document_title: Living in a Box (song)

question_text: who sang living in a box in the 1980s

question_tokens: who sang living in a box in the 1980s

text: Living in a Box (song)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
"Living in a Box"
Single by Living in a Boxfrom the album Living in a BoxReleased
23 March 1987Format
7", 12", CDRecorded
1985–1987Genre
Sophisti-pop[1]Length
3:02, 6:10Label
ChrysalisSongwriter(s)
Marcus Vere, Steve PiggotProducer(s)
Richard James Burgess, Tom Lord-AlgeLiving in a Box singles chronology

"Living in a Box" (1987)

"Scales of Justice" (1987)

"Living in a Box"(1987)

"Scales of Justice"(1987)

text: "Living in a Box" is a song by Living in a Box released on 23 March 1987 as their first single from the album of the same name.

text: It was the group's biggest hit single, together with 'Room In Your Heart', both reaching No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart,[2] 'Living In A Box' became the group's only Top 40 hit in the United States, peaking at No. 17 on the Billboard Hot 100.

text: The song was covered by Bobby Womack, who had worked with Living in a Box on their debut album; his version reached No. 70 in the UK,[3] and was a minor US hit. The song's title came from a comment by a friend of the band's songwriter and keyboard player Marcus Vere. The friend lived in a small council flat in Sheffield, England prompting him to remark "I feel like I'm living in a cardboard box!", referring to the sense of feeling enclosed.

text: Use in media[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Was used in the 1987 live action Masters of the Universe movie.
Was featured in the 1987 coming of age teen drama Can't Buy Me Love.
From August 2013, the song was used in a Vodafone TV commercial.
The song is featured in the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows versions of Grand Theft Auto V on Non Stop Pop FM.
Was featured in the 2016 Black Mirror episode, San Junipero.
Has been used numerous times on BBC renovation show Homes Under the Hammer, particularly when the show is featuring very small properties / rooms.
Opening theme song of The Aaron Rand Show on CJAD 800, a radio station in Montreal.


document_title: Rhodochrosite

question_text: where is rhodochrosite found in the united states

root

text: Rhodochrosite

text: Occurrence and discovery[edit]

text: Rhodochrosite occurs as a hydrothermal vein mineral along with other manganese minerals in low temperature ore deposits as in the silver mines of Romania where it was first found. Banded rhodochrosite is mined in Capillitas, Argentina.

tag: p

text: It was first described in 1813 in reference to a sample from Cavnic, Maramureş, present-day Romania. According to Dimitrescu and Radulescu, 1966 and to Papp, 1997, this mineral was described for the first time in Sacaramb, Romania, not in Cavnic, Romania. The name is derived from the Greek word ῥοδόχρως meaning rose-colored[citation needed].

text: Use[edit]

text: Its main use is as an ore of manganese, which is a key component of low-cost stainless steel formulations and certain aluminium alloys. Quality banded specimens are often used for decorative stones and jewelry. Due to its being relatively soft, and having perfect cleavage, it is very difficult to cut, and therefore rarely found faceted in jewelry.

text: Rhodochrosite and silver mining[edit]

text: Manganese carbonate is extremely destructive to the amalgamation process used in the concentration of silver ores, and so until quality mineral specimens became highly sought after by collectors, they were often discarded on the mine dump.

text: Culture[edit]

text:
Stereo image

showLeft frame

hideRight frame

showParallel view ()

showCross-eye view ()

Small Rhodochrosite specimen featured in a mineral kit, from Wuton mine, Guangxi prov, China.

tag: table

text: Rhodochrosite is Argentina's "national gemstone".[4][5] Colorado officially named rhodochrosite as its state mineral in 2002.[6]  Large specimens have been found in the Sweet Home Mine near Alma, Colorado.

text: It is sometimes called "Rosa del Inca", "Inca Rose" or Rosinca.[7]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
"The Searchlight," Large red rhodochrosite from Sweet Home Mine, Alma, Colorado

Rhodochrosite with fluorite, tetrahedrite and quartz

Pink is the most common color of Rhodochrosite. Specimen mined near Silverton, Colorado

The Alma King is the largest known rhodochrosite crystal; it was found in the Sweet Home Mine near Alma, Colorado. It is on display in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.

