document_title: Capital (economics)

question_text: in economics the creation of capital is referred to as

text: Capital (economics)

text: In narrow and broad uses[edit]

text: Classical and neoclassical economics regard capital as one of the factors of production (alongside the other factors: land and labour). All other inputs to production are called intangibles in classical economics. This includes organization, entrepreneurship, knowledge, goodwill, or management (which some characterize as talent, social capital or instructional capital).

text: This is what makes it a factor of production:

text:
The good is not used up immediately in the process of production unlike raw materials or intermediate goods. (The significant exception to this is depreciation allowance, which like intermediate goods, is treated as a business expense.)
The good can be produced or increased (in contrast to land and non-renewable resources).

text: These distinctions of convenience have carried over to contemporary economic theory.[4][5] There was[when?] the further clarification that capital is a stock. As such, its value can be estimated at a point in time. By contrast, investment, as production to be added to the capital stock, is described as taking place over time ("per year"), thus a flow.

text: Marxian economics distinguishes between different forms of capital:

text:
constant capital, which refers to capital goods
variable capital, which refers to labor-inputs, where the cost is "variable" based on the amount of wages and salaries are paid throughout the duration of an employee's contract/employment,
fictitious capital, which refers to intangible representations or abstractions of physical capital, such as stocks, bonds and securities (or "tradable paper claims to wealth")

text: Earlier illustrations often described capital as physical items, such as tools, buildings, and vehicles that are used in the production process. Since at least the 1960s economists have increasingly focused on broader forms of capital. For example, investment in skills and education can be viewed as building up human capital or knowledge capital, and investments in intellectual property can be viewed as building up intellectual capital. These terms lead to certain questions and controversies discussed in those articles.

text: Modern types of capital[edit]

text: Detailed classifications of capital that have been used in various theoretical or applied uses generally respect the following division:

text:
Financial capital, which represents obligations, and is liquidated as money for trade, and owned by legal entities. It is in the form of capital assets, traded in financial markets. Its market value is not based on the historical accumulation of money invested but on the perception by the market of its expected revenues and of the risk entailed.
Natural capital, which is inherent in ecologies and which increases the supply of human wealth
Social capital, which in private enterprise is partly captured as goodwill or brand value, but is a more general concept of inter-relationships between human beings having money-like value that motivates actions in a similar fashion to paid compensation.
Instructional capital, defined originally in academia as that aspect of teaching and knowledge transfer that is not inherent in individuals or social relationships but transferrable. Various theories use names like knowledge or intellectual capital to describe similar concepts but these are not strictly defined as in the academic definition and have no widely agreed accounting treatment.
Human capital, a broad term that generally includes social, instructional and individual human talent in combination. It is used in technical economics to define balanced growth which is the goal of improving human capital as much as economic capital.

text: Public and private sector accounting differ in goals, time scales and accordingly in accounting. The ownership and control of some forms of capital may accordingly justify differentiating it in an economic theory. A blanket term that attempts to characterize all that clearly physical capital that is considered infrastructure and which supports production in unclear or poorly accounted ways is public capital. This encompasses the aggregate body of all government-owned assets that are used to promote private industry productivity, including highways, railways, airports, water treatment facilities, telecommunications, electric grids, energy utilities, municipal buildings, public hospitals and schools, police, fire protection, courts and still others. However it is a problematic term insofar as many of these assets can be either publicly or privately owned.

text: Separate literatures have developed to describe both natural capital and social capital. Such terms reflect a wide consensus that nature and society both function in such a similar manner as traditional industrial infrastructural capital, that it is entirely appropriate to refer to them as different types of capital in themselves. In particular, they can be used in the production of other goods, are not used up immediately in the process of production, and can be enhanced (if not created) by human effort.

text: There is also a literature of intellectual capital and intellectual property law. However, this increasingly distinguishes means of capital investment, and collection of potential rewards for patent, copyright (creative or individual capital), and trademark (social trust or social capital) instruments.

text: Interpretations[edit]

text: Economist Henry George argued that financial instruments like stocks, bonds, mortgages, promissory notes, or other certificates for transferring wealth is not really capital. Because "Their economic value merely represents the power of one class to appropriate the earnings of another." and "their increase or decrease does not affect the sum of wealth in the community".[6]

text: Some thinkers, such as Werner Sombart and Max Weber, locate the concept of capital as originating in double-entry bookkeeping, which is thus a foundational innovation in capitalism, Sombart writing in "Medieval and Modern Commercial Enterprise" that:[7]

text: Within classical economics, Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations, Book II, Chapter 1) distinguished fixed capital from circulating capital. The former designated physical assets not consumed in the production of a product (e.g. machines and storage facilities), while the latter referred to physical assets consumed in the process of production (e.g. raw materials and intermediate products). For an enterprise, both were types of capital.

text: Karl Marx adds a distinction that is often confused with David Ricardo's. In Marxian theory, variable capital refers to a capitalist's investment in labor-power, seen as the only source of surplus-value. It is called "variable" since the amount of value it can produce varies from the amount it consumes, i.e., it creates new value. On the other hand, constant capital refers to investment in non-human factors of production, such as plant and machinery, which Marx takes to contribute only its own replacement value to the commodities it is used to produce.

text: Investment or capital accumulation, in classical economic theory, is the production of increased capital. Investment requires that some goods be produced that are not immediately consumed, but instead used to produce other goods as capital goods. Investment is closely related to saving, though it is not the same. As Keynes pointed out, saving involves not spending all of one's income on current goods or services, while investment refers to spending on a specific type of goods, i.e., capital goods.

text: Austrian School economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk maintained that capital intensity was measured by the roundaboutness of production processes. Since capital is defined by him as being goods of higher-order, or goods used to produce consumer goods, and derived their value from them, being future goods.

text: Human development theory describes human capital as being composed of distinct social, imitative and creative elements:

text:
Social capital is the value of network trusting relationships between individuals in an economy.
Individual capital, which is inherent in persons, protected by societies, and trades labour for trust or money. Close parallel concepts are "talent", "ingenuity", "leadership", "trained bodies", or "innate skills" that cannot reliably be reproduced by using any combination of any of the others above. In traditional economic analysis individual capital is more usually called labour.
Instructional capital in the academic sense is clearly separate from either individual persons or social bonds between them.

text: This theory is the basis of triple bottom line accounting and is further developed in ecological economics, welfare economics and the various theories of green economics. All of which use a particularly abstract notion of capital in which the requirement of capital being produced like durable goods is effectively removed.

text: The Cambridge capital controversy was a dispute between economists at Cambridge, Massachusetts based MIT and University of Cambridge in the UK about the measurement of capital. The Cambridge, UK economists, including Joan Robinson and Piero Sraffa claimed that there is no basis for aggregating the heterogeneous objects that constitute 'capital goods.'

