document_title: Western blot

question_text: in western blotting the non-specific sites on the membrane can be blocked by

text: Western blot

text: Applications[edit]

text: The western blot is extensively used in biochemistry for the qualitative detection of single proteins and protein-modifications (such as post-translational modifications). It is used as a general method to specifically prove the existence of a single protein in a mixture. A semi-quantitative estimation of a protein can be derived from the size and color intensity of a protein band on the blot membrane. By also applying a dilution series of a purified protein with known concentrations, a more precise estimate of the quantity can be obtained. The western blot is routinely used for verification of protein production after cloning. It is also used in medical diagnostics, e. g. in the HIV test or BSE-Test.

text: The confirmatory HIV test employs a western blot to detect anti-HIV antibody in a human serum sample. Proteins from known HIV-infected cells are separated and blotted on a membrane as above. Then, the serum to be tested is applied in the primary antibody incubation step; free antibody is washed away, and a secondary anti-human antibody linked to an enzyme signal is added. The stained bands then indicate the proteins to which the patient's serum contains antibody.[citation needed]

text: A western blot is also used as the definitive test for variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, a type of prion disease linked to the consumption of contaminated beef from cattle with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, commonly referred to as 'mad cow disease').[4]

text: Some forms of Lyme disease testing employ western blotting.[citation needed] A western blot can also be used as a confirmatory test for Hepatitis B infection and HSV-2 (Herpes Type 2) infection.[citation needed] In veterinary medicine, a western blot is sometimes used to confirm FIV+ status in cats.[citation needed]

text: Further applications of the western blot technique include its use by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Blood doping is the misuse of certain techniques and/or substances to increase one's red blood cell mass, which allows the body to transport more oxygen to muscles and therefore increase stamina and performance. There are three widely known substances or methods used for blood doping, namely, erythropoietin (EPO), synthetic oxygen carriers and blood transfusions. Each is prohibited under WADA's List of Prohibited Substances and Methods. The western blot technique was used during the 2014 FIFA World Cup in the anti-doping campaign for that event.[5] In total, over 1000 samples were collected and analyzed by Reichel, et al.[6] in the WADA accredited Laboratory of Lausanne, Switzerland. Recent research utilizing the western blot technique showed an improved detection of EPO in blood and urine based on novel Velum SAR precast horizontal gels optimized for routine analysis.[7] With the adoption of the horizontal SAR-PAGE in combination with the precast film-supported Velum SAR gels the discriminatory capacity of micro-dose application of rEPO was significantly enhanced.

text: Procedure[edit]

text: The western blot method is composed of a gel electrophoresis to separate native proteins by 3-D structure or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide, followed by an electrophoretic transfer onto a membrane (mostly PVDF or Nitrocellulose) and an immunostaining procedure to visualize a certain protein on the blot membrane. SDS-PAGE is generally used for the denaturing electrophoretic separation of proteins. SDS is generally used as a buffer (as well as in the gel) in order to give all proteins present a uniform negative charge, since proteins can be positively, negatively, or neutrally charged. This type of electrophoresis is known as SDS-PAGE (SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). Prior to electrophoresis, protein samples are often boiled to denature the proteins present. This ensures that proteins are separated based on size and prevents proteases (enzymes that break down proteins) from degrading samples. Following electrophoretic separation, the proteins are transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are blocked with milk (or other blocking agents) to prevent non-specific antibody binding, and then stained with antibodies specific to the target protein.[3][8] Lastly, the membrane will be stained with a secondary antibody that recognizes the first antibody staining, which can then be used for detection by a variety of methods. The gel electrophoresis step is included in western blot analysis to resolve the issue of the cross-reactivity of antibodies.

text: Tissue preparation[edit]

text: Samples can be taken from whole tissue or from cell culture. Solid tissues are first broken down mechanically using a blender (for larger sample volumes), using a homogenizer (smaller volumes), or by sonication. Cells may also be broken open by one of the above mechanical methods. However, virus or environmental samples can be the source of protein and thus western blotting is not restricted to cellular studies only.

text: Assorted detergents, salts, and buffers may be employed to encourage lysis of cells and to solubilize proteins. Protease and phosphatase inhibitors are often added to prevent the digestion of the sample by its own enzymes. Tissue preparation is often done at cold temperatures to avoid protein denaturing and degradation.

text: A combination of biochemical and mechanical techniques – comprising various types of filtration and centrifugation – can be used to separate different cell compartments and organelles.

text: Gel electrophoresis[edit]

text: The proteins of the sample are separated using gel electrophoresis. Separation of proteins may be by isoelectric point (pI), molecular weight, electric charge, or a combination of these factors. The nature of the separation depends on the treatment of the sample and the nature of the gel. This is a very useful way to identify a protein.

text: By far the most common type of gel electrophoresis employs polyacrylamide gels and buffers loaded with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). SDS-PAGE (SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) maintains polypeptides in a denatured state once they have been treated with strong reducing agents to remove secondary and tertiary structure (e.g. disulfide bonds [S-S] to sulfhydryl groups [SH and SH]) and thus allows separation of proteins by their molecular mass. Sampled proteins become covered in the negatively charged SDS and move to the positively charged electrode through the acrylamide mesh of the gel. Smaller proteins migrate faster through this mesh, and the proteins are thus separated according to size (usually measured in kilodaltons, kDa). The concentration of acrylamide determines the resolution of the gel - the greater the acrylamide concentration, the better the resolution of lower molecular weight proteins. The lower the acrylamide concentration, the better the resolution of higher molecular weight proteins. Proteins travel only in one dimension along the gel for most blots.

text: Samples are loaded into wells in the gel. One lane is usually reserved for a marker or ladder, a commercially available mixture of proteins having defined molecular weights, typically stained so as to form visible, coloured bands. When voltage is applied along the gel, proteins migrate through it at different speeds dependent on their size. These different rates of advancement (different electrophoretic mobilities) separate into bands within each lane.

text: It is also possible to use a two-dimensional (2-D) gel which spreads the proteins from a single sample out in two dimensions. Proteins are separated according to isoelectric point (pH at which they have a neutral net charge) in the first dimension, and according to their molecular weight in the second dimension.

text: Transfer[edit]

text: To make the proteins accessible to antibody detection, they are moved from within the gel onto a membrane made of nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF). The primary method for transferring the proteins is called electroblotting and uses an electric current to pull proteins from the gel into the PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane. The proteins move from within the gel onto the membrane while maintaining the organization they had within the gel. An older method of transfer involves placing a membrane on top of the gel, and a stack of filter papers on top of that. The entire stack is placed in a buffer solution which moves up the paper by capillary action, bringing the proteins with it. In practice this method is not used as it takes too much time; electroblotting is preferred. As a result of either "blotting" process, the proteins are exposed on a thin surface layer for detection (see below). Both varieties of membrane are chosen for their non-specific protein binding properties (i.e. binds all proteins equally well). Protein binding is based upon hydrophobic interactions, as well as charged interactions between the membrane and protein. Nitrocellulose membranes are cheaper than PVDF, but are far more fragile and do not stand up well to repeated probings.

text: Total protein staining[edit]

text: This step visualizes the total protein that has been successfully transferred to the membrane. Total protein staining allows the user to check the uniformity of protein transfer and to perform subsequent normalization of the target protein with the actual protein amount per lane. Normalization with the so-called "loading control" has based on immunostaining of housekeeping proteins in the classical procedure, but is heading toward total protein staining recently, due to multiple benefits. [9] At least seven different approaches for total protein staining have been described for western blot normalization: Ponceau S, stain-free techniques, Sypro Ruby, Epicocconone, Coomassie R-350, Amido Black, and Cy5[disambiguation needed]. [9] In order to avoid noise of signal, total protein staining should be performed before blocking of the membrane. Nevertheless, post-antibody stainings have been described as well. [10]

text: Blocking[edit]

text: Since the membrane has been chosen for its ability to bind protein and as both antibodies and the target are proteins, steps must be taken to prevent the interactions between the membrane and the antibody used for detection of the target protein. Blocking of non-specific binding is achieved by placing the membrane in a dilute solution of protein – typically 3–5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) or non-fat dry milk (both are inexpensive) in tris-buffered saline (TBS) or I-Block, with a minute percentage (0.1%) of detergent such as Tween 20 or Triton X-100. Although non-fat dry milk is preferred due to its availability, an appropriate blocking solution is needed as not all proteins in milk are compatible with all the detection bands.[11] The protein in the dilute solution attaches to the membrane in all places where the target proteins have not attached. Thus, when the antibody is added, there is no room on the membrane for it to attach other than on the binding sites of the specific target protein. This reduces background in the final product of the western blot, leading to clearer results, and eliminates false positives.

