama Nuclear Power Plant kills 4 workers and injures 7 more
4
9
1

000000002006-07-25-0000July 25, 2006
Forsmark, Sweden
An electrical fault at Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant caused one reactor to be shut down
0
100
2

000000002011-03-11-0000March 11, 2011
Fukushima, Japan
A tsunami flooded and damaged the plant's 5 active reactors, drowning two workers. Loss of backup electrical power led to overheating, meltdowns, and evacuations.[29] One man died suddenly while carrying equipment during the clean-up.[30] The plant's 6th reactor was inactive at the time.
2+

7

12 September 2011
Marcoule, France
One person was killed and four injured, one seriously, in a blast at the Marcoule Nuclear Site. The explosion took place in a furnace used to melt metallic waste.
1

tag: table

text: Nuclear reactor attacks[edit]

text: The vulnerability of nuclear plants to deliberate attack is of concern in the area of nuclear safety and security.[31] Nuclear power plants, civilian research reactors, certain naval fuel facilities, uranium enrichment plants, fuel fabrication plants, and even potentially uranium mines are vulnerable to attacks which could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The attack threat is of several general types: commando-like ground-based attacks on equipment which if disabled could lead to a reactor core meltdown or widespread dispersal of radioactivity; and external attacks such as an aircraft crash into a reactor complex, or cyber attacks.[32]

text: The United States 9/11 Commission found that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the September 11, 2001 attacks. If terrorist groups could sufficiently damage safety systems to cause a core meltdown at a nuclear power plant, and/or sufficiently damage spent fuel pools, such an attack could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The Federation of American Scientists have said that if nuclear power use is to expand significantly, nuclear facilities will have to be made extremely safe from attacks that could release massive quantities of radioactivity into the community. New reactor designs have features of passive nuclear safety, which may help. In the United States, the NRC carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) sites at least once every three years.[32]

text: Nuclear reactors become preferred targets during military conflict and, over the past three decades, have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations, invasions and campaigns.[33] Various acts of civil disobedience since 1980 by the peace group Plowshares have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the group's actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at nuclear weapons plants in the United States. The National Nuclear Security Administration has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action. Non-proliferation policy experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government's most dangerous military material".[34] Nuclear weapons materials on the black market are a global concern,[35][36] and there is concern about the possible detonation of a small, crude nuclear weapon or dirty bomb by a militant group in a major city, causing significant loss of life and property.[37][38]

text: The number and sophistication of cyber attacks is on the rise. Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran's nuclear facilities. It switched off safety devices, causing centrifuges to spin out of control.[39] The computers of South Korea's nuclear plant operator (KHNP) were hacked in December 2014. The cyber attacks involved thousands of phishing emails containing malicious codes, and information was stolen.[40]

text: Radiation and other accidents and incidents[edit]

text: Serious radiation and other accidents and incidents include:

text:
May 1945: Albert Stevens was one of several subjects of a human radiation experiment, and was injected with plutonium without his knowledge or informed consent. Although Stevens was the person who received the highest dose of radiation during the plutonium experiments, he was neither the first nor the last subject to be studied. Eighteen people aged 4 to 69 were injected with plutonium. Subjects who were chosen for the experiment had been diagnosed with a terminal disease. They lived from 6 days up to 44 years past the time of their injection.[41] Eight of the 18 died within two years of the injection.[41] All died from their preexisting terminal illness, or cardiac illnesses. None died from the plutonium itself.[citation needed] Patients from Rochester, Chicago, and Oak Ridge were also injected with plutonium in the Manhattan Project human experiments.[41][45][46]
6–9 August 1945: On the orders of President Harry S. Truman, a uranium-gun design bomb, Little Boy, was used against the city of Hiroshima, Japan. Fat Man, a plutonium implosion-design bomb was used against the city of Nagasaki. The two weapons killed approximately 120,000 to 140,000 civilians and military personnel instantly and thousands more have died over the years from radiation sickness and related cancers.
August 1945: Criticality accident at US Los Alamos National Laboratory. Harry Daghlian dies.[47]
May 1946: Criticality accident at Los Alamos National Laboratory. Louis Slotin dies.[47]

tag: ul

text:
13 February 1950: a Convair B-36B crashed in northern British Columbia after jettisoning a Mark IV atomic bomb. This was the first such nuclear weapon loss in history.
12 December 1952: NRX AECL Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. Partial meltdown, about 10,000 Curies released.[48] Approximately 1202 people were involved in the two year cleanup.[49] Future president Jimmy Carter was one of the many people that helped clean up the accident.[50]
15 March 1953 – Mayak, Former Soviet Union. Criticality accident. Contamination of plant personnel occurred.[47]
1 March 1954: The 15 Mt Castle Bravo shot of 1954 which spread considerable nuclear fallout on many Pacific islands, including several which were inhabited, and some that had not been evacuated.[51]

1 March 1954: Daigo Fukuryū Maru, Japanese fishing vessel contaminated by fallout from Castle Bravo, 1 fatality.
2 March 1954: US Navy tanker USS Patapsco contaminated by fallout from Castle Bravo while sailing from Enewetak Atoll to Pearl Harbor.

