document_title: The 100 (TV series)

question_text: the 100 season 5 has how many episodes

question_tokens: the 100 season 5 has how many episodes

text: The 100 (TV series)

text: Synopsis

text: The series is set 97 years after a devastating nuclear apocalypse wiped out almost all life on Earth. Over 2,400 survivors live on a single massive station in Earth's orbit called the Ark, built by connecting surviving pre-apocalypse smaller stations and spacecraft. After the Ark's life-support systems are found to be failing, 100 juvenile prisoners are sent to the surface in a last attempt to determine whether Earth is habitable. They discover not all humanity was destroyed and some survived the apocalypse: the Grounders, who live in clans locked in a power struggle; the Reapers, another group of Grounders who have become cannibals; and the Mountain Men, who live in Mount Weather, descended from those who locked themselves away before the apocalypse. Under the leadership of Bellamy and Clarke, the 100 attempt to survive the harsh surface conditions, battle hostile Grounders, and establish communication with the Ark.

text: In the second season, most of the remaining 48 of the 100 are captured and taken to Mount Weather by the Mountain Men. It is eventually revealed that the Mountain Men are transfusing blood from imprisoned Grounders as an anti-radiation treatment. Medical tests of the 100 show an even more potent anti-radiation efficacy: their bone marrow will allow the Mountain Men to survive outside containment. Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the Ark have successfully crash-landed various stations on Earth and begun an alliance with the Grounders to save groups of people, naming the main settlement at Alpha Station "Camp Jaha".

text: In the third season, Alpha Station, now renamed Arkadia, comes under new management when Pike, a former teacher and mentor, is elected as chancellor and begins a war with the Grounders. An artificial intelligence named A.L.I.E. who was commanded to make life better for mankind, is revealed to have responded by solving the problem of human overpopulation by launching the nuclear apocalypse that devastated Earth. The AI takes over the minds of nearly everyone in Arkadia and Polis, the capital city of the Grounders. In the season three finale, Clarke manages to destroy A.L.I.E.

text: In the fourth season, hundreds of nuclear reactors around the world are melting down due to decades of neglect that will result in 96% of the planet becoming uninhabitable. Clarke and the others search for ways to survive the coming wave of radiation. When it is discovered that Nightbloods, descendants of first, original Nightbloods, including Becca – the creator of A.L.I.E. and the first Grounder commander –  can metabolize radiation, Clarke and the others attempt to recreate the formula, but their attempts failed. An old bunker is discovered that can protect 1,200 people for over 5 years; each of the twelve clans select a hundred people to stay in the bunker. A small group decides to return to space and attempt to survive in the remnants of the original Ark.

text: In the fifth season, which takes place six years after the meltdown of the nuclear reactors, a prisoner transport ship arrives in the only green spot left on Earth, where Clarke and Madi, a Nightblood Grounder who also survived the wave of radiation that swept the planet after the meltdown, have been living. Meanwhile, those who survived in space and in the bunker, have returned safely on the ground. Now, a struggle for the Shallow Valley, between the prisoners and a new, united clan, known as Wonkru, begins. Later, the heroes must find the way to prevent another disaster from ever happening. In the fifth season finale, however, the valley is destroyed and the surviving human race were sent to a new planet to begin their new lives.

text: Cast and characters

text:
Eliza Taylor as Clarke Griffin
Paige Turco as Dr. Abigail "Abby" Griffin
Thomas McDonell as Finn Collins (seasons 1–2)[a]
Eli Goree as Wells Jaha (season 1; guest season 2)[b]
Marie Avgeropoulos as Octavia Blake
Bob Morley as Bellamy Blake
Kelly Hu as Callie "Cece" Cartwig (season 1)[c]
Christopher Larkin as Monty Green (seasons 1–5)
Devon Bostick as Jasper Jordan (seasons 1–4)
Isaiah Washington as Thelonious Jaha (seasons 1–5)[d]
Henry Ian Cusick as Marcus Kane
Lindsey Morgan as Raven Reyes (season 2–present; recurring season 1)[4]
Ricky Whittle as Lincoln (seasons 2–3; recurring season 1)[4]
Richard Harmon as John Murphy (season 3–present; recurring seasons 1–2)[5]
Zach McGowan as Roan (season 4; recurring season 3)[6]
Tasya Teles as Echo (season 5–present; recurring season 4; guest seasons 2–3)[7]

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ McDonnell was credited as main cast for the first half of season two.

Jump up ^ Goree was credited as main cast for the first three episodes of season one.

Jump up ^ Hu was credited as main cast only in the pilot.

Jump up ^ Washington was credited as main cast for the first two episodes of season five.

tag: ol

text: Episodes

text: The 100 premiered on March 19, 2014.[8] On May 8, 2014, The CW renewed The 100 for a second season, which premiered on October 22, 2014.[9][10] On January 11, 2015, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on January 21, 2016.[11][12] On March 12, 2016, The 100 was renewed for a fourth season of 13 episodes, which premiered on February 1, 2017.[13][14][15] On March 10, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fifth season, which premiered on April 24, 2018.[16][17] On May 8, 2018, the series was renewed for a sixth season.[1]

text: Production

text: Post production, including ADR recording for the series, was done at the recording studio Cherry Beach Sound.[23]

text: David J. Peterson, who created Dothraki for Game of Thrones, developed the Trigedasleng language for The Grounders. Jason Rothenberg said it was similar to Creole English.[24] The language is called "Trig" on the show.[25]

text: After his constructed language work on Star-Crossed, Peterson was contacted by the producers of The 100 to create a language for the Grounders, an evolution of English. In the setting, around 250 years have passed since the apocalypse, which is a very short time for significant language change. Because of this, Peterson posited an accelerated evolution in which the early Grounders used a cant specifically to obfuscate their speech and to differentiate between friend or foe. Trigedasleng derives from that cant and evolved over several short generations of survivors of the apocalypse.[26]

text: Filming

text: Filming for the series takes place in and around Vancouver, British Columbia.[27] Production on the pilot occurred during the second quarter of 2013. After the show was picked up to series, filming occurred for the first season between August 2013 and January 2014. Filming for the second season commenced on July 7, 2014, and concluded on January 23, 2015. The third season was filmed between July 15, 2015, and February 2, 2016.[28] Filming for the fourth season commenced on August 2, 2016, and concluded on January 18, 2017.[29][30] Filming for the fifth season commenced on August 14, 2017, and wrapped up on January 27, 2018.[31][32][33]

text: Casting

text: In late February 2013, Bob Morley and Eli Goree were cast as Bellamy Blake and Wells Jaha, respectively,[34] followed a day later by the casting of Henry Ian Cusick as Marcus Kane.[35] Less than a week later, Eliza Taylor and Marie Avgeropoulos were cast in co-starring roles as Clarke Griffin and Octavia Blake, respectively.[36][37] Throughout March, the rest of the cast was filled out, with Paige Turco cast as Abigail Walters (now Abigail Griffin),[38] Isaiah Washington as Chancellor Jaha,[39] Thomas McDonnell as Finn Collins,[40] Kelly Hu as Callie Cartwig, and Christopher Larkin as Monty Green.[41]

text: For the second season, Adina Porter and Raymond J. Barry were cast in recurring roles as Indra and Dante Wallace, respectively, along with Alycia Debnam-Carey as Lexa.[42][43]

text: Broadcast

text: In Canada, Season 1 of The 100 was licensed exclusively to Netflix. The series premiered on March 20, 2014, the day after the mid-season premiere of Season 1 on the CW.[44]

text: In New Zealand, the series premiered on TVNZ's on-demand video streaming service on March 21, 2014.[45]

text: In the UK and Ireland, The 100 premiered on E4 on July 7, 2014.[46] The first episode was viewed by an average audience of 1.39 million, making it the channel's biggest ever program launch. Season 2 premiered on January 6, 2015, and averaged 1,118,000 viewers.[47] Season 3 premiered on February 17, 2016.[48][49]

text: In Australia, The 100 was originally scheduled to premiere on Go![50] but instead premiered on Fox8 on September 4, 2014.[51] Season 2 premiered on January 8, 2015.[52]

text: Home media

text:
Name

DVD

Blu-ray

No. ofepisodes

Features

Region 1

Region 2

Region 4

Region A

Region B

The Complete First Season

September 23, 2014[53]