text: Incubation[edit]

text: During the detection process the membrane is "probed" for the protein of interest with a modified antibody which is linked to a reporter enzyme; when exposed to an appropriate substrate, this enzyme drives a colorimetric reaction and produces a color. For a variety of reasons, this traditionally takes place in a two-step process, although there are now one-step detection methods available for certain applications.

text: Primary antibody[edit]

text: The primary antibodies are generated when a host species or immune cell culture is exposed to the protein of interest (or a part thereof). Normally, this is part of the immune response, whereas here they are harvested and used as sensitive and specific detection tools that bind the protein directly.

text: After blocking, a dilute solution of primary antibody (generally between 0.5 and 5 micrograms/mL) is incubated with the membrane under gentle agitation. The primary antibody is then diluted with PBS or TBST wash buffers. Washing the membranes with the antibody-buffer solution helps minimize background and removes unbound antibodies.[11] Typically, the solution is composed of buffered saline solution with a small percentage of detergent, and sometimes with powdered milk or BSA. The antibody solution and the membrane can be sealed and incubated together for anywhere from 30 minutes to overnight. It can also be incubated at different temperatures, with lesser temperatures being associated with more binding, both specific (to the target protein, the "signal") and non-specific ("noise").

text: Secondary antibody[edit]

text: After rinsing the membrane to remove unbound primary antibody, the membrane is exposed to another antibody, directed at a species-specific portion of the primary antibody. Antibodies come from animal sources (or animal sourced hybridoma cultures); an anti-mouse secondary will bind to almost any mouse-sourced primary antibody, which allows some cost savings by allowing an entire lab to share a single source of mass-produced antibody, and provides far more consistent results. This is known as a secondary antibody, and due to its targeting properties, tends to be referred to as "anti-mouse", "anti-goat", etc. The secondary antibody is usually linked to biotin or a reporter enzyme such as alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase. This means that several secondary antibodies will bind to one primary antibody and enhance the signal.

text: Most commonly, a horseradish peroxidase-linked secondary is used to cleave a chemiluminescent agent, and the reaction product produces luminescence in proportion to the amount of protein. A sensitive sheet of photographic film is placed against the membrane, and exposure to the light from the reaction creates an image of the antibodies bound to the blot. A cheaper but less sensitive approach utilizes a 4-chloronaphthol stain with 1% hydrogen peroxide; the reaction of peroxide radicals with 4-chloronaphthol produces a dark purple stain that can be photographed without using specialized photographic film.

text: As with the ELISPOT and ELISA procedures, the enzyme can be provided with a substrate molecule that will be converted by the enzyme to a colored reaction product that will be visible on the membrane (see the figure below with blue bands).

text: Another method of secondary antibody detection utilizes a near-infrared (NIR) fluorophore-linked antibody. The light produced from the excitation of a fluorescent dye is static, making fluorescent detection a more precise and accurate measure of the difference in the signal produced by labeled antibodies bound to proteins on a western blot. Proteins can be accurately quantified because the signal generated by the different amounts of proteins on the membranes is measured in a static state, as compared to chemiluminescence, in which light is measured in a dynamic state.[12]

text: A third alternative is to use a radioactive label rather than an enzyme coupled to the secondary antibody, such as labeling an antibody-binding protein like Staphylococcus Protein A or Streptavidin with a radioactive isotope of iodine. Since other methods are safer, quicker, and cheaper, this method is now rarely used; however, an advantage of this approach is the sensitivity of auto-radiography-based imaging, which enables highly accurate protein quantification when combined with optical software (e.g. Optiquant).

text: One step[edit]

text: Historically, the probing process was performed in two steps because of the relative ease of producing primary and secondary antibodies in separate processes. This gives researchers and corporations huge advantages in terms of flexibility, and adds an amplification step to the detection process. Given the advent of high-throughput protein analysis and lower limits of detection, however, there has been interest in developing one-step probing systems that would allow the process to occur faster and with fewer consumables. This requires a probe antibody which both recognizes the protein of interest and contains a detectable label, probes which are often available for known protein tags. The primary probe is incubated with the membrane in a manner similar to that for the primary antibody in a two-step process, and then is ready for direct detection after a series of wash steps.

text: Detection and visualization[edit]

text: After the unbound probes are washed away, the western blot is ready for detection of the probes that are labeled and bound to the protein of interest. In practical terms, not all westerns reveal protein only at one band in a membrane. Size approximations are taken by comparing the stained bands to that of the marker or ladder loaded during electrophoresis. The process is commonly repeated for a structural protein, such as actin or tubulin, that should not change between samples. The amount of target protein is normalized to the structural protein to control between groups. A superior strategy is the normalization to the total protein visualized with trichloroethanol[13][14] or epicocconone.[15] This practice ensures correction for the amount of total protein on the membrane in case of errors or incomplete transfers. (see western blot normalization)

text: Colorimetric detection[edit]

text: The colorimetric detection method depends on incubation of the western blot with a substrate that reacts with the reporter enzyme (such as peroxidase) that is bound to the secondary antibody. This converts the soluble dye into an insoluble form of a different color that precipitates next to the enzyme and thereby stains the membrane. Development of the blot is then stopped by washing away the soluble dye. Protein levels are evaluated through densitometry (how intense the stain is) or spectrophotometry.

text: Chemiluminescent detection[edit]

text: Chemiluminescent detection methods depend on incubation of the western blot with a substrate that will luminesce when exposed to the reporter on the secondary antibody. The light is then detected by CCD cameras which capture a digital image of the western blot or photographic film. The use of film for western blot detection is slowly disappearing because of non linearity of the image (non accurate quantification). The image is analysed by densitometry, which evaluates the relative amount of protein staining and quantifies the results in terms of optical density. Newer software allows further data analysis such as molecular weight analysis if appropriate standards are used.

text: Radioactive detection[edit]

text: Radioactive labels do not require enzyme substrates, but rather, allow the placement of medical X-ray film directly against the western blot, which develops as it is exposed to the label and creates dark regions which correspond to the protein bands of interest (see image to the right). The importance of radioactive detections methods is declining due to its hazardous radiation[citation needed], because it is very expensive, health and safety risks are high, and ECL (enhanced chemiluminescence) provides a useful alternative.

text: Fluorescent detection[edit]

text: The fluorescently labeled probe is excited by light and the emission of the excitation is then detected by a photosensor such as a CCD camera equipped with appropriate emission filters which captures a digital image of the western blot and allows further data analysis such as molecular weight analysis and a quantitative western blot analysis. Fluorescence is considered to be one of the best methods for quantification but is less sensitive than chemiluminescence.[16]

text: Secondary probing[edit]

text: One major difference between nitrocellulose and PVDF membranes relates to the ability of each to support "stripping" antibodies off and reusing the membrane for subsequent antibody probes. While there are well-established protocols available for stripping nitrocellulose membranes, the sturdier PVDF allows for easier stripping, and for more reuse before background noise limits experiments. Another difference is that, unlike nitrocellulose, PVDF must be soaked in 95% ethanol, isopropanol or methanol before use. PVDF membranes also tend to be thicker and more resistant to damage during use.

text: 2-D gel electrophoresis[edit]

text: 2-dimensional SDS-PAGE uses the principles and techniques outlined above. 2-D SDS-PAGE, as the name suggests, involves the migration of polypeptides in 2 dimensions. For example, in the first dimension, polypeptides are separated according to isoelectric point, while in the second dimension, polypeptides are separated according to their molecular weight. The isoelectric point of a given protein is determined by the relative number of positively (e.g. lysine, arginine) and negatively (e.g. glutamate, aspartate) charged amino acids, with negatively charged amino acids contributing to a low isoelectric point and positively charged amino acids contributing to a high isoelectric point. Samples could also be separated first under nonreducing conditions using SDS-PAGE, and under reducing conditions in the second dimension, which breaks apart disulfide bonds that hold subunits together. SDS-PAGE might also be coupled with urea-PAGE for a 2-dimensional gel.

text: In principle, this method allows for the separation of all cellular proteins on a single large gel. A major advantage of this method is that it often distinguishes between different isoforms of a particular protein - e.g. a protein that has been phosphorylated (by addition of a negatively charged group). Proteins that have been separated can be cut out of the gel and then analysed by mass spectrometry, which identifies the protein.