September 1957: a plutonium fire occurred at the Rocky Flats Plant, which resulted in the contamination of Building 71 and the release of plutonium into the atmosphere, causing US $818,600 in damage.
21 May 1957 - Mayak, Former Soviet Union. Criticality accident in the factory number 20 in the collection oxalate decantate after filtering sediment oxalate enriched uranium. Six people received doses of 300 to 1,000 rem (four women and two men), one woman died.[47]
29 September 1957: Kyshtym disaster: Nuclear waste storage tank explosion at Chelyabinsk, Russia. 200+ fatalities, believed to be a conservative estimate; 270,000 people were exposed to dangerous radiation levels. Over thirty small communities were removed from Soviet maps between 1958 and 1991.[52] (INES level 6)[25]
October 1957: Windscale fire, UK. Fire ignites a "plutonium pile" (an air cooled, graphite moderated, uranium fuelled reactor that was used for plutonium and isotope production) and contaminates surrounding dairy farms.[10][53] An estimated 33 cancer deaths.[10][53]
1957-1964: Rocketdyne located at the Santa Susanna Field Lab, 30 miles north of Los Angeles, California operated ten experimental nuclear reactors. Numerous accidents occurred including a core meltdown. Experimental reactors of that era were not required to have the same type of containment structures that shield modern nuclear reactors. During the Cold War time in which the accidents that occurred at Rocketdyne, these events were not publicly reported by the Department of Energy.[54]
1958: Fuel rupture and fire at the National Research Universal reactor (NRU), Chalk River, Canada.
10 February 1958 - Mayak, Former Soviet Union. Criticality accident in SCR plant. Conducted experiments to determine the critical mass of enriched uranium in a cylindrical container with different concentrations of uranium in solution. Staff broke the rules and instructions for working with YADM (nuclear fissile material). When SCR personnel received doses from 7600 to 13,000 rem. Three people died, one man got radiation sickness and went blind.[47]
30 December 1958: Cecil Kelley criticality accident at Los Alamos National Laboratory.[47][55]
March 1959: Santa Susana Field Laboratory, Los Angeles, California. Fire in a fuel processing facility.
July 1959: Santa Susana Field Laboratory, Los Angeles, California. Partial meltdown.

text:
7 June 1960: the 1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident destroyed a CIM-10 Bomarc nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the BOMARC Missile Accident Site in New Jersey.
24 January 1961: the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash occurred near Goldsboro, North Carolina. A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.[56][57]
July 1961: soviet submarine K-19 accident. Eight fatalities and more than 30 people were over-exposed to radiation.[58]
21 March–August 1962: radiation accident in Mexico City, four fatalities.
May 1962: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side and the United States on the other side. The crisis is generally regarded as the moment in which the Cold War came closest to turning into a nuclear conflict[59] and is also the first documented instance of mutual assured destruction (MAD) being discussed as a determining factor in a major international arms agreement.[60][61]
23 July 1964: Wood River Junction criticality accident. Resulted in 1 fatality
1964, 1969: Santa Susana Field Laboratory, Los Angeles, California. Partial meltdowns.
1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash, where a Skyhawk attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea.[62] The pilot, the aircraft, and the B43 nuclear bomb were never recovered.[63] It was not until the 1980s that the Pentagon revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.[64]
October 1965: US CIA-led expedition abandons a nuclear-powered telemetry relay listening device on Nanda Devi [65]
17 January 1966: the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash occurred when a B-52G bomber of the USAF collided with a KC-135 tanker during mid-air refuelling off the coast of Spain. The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard.[66] Of the four Mk28 type hydrogen bombs the B-52G carried,[67] three were found on land near Almería, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by radioactive plutonium.[68] The fourth, which fell into the Mediterranean Sea, was recovered intact after a 2½-month-long search.[69]
21 January 1968: the 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash involved a United States Air Force (USAF) B-52 bomber. The aircraft was carrying four hydrogen bombs when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an ejection seat was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto sea ice in Greenland, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread radioactive contamination.
May 1968: Soviet submarine K-27 reactor near meltdown. 9 people died, 83 people were injured.[14] In August 1968, the Project 667 A - Yankee class nuclear submarine K-140 was in the naval yard at Severodvinsk for repairs. On August 27, an uncontrolled increase of the reactor's power occurred following work to upgrade the vessel. One of the reactors started up automatically when the control rods were raised to a higher position. Power increased to 18 times its normal amount, while pressure and temperature levels in the reactor increased to four times the normal amount. The automatic start-up of the reactor was caused by the incorrect installation of the control rod electrical cables and by operator error. Radiation levels aboard the vessel deteriorated.
10 December 1968 - Mayak, Former Soviet Union. Criticality accident. Plutonium solution was poured into a cylindrical container with dangerous geometry. One person died, another took a high dose of radiation and radiation sickness, after which he had two legs and his right arm amputated.[47]
January 1969: Lucens reactor in Switzerland undergoes partial core meltdown leading to massive radioactive contamination of a cavern.