September 29, 2014[54]

December 3, 2014[55]

September 23, 2014[56]

December 3, 2014[57]

13

Creating the World of The 100
Commentary on "We Are Grounders, Part 2"

The Complete Second Season

October 13, 2015[58]

October 12, 2015[59]

October 14, 2015[60]

October 13, 2015[61]

October 14, 2015[60]

16

The 100: Unlocking the Mountain
The 100 Pre-Viz Stunts featurette

The Complete Third Season

July 19, 2016[62]

September 26, 2016[63]

September 28, 2016[64]

July 19, 2016[62]

September 28, 2016[64]

16

A Short Lived Victory: Unlocking the Season 3 Finale
Arkadia: From Wreckage to Salvation
Ice Nation: Brutal and Fierce
Wanheda: Clarke's Journey
Polis: Capital of the Grounders
The 100 Pre-Viz Stunts Season 3

The Complete Fourth Season

July 19, 2017[65]

July 24, 2017[66]

October 4, 2017[67]

July 18, 2017[68]

October 4, 2017[69]

13

Deleted Scenes, From Outcasts to Leaders, Creating a Post-Apocolyptic World
The 100: Jasper's Journey
Battle Tested: The 100 Season 4 Stunts, Gag Reel
The 100: 2016 Comic-Con Panel

text: Reception

text: Critical response

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the show's first season was certified "fresh", with 72% of professional reviewers reviewing it positively and the consensus: "Although flooded with stereotypes, the suspenseful atmosphere helps make The 100 a rare high-concept guilty pleasure." On Metacritic, the first season scores 63 out of 100 points, based on 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[70]

text: The second season was met with more favorable reviews, holding a rating of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes and an average rating of 8.1/10.[71] On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 81 out of 100, based on 2 critics.[72] In a review of the season 2 finale, Kyle Fowle of The A.V. Club said, "Very few shows manage to really push the boundaries of moral compromise in a way that feels legitimately difficult. Breaking Bad did it. The Sopranos did it. Game of Thrones has done it. Those shows never back down from the philosophical murkiness of their worlds, refusing to provide a tidy, happy ending if it doesn't feel right. With 'Blood Must Have Blood, Part Two,' The 100 has done the same, presenting a finale that doesn't shy away from the morally complex stakes it's spent a whole season building up".[73] Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post, in another positive review, wrote: "I can say with some assurance that I've rarely seen a program demonstrate the kind of consistency and thematic dedication that The 100 has shown in its first two seasons. This is a show about moral choices and the consequences of those choices, and it's been laudably committed to those ideas from Day 1."[74]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season received an overall rating of 89% with an average rating of 7.9/10.[75] On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 77 out of 100, based on 3 critics, indicating generally positive reviews.[76] Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote in an early review of the third season: "When looking at the epic feel and varied array of stories on display in season three, which overtly and covertly recalls "The Lord of the Rings" saga in a number of ways, it's almost hard to recall how limited the scope and the ambitions of "The 100" were two years ago, when a rag-tag band of survivors first crash-landed on Earth. In season three (which the cast and showrunner previewed here), the show is more politically complicated than ever, and the world-building that accompanies the depiction of various factions, alliances and conflicts is generally admirable."[77] In a review of the season 3 finale "Perverse Instantiation: Part Two", Mariya Karimjee of Vulture.com wrote: "Every moment of this finale is pitch-perfect: the choreography of the fight scenes, the plotting and pacing, and the stunning way in which the episode finally reaches it apex. "Perverse Instantiation: Part Two" elevates the season's themes and pulls together its disparate story lines, setting us up nicely for season four."[78] In another review of the season 3 finale and the season overall, Kyle Fowle of The A.V. Club wrote: "Before we even get to tonight's action-packed finale of The 100, it needs to be said that this has been a rocky season. The first half of it was defined by shoddy character motivations and oversized villains. The second half of this season has done some work to bring the show back from the brink, focusing on the City of Light and issues of freewill and difficult moral choices, bringing some much needed depth to the third season. That work pays off with "Perverse Instantiation: Part Two," a thrilling, forward-thinking finale that provides some necessary closure to this season." He gave the finale itself an "A-" rating.[79]

text: The fourth season is generally considered to be an improvement over the third season, receiving a 92% score on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7.3/10 based on 12 reviews.[80] On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 80 out of 100, based on 1 critic, indicating generally positive reviews.[81] The second portion of the fourth season has received better reception than the first portion, with the episodes Die All, Die Merrily and Praimfaya often cited as the two best episodes of the season. Die All, Die Merrily has a 9.5/10 rating from IGN, a perfect 5/5 rating from Vulture and a perfect A rating from The AV Club.[82][83][84] Praimfaya has a 9.0/10 from IGN and an A rating from The AV Club.[85][86]

text: The fifth season currently has a 100% score on Rotten Tomatoes with an average of 9.2/10.[87] This is the highest rating any season of the show has received to date. On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 80 out of 100, based on 1 critic, indicating generally positive reviews.[88] All episodes of the season received highly positive reviews, but the third episode Sleeping Giants has received particular high acclaim. In a 4.5/5 review from Den of Geek, the episode is described as being a "good ol' fashioned episode of The 100", praising its balance of action, humour, and rich relationships.[89] The episode also gained a 4.5/5 rating from TVOverMind, praising the "pulse-pounding action" and approach to problem solving.[90]

text:
Brian Lowry of The Boston Globe said: "Our attraction to Apocalypse TV runs deep, as our culture plays out different futuristic possibilities. That's still no reason to clone material, nor is it a reason to deliver characters who are little more than stereotypes."[91] Allison Keene of The Hollywood Reporter wrote a negative review, stating: "The sci-fi drama presents The CW's ultimate vision for humanity: an Earth populated only by attractive teenagers, whose parents are left out in space."[92]
Kelly West of Cinema Blend gave it a more positive review while noting: "CW's Thrilling New Sci-fi Drama Is A Keeper. CW's The 100 seeks to explore that concept and more with a series that's about equal parts young adult drama, sci-fi adventure and thriller. It takes a little while for the series to warm up, but when The 100 begins to hit its stride, a unique and compelling drama begins to emerge."[93]
IGN's editor Eric Goldman also gave the show a more positive review, writing: "Overcoming most of its early growing pains pretty quickly, The 100 was a very strong show by the end of its first season. But Season 2 elevated the series into the upper echelon, as the show become one of the coolest and most daring series on TV these days."[94] Maureen Ryan of Variety named the show one of the best of 2015.[95]

text: In 2016, the year Rolling Stone ranked the show #36 on its list of the "40 Best Science Fiction TV Shows of All Time",[96] the episode "Thirteen" attracted criticism when Lexa, one of the series' LGBT characters, was killed off. Critics and fans considered the death a continuation of a persistent trope in television in which LGBT characters are killed off far more often than others – implicitly portraying them as disposable, as existing only to serve the stories of straight characters, or to attract viewers. A widespread debate among writers and fans about the trope ensued, with Lexa's death cited as a prime example of the trope, and why it should end.[97][98][99] Showrunner Jason Rothenberg eventually wrote in response that "I (...) write and produce television for the real world where negative and hurtful tropes exist. And I am very sorry for not recognizing this as fully as I should have".[100]

text: Ratings

text:
Season
Timeslot (ET)

Episodes

First aired

Last aired
TV season
Rank
Avg. viewers(millions)
18–49 rating(average)

Date

Viewers(millions)

Date

Viewers(millions)

1
Wednesday 9:00 pm

13

March 19, 2014 (2014-03-19)

2.73[101]

June 11, 2014 (2014-06-11)

1.68[102]
2013–14
150
2.59
1.1[103]

2

16

October 22, 2014 (2014-10-22)

1.54[104]

March 11, 2015 (2015-03-11)

1.34[105]
2014–15
157
2.46
0.9[103]

3
Thursday 9:00 pm

16

January 21, 2016 (2016-01-21)

1.88[106]

May 19, 2016 (2016-05-19)

1.31[107]
2015–16
165
1.94
0.7[108]

4
Wednesday 9:00 pm

13

February 1, 2017 (2017-02-01)

1.21[109]

May 24, 2017 (2017-05-24)

0.91[110]
2016–17
158
1.47[111]
TBD

5
Tuesday 9:00 pm (1–8)Tuesday 8:00 pm (9–13)

13

April 24, 2018 (2018-04-24)

1.43[112]

August 7, 2018 (2018-08-07)

0.99[113]
2017–18
182
1.61
0.5[114]

text: An estimated 2.7 million American viewers watched the series premiere, which received an 18–49 rating of 0.9, making it the most-watched show in its time slot on The CW since 2010, with the series Life Unexpected.[115]

text: SeasonEp. 1Ep. 2Ep. 3Ep. 4Ep. 5Ep. 6Ep. 7Ep. 8Ep. 9Ep. 10Ep. 11Ep. 12Ep. 13Ep. 14Ep. 15Ep. 1612.732.271.901.691.801.971.881.641.731.461.711.581.68N/A21.541.481.681.751.641.861.621.401.481.531.511.361.421.551.491.3431.881.631.571.321.361.411.391.201.231.131.081.151.271.131.171.2941.211.011.051.001.020.980.900.970.810.850.860.830.91N/A51.431.021.081.070.940.920.830.730.890.860.850.880.99N/A

text: Accolades

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

Ref.

