document_title: 2018 Gulf of Alaska earthquake

question_text: how much damage did the alaska earthquake cause 2018

text: 2018 Gulf of Alaska earthquake

text: Earthquake[edit]

text: According to the United States Geological Survey, the earthquake occurred 175 miles (282 km) southeast of Kodiak, Alaska at 12:31 AM local time (AKST).[2] Witnesses to the earthquake itself reported that it was very long in duration, feeling like a "slow roller," but it was not a violent earthquake despite its magnitude. This was corroborated by witnesses in Anchorage.[8][6] There was no immediate damage reported.[6] The earthquake woke people in Anchorage, 350 miles (560 km) from the epicenter, and was felt as far as Fairbanks to the northeast and British Columbia to the southeast.[4][5] The earthquake's S-waves arrived in Anchorage within one minute, and reached Fairbanks within three minutes.[9]

text: Tectonic setting[edit]

text: The earthquake was a strike-slip event that occurred within the Pacific Plate. The epicenter was to the south of the Aleutian Trench, where the Pacific Plate subducts beneath the North American Plate. The region has produced twelve large earthquakes since 1900, including several megathrust earthquakes.[2][10]

text: Aftershocks[edit]

text: The first major aftershocks occurred 20 minutes after the earthquake. The strongest aftershock measured 5.5 on the moment magnitude scale, while most measured 4–5.[6][11] Within two days, the United States Geological Survey recorded over 50 aftershocks.[12] More than 1000 aftershocks have been recorded well into March.

text: Alerts and evacuations[edit]

text: Communities on Kodiak Island and other coastal areas on the Gulf of Alaska and Cook Inlet were evacuated after warning sirens were activated. Hundreds gathered in local schools, which were opened as evacuation shelters, in Kodiak,[13] Seward,[5] and Homer.[14] Evacuees seeking higher ground filled local roads and the parking lots of supermarkets,[6] while locals reported large numbers of evacuees parking near a wind farm on Pillar Mountain near Kodiak.[4] An unrelated power outage at the Alaska Earthquake Center in Fairbanks caused some alerts to be delayed, while its website was overwhelmed by the number of users.[5] The National Weather Service sent emergency alerts to cell phones in Alaska, reading, "Emergency Alert. Tsunami danger on the coast. Go to high ground or move inland."[15]

text: The National Weather Service and Pacific Tsunami Warning Center initially issued a tsunami watch for Hawaii and the entire West Coast, but cancelled them after less than two hours.[16] In the San Francisco Bay Area, residents within three blocks of the Pacific coast and five blocks of the San Francisco Bay were warned by the city's Department of Emergency Management to be ready for evacuation.[8]

text: Some aspects of the warning systems in place were delayed or failed to issue a warning at all, prompting multiple reviews of the warning infrastructure.[17]


document_title: Kamakura period

question_text: what event in japan ushered in the kamakura period around 1185 ad

root

text: Kamakura period

text: Shogunate and Hōjō Regency[edit]

text: The Kamakura period marks the transition to land-based economies and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule.

tag: p

text: Once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu (幕府, tent government), but because he was given the ancient high military title Sei-i Taishōgun by the Emperor, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the shogunate. Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board Mandokoro (政所), a board of retainers (Samurai-dokoro (侍所)), and a board of inquiry (Monchūjo). After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces. As shōgun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura shogunate was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the Northern Fujiwara, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. However, the 4th leader of the Northern Fujiwara Fujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.

text: Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Minamoto no Yoriie became shōgun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early thirteenth century, a regency had been established for the shōgun by Hōjō Tokimasa—a member of the Hōjō clan, a branch of the Taira that had allied itself with the Minamoto in 1180. The head of Hōjō was installed as a regent for the shōgun; the regent was termed the Shikken during the period, although later positions were created with similar power such as the Tokusō and the Rensho. Often the Shikken was also the Tokuso and Rensho. Under the Hōjō, the shogun became a powerless figurehead.

text: With the protector of the Emperor (shōgun) a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 the Jōkyū War broke out between the Cloistered Emperor Go-Toba and the second regent Hōjō Yoshitoki. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. The shōgun's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court retained extensive estates.

text: Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency. In 1225 the third regent Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law—the Goseibai Shikimoku—in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in Kyoto were still based on 500-year-old Confucian principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and remained in effect for the next 635 years.

text: As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The Hōjōki describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike monogatari narrated the rise and fall of the Taira, replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the Shin Kokin Wakashū, of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.

text: The Expansion of Buddhist Teachings[edit]

text: During the Kamakura period six new Buddhist schools (classified by scholars as "New Buddhism" or Shin Bukkyo) were founded:

text:
Hōnen (1133–1212) founded the Japanese Pure Land school or Jōdo-shū.
Shinran (1173–1263) founded the Jōdo Shinshū sect.
Eisai (1141–1215) founded the Rinzai school of Zen.
Dōgen (1200–1253) founded the Sōtō school of Zen.
Nichiren (1222–1282) founded the Nichiren school.
Ippen (1239–1289) founded the Ji-shū branch of Pure Land Buddhism.

tag: ul

text: During this time the pre-existing schools of Tendai, founded by Saichō (767–822), Shingon, founded by Kūkai (774–835), and the great temples of Nara, collectively classified by scholars as "Old Buddhism" or Kyū Bukkyo, continued to thrive, adapt, and exert influence.[1]:24–25 For example, all of the above six reformers had studied at the Tendai Mt. Hiei at some point in their lives.[2]:562

text: "Old Buddhism" (Kyū Bukkyo)[edit]

text: Throughout the Kamakura period older Buddhist sects including Shingon, Tendai, and the Nara temple schools such as Kegon, Hossō, Sanron, and Ritsu continued to thrive and adapt to the trend of the times.[2]:561–563

text: At the start of the Kamakura period, the Mount Hiei monasteries had become politically powerful, appealing primarily to those capable of systematic study of the sect's teachings. The Shingon sect and its esoteric ritual continued to enjoy support largely from the noble families in Kyoto.[3] However, with the increasing popularity of the new Kamakura schools, the older schools partially eclipsed as the newer "Kamakura" schools found followers among the new Kamakura government, and its samurai.[citation needed].

text: The times that gave way to the Kamakura period were marked by political and military conflict, natural disasters, and social malaise attributed to the perceived arrival of the Latter Day of the Law. The new social order of a declining aristocracy and ascending military and peasant classes resulted in new forms of religion, both indigenous[4]:12 and Buddhist while Indian and Chinese influence continued.[2]:556-557[4]:11,13[5] Furthermore, the Shōen manor system which had taken root in this era resulted in the increased prosperity and literacy of peasants which in turn provided more financial support for Buddhist teachers and their studies.[4]

text: "New Buddhism" (Shin Bukkyo)[edit]

text: The first originators of Kamakura Buddhism schools were Hōnen and Shinran who emphasized belief and practice over formalism.[2]:546

text: In the latter part of the 12th-century Dōgen and Eisai traveled to China and upon their return to Japan founded, respectively, the Sōtō and Rinzai schools of Zen. Dōgen rejected affiliations with the secular authorities whereas Eisai actively sought them.[2]:574 Whereas Eisai thought that Zen teachings would revitalize the Tendai school, Dōgen aimed for an ineffable absolute, a pure Zen teaching that was not tied to beliefs and practices from Tendai or other orthodox schools[2]:566 and with little guidance for leading people how to live in the secular world.[2]:556

text: The final stage of Kamakura Buddhism, occurring some 50 years after Hōnen, was marked by new social and political conditions as the aristocracy declined, the military class asserted new influence, and Buddhist-infused local kami practice among peasants flourished. These changing conditions created a climate that encouraged religious innovation. Nichiren and Ippen attempted at this time to create down-to-earth teachings that were rooted in the daily concerns of people.[2]:555–556 Nichiren rejected the focus on "next-worldly" salvation such a rebirth in a Pure Land and instead aimed for "this-worldly" personal and national liberation through a simple and accessible practice.[2]:557 Ippen emphasized a popularized form of nenbutsu recitation with an emphasis on practice rather than concentrating on an individual's underlying mental state.[2]:559