text: Political economists Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler have suggested that capital is not a productive entity, but solely financial and that capital values measure the relative power of owners over the broad social processes that bear on profits.[8]


document_title: List of American Horror Story episodes

question_text: how many episodes are in season one of american horror story

root

text: List of American Horror Story episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1: Murder House (2011)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)11"Pilot"Ryan MurphyRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukOctober 5, 2011 (2011-10-05)1ATS793.18[7]
22"Home Invasion"Alfonso Gomez-RejonRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukOctober 12, 2011 (2011-10-12)1ATS012.46[8]
33"Murder House"Bradley BueckerJennifer SaltOctober 19, 2011 (2011-10-19)1ATS022.59[9]
44"Halloween (Part 1)"David SemelJames WongOctober 26, 2011 (2011-10-26)1ATS032.96[10]
55"Halloween (Part 2)"David SemelTim MinearNovember 2, 2011 (2011-11-02)1ATS042.74[11]
66"Piggy Piggy"Michael UppendahlJessica SharzerNovember 9, 2011 (2011-11-09)1ATS052.83[12]
77"Open House"Tim HunterBrad FalchukNovember 16, 2011 (2011-11-16)1ATS063.06[13]
88"Rubber Man"Miguel ArtetaRyan MurphyNovember 23, 2011 (2011-11-23)1ATS072.81[14]
99"Spooky Little Girl"John ScottJennifer SaltNovember 30, 2011 (2011-11-30)1ATS082.85[15]
1010"Smoldering Children"Michael LehmannJames WongDecember 7, 2011 (2011-12-07)1ATS092.54[16]
1111"Birth"Alfonso Gomez-RejonTim MinearDecember 14, 2011 (2011-12-14)1ATS102.59[17]
1212"Afterbirth"Bradley BueckerJessica SharzerDecember 21, 2011 (2011-12-21)1ATS113.22[18]

text: Season 2: Asylum (2012–13)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)131"Welcome to Briarcliff"Bradley BueckerTim MinearOctober 17, 2012 (2012-10-17)2ATS013.85[19]
142"Tricks and Treats"Bradley BueckerJames WongOctober 24, 2012 (2012-10-24)2ATS023.06[20]
153"Nor'easter"Michael UppendahlJennifer SaltOctober 31, 2012 (2012-10-31)2ATS032.47[21]
164"I Am Anne Frank (Part 1)"Michael UppendahlJessica SharzerNovember 7, 2012 (2012-11-07)2ATS042.65[22]
175"I Am Anne Frank (Part 2)"Alfonso Gomez-RejonBrad FalchukNovember 14, 2012 (2012-11-14)2ATS052.78[23]
186"The Origins of Monstrosity"David SemelRyan MurphyNovember 21, 2012 (2012-11-21)2ATS061.89[24]
197"Dark Cousin"Michael RymerTim MinearNovember 28, 2012 (2012-11-28)2ATS072.27[25]
208"Unholy Night"Michael LehmannJames WongDecember 5, 2012 (2012-12-05)2ATS082.36[26]
219"The Coat Hanger"Jeremy PodeswaJennifer SaltDecember 12, 2012 (2012-12-12)2ATS092.22[27]
2210"The Name Game"Michael LehmannJessica SharzerJanuary 2, 2013 (2013-01-02)2ATS102.21[28]
2311"Spilt Milk"Alfonso Gomez-RejonBrad FalchukJanuary 9, 2013 (2013-01-09)2ATS112.51[29]
2412"Continuum"Craig ZiskRyan MurphyJanuary 16, 2013 (2013-01-16)2ATS122.30[30]
2513"Madness Ends"Alfonso Gomez-RejonTim MinearJanuary 23, 2013 (2013-01-23)2ATS132.29[31]

text: Season 3: Coven (2013–14)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)261"Bitchcraft"Alfonso Gomez-RejonRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukOctober 9, 2013 (2013-10-09)3ATS015.54[32]
272"Boy Parts"Michael RymerTim MinearOctober 16, 2013 (2013-10-16)3ATS024.51[33]
283"The Replacements"Alfonso Gomez-RejonJames WongOctober 23, 2013 (2013-10-23)3ATS033.78[34]
294"Fearful Pranks Ensue"Michael UppendahlJennifer SaltOctober 30, 2013 (2013-10-30)3ATS043.71[35]
305"Burn, Witch. Burn!"Jeremy PodeswaJessica SharzerNovember 6, 2013 (2013-11-06)3ATS053.80[36]
316"The Axeman Cometh"Michael UppendahlDouglas PetrieNovember 13, 2013 (2013-11-13)3ATS064.16[37]
327"The Dead"Bradley BueckerBrad FalchukNovember 20, 2013 (2013-11-20)3ATS074.00[38]
338"The Sacred Taking"Alfonso Gomez-RejonRyan MurphyDecember 4, 2013 (2013-12-04)3ATS084.07[39]
349"Head"Howard DeutchTim MinearDecember 11, 2013 (2013-12-11)3ATS093.94[40]
3510"The Magical Delights of Stevie Nicks"Alfonso Gomez-RejonJames WongJanuary 8, 2014 (2014-01-08)3ATS103.49[41]
3611"Protect the Coven"Bradley BueckerJennifer SaltJanuary 15, 2014 (2014-01-15)3ATS113.46[42]
3712"Go to Hell"Alfonso Gomez-RejonJessica SharzerJanuary 22, 2014 (2014-01-22)3ATS123.35[43]
3813"The Seven Wonders"Alfonso Gomez-RejonDouglas PetrieJanuary 29, 2014 (2014-01-29)3ATS134.24[44]

text: Season 4: Freak Show (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)391"Monsters Among Us"Ryan MurphyRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukOctober 8, 2014 (2014-10-08)4ATS016.13[45]
402"Massacres and Matinees"Alfonso Gomez-RejonTim MinearOctober 15, 2014 (2014-10-15)4ATS024.53[46]
413"Edward Mordrake (Part 1)"Michael UppendahlJames WongOctober 22, 2014 (2014-10-22)4ATS034.44[47]
424"Edward Mordrake (Part 2)"Howard DeutchJennifer SaltOctober 29, 2014 (2014-10-29)4ATS044.51[48]
435"Pink Cupcakes"Michael UppendahlJessica SharzerNovember 5, 2014 (2014-11-05)4ATS054.22[49]
446"Bullseye"Howard DeutchJohn J. GrayNovember 12, 2014 (2014-11-12)4ATS063.65[50]
457"Test of Strength"Anthony HemingwayCrystal LiuNovember 19, 2014 (2014-11-19)4ATS073.91[51]
468"Blood Bath"Bradley BueckerRyan MurphyDecember 3, 2014 (2014-12-03)4ATS083.30[52]
479"Tupperware Party Massacre"Loni PeristereBrad FalchukDecember 10, 2014 (2014-12-10)4ATS093.07[53]
4810"Orphans"Bradley BueckerJames WongDecember 17, 2014 (2014-12-17)4ATS102.99[54]
4911"Magical Thinking"Michael GoiJennifer SaltJanuary 7, 2015 (2015-01-07)4ATS113.11[55]
5012"Show Stoppers"Loni PeristereJessica SharzerJanuary 14, 2015 (2015-01-14)4ATS122.94[56]
5113"Curtain Call"Bradley BueckerJohn J. GrayJanuary 21, 2015 (2015-01-21)4ATS133.27[57]

text: Season 5: Hotel (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)521"Checking In"Ryan MurphyRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukOctober 7, 2015 (2015-10-07)5ATS015.81[58]
532"Chutes and Ladders"Bradley BueckerTim MinearOctober 14, 2015 (2015-10-14)5ATS024.06[59]
543"Mommy"Bradley BueckerJames WongOctober 21, 2015 (2015-10-21)5ATS033.20[60]
554"Devil's Night"Loni PeristereJennifer SaltOctober 28, 2015 (2015-10-28)5ATS043.04[61]
565"Room Service"Michael GoiNed MartelNovember 4, 2015 (2015-11-04)5ATS052.87[62]
576"Room 33"Loni PeristereJohn J. GrayNovember 11, 2015 (2015-11-11)5ATS062.64[63]
587"Flicker"Michael GoiCrystal LiuNovember 18, 2015 (2015-11-18)5ATS072.64[64]
598"The Ten Commandments Killer"Loni PeristereRyan MurphyDecember 2, 2015 (2015-12-02)5ATS082.31[65]
609"She Wants Revenge"Michael UppendahlBrad FalchukDecember 9, 2015 (2015-12-09)5ATS092.14[66]
6110"She Gets Revenge"Bradley BueckerJames WongDecember 16, 2015 (2015-12-16)5ATS101.85[67]
6211"Battle Royale"Michael UppendahlNed MartelJanuary 6, 2016 (2016-01-06)5ATS111.84[68]
6312"Be Our Guest"Bradley BueckerJohn J. GrayJanuary 13, 2016 (2016-01-13)5ATS122.24[69]