Exhibit in La Plata Museum, La Plata, Argentina

The Alma Rose specimen from the Sweet Home Mine in Alma, CO. Located at the Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals in Hillsboro, OR.

tag: ul


document_title: List of shortest-reigning monarchs

question_text: who had the shortest reign of a monarch 20 minutes

text: List of shortest-reigning monarchs

text: Obscure monarchs thought to have reigned less than a year[edit]

text:
Name

Country

Royal house/dynasty

Reign began

Reign ended

Length

Comments

Shah Xerxes II

King of Persia

Achaemenid Empire

424 BC

424 BC

45 days (1 month 15 days)

Removed from the throne by Sogdianus

Queen Cleopatra IV of Egypt

Queen of Egypt

Ptolemaic

116 BC

115 BC

Pushed out of joint reign by her mother, Cleopatra III

King Yang

Nanyue

Zhao (Triệu)

111 BC

111 BC

Captured and executed by the Han after his army was destroyed leading to 150 years of Chinese mastery.

Emperor Shao (Marquess of Beixiang)

China

Han Dynasty

125

125

Enthroned as a child, and died of illness later in the year.

Emperor Shao (Liu Bian)

China

Han Dynasty

15 May 189

28 September 189

4 months, 13 days

Enthroned as a child, but deposed by Dong Zhuo later that year and murdered the next year.

King Ildibad

King of the Ostrogoths

540

541

Assassinated by a Gepid

King Eraric

King of the Ostrogoths

541

541

Assassinated by a member of his own royal guard.

High King Fogartach mac Néill

Ireland

Uí Néill

724

724

Claimed by some to be the High King of Ireland for several months during a period of high conflict.

Duke Bezprym

Duke of Poland

Piast

1031

1032

The reason for his downfall was his extreme cruelty. According to the Chronicles of Hildesheim, he was murdered by his own men no later than spring of 1032. Probably the instigators of his death were his half-brothers, although the main conspirator was Otto, who remained free in Germany.

Kings Eric and Eric

Kings of Sweden

1066

1067

After the death of king Stenkil of Sweden in 1066, these two fought for power with each other. They both died in battle the following year.

King Ragnvald Knaphövde

Claimant to the Swedish throne

1125

1126

After the death of Inge the Younger in 1125, Ragnvald claimed the Swedish throne, but was killed by upset peasants in the following year.

King Magnus II

King of Sweden

1160

1161

After the Danish prince Magnus had killed king Eric IX of Sweden in 1160, he proclaimed himself king, but was killed by his rival Charles Sverkersson the following year.

Jaya Harivarman II

Champa

1167

1167

Jaya Indravarman V

Champa

1191

1191

Emperor Constantine Laskaris

Nicaea

Laskaris

1204

1205

Constantine Laskaris was declared nominal Byzantine emperor after Alexios V Doukas was deposed as the Byzantine emperor by the Fourth Crusade.

Emperor Mạc Toàn

Vietnam

Mạc

1592

1592

Mạc Toàn succeeded Mạc Mậu Hợp for a short period after the latter was killed by the forces of Trịnh Tùng.

text: Less than a year[edit]

text: Note: Some of the following have been disputed as genuine monarchs.

text:
Name

Country

Royal house/dynasty

Reign began

Reign ended

Length

Comments

King Jeonggang

Silla (Korea)

Kim

July 886

5 July 887

≈1 year

After his death, his sister Man succeeded to the throne because he had no sons. She was named Queen Jinseong and was the last queen in Korean history.

King Chang of Goryeo

Goryeo (Korea)

Wang

1388

1389

≈1 year

When was in his reign, the general Yi Seong-gye took the throne as regent because he was only 7 years old when took the throne. He died on his first year of reign by being assassinated together with his father King U of Goryeo

Empress Lý Chiêu Hoàng

Vietnam

Lý

October 1224

21 October 1225

≈1 year

Succeeded to the throne through the suicide of her father Lý Huệ Tông. Renounced her claim on the throne in favour of her husband Trần Thái Tông, founder of the Trần Dynasty.