document_title: Bring Me the Horizon

question_text: where did bring me the horizon get their name

root

text: Bring Me the Horizon

text: History

text: Formation, signing and first EP (2002–2006)

text: Bring Me the Horizon's founding members came from diverse musical backgrounds within metal and rock. Matt Nicholls and Oliver Sykes had a common interest in American metalcore such as Norma Jean and Skycamefalling, and used to attend local hardcore punk shows. They later met Lee Malia, who spoke with them about thrash metal and melodic death metal bands like Metallica and At the Gates; Malia had also been part of a Metallica tribute band before meeting the pair.[4] Bring Me the Horizon officially formed in March 2004, when the members were aged 15 to 17.[5] Curtis Ward, who also lived in the Rotherham area, joined Sykes, Malia and Nicholls on drums. Bassist Matt Kean, who was in other local bands, completed the line-up.[6] Their name was taken from the line in the film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, where Captain Jack Sparrow says "Now, bring me that horizon."[7]

tag: p

text: In the months following their formation, Bring Me the Horizon created a demo album titled Bedroom Sessions. They followed this by releasing their first EP, This Is What the Edge of Your Seat Was Made For in September 2004 through local UK label Thirty Days of Night Records.[6] Bring Me the Horizon were the label's first signing.[8] It was recorded at Pristine Studios in Nottingham over the course of two weekends, with drums and bass guitar laid down over the first weekend, and guitars and vocals completed a week later.[9]

text: UK label Visible Noise noticed the band after the release of their EP,[6] and signed them for a four-album deal, in addition to re-releasing the EP in January 2005.[6] The re-release gained the band significant attention, eventually peaking at No. 41 on the UK album charts.[10] The band was later awarded Best British Newcomer at the 2006 Kerrang! Awards ceremony.[11]

text: The band's first tour was supporting The Red Chord across the United Kingdom.[6] As with other early tours, they were able to get this slot by tricking venue promoters. Kean and Oliver's mother Carol Sykes were the de facto managers of the band at this time, a role they continued to occupy until 2008.[6] For The Red Chord support, Kean emailed promoters and pretended they were opening on all the dates, when they were supposed to play only at their local show. This led them to being booked for the whole tour. In another case, Sykes created an e-mail account in the name of Johnny Truant vocalist Oliver Mitchell, which he used to contact a promoter requesting Bring Me the Horizon on their tour.[6] Alcohol consumption fuelled their live performances in their early history when the band would get so drunk they vomited on stage and damaged their equipment.[6]

text: Debut album Count Your Blessings (2006–2007)

text: The band released their debut album Count Your Blessings in October 2006 in the United Kingdom and in August 2007 in the United States. They rented a house in the country to write songs, but easily became distracted. They then recorded the album in inner-city Birmingham, a process which was infamous for their excessive and dangerous drinking. During this period drummer Nicholls summarised it saying "we were out every night, just being regular 18-year-olds".[12] Critics panned the album adding to the strongly polarised responses the band were already seeing from the public.[5]

text: They supported Count Your Blessings by going on a lengthy headline tour of the UK in November,[13] and immediately followed this joining Lostprophets and The Blackout on a UK tour[14] through late November and December 2006.

text: In January 2007, Bring Me the Horizon were able to set their sights beyond the UK, when they replaced Bury Your Dead on Killswitch Engage's European headline tour. The slot became available after Bury Your Dead were forced to withdraw by the departure from the band of their vocalist, Mat Bruso.[15] Bring Me the Horizon's presence on the tour was poorly received by fans of Killswitch Engage, with concert attendees regularly throwing bottles at the band before they even started playing their set.[16]

text: Suicide Season and Ward's departure (2008–2009)

text: Bring Me the Horizon recorded their second studio album, Suicide Season, in Sweden with producer Fredrik Nordström. He was unimpressed with their first album and was initially absent from the recording sessions unless he needed to be there. Nordström later heard the new sound they were experimenting with during a recording session and became very involved in the record.[17] It was promoted virally in the weeks before its release with the promotional tag line "September is Suicide Season."[18] To promote Suicide Season the band embarked on their first headline tour of the United States, as well as appearing at the 2008 Warped Tour. In May 2008, Bring Me the Horizon was the main supporting band on I Killed the Prom Queen's farewell Australian tour with The Ghost Inside and The Red Shore.[19]

text: Suicide Season was released on 18 September 2008 in the United States on Epitaph and on 29 September in Europe through Visible Noise. In 2009, Bring Me the Horizon attended the 2009 Kerrang! Tour alongside Black Tide, Dir En Grey, In Case of Fire and Mindless Self Indulgence.[20] They also joined Thursday, Cancer Bats, Four Year Strong and Pierce the Veil on the North American leg of the 2009 Taste of Chaos tour from February to April[12] after the tour's organizer Kevin Lyman offered them the slot.[note 1]

text: During the Taste of Chaos tour in March of that year, guitarist Curtis Ward left the band.[22] His relationship with the band had deteriorated as his stage performances were poor. He was abusive to audiences during the Taste of Chaos tour,[12] and had contributed little to the writing of Suicide Season.[9] Another reason for his departure was the worsening tinnitus in his one functioning ear. Ward was born deaf in one ear and admitted playing in the band worsened the ringing in his other ear to such a degree that he was unable to sleep at night.[23] Ward offered to perform the rest of the tour dates, which the band rejected and instead asked their guitar technician, Dean Rowbotham, to substitute for him for the remaining performances.[12] Lee Malia noted that Ward's departure helped improve everyone's mood as he had been very negative.[12] Within a week of the tour finishing, Sykes began talking to Jona Weinhofen, at the time the guitarist of Bleeding Through. The band knew of him from his work with his former band I Killed the Prom Queen,[12] and he was asked to join them.[24] Ward has since worked on the TV show Top Gear,[25] and has occasionally performed on stage with Bring Me The Horizon, playing "Pray For Plagues", most notably at Wembley Arena in 2015.[26] In 2016, it was announced that Ward had joined the band Counting Days.[27]

text: In November 2009, Bring Me the Horizon released a remixed version of Suicide Season, titled Suicide Season: Cut Up! Musicians and producers featured on the album include: Ben Weinman, Skrillex, L’Amour La Morgue, Utah Saints and Shawn Crahan.[28] Musically, the album incorporates many genres including: electronica, drum and bass, hip-hop and dubstep. The dubstep style of the record has been acknowledged in tracks by Tek-One[29] and Skrillex while the hip-hop elements are found in Travis McCoy's remix of "Chelsea Smile".[citation needed]

text: There Is a Hell... and The Chill Out Sessions (2010–2011)

text: The band's third album, and first with their new rhythm guitarist Jona Weinhofen, titled There Is a Hell, Believe Me I've Seen It. There Is a Heaven, Let's Keep It a Secret., was released on 4 October 2010 and debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 in the United States,[30] number 13 on the UK Album Chart,[31] and number one on the Australian Albums Chart,[32] the UK Rock Chart[33] and the UK Indie Chart.[34] Despite reaching number one in Australia, the album's sales were the lowest for a number one album in the history of the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) charts.[35]

text: Matt Nicholls describes the lyrical themes of There Is a Hell as being "repercussions of everything we were singing about on our last CD [Suicide Season]," calling the music and lyrics a lot moodier and darker.[9] Five singles  were released from the album including: "It Never Ends", "Anthem", "Blessed with a Curse", "Visions", and "Alligator Blood", with music videos produced for each of the songs. The band embarked on a headline tour in intimate venues across the United Kingdom with support from Cancer Bats and Tek-One.[36] In December 2010, Bring Me the Horizon joined Bullet for My Valentine as the main support band, alongside Atreyu, on a short five-date arena tour around the United Kingdom.[37] To cope with high demand, Live Nation released extra standing tickets for all dates.[38]

text: In April 2011, Bring Me the Horizon embarked on a European tour, starting in the United Kingdom. They toured with Parkway Drive and Architects as main support bands, with The Devil Wears Prada as the opening support for the UK and dubstep group Tek-One. The tour, however, was not without its hindrances. On 28 April, Nicholls broke his arm whilst playing football with members of Bring Me the Horizon, Parkway Drive and Architects. Instead of cancelling the tour, Architects' drummer Dan Searle filled in as drummer, but this meant that Bring Me the Horizon's setlist was halved in length.[39] The tour was extended with a North American leg from 13 August to 4 October, retaining Parkway Drive and Architects and adding Deez Nuts to the line up.[40] On 23 August they released the fourth music video and single, "Visions",[41] and on 31 October the music video for the song "Alligator Blood" was released.[42]