text: Legacy of Kamakura Buddhism[edit]

text: As time evolved the distinctions between "Old" and "New" Buddhisms blurred as they formed "cultic centers" and various forms of founder worship. The medieval structures of these schools evolved into hierarchical head temple-branch temple structures with associated rituals and forms of worship. This culminated in the state-sanctioned formalized schools of the Tokugawa period.[1]:36-37

text: Mongol invasions[edit]

text: The repulsions of two Mongol invasions were momentous events in Japanese history. In Nichiren's, Rissho Ankoku Ron, a letter to the regency, predicted this invasion years earlier. Japanese relations with China had been terminated in the mid-ninth century after the deterioration of late Tang dynasty China and the turning inward of the Heian court. Some commercial contacts were maintained with the Southern Song dynasty of China in later centuries, but Japanese pirates made the open seas dangerous. At a time when the shogunate had little interest in foreign affairs and ignored communications from China and the Goryeo kingdom, news arrived in 1268 of a new Mongol regime in Beijing. Its leader, Kublai Khan, demanded that the Japanese pay tribute to the new Yuan dynasty and threatened reprisals if they failed to do so. Unused to such threats, Kyoto raised the diplomatic counter of Japan's divine origin, rejected the Mongol demands, dismissed the Korean messengers, and started defensive preparations.

text: After further unsuccessful entreaties, the first Mongol invasion took place in 1274. More than 600 ships carried a combined Mongol, Chinese, and Korean force of 23,000 troops armed with catapults, combustible missiles, and bows and arrows. In fighting, these soldiers grouped in close cavalry formations against samurai, who were accustomed to one-on-one combat. Local Japanese forces at Hakata, on northern Kyūshū, defended against the superior mainland force, which, after one day of fighting was destroyed by the onslaught of a sudden typhoon. Kublai realized that nature, not military incompetence, had been the cause of his forces' failure so, in 1281, he launched a second invasion. Seven weeks of fighting took place in northwestern Kyūshū before another typhoon struck, again destroying the Mongol fleet.

text: Although Shinto priests attributed the two defeats of the Mongols to a "divine wind" or kamikaze,[citation needed] a sign of heaven's special protection of Japan, the invasion left a deep impression on the shogunate leaders. Long-standing fears of the Chinese threat to Japan were reinforced. The victory also convinced the warriors of the value of the shogunate form of government.

text: The Mongol war had been a drain on the economy, and new taxes had to be levied to maintain defensive preparations for the future. The invasions also caused disaffection among those who expected recompense for their help in defeating the Mongols. There were no lands or other rewards to be given, however, and such disaffection, combined with overextension and the increasing defense costs, led to a decline of the Kamakura bakufu. Additionally, inheritances had divided family properties, and landowners increasingly had to turn to moneylenders for support. Roving bands of rōnin further threatened the stability of the shogunate.

text: Civil war[edit]

text: The Hōjō reacted to the ensuing chaos by trying to place more power among the various great family clans. To further weaken the Kyoto court, the bakufu decided to allow two contending imperial lines—known as the Southern Court or junior line and the Northern Court or senior line—to alternate on the throne. The method worked for several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne as Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the shogunate, and he openly defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the shogunate exiled Go-Daigo, but loyalist forces, including Kusunoki Masashige, rebelled. They were aided by Ashikaga Takauji, a constable who turned against Kamakura when dispatched to put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time, Nitta Yoshisada, another eastern chieftain, rebelled against the shogunate, which quickly disintegrated, and the Hōjō were defeated.

text: In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-century Confucian practices. This period of reform, known as the Kenmu Restoration, aimed at strengthening the position of the Emperor and reasserting the primacy of the court nobles over the warriors. The reality, however, was that the forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the Hōjō, not on supporting the Emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The long War Between the Courts lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was driven from Kyoto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who established a new line of shoguns.

text: Events[edit]

text:
1185: the rival Taira clan is defeated at sea at the Battle of Dan-no-ura by Yoritomo's brother Minamoto no Yoshitsune,[6]
1192: The emperor appoints Yoritomo as shōgun (military leader) with a residence in Kamakura, establishing the bakufu system of government
1199: Minamoto no Yoritomo dies
1207: Hōnen and his followers are exiled from Kyoto or executed. This inadvertently spread the Pure Land doctrine to a wider audience.
1221: The Kamakura army defeats the imperial army in the Jōkyū Disturbance, thereby asserting the supremacy of the Kamakura shogunate (Hōjō regents) over the emperor
1227: The Sōtō sect of Zen Buddhism is introduced to Japan by the monk Dōgen Zenji
1232: The Jōei Shikimoku code of law is promulgated to enhance control by the Hōjō regents
1271: Nichiren is banished to Sado Island
1274: The Mongols of Kublai Khan try to invade Japan but are repelled by a typhoon.
1293: On May 27, a major earthquake and tsunami hit Sagami Bay and Kamakura, killing 23,034 people.[7] It followed a 1241 and 1257 earthquake/tsunami in the same general area, which both were magnitude 7.0.
1333: Nitta Yoshisada conquers and destroys Kamakura during the Siege of Kamakura ending the Kamakura shogunate.[8]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Dobbins, James C. (1998). "Envisioning Kamakura Buddhism". In Payne, Richard K. Re-visioning Kamakura Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0824820789.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Osumi, Kazuo; Dobbins, James C. (1999). "Buddhism in the Kamakura Period". In Hall, John Whitney. Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University. ISBN 9780521223546.
Jump up ^ Kitagawa, Joseph M. (2010). Religion in Japanese History. Columbia University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780231515092.
^ Jump up to: a b c Payne, Richard K. (1998). Re-visioning "Kamakura" Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8248-2078-9.
Jump up ^ Anesaki, Masaharu (1930). The History of Japanese Religion. London: Trench, Trubner & Company. p. 167.
Jump up ^ Varley, P. (1994) p. 82.
Jump up ^ NOAA Earthquake Database Query
Jump up ^ McCullough, Helen Craig (1959): pp. 285–311.

tag: ol


document_title: Supreme Court of Texas

question_text: how are supreme court judges selected in texas

text: Supreme Court of Texas

text: Regulation of the legal profession in Texas[edit]

text: By statute, the Texas Supreme Court has administrative control over the State Bar of Texas, an agency of the judiciary.[2] The Texas Supreme Court has the sole authority to license attorneys in Texas,[3] and also appoints the members of the Board of Law Examiners[4] which, under instructions of the Supreme Court, administers the Texas bar examination.[5]

text: Unique procedural aspects[edit]

text: The Texas Supreme Court is the only state supreme court in the United States in which the manner in which it denies discretionary review can actually imply approval or disapproval of the merits of the lower court's decision and in turn may affect the geographic extent of the precedential effect of that decision. In March 1927, the Texas Legislature enacted a law directing the Texas Supreme Court to summarily refuse to hear applications for writs of error when it believed the Court of Appeals opinion correctly stated the law.[6] Thus, since June 1927, over 4,100 decisions of the Texas Courts of Appeals have become valid binding precedent of the Texas Supreme Court itself because the high court refused applications for writ of error rather than denying them and thereby signaled that it approved of their holdings as the law of the state.[6]

text: While Texas' unique practice saved the state supreme court from having to hear relatively minor cases just to create uniform statewide precedents on those issues, it also makes for lengthy citations to the opinions of the Courts of Appeals, since the subsequent writ history of the case must always be noted (e.g., no writ, writ refused, writ denied, etc.) in order for the reader to determine at a glance whether the cited opinion is binding precedent only in the district of the Court of Appeals in which it was decided, or binding precedent for the entire state.[6]

text: Justices of the Court[edit]

text: The Court has a Chief Justice and eight associate justices. Each member of the Court must be at least 35 years of age, a citizen of Texas, licensed to practice law in Texas, and must have practiced law (or have been a lawyer and a judge of a court of record together) for at least ten years.[7] The Clerk of the Court is appointed by the Justices and serves a four-year term.