text: Season 6: Roanoke (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)641"Chapter 1"Bradley BueckerRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukSeptember 14, 2016 (2016-09-14)6ATS015.14[70]
652"Chapter 2"Michael GoiTim MinearSeptember 21, 2016 (2016-09-21)6ATS023.27[71]
663"Chapter 3"Jennifer LynchJames WongSeptember 28, 2016 (2016-09-28)6ATS033.08[72]
674"Chapter 4"Marita GrabiakJohn J. GrayOctober 5, 2016 (2016-10-05)6ATS042.83[73]
685"Chapter 5"Nelson CraggAkela CooperOctober 12, 2016 (2016-10-12)6ATS052.82[74]
696"Chapter 6"Angela BassettNed MartelOctober 19, 2016 (2016-10-19)6ATS062.48[75]
707"Chapter 7"Elodie KeeneCrystal LiuOctober 26, 2016 (2016-10-26)6ATS072.62[76]
718"Chapter 8"Gwyneth Horder-PaytonTodd KubrakNovember 2, 2016 (2016-11-02)6ATS082.20[77]
729"Chapter 9"Alexis O. KorycinskiTim MinearNovember 9, 2016 (2016-11-09)6ATS092.43[78]
7310"Chapter 10"Bradley BueckerRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukNovember 16, 2016 (2016-11-16)6ATS102.45[79]

text: Season 7: Cult (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)741"Election Night"Bradley BueckerRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukSeptember 5, 2017 (2017-09-05)7ATS013.93[80]
752"Don't Be Afraid of the Dark"Liza JohnsonTim MinearSeptember 12, 2017 (2017-09-12)7ATS022.38[81]
763"Neighbors from Hell"Gwyneth Horder-PaytonJames WongSeptember 19, 2017 (2017-09-19)7ATS032.25[82]
774"11/9"Gwyneth Horder-PaytonJohn J. GraySeptember 26, 2017 (2017-09-26)7ATS042.13[83]
785"Holes"Maggie KileyCrystal LiuOctober 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)7ATS052.20[84]
796"Mid-Western Assassin"Bradley BueckerTodd KubrakOctober 10, 2017 (2017-10-10)7ATS062.15[85]
807"Valerie Solanas Died for Your Sins: Scumbag"Rachel GoldbergCrystal LiuOctober 17, 2017 (2017-10-17)7ATS072.07[86]
818"Winter of Our Discontent"Barbara BrownJoshua GreenOctober 24, 2017 (2017-10-24)7ATS082.06[87]
829"Drink the Kool-Aid"Angela BassettAdam PennOctober 31, 2017 (2017-10-31)7ATS091.48[88]
8310"Charles (Manson) in Charge"Bradley BueckerRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukNovember 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)7ATS101.82[89]
8411"Great Again"Jennifer LynchTim MinearNovember 14, 2017 (2017-11-14)7ATS111.97[90]

text: Season 8: Apocalypse[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)851"The End"[91]Bradley BueckerRyan Murphy & Brad FalchukSeptember 12, 2018 (2018-09-12)TBATBD
862"The Morning After"[92]Jennifer LynchJames WongSeptember 19, 2018 (2018-09-19)TBATBD
873"Forbidden Fruit"[93]Loni PeristereManny CotoSeptember 26, 2018 (2018-09-26)TBATBD

text: Ratings[edit]


document_title: Category:Iowa State Cyclones football bowl games

question_text: when is the last time iowa state went to a bowl game

text: Pages in category "Iowa State Cyclones football bowl games"

text: The following 13 pages are in this category, out of  13 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).

tag: p

text:
1971 Sun Bowl
1972 Liberty Bowl
1977 Peach Bowl
1978 Hall of Fame Classic
2000 Insight.com Bowl
2001 Independence Bowl
2002 Humanitarian Bowl
2004 Independence Bowl
2005 Houston Bowl
2009 Insight Bowl
2011 Pinstripe Bowl
2012 Liberty Bowl
2017 Liberty Bowl

tag: ul

text: College football bowl games by teamIowa State Cyclones football


document_title: The Wind in the Willows

question_text: who took over toad hall from mr toad

question_tokens: who took over toad hall from mr toad

text: The Wind in the Willows

text: Background[edit]

text: Kenneth Grahame was born on 8 March 1859 in Edinburgh. When he was 5, his mother died from puerperal fever, and his father, who had a drinking problem, gave the care of his four children over to their grandmother, who lived in Cookham Dean in Berkshire. There they lived in a spacious but dilapidated home, "The Mount", in extensive grounds by the River Thames, and were introduced to the riverside and boating by their uncle, David Ingles, curate at Cookham Dean church.[2] At Christmas 1865 the chimney of the house collapsed and the children moved to Fern Hill Cottage in Cranbourne, Berkshire. In 1866, their father tried to overcome his drinking problem and took the children back to live with him in Argyll, Scotland, but after a year they returned to their grandmother's house in Cranbourne, where Kenneth lived until he entered St Edward's School, Oxford in 1868.[3] During his early years at St. Edwards the boys had freedom to explore the old city with its quaint shops, historic buildings, and cobbled streets, St Giles' Fair, the idyllic upper reaches of the River Thames, and the nearby countryside.[4]

text: Grahame married Elspeth Thomson in 1899; they had only one child, a boy named Alastair (whose nickname was "Mouse") born blind in one eye and plagued by health problems throughout his life.[5] When Alastair was about four years old, Grahame would tell him bedtime stories, some of which were about a toad, and when Kenneth holidayed alone he would write further tales of Toad, Mole, Ratty and Badger in letters to Alastair.[3]

text: In 1908 Grahame took early retirement from his job at the Bank of England and moved with his wife and son to an old farmhouse in Blewbury, where he used the bedtime stories he had told Alastair as a basis for the manuscript of The Wind in the Willows.[3]

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Mole meets Rat[edit]

text: With the arrival of spring and fine weather outside, the good-natured Mole loses patience with spring cleaning. He flees his underground home, emerging to take in the air and ends up at the river, which he has never seen before. Here he meets Rat (a water vole), who at this time of year spends all his days in, on and close by the river. Rat takes Mole for a ride in his rowing boat. They get along well and spend many more days boating, with Rat teaching Mole the ways of the river.

text: Toad[edit]

text: One summer day, Rat and Mole disembark near the grand Toad Hall and pay a visit to Toad. Toad is rich, jovial, friendly and kind-hearted, but aimless and conceited; he regularly becomes obsessed with current fads, only to abandon them abruptly. Having recently given up boating, Toad's current craze is his horse-drawn caravan. He persuades the reluctant Rat and willing Mole to join him on a trip. Toad soon tires of the realities of camp life, and sleeps in the following day to avoid chores. Later that day, a passing motorcar scares the horse, causing the caravan to overturn into a ditch. Rat threatens to have the law on the car driver, while Mole calms the horse, but Toad's craze for caravan travel is immediately replaced by an obsession with motorcars.