text: In December 2011, Machine Head completed an arena tour across Europe with Bring Me the Horizon as the main support band along with DevilDriver and Darkest Hour. Oliver Sykes said these would be the last European dates before they began writing and the recording their fourth album.[43] 2011 ended with an announcement by the band on 29 December of a new extended play titled The Chill Out Sessions, a collaborative effort with British DJ Draper.[44] Draper first released an "officially sanctioned" remix of the song "Blessed with a Curse" in May 2011.[45] The EP was originally supposed to be released in time for New Year's Day, and made available for download and purchase though Bring Me the Horizon's website, but the EP's release was cancelled due to the band's "current management and label situation".[46][47]

text: Sempiternal and Weinhofen's departure (2012–2014)

text: After an intense touring schedule, Bring Me the Horizon finally completed their third album's promotion at the end of 2011. They returned to the UK for an extended break and eventually starting work on their next album.[48] Much like their previous two albums, they wrote their fourth album in seclusion and isolation to stay focused. This time, they retreated to a house in the Lake District. In July, the band started to publish images of themselves recording at a 'Top Secret Studio Location,'[49] and revealed they were working with producer Terry Date for the recording and production of the album.[50] On July 30, the band announced they had left their label and signed with RCA, who would release their fourth album in 2013.[51] The band played only three shows in all of 2012: Warped Tour 2012 on 10 November at the Alexandra Palace in London, which they headlined, (and was initially believed to be their only show),[52] the BBC Radio 1's Radio 1 Rocks show on 22 October, where they played a six-song set supporting Bullet for My Valentine,[53][54] and at a warm-up show for Warped Tour in Sheffield on 9 November.[55] In late October it was announced that the fourth album would be called Sempiternal with a tentative release in early 2013.[56] On 22 November the band released the Draper collaborative album The Chill Out Sessions free of charge.[57]

text: On 4 January 2013, Bring Me the Horizon released the first single from Sempiternal, "Shadow Moses". It was first played by radio presenter Daniel P. Carter on BBC's Radio 1. Due to popular demand, Epitaph released the music video for the song a week earlier than planned.[58] In January, the band also saw a change in their line up. This began early in the month when Jordan Fish, Worship keyboardist and session musician for the band during the writing of Sempiternal, was announced as a full member. Then later in the month, Jona Weinhofen left the band.[59] Despite the band denying speculation that Fish replaced Weinhofen,[59] reviewers said that replacing a guitarist with a keyboardist better fit their style.[60]

text: The band was confirmed for several festival appearances in February. They played the Australian Soundwave festival, performing at all five dates in: Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth,[61] and then at RAMFest in South Africa with Rise Against in March,[62][63] Rock Am Ring and Rock im Park festivals in Germany in June,[64] and from June until August they played Warped Tour 2013 in the U.S. and Canada.[65] To coincide with the 29 April release of Sempiternal the band made their first headline tour of the United Kingdom in 18 months with Crossfaith and Empress AD.[66]

text: In support of Sempiternal, the band toured Australia with Of Mice & Men and Crossfaith,[67] and played a British tour with Pierce The Veil and Sights & Sounds.[68] They then completed the American Dream Tour in North America, supported by Of Mice & Men, Issues, letlive. and Northlane.[69] The band was announced as the main supporter for American band A Day to Remember on their "Parks & Devastation Tour" across America throughout September and October, along with support acts Motionless in White and Chiodos.[70] The band performed at Wembley Arena in London on 5 December with support acts Young Guns, Issues and Sleepwave,[71] which was recorded and released as a live album/DVD.

text: Later in 2014, the band released two new tracks titled "Drown" on 21 October, as a stand-alone single, and "Don't Look Down" on 29 October, as part of the re-score of Drive.

text: That's the Spirit and Royal Albert Hall show (2015–2017)

text: In late June, the band began to promote pictures of an umbrella symbol being used as a tattoo, and on stickers, and posters across England, the United States, Australia, and Europe; it was later used for a promotional cover for the band's first single.[72] The band released a short video in early July where the words "that's the spirit" could be heard in reverse.[73]  On 13 July 2015, the promotional single "Happy Song" was released on the band's Vevo page, and on 21 July 2015, Sykes revealed the album's name was That's the Spirit.[74] The band released the single and music video for "Throne" on 23 July 2015, and another promotional track from the album, titled "True Friends", was released on 24 August 2015.[75] The album was released on 11 September 2015 to critical acclaim. It has led to several music videos including "Drown", "Throne", "True Friends", "Follow You", "Avalanche", and "Oh No".

text: The band embarked on a U.S. tour in October 2015 with support from metalcore band Issues and rock band PVRIS.[76] The band also toured Europe in November 2015, and embarked on a second U.S. tour in April and May 2016. This was followed by  an Australian tour in September 2016, and a second European tour in November 2016.[77][78]

text: On 22 April 2016, the band performed a live concert with an orchestra conducted by Simon Dobson at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The concert marked the first time the band had performed with a live orchestra. It was recorded, and the live album, Live at the Royal Albert Hall, was released on 2 December 2016 through the crowdfunding platform PledgeMusic on CD, DVD, and vinyl, with all proceeds donated to Teenage Cancer Trust.[79]  Following the show, Fish hinted at the possibility of doing a full tour with an orchestra, saying: "It seems almost a bit of a shame to go to all this effort for months and months for just one night."[80]

text: Amo (2018–present)

text: In August 2018, cryptic posters appeared in major cities throughout the world with the message "do you wanna start a cult with me?".[81] The posters were attributed by major media outlets to the band only by their use of the hexagram logo previously used by the band. During this time the band themselves have not acknowledged their involvement with the campaign publicly. Each poster provided a unique phone number and a website address.[82] The website provided a brief message titled "An Invitation To Salvation" and shows the date of 21 August 2018. The phone lines placed fans on hold with lengthy, varied audio messages that changed frequently.[83] Some of these messages reportedly end with a distorted audio clip of what was assumed to be new music from the band.[84]

text: On 21 August, the band released the lead single "Mantra". The following day the band announced their new album Amo set for release on 11 January 2019 along with a new set of tour dates called the First Love World Tour.

text: Artistry

text: Style and influences

text: Among Bring Me the Horizon's earliest influences were bands like At the Gates, Carcass, Pantera, Metallica, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Every Time I Die, Norma Jean, Skycamefalling and Poison the Well;[4][9][85][86][87] and genres death metal, grindcore, and emo have been cited by AllMusic writer Steward Mason.[88] However, as their sound developed, the band started to take influences from progressive rock, post-rock, dubstep and electronica.[89][85] The band's musical style has been described mainly as metalcore[90][91][92] and – though they have since moved on from the genre[93] – their early material was considered deathcore.[88][94][95] Across their career the band has also been said to play within the genres post-hardcore,[96] hardcore punk,[97] electronic rock,[98] technical metal,[97] heavy metal,[99][100][101] and emo.[89]

text: Bring Me the Horizon have attempted to grow and change with each album, believing they should be different.[21] Raziq Rauf, writing for Drowned In Sound, described Count Your Blessings as possessing "Norma Jean-style thunderous riffs mixed with some dastardly sludgy doom moments and more breakdowns than your dad's old Nissan Sunny."[13] Metal Hammer described Suicide Season as a "creative, critical and commercial success" for the band[89] as they started to adopt a more eclectic style,[102] with its "crushingly heavy party deathcore".[5] Leading up to its release Oliver Sykes described it as "100% different to Count Your Blessings" and noted the album sounds "more rock than metal".[103] As time went by, Bring Me the Horizon began rejecting their debut album Count Your Blessings and considered Suicide Season as their "Year Zero[...] [their] wipe-the-slate-clean time".[104]

text: Bring Me the Horizon then moved even further away from deathcore with their third album There Is a Hell, which incorporated electronica, classical music and pop music into their metalcore style.[105] This required more ambitious production feats, such as using a full choir, a synthesised orchestra and glitched out vocals and breakdowns that were also toned down, favouring quiet atmospheric passages in song breaks.[97][106] For the writing of Sempiternal, the band pooled far broader influences such as post-rock acts like This Will Destroy You and Explosions In The Sky[107] and from pop music.[108]