2014

Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Special Visual Effects

Andrew Orloff, Michael Cliett, Tyler Weiss, Kornel Farkas, Chris Pounds, Andrew Bain, Mike Rhone(episode: "We Are Grounders, Part 2")

Nominated

[121]

2015

Golden Reel Awards

Best Sound Editing – Sound Effects and Foley in Short Form Television

Norval D. Crutcher III, Peter Austin, Peter D. Lago, Mitch Gettleman, Catherine Harper, Ellen Heuer, Marc Meyer

Nominated

[122]

Leo Awards

Best Production Design in a Dramatic Series

Matthew Budgeon(episode: "Murphy's Law")

Nominated

[123]

Best Production Design in a Dramatic Series

James Philpott(episode: "The 48")

Nominated

Best Costume Design in a Dramatic Series

Katia Stano(episodes: "Many Happy Returns" & "Spacewalker")

Nominated

Best Guest Performance by a Male in a Dramatic Series

Richard Harmon(episode: "We Are Grounders Part 1")

Nominated

MTV Fandom Awards

Ship of the Year

Alycia Debnam-Carey and Eliza Taylor

Nominated

[124]

Saturn Awards

Best Youth-Oriented Series

The 100

Won

[125]

Teen Choice Awards

Choice TV Actor: Sci-Fi/Fantasy

Bob Morley

Nominated

[126]

Choice TV Actress: Sci-Fi/Fantasy

Eliza Taylor

Nominated

Choice TV Show: Sci-Fi/Fantasy

The 100

Nominated

2016

Golden Reel Awards

Best Sound Editing in Television - Short Form: Dialogue & ADR

Norval "Charlie" Crutcher III

Nominated

[127]

Leo Awards

Best Production Design in a Dramatic Series

James Philpott, Alyssa King, Alex Royek(episode:"Wanheda: Part 1")

Nominated

[128]

MTV Fandom Awards

Fan Freakout of the Year

Alycia Debnam-Carey

Won

[124]

Ship of the Year

Eliza Taylor and Alycia Debnam-Carey

Nominated

Saturn Awards

Best Science Fiction Television Series

The 100

Nominated

[129]

Teen Choice Awards

Choice TV: Chemistry

Eliza Taylor and Bob Morley

Nominated

[130]

Choice TV Actress: Sci-Fi/Fantasy

Eliza Taylor

Nominated

2017

Saturn Awards

Best Science Fiction Television Series

The 100

Nominated

[131]

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actor

Bob Morley

Nominated

[132]

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actress

Eliza Taylor

Nominated

Choice TV Ship

Eliza Taylor and Bob Morley

Nominated

2018

Leo Awards

Best Stunt Coordination in a Dramatic Series

Marshall Virtue, Kim Chiang(episode: "Die All, Die Merrily")

Nominated

[133]

Best Supporting Performance by a Male in a Dramatic Series

Richard Harmon(episode: "God Complex")

Nominated

Saturn Awards

Best Science Fiction Television Series

The 100

Nominated

[134]

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Show

The 100

Pending

[135]

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actor

Bob Morley

Pending

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actress

Eliza Taylor

Pending


document_title: United States debt ceiling

question_text: who limits the level of the nation's debt

question_tokens: who limits the level of the nation 's debt

root

text: United States debt ceiling

text: Background[edit]

text: Under Article I Section 8 of the United States Constitution, only Congress can authorize the borrowing of money on the credit of the United States. From the founding of the United States until 1917, Congress directly authorized each individual debt issued. To provide more flexibility to finance the United States' involvement in World War I, Congress modified the method by which it authorized debt in the Second Liberty Bond Act of 1917.[3] Under this Act, Congress established an aggregate limit, or "ceiling," on the total amount of new bonds that could be issued.

tag: p

text: The present debt ceiling is an aggregate limit applied to nearly all federal debt, which was substantially established by the Public Debt Acts[4][5] of 1939 and 1941 which have subsequently been amended to change the ceiling amount.

text: From time to time, political disputes arise when the Treasury advises Congress that the debt ceiling is about to be reached and indicating that a default is imminent. When the debt ceiling is reached, and pending an increase in the limit, Treasury may resort to "extraordinary measures" to buy more time before the ceiling can be raised by Congress. The United States has never reached the point of default where Treasury was incapable of paying U.S. debt obligations, though it has been close on several occasions. The only exception was during the War of 1812 when parts of Washington D.C. including the Treasury were burned.[6]

text: In 2011, the United States reached a crisis point of near default on public debt. The delay in raising the debt ceiling resulted in the first downgrade in the United States credit rating, a sharp drop in the stock market, and an increase in borrowing costs. Congress raised the debt limit with the Budget Control Act of 2011, which added to the fiscal cliff when the new ceiling was reached on December 31, 2012.

text: Another debt ceiling crisis arose in early 2013 when the ceiling was reached again, and Treasury adopted extraordinary measures to avoid a default. The 2013 crisis was resolved, for the time being, on February 4, 2013, President Barack Obama signed the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013 to, besides other things, suspend the debt ceiling until May 19, 2013. After May 19, the debt ceiling was raised to $16.699 trillion, the level of debt incurred during the suspension, and Treasury resumed extraordinary measures.[7] Treasury Secretary Jack Lew notified Congress that these measures would be exhausted by October 17, 2013.[8] On October 7, 2013 Treasury indicated that the debt ceiling and extraordinary measures will be exhausted and that a default will occur on October 17 when interest payments are due.[citation needed]

text: The debt ceiling would again have been reached on November 3, 2015.[9][10][11] On October 30, 2015 the debt ceiling was again suspended to March 2017.[12]

text: Relationship to federal budget[edit]

text: The process of setting the debt ceiling is separate and distinct from the United States budget process, and raising the debt ceiling neither directly increases nor decreases the budget deficit, and vice versa. The Government Accountability Office explains, "the debt limit does not control or limit the ability of the federal government to run deficits or incur obligations. Rather, it is a limit on the ability to pay obligations already incurred."[13]

text: The President formulates a federal budget every year, which Congress must pass, sometimes with amendments, in a concurrent resolution, which does not require the President's signature and is not binding. The budget details projected tax collections and expenditures and, therefore, specifies the amount of borrowing the government would have to do in that fiscal year.