text:
1974–1976: Columbus radiotherapy accident, 10 fatalities, 88 injuries from cobalt-60 source.[14][70]
July 1978: Anatoli Bugorski was working on U-70, the largest Soviet particle accelerator, when he accidentally exposed his head directly to the proton beam. He survived, despite suffering some long-term damage.
July 1979: Church Rock Uranium Mill Spill in New Mexico, USA, when United Nuclear Corporation's uranium mill tailings disposal pond breached its dam. Over 1,000 tons of radioactive mill waste and millions of gallons of mine effluent flowed into the Puerco River, and contaminants traveled downstream.[71]

text:
1980 to 1989: The Kramatorsk radiological accident happened in Kramatorsk, Ukrainian SSR. In 1989, a small capsule containing highly radioactive caesium-137 was found inside the concrete wall of an apartment building. 6 residents of the building died from leukemia and 17 more received varying radiation doses. The accident was detected only after the residents called in a health physicist.
1980: Houston radiotherapy accident, 7 fatalities.[14][70]
5 October 1982: Lost radiation source, Baku, Azerbaijan, USSR. 5 fatalities, 13 injuries.[14]
March 1984: Radiation accident in Morocco, eight fatalities from overexposure to radiation from a lost iridium-192 source.[17]
1984: Fernald Feed Materials Production Center gained notoriety when it was learned that the plant was releasing millions of pounds of uranium dust into the atmosphere, causing major radioactive contamination of the surrounding areas. That same year, employee Dave Bocks, a 39-year-old pipefitter, disappeared during the facility's graveyard shift and was later reported missing. Eventually, his remains were discovered inside a uranium processing furnace located in Plant 6.[72]
August 1985: Soviet submarine K-431 accident. Ten fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries.[11]
4 January 1986: an overloaded tank at Sequoyah Fuels Corporation ruptured and released 14.5 tons of uranium hexafluoride gas (UF6), causing the death of a worker, the hospitalization of 37 other workers, and approximately 100 downwinders.[73][74][75]
October 1986: Soviet submarine K-219 reactor almost had a meltdown. Sergei Preminin died after he manually lowered the control rods, and stopped the explosion. The submarine sank three days later.
September 1987: Goiania accident. Four fatalities, and following radiological screening of more than 100,000 people, it was ascertained that 249 people received serious radiation contamination from exposure to caesium-137.[18][76] In the cleanup operation, topsoil had to be removed from several sites, and several houses were demolished. All the objects from within those houses were removed and examined. Time magazine has identified the accident as one of the world's "worst nuclear disasters" and the International Atomic Energy Agency called it "one of the world's worst radiological incidents".[76][77]
1989: San Salvador, El Salvador; one fatality due to violation of safety rules at cobalt-60 irradiation facility.[78]

text:
1990: Soreq, Israel; one fatality due to violation of safety rules at cobalt-60 irradiation facility.[78]
December 16 - 1990: radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza. Eleven fatalities and 27 other patients were injured.[58]
1991: Neswizh, Belarus; one fatality due to violation of safety rules at cobalt-60 irradiation facility.[78]
1992: Jilin, China; three fatalities at cobalt-60 irradiation facility.[78]
1992: USA; one fatality.[78]
April 1993: accident at the Tomsk-7 Reprocessing Complex, when a tank exploded while being cleaned with nitric acid. The explosion released a cloud of radioactive gas. (INES level 4).[25]
1994: Tammiku, Estonia; one fatality from disposed caesium-137 source.[78]
August — December 1996: Radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica. Thirteen fatalities and 114 other patients received an overdose of radiation.[15]
1996: an accident at Pelindaba research facility in South Africa results in the exposure of workers to radiation. Harold Daniels and several others die from cancers and radiation burns related to the exposure.[79]
June 1997: Sarov, Russia; one fatality due to violation of safety rules.[78]
May 1998: The Acerinox accident was an incident of radioactive contamination in Southern Spain. A caesium-137 source managed to pass through the monitoring equipment in an Acerinox scrap metal reprocessing plant. When melted, the caesium-137 caused the release of a radioactive cloud.
September 1999: two fatalities at criticality accident at Tokaimura nuclear accident (Japan)

text:
January–February 2000: Samut Prakan radiation accident: three deaths and ten injuries resulted in Samut Prakan when a cobalt-60 radiation-therapy unit was dismantled.[19]
May 2000: Meet Halfa, Egypt; two fatalities due to radiography accident.[78]
August 2000 – March 2001: Instituto Oncologico Nacional of Panama, 17 fatalities. Patients receiving treatment for prostate cancer and cancer of the cervix receive lethal doses of radiation.[14][80]
9 August 2004: Mihama Nuclear Power Plant accident, 4 fatalities. Hot water and steam leaked from a broken pipe (not actually a radiation accident).[81]
9 May 2005: it was announced that Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant in the UK suffered a large leak of a highly radioactive solution, which first started in July 2004.[82]
April 2010: Mayapuri radiological accident, India, one fatality after a cobalt-60 research irradiator was sold to a scrap metal dealer and dismantled.[19]

text:
March 2011: Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Japan and the radioactive discharge at the Fukushima Daiichi Power Station.[83]
17 January 2014: At the Rössing Uranium Mine, Namibia, a catastrophic structural failure of a leach tank resulted in a major spill.[84] The France-based laboratory, CRIIRAD, reported elevated levels of radioactive materials in the area surrounding the mine.[85][86] Workers were not informed of the dangers of working with radioactive materials and the health effects thereof.[87][88][89]
1 February 2014: Designed to last ten thousand years, the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) site approximately 26 miles (42 km) east of Carlsbad, New Mexico, United States, had its first leak of airborne radioactive materials.[90][91] 140 employees working underground at the time were sheltered indoors. Thirteen of these tested positive for internal radioactive contamination increasing their risk for future cancers or health issues. A second leak at the plant occurred shortly after the first, releasing plutonium and other radiotoxins causing concern to nearby communities.[92]

text: Worldwide nuclear testing summary[edit]

text: Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992, the United States maintained a program of vigorous nuclear testing, with the exception of a moratorium between November 1958 and September 1961. By official count, a total of 1,054 nuclear tests and two nuclear attacks were conducted, with over 100 of them taking place at sites in the Pacific Ocean, over 900 of them at the Nevada Test Site, and ten on miscellaneous sites in the United States (Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico).[93] Until November 1962, the vast majority of the U.S. tests were atmospheric (that is, above-ground); after the acceptance of the Partial Test Ban Treaty all testing was regulated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of nuclear fallout.