text: Bring Me the Horizon has experimented with its music in recent years, mixing pop with metal music,[109][110][111] leading the band to be labelled a "pop metal" act.[112] With the release of That's the Spirit, their sound shifted towards electronic rock,[98] alternative metal[113][114] and alternative rock,[115][116] also incorporated other genres such as pop rock[117][118][119] and nu metal,[120][121] while completely abandoning the metalcore sound of their earlier albums.[118]

text: Songwriting and recording process

text:
In all the band's album notes, all of Bring Me the Horizon's lyrics are said to be written by lead vocalist Oliver Sykes while all five members—as a band—were credited with writing the music. With the exception of Count Your Blessings, the band has always written in a secluded location to avoid being distracted.[106] Oliver Sykes' lyrics have a strong feeling of catharsis for him. He mainly draws from personal experience and has described the band's live performances as therapeutic.[105] In 2006, when asked about the lyrics of Count Your Blessings, as they had been criticised for their content solely fixated on heartbreak and other themes that were called "shallow and meaningless", he responded "My life's never been that bad so I’ve not got that much to talk about."[13]
Band members have described how the debut album was written in inner-city areas of Birmingham while being pressured to write and record songs to the deadlines given.[9] This resulted in the band being unimpressed with the final product. However, for the writing process of Suicide Season, the band realised that they much preferred picking areas with less human contact in order to focus on the music; they wrote their second album in the Swedish countryside.[94] During the writing of Suicide Season, former and founding rhythm guitarist Curtis Ward wrote only two riffs of his rhythm parts of the album, mostly relying on Lee Malia to write all of the guitar sections of the album.[9]

text: Lee Malia has stated that the typical writing process involves Oliver Sykes writing the main structure of the songs, followed by Malia writing the main riff. From this they would collaborate with each other to structure their work better and then later include the rest of the band in writing the rest of the song.[106] The writing dynamic of Sempiternal, typically featured Sykes, Malia and newly introduced member Jordan Fish. Malia felt that with Fish's influence on the record he was pushed to create more inspired guitar riffs.[citation needed] As they all took a break before writing their fourth album, they felt less of a need for an isolated writing environment.[122]

text: Image and legacy

text: During the band's early years, they were praised for their business acumen for selling mail-order merchandise and not relying on sales at live shows.[123] Bring Me the Horizon's image has been characterised by the dominating personality of singer and front-man Oliver Sykes, and he has often been seen as the band's "Poster boy",[13][124] bearing the brunt of the band's controversial reputation.[5] In their early years, Bring Me the Horizon's image was infamously characterised by its members fashion sense and use of skinny-fit jeans, T-shirts with death metal band logos on the front and coloured hair/straightened hair. The band's image fit into what was called scene fashion.[16][123] The effect of their fashion aesthetics showed people, in show promoter Iain Scott's perspective, that "you don't have to look like a diabolical metalhead to be into metal or play in a metal band".[16] However, their fashion conscious appearance earned them a "style over substance" label.[4]

text: Many controversies that occurred in their early years greatly affected public perceptions of the band, particularly an incident in 2007 at Nottingham's Rock City venue, when a female fan claimed that Oliver Sykes had urinated on her.[125] The charges were dropped due to a lack of evidence from CCTV footage in the area.[126] There were several documented examples of violence against the band during their live shows, including Sykes being pepper sprayed on stage;[21] and people getting on stage to assault the band.[127]

text: Their third album (2010's There Is a Hell...) was seen as a significant turning point in altering public perception of the band.[126][why?]

text: Despite the controversy over their image, various journalists have credited the band as being one of the most forward thinking heavy bands in the UK.[89] In 2012, just four years after the release of Suicide Season, the album was inducted into Rocksound's Hall Of Fame, credited as a significant influence on the works of Asking Alexandria, The Ghost Inside and While She Sleeps. It was credited as an influence on metalcore contemporaries Architects on Hollow Crown with their incorporation of keyboards and programming, and The Devil Wears Prada's Dead Throne for its more experimental and opinion-dividing sound.[17]

text: The band caused further controversy in February 2016 when Oliver Sykes trashed Coldplay's table at the 2016 NME Awards during a live performance of Bring Me the Horizon's track "Happy Song".[128] Although some people thought the table trashing was because of a prior feud between the two bands relating to similar album artwork, Sykes later stated that the act was not an act of "dirty protest", and suggested that it was "pure coincidence" that Coldplay were sitting at the table he trampled.[128] Coldplay frontman Chris Martin allegedly laughed off the incident, stating that "it was great, very rock and roll".[129]

text: Members

text:
Current

Oliver Sykes − lead vocals, programming, keyboards (2004–present)
Matt Kean − bass (2004–present)
Lee Malia − lead guitar (2004–present), rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2012–present)
Matt Nicholls − drums, percussion (2004–present)
Jordan Fish − keyboards, programming, percussion, vocals (2012–present)[130]
Current touring musicians

John Jones − rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2014–present)

Former

Curtis Ward – rhythm guitar (2004–2009)
Jona Weinhofen − rhythm guitar, keyboards, programming, vocals (2009–2013)
Former touring musicians

Dean Rowbotham − rhythm guitar (2009)
Robin Urbino – rhythm guitar (2013)
Tim Hillier-Brook − rhythm guitar (2013)
Brendan MacDonald − rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2013–2014)

tag: table

text: Timeline

text: Discography

text: Studio albums

text:
Count Your Blessings (2006)
Suicide Season (2008)
There Is a Hell, Believe Me I've Seen It. There Is a Heaven, Let's Keep It a Secret. (2010)
Sempiternal (2013)
That's the Spirit (2015)
Amo (2019)

tag: ul

text: Awards and accolades

text: NME Awards

text:
Year

Nominee/work

Award

Result

2017
Bring Me the Horizon
Best Live Band
Nominated[131]

2017
Bring Me the Horizon
Music Moment of the Year
Nominated[131]

text: Kerrang! Awards

text:
Year

Nominee/work

Award

Result

2006
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Newcomer
Won[132]

2008
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Nominated

2009
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Nominated

2011
"Blessed with a Curse"
Best Single
Nominated

2011
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Nominated

2011
There Is a Hell, Believe Me I've Seen It. There Is a Heaven, Let's Keep It a Secret.
Best Album
Won[133]

2012
"Alligator Blood"
Best Video
Won[134]

2013
"Shadow Moses"
Best Single
Nominated[135]

2013
"Shadow Moses"
Best Video
Nominated[135]

2013
Sempiternal
Best Album
Nominated[135]

2013
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Won[135]

2014
Bring Me the Horizon
Best Live Band
Won[136]

2014
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Nominated

2015
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Won[137]

"Drown"
Best Single
Nominated

2016
Bring Me the Horizon
Best British Band
Nominated

text: AIM Independent Music Awards

text:
Year

Nominee/work

Award

Result

2011
Bring Me the Horizon
Best Live Act
Nominated[138]

2011
Bring Me the Horizon
Hardest Working Band or Artist
Nominated[138]

2011
Bring Me the Horizon
Independent Breakthrough of Year
Nominated[138]

text: Alternative Press

text:
Year

Nominee/work

Award

Result

2014
Sempiternal
Best Album
Won[139]

2014
Bring Me the Horizon
Best International Band
Won[139]

2015
"Drown"
Best Music Video
Won[139]

text: Readers polls

text:
In a 2009 Rock Sound readers' poll, Bring Me the Horizon achieved both Best British Band and Worst British Band.[140]
In 2011 The Guardian ran a poll for "Who should win the Mercury prize?" and used 50 albums, Bring Me the Horizon's third album There Is a Hell... won with 37%.[141]
In a 2013 Sirius XM published poll, Bring Me the Horizon won Best Song Discovery for "Go To Hell For Heaven's Sake" with the Octane radio station.[142]
In a 2013 Alternative Press readers poll, Bring Me the Horizon was nominated for four categories: Best Vocalist (Oliver Sykes; position 3),[143] Best Keyboardist (Jordan Fish; position 1),[144] Single Of The Year ("Shadow Moses"; position 2)[145] and "Best Album Art" (Sempiternal; position 2).[146]


document_title: Local government in the United States

question_text: name the 3 governmental structures or types of governments in operation in the united states

question_tokens: name the 3 governmental structures or types of governments in operation in the united states

text: Local government in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: When North America was settled by Europeans from the 17th century onward, there was initially little control from governments back in Europe.[3] Many settlements began as shareholder or stockholder business enterprises, and while the king of Britain had technical sovereignty, in most instances "full governmental authority was vested in the company itself."[3] Settlers had to fend for themselves; compact towns sprung up based as legal corporations in what has been described as "pure democracy":