text: Legislative history[edit]

text: Prior to 1917, the United States had no debt ceiling. Congress either authorized specific loans or allowed Treasury to issue certain debt instruments and individual debt issues for specific purposes. Sometimes Congress gave Treasury discretion over what type of debt instrument would be issued.[14] The United States first instituted a statutory debt limit with the Second Liberty Bond Act of 1917. This legislation set limits on the aggregate amount of debt that could be accumulated through individual categories of debt (such as bonds and bills). In 1939, Congress instituted the first limit on total accumulated debt over all kinds of instruments.[15]

text: Prior to the Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, the debt ceiling played an important role enabling Congress to hold hearings and debates on the budget.[16] James Surowiecki argued that the debt ceiling lost its usefulness after these reforms to the budget process.[17]

text: In 1979, noting the potential problems of hitting a default, Dick Gephardt imposed the "Gephardt Rule," a parliamentary rule that deemed the debt ceiling raised when a budget was passed. This resolved the contradiction in voting for appropriations but not voting to fund them. The rule stood until it was repealed by Congress in 1995.[18]

text: President Ronald Reagan fought bi-partisan resistance from Congress for a 1981 raising of the debt limit.[19]

text: 1995 and 1996 debt ceiling crisis[edit]

text: The debt-ceiling debate of 1995 led to a showdown on the federal budget, which did not pass, and resulted in the United States federal government shutdowns of 1995 and 1996.[21][22]

text: 2011 debt ceiling crisis[edit]

text: In 2011, Republicans in Congress demanded deficit reduction as part of raising the debt ceiling. The resulting contention was resolved on 2 August 2011 by the Budget Control Act of 2011. Under the "McConnell Rule," the president was allowed to unilaterally raise the debt ceiling. This action could be overturned by an act of Congress, but this would require a 2/3 majority vote in both houses assuming that the president vetoed the act.[23]

text: On 5 August 2011, S&P issued the first ever downgrade in the federal government's credit rating, citing their April warnings, the difficulty of bridging the parties and that the resulting agreement fell well short of the hoped-for comprehensive 'grand bargain'.[24] The credit downgrade and debt ceiling debacle contributed to the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling nearly 2,000 points in late July and August. Following the downgrade itself, the DJIA had one of its worst days in history and fell 635 points on August 8.[25]

text: 2013 debt ceiling crisis[edit]

text: The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Following the increase in the debt ceiling to $16.394 trillion in 2011,[26] the United States again reached the debt ceiling on December 31, 2012 and the Treasury began taking extraordinary measures. The fiscal cliff was resolved with the passage of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (ATRA), but no action was taken on the debt ceiling. Following the tax cuts from ATRA, the government needed to raise the debt ceiling by $700 billion to finance operations for the rest of the 2013 fiscal year.[27] Extraordinary measures were expected to be exhausted by February 15.[28] The Treasury had said it is not set up to prioritize payments, and has given the opinion that it is unclear whether it would be legal to do so. Given this situation, the Treasury would simply delay payments if funds could not be raised through extraordinary measures and the debt ceiling not raised. Economists estimated that such an action would cause GDP to contract by 7%, which is larger than the contraction during the Great Recession. The economic damage would worsen as recipients of social security benefits, government contracts, and other government payments cut back on spending in response to having the freeze in their revenue.[29]

text: Under the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013, both houses of Congress voted to suspend the debt ceiling from February 4, 2013 until May 19, 2013. On May 19, the debt ceiling was raised to approximately $16.699 trillion to accommodate the borrowing done during the suspension period.

text: Debt not covered by ceiling[edit]

text: As of October 2013, about 0.5% of debt was not covered by the ceiling.[1] This includes outstanding pre-1917 debt.

text: In December 2012, Treasury calculated that $239 million in United States Notes were in circulation. These Notes, in accordance the debt ceiling legislation, are excluded from the statutory debt limit. The $239 million excludes $25 million in United States Notes issued prior to July 1, 1929, determined pursuant to Act of June 30, 1961, 31 U.S.C. 5119, to have been destroyed or irretrievably lost.[30]

text: Debts of the Federal Financing Bank which at August 2013 totalled $73.1 billion[31] are also not subject to the ceiling.

text: Suspension of debt ceiling[edit]

text: The No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013 suspended, for the first time, the U.S. debt ceiling on February 4, 2013 until May 18, 2013. During the suspension period, Treasury was authorized to borrow to the extent that it "is required to meet existing commitments".[32] On May 19, the debt ceiling was raised by $306 billion to cover the borrowings done during the suspension period, as well as commitments that accrued in the preceding period that extraordinary measures were in place, which commenced on December 31, 2012. The debt ceiling was again suspended on October 17 until February 7, 2014. On February 12, 2014, the Temporary Debt Limit Extension Act was passed, suspending the debt ceiling until March 15, 2015. At that time, the Treasury Department took extraordinary measures.[33] On October 30, 2015 the debt ceiling was again suspended to March 2017.[12]

text: Extraordinary measures[edit]

text: The Treasury Department is permitted to borrow funds needed to fund government operations, as had been authorized by congressional appropriations, up to the debt ceiling, with some small exceptions. In a letter to Congress of April 4, 2011, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner explained that when the debt ceiling is reached, Treasury can declare a "debt issuance suspension period" during which it can take "extraordinary measures" to continue meeting federal obligations provided that it does not involve the issue of new debt.[34] These measures are taken to avoid, as far as resources permit, a partial government shutdown or a default on the debt. These methods have been used on several previous occasions in which federal debt neared its statutory limit.[35]

text: Extraordinary measures can include suspending investments in the G Fund of the Thrift Savings Plan of individual retirement funds of federal employees. In 2011, extraordinary measures included suspending investments in the Civil Service Retirement and Disability Fund (CSRDF), the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefits Fund (Postal Benefits Fund), and the Exchange Stabilization Fund (ESF). In addition, certain CSRDF investments were also redeemed early.[36] In 1985, the Treasury had also exchanged Treasury securities for non-Treasury securities held by the Federal Financing Bank.[37]

text: However, these amounts are not sufficient to cover government operations for extended periods.[34] Treasury first implemented these measures on December 16, 2009 to avoid a government shutdown.[38] These measures were implemented again on May 16, 2011, when Treasury Secretary Geithner declared a "debt issuance suspension period". According to his letter to Congress, this period could "last until August 2, 2011, when the Department of the Treasury projects that the borrowing authority of the United States will be exhausted".[39]

text: The measures were again implemented on December 31, 2012 being the start of the debt ceiling crisis of 2013 with the default trigger date ticking to February 2013. The crisis was deferred with the suspension of the limit on February 4, and the cancellation of the extraordinary measures. The measures were again invoked at the end of the ceiling's suspension on May 19, 2013 with the date of exhaustion of the resources and the default trigger date being estimated by Treasury as October 17.[8] The ceiling was again suspended by legislation on that date until February 4, 2014.

text: Default on financial obligations[edit]

text: If the debt ceiling is not raised and extraordinary measures are exhausted, the United States government is legally unable to borrow money to pay its financial obligations. At that point, it must cease making payments unless the treasury has cash on hand to cover them. In addition, the government would not have the resources to pay the interest on (and sometime redeem) government securities when due, which would be characterized as a default. A default may affect the United States' sovereign risk rating and the interest rate that it will be required to pay on future debt. The United States has never defaulted on its financial obligations, but the periodic crises relating to the debt ceiling has led to a rating downgrade by several rating agencies and a warning by others. The GAO estimated that the delay in raising the debt ceiling during the debt ceiling crisis of 2011 raised borrowing costs for the government by $1.3 billion in fiscal year 2011 and noted that the delay would also raise costs in later years.[40] The Bipartisan Policy Center extended the GAO's estimates and found that the delay raised borrowing costs by $18.9 billion over ten years.[41]

text: Some writers have expressed the view that if extraordinary measures are exhausted, the executive branch has the authority to determine which obligations are paid and which are not,[42] though Treasury has argued that all obligations are on equal footing under the law. The writers have argued that the executive branch can choose to prioritize interest payments on bonds, which would avoid an immediate, direct default on sovereign debt. During the debt ceiling crisis of 2011, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geitner argued that prioritization of interest payments would not help since government expenditures would have needed to be cut by an unrealistic 40% if the debt ceiling is not raised. Also, a default on non-debt obligations would still undermine American creditworthiness according to at least one rating agency.[43] In 2011, the Treasury suggested that it could not prioritize certain types of expenditures because all expenditures are on equal footing under the law. In this view, when extraordinary measures are exhausted, no payments could be made except when money (such as tax receipts) is in the treasury, at all and the United States would be in default on all of its obligations.[44] The CBO notes that prioritization would not avoid the technical definition found in Black's Law Dictionary where default is defined as “the failure to make a payment when due.”[45]

text: Debate on debt ceiling[edit]

text: A vote to increase the debt ceiling has usually been (since the 1950s) a legal budgetary formality between the President and Congress. The debt ceiling has not historically been a political issue that would make the elected government fail to pass a yearly budget. Reports to Congress (from the OMB and other sources) in the 1990s have repeatedly stated that the debt limit is an ineffective means to restrain the growth of debt.[16]

text: James Surowiecki argues that the debt ceiling originally served a useful purpose. When introduced, presidents had stronger authority to borrow and spend as they pleased. However, after 1974 and the Nixon Administration the US Congress began passing comprehensive budget resolutions that specify exactly how much money the government could spend.[17]

text: The apparent redundancy of the debt ceiling has led to suggestions that it should be abolished altogether.[46][47] Several Democratic House members, including Peter Welch, proposed abolishing the debt ceiling. The proposal found support from some economists such as Jacob Funk Kirkegaard, a senior fellow at the Peterson Institute for International Economics.