text: The U.S. program of atmospheric nuclear testing exposed a number of the population to the hazards of fallout. Estimating exact numbers, and the exact consequences, of people exposed has been medically very difficult, with the exception of the high exposures of Marshall Islanders and Japanese fishers in the case of the Castle Bravo incident in 1954. A number of groups of U.S. citizens — especially farmers and inhabitants of cities downwind of the Nevada Test Site and U.S. military workers at various tests — have sued for compensation and recognition of their exposure, many successfully. The passage of the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 allowed for a systematic filing of compensation claims in relation to testing as well as those employed at nuclear weapons facilities. As of June 2009 over $1.4 billion total has been given in compensation, with over $660 million going to "downwinders".[94]

text: Trafficking and thefts[edit]

text: The International Atomic Energy Agency says there is "a persistent problem with the illicit trafficking in nuclear and other radioactive materials, thefts, losses and other unauthorized activities".[95] The IAEA Illicit Nuclear Trafficking Database notes 1,266 incidents reported by 99 countries over the last 12 years, including 18 incidents involving HEU or plutonium trafficking:[96][76][97]

text:
Security specialist Shaun Gregory argued in an article that terrorists have attacked Pakistani nuclear facilities three times in the recent past; twice in 2007 and once in 2008.[98]
In November 2007, burglars with unknown intentions infiltrated the Pelindaba nuclear research facility near Pretoria, South Africa. The burglars escaped without acquiring any of the uranium held at the facility.[99][100]
In February 2006, Oleg Khinsagov of Russia was arrested in Georgia, along with three Georgian accomplices, with 79.5 grams of 89 percent enriched HEU.[101]
The Alexander Litvinenko poisoning with radioactive polonium "represents an ominous landmark: the beginning of an era of nuclear terrorism," according to Andrew J. Patterson.[102]

text: Accident categories[edit]

text: Nuclear meltdown[edit]

text: A nuclear meltdown is a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in reactor core damage from overheating. It has been defined as the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, and refers to the core's either complete or partial collapse.[103][104] A core melt accident occurs when the heat generated by a nuclear reactor exceeds the heat removed by the cooling systems to the point where at least one nuclear fuel element exceeds its melting point. This differs from a fuel element failure, which is not caused by high temperatures. A meltdown may be caused by a loss of coolant, loss of coolant pressure, or low coolant flow rate or be the result of a criticality excursion in which the reactor is operated at a power level that exceeds its design limits. Alternately, in a reactor plant such as the RBMK-1000, an external fire may endanger the core, leading to a meltdown.

text: Large-scale nuclear meltdowns at civilian nuclear power plants include:[13][47]

text:
the Lucens reactor, Switzerland, in 1969.
the Three Mile Island accident in Pennsylvania, United States, in 1979.
the Chernobyl disaster at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine, USSR, in 1986.
the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster following the earthquake and tsunami in Japan, March 2011.

text: Other core meltdowns have occurred at:[47]

text:
NRX (military), Ontario, Canada, in 1952
BORAX-I (experimental), Idaho, U.S.A., in 1954
EBR-I, Idaho, U.S.A., in 1955
Windscale (military), Sellafield, England, in 1957 (see Windscale fire)
Sodium Reactor Experiment, Santa Susana Field Laboratory (civilian), California, U.S.A., in 1959
Fermi 1 (civilian), Michigan, U.S.A., in 1966
Chapelcross nuclear power station (civilian), Scotland, in 1967
Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant (civilian), France, in 1969
A1 plant, (civilian) at Jaslovské Bohunice, Czechoslovakia, in 1977
Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant (civilian), France, in 1980

text: Eight Soviet Navy nuclear submarines have had nuclear core meltdowns or radiation incidents: K-19 (1961), K-11(1965), K-27 (1968), K-140 (1968), K-429 (1970), K-222 (1980), K-314 (1985), and K-431 (1985).[13]

text: Criticality accidents[edit]

text: A criticality accident (also sometimes referred to as an "excursion" or "power excursion") occurs when a nuclear chain reaction is accidentally allowed to occur in fissile material, such as enriched uranium or plutonium. The Chernobyl accident is not universally regarded an example of a criticality accident, because it occurred in an operating reactor at a power plant. The reactor was supposed to be in a controlled critical state, but control of the chain reaction was lost. The accident destroyed the reactor and left a large geographic area uninhabitable. In a smaller scale accident at Sarov a technician working with highly enriched uranium was irradiated while preparing an experiment involving a sphere of fissile material. The Sarov accident is interesting because the system remained critical for many days before it could be stopped, though safely located in a shielded experimental hall.[105] This is an example of a limited scope accident where only a few people can be harmed, while no release of radioactivity into the environment occurred. A criticality accident with limited off site release of both radiation (gamma and neutron) and a very small release of radioactivity occurred at Tokaimura in 1999 during the production of enriched uranium fuel.[106] Two workers died, a third was permanently injured, and 350 citizens were exposed to radiation. In 2016, a criticality accident was reported at the Afrikantov OKBM Critical Test Facility in Russia.[107]