text: Election of members of the Court[edit]

text: The Chief Justice and the Associate Justices are elected to staggered six-year terms in statewide partisan elections. When a vacancy arises the Governor of Texas may appoint Justices, subject to Senate confirmation, to serve out the remainder of an unexpired term until the next general election. As of 2017[update], seven of the current Justices, a majority, were originally appointed by Governor Rick Perry. The current Justices, like all the Judges of the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, are all Republican.

text: The place numbers have no special meaning as all justices are elected statewide, except that the Chief Justice position is considered "Place 1".

text: Women on the Court[edit]

text: Hortense Sparks Ward, who became the first woman to pass the Texas Bar Exam in 1910, was appointed Special Chief Justice of an all-female Texas Supreme Court 15 years later. All of the court's male justices recused themselves from Johnson v. Darr, a 1924 case involving the Woodmen of the World, and, since nearly every member of the Texas Bar was a member of that fraternal organization, paying personal insurance premiums that varied with the claims decided against it, no male judges or attorneys could be found to hear the case.[8] After ten months of searching for suitable male replacements to decide the case, Governor Pat Neff decided on January 1, 1925, to appoint a special court composed of three women. This court, consisting of Ward, Hattie Leah Henenberg, and Ruth Virginia Brazzil, met for five months and ultimately ruled in favor of Woodmen of the World.[9]

text: On July 25, 1982, Ruby Kless Sondock became the court's first regular female justice, when she was appointed to replace the Associate Justice James G. Denton who had died of a heart attack. Sondock served the remainder of Denton's term, which ended on December 31, 1982, but did not seek election to the Supreme Court in her own right.[10] Rose Spector became the first woman elected to the court in 1992 and served until 1998 when she was defeated by Harriet O'Neill.[11]

text: Current justices[edit]

text:
Justice
Party Affiliation
Place
Date Service Began
Term Ends

Nathan Hecht

Republican

Chief Justice

January 1, 1989

2020

Jimmy Blacklock

Republican

2

January 2, 2018

2018

Debra Lehrmann

Republican

3

June 21, 2010

2022

John P. Devine

Republican

4

January 1, 2013

2018

Paul W. Green

Republican

5

January 1, 2005

2022

Jeff Brown

Republican

6

October 3, 2013

2018

Jeffrey S. Boyd

Republican

7

December 3, 2012

2020

Phil Johnson

Republican

8

April 11, 2005

2020

Eva Guzman

Republican

9

October 8, 2009

2022

tag: table

text: History of membership of the Court[edit]

text: Succession of seats[edit]

text:
Chief Justice (Place 1)