Emperor Hồ Quý Ly

Vietnam

Hồ

February 1400

c. 1400–1401

≈1 year

Hồ Quý Ly succeeded to the throne after persuading emperor Trần Thuận Tông to relinquish power to a three-year-old prince named An. Trần Thuận Tông was then executed and the throne was seized from An. Hồ Quý Ly renounced the throne in favor of his son Hồ Hán Thương.

Tsar False Dmitry I

All Russia

10 June 1606

17 May 1607

11 months, 7 days

Claimed to be the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich. He was killed by the boyars.

Emperor Hàm Nghi

Vietnam

Nguyễn

1 August 1884

4 July 1885

11 months, 3 days

Captured during the Mandarins' Revolt and the French replaced him with Đồng Khánh.

King Fuad II of Egypt

Egypt and The Sudan

Muhammad Ali

26 July 1952

18 June 1953

10 months, 23 days

Succeeded with the abdication of his father, Farouk, following the Egyptian revolution of 1952. Never exercised real power over his country, as he was an infant and had been exiled with his father. His reign formally ended when Egypt was declared a republic.

King Edward VIII

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and British dominions

Windsor

20 January 1936

11 December 1936

10 months, 22 days

Abdicated in favour of his brother, George VI, to avoid a constitutional crisis.

Louise Hippolyte, Sovereign Princess of Monaco

Principality of Monaco

Grimaldi

20 February 1731

29 December 1731

10 months, 9 days

Died of smallpox.

Emperor Agustín I

Mexican Empire

Iturbide

19 May 1822

19 March 1823

10 months

Agustín I was proclaimed emperor by the Parliament of the newly independent Mexican Empire, but later deposed by Republican forces, leading to the foundation of the First Mexican Republic. His grandsons were later adopted by Mexico's second Emperor Maximilian I of the House of Habsburg in the 1860s.

King Injong

Joseon (Korea)

Yi

November 1544

July 1545

≈9 months

Some historians believe that Injong was poisoned by the Smaller Yun faction, led by Yun Won-Hyung, to enable Injong's half-brother to ascend the throne.

King Lokissara

Polonnaruwa

1211

1211

≈9 months

Leader of a Tamil army and usurper of the Sinhala throne.

Emperor Leo II

Byzantine Empire

Leonid Dynasty

18 January 474

17 November 474

9 months, 30 days

Appointed co-emperor by his grandfather Leo I on 18 November 473, before ascending the throne upon Leo I's death. As he was still a child, his father Zeno was made co-emperor on 9 February 474. Died soon after and was succeeded by Zeno.

Tsar Dmitriy I

Russia

Rurik (impostor)

21 July 1605

17 May 1606

9 months, 27 days

An impostor, Dmitriy took the throne of Russia upon the death of Boris Godunov. He was killed during an assault on the Kremlin.

King Christian II

Sweden

Oldenburg

1 November 1520

23 August 1521

9 months, 22 days

After conquering Sweden in the spring and summer of 1520, King Christian II of Denmark and Norway entered the defeated Swedish capital of Stockholm on 7 September 1520. On 1 November he was elected and on 4 November he was crowned king of Sweden. On 23 August 1521, he was officially deposed, when Gustav Vasa was elected regent of Sweden at a meeting in Vadstena.

King Harold II

Kingdom of England

Wessex

5 January 1066

14 October 1066

9 months, 9 days

Killed at the Battle of Hastings by Norman forces.

Maharajah Manava

Gauda, Bengal

Shashanka

625

626

≈8 months

After the death of Shashanka and his brief reign, Gauda was conquered by an alliance of Harshavardhana and Bhaskaravarman.

Emir Habibullah Ghazi

Afghanistan

17 January 1929

13 October 1929

8 months, 26 days

Habibullah Ghazi succeeded Inayatullah Khan Seraj, who had abdicated in his favour after just three days. Habibullah Ghazi's reign soon ended when he was deposed and executed by Mohammed Nadir Shah.