text: Decay heat[edit]

text: Decay heat accidents are where the heat generated by the radioactive decay causes harm. In a large nuclear reactor, a loss of coolant accident can damage the core: for example, at Three Mile Island a recently shutdown (SCRAMed) PWR reactor was left for a length of time without cooling water. As a result, the nuclear fuel was damaged, and the core partially melted. The removal of the decay heat is a significant reactor safety concern, especially shortly after shutdown. Failure to remove decay heat may cause the reactor core temperature to rise to dangerous levels and has caused nuclear accidents. The heat removal is usually achieved through several redundant and diverse systems, and the heat is often dissipated to an 'ultimate heat sink' which has a large capacity and requires no active power, though this method is typically used after decay heat has reduced to a very small value. The main cause of release of radioactivity in the Three Mile Island accident was a pilot-operated relief valve on the primary loop which stuck in the open position. This caused the overflow tank into which it drained to rupture and release large amounts of radioactive cooling water into the containment building.

text: In 2011, an earthquake and tsunami caused a loss of electric power at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan. The decay heat could not be removed, and the reactor cores of units 1, 2 and 3 overheated, the nuclear fuel melted, and the containments were breached. Radioactive materials were released from the plant to the atmosphere and to the ocean. [108]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Transport accidents can cause a release of radioactivity resulting in contamination or shielding to be damaged resulting in direct irradiation. In Cochabamba a defective gamma radiography set was transported in a passenger bus as cargo. The gamma source was outside the shielding, and it irradiated some bus passengers.

text: In the United Kingdom, it was revealed in a court case that in March 2002 a radiotherapy source was transported from Leeds to Sellafield with defective shielding. The shielding had a gap on the underside. It is thought that no human has been seriously harmed by the escaping radiation.[109]

text: Equipment failure[edit]

text: Equipment failure is one possible type of accident. In Białystok, Poland, in 2001 the electronics associated with a particle accelerator used for the treatment of cancer suffered a malfunction.[110] This then led to the overexposure of at least one patient. While the initial failure was the simple failure of a semiconductor diode, it set in motion a series of events which led to a radiation injury.

text: A related cause of accidents is failure of control software, as in the cases involving the Therac-25 medical radiotherapy equipment: the elimination of a hardware safety interlock in a new design model exposed a previously undetected bug in the control software, which could have led to patients receiving massive overdoses under a specific set of conditions.

text: Human error[edit]

text: Many of the major nuclear accidents have been directly attributable to operator or human error. This was obviously the case in the analysis of both the Chernobyl and TMI-2 accidents. At Chernobyl, a test procedure was being conducted prior to the accident. The leaders of the test permitted operators to disable and ignore key protection circuits and warnings that would have normally shut the reactor down. At TMI-2, operators permitted thousands of gallons of water to escape from the reactor plant before observing that the coolant pumps were behaving abnormally. The coolant pumps were thus turned off to protect the pumps, which in turn led to the destruction of the reactor itself as cooling was completely lost within the core.

text: A detailed investigation into SL-1 determined that one operator (perhaps inadvertently) manually pulled the 84-pound (38 kg) central control rod out about 26 inches rather than the maintenance procedure's intention of about 4 inches.[112]

text: An assessment conducted by the Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (CEA) in France concluded that no amount of technical innovation can eliminate the risk of human-induced errors associated with the operation of nuclear power plants. Two types of mistakes were deemed most serious: errors committed during field operations, such as maintenance and testing, that can cause an accident; and human errors made during small accidents that cascade to complete failure.[10]

text: In 1946 Canadian Manhattan Project physicist Louis Slotin performed a risky experiment known as "tickling the dragon's tail"[113] which involved two hemispheres of neutron-reflective beryllium being brought together around a plutonium core to bring it to criticality. Against operating procedures, the hemispheres were separated only by a screwdriver. The screwdriver slipped and set off a chain reaction criticality accident filling the room with harmful radiation and a flash of blue light (caused by excited, ionized air particles returning to their unexcited states). Slotin reflexively separated the hemispheres in reaction to the heat flash and blue light, preventing further irradiation of several co-workers present in the room. However, Slotin absorbed a lethal dose of the radiation and died nine days later. The infamous plutonium mass used in the experiment was referred to as the demon core.

text: Lost source[edit]

text: Lost source accidents,[114][115] also referred to as orphan sources, are incidents in which a radioactive source is lost, stolen or abandoned. The source then might cause harm to humans. One case occurred at Yanango where a radiography source was lost, also at Samut Prakarn a phosphorus teletherapy source was lost[116] and at Gilan in Iran a radiography source harmed a welder.[117] The best known example of this type of event is the Goiânia accident in Brazil.