text: Badger[edit]

text: Mole wants to meet the respected but elusive Badger, who lives deep in the Wild Wood, but Rat—knowing that Badger does not appreciate visits—tells Mole to be patient and wait for Badger to pay them a visit himself. Nevertheless, on a snowy winter's day, while the seasonally somnolent Rat dozes, Mole impulsively goes to the Wild Wood to explore, hoping to meet Badger. He gets lost in the woods, sees many "evil faces" among the wood's less-welcoming denizens, succumbs to fright and panic and hides, trying to stay warm, among the sheltering roots of a tree. Rat, finding Mole gone, guesses his mission from the direction of Mole's tracks and, equipping himself with two pistols and a stout cudgel, goes in search, finding him as snow begins to fall in earnest. Attempting to find their way home, Rat and Mole quite literally stumble across Badger's home—Mole barks his shin on the boot scraper on Badger's doorstep. Badger—en route to bed in his dressing-gown and slippers—nonetheless warmly welcomes Rat and Mole to his large and cozy underground home, providing them with hot food and dry clothes.

text: Toad and motorcars[edit]

text: Badger learns from his visitors that Toad has crashed seven cars, has been in hospital three times, and has spent a fortune on fines. Though nothing can be done at the moment (it being winter), they resolve that when the time is right they will make a plan to protect Toad from himself; they are, after all, his friends, and are worried about his well-being.

text: With the arrival of summer, Badger visits Mole and Rat to take action over Toad's self-destructive obsession. The three of them go to Toad Hall, and Badger tries talking Toad out of his behaviour, to no avail. They put Toad under house arrest, with themselves as the guards, until Toad changes his mind. Feigning illness, Toad bamboozles the Water Rat (who is on guard duty at the time) and escapes.

text: Badger and Mole are cross with Rat for his gullibility, but draw comfort because they need no longer waste their summer guarding Toad. However, Badger and Mole continue to live in Toad Hall in the hope that Toad may return. Meanwhile, Toad orders lunch at The Red Lion Inn, and then sees a motorcar pull into the courtyard. He steals the car, drives it recklessly and is caught by the police. He is sent to prison for 20 years.

text: Toad escapes from prison[edit]

text: In prison, Toad gains the sympathy of the gaoler's daughter, who helps him to escape disguised as a washerwoman. Though free again, Toad is without money or possessions other than the clothes upon his back. He manages to board a railway engine manned by a sympathetic driver, which is then pursued by a special train loaded with policemen, detectives and prison warders. Toad jumps from the train and, still disguised as a washerwoman, comes across a horse-drawn barge. The barge's female owner offers him a lift in exchange for Toad's services as a washerwoman. After botching the wash, Toad gets into a fight with the barge-woman, who tosses him into the canal. In revenge, Toad makes off with the barge horse, which he then sells to a gypsy. Toad subsequently flags down a passing car, which happens to be the very one he stole earlier. The car owners, not recognising Toad in his disguise, permit him to drive their car. Once behind the wheel, he is repossessed by his former passion and drives furiously, declaring his true identity to the passengers who try to seize him. This leads to the car landing in a horse-pond, after which Toad flees once more. Pursued by police, he runs accidentally into a river, which carries him by sheer chance to the house of Rat.

text: Recapture of Toad Hall[edit]

text: Toad now hears from Rat that Toad Hall has been taken over by weasels and stoats from the Wild Wood, who have driven out Mole and Badger. Although upset at the loss of his house, Toad realises what good friends he has and how badly he has behaved. Badger then arrives and announces that he knows of a secret tunnel into Toad Hall through which the enemies may be attacked. Armed to the teeth, Badger, Rat, Mole and Toad enter via the tunnel and pounce upon the unsuspecting Wild Wooders who are holding a celebratory party. Having driven away the intruders, Toad holds a banquet to mark his return, during which (for a change) he behaves both quietly and humbly. He makes up for his earlier excesses by seeking out and compensating those he has wronged, and the four friends live out their lives happily ever after.

text: Short stories[edit]

text: In addition to the main narrative, the book contains several independent short stories featuring Rat and Mole. These appear for the most part between the chapters chronicling Toad's adventures, and are often omitted from abridgements and dramatisations. The chapter "Dulce Domum" describes Mole's return to his home, accompanied by Rat, in which, despite finding it in a terrible mess after his abortive spring clean, he rediscovers, with Rat's help, a familiar comfort. "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" tells how Mole and Rat search for Otter's missing son Portly, whom they find in the care of the god Pan. (Pan removes their memories of this meeting "lest the awful remembrance should remain and grow, and overshadow mirth and pleasure".) Finally, in "Wayfarers All", Ratty shows a restless side to his character when he is sorely tempted to join a Sea Rat on his travelling adventures.

text: Main characters[edit]

text:
Mole: An altruistic, humble, loyal, polite, home-loving animal, and the first character introduced in the story. Fed up with spring cleaning in his secluded home, he ventures into the outside world. Initially overawed by the hustle and bustle of the riverbank, he eventually adapts. He proves intelligent as shown with his trickery on stoat then tries to prevent them from reinforcing the weasels during the fight with Toad Hall.
Rat: Known as "Ratty" to his friends (though actually a water vole), he is cultured, relaxed and friendly who enjoys a life of leisure; when not spending time on the river, he composes doggerel. Ratty loves the river and takes charge of Mole. He can be stubborn when it comes to doing things outside his riverside lifestyle, but can do which must be done as shown when he risks his life to help Mole in the Wild Wood and to help free Toad Hall from the weasels.
Mr. Toad: The wealthy scion of Toad Hall who inherited his wealth from his late father. Although good and optimistic, he is also arrogant, conceited, and impulsive. He is prone to obsessions and crazes (such as punting, houseboats, and horse-drawn caravans). He gets bored with each of these in turn, and drops them. His motoring craze eventually sees him imprisoned for theft, dangerous driving, and gross impertinence to the police. Several chapters of the book chronicle his daring escape from prison.
Mr Badger: A gruff but benevolent soul, Badger embodies the "wise hermit" figure. A friend of Toad's deceased father, he is uncompromising with the irresponsible Toad, yet hopes that his good qualities will prevail. He lives in a vast underground sett, part of which incorporates the remains of a buried Roman settlement. A brave and a skilled fighter, Badger helps clear the Wild Wooders from Toad Hall with his large stick.
Otter and Portly: A friend of Ratty with a stereotypical "Cockney costermonger" character, the extrovert Otter is tough and self-sufficient. Portly is his young son.
The Weasels: The story's main antagonists. They plot to take over Toad Hall.
Pan: A benevolent and wise god of the wild who makes a single, anomalous appearance in Chapter 7, "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" when he helps Portly and looks after him until Ratty and Mole come.
The Gaoler's Daughter: The only major human character; a "good, kind, clever girl", she helps Toad escape from prison.
The Wayfarer: A vagabond seafaring rat, who also makes a single appearance. Ratty briefly considers following his example, before Mole persuades him otherwise.
Squirrels and rabbits, who are generally good (although rabbits are described as "a mixed lot").