text:
“
The people, owing to the necessity of guarding against the Indians and wild animals, and to their desire to attend the same church, settled in small, compact communities, or townships, which they called towns. The town was a legal corporation, was the political unit, and was represented in the General Court. It was a democracy of the purest type. Several times a year the adult males met in town meeting to discuss public questions, to lay taxes, to make local laws, and to elect officers. The chief officers were the "selectmen," from three to nine in number, who should have the general management of the public business; the town clerk, treasurer, constables, assessors, and overseers of the poor. To this day the town government continues in a large measure in some parts of New England.––historian Henry William Elson writing in 1904.[4]
”

text: Propertied men voted; in no colonies was there universal suffrage.[5] The founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 by a group of Puritans led by John Winthrop came with the understanding that the enterprise was to be "based in the new world rather than in London."[1] Small towns in Massachusetts were compared to city-states in a somewhat oligarchic form, but an oligarchy based on "perceived virtue" rather than wealth or birth.[1] The notion of self-government became accepted in the colonies, although it wasn't totally free from challenges; in the 1670s, the Lords of Trade and Plantations (a royal committee regulating mercantile trade in the colonies) tried to annul the Massachusetts Bay charter, but by 1691, the New England colonies had reinstalled their previous governments.[6]

text: Voting was established as a precedent early on; in fact, one of the first things that Jamestown settlers did was conduct an election.[7] Typically, voters were white males described as "property owners" aged twenty-one and older, but sometimes the restrictions were greater, and in practice, persons able to participate in elections were few.[7] Women were prevented from voting (although there were a few exceptions) and African-Americans were excluded.[7] The colonists never thought of themselves as subservient but rather as having a loose association with authorities in London.[6] Representative government sprung up spontaneously in various colonies, and during the colonial years, it was recognized and ratified by later charters.[8] But the colonial assemblies passed few bills and did not conduct much business, but dealt with a narrow range of issues, and legislative sessions lasted weeks (occasionally longer), and most legislators could not afford to neglect work for extended periods; so wealthier people tended to predominate in local legislatures.[7] Office holders tended to serve from a sense of duty and prestige, and not for financial benefit.[7]

text:
“
Campaigning by candidates was different from today's. There were no mass media or advertising. Candidates talked with voters in person, walking a line between undue familiarity and aloofness. Prospective officeholders were expected to be at the polls on election day and made a point to greet all voters. Failure to appear or to be civil to all could be disastrous. In some areas, candidates offered voters food and drink, evenhandedly giving "treats" to opponents as well as supporters.––Ed Crews.[7]
”

text: Taxes were generally based on real estate since it was fixed in place, plainly visible, and its value was generally well known, and revenue could be allocated to the government unit where the property was located.[9]

text: After the American Revolution, the electorate chose the governing councils in almost every American municipality, and state governments began issuing municipal charters.[10] During the 19th century, many municipalities were granted charters by the state governments and became technically municipal corporations.[10] Townships and county governments and city councils shared much of the responsibility for decision-making which varied from state to state.[10] As the United States grew in size and complexity, decision-making authority for issues such as business regulation, taxation, environmental regulation moved to state governments and the national government, while local governments retained control over such matters as zoning issues, property taxes, and public parks.[citation needed] The concept of "zoning" originated in the U.S. during the 1920s, according to one source, in which state law gave certain townships or other local governing bodies authority to decide how land was used; a typical zoning ordinance has a map of a parcel of land attached with a statement specifying how that land can be used, how buildings can be laid out, and so forth.[11] Zoning legitimacy was upheld by the Supreme Court in its Euclid v. Ambler decision.[11]

text: Types[edit]

text: The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution makes local government a matter of state rather than federal law, with special cases for territories and the District of Columbia. As a result, the states have adopted a wide variety of systems of local government. The United States Census Bureau conducts the Census of Governments every five years to compile statistics on government organization, public employment, and government finances. The categories of local government established in this Census of Governments is a convenient basis for understanding local government in the United States. The categories are as follows:[2]

text:
County Governments
Town or Township Governments
Municipal Governments
Special-Purpose Local Governments

tag: ol

text: County governments[edit]

text: County governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes. Counties and county-equivalents form the first-tier administrative division of the states.

text: All the states are divided into counties or county-equivalents for administrative purposes, although not all counties or county-equivalents have an organized county government. County government has been eliminated throughout Connecticut and Rhode Island, as well as in parts of Massachusetts. The Unorganized Borough in Alaska also does not operate under a county level government. Additionally, a number of independent cities and consolidated city-counties operate under municipal governments that serve the functions of both city and county.

text: In areas lacking a county government, services are provided either by lower level townships or municipalities, or the state.

text: Town or township governments[edit]

text: Town or township governments are organized local governments authorized in the state constitutions and statutes of 20 Northeastern and Midwestern states,[2] established to provide general government for a defined area, generally based on the geographic subdivision of a county. Depending on state law and local circumstance, a township may or may not be incorporated, and the degree of authority over local government services may vary greatly.

text: Towns in the six New England states and townships in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are included in this category by the Census Bureau, despite the fact that they are legally municipal corporations, since their structure has no necessary relation to concentration of population,[2] which is typical of municipalities elsewhere in the United States. In particular, towns in New England have considerably more power than most townships elsewhere and often function as legally equivalent to cities, typically exercising the full range of powers that are divided between counties, townships, and cities in other states.[12]

text: An additional dimension that distinguishes township governments from municipalities is the historical circumstance surrounding their formation. For example,[clarification needed] towns in New England are also defined by a tradition of local government presided over by town meetings — assemblies open to all voters to express their opinions on public policy.

text: The term "town" is also used for a local level of government in New York and Wisconsin. The terms "town" and "township" are used interchangeably in Minnesota.

text: Municipal governments[edit]

text: Municipal governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes, established to provide general government for a defined area, generally corresponding to a population center rather than one of a set of areas into which a county is divided. The category includes those governments designated as cities, boroughs (except in Alaska), towns (except in Minnesota and Wisconsin), and villages.[13] This concept corresponds roughly to the "incorporated places" that are recognized in Census Bureau reporting of population and housing statistics, although the Census Bureau excludes New England towns from their statistics for this category, and the count of municipal governments excludes places that are governmentally inactive.

text: Municipalities range in size from the very small (e.g., the village of Monowi, Nebraska, with only 1 resident), to the very large (e.g., New York City, with about 8.5 million people), and this is reflected in the range of types of municipal governments that exist in different areas.

text: In most states, county and municipal governments exist side-by-side. There are exceptions to this, however. In some states, a city can, either by separating from its county or counties or by merging with one or more counties, become independent of any separately functioning county government and function both as a county and as a city. Depending on the state, such a city is known as either an independent city or a consolidated city-county. Such a jurisdiction constitutes a county-equivalent and is analogous to a unitary authority in other countries. In Connecticut, Rhode Island, and parts of Massachusetts, counties exist only to designate boundaries for such state-level functions as park districts or judicial offices (Massachusetts).

text: Municipal governments are usually administratively divided into several departments, depending on the size of the city.

text: Special-purpose local governments[edit]

text: School districts[edit]

text: School districts are organized local entities providing public elementary and secondary education which, under state law, have sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments. The category excludes dependent public school systems of county, municipal, township, or state governments (e.g., school divisions).

text: Special districts[edit]

text: Special districts are all organized local entities other than the four categories listed above, authorized by state law to provide designated functions as established in the district's charter or other founding document, and with sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments;[14] known by a variety of titles, including districts, authorities, boards, commissions, etc., as specified in the enabling state legislation. A special district may serve areas of multiple states if established by an interstate compact. Special districts are widely popular, have enjoyed "phenomenal growth" and "nearly tripled in number" from 1957 to 2007.[15]

text: Councils or associations of governments[edit]

text: It is common for residents of major U.S. metropolitan areas to live under six or more layers of special districts as well as a town or city, and a county or township.[16] In turn, a typical metro area often consists of several counties, several dozen towns or cities, and a hundred (or more) special districts. In one state, California, the fragmentation problem became so bad that in 1963 the California Legislature created Local Agency Formation Commissions in 57 of the state's 58 counties; that is, government agencies to supervise the orderly formation and development of other government agencies. One effect of all this complexity is that victims of government negligence occasionally sue the wrong entity and do not realize their error until the statute of limitations has run against them.[17]

text: Because efforts at direct consolidation have proven futile, U.S. local government entities often form "councils of governments", "metropolitan regional councils", or "associations of governments". These organizations serve as regional planning agencies and as forums for debating issues of regional importance, but are generally powerless relative to their individual members.[18] Since the late 1990s, "a movement, frequently called 'New Regionalism', accepts the futility of seeking consolidated regional governments and aims instead for regional structures that do not supplant local governments."[19]

text: Dillon's Rule[edit]

text: Unlike the relationship of federalism that exists between the U.S. government and the states (in which power is shared), municipal governments have no power except what is granted to them by their states. This legal doctrine, called Dillon's Rule, was established by Judge John Forrest Dillon in 1872 and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hunter v. Pittsburgh, 207 U.S. 161 (1907), which upheld the power of Pennsylvania to consolidate the city of Allegheny into the city of Pittsburgh, despite the wishes of the majority of Allegheny residents.