Established by the Texas Constitution of 1876

G. Moore
Democratic
1878–1881

Gould
Democratic
1881–1882

Willie
Democratic
1882–1888

Stayton
Democratic
1888–1894

Gaines
Democratic
1894–1911

Brown
Democratic
1911–1915

N. Phillips
Democratic
1915–1921

Cureton
Democratic
1921–1940

W.F. Moore
Democratic
1940–1941

Alexander
Democratic
1941–1948

Hickman
Democratic
1948–1961

Calvert
Democratic
1961–1972

Greenhill
Democratic
1972–1982

Pope
Democratic
1982–1985

Hill
Democratic
1985–1988

Phillips
Republican
1988–2004

Jefferson
Republican
2004–2013

Hecht
Republican
2013–present

Place 2

Established by the Texas Constitution of 1876

Gould
Democratic
1876–1881

Stayton
Democratic
1881–1888

Walker
Democratic
1888–1889

Henry
Democratic
1889–1893

Brown
Democratic
1893–1911

Ramsey
Democratic
1911–1912

N. Phillips
Democratic
1912–1915

Yantis
Democratic
1915–1918

Greenwood
Democratic
1918–1934

Sharp
Democratic
1934–1952

Culver
Democratic
1953–1965

Pope
Democratic
1964–1982

T. Robertson
Democratic
1982–1988

Doggett
Democratic
1989–1994

Owen
Republican
1995–2005

Willett
Republican
2005–2018

Blacklock
Republican
2018–present

Place 3

Established by the Texas Constitution of 1876

G. Moore
Democratic
1876–1878

Bonner
Democratic
1878–1882

West
Democratic
1882–1885

S. Robertson
Democratic
1885–1886

Gaines
Democratic
1886–1894

Denman
Democratic
1894–1899

Williams
Democratic
1899–1911

Bibrell
Democratic
1911–1913

Hawkins
Democratic
1913–1921

Pierson
Democratic
1921–1935

Critz
Democratic
1935–1945

Simpson
Democratic
1945–1949

Harvey
Democratic
1949–1950

Calvert
Democratic
1950–1961

Steakley
Democratic
1961–1980

Wallace
Democratic
1981–1988

Cook
Republican
1988–1992

Spector
Democratic
1993–1998

O'Neill
Republican
1999–2010

Lehrmann
Republican
2010–present

text:
Place 4

Established in 1918 as Commissioner, Section B

Made a Supreme Court judgeship in 1945

Sadler
Democratic
1918–1920

Powell
Democratic
1920–1927

Leddy
Democratic
1927–1933

Smedley
Democratic
1933–1954

Walker
Democratic
1954–1975

Doughty
Democratic
1975–1976

Yarbrough
Democratic
1976–1977

Barrow
Democratic
1977–1984

R. Gonzales
Democratic
1984–1998

A. Gonzales
Republican
1999–2000

Jefferson
Republican
2001–2004

Medina
Republican
2004–2012

Devine
Republican
2013–present

Place 5

Established in 1918 as Commissioner, Section B

Made a Supreme Court judgeship in 1945

Montgomery
Democratic
1918–1919

Kittrell
Democratic
1919–1921

Hamilton
Democratic
1921

Short
Democratic
1925–1934

Taylor
Democratic
1935–1950

Wilson
Democratic
1950–1956

McCall
Democratic
1956

Norvell
Democratic
1957–1968

Reavley
Democratic
1968–1977

Chadick
Democratic
1977–1978

Campbell
Democratic
1978–1988

Culver
Republican
1988

Hightower
Democratic
1988–1996

Abbott
Republican
1996–2001

Rodriguez
Republican
2001–2002

Smith
Republican
2002–2004

Green
Republican
2005–present

Place 6

Established in 1918 as Commissioner, Section A

Made a Supreme Court judgeship in 1945

Taylor
Democratic
1919–1921

Randolph
Democratic
1921–1923

Bishop
Democratic
1923–1927

Critz
Democratic
1927–1935

Hickman
Democratic
1935–1948

Garwood
Democratic
1948–1958

Hamilton
Democratic
1959–1970

Denton
Democratic
1971–1982

Sondock
Democratic
1982

Kilgarlin
Democratic
1983–1988

Hecht
Republican
1989–2013

Brown
Republican
2013–present

text:
Place 7

Established in 1918 as Commissioner, Section B

Made a Supreme Court judgeship in 1945

McClendon
Democratic
1918–1923

Stayton
Democratic
1923–1925

Speer
Democratic
1925–1929

Ryan
Democratic
1929–1937

Martin
Democratic
1937–1939

Slatton
Democratic
1939–1947

Hart
Democratic
1947–1950

Smith
Democratic
1950–1970

Daniel
Democratic
1971–1978

Spears
Democratic
1979–1990

Cornyn
Republican
1991–1997

Hankinson
Republican
1997–2002

Wainwright
Republican
2002–2012

Boyd
Republican
2012–present

Place 8

Established in 1918 as Commissioner, Section A

Made a Supreme Court judgeship in 1945

Sonfield
Democratic
1918–1921

Gallagher
Democratic
1921–1923

Blanks
Democratic
1923–1924

Chapman
Democratic
1924–1925

Nickels
Democratic
1925–1929

Sharp
Democratic
1929–1934

German
Democratic
1935–1941

Brewster
Democratic
1941–1957

Greenhill
Democratic
1957–1972

H. Phillips
Democratic
1972

S. Johnson
Democratic
1973–1979

Garwood
Republican
1978–1980

Ray
Democratic
1980–1990

Gammage
Democratic
1990–1995

Baker
Republican
1995–2002

Schneider
Republican
2002–2004

P. Johnson
Republican
2004–present

Place 9

Established in 1918 as Commissioner, Section A

Made a Supreme Court judgeship in 1945

Strong
Democratic
1918–1920

Spencer
Democratic
1920–1923

German
Democratic
1923–1925

Harvey
Democratic
1925–1943

Folley
Democratic
1943–1949

Griffin
Democratic
1949–1968

McGee
Democratic
1969–1986

Mauzy
Democratic
1987–1992

Enoch
Republican
1993–2003

Brister
Republican
2003–2009

Guzman
Republican
2009–present

text: Supreme Court Committees[edit]

text: Judicial Committee on Information Technology (JCIT)

text: Created in 1997 JCIT was established to set standards and guidelines for the systematic implementation and integration of information technology into the trial and appellate courts in Texas.

text: JCIT approaches this mission by providing a forum for state-local, inter-branch, and public-private collaboration, and development of policy recommendations for the Supreme Court of Texas. Court technology, and the information it carries, are sprawling topics, and Texas is a diverse state with decentralized funding and decision-making for trial court technology. JCIT provides a forum for discussion of court technology and information projects. With this forum, JCIT reaches out to external partners such as the Conference of Urban Counties, the County Information Resource Agency, Texas.gov, and TIJIS (Texas Integrated Justice Information Systems), and advises or is consulted by the Office of Court Administration on a variety of projects.

text: Three themes consistently recur in the JCIT conversation: expansion and governance of electronic filing; the evolution and proliferation of court case management systems; and the evolution and governance of technology standards for reporting and sharing information across systems in civil, family, juvenile, and criminal justice.

text: The Founding Chair of JCIT from 1997–2009 was Peter S. Vogel, a partner at Gardere Wynne Sewell LLP in Dallas, and since 2009 the JCIT Chair has been Justice Rebecca Simmons.

text: 2014 Texas Supreme Court judicial election[edit]

text: Texas is one of seven states that elects Supreme Court justices on partisan ballots. Four justices of the Texas Supreme Court faced re-election in 2014.[12] Three of the four sitting Supreme Court Justices, Chief Justice Nathan Hecht, Justice Jeff Brown and Justice Phil Johnson, were required to defeat challengers in a March primary before the general election in November. The candidates challenging the incumbent Supreme Court Justices, according to reports filed with the Texas Ethics Commission, were recruited for the election and funded by a Houston plaintiff lawyer and Ali Davari, owner of two strip clubs: Sexy City and Erotic Zone.[13][14]

text: Texas for Lawsuit Reform commented on the Texas election by saying, “Plaintiff trial lawyers are making an unprecedented attempt to regain the control of the Supreme Court that they enjoyed in the 1970s and 1980s, when Texas was known as 'The Lawsuit Capitol of the World.'" Also, an airing of Sixty Minutes entitled Justice for Sale gave a devastating critique of the Texas Supreme Court.[15]

text: Houston plaintiff lawyer Mark Lanier, funded the bulk of the campaign to remove the Texas Supreme Court and business groups. Funding was disclosed in an article titled, "Plaintiff Trial Lawyers Attempt to Distort Role of Judges and Juries."[16]

text: In the years preceding the Texas Judicial Election, Lanier had become a vocal critic of the Texas Supreme Court after the Supreme Court reversed his signature trial verdict against Merck & Co. on behalf of a widow whose husband died after taking Vioxx.[17] After Lanier suffered a second high-profile loss of a Vioxx case, in which the Fourteenth Court of Appeals in Houston concluded in MERCK & CO., INC. v. Ernst, a wrongful death case by a widow, that Lanier failed to show that the ingestion of Vioxx caused the death of his client's spouse.[18][19] Lanier's publicly criticized the Texas Supreme Court stating that it employs "a simpleton approach that basically white washes the trial, ignores the evidence, and is very conclusion based."[19]

text: Lanier responded to the appellate setbacks in a press release:

text: Activist judges are protecting corporate executives and stripping away the rights of widows and every other victim of corporate misconduct…This decision was handed down by a group of judges who regularly accept campaign contributions from law firms representing corporations that appear in their courts. We will appeal this decision to the United States Supreme Court if necessary.[19]

text: All judicial challengers recruited and funded by the Texas plaintiff lawyers lost to the incumbent Texas Supreme Court justices who won the 2014 Texas election.[20]

text: School funding decision[edit]

text: In May 2016, in a 100-page ruling, the Supreme Court ruled that public school financing, a long-term political issue in Texas, is imperfect but constitutional. Specifically, the court ruled that the funding "satisfies minimum constitutional requirements." More than half of the school districts across the state had wanted the court to force the Texas State Legislature to guarantee equal tax revenues to wealthy and poorer districts alike. The court, which has only one Democrat member among the nine justices, said that legislators must tackle school funding and not expect the court to make specific policy decisions.[21]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 25, 2010. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
Jump up ^ Tex. Gov’t Code section 81.011.
Jump up ^ Tex. Gov't Code sections 81.061 and 82.021
Jump up ^ Tex. Gov't Code section 82.001
Jump up ^ Tex. Gov't Code section 82.004.
^ Jump up to: a b c Steiner, Mark E. (February 1999). "Not Fade Away: The Continuing Relevance of 'Writ Refused' Opinions". The Appellate Advocate. 12: 3–6.  Available via HeinOnline.
Jump up ^ Tex. Const., Art. 5, Sec. 2.
Jump up ^ MAULDIN, COTTRELL, DEBBIE (June 9, 2010). "ALL-WOMAN SUPREME COURT". www.tshaonline.org. Archived from the original on January 3, 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Hortense Sparks Ward (1875–1944)". Justices of Texas 1836–1986. Tarlton Law Library, The University of Texas at Austin. October 16, 2009. Archived from the original on July 7, 2013. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ruby Kless Sondock (born 1926)". Justices of Texas 1836–1986. Tarlton Law Library, The University of Texas at Austin. October 16, 2009. Archived from the original on July 7, 2013. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ Cruse, Don (January 8, 2008). "An Unusual History of Women Serving on the Texas Supreme Court". The Supreme Court of Texas Blog. Archived from the original on March 16, 2012. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Texas Supreme Court Elections 2014". Judgepedia. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Yates, David (January 27, 2014). "Lanier Law Firm funding challengers in Texas Supreme Court's GOP primary". Legal Newsline Legal Journal. Archived from the original on March 6, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lawyer Cash, Racial Profiling Shape Supreme Court Races Plaintiff Lawyers, Strip-Club Mogul Fund GOP's John Devine" (PDF). Texans For Public Justice. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Trabulsi Jr., Richard. "Re-Election of Texas Supreme Court Justices in 2014 Is Critically Important". Texans for Lawsuit Reform: Political Action Committee. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Plaintiff Trial Lawyers Attempt to Distort Role of Judges and Juries". TLR: Texans for Lawsuit Reform. Archived from the original on October 18, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Berenson, Alex (May 30, 2008). "Courts Reject Two Major Vioxx Verdicts". New York Times.com. New York Times. Archived from the original on May 4, 2018. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Opinion of May, 29, 2008 Withdrawn". www.search.txcourts.gov. Archived from the original on March 28, 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Longstreth, Andrew (May 29, 2008). "Mark Lanier's Faith Tested: He Loses Two Vioxx Appeals in One Day". The AM Law Daily. Archived from the original on October 29, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bachelder, Kate (February 26, 2014). "Stacking the Texas Supreme Court". Parker County Blog. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Andrea Zelinski and Mike Ward, "School financing system left intact: Court says it's awful but constitutional", San Antonio Express-News, May 14, 2016, pp. 1, A7

text: Further reading[edit]

text: Haley, James L. The Texas Supreme Court: A Narrative History, 1836–1986 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013. xxviii, 322 pp.