text: Editions[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The book was originally published as plain text with a frontispiece illustrated by Graham Robertson, but many illustrated, comic and annotated versions have been published over the years. Notable illustrators include Paul Bransom (1913), Wyndham Payne (1927), Ernest H. Shepard (1931), Arthur Rackham (1940), Tasha Tudor (1966), Michael Hague (1980), Scott McKowen (2005), and Robert Ingpen (2007).

text: The most popular illustrations are probably by E. H. Shepard, originally published in 1931, and believed to be authorised as Grahame was pleased with the initial sketches, though he did not live to see the completed work.[6]

text: The Wind in the Willows was the last work illustrated by Arthur Rackham. The book with his illustrations was issued posthumously in a limited edition by the Folio Society with 16 colour plates in 1940 in the US. It was not issued with the Rackham illustrations in the UK until 1950.

text: The Folio Society 2006 edition featured 85 illustrations, 35 in colour, by Charles van Sandwyk. A fancier centenary edition was produced two years later.

text: Michel Plessix created a Wind in the Willows watercolour comic album series, which helped to introduce the stories to France. They have been translated into English by Cinebook Ltd.

text: Patrick Benson re-illustrated the story in 1994 and HarperCollins published it in 1994 together with the William Horwood sequels The Willows in Winter, Toad Triumphant and The Willows and Beyond. It was published in the US in 1995 by St Martin's Press.

text: Inga Moore's abridged edition features text and illustrations paced so that a line of text, such as "oh my oh my", also serves as a caption.

text: Barnes & Noble Classics featured an introduction by Gardner McFall in 2007. New York, ISBN 978-1-59308-265-9

text: Belknap Press, of Harvard University Press, published Seth Lerer's annotated edition in 2009.[7]

text: W. W. Norton published Annie Gauger and Brian Jacques's annotated edition in 2009.[8]

text: Jamie Hendry Productions published a special edition of the novel in 2015 and donated it to schools in Plymouth and Salford to celebrate the World Premiere of the musical version of The Wind in the Willows by Julian Fellowes, George Stiles and Anthony Drewe.[9]

text: IDW Publishing published an illustrated edition of the novel in 2016.[10] The hardcover novel features illustrations from Eisner Award-winning artist David Petersen, who is best known for creating and drawing the comic series Mouse Guard.

text: Reception[edit]

text: A number of publishers rejected the manuscript, and it was not until October 1908, after some campaigning by President Theodore Roosevelt, that the book was finally published by Methuen and Co. The critics, who were hoping for a third volume in the style of Graham's earlier works; The Golden Age and Dream Days, generally gave negative reviews.[3] The public loved it, however, and within a few years it sold in such numbers that many reprints were required. In 1909, Roosevelt wrote to Grahame to tell him that he had "read it and reread it, and have come to accept the characters as old friends".[11]

text: In The Enchanted Places, Christopher Robin Milne wrote of The Wind in the Willows:

text: A book that we all greatly loved and admired and read aloud or alone, over and over and over: The Wind in the Willows. This book is, in a way, two separate books put into one. There are, on the one hand, those chapters concerned with the adventures of Toad; and on the other hand there are those chapters that explore human emotions—the emotions of fear, nostalgia, awe, wanderlust. My mother was drawn to the second group, of which "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" was her favourite, read to me again and again with always, towards the end, the catch in the voice and the long pause to find her handkerchief and blow her nose. My father, on his side, was so captivated by the first group that he turned these chapters into the children's play, Toad of Toad Hall. In this play one emotion only is allowed to creep in: nostalgia.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Stage[edit]

text:
Toad of Toad Hall by A. A. Milne, produced in 1929
Wind in the Willows, a 1985 Tony-nominated Broadway musical with book by Jane Iredale, lyrics by Roger McGough and music by William P. Perry, starring Nathan Lane
The Wind in the Willows by Alan Bennett (who also appeared as Mole) in 1991
Mr. Toad's Mad Adventures by Vera Morris
Wind in the Willows (UK National Tour) by Ian Billings
The Wind in the Willows,[12] two stage adaptations—a full musical adaptation and a small-scale, shorter, stage play version—by David Gooderson.
The Wind in the Willows,[13] a musical theatre adaption by Scot Copeland and Paul Carrol Binkley.
The Wind in the Willows[14] by George Stiles, Anthony Drewe and Julian Fellowes which opened at Theatre Royal Plymouth in October 2016 before playing at The Lowry, Salford and then the West End.

text: Film and television[edit]

text:
Toad of Toad Hall the first live action film of the novel. Adapted by Michael Barry for BBC Television and transmitted live in 1946. The film featured (in alphabetical order) Julia Braddock as Marigold, Kenneth More as Mr. Badger, Jack Newmark as Mole, Andrew Osborn as Water Rat, Jon Pertwee as the Judge, Alan Reid as Mr. Toad, John Thomas and Victor Woolf as Alfred the Horse, Madoline Thomas as Mother, and an uncredited Pat Pleasanse as various Rats, Weasels and Mice.
The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, a 1949 animated adaptation produced by Walt Disney Productions for RKO Radio Pictures, narrated by Basil Rathbone. One half of the animated feature was based on the unrelated short story, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1969 adaptation of the story produced by Anglia Television, told by still illustrations by artist John Worsley. The story was adapted, produced and narrated by Paul Honeyman and directed by John Salway.
The Reluctant Dragon and Mr. Toad Show, a 1970 TV animated series produced by Rankin/Bass Productions and animated by Japanese studio Mushi Productions, based on both The Reluctant Dragon and The Wind in the Willows.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1983 animated film version with stop-motion puppets by Cosgrove Hall.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1984–1990 TV series following the 1983 film, using the same sets and characters in mostly original stories but also including some chapters from the book that were omitted in the film, notably "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn". The cast included David Jason, Sir Michael Hordern, Peter Sallis, Richard Pearson and Ian Carmichael.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1985/1987 animated musical film version for television, produced by Rankin/Bass Productions with animation by Wang Film Productions (also known as Cuckoo's Nest Studios) in Taiwan. This version was very faithful to the book and featured a number of original songs, including the title, "Wind in the Willows", performed by folk singer Judy Collins. Voice actors included Eddie Bracken as Mole, Jose Ferrer as Badger, Roddy McDowell as Ratty, and Charles Nelson Reilly as Toad.[15]
Wind in the Willows, a 1988 animated made-for-TV film by Burbank Films Australia and adapted by Leonard Lee.
The Adventures of Mole, a 1995 animated made-for-TV film with a cast including Hugh Laurie as Toad, Richard Briers and Peter Davison as Ratty and Mole respectively and Paul Eddington as Badger. Was followed by The Adventures of Toad.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1995 animated film adaptation narrated by Vanessa Redgrave (in the live action scenes) with a cast led by Michael Palin and Alan Bennett as Ratty and Mole, Rik Mayall as Toad and Michael Gambon as Badger; followed by an adaptation of The Willows in Winter produced by the now defunct TVC (Television Cartoons) in London.[16]
The Wind in the Willows, a 1996 live-action film written and directed by Terry Jones starring Steve Coogan as Mole, Eric Idle as Rat, and Terry Jones as Mr. Toad.
The Wind in the Willows, another live-action film in 2006 with Lee Ingleby as Mole, Mark Gatiss as Ratty, Matt Lucas as Toad, Bob Hoskins as Badger, and also featuring Imelda Staunton, Anna Maxwell Martin, Mary Walsh and Michael Murphy
In 2003, Guillermo del Toro was working on an adaptation for Disney. It was to mix live action with CG animation, and the director explained why he had to leave the helm. "It was a beautiful book, and then I went to meet with the executives and they said, 'Could you give Toad a skateboard and make him say, 'radical dude' things,' and that's when I said, 'It's been a pleasure...'"[17]
In 2014, Classic Alice took the titular character on a 6 episode reimagining of The Wind in the Willows. Reid Cox played Toad, Kate Hackett and Tony Noto served as loose Badger/Ratty/Mole characters.