text: The International Atomic Energy Agency has provided guides for scrap metal collectors on what a sealed source might look like.[118] The scrap metal industry is the one where lost sources are most likely to be found.[119]

text: Comparisons[edit]

text: Comparing the historical safety record of civilian nuclear energy with other forms of electrical generation, Ball, Roberts, and Simpson, the IAEA, and the Paul Scherrer Institute found in separate studies that during the period from 1970 to 1992, there were just 39 on-the-job deaths of nuclear power plant workers worldwide, while during the same time period, there were 6,400 on-the-job deaths of coal power plant workers, 1,200 on-the-job deaths of natural gas power plant workers and members of the general public caused by natural gas power plants, and 4,000 deaths of members of the general public caused by hydroelectric power plants.[120][121][122] In particular, coal power plants are estimated to kill 24,000 Americans per year due to lung disease[123] as well as causing 40,000 heart attacks per year[124] in the United States. According to Scientific American, the average coal power plant emits 100 times more radiation per year than a comparatively sized nuclear power plant in the form of toxic coal waste known as fly ash.[125]

text: In terms of energy accidents, hydroelectric plants were responsible for the most fatalities, but nuclear power plant accidents rank first in terms of their economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage. Oil and hydroelectric follow at around 25 percent each, followed by natural gas at 9 percent and coal at 2 percent.[21] Excluding Chernobyl and the Shimantan Dam, the three other most expensive accidents involved the Exxon Valdez oil spill (Alaska), the Prestige oil spill (Spain), and the Three Mile Island nuclear accident (Pennsylvania).[21]

text: Nuclear safety[edit]

text: Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent nuclear and radiation accidents or to limit their consequences. This covers nuclear power plants as well as all other nuclear facilities, the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power, industry, and military uses.

text: The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly.[126] Mistakes do occur and the designers of reactors at Fukushima in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake.[127][128] According to UBS AG, the Fukushima I nuclear accidents have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety.[129] Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable.[126]

text: In his book Normal Accidents, Charles Perrow says that multiple and unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly-coupled nuclear reactor systems. Nuclear power plants cannot be operated without some major accidents. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around.[130] An interdisciplinary team from MIT have estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 – 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.[131][132] To date, there have been five serious accidents (core damage) in the world since 1970 (one at Three Mile Island in 1979; one at Chernobyl in 1986; and three at Fukushima-Daiichi in 2011), corresponding to the beginning of the operation of generation II reactors. This leads to on average one serious accident happening every eight years worldwide.[128]

text: Effects of acute radiation exposure[edit]

text:
Phase
Symptom
Whole-body absorbed dose (Gy)

1–2 Gy
2–6 Gy
6–8 Gy
8–30 Gy
> 30 Gy

Immediate
Nausea and vomiting
5–50%
50–100%
75–100%
90–100%
100%

Time of onset
2–6 h
1–2 h
10–60 min
< 10 min
Minutes

Duration
< 24 h
24–48 h
< 48 h
< 48 h
N/A (patients die in < 48 h)

Diarrhea
None
None to mild (< 10%)
Heavy (> 10%)
Heavy (> 95%)
Heavy (100%)

Time of onset
—
3–8 h
1–3 h
< 1 h
< 1 h

Headache
Slight
Mild to moderate (50%)
Moderate (80%)
Severe (80–90%)
Severe (100%)

Time of onset
—
4–24 h
3–4 h
1–2 h
< 1 h

Fever
None
Moderate increase (10–100%)
Moderate to severe (100%)
Severe (100%)
Severe (100%)

Time of onset
—
1–3 h
< 1 h
< 1 h
< 1 h

CNS function
No impairment
Cognitive impairment 6–20 h
Cognitive impairment > 24 h
Rapid incapacitation
Seizures, tremor, ataxia, lethargy

Latent period

28–31 days
7–28 days
< 7 days
None
None

Symptom

Mild to moderate Leukopenia
Fatigue
Weakness
Moderate to severe Leukopenia
Purpura
Hemorrhage
Infections
Alopecia after 3 Gy
Severe leukopenia
High fever
Diarrhea
Vomiting
Dizziness and disorientation
Hypotension
Electrolyte disturbance
Nausea
Vomiting
Severe diarrhea
High fever
Electrolyte disturbance
Shock
N/A (patients die in < 48h)

Mortality
Without care
0–5%
5–95%
95–100%
100%
100%

With care
0–5%
5–50%
50–100%
99–100%
100%

Death
6–8 weeks
4–6 weeks
2–4 weeks
2 days – 2 weeks
1–2 days

Table Source[133]


document_title: Turn on red

question_text: is it legal to turn right on red in north carolina

text: Turn on red

text: North America[edit]

text: Right turns on red are permitted in many regions of North America. While Western states have allowed it for more than 50 years;[citation needed] eastern states amended their traffic laws to allow it in the 1970s as a fuel-saving measure in response to motor fuel shortages in 1973. The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required in §362(c)(5) that in order for a state to receive federal assistance in developing mandated conservation programs, they must permit right turns on red lights.[2] All 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, and Puerto Rico have allowed right turns on red since 1980, except where prohibited by a sign or where right turns are controlled by dedicated traffic lights. (The last state with a right-on-red ban, Massachusetts, ended its ban on January 1, 1980.[3]) The few exceptions include New York City,[4] where right turns on red are prohibited, unless a sign indicates otherwise.