document_title: History of Sikkim

question_text: when did sikkim become full fledged state of india

text: History of Sikkim

text: Ancient history[edit]

text: When the Kirat King Yalambar captured central Nepal in 1,500 B.C his kingdom extended from river Trisuli in the west to river Teesta in the east.[1][2] According to Hindu mythology, Lord Shiva is said to have appeared in the form of hunter Kirateshwar or Lord of the Kiratas to Arjuna in the very spot where the ancient Kirateshwar temple lies in Legship, West Sikkim.[3][4] By the 6th century the Lepchas occupied the Lapchan area of Nepal (present Ilam region), present Sikkim, Har Chu Valley and Ammo Chu Valley (present South Western Bhutan) and most of Eastern part of Greater Sikkim up to the Chumbi Valley. Meanwhile, the Limbus inhabited the Western part of Greater Sikkim (present Limbuwan region).[5] A part of Limbuwan is still retained in present Sikkim in the West district, South district and a part of North district.[6] The Lepchas spoke the Lepcha dialect and were believers of Boongthism and Munism or Animism by faith. The Limbus spoke the Limbu dialect and were believers of Yumaism or Yuma Sammang, a form of Kirat Mundhum.[5]

text: In the 7th century, Thekung Adek consolidated the Lepcha tribes and declared himself a Panu, a Tribal Religious and Administrative chief or king. Similarly, the Limbu tribes were ruled by 10 elected chiefs or Hangs from each of their clans to form a social and administrative body called Thibong Yakthum Tumyanghang (tribal republic council or Ten Limbus Council).[7] Around 870 A.D. Na Hang, the chief of Daramdin, West Sikkim was incited by the Chilikchom people to fight against the Kirati Limbu king of Limbuwan, Mabo Hang. Na Hang was defeated and the Chilikchom were banished from Limbuwan.[8]   Sikkim also finds mention in many Hindu texts because the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche or Padmasambhava is said to have passed through the land in the 9th century. According to legend, the Guru blessed the land, introduced Buddhism to Sikkim and also foretold the era of the monarchy in the state, which would arrive centuries later. There are numerous stories regarding the migration of Tibetans into Sikkim and the establishment of the Sikkimese monarchy. The most popular states that in the 13th century, Guru Tashi, a prince from the Minyak House in Kham in Eastern Tibet, had a divine revelation one night instructing him to travel south to seek his fortunes. Guru Tashi settled down in the Chumbi Valley.[9][10] The population and linguistic survey were not held during this period but it's certain that the region was inhabited by the Lepchas, the Limbus, the Magars and some Bhutias in the later periods.[11]

text: Kingdom of Sikkim[edit]

text: By 1641 the Lepchas, the Limbus and the Magars were ruling in different villages independently.[12] The Limbu and the Magar tribes lived in the remote Western and Southern regions.[13] In the early 17th century the Bhutias were forced to take refuge in Sikkim due to the conflict between followers of the Yellow hat and the Red hats in Tibet. The Bhutias tried to convert the Sikkimese worshippers of nature to Buddhism and succeeded to an extent.[14] The Tibetan Lamas sought to establish Sikkim as a Buddhist Kingdom thereby electing a Lhopa King of Tibetan origin.[12]

text: In 1642, the fifth generation descendant of Guru Tashi, Phuntsog Namgyal was consecrated as the first Denjong Gyalpo or the Chogyal (king) of Sikkim by Lhatsun Chhenpo, Nga-dag Lama and Kathhog Lama, three great Lamas who came from the north, west and south to Yuksom Norbugang in West Sikkim.[15] The event, Naljor Chezhi, was as predicted by Guru Rinpoche some eight hundred years before. The Dalai Lama sent the new Chogyal a silk scarf, the mitre of Guru Rinpoche and a sand image of him as a coronation present.[15] However the Limbu and the Magar chiefs refused to accept the rule of the Chogyal who had to bring in Tibetan soldiers to subdue them.[12][16]

text: This historical gathering of the three virtuous lamas is called Yuksom, which in Lepcha means 'The Place where the Three monks met' as in Lepcha a lama is called a "Yukmun" and the word for three is "Som". The Chogyal, along with the three lamas proselytised the Lepcha tribes into Buddhism and annexed the Chumbi Valley, the present-day Darjeeling district and parts of today's eastern Nepal.

text: Shortly after his coronation the new Chogyal appointed 12 kalons or ministers from the Bhutia community and split his kingdom into 12 Dzongs or administrative units, which each contained a fort. Individual Dzongs were headed by a Dzonga drawn from amongst the Lepchas. The lands of Sikkim were leased as gifts to kazis and thikadars who in turn leased sub-plots to peasants at high rents. Mandals (headmen) and karbaris (assistants to the mandals) were employed by the kazis and thikadars as rent collectors and dispute mediators. Out of Sikkims 104 revenue estates, 61 were leased to kazis and thikadars for fixed sums, five were given to monasteries and fifteen retained by the Chogyal for his private use.[17][18] The Limbu chiefs or the Subbas were also given full autonomy of their districts under the King.[12]

text: Thus Phuntsog Namgyal became the first King of the Kingdom of Sikkim and all the Kirat chiefs agreed to regard him as the supreme ruler. However the Magars did not get along with the Bhutias and left Sikkim after they were defeated in a battle. The King called all the Kirat chiefs and proclaimed that Bhutias or Lhopsas, Tsongs or the Limbus and the Mempas or the Lepchas were all part of one family known as the Lho-Mehn-Tsong with the King as the father, the Lepchas as the mother and the Limbus as the sons and they were forbidden to fight amongst themselves.[12] The signing of this tripartite treaty of Lho-Mehn-Tsong Tsum was overseen by eight Bhutia tribal leaders, twelve Limbu tribal leaders and four Lepcha tribal leaders in present West Sikkim.[11]

text: Invasions from Bhutan and Nepal[edit]

text: Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded by his son, Tensung Namgyal in 1670. The reign of this Chogyal was peaceful and saw the capital move from Yuksom to Rabdentse. Chakdor Namgyal, the king's second wife's son, took over the throne from him in 1700. This outraged his elder half-sister Pendiongmu, who ousted him with the help of the Bhutanese. From 1700 to 1706, when Chakdor Namgyal, the third Chogyal of the Kingdom of Sikkim, most parts of it were invaded by Deb Naku Zidar, the king of Bhutan. Chakdor Namgyal went into exile in Tibet. The Tibetan people subsequently expelled the Bhutanese army, and called Chakdor Namgyal back to Sikkim.[19] Chakdor's son Gyurmed Namgyal succeeded him in 1717. Gyurmed's reign saw many skirmishes between the Nepalese and Sikkimese. Phuntsog Namgyal II, the illegitimate child of Gyurmed, succeeded his father in 1733. His reign was tumultuous in the face of attacks by the Bhutanese and the Nepalese who managed to capture the capital Rabdentse.