Emperor Le Nghi Dan

Vietnam

Lê

28 October 1459

24 June 1460

8 months, 25 days

Succeeded to the throne by leading a revolt against and killing his younger brother Lê Nhân Tông. Nghi Dan's reign ended in another revolution in which he was killed and replaced by his younger brother Lê Thánh Tông.

Emperor Vitellius

Roman Empire

Year of the Four Emperors

16 April 69

22 December 69

8 months, 6 days

Attempted to abdicate in favour of Vespasian, but was prevented from doing so by his own troops. When Vespasian reached the capital, his troops killed Vitellius on the Gemonian stairs and cast into the Tiber

King Phelles

Tyre

Dynasty of four brothers

879 BC

879 BC

8 months

Legendary king of Tyre, known only through Josephes and, by proxy[clarification needed], through Menander of Ephesus.

Claudine, Lady of Monaco

Monaco

Grimaldi

July 1457

16 March 1458

8 months

Abdicated in favour of her cousin, Lamberto, whom she married in 1465.

Emperor Kiến Phúc

Vietnam

Nguyễn

2 December 1883

31 July 1884

7 months, 29 days

Succeeded the throne after the murder of emperor Hiệp Hoà. Kiến Phúc was also murdered and succeeded by Hàm Nghi (who also reigned less than a year).

King Louis I

Spain

Bourbon

14 January 1724

31 August 1724

7 months, 17 days

Succeeded with the abdication of his father, Philip V. Philip regained the throne following Louis' death from smallpox.

Matilda, Lady of the English

England

Plantagenet / Salian / Normandy

Spring 1141

Autumn 1141

c. 5–9 months

Forces loyal to Matilda, the daughter of Henry I, captured King Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141. Matilda was never crowned, and following her defeat at the Rout of Winchester on 14 September 1141, Stephen was released in November. Matilda's son succeeded Stephen in 1154 as Henry II.

Emperor Galba

Roman Empire

Year of the Four Emperors

8 June 68

15 January 69

7 months, 7 days

Assassinated after adopting Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus as his heir instead of Otho, who succeeded him. His head and trunk were buried by the Via Aurelia.

King Edmund II

England

Wessex

23 April 1016

30 November 1016

7 months, 7 days

Edmund's kingdom was ceded to Canute I after his death, the cause of which is uncertain.

King Lulach

King of Scots

Moray

15 August 1057

17 March 1058

7 months, 2 days

Succeeded his stepfather, Macbeth, who was killed in battle against Malcolm Canmore. Lulach was himself killed by Malcolm, who succeeded him.

Emperor Heraklonas

Byzantine Empire

Heraclian

11 February 641

September 641

≈7 months

Heraklonas became joint co-emperor with his brother Constantine III at the time of his father's death and then sole emperor on the death of his brother Constantine III in May 641. Heroklonas was then forced to accept Constantine III's son as joint emperor Constans II. Heroklonas was then mutilated and banished after a revolt, leaving Constans II as sole emperor.

Bardiya

Persian Empire

Achaemenid

early 522 BCE

September 522 BCE

≈7 months

Bardiya was either a son of Cyrus the Great or an impostor, he seized power from Cambyses II and was assassinated by Darius the Great.

King Hildeprand

King of the Lombards

January 744

<August 744

<7 months

Deposed and dead by August 744.

Pharaoh Nedjemibre

Pharaoh of Egypt

Thirteenth Dynasty

c. 1780 BC

c. 1780 BC

7 months[1]

One of many contemporary pharaohs of the Second Intermediate period

Shah Sogdianus

Shah of Persia

Achaemenid Empire

424 BC

424 BC

6 months, 15 days

Reigned briefly during a power struggle, was succeeded by Darius II

Emperor Amha Selassie

Ethiopia

Solomon

12 September 1974

12 March 1975

6 months

Proclaimed Emperor by the Derg while receiving medical treatment in Switzerland, following the deposition of his father, Haile Selassie. He did not accept this proclamation as legitimate, and did not return to Ethiopia. The monarchy was abolished in March 1975.

Emperor Dương Nhật Lễ

Vietnam

Trần

1369

20 May 1370

>6 months

Dethroned and killed. Replaced by Trần Phủ.