text: In some states, such as New York,[5] North Carolina, and California, a right turn on red is prohibited when a red arrow is displayed.

text: At intersections where U-turns are permitted and controlled by a U-turn arrow from the left-most lane, motorists turning right on red onto the same road must yield to those making U-turns before turning, as the motorists making U-turns have the right of way and a collision could easily occur. At intersections where U-turns are prohibited in the same fashion, a green right turn arrow will sometimes appear with the red light for those turning right onto the road, allowing only traffic turning right to proceed without having to stop or yield to other vehicles or pedestrians. Some states such as California have "No U-Turn" signs posted at these intersections because of the green right turn arrow.

text: Most Caribbean countries with right-hand traffic, such as the Dominican Republic, allow right turn on red unless a sign prohibits it. Some vehicles, such as those carrying hazardous materials and school buses, are not allowed to turn on red under any circumstance and must wait for a green light or arrow.[citation needed]

text: During 1982–1992, approximately 84 fatal crashes per year occurred in the U.S. where a vehicle was turning right at intersections where right turn on red was permitted.[citation needed] As of 1992, right turn on red is governed federally by 42 U.S.C. § 6322(c) ("Each proposed State energy conservation plan to be eligible for Federal assistance under this part shall include: ...(5) a traffic law or regulation which, to the maximum extent practicable consistent with safety, permits the operator of a motor vehicle to turn such vehicle right at a red stop light after stopping, and to turn such vehicle left from a one-way street onto a one-way street at a red light after stopping."). All turns on red are forbidden in New York City unless a sign is posted permitting it.[6]

text: Through most of Canada, a driver may turn right at a red light after coming to a complete stop unless a sign indicates otherwise. In the province of Quebec, turning right on a red was illegal until a pilot study carried out in 2003 showed that the right turn on red manoeuvre did not result in significantly more accidents. Subsequent to the study, the Province of Quebec now allows right turns on red except where prohibited by a sign. However, like in New York City, it remains illegal to turn right on a red anywhere on the Island of Montreal.[7] Motorists are reminded of this by large signs posted at the entrance to all bridges.

text: In Mexico, right turns on red are generally allowed unless a sign indicates otherwise.[8] Mexico City has implemented a new transit law which prohibits right turns and motorists can be issued a citation for noncompliance.[9]

text: Central America[edit]

text: In Costa Rica, right turns on red are allowed in general, but a sign can forbid them.

text: South America[edit]

text: In Chile, right turns on red are only allowed when a sign permitting it is shown.

text: In Paraguay, right turns on red are allowed in some towns.

text: In Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay, right turns on red are not allowed.

text: Europe[edit]

text: In the European Union member states in general, it is illegal to turn on a red light, unless it is indicated otherwise, for example by a green arrow on a red light, a flashing amber arrow with a red light or a permanent green board next to the red light.[citation needed]

text: In Poland, right turns on red are permitted, only if an additional green arrow light (apart from the main signal light) is present and lit. However, the regulations require drivers to stop completely, as their paths intersect with other vehicles or pedestrians in at least one direction. Green arrow light can be also directed left (the same regulations apply).[10]

text: In Germany, right turns on red are only permitted, after a complete stop, when a specific sign is present. This rule was first introduced in 1978 in East Germany and was originally supposed to become obsolete together with the East German highway code by the end of 1990, following German reunification. However, authorities were unable to remove the signs in time, and public opinion caused them to leave the regulation unchanged, even extending its scope to the former areas of West Germany in 1994. By 1999, there were 300 turn-on-red intersections on the territory of the former West Germany while that of the former East Germany featured 2,500. However, the numbers in the former West Germany have risen considerably since then and as of 2002 a total of 5,000 turn-on-red intersections were counted, representing 48% of the national total.

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2014)

text: In Russia, turns on red are prohibited unless a separate arrow-shaped green light allows it; drivers must give way to any vehicle coming from a different direction. When the arrow is not lit, turns in the arrow direction are prohibited.[11]

text: In the Netherlands, bicycles are occasionally allowed to turn right on a red light (assuming that the design of the junction is such that the light is even applicable to right turning cyclists, which it often is not in the Netherlands). Wherever this is the case, a sign "rechtsaf voor fietsers vrij" (right turn free for cyclists) or "rechtsaf voor (brom)fietsers vrij" (right turn free for cyclists and mopeds) is present.

text: In France a right turn on red without stopping is allowed when a separate arrow-shaped amber light flashes, but drivers do not have priority. They must check if any pedestrians are crossing before turning and must give way to vehicles coming from other directions.[12][citation needed]. In France it is allowed to turn right on red for cyclists if a sign tell so.

text: In Belgium, road signs that allow cyclists to turn right on a red light have been added to traffic law in 2012.[13] Such roads signs have been placed on intersections in the Brussels Capital Region.[14]

text: Like in the Netherlands, Belgium and France have a road sign that allows cyclists to turn right on a red light. The French and Belgian signs consist of a yield sign with a yellow bike and arrow inside. Such signs are placed under traffic lights.[15]

text: In the United Kingdom, which drives on the left, left turn on red is prohibited, but at some junctions there is a separate left arrow-shaped green "filter" light which, when lit, allows left-hand turns but conflicting traffic will always have a red signal.[16] Other non conflicting traffic movements may have their own left or right arrow-shaped green light. Sometimes there are specific lanes without signals for turning left, separated from the through traffic signalled traffic by traffic islands, but give way signs are installed.