text: Tenzing Namgyal, Chogyal from 1780 to 1793, was a weak ruler, and his sovereignty saw most of Sikkim being appropriated by Nepal. In 1788, the Nepali Gorkha Army invaded Sikkim, and took Limbuana and the former capital Rabdentse by storm. The king of Sikkim went into exile in Tibet for a second time. In 1788, the 8th Dalai Lama stationed him in Chumbi Valley in Rènà zong (also "Rèrì," today's Yadong County).[19][20] His son Tshudpud Namgyal,  returned to Sikkim in 1793 to reclaim the throne with the help of China. Finding Rabdentse too close to the Nepalese border, he shifted the capital to Tumlong.

text: Relations with the British Empire[edit]

text: With the arrival of the British in neighbouring India, Sikkim allied itself with them as they had a common enemy – the Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal. The infuriated Nepalese attacked Sikkim with vengeance, over-running most of the region including the Terai. This prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal resulting in the Anglo-Nepalese War, which began in 1814. Treaties signed between British  and Nepal – the Sugauli Treaty and Sikkim and British India – Treaty of Titalia, returned the territory annexed by the Nepalese to Sikkim in 1817.

text: Meanwhile, the British were looking for a route to establish trading links with Tibet. An offshoot of the ancient Silk Road through Sikkim meant that the kingdom was ideal as a transit route. A secondary reason for the establishment of links was to quell the growing Russian influence in Tibet in the context of The Great Game. However ties between Sikkim and India grew sour with the taxation of the area of Morang by the British. An internal disturbance, which began in 1825, gave the British the opportunity to secure the 1835 cession of Darjeeling to British Sikkim in view of its perceived advantages as a sanitorium. Unhappy with this development, Sikkim's Dewan often frustrated the cessation by denying aid to the British in capturing escaped criminals and offering amnesty for escaped slaves. As compensation for the loss, the British Government paid the Sikkim Raja Rs. 3,000 from 1841 onwards, a sum that was later increased to Rs. 12,000.[21]

text: In 1849, British doctor Archibald Campbell, then superintendent of Darjeeling, and botanist Joseph Hooker, ventured into the mountains of Sikkim with the permission of the British and the Chogyal of Sikkim but strayed across the Cho La into Tibet. They were detained by the Sikkim government at the instigation of the pro-Tibetan "mad Dewan" T. Namguey, which led to a punitive British expedition against the Himalayan kingdom.[22][21] Although subsequent bloodshed was avoided, the British annexed the whole of Darjeeling district and the Terai in 1861. In the same year, signature of the Treaty of Tumlong effectively made Sikkim a de facto protectorate of the British.[23]

text: Alongside "British Sikkim", "Independent Sikkim" continued to exist as a rump state centred around the capital at Gangtok ruling over 2,500 square miles (6,500 km2) of territory.[24] The former Chogyal was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Sidkeong Namgyal in 1863.

text: The Chogyals endeavored to modernize Sikkim in the succeeding decades, along with their army. A state visit to Darjeeling by Sidekong's half brother, Chogyal Thutob Namgyal in 1873 failed to yield such results, and he returned to Tumlong disappointed. In 1886, the British, interested in trade with Tibet, launched a brief expedition into Sikkim. The Tibetans occupied several of Sikkim's northern border forts, and the Chogyal and his wife were held prisoner by the British when they came to negotiate at Calcutta. In 1888, the Tibetans were defeated and northern Sikkim came under the rule of British India. The British established new landholdings in Sikkim, but released the Chogyal only to have him captured again in 1891. In 1894, the capital was shifted to Gangtok.

text: In 1895, the Chogyal was released, but the British governors in India reneged on an agreement – the Ten Clauses Agreement – which returned sovereignty to Sikkim. The Political Officer in Sikkim, John Claude White, refused to return any sovereignty, and only let the Chogyal retain the judiciary of Sikkim.

text: In 1905, the Prince of Wales – the future King George V – arrived in Calcutta on a state visit during which he met the Chogyal. The two made an excellent acquaintance and the Crown Prince of Sikkim, Sidkeong Tulku was sent to study at Oxford University. When Sidkeong came to power, he arranged widened sovereignty for Sikkim from King George's government and endorsed sweeping reforms in his short rule as Chogyal, which ended in 1914. In 1918, Sikkim's independence in all domestic affairs was restored, and in the next decade the kingdom embarked on a policy to end social ills, outlawing gambling, child labour, and indentured service.

text: Independent monarchy[edit]

text: Sikkim had retained guarantees of independence from Britain when it became independent, and such guarantees were transferred to the Indian government when it gained independence in 1947. A popular vote for Sikkim to join the Indian Union failed and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to a special protectorate status for Sikkim. Sikkim was to be a tributary of India, in which India controlled its external defence, diplomacy and communication. A state council was established in 1953 to allow for constitutional government for the Chogyal, which was sustained until 1973.

text: In 1962, India and the People's Republic of China went to war. Although Sikkim was an independent country, skirmishes occurred at the Nathula Pass between Indian border guards and the Chinese soldiers. After the war, the ancient pass was shut down (it reopened 6 July 2006).

text: The old ruler Tashi Namgyal died in 1963 after suffering from cancer. The last hereditary ruler, the Chogyal Palden Thondup Namgyal, ascended to the throne in 1965.  Trouble began to brew for the crown even before the Chogyal assumed the throne, as Indian Prime Minister Nehru, who had carefully preserved Sikkim's status as an independent protectorate, died in 1964.  His daughter Indira Gandhi, who became Prime Minister in 1966, would have little patience for maintaining an independent Sikkim or its monarchy. The chogyal, who responded to the increased pressure by drinking, was viewed by India as politically dangerous, especially after his wife, the American socialite Hope Cooke, published a journal article advocating a return of certain former Sikkimese properties.

text: In early 1970 the anti-monarchy Sikkim National Congress Party demanded fresh elections and greater representation for the Nepalese.

text: In 1973, anti-royalty riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India. India worried that an unstable Sikkim would invite China to act on its claims that Sikkim was part of Tibet, and therefore part of China.  The Indian government appointed a Chief administrator, Mr. B. S. Das, who effectively wrested control of the country away from the Chogyal.

text: Frosty relations between the Chogyal and the elected Kazi (Prime Minister) Lhendup Dorji resulted in an attempt to block the meeting of the legislature. The Kazi was elected by the Council of Ministers which was unanimous in its opposition to the retention of the Monarchy.

text: Prime Minister Dorji appealed to the Indian Parliament for representation and change of status to statehood.  On 14 April 1975, a referendum was held, in which Sikkim voted to merge with the union of India. Sikkim became the 22nd Indian State on 26 April 1975. On 16 May 1975, Sikkim officially became a state of the Indian Union and Lhendup Dorji became head of State (chief minister).

text: The position of Chogyal was thus abolished, ending the monarchy. In 1982, Palden Thondup died of cancer in the United States.

text: State of India[edit]

text: The 1979 assembly election saw Nar Bahadur Bhandari elected Chief Minister of Sikkim. Bhandhari held on to win again in 1984 and 1989. In 1994, Assembly politician Pawan Kumar Chamling became the Chief Minister of Sikkim. In 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2014 Chamling consolidated his position to sweep the polls.

text: Sino-Indian relations were somewhat bruised in 2000 by an event in Sikkim which challenged China's longstanding claim of Sikkim as an independent country. The unusual event was the escape of Ogyen Trinley Dorje from Tibet to Dharamsala, India. Ogyen Trinley Dorje is one of the two rival claimants who seeks recognition as the 17th Karmapa, the head of the Black Hat branch of Tibetan Buddhism (see Karmapa controversy). The two claimants did battle in the Indian court system for control of the considerable funds collected by the 16th Karmapa for the restoration and maintenance of Rumtek Monastery, located in Gangtok, Sikkim. The Chinese, who recognise Ogyen Trinley Dorje as the true Karmapa, were unhappy about the court outcome which awarded the monastery funds to the other rival. However, the Chinese government was in a quandary as to what to do about it, as any protest to India would mean an explicit endorsement that the high court of India holds jurisdiction over Sikkim.