text: Radio[edit]

text: The BBC has broadcast a number of radio productions of the story.

text: Dramatisations include:

text:
Eight episodes from 4 to 14 April 1955, BBC Home Service. With Richard Goolden, Frank Duncan, Olaf Pooley and Mary O'Farrell.
episodes from 27 September to 15 November 1965, BBC Home Service. With Leonard Maguire, David Steuart and Douglas Murchie.
Single 90-minute play, dramatised by A.A. Milne under the name Toad of Toad Hall, on 21 April 1973, BBC Radio 4. With Derek Smith, Bernard Cribbins, Richard Goolden and Cyril Luckham.
Six episodes from 28 April to 9 June 1983, BBC Schools Radio, Living Language series. With Paul Darrow as Badger.
Six episodes, dramatised by John Scotney, from 13 February to 20 March 1994, BBC Radio 5. With Martin Jarvis, Timothy Bateson, Willie Rushton, George Baker and Dinsdale Landen.
Single two-hour play, dramatised by Alan Bennett, on 27 August 1994, BBC Radio 4.

text: Abridged readings include:

text:
Ten-part reading by Alan Bennett from 31 July to 11 August 1989, BBC Radio 4.
Twelve-part reading by Bernard Cribbins from 22 December 1983 to 6 January 1984, BBC channel unknown.
Three-hour reading by June Whitfield, Nigel Anthony, James Saxon, and Nigel Lambert; Puffin audiobook, 1996.

text: Kenneth Williams also did a version of the book for radio.

text: In 2002 Paul Oakenfold produced a Trance Soundtrack for the story, aired on the Galaxy FM show Urban Soundtracks. These mixes blended classic stories with a mixture of dance and contemporary music.

text: Sequels and alternative versions[edit]

text: In 1983 Dixon Scott published A Fresh Wind in the Willows, which not only predates Horwood's sequels (see below) by several years but also includes some of the same incidents, including a climax in which Toad steals a Bleriot monoplane.

text: William Horwood created several sequels to The Wind in the Willows: The Willows in Winter, Toad Triumphant, The Willows and Beyond, and The Willows at Christmas.

text: Jacqueline Kelly's sequel Return to the Willows was published in 2012.

text: Jan Needle's Wild Wood was published in 1981 with illustrations by William Rushton (ISBN 0-233-97346-X). It is a re-telling of the story of The Wind in the Willows from the point of view of the working-class inhabitants of the Wild Wood. For them, money is short and employment hard to find. They have a very different perspective on the wealthy, easy, careless lifestyle of Toad and his friends.

text: Awards[edit]

text: Mr. Toad was voted Number 38 among the 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900 by Book magazine in their March/April 2002 issue.[18]

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: Mapledurham House in Oxfordshire was an inspiration for Toad Hall,[19] although Hardwick House and Fawley Court also make this claim.[20]

text: The village of Lerryn, Cornwall claims to be the setting for the book.[21]

text: Simon Winchester suggested that the character of Ratty was based on Frederick Furnivall, a keen oarsman and acquaintance of Kenneth Grahame.[22] However, Grahame himself said that this character was inspired by his good friend, the writer Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch. Grahame mentions this in a signed copy he gave to Quiller-Couch's daughter, Foy Felicia.[23]

text: The Scotsman[24] and Oban Times[25] suggested The Wind in the Willows  was inspired by the Crinan Canal because Grahame spent some of his childhood in Ardrishaig.

text: There is a theory that the idea for the story arose when its author saw a water vole beside the River Pang in Berkshire, southern England. A 29 hectare extension to the nature reserve at Moor Copse, near Tidmarsh Berkshire, was acquired in January 2007 by the Berks, Bucks and Oxon Wildlife Trust.[26]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
Mr. Toad's Wild Ride is the name of a ride at Disneyland in Anaheim, California and a former attraction at Disney's Magic Kingdom in Orlando, Florida, inspired by Toad's motorcar adventure. It is the only ride with an alternate Latin title, given as the inscription on Toad's Hall: Toadi Acceleratio Semper Absurda ("Toad's Ever-Absurd Acceleration").
The first album by psychedelic rock group Pink Floyd, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967), was named by former member Syd Barrett after chapter 7 of The Wind in the Willows. However, the songs on the album are not directly related to the contents of the book. The same chapter was the basis for the name and lyrics of "Piper at the Gates of Dawn", a song by Irish singer-songwriter Van Morrison from his 1997 album The Healing Game. The song "The Wicker Man" by British heavy metal band Iron Maiden also includes the phrase. British extreme metal band Cradle of Filth released a special edition of their album Thornography, called Harder, Darker, Faster: Thornography Deluxe; on the song "Snake-Eyed and the Venomous", a pun is made in the lyrics "... all vipers at the gates of dawn" referring to Chapter 7 of the book. The song "Power Flower" on Stevie Wonder's 1979 album Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants", co-written with Michael Sembello, mentions "the piper at the gates of dawning".
Wind in the Willows is a fantasy for flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon, narrated by John Frith (2007).
Dutch composer Johan de Meij wrote a music piece for concert band in four movements, named after and based on The Wind in the Willows.
The Edinburgh-based record label Song, by Toad Records takes its name from a passage in The Wind in the Willows.
In 2016, a historian, who owned a rare first edition, was tortured and murdered in his home by a thief intent on finding the book's location hidden somewhere in the house.[27]


document_title: History of cinema in the United States

question_text: where was the first permanent theater dedicated solely to screening films located

text: History of cinema in the United States

text: Before 1900[edit]

text: The earliest documented account of an exhibition of projected motion pictures in the United States was in June 1894 in Richmond, Indiana by Charles Francis Jenkins. Jenkins used his Phantoscope to project his film before an audience of family, friends and reporters. The film featured a vaudeville dancer performing a Butterfly Dance. Jenkins and his new partner Thomas Armat modified the Phantoscope for exhibitions in temporary theaters at the Cotton States Exposition in the fall of 1895. The Phantoscope was later sold to Thomas Edison, who changed the name of the projector to Edison's Vitascope. With the Vitascope, Edison began public showings of his films at Koster and Bial's Music Hall on 34th Street in New York City on April 23, 1896.[1] However, the first "storefront theater" in the US dedicated exclusively to showing motion pictures was Vitascope Hall, established on Canal Street, New Orleans, Louisiana July 26, 1896—it was converted from a vacant store.[2]

text: A crucial factor was Edison's decision to sell a small number of Vitascope projectors as a business venture in April–May 1896. In the basement of the new Ellicott Square Building, Main Street, Buffalo, New York, Mitchell Mark (properly spelled Mitchel Mark) and his brother Moe Mark added what they called Edison's Vitascope Theater (entered through Edisonia Hall), which they opened to the general public on October 19, 1896 in collaboration with Rudolf Wagner, who had moved to Buffalo after spending several years working at the Edison laboratories. This 72-seat plush theater was designed from scratch solely to show motion pictures.

text: Terry Ramseye, in his book, A Million and One Nights (1926) [p. 276], notes that this "was one of the earliest permanently located and exclusively motion-picture exhibitions." According to the Buffalo News (Wednesday, November 2, 1932), "There were seats for about 90 persons [actually 72] and the admission was three cents. Feeble, flickering films of travel scenes were the usual fare." The theater remained open for two years, making it the first permanent movie theater in the world.