Mbret William

Albania

Wied

7 March 1914

3 September 1914

6 months, 27 days

William accepted a request from Albania to be its sovereign and soon, due to the outbreak of the First World War and civil war within Albania, fled into exile. Albania officially declared itself a republic on 31 January 1925.

King Charles I

King of Norway

Bonde

25 October 1449

13 May 1450

6 months, 18 days

Charles was elected king in Trondheim after the death of Christopher of Bavaria, but Christian I had more supporters in southern Norway and was able to force Charles' abdication.

King Christian Frederik

Norway

Oldenburg

16 February 1814

28 August 1814

6 months, 12 days

Christian Frederick was made King of Norway upon its independence from Denmark after defeat in the Napoleonic Wars and the Treaty of Kiel. Later in 1814 after an invasion by Sweden Christian Frederick renounced the throne after the Convention of Moss. Christian Frederick would later become King Christian VIII of Denmark.

Prince Dafydd ap Gruffudd

Wales

Gwynedd

11 December 1282

22 June 1283

6 months, 11 days

Succeeded to the princeship of Wales on the death of his brother Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. For most of his reign his rule was confined solely to Gwynedd due to the invasion of Wales by Edward I of England. He was captured in June 1283 and subsequently executed.

Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah

Zanzibar

Al Sa'id

1 July 1963

12 January 1964

6 months, 11 days

Jamshid bin Abdullah's short reign was brought to an end by the Zanzibar revolution and the abolition of the sultanate.

Tsar Peter III of Russia

Russia

Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov

5 January 1762

9 July 1762

6 months, 4 days

Wildly unpopular and barely able to even speak the Russian language, he was dethroned (and possibly killed) by his own consort, who became Catherine II.

Emperor Lê Túc Tông

Vietnam

Lê

6 June 1504

7 December 1504

6 months, 1 day

Lê Túc Tông was possibly murdered by his older brother and successor Lê Uy Mục.

King David V

Kingdom of Georgia

Bagrationi

c. 1154

c. 1155

≈6 months

David V was murdered by his nobles and succeeded by his alienated brother, George III.

King Donald III

King of Scots

Dunkeld

13 November 1093

May 1094

≈6 months

Succeeded his brother, Malcolm III, only to be overthrown by Malcolm's son Duncan II (below). Regained the throne upon Duncan's death and reigned until being overthrown again in 1097.

King Duncan II

King of Scots

Dunkeld

May 1094

12 November 1094

≈6 months

Seized the throne from his uncle, Donald III (above). Killed in battle against Donald, or possibly murdered.

King Zechariah of Israel

Israel

House of Omri

754 BC[2]

753 BC

6 months[3]

Biblical King of Israel from the Second Book of Kings

Emperor Alexios IV Angelos

Byzantine Empire

Angelos

1 August 1203

27 January 1204

5 months, 26 days

Co-emperor with his father, Isaac II Angelos, who regained the throne from his brother Alexios III Angelos when the Fourth Crusade arrived in Constantinople. Alexios IV was the effective ruler, as Isaac had been blinded by Alexios III. He soon lost the support of the crusaders and the citizens of Constantinople, and was overthrown and imprisoned by Alexios V Doukas, who then had him strangled. Isaac died at around the same time, probably of natural causes.

Emperor Wu Sangui

China

Great Zhou

March 1678

August 1678

≈5 months

Wu Sangui proclaimed himself Emperor of a new Zhou Dynasty and was soon quashed by Kangxi. Wu Sangui had also been instrumental in the removal of Emperor Li Zicheng.

King George VII

King of Imereti

Bagrationi

June 1712

November 1713

≈5 months

Also reigned in other periods of time.

Emperor Isaac II Angelos

Byzantine Empire

Angelos

1 August 1203

c. January 1204

≈5 months

Reigned from 1185 until 1195 when he was deposed, blinded and imprisoned by his brother Alexios III Angelos. When the Fourth Crusade arrived in Constantinople, Alexios III fled and Isaac was restored to the throne, with his son Alexios IV Angelos as co-emperor. Died, probably of natural causes, at around the same time Alexios IV was overthrown and imprisoned by Alexios V Doukas.