text: In 2003, with the thawing of relations between the two nations, Indian sovereignty over Sikkim was finally recognised by China. The two governments also proposed to open the Nathula and Jelepla Passes in 2005.

text: On 18 September 2011, a magnitude 6.9Mw earthquake struck Sikkim, killing at least 116 people in the state and in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Tibet.[25] More than 60 people died in Sikkim alone, and the city of Gangtok suffered significant damage.[26]


document_title: Michelin Man

question_text: what is the michelin man supposed to be

question_tokens: what is the michelin man supposed to be

text: Michelin Man

text: Development[edit]

text: While attending the Universal and Colonial Exposition in Lyon in 1894, Édouard and André Michelin noticed a stack of tires that suggested to Édouard the figure of a man without arms. Four years later, André met French cartoonist Marius Rossillon, popularly known as O'Galop, who showed him a rejected image he had created for a Munich brewery—a large, regal figure holding a huge glass of beer and quoting Horace's phrase "Nunc est bibendum". André immediately suggested replacing the man with a figure made from tires. Thus O'Galop transformed the earlier image into Michelin's symbol. Today, Bibendum is one of the world's most recognised trademarks, representing Michelin in over 150 countries.

text: The 1898 poster showed him offering the toast Nunc est bibendum to his scrawny competitors with a glass full of road hazards, with the title and the tag C'est à dire : À votre santé. Le pneu Michelin boit l'obstacle ("That is to say, to your health. The Michelin tire drinks up obstacles"). The implication is that Michelin tires will easily take on road hazards. The company used this basic poster format for fifteen years, adding its latest products to the table in front of the figure. It is unclear when the word "Bibendum" came to be the name of the character himself. At the latest, it was in 1908, when Michelin commissioned Curnonsky to write a newspaper column signed "Bibendum". In 1922, Michelin ran a contest for "naming the Michelin Tire Man" in the United States.[4]

text: From 1912 onwards, tires became black in colour because carbon was added as a preservative and a strengthener to the basic rubber material. Before then, they were a gray-white or light and translucent-beige colour. Bibendum's appearance also changed. Though briefly featured in several print ads, Michelin quickly changed back his appearance, citing printing and aesthetic issues for the change, and not racial concerns as commonly believed.[5]

text: The name of the plump tire-man has entered the language to describe someone obese or wearing comically bulky clothing. (e.g. "How can I wrap up warm without looking like the Michelin Man?")[6]

text: Bibendum's shape has changed over the years. O'Galop's logo was based on bicycle tires, wore pince-nez glasses with lanyard, and smoked a cigar. By the 1980s, Bibendum was being shown running, and in 1998, his 100th anniversary, a slimmed-down version became the company's new logo. He had long since given up the cigar and pince-nez. The slimming of the logo reflected lower-profile, smaller tires of modern cars. Bib even had a similar-looking puppy as a companion when the duo were CGI animated for recent American television advertisements.

text: A history of the emblem was written by Olivier Darmon and published in 1997: Le Grand Siècle de Bibendum; Paris: Hoëbeke.[7]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The "Bibendum chair" was designed by Eileen Gray in 1925.

text: Cayce Pollard, the main character of William Gibson's novel Pattern Recognition, has a strong aversion to corporate brands and logos. The sight of Bibendum in particular gives her panic attacks.

text: Bibendum made a brief guest appearance in the Asterix series, as the chariot-wheel dealer in certain translations, including the English one, of Asterix in Switzerland. (The original French version used the Gaulish warrior mascot of French service-station company Antar.)

text: Michelin sued the performance artist Momus for releasing a song about the trademarked Michelin Man.

text: French reggae band Tryo sang about Bibendum on their album Grain de Sable. 'Monsieur Bibendum, il est vraiment énorme / Monsieur Bibendum, le bonheur en personne' ('Mr Bibendum, he is truly enormous, Mr Bibendum; happiness in person').

text: In the 2009 animated, Academy Award-winning satire Logorama, a series of Bibendums play police detectives, a sheriff, and a squad of SWAT personnel who all work together to try to bring down a psychotic, ultraviolent criminal played by Ronald McDonald.


document_title: Geography of Iran

question_text: mountains along iran's border with iraq and the persian gulf

question_tokens: mountains along iran 's border with iraq and the persian gulf

text: Geography of Iran

text: Topography[edit]

text: The topography of Iran consists of rugged, mountainous rims surrounding high interior basins. The main mountain chain is the Zagros Mountains, a series of parallel ridges interspersed with plains that bisect the country from northwest to southeast. Many peaks in the Zagros exceed 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) above sea level, and in the south-central region of the country there are at least five peaks that are over 4,000 metres (13,123 ft).

text: As the Zagros continue into southeastern Iran, the average elevation of the peaks declines dramatically to under 1,500 metres (4,921 ft). Rimming the Caspian Sea littoral is another chain of mountains, the narrow but high Alborz Mountains. Volcanic Mount Damavand, 5,610 metres (18,406 ft), located in the center of the Alborz, is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush.

text: The center of Iran consists of several closed basins that collectively are referred to as the Central Plateau. The average elevation of this plateau is about 900 metres (2,953 ft), but several of the mountains that tower over the plateau exceed 3,000 metres (9,843 ft). The eastern part of the plateau is covered by two salt deserts, the Dasht-e Kavir (Great Salt Desert) and the Dasht-e Lut. Except for some scattered oases, these deserts are uninhabited.

text: Parts of northwestern Iran are part of the Armenian highlands, which adjoins it topographically with other parts of neighbouring Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.[4]

text: Iran has only two expanses of lowlands: the Khuzestan Plain in the southwest and the Caspian Sea coastal plain in the north. The former is a roughly triangular-shaped extension of the Mesopotamia plain and averages about 160 kilometres (99 mi) in width. It extends for about 120 kilometres (75 mi) inland, barely rising a few meters above sea level, then meets abruptly with the first foothills of the Zagros. Much of the Khuzestan plain is covered with marshes.

text: The Caspian plain is both longer and narrower. It extends for some 640 kilometres (400 mi) along the Caspian shore, but its widest point is less than 50 kilometres (31 mi), while at some places less than 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) separate the shore from the Alborz foothills. The Persian Gulf coast south of Khuzestan and the Gulf of Oman coast have no real plains because the Zagros in these areas come right down to the shore.

text: There are no major rivers in the country. Of the small rivers and streams, the only one that is navigable is the 830 kilometres (520 mi)-long Karun, which shallow-draft boats can negotiate from Khorramshahr to Ahvaz, a distance of about 180 kilometres (110 mi). Other major rivers include the Karkheh, spanning 700 kilometres (430 mi) and joining the Tigris; and the Zayandeh River, which is 300 kilometres (190 mi) long. Several other permanent rivers and streams also drain into the Persian Gulf, while a number of small rivers that originate in the northwestern Zagros or Alborz drain into the Caspian Sea.

text: On the Central Plateau, numerous rivers—most of which have dry beds for the greater part of the year—form from snow melting in the mountains during the spring and flow through permanent channels, draining eventually into salt lakes that also tend to dry up during the summer months. There is a permanent salt lake, Lake Urmia (the traditional name, also cited as Lake Urmiyeh, to which it has reverted after being called Lake Rezaiyeh under Mohammad Reza Shah), in the northwest, whose brine content is too high to support fish or most other forms of aquatic life. There are also several connected salt lakes along the Iran-Afghanistan border in the province of Baluchestan va Sistan.