text: The State Theater in Washington, Iowa is the oldest continuously operating movie theater in the United States.[3] It showed its first films in 1897,[3] and is still in operation as of April 21, 2016.[4]

text: The first permanent motion picture theater in the state of California was Tally's Electric Theater, completed in 1902 in Los Angeles. Tally's theater was in a storefront in a larger building. The Great Train Robbery (1903), which was 12 minutes in length, would also give the film industry a boost.[6]

text: In 1905, John P. Harris and Harry Davis opened a five-cents-admission movie theater in a Pittsburgh storefront, naming it the Nickelodeon and setting the style for the first common type of movie theater. By 1908 there were thousands of storefront Nickelodeons, Gems and Bijous across North America. A few theaters from the nickelodeon era are still showing films today. In 2008, the owners of the Korsør Biograf Teater in Korsør, Denmark, discovered that they were operating a movie theater that opened in August 1908. They were accepted by Guinness World Records (to appear in the 2010 edition of the book) as the oldest still-operating movie theater in the world.[7] A similar claim is made for L'Idéal Cinéma in Aniche, France, which first showed a film on September 23, 1905, but it served another purpose for a few years, was closed for many years, and was rebuilt in modern style in the 1990s.

text: In 1912, the Picture House, in Clevedon, England, opened with a charity film performance to raise funds for the victims of the Titanic disaster, and has been showing movies continuously since. The 1913 opening of the Regent Theater in New York City signaled a new respectability for the medium, and the start of the two-decade heyday of American cinema design. The million dollar Mark Strand Theatre at 47th Street and Broadway in New York City opened in 1914 by Mitchell Mark was the archetypical movie palace. The ornate Al. Ringling Theatre was built in Baraboo, WI by Al Ringling, one of the founders of the Ringling Bros. Circus, for the then-incredible sum of $100,000.00. Los Angeles showman Sid Grauman continued the trend of theater-as-destination with his ornate "Million Dollar Theater", using the same design firm as Ringling. It opened on Broadway in downtown Los Angeles in 1918.

text: In 1915, the tremendous success of The Birth of a Nation helped to establish the supremacy of feature films,[8] which forced the owners of five-cent theaters to increase the ticket price to ten cents or more, then either remodel to provide a more comfortable and pleasant environment or relocate to a bigger and better auditorium, bringing the nickelodeon era to an end.[9]

text: Post 1920s: the modern era[edit]

text: In the next ten years, as movie revenues exploded, independent promoters and movie studios (who owned their own proprietary chains until an antitrust ruling in 1948) raced to build the most lavish, elaborate, attractive theaters.

text: These forms morphed into a unique architectural genre—the movie palace—a unique and extreme architectural genre which boasted a luxurious design, a giant screen, and, beginning in 1953, stereophonic sound. The movie chains were also among the first industries to install air conditioning systems which gave the theaters an additional lure of comfort in the summer period. In 1931, a seat with a pivoted back was designed to allow people to remain seated while other patrons easily passed in front of them. This type of seat became standard in almost all US movie theaters.[10]

text: Several movie studios achieved vertical integration by acquiring and constructing theater chains. The so-called "Big Five" theater chains of the 1920s and 1930s were all owned by studios: Paramount, Warner, Loews (which owned Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer), Fox, and RKO. All were broken up as a result of the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in the 1948 United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. anti-trust case.

text: In the 1970s, "adult movie theaters" became ubiquitous in some areas. However, the introduction of the low-cost VHS video system for home televisions has decommissioned many porno cinemas as well as many 'second-run' theaters.

text: People can pay to watch movies at home after a few short months following their theatrical release, through cable television or streaming media: pay-per-view (PPV) and video on demand (VOD). Initially, home video contributed to an industry wide slump in the late 1980s (see disruptive technology), not to mention the decline of the 'Dollar Cinema' (where first-run films are pulled from circulation to play at reduced rates for the remainder of their run). The theater industry responded by building larger auditoriums with stadium seating layouts, installing more screens (to allow for more variety and more show times), upgrading sound systems and installing more amenities and higher-quality food and drink. The growing popularity of high-definition television sets, along with HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc players may also contribute to the decline in cinema attendance, although there seems to be little evidence of this at the moment.

text: Movie theater culture in U.S.[edit]

text: Movie theaters are associated with dating, popcorn and expensive treats.[citation needed]

text: Intimacy[edit]

text: Sometimes couples go to a movie theater for the additional reason that it provides the possibility of intimacy, where the dark provides some privacy (with additional privacy in the back-row). This kind of intimacy is considered by some a lesser form of public display of affection. Compared with being together in a room without other people, it may also be reassuring for one or both of the couple (and for parents) that the intimacy is necessarily limited.

text: Arm rests pose a hindrance to intimacy for some people. Some theaters have love seats: seats for two without an armrest in the middle. The most modern theaters have movable armrests throughout the theater that when down can hold a food container as well as act as an armrest or partition between the seats and when up allow closer contact between the couple. Some theaters such as the Parkway in Oakland, California have sofas for greater comfort.[11]

text: Foyer area, food and drinks[edit]

text: Movie theaters usually sell various snack foods and drinks at retail counters or kiosks. Sometimes it can be a self-service where one pays at the counter till, and/or a coin-operated machine. Sometimes the area of sale is more like a self-service shop or kiosk (it is not suitable for consuming the goods), and one pays at the check-out between the shop and the area with the screens. Foods usually served at movie theaters include popcorn, soft drinks, nachos, hot dogs, ice creams and a wide range of confectionery. At most theaters, people are allowed to select their own sweets (known as "pick and mix".)

text: The concessions for buying snacks and drinks often represent the theater's primary source of profit (snacks make up 20% of revenue but 40% of profits in the United States theaters, with a box of popcorn generating a profit of 85%)[12][13] since most of the ticket revenue goes to the film distributor (and onward to the movie studio). Bringing one's own food and drinks may be forbidden (although not always strictly enforced) in order to maintain a captive market, so theaters charge prices often threefold or higher than nearby stores, while popcorn has been marked up 900% according to CNN.[14][15] Some movie theaters forbid eating and drinking inside the viewing room (restricting such activities to the foyer), while others encourage it by fitting cup holders on the arm rests (on the front side of the arm rests of one's own chair, or the back side of the arm rests in front) and selling large portions of popcorn and soft drinks. According to a report by Time magazine, "Theaters, it's been said, are really in the popcorn and candy business. The showing of films is just an excuse to gather a crowd and try to sell them buttery snacks and sugary drinks."[16] This is not a new perspective on the financial importance of food and theaters. Retail is currently a huge area of expansion with many companies in the U.S. offering a wider range of snacks, including hot dogs and nachos. Some movie theaters feature a wider selection than simply snacks and popcorn. These "dine-in" theaters allow patrons to purchase "meals" (ranging from pizza slices to hamburgers and more) that can be consumed while watching the movie. Many theaters have embraced the "brew and view" concept, serving alcoholic beverages, in addition to snacks and popcorn. Some movie theaters such as the Living Room Theaters or Alamo Drafthouse offer full restaurant service at one's seat, though this is not as widespread. McMenamins is a chain of restaurant/brewpub establishments in the U.S. states of Oregon and Washington, many of which have full movie theaters. By the mid 1940s in some smaller theaters popcorn alone was paying the overheads, even sometimes bringing in more revenue than ticket sales. One theater company in Kansas City had about 4000 acres producing popcorn, and an unnamed person commented "Find a good popcorn location and build a theater around it."[17]

text: The health benefits of this cinema food are generally low, and have been debated for years. Owner of Sony Pictures, Michael Lynton, has been one of the chief arguers over this, and has wanted cinemas worldwide to stop providing this junk food and instead provide healthier alternatives, like crudités, smoothies, nuts, granola bars and additive-free air-popped popcorn.