text: In January 2013, a survey of 38 highly regarded economists found that 84% agreed that, since Congress already approves spending and taxation, "a separate debt ceiling that has to be increased periodically creates unneeded uncertainty and can potentially lead to worse fiscal outcomes." Only one member of the panel, Luigi Zingales, disagreed with the statement.[48] Rating agency Moody's has stated that "the debt limit creates a high level of uncertainty"[47] and that the government should change "its framework for managing government debt to lessen or eliminate that uncertainty".[47]


document_title: Yom Kippur

question_text: where is yom kippur mentioned in the torah

question_tokens: where is yom kippur mentioned in the torah

text: Yom Kippur

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Yom means "day" in Hebrew and Kippur comes from a root that means "to atone", which is related to the biblical name of the covering of the Ark (called the kapporet).[3] Yom Kippur is usually expressed in English as "Day of Atonement".

text: Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur[edit]

text: Yom Kippur is "the tenth day of [the] seventh month"[4] (Tishrei) and is regarded as the "Sabbath of Sabbaths". Rosh Hashanah (referred to in the Torah as Yom Teruah) is the first day of that month according to the Hebrew calendar. On this day forgiveness of sins is also asked of God.

text: Yom Kippur completes the annual period known in Judaism as the High Holy Days or Yamim Nora'im ("Days of Awe") that commences with Rosh Hashanah.

text: Heavenly books opened[edit]

text: According to Jewish tradition, God inscribes each person's fate for the coming year into a book, the Book of Life, on Rosh Hashanah, and waits until Yom Kippur to "seal" the verdict. During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend his or her behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God (bein adam leMakom) and against other human beings (bein adam lechavero). The evening and day of Yom Kippur are set aside for public and private petitions and confessions of guilt (Vidui). At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God.

text: Prayer service[edit]

text: The Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the actual number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day, which has three prayer services (Ma'ariv, the evening prayer; Shacharit, the morning prayer; and Mincha, the afternoon prayer), or a Shabbat or Yom Tov, which have four prayer services (Ma'ariv; Shacharit; Mussaf, the additional prayer; and Mincha), Yom Kippur has five prayer services (Ma'ariv; Shacharit; Musaf; Mincha; and Ne'ilah, the closing prayer). The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins (Vidui) and a unique prayer dedicated to the special Yom Kippur avodah (service) of the Kohen Gadol (high priest) in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem.

text: Observance[edit]

text: As one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the only times of the year during which they attend synagogue[5]—causing synagogue attendance to soar.

text: Preceding day[edit]

text: Erev Yom Kippur (lit. "eve [of] day [of] atonement") is the day preceding Yom Kippur, corresponding to the ninth day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei. This day is commemorated with additional morning prayers, asking others for forgiveness, giving charity, performing the kapparot ritual, an extended afternoon prayer service, and two festive meals.[6]

text: General observances[edit]

text: Leviticus 16:29 mandates establishment of this holy day on the 10th day of the 7th month as the day of atonement for sins. It calls it the Sabbath of Sabbaths and a day upon which one must afflict one's soul.

text: Leviticus 23:27 decrees that Yom Kippur is a strict day of rest.

text: Five additional prohibitions are traditionally observed, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition (Mishnah tractate Yoma 8:1).

text: The number five is a set number, relating to:

text:
In the Yom Kippur section of the Torah, the word soul appears five times.
The soul is known by five separate names: soul, wind, spirit, living one and unique one.
Unlike regular days, which have three prayer services, Yom Kippur has five- Maariv, Shacharis, Mussaf, Minchah and Neilah
The Kohen Gadol rinsed himself in the mikveh (ritual bath) five times on Yom Kippur.[7]

text: The traditions are as follows:

text:
No eating and drinking
No wearing of leather shoes
No bathing or washing
No anointing oneself with perfumes or lotions
No marital relations

text: A parallel has been drawn between these activities and the human condition according to the Biblical account of the expulsion from the garden of Eden.[8] Refraining from these symbolically represents a return to a pristine state, which is the theme of the day. By refraining from these activities, the body is uncomfortable but can still survive. The soul is considered to be the life force in a body. Therefore, by making one’s body uncomfortable, one’s soul is uncomfortable.[8] By feeling pain one can feel how others feel when they are in pain.[9] This is the purpose of the prohibitions.

text: Total abstention from food and drink as well as keeping the other traditions begins at sundown, and ends after nightfall the following day. One should add a few minutes to the beginning and end of the day, called tosefet Yom Kippur, lit. "addition to Yom Kippur". Although the fast is required of all healthy men over 13 or women over 12, it is waived in the case of certain medical conditions.

text: Virtually all Jewish holidays involve meals, but since Yom Kippur involves fasting, Jewish law requires one to eat a large and festive meal on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, after the Mincha (afternoon) prayer.

text: Wearing white clothing (or a kittel for Ashkenazi Jews), is traditional to symbolize one's purity on this day. Many Orthodox men immerse themselves in a mikveh on the day before Yom Kippur.[10]

text: In order to apologize to God, one must:[7]

text:
Pray
Repent
Give to charity

text: Eve[edit]

text: Before sunset on Yom Kippur eve, worshipers gather in the synagogue. The Ark is opened and two people take from it two Sifrei Torah (Torah scrolls). Then they take their places, one on each side of the Hazzan, and the three recite (in Hebrew):

text: In the tribunal of Heaven and the tribunal of earth, we hold it lawful to pray with transgressors.

text: The cantor then chants the Kol Nidre prayer (Aramaic: כל נדרי). This prayer is recited in Aramaic. Its name "Kol Nidre" is taken from the opening words, and translates "All vows":

text: All personal vows we are likely to make, all personal oaths and pledges we are likely to take between this Yom Kippur and the next Yom Kippur, we publicly renounce. Let them all be relinquished and abandoned, null and void, neither firm nor established. Let our personal vows, pledges and oaths be considered neither vows nor pledges nor oaths.[11]

text: The leader and the congregation then say together three times "May all the people of Israel be forgiven, including all the strangers who live in their midst, for all the people are in fault." The Torah scrolls are then placed back into the Ark, and the Yom Kippur evening service begins.

text: Prayer services[edit]

text: Some married Ashkenazi Orthodox men wear a kittel, a white robe-like garment for evening prayers on Yom Kippur, otherwise used by males on their wedding day.[12][13] They also wear a tallit (prayer shawl), which is typically worn only during morning services.[14]

text: Prayer services begin with the Kol Nidrei prayer, which is recited before sunset. Kol Nidre is a prayer that dates back to 9th century Palestine. It is recited in a dramatic manner, before the open ark, using a melody that dates back to the 16th century.[15] Then the service continues with the evening prayers (Ma'ariv or Arvit) and an extended Selichot service.

text: The morning prayer service is preceded by litanies and petitions of forgiveness called selichot; on Yom Kippur, many selichot are woven into the liturgy of the mahzor (prayer book). The morning prayers are followed by an added prayer (Mussaf) as on all other holidays. This is followed by Mincha (the afternoon prayer) which includes a reading (Haftarah) of the entire Book of Jonah, which has as its theme the story of God's willingness to forgive those who repent.

text: The service concludes with the Ne'ila ("closing") prayer, which begins shortly before sunset, when the "gates of prayer" will be closed. Yom Kippur comes to an end with a recitation of Shema Yisrael and the blowing of the shofar,[16] which marks the conclusion of the fast.[14]

text:
Repentance in Judaism Teshuva
"Return"

Repentance, atonement and
higher ascent in Judaism

In the Hebrew Bible

Altars · Korban
Temple in Jerusalem
Prophecy within the Temple

Aspects

Confession · Atonement
Love of God · Awe of God
Mystical approach
Ethical approach
Meditation · Services
Torah study
Tzedakah · Mitzvot