King Charles VIII of Sweden

King of Sweden

Bonde

9 August 1464

30 January 1465

5 months, 21 days

Charles, who had been removed from office 7 years prior, was recalled during a rebellion, but soon found his luck changed and was forced out of office a second time. He would return to claim the throne a third time in 1467.

Duke Eduard

Anhalt

Ascania

21 April 1918

13 September 1918

4 months, 23 days

Succeeded with the death of his brother, Friedrich II, only to himself die five months later. The throne then passed to his teenage son, Joachim Ernst (below).

King Ntare V

Burundi

Ntwero

8 July 1966

28 November 1966

4 months, 20 days

He deposed his father Mwambutsa IV, and four months later he himself was deposed in a military coup by Michel Micombero, who proclaimed the Republic.

Prince Alexander Hangerli

Moldavia

Phanariotes

7 March 1807

24 July 1807

4 months, 17 days

Sultan Selim III appointed him Prince of Moldavia in place of the deposed Alexander Mourousis, only to be replaced by Scarlat Callimachi less than half a year later. Sources diverge in respect to the reason for this measure.

Yang di-Pertuan Agong Hisamuddin of Selangor

Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia

Selangor

14 April 1960

1 September 1960

4 months, 17 days

Hisamuddin was elected after the death of Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan and died himself within 5 months. That year Malaysia had three Yang di-Pertuan Agongs.

Duke Charles II

Parma

Bourbon-Parma

17 December 1847

19 April 1848

4 months, 2 days

Charles II abdicated in favour of his son Charles III after the revolution of 1848. Charles II had previously succeeded his father King Louis I of Etruria to become Louis I from 27 May 1803 to 1807 when it was annexed by France and succeeded his mother Maria Louisa to become Duke Charles I of Lucca from 13 March 1824 to 1847 when it was annexed by Tuscany.

Pharaoh Renseneb

Egypt

Thirteenth Dynasty

c. 1775 BC

c. 1775 BC

4 months

Pharaoh of the Second Intermediate period. Attested 4 months in the Turin Papyrus

Emperor Hiệp Hoà

Vietnam

Nguyễn

30 July 1883

29 November 1883

3 months, 29 days

Succeeded the throne after the death of emperor Dục Đức after a reign of 3 days. Hiệp Hoà was murdered and succeeded by Kiến Phúc (who also reigned less than a year).

King Mindaugas II

Lithuania

Württemberg

11 July 1918

2 November 1918

3 months, 21 days

Mindaugas II was elected King by the Council of Lithuania soon after independence from the Russian Empire and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The council soon changed its decision and declared Lithuania a republic.

King Jehoiachin of Judah

Judah

House of David

9 December 599 BC[4]

16 March 599 BC

3 months, 10 days[5]

Biblical King from the Second Book of Kings.

Kaiser/King Frederick III

German Empire and Prussia

Hohenzollern

9 March 1888

15 June 1888

3 months, 6 days

Succeeded his father, Wilhelm I. At this point, he had terminal laryngeal cancer and was unable to speak during his brief reign. He was succeeded by his son Wilhelm II.

Sultan Murad V

Ottoman Empire

Osman

30 May 1876

31 August 1876

3 months, 1 day

Succeeded with the deposition of his uncle, Abdülaziz, who died several days later. Murad was himself deposed in favour of his brother, Abdul Hamid II, on the grounds that he was mentally ill.

Emperor Otho

Roman Empire

Year of the Four Emperors

15 January 69

16 April 69

3 months, 1 day

Committed suicide after his forces were defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum by the forces of his successor, Vitellius.

King Ansprand

King of the Lombards

Mars 712

June 712

3 months

King Teia

King of the Ostrogoths

1 July 552

October 552

≈3 months

Probably killed at the Battle of Mons Lactarius.

King George VIII

King of Imereti

Gurieli

15 March 1720

June 1720

≈3 months

1726

Emperor Constantine III

Byzantine Empire

Heraclian

11 February 641

May 641

≈3 months

Constantine III was junior co-emperor with his father Heraclius from 22 January 613 until his death 11 February 641. Constantine III then became joint co-emperor with his brother Heraklonas who was sole emperor after Constantine III's death.