text: Altercations[edit]

text: Patrons are typically angered by cellphone use, talking, and other disturbances during the viewing. Although violence in American movie theaters is uncommon, there have been several notable cases of violence that occurred in movie theaters.

text: In 1989, screenings of Harlem Nights across the country lead to gunfire and fistfights. Two people were killed in a shooting in Southfield, Michigan, and a teenage male was killed in a shooting at a theater in Richmond, California. The violence lead to controversy for the movie.

text: In May 1998, eight people were shot and injured in a gang-related attack during a screening of I Got the Hook Up at a theater in Bakersfield, California.[18]

text: On December 25, 2008 in Philadelphia, during a screening of The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, a 29-year-old man got upset at a loud man in a theater and threw popcorn at his son and shot the man in the left arm.[19] The shooter was found guilty of aggravated assault and sentenced to 11 to 23 months of house arrest and 5 years of probation.[20]

text: A screening of Alice in Wonderland had to be stopped short at the Regal Stadium 14 in Bowie, Maryland due to a fight that occurred over a teenager who constantly put her feet on the chair of a child sitting in front of her. The father of the child had to be escorted out of the theater by local police.[21]

text: On January 13, 2014, a 71-year-old retired police officer shot at a couple who were allegedly texting during a screening of Lone Survivor in Wesley Chapel, Florida. The 43-year-old male victim died soon afterwards. The suspect was charged with second degree murder and attempted murder.[22]

text: Mass shootings[edit]

text: On July 20, 2012, during a midnight screening of the film The Dark Knight Rises at a Century movie theater in Aurora, Colorado, James Eagan Holmes[23] perpetrated a mass shooting, killing 12[24][25] and injuring 70 others.[26] It was the second deadliest shooting in Colorado, and had the largest number of casualties of any U.S. mass shooting. Christian Bale, who plays Batman in the film, visited several victims in the hospital. The shooting also led to threats of violence across other theaters in the county screening The Dark Knight Rises, as well as an increase in security in theaters. Holmes is currently serving a sentence of life without parole.

text: On July 23, 2015, during a screening of Trainwreck, John Houser opened fire at The Grand Theatre in Lafayette, Louisiana, killing two and wounding nine others. He then killed himself.


document_title: Titanomachy

question_text: who was on zeus' side in the titanomachy

question_tokens: who was on zeus ' side in the titanomachy

text: Titanomachy

text: Conflict and bloodshed among the first gods[edit]

text: The stage for this important battle was set after the youngest Titan, Cronus (Kronos), overthrew his own father, Uranus (Ουρανός, the sky and ruler of the cosmos), with the help of his mother, Gaia (Γαία, the earth).

text: Uranus drew the enmity of Gaia when he imprisoned her children the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes in Tartarus. Gaia created a great sickle and gathered together Cronus and his brothers to convince them to castrate Uranus. Only Cronus was willing to do the deed, so Gaia gave him the sickle and placed him in ambush.

text: When Uranus met with Gaia, Cronus attacked Uranus, and, with the sickle, cut off his genitals, casting them into the sea. In doing so, he became the King of the Titans. But Uranus made a prophecy that Cronus's own children would rebel against his rule, just as Cronus had rebelled against his own father. Uranus' blood that had spilled upon the earth, gave rise to the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae. From his semen or blood of his cut genitalia, Aphrodite arose from the sea:

text: ...so soon as he had cut off the members with flint and cast them from the land into the surging sea, they were swept away over the main a long time: and a white foam spread around them from the immortal flesh, and in it there grew a maiden..."[2]

text: Cronus took his father's throne after dispatching Uranus.  He then secured his power by re-imprisoning his siblings the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes in Tartarus.

text: Cronus, paranoid and fearing the end of his rule, now turned into the terrible king his father Uranus had been, swallowing each of his children whole as they were born from his sister-wife  Rhea. Rhea, however, managed to hide her youngest child Zeus, by tricking Cronus into swallowing a rock wrapped in a blanket instead.

text: Rhea brought Zeus to a cave in Crete, where he was raised by Amalthea. Upon reaching adulthood, he masqueraded as Cronus' cupbearer. Once Zeus had been established as a servant of Cronus, Metis gave him a mixture of mustard and wine which would cause Cronus to vomit up his swallowed children. After freeing his siblings, Zeus led them in rebellion against the Titans.

text: Zeus and his siblings conquer the universe[edit]

text: Zeus then waged a war against his father with his disgorged brothers and sisters as allies: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. Zeus released the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes from the earth (where they had been imprisoned by Cronus) and they allied with him as well. The Hecatonchires hurled stones, and the Cyclopes forged for Zeus his iconic thunder and lightning. Fighting on the other side allied with Cronus were the other Titans with the important exception of Themis and her son Prometheus who allied with Zeus (NB. for Hesiod, Clymene is the mother of Prometheus). Atlas was an important leader on the side of Cronus. The war lasted ten years, but eventually Zeus and the other Olympians won, the Titans were imprisoned in Tartarus, and the Hecatonchires were made their guards. Atlas was given the special punishment of holding up the sky. In some accounts, when Zeus became secure in his power he relented and gave the Titans their freedom.[3]

text: Hyginus relates the Titanomachy differently: "After Hera saw that Epaphus, born of a concubine, ruled such a great kingdom (Egypt), she saw to it that he should be killed while hunting, and encouraged the Titans to drive Zeus from the kingdom and restore it to Cronus (Saturn). When they tried to mount heaven, Zeus with the help of Athena, Apollo, and Artemis, cast them headlong into Tartarus. On Atlas, who had been their leader, he put the vault of the sky; even now he is said to hold up the sky on his shoulders."[4]

text: Following their final victory, the three brothers divided the world amongst themselves: Zeus was given domain over the sky and the air, and was recognized as overlord.  Poseidon was given the sea and all the waters, whereas Hades was given the Underworld, the realm of the dead.  Each of the other gods was allotted powers according to the nature and proclivities of each.  The earth was left common to all to do as they pleased, even to run counter to one another, unless the brothers (Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) were called to intervene.

text: Titanomachy, the lost poem[edit]

text: A somewhat different account of the Titanomachy appeared in a poem that is now lost. The poem was traditionally ascribed to Eumelus of Corinth, a semi-legendary bard of the Bacchiad ruling family in archaic Corinth,[5] who was treasured as the traditional composer of the Prosodion, the processional  anthem of Messenian independence that was performed on Delos.

text: Even in Antiquity many authors cited Titanomachia without an author's name. The name of Eumelos was attached to the poem as the only name available.[6] From the very patchy evidence, it seems that "Eumelos"' account of the Titanomachy differed from the surviving account of Hesiod's Theogony at salient points. It was written in the late seventh-century BC at the earliest.[6]

text: The Titanomachy was divided into two books.  The battle of Olympians and Titans was preceded by some sort of theogony, or genealogy of the Primeval Gods, in which, the Late Roman writer Lydus remarked,[7] the author of Titanomachy placed the birth of Zeus, not in Crete, but in Lydia, which should signify on Mount Sipylus.