text: In effect, state governments can place whatever restrictions they choose on their municipalities (including merging municipalities, controlling them directly, or abolishing them outright), as long as such rules don't violate the state's constitution. However, Dillon's Rule does not apply in all states of the United States, because some state constitutions provide specific rights for municipalities and counties.[20]

text: State constitutions which allow counties or municipalities to enact ordinances without the legislature's permission are said to provide home rule authority.[21] New Jersey, for example, provides for home rule.[22] A state which is both a home rule state and a Dillon's Rule state [clarification needed] applies Dillon's Rule to matters or governmental units not accounted for in the constitutional amendment or statutes which grant home rule.

text: Governing bodies[edit]

text: The nature of both county and municipal government varies not only between states, but also between different counties and municipalities within them. Local voters are generally free to choose the basic framework of government from a selection established by state law.[2]

text: In most cases both counties and municipalities have a governing council, governing in conjunction with a mayor or president. Alternatively, the institution may be of the council–manager government form, run by a city manager under direction of the city council. In the past the municipal commission was also common.

text: The ICMA has classified local governments into five common forms: mayor–council, council–manager, commission, town meeting, and representative town meeting.[23]

text: In addition to elections for a council or mayor, elections are often also held for positions such as local judges, the sheriff, prosecutors, and other offices.

text: Indian reservations[edit]

text: While their territory nominally falls within the boundaries of individual states, Indian reservations actually function outside of state control. The reservation is usually controlled by an elected tribal council which provides local services.

text: Census of local government[edit]

text: A census of all local governments in the country is performed every 5 years by the United States Census Bureau, in accordance with 13 USC 161.

text:
Governments in the United States[2]
(not including insular areas)

Type
Number

Federal
1

State and Federal District
51

County
3,034

Municipal (city, town, village...) *
19,429

Township (in some states called Town) **
16,504

School district
13,506

Special purpose
(utility, fire, police, library, etc.)
35,052

Total
87,576

text:
)* note: Municipalities are any incorporated places, such as cities, towns, villages, boroughs, etc.
)** note: New England towns and towns in New York and Wisconsin are classified as civil townships for census purposes.

text: Examples in individual states[edit]

text: The following sections provide details of the operation of local government in a selection of states, by way of example of the variety that exists across the country.

text: Alaska[edit]

text: Alaska calls its county equivalents "boroughs", functioning similar to counties in the Lower 48; however, unlike any other state, not all of Alaska is subdivided into county-equivalent boroughs. Owing to the state's low population density, most of the land is contained in what the state terms the Unorganized Borough which, as the name implies, has no intermediate borough government of its own, but is administered directly by the state government. Many of Alaska's boroughs are consolidated city-borough governments; other cities exist both within organized boroughs and the Unorganized Borough.

text: California[edit]

text: California has several different and overlapping forms of local government. Cities, counties, and the one consolidated city-county can make ordinances (local laws), including the establishment and enforcement of civil and criminal penalties.

text: The entire state is subdivided into 58 counties (e.g., Los Angeles County). The only type of municipal entity is the city (e.g., Los Angeles), although cities may either operate under "general law" or a custom-drafted charter. California has never had villages, never really used townships (they were for surveying and judicial purposes only), and allows cities to call themselves "towns" if they wish, but the name "town" is purely cosmetic with no legal effect. As a result, California has several towns with large populations in the tens of thousands and several cities that are home to only a few hundred people.

text: California cities are granted broad plenary powers under the California Constitution to assert jurisdiction over just about anything, and they cannot be abolished or merged without the consent of a majority of their inhabitants. For example, Los Angeles runs its own water and power utilities and its own elevator inspection department, while practically all other cities rely upon private utilities and the state elevator inspectors. San Francisco is unique in that it is the only consolidated city-county in the state.

text: The city of Lakewood pioneered the Lakewood Plan, a contract under which a city reimburses a county for performing services which are more efficiently performed on a countywide basis. Such contracts have become very popular throughout California and many other states, as they enable city governments to concentrate on particular local concerns like zoning. A city which contracts out most of its services, particularly law enforcement, is known as a contract city.

text: There are also thousands of "special districts", which are areas with a defined territory in which a specific service is provided, such as schools or fire stations. These entities lack plenary power to enact laws, but do have the power to promulgate administrative regulations that often carry the force of law within land directly controlled by such districts. Many special districts, particularly those created to provide public transportation or education, have their own police departments (e.g. Bay Area Rapid Transit District/BART Police and Los Angeles Unified School District/Los Angeles School Police Department).

text: District of Columbia[edit]

text: The District of Columbia is unique within the United States in that it is under the direct authority of the U.S. Congress, rather than forming part of any state. Actual government has been delegated under the District of Columbia Home Rule Act to a city council which effectively also has the powers given to county or state governments in other areas. Under the act, the Council of the District of Columbia has the power to write laws, as a state's legislature would, moving the bill to the mayor to sign into law. Following this, the United States Congress has the power to overturn the law.

text: Georgia[edit]

text: The state of Georgia is divided into 159 counties (the largest number of any state other than Texas), each of which has had home rule since at least 1980. This means that Georgia's counties not only act as units of state government, but also in much the same way as municipalities.

text: All municipalities are classed as a "city", regardless of population size. For an area to be incorporated as a city, special legislation has to be passed by the General Assembly (state legislature); typically the legislation requires a referendum amongst local voters to approve incorporation, to be passed by a simple majority. This most recently happened in 2005 and 2006 in several communities near Atlanta. Sandy Springs, a city of 85,000 bordering the north side of Atlanta, incorporated in December 2005. One year later, Johns Creek (62,000) and Milton (20,000) incorporated, which meant that the entirety of north Fulton County was now municipalized. The General Assembly also approved a plan that would potentially establish two new cities in the remaining unincorporated portions of Fulton County south of Atlanta: South Fulton and Chattahoochee Hills. Chattahoochee Hills voted to incorporate in December 2007; South Fulton voted against incorporation, and is the only remaining unincorporated portion of Fulton County.

text: City charters may be revoked either by the legislature or by a simple majority referendum of the city's residents; the latter last happened in 2004, in Lithia Springs. Revocation by the legislature last occurred in 1995, when dozens of cities were eliminated en masse for not having active governments, or even for not offering at least three municipal services required of all cities.

text: New cities may not incorporate land less than 3 miles (4.8 km) from an existing city without approval from the General Assembly. The body approved all of the recent and upcoming creations of new cities in Fulton County.

text: Four areas have a "consolidated city-county" government: Columbus, since 1971; Athens, since 1991; Augusta, since 1996; and Macon, which was approved by voters in 2012.

text: Hawaii[edit]

text: Hawaii is the only U.S. state that has no incorporated municipalities. Instead it has four counties and the "consolidated city-county" of Honolulu. All communities are considered to be census-designated places, with the exact boundaries being decided upon by co-operative agreement between the Governor's office and the U.S. Census Bureau.

text: Kalawao County is the second smallest county in the United States, and is often considered part of Maui County.

text: Louisiana[edit]

text: In Louisiana, counties are called parishes; likewise, the county seat is known as the parish seat. The difference in nomenclature does not reflect a fundamental difference in the nature of government, but is rather a reflection of the state's unique status as a former French and Spanish colony (although a small number of other states once had parishes too).

text: Maryland[edit]

text: Maryland has 23 counties. The State Constitution charters the City of Baltimore as an independent city, which is the functional equivalent of a county, and is separate from any county — e.g., there is also a Baltimore County, but its county seat is in Towson, not in the City of Baltimore. Other than Baltimore, all cities are the same, and there is no difference between a municipality called a city or a town. Cities and towns are chartered by the legislature.