text: Climate[edit]

text: Iran has a variable climate. In the northwest, winters are cold with heavy snowfall and subfreezing temperatures during December and January. Spring and fall are relatively mild, while summers are dry and hot. In the south, winters are mild and the summers are very hot, having average daily temperatures in July exceeding 38 °C (100.4 °F). On the Khuzestan Plain, summer heat is accompanied by high humidity.

text: In general, Iran has an arid climate in which most of the relatively scant annual precipitation falls from October through April. In most of the country, yearly precipitation averages 250 millimetres (9.8 in) or less. The major exceptions are the higher mountain valleys of the Zagros and the Caspian coastal plain, where precipitation averages at least 500 millimetres (19.7 in) annually. In the western part of the Caspian, rainfall exceeds 1,000 millimetres (39.4 in) annually and is distributed relatively evenly throughout the year. This contrasts with some basins of the Central Plateau that receive ten centimeters or less of precipitation.

text:
Caspian mild and wet
  Caspian mild
  Mediterranean with spring rains
  Mediterranean
  Cold mountains
  Very cold mountains
  Cold semi-desert
  Hot semi-desert
  Dry desert
  Hot dry desert
  Hot coastal dry
  Coastal dry

text: Flora and fauna[edit]

text: 7% of the country is forested. The most extensive growths are found on the mountain slopes rising from the Caspian Sea, with stands of oak, ash, elm, cypress, and other valuable trees. On the plateau proper, areas of scrub oak appear on the best-watered mountain slopes, and villagers cultivate orchards and grow the plane tree, poplar, willow, walnut, beech, maple, and mulberry. Wild plants and shrubs spring from the barren land in the spring and afford pasturage, but the summer sun burns them away. According to FAO reports,[5] the major types of forests that exist in Iran and their respective areas are:

text:
Caspian forests of the northern districts – 19,000 km2 (7,300 sq mi)
Limestone mountainous forests in the northeastern districts (Juniperus forests) – 13,000 km2 (5,000 sq mi)
Pistachio forests in the eastern, southern and southeastern districts – 26,000 km2 (10,000 sq mi)
Oak forests in the central and western districts – 35,000 km2 (14,000 sq mi)
Shrubs of the Kavir (desert) districts in the central and northeastern part of the country – 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi)
Sub-tropical forests of the southern coast, like the Hara forests – 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi)

text: Wildlife of Iran is diverse and composed of several animal species including bears, gazelles, wild pigs, wolves, jackals, panthers, Eurasian lynx, and foxes. Domestic animals include, sheep, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork, eagles and falcon are also native to Iran.

text: As of 2001, 20 of Iran's mammal species and 14 bird species are endangered. Among them are the Baluchistan bear (Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus), a subspecies of Asian black bear, Persian fallow deer, Siberian crane, hawksbill turtle, green turtle, Oxus cobra, Latifi's viper, dugong and dolphins. The Asiatic cheetah is a critically endangered species which is extinct elsewhere and now can only be found in central to northeastern parts of Iran.

text: Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and Caspian tigers by the earlier part of the 20th century. The Syrian wild ass has become extinct. Syrian brown bears in the mountains, wild sheep and goats, gazelles, Persian onagers, wild pigs, Persian leopards, and foxes abound. Domestic animals include sheep, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork, and falcon are native to Iran.

text: The Persian leopard is said to be the largest of all the subspecies of leopards in the world. The main range of this species in Iran closely overlaps with that of bezoar ibex. Hence, it is found throughout Alborz and Zagros mountain ranges, as well as smaller ranges within the Iranian plateau. The leopard population is very sparse, due to loss of habitat, loss of natural prey, and population fragmentation.[6] Apart from bezoar ibex, wild sheep, boar, deer, (either Caspian red deer or roe deer), and domestic animals constitute leopards' diet in Iran.

text: Ecosystem and biosphere[edit]

text: Iran's bio-diversity ranks 13th in the world.[7] There are 272 conservation areas around Iran for a total of 17 million hectares under the supervision of the Department of Environment (Iran), variously named national parks, protected areas, and natural wildlife refuges, all meant to protect the genetic resources of the country. There are only 2,617 rangers and 430 environmental monitoring units engaged in protecting these vast areas, which amounts to 6,500 hectares to cover for each ranger.[8]

text:
Ramsar sites (23/06/75)
Area (km2)

Anzali Wetland Complex,[9] Gilan Province
150

Arjan Meadow,[10] Fars Province
22

Lake Gori,[11] East Azerbaijan Province
1.2

Lake Kobi,[12] West Azerbaijan Province
12

Lake Parishan,[10] Fars Province
40

Miankaleh Peninsula, Gorgan Bay, Lapoo-Zaghmarz Ab-bandan[13] Mazandaran Province
1000

text: Environmental concerns[edit]

text: Natural hazards: periodic droughts, floods; dust storms, sandstorms; earthquakes along western border and in the northeast

text: Environment – current issues: air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; wetland losses from drought; soil degradation (salination); inadequate supplies of potable water in some areas; water pollution from raw sewage and industrial waste; urbanization.

text: Resources and land use[edit]

text:
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, iron ore, lead, manganese, zinc, sulfur
arable land: 10.87%
permanent crops: 1.19%
other: 87.93% (2012 est.)

text: Irrigated land: 87,000 km2 (34,000 sq mi) (2009)

text: Total renewable water resources: 137 km3 (2011)

text:
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
total: 93.3 km3/yr (7%/1%/92%)
per capita: 1,306 m3/yr (2004)

text: Area and boundaries[edit]

text:
Area[15]:
total: 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi)
land: 1,531,595 km2 (591,352 sq mi)
water: 116,600 km2 (45,000 sq mi)

text:
Land boundaries:
total: 5,894 kilometres (3,662 mi)
border countries: Afghanistan 921 kilometres (572 mi), Armenia 44 kilometres (27 mi), Azerbaijan-proper 432 kilometres (268 mi), Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave 179 kilometres (111 mi), Iraq 1,599 kilometres (994 mi), Pakistan 959 kilometres (596 mi), Turkey 534 kilometres (332 mi), Turkmenistan 1,148 kilometres (713 mi).

text: Maritime boundaries: Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman

text:
Coastline: 2,440 kilometres (1,520 mi)
note: Iran also borders the Caspian Sea, for 740 kilometres (460 mi)

text:
Maritime claims:
territorial sea: 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
contiguous zone: 24 nmi (44.4 km; 27.6 mi)
exclusive economic zone: bilateral agreements, or median lines in the Persian Gulf
continental shelf: natural prolongation

text:
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Caspian Sea −28 metres (−92 ft)
highest point: Mount Damavand 5,610 metres (18,410 ft)

text: International territorial disputes[edit]

text: Iran is currently engaged in international territorial disputes with several neighbouring countries.

text: The country protests Afghanistan's limiting flow of dammed tributaries to the Helmand River in periods of drought. The lack of a maritime boundary in the Persian Gulf with Iraq also prompts jurisdictional disputes beyond the mouth of the Aravnd Rud. Iran and the United Arab Emirates have a territorial dispute over the Greater and Lesser Tunbs and Abu Musa islands, which are administered by Iran. Iran currently insists on dividing the Caspian Sea resources equally among the five littoral states, after the Russian-backed former soviet breakaway republics refused to respect the 50-50 agreements between Iran and the Soviet Union (despite their international obligation). Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan continue to claim territorial waters thus regarding the Caspian Sea as open international body of water, dismissing its geographically lake nature.[16]

text:
Photo gallery

Southern Alborz range near Firouzkuh

Maranjab dunes, Kavir desert, Kashan

Aerial view of Mount Damavand, Mazandaran

Badab-e Surt, Mazandaran

Rain forest in Gilan

Zayanderud and Khajoo Bridge over it in Isfahan

Kabir Kuh ranges, part of Zagros Mountains in Ilam province

Polond Desert, South Khorasan Province