In the Jewish calendar

Month of Elul · Selichot
Rosh Hashanah
Shofar · Tashlikh
Ten Days of Repentance
Kapparot · Mikveh
Yom Kippur
Sukkot · Simchat Torah
Ta'anit · Tisha B'Av
Passover · The Omer
Shavuot

In contemporary Judaism

Baal Teshuva movement
Jewish Renewal · Musar movement

v
t
e

text: Repentance (Teshuva) and confessional (Vidui)[edit]

text: The Talmud states, "Yom Kippur atones for those who repent and does not atone for those who do not repent".[17] Repentance in Judaism is done through a process called Teshuva, which in its most basic form consists of regretting having committed the sin, resolving not to commit that sin in the future and to confess that sin before God. Confession in Judaism is called Vidui (Hebrew וידוי). There is also a commandment to repent on Yom Kippur.[18] Accordingly, Yom Kippur is unique for the confessional, or Vidui, that is part of the prayer services. In keeping with the requirement to repent on Yom Kippur, Jews recite the full Vidui a total of 9 times: once during Mincha on Yom Kippur eve, and on Yom Kippur itself during Ma'ariv (2 times), Shacharit (2 times), Musaf (2 times), and Mincha (2 times); at Ne’eilah, only the short confessional is said. The first time in each service takes place during the personal recitation of the Amidah (standing, silent prayer), and the second time during the cantor's repetition of the Amidah (except during the preceding Mincha), in a public recitation.

text: The Yom Kippur confessional consists of two parts: a short confession beginning with the word Ashamnu (אשמנו, "we have sinned"), which is a series of words describing sin arranged according to the aleph-bet, and a long confession, beginning with the words Al Cheyt (על חטא, "for the sin"), which is a set of 22 double acrostics, also arranged according to the aleph-bet, enumerating a range of sins. It is notable that during the public recitation of Ashamnu together with the cantor, the entire congregation sings these words to a tune, representing the joy of being cleansed from one's sins.

text: Avodah: remembering the Temple service[edit]

text: A recitation of the sacrificial service of the Temple in Jerusalem traditionally features prominently in both the liturgy and the religious thought of the holiday. Specifically, the Avodah ("service") in the Musaf prayer recounts in great detail the sacrificial ceremonies of the Yom Kippur Korbanot (sacrificial offerings) that are recited in the prayers but have not been performed for 2,000 years, since the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans.

text: This traditional prominence is rooted in the Babylonian Talmud’s description of how to attain atonement following the destruction of the Temple. According to Talmud tractate Yoma, in the absence of a Temple, Jews are obligated to study the High Priest’s ritual on Yom Kippur, and this study helps achieve atonement for those who are unable to benefit from its actual performance. In Orthodox Judaism, accordingly, studying the Temple ritual on Yom Kippur represents a positive rabbinically ordained obligation which Jews seeking atonement are required to fulfill.

text: In Orthodox synagogues and many Conservative ones a detailed description of the Temple ritual is recited on the day. In most Orthodox and some Conservative synagogues, the entire congregation prostrates themselves at each point in the recitation where the Kohen Gadol (High Priest) would pronounce the Tetragrammaton (God’s holiest name, according to Judaism).

text: The main section of the Avodah is a threefold recitation of the High Priest’s actions regarding expiation in the Holy of Holies. Performing the sacrificial acts and reciting Leviticus 16:30, ("Your upright children"). (These three times, plus in some congregations the Aleinu prayer during the Musaf Amidah on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah, are the only times in Jewish services when Jews engage in prostration, with the exception of some Yemenite Jews and talmedhei haRambam (disciples of Maimonides) who may prostrate themselves on other occasions during the year). A variety of liturgical poems are added, including a poem recounting the radiance of the countenance of the Kohen Gadol after exiting the Holy of Holies, traditionally believed to emit palpable light in a manner echoing the Torah's account of the countenance of Moses after descending from Mount Sinai, as well as prayers for the speedy rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of sacrificial worship. There are a variety of other customs, such as hand gestures to mime the sprinkling of blood (one sprinkling upwards and seven downwards per set of eight).[19]

text: Orthodox liturgies include prayers lamenting the inability to perform the Temple service and petitioning for its restoration, which Conservative synagogues generally omit. In some Conservative synagogues, only the Hazzan (cantor) engages in full prostration. Some Conservative synagogues abridge the recitation of the Avodah service to varying degrees, and some omit it entirely. Many Reform and Reconstructionist services omit the entire service as inconsistent with modern sensibilities.

text: Date of Yom Kippur[edit]

text: Yom Kippur falls each year on the 10th day of the Jewish month of Tishrei, which is 9 days after the first day of Rosh Hashanah. In terms of the Gregorian calendar, the earliest date on which Yom Kippur can fall is September 14, as happened in 1899 and 2013. The latest Yom Kippur can occur relative to the Gregorian dates is on October 14, as happened in 1967 and will happen again in 2043. After 2089, the differences between the Hebrew calendar and the Gregorian calendar will result in Yom Kippur falling no earlier than September 15.[20] Gregorian calendar dates for this year's and upcoming Yom Kippur holidays are:

text:
2018 – Wednesday, September 19
2019 – Wednesday, October 9
2020 – Monday, September 28
2021 – Thursday, September 16
2022 – Wednesday, October 5

tag: ul

text: Note: Yom Kippur begins at sundown on the preceding day and ends at nightfall on the listed day.

text: In the Torah[edit]

text: The Torah calls the day Yom HaKippurim (יוֹם הַכִּיפּוּרִים) and in it Leviticus 23:27 decrees a strict prohibition of work and affliction of the soul upon the tenth day of the seventh month, later known as Tishrei. The laws of Yom Kippur are mentioned in three passages in the Torah:

text:
Leviticus 16:1–34: God told Moses to tell Aaron that he can only enter the sanctuary in front of the cover that is on the ark when God is present on the cover in a cloud. If Aaron is to enter otherwise, he will die. On the tenth day of the seventh month, God said that the people must not work in order to cleanse and atone for their sins. The Kohen will lead in the atonement of all the people.
Leviticus 23:26–32: God said to Moses that the tenth day of the month is the day of atonement and will be holy. The people must give a fire-offering to God and must not work. God told Moses that whoever does work, God will rid of the soul from its people. This is a day of complete rest from the evening of the ninth day of the month to the following evening.
Numbers 29:7–11: The tenth day of the seventh month is a holy day and one must not work. For an elevation offering, one must sacrifice a young bull, a ram and seven lambs who are a year old. As well, for a sin offering, one must sacrifice a male goat.[7]

text: Midrashic interpretation[edit]

text: Traditionally, Yom Kippur is considered the date on which Moses received the second set of Ten Commandments. It occurred following the completion of the second 40 days of instructions from God. At this same time, the Israelites were granted atonement for the sin of the Golden Calf; hence, its designation as the Day of Atonement.[21]

text: Mishnaic and Talmudic literature[edit]

text: Temple service[edit]

text: The following summary of the Temple service is based on the traditional Jewish religious account described in Mishnah tractate Yoma, appearing in contemporary traditional Jewish prayer books for Yom Kippur, and studied as part of a traditional Jewish Yom Kippur worship service.[19]

text: While the Temple in Jerusalem was standing (from Biblical times through 70 C.E.), the Kohen Gadol (High Priest) was mandated by the Torah to perform a complex set of special services and sacrifices for Yom Kippur to attain Divine atonement, the word "kippur" meaning "atone" in Hebrew. These services were considered to be the most important parts of Yom Kippur because through them the Kohen Gadol made atonement for all Jews and the world. During the service, the Kohen Gadol entered the Holy of Holies in the center of the Temple, the only time of the year that anyone went inside. Doing so required special purification and preparation, including five immersions in a mikvah (ritual bath), and four changes of clothing.

text: Seven days prior to Yom Kippur, the Kohen Gadol was sequestered in the Palhedrin chamber in the Temple, where he reviewed (studied) the service with the sages familiar with the Temple, and was sprinkled with spring water containing ashes of the Red Heifer as purification. The Talmud (Tractate Yoma) also reports that he practiced the incense offering ritual in the Avitnas chamber.