text: North Carolina[edit]

text: North Carolina has 100 counties, the seventh highest number in the country,

text: The North Carolina Councils of Government (or the Regional Councils of Government) are voluntary associations of county and municipal governments, established by the North Carolina General Assembly in 1972 that serve as an avenue for local governments across North Carolina to discuss issues that are particular to their region. In banding together at the regional level, the voice of one community becomes the voice of many, thus providing a better opportunity for those issues to be addressed. Today the majority of citizens and local governments in North Carolina are represented by regional councils, making them an increasingly important facet of local government operations.

text: Today North Carolina calls itself home to 16 regional councils of government. Regional councils in North Carolina are committed to working together. In 2010 the seventeen regional councils existing at that time signed an inter-regional cooperative agreement that established a policy to enhance their value by sharing member resources and capacity to deliver services to the state of North Carolina. This agreement also endorses regional councils, to carry out activities in regions outside their boundaries with consent when those services are to benefit the region and the state. Regional boundaries correspond to county borders, with each council being made up of both county and municipal governments. Although the number of regional councils in North Carolina has decreased over the years, the number of citizens served by the councils continues to rise. As of 2007, it is reported that the number of local governments served by regional councils in North Carolina has increased by 16% since 1994. Throughout this same time period the number of citizens served by regional councils has increased by 35% or approximately 2.3 million. This equates to 92% of local governments and 97% of all North Carolina citizens being represented by regional councils as of July 1, 2007.

text: Pennsylvania[edit]

text: Pennsylvania has 67 counties. With the exception of Philadelphia and Allegheny County, counties are governed by three to seven county commissioners who are elected every four years; the district attorney, county treasurer, sheriff, and certain classes of judge ("judges of election") are also elected separately. Philadelphia has been a consolidated city-county since 1854 and has had a consolidated city-county government since 1952. Allegheny County has had a council/chief executive government since 2001, while still retaining its townships, boroughs and cities.

text: Each county is divided into municipal corporations, which can be one of four types: cities, boroughs, townships, and incorporated towns. The Commonwealth does not contain any unincorporated land that is not served by a local government. However, the US Postal Service has given names to places within townships that are not incorporated separately. For instance King of Prussia is a census-designated place, having no local government of its own. It is rather contained within Upper Merion Township, governed by Upper Merion's supervisors, and considered to be a part of the township.

text: Townships are divided into two classes, depending on their population size and density. Townships of the "First Class" have a board made up of five to fifteen commissioners who are elected either at-large or for a particular ward to four-year terms, while those of the "Second Class" have a board of three to five supervisors who are elected at-large to six-year terms. Some townships have adopted a home rule charter which allows them to choose their form of government. One example is Upper Darby Township, in Delaware County, which has chosen to have a "mayor-council" system similar to that of a borough.

text: Boroughs in Pennsylvania are governed by a "mayor-council" system in which the mayor has only a few powers (usually that of overseeing the municipal police department, if the borough has one), while the borough council has very broad appointment and oversight. The council president, who is elected by the majority party every two years, is equivalent to the leader of a council in the United Kingdom; his or her powers operate within boundaries set by the state constitution and the borough's charter. A small minority of the boroughs have dropped the mayor-council system in favor of the council-manager system, in which the council appoints a borough manager to oversee the day-to-day operations of the borough. As in the case of townships, a number of boroughs have adopted home rule charters; one example is State College, which retains the mayor-council system that it had as a borough.

text: Bloomsburg is the Commonwealth's only incorporated town; McCandless Township in Allegheny County calls itself a town, but it officially remains a township with a home rule charter.

text: Cities in Pennsylvania are divided into four classes: Class 1, Class 2, Class 2A, and Class 3. Class 3 cities, which are the smallest, have either a mayor-council system or a council-manager system like that of a borough, although the mayor or city manager has more oversight and duties compared to their borough counterparts. Pittsburgh and Scranton are the state's only Class 2 and Class 2A cities respectively, and have mayors with some veto power, but are otherwise still governed mostly by their city councils.

text: Philadelphia is the Commonwealth's only Class 1 city. It has a government similar to that of the Commonwealth itself, with a mayor with strong appointment and veto powers and a 17-member city council that has both law-making and confirmation powers. Certain types of legislation that can be passed by the city government require state legislation before coming into force. Unlike the other cities in Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia city government also has oversight of county government, and as such controls the budget for the district attorney, sheriff, and other county offices that have been retained from the county's one-time separate existence; these offices are elected for separately than those for the city government proper.

text: Texas[edit]

text: Texas has 254 counties, the most of any state.

text: Each county is governed by a five-member Commissioners Court, which consists of a county judge (elected at-large) and four commissioners (elected from single-member precincts). The county judge has no veto authority over the decisions of the court; s/he has one vote along with the other commissioners. In smaller counties, the county judge also performs judicial functions, while in larger counties his/her role is limited to the court. Elections are held on a partisan basis.

text: Counties have no home rule authority; their authority is strictly limited by the State. They operate in areas which are considered "unincorporated" (those parts not within the territory of a city; Texas does not have townships) unless the city has contracted with the county for essential services. In plain English, Texas counties merely exist to deliver specific types of services at the local level as prescribed by state law, but cannot enact or enforce local ordinances.

text: As one textbook produced for use in Texas schools has openly acknowledged, Texas counties are prone to inefficient operations and are vulnerable to corruption, for several reasons.[24] First, most of them do not have a merit system but operate on a spoils system, so that many county employees obtain their positions through loyalty to a particular political party and commissioner rather than whether they actually have the skills and experience appropriate to their positions.[24] Second, most counties have not centralized purchasing into a single procurement department which would be able to seek quantity discounts and carefully scrutinize bids and contract awards for unusual patterns.[24] Third, in 90 percent of Texas counties, each commissioner is individually responsible for planning and executing their own road construction and maintenance program for their own precinct, which results in poor coordination and duplicate construction machinery.[24]

text: Cities may be either general law or home rule. Once a city reaches 5,000 in population, it may submit a ballot petition to create a "city charter" and operate under home rule status (they will maintain that status even if the population falls under 5,000) and may choose its own form of government (weak or strong mayor-council, commission, council-manager). Cities under general law status have only those powers authorized by the State. Annexation policies are highly dependent on whether the city is general law (annexation can only occur with the consent of the landowners) or home rule (no consent is required, but if the city fails to provide essential services, the landowners can petition for de-annexation), and city boundaries can cross county ones. The city council can be elected either at-large or from single-member districts. Ballots are on a nonpartisan basis (though, generally, the political affiliation of the candidates is commonly known).

text: With the exception of the Stafford Municipal School District, all 1,000+ school districts in Texas are "independent" school districts. State law requires seven trustees, which can be elected either at-large or from single-member districts. Ballots are non-partisan. The Texas Education Agency has state authority to order consolidation of school districts, generally for repeated failing performance, as was the case with the Wilmer-Hutchins Independent School District.

text: In addition, state law allows the creation of special districts, such as hospital districts or water supply districts.

text: Texas does not provide for independent cities nor for consolidated city-county governments. However, local governments are free to enter into "interlocal agreements" with other ones, primarily for efficiency purposes. (A common example is for cities and school districts in a county to contract with the county for property tax collection; thus, each resident receives only one property bill.)

text: Virginia[edit]

text: Virginia is divided into 95 counties and 38 cities. All cities are independent cities, which mean that they are separate from, and independent of, any county they may be near or within. Cities in Virginia thus are the equivalent of counties, as they have no higher local government intervening between them and the state government. The equivalent in Virginia to what would normally be an incorporated city in any other state, e.g. a municipality subordinate to a county, is a town. For example, there is a County of Fairfax as well as a totally independent City of Fairfax, which technically is not part of Fairfax County even though the City of Fairfax is the county seat of Fairfax County. Within Fairfax County, however, is the incorporated town of Vienna, which is part of Fairfax County. Similar names do not necessarily reflect relationships; Franklin County is far from the city of Franklin, while Charles City is an unincorporated community in Charles City County, and there is no city of Charles.

text: Other states[edit]

text:
Local government in Connecticut
Administrative divisions of Massachusetts
Local government in New Hampshire
Local government in New Jersey
Local government in New Mexico
Administrative divisions of New York
Administrative divisions of Wisconsin