text: In the Republic of Ireland, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited.

text: In Lithuania, drivers are allowed to turn right on red when a particular sign with a green arrow on a white background is mounted beside the red light of the traffic signal. However, on 10 November 2014, national traffic rules were altered meaning that this sign will be valid only until 31 December 2019 at the latest, by which time all such signs will have been eliminated. These changes for reasons of road safety.[17]

text: In Czech Republic and Slovakia right turns on red are allowed only when there is a lit green arrow present (called S 5 in Czech Republic and S 10 in Slovakia). Also in this case the car turning on red must give way to ongoing traffic, to pedestrians and other road users. (According to Czech law §70 of decree 30/2001 of Law Codex; and Slovak law §9, part 3g, decree 9/2009 of Law Codex)

text: In Romania, right turns on red are prohibited, except when there is a small green flashing light with a right turn arrow.

text: In Bulgaria, right turns on red are prohibited.

text: In Spain, right turns on red are allowed only if there's either a flashing amber or lit green arrow-shaped traffic light. Flashing amber arrow allows turning without priority (turn must be done exercising caution, giving way to any other vehicles and pedestrians that may cross the path), while a lit green arrow grants priority. If just a regular set of traffic lights is present (no light arrows), then turning on red is prohibited.

text: In Iceland, right turns on red are prohibited.

text: Asia[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2012)

text: As in the United Kingdom, left turn on red is always prohibited in Hong Kong. At some junctions, however, there may be separate sets of signals for left turns, or specific lanes for turning left separating from the through traffic by traffic islands and give way signs are installed. One such example is at the junction of Queen's Road East and Morrison Hill Road.

text: In China, a right turn on red is generally permitted, unless there is a red arrow pointing to the right. However, certain cities such as Shantou prohibited right turn on red.

text: In India, which drives on the left, a "free left turn" is generally prohibited.[18][19][20] However, some cities specifically permit turning left on a red signal.[21][22] An explicit green or blinking orange left signal also permits a turn on red, which usually means that conflicting traffic is not permitted to enter the same road.[23]

text: In Japan, which drives on the left, the only left turn allowed requires a green left arrow along with the red light.

text: In Singapore, which drives on the left, left turn on red is allowed only when the "Left Turn On Red" sign is displayed at the traffic junction. The driver will have to stop at the red light first and give way to pedestrians and oncoming vehicles from their right before turning.[24]

text: In Taiwan, right turn on red is always prohibited, except when there is a green arrow along with the red light.

text: In Thailand, which drives on the left, left turn on red is allowed unless a sign prohibits it.

text: In Saudi Arabia, right turn on red is generally permitted, unless there is a dedicated slip lane for right turn.

text: In Lebanon, unless a sign prohibits it, right turning on red is permitted after coming to a full stop to give way to upcoming traffic and pedestrians.

text: Oceania[edit]

text: In Australia, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted unless a sign indicating otherwise exists at the intersection. At such intersections, a sign generally reads "left turn on red permitted after stopping," meaning a vehicle can make a left turn only after coming to a complete stop first and giving way to approaching traffic and any crossing pedestrians or cyclists.[25][26]

text: Such signs are only in limited locations in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia as well as the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory and are banned in other states.[27] In South Australia, there were just 6 such intersections allowing turns on red in the entire state as of 2016.[28] There are conflicting views on the policy of left turns on red, with supporters pointing to lower vehicle emission and time savings, while opponents cite safety concerns.[28][29]

text: In New Zealand, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted. However, some intersections have a special lane passing to the left of the traffic light that then joins on to the main road with a give way sign, effectively allowing a left turn on red.

text: Pedestrian safety[edit]

text: Turns on red are especially problematic for pedestrians due to drivers looking left for traffic on red light and not noticing a pedestrian waiting to cross the street to the driver's right. This may lead to a "right hook" collision when the driver and pedestrian both enter the intersection. Right on red reduces perceived safety for pedestrians and hence walkability. Suburbanization and car oriented development of the west has been a driving force behind right turn on red[citation needed], although in some downtown core areas even in Western US right on red is explicitly prohibited with signs.

text: Left turn on red in countries with right hand traffic (turning across traffic)[edit]

text:
Left turns on red from one-way and two-way streets into one-way streets permitted
  Left turns on red from one-way streets into one-way streets permitted
  State prohibits left turns on red

text: In the U.S., 36 states and Puerto Rico allow left turns on red only if both the origin and destination streets are one way. (See South Carolina law Section 56-5-970 C3,[30] for example.)

text: Five other states, namely Alaska, Idaho, Michigan, Oregon and Washington, allow left turns on red onto a one-way street even from a two-way street.[31][32][33][34][35]

text: The following states and territories ban left turns on red: South Dakota (unless permitted by local ordinance), Connecticut, Maine, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Rhode Island, the District of Columbia, and Guam.[citation needed] New York City also prohibits left turn on red lights, unless a sign indicates otherwise.[36]

text: In Canada, left turn on red light from a one-way road into a one-way road is permitted except in some areas of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Left turn on red light from a two-way road into a one-way road is permitted in British Columbia[37] but only if the driver turns onto the closest lane and yields to pedestrians and cross traffic.