text: On the day of Yom Kippur, the Kohen Gadol had to follow a precise order of services, sacrifices, and purifications:

text:
Morning (Tamid) Offering The Kohen Gadol first performed the regular daily (Tamid) offering — usually performed by ordinary priests — in special golden garments, after immersing in a mikvah and washing his hands and feet.
Garment Change 1 The Kohen Gadol immersed in a special mikvah in the Temple courtyard and changed into special linen garments, and washed his hands and feet twice, once after removing the golden garments and once before putting on the linen garments.
Bull as Personal Sin-Offering The Kohen Gadol leaned (performed Semikha) and made a confession over the bull on behalf of himself and his household, pronouncing the Tetragrammaton. The people prostrated themselves when they heard. He then slaughtered the bull as a chatat (sin-offering) and received its blood in a bowl.
Lottery of the goats At the Eastern (Nikanor) gate, the Kohen Gadol drew lots from a lottery box over two goats. One was selected "for the Lord", and one "for Azazel". The Kohen Gadol tied a red band around the horns of the goat "for Azazel".
Incense Preparation The Kohen Gadol ascended the mizbeach (altar) and took a shovel full of embers with a special shovel. He was brought incense. He filled his hands and placed it in a vessel. (The Talmud considered this the most physically difficult part of the service, as the Kohen Gadol had to keep the shovelful of glowing coals balanced and prevent its contents from dropping, using his armpit or teeth, while filling his hands with the incense).
Incense Offering Holding the shovel and the vessel, he entered the Kadosh Hakadashim, the Temple’s Holy of Holies. In the days of the First Temple, he placed the shovel between the poles of the Ark of the Covenant. In the days of the Second Temple, he put the shovel where the Ark would have been. He waited until the chamber filled with smoke and left.
Sprinkling of Bull's Blood in the Holy of Holies The Kohen Gadol took the bowl with the bull’s blood and entered the Most Holy Place again. He sprinkled the bull’s blood with his finger eight times, before the Ark in the days of the First Temple, where it would have been in the days of the Second. The Kohen Gadol then left the Holy of Holies, putting the bowl on a stand in front of the Parochet (curtain separating the Holy from the Holy of Holies).
Goat for the Lord as Sin-Offering for Kohanim The Kohen Gadol went to the eastern end of the Israelite courtyard near the Nikanor Gate, laid his hands (semikha) on the goat "for the Lord", and pronounced confession on behalf of the Kohanim (priests). The people prostrated themselves when he pronounced the Tetragrammaton. He then slaughtered the goat, and received its blood in another bowl.
Sprinkling of Goat’s Blood in the Holy of Holies The Kohen Gadol took the bowl with the goat’s blood and entered the Kadosh Hakadashim, the Temple’s Holy of Holies again. He sprinkled the goat’s blood with his finger eight times the same way he had sprinkled the bull’s blood. The blood was sprinkled before the Ark in the days of the First Temple, where it would have been in the days of the Second Temple. The Kohen Gadol then left the Kadosh Hakadashim, putting the bowl on a stand in front of the Parochet (curtain separating the Holy from the Holy of Holies).
Sprinkling of blood in the Holy Standing in the Hekhal (Holy), on the other side of the Parochet from the Holy of Holies, the Kohen Gadol took the bull's blood from the stand and sprinkled it with his finger eight times in the direction of the Parochet. He then took the bowl with the goat's blood and sprinkled it eight times in the same manner, putting it back on the stand.
Smearing of blood on the Golden (Incense) Altar The Kohen Gadol removed the goat’s blood from the stand and mixed it with the bull's blood. Starting at the northeast corner, he then smeared the mixture of blood on each of the four corners of the Golden (Incense) altar in the Haichal. He then sprinkled the blood eight times on the altar.

text:
Goat for Azazel The Kohen Gadol left the Haichal and walked to the east side of the Azarah (Israelite courtyard). Near the Nikanor Gate, he leaned his hands (Semikha) on the goat "for Azazel" and confessed the sins of the entire people of Israel. The people prostrated themselves when he pronounced the Tetragrammaton. While he made a general confession, individuals in the crowd at the Temple would confess privately. The Kohen Gadol then sent the goat off "to the wilderness". In practice, to prevent its return to human habitation, the goat was led to a cliff outside Jerusalem and pushed off its edge.
Preparation of sacrificial animals While the goat "for Azazel" was being led to the cliff, the Kohen Gadol removed the insides of the bull, and intertwined the bodies of the bull and goat. Other people took the bodies to the Beit HaDeshen (place of the ashes). They were burned there after it was confirmed that the goat "for Azazel" had reached the wilderness.
Reading the Torah After it was confirmed that the goat "for Azazel" had been pushed off the cliff, the Kohen Gadol passed through the Nikanor Gate into the Ezrat Nashim (Women’s Courtyard) and read sections of the Torah describing Yom Kippur and its sacrifices.
Garment change 2 The Kohen Gadol removed his linen garments, immersed in the mikvah in the Temple courtyard, and changed into a second set of special golden garments. He washed his hands and feet both before removing the linen garments and after putting on the golden ones.
Offering of Rams The Kohen Gadol offered two rams as an olah offering, slaughtering them on the north side of the mizbeach (outer altar), receiving their blood in a bowl, carrying the bowl to the outer altar, and dashing the blood on the northeast and southwest corners of the Outer Altar. He dismembered the rams and burned the parts entirely on the outer altar. He then offered the accompanying mincha (grain) offerings and nesachim (wine-libations).
Musaf Offering The Kohen Gadol then offered the Musaf offering.
Burning of Innards The Kohen Gadol placed the insides of the bull and goat on the outer altar and burned them entirely.
Garment change 3 The Kohen Gadol removed his golden garments, immersed in the mikvah, and changed to a new set of linen garments, again washing his hands and feet twice.
Removal of Incense from the Holy of Holies The Kohen Gadol returned to the Holy of Holies and removed the bowl of incense and the shovel.
Garment Change 4 The Kohen Gadol removed his linen garments, immersed in the mikvah, and changed into a third set of golden garments, again washing his hands and feet twice.
Evening (Tamid) Offering The Kohen Gadol completed the afternoon portion of the regular (tamid) daily offering in the special golden garments. He washed his hands and feet a tenth time.

text: The Kohen Gadol wore five sets of garments (three golden and two white linen), immersed in the mikvah five times, and washed his hands and feet ten times. Sacrifices included two (daily) lambs, one bull, two goats, and two rams, with accompanying mincha (meal) offerings, wine libations, and three incense offerings (the regular two daily and an additional one for Yom Kippur). The Kohen Gadol entered the Holy of Holies three times. The Tetragrammaton was pronounced three times, once for each confession.[19]

text: Observance in Israel[edit]

text: Yom Kippur is a legal holiday in the modern state of Israel. There are no radio or television broadcasts, airports are shut down, there is no public transportation, and all shops and businesses are closed.[22]

text: In 2013, 73% of the Jewish people of Israel said that they were intending to fast on Yom Kippur.[23] It is very common in Israel to wish "Tsom Kal" ([an] easy fast) or "Tsom Mo'il" ([a] benefiting fast) to everyone before Yom Kippur, even if one does not know whether they will fast or not.

text: It is considered impolite to eat in public on Yom Kippur or to sound music or to drive a motor vehicle. There is no legal prohibition on any of these, but in practice such actions are universally[citation needed] avoided in Israel during Yom Kippur, except for emergency services.

text: Over the last few decades, bicycle-riding and inline skating on the empty streets have become common among secular Israeli youngsters, especially on the eve of Yom Kippur in Tel Aviv[24] and Israel in general.

text: In 1973, an air raid siren was sounded on the afternoon of Yom Kippur and radio broadcasts were resumed to alert the public to the surprise attack on Israel by Egypt and Syria that launched the Yom Kippur War.

text: Observance by athletes[edit]

text: Some notable athletes have observed Yom Kippur, even when it conflicted with their playing their sport.

text: In baseball, Sandy Koufax, the Hall of Fame pitcher, decided not to pitch Game 1 of the 1965 World Series because it fell on Yom Kippur. Koufax garnered national attention for his decision, as an example of the conflict between social pressures and personal beliefs.[25]

text: Hall of Fame first baseman Hank Greenberg attracted national attention in 1934, nearly three decades earlier, when he refused to play baseball on Yom Kippur, even though the Tigers were in the middle of a pennant race, and he was leading the league in RBIs.[26] The Detroit Free Press columnist and poet Edgar A. Guest wrote a poem titled "Speaking of Greenberg", which ended with the lines "We shall miss him on the infield and shall miss him at the bat / But he's true to his religion—and I honor him for that."[27] When Greenberg arrived in synagogue on Yom Kippur, the service stopped suddenly, and the congregation gave an embarrassed Greenberg a standing ovation.[28]

text: Former Los Angeles Dodgers outfielder Shawn Green, similarly, made headlines in 2001 for sitting out a game for the first time in 415 games (then the longest streak among active players), to honor Yom Kippur, even though his team was in the middle of a playoff race.[26] Other baseball players who have similarly sat out games on Yom Kippur include former Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees third baseman Kevin Youkilis, former Houston Astros catcher and current Detroit Tigers manager Brad Ausmus, and outfielder Art Shamsky.[29][30][31]

text: Gabe Carimi, the Consensus All-American left tackle in American football who won the 2010 Outland Trophy as the nation's top collegiate interior lineman faced a conflict in his freshman year of college in 2007. That year Yom Kippur fell on a Saturday, and he fasted until an hour before his football game against Iowa started that night.[32][33][34] Carimi said, "Religion is a part of me, and I don't want to just say I'm Jewish. I actually do make sacrifices that I know are hard choices."[32][35][36] In 2004, Matt Bernstein, standout fullback at University of Wisconsin–Madison, fasted on Yom Kippur, then broke his fast on the sidelines before rushing for 123 yards in a game against Penn State.[37]

text: In 2011, golfer Laetitia Beck declined a request to join the UNC Tar-Heels Invitational competition, because it conflicted with Yom Kippur.[38][39] Instead, she spent the day fasting and praying.[38] She said: "My Judaism is very important to me, and ... on Yom Kippur, no matter what, I have to fast."[38] Boris Gelfand, Israel's top chess player, played his game in the prestigious London Grand Prix Chess Tournament on 25 September 2012 (eve of Yom Kippur) earlier, to avoid playing on the holiday.[40]

text: In 2013, the International Tennis Federation fined the Israel Tennis Association "more than $13,000 ... for the inconvenience" of having to reschedule a tennis match between the Israeli and Belgian teams that was originally scheduled on Yom Kippur.[41][42] Dudi Sela, Israel's # 1 player, quit his quarterfinal match in the third set of the 2017 Shenzhen Open so he could begin observing Yom Kippur by the time the sun set, forfeiting a possible $34,000 in prize money and 90 rankings points.[43][44]

text: Related observances in other religions[edit]

text: Messianic Jews and some other sabbatarian churches also observe Yom Kippur as a holy day, from evening to evening. In the Christian observance, it is a time of prayer and fasting from all food and drink and a time of instruction through study and church attendance. It focuses on Christ's sacrifice and atonement for sins. It is seen as a time to give thanks and praise, to humble oneself and to seek repentance. It is also a time where Messianic Jews pray for Israel and Jews who have not yet proclaimed Yeshua/Jesus is the Messiah that was promised in prophesies from the Old Testament.[relevant? – discuss][citation needed]

text: Recognition by the United Nations[edit]

text: Starting 2016 the United Nations officially recognizes Yom Kippur, stating that from then on no official meetings would take place on the day.[45] As well, the United Nations stated that, beginning in 2016, they would have nine official holidays and seven floating holidays which each employee would be able to choose one of.[45] It stated that the floating holidays will be Yom Kippur, Day of Vesak, Diwali, Gurpurab, Orthodox Christmas, Orthodox Good Friday, and Presidents' Day.[45] This was the first time the United Nations officially recognized any Jewish holiday.[45]

text: Modern scholarship[edit]

text: According to textual scholars, the biblical regulations covering Yom Kippur are spliced together from multiple source texts,[46][47] as indicated by evidence such as with the duplication of the confession over the bullock,[48] and the incongruity in one verse stating that the high priest should not enter the Holy of Holies (with the inference that there are exceptions for certain explicitly identified festivals),[49] and the next verse indicating that they can enter whenever they wish (as long as a specific ritual is carried out first).[46] Although Rashi tried to find a harmonistic explanation for this incongruity, the Leviticus Rabbah maintains that it was indeed the case that the high priest could enter at any time if these rituals were carried out.[50] Textual scholars argue that the ritual is composed from three sources, and a couple of redactional additions:[46][47]

text:
prerequisite rituals before the high priest can enter the Holy of Holies (on any occasion), namely a sin offering and a whole offering, followed by the filling of the Holy of Holies with a cloud of incense while wearing linen garments[51]
regulations which establish an annual day of fasting and rest, during which the sanctuary and people are purified, without stating the ritual for doing so;[52] this regulation is very similar to the one in the Holiness Code[53]
later elaborations of the ceremony,[54] which include the sprinkling of the blood on the mercy seat, and the use of a scapegoat sent to Azazel; the same source also being responsible for small alterations to related regulations[55]
the redactional additions[56]

text: On the basis of their assumptions, these scholars believe that the original ceremony was simply the ritual purification of the sanctuary from any accidental ritual impurity, at the start of each new year, as seen in the Book of Ezekiel. Textual scholars date this original ceremony to before the priestly source, but after JE.[57][58] According to the Book of Ezekiel, the sanctuary was to be cleansed by the sprinkling of bullock's blood, on the first day of the first and of the seventh months[59] — near the start of the civil year and of the ecclesiastical year, respectively; although the masoretic text of the Book of Ezekiel has the second of these cleansings on the seventh of the first month, biblical scholars regard the Septuagint, which has the second cleaning as being the first of the seventh month, as being more accurate here.[57] It appears that during the period that the Holiness Code and the Book of Ezekiel were written, the new year began on the tenth day of the seventh month,[60][61] and thus liberal biblical scholars believe that by the time the Priestly Code was compiled, the date of the new year and of the day of atonement had swapped around.[46]


document_title: Director of the National Security Agency

question_text: who is the head of the national security agency

text: AFSA directors[edit]

text: The Armed Forces Security Agency was the predecessor to the National Security Agency and existed from 1949 to 1952.

text:
#
Director
Service
Term
President(s) served under

1
RADM Earl E. Stone
USN
1949–1951
Harry S. Truman

2
MG Ralph Canine
USA
1951–1952
Harry S. Truman

text: NSA directors[edit]

text:
#
Director
Photo
Service
Term
President(s) served under

1
MG Ralph Canine

USA
1952–1956
Harry S. Truman
Dwight D. Eisenhower

2
Lt Gen John Samford

USAF
1956–1960
Dwight D. Eisenhower

3
VADM Laurence Frost

USN
1960–1962
Dwight D. Eisenhower
John F. Kennedy

4
Lt Gen Gordon Blake

USAF
1962–1965
John F. Kennedy
Lyndon B. Johnson

5
LTG Marshall Carter

USA
1965–1969
Lyndon B. Johnson
Richard Nixon

6
VADM Noel Gayler

USN
1969–1972
Richard Nixon

7
Lt Gen Samuel C. Phillips

USAF
1972–1973
Richard Nixon

8
Lt Gen Lew Allen

USAF
1973–1977
Richard Nixon
Gerald Ford
Jimmy Carter

9
VADM Bobby Ray Inman

USN
1977–1981
Jimmy Carter
Ronald Reagan

10
Lt Gen Lincoln Faurer

USAF
1981–1985
Ronald Reagan

11
LTG William Odom

USA
1985–1988
Ronald Reagan

12
VADM William Studeman

USN
1988–1992
Ronald Reagan
George H. W. Bush

13
VADM John M. McConnell

USN
1992–1996
George H. W. Bush
Bill Clinton

14
Lt Gen Kenneth A. Minihan

USAF
1996–1999
Bill Clinton

15
Lt Gen Michael Hayden

USAF
1999–2005
Bill Clinton
George W. Bush

16
LTG/GEN Keith B. Alexander[2]

USA
August 1, 2005 – March 28, 2014
George W. Bush
Barack Obama

17
ADM Michael S. Rogers

USN
April 2, 2014 – present
Barack Obama
Donald Trump