King Sinmu

Silla (Korea)

Kim

April 839

July 839

≈3 months

He killed King Minae and succeeded the throne, but died by furuncle on his back after three months.

King Sunjong

Goryeo (Korea)

Wang

July 1083

October 1083

≈3 months

King Sunjong is the shortest reigning monarch in Korean history.

King Jehoahaz of Judah

Judah

House of David

July 610 BC[6]

October 610 BC

3 months[7]

Biblical King from the Second Book of Kings.

Emperor Pertinax

Roman Empire

Year of the Five Emperors

1 January 193

28 March 193

2 months, 28 days

Assassinated by his Praetorian Guards, who then auctioned off the throne to the highest bidder.

Queen Berengaria

Castile(Spain)

Anscarids

6 June 1217

31 August 1217

2 months, 25 days

Abdicated her throne to her son, in order to unify Castile and León and avoid a civil war.

Emperor Yuan Shikai

China

Yuan

1 January 1916

22 March 1916

2 months, 22 days

President Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor of his newly created Chinese Empire on 1 January 1916. Due to the unpopularity of the new Empire he reverted to being the president of the Republic of China until his death on 5 June 1916.

Despot Stephen Tomašević

Serbia

1 April 1459

20 June 1459

2 months, 20 days

Became despot of Serbia to unite forces with Bosnia, but shortly after taking power, he agrees to leave Serbia to the Ottomans.

King Pedro IV

Portugal

Braganza

10 March 1826

28 May 1826

2 months, 18 days

Became the first Emperor of Brazil in 1822 after declaring that country's independence from Portugal. Succeeded the Portuguese throne with the death of his father, João VI, but abdicated in favour of his daughter, Maria II, in the awareness that a reunion of Brazil and Portugal would be unacceptable to the people of both nations. He abdicated the Brazilian throne in 1831, in favour of his son Pedro II.

King Edward V

England

York

9 April 1483

25 June 1483

2 months, 16 days

Succeeded with the death of his father, Edward IV. Deposed after he and his brother Richard, Duke of York, were declared illegitimate; their uncle then ascended the throne as Richard III. The young princes disappeared from the Tower of London later in 1483.

King Philip I

Castile (Spain)

Habsburg

12 July 1506

25 September 1506

2 months, 13 days

Declared his wife, the sovereign Queen Joanna I, insane in order to rule in her place. He then died, apparently of typhoid fever, although rumors claimed he was poisoned by King Ferdinand of Aragon.

Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Egypt

Ancient Egypt

Seventh and Eighth Dynasties

c. 2180 BC

c. 2180 BC

70 days

According to Manetho, these fourteen kings reigned a total of 70 days.

Ibrahim ibn al-Walid

Umayyad Caliphate

Umayyad, Marwanid branch

744

744

70 days

Emperor Alexios V Doukas

Byzantine Empire

Doukas

5 February 1204

12 April 1204

2 months, 7 days

Seized the throne after overthrowing and imprisoning Alexios IV Angelos, whose father and co-emperor, Isaac II Angelos, died at around the same time. His decision to have Alexios IV killed angered the army of the Fourth Crusade, who ultimately sacked Constantinople. Alexios V fled to Mosynopolis, where he was blinded on the orders of his father-in-law, the previously deposed Alexios III Angelos, before being brought back to Constantinople and executed for treason.

Emperor Didius Julianus

Roman Empire

Year of the Five Emperors

28 March 193

1 June 193

2 months, 5 days

Purchased the throne after the Praetorian Guards auctioned it off. Faced revolt by General Septimius Severus who captured and executed him.

King Frederick Charles

Finland

Hesse-Kassel

9 October 1918

14 December 1918

2 months, 5 days

Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse was elected king by the newly independent Kingdom of Finland and due to German defeat in the First World War renounced his title without travelling to his own kingdom.

King Mamia III Gurieli

King of Imereti

Gurieli

November 1713

5 January 1714

≈2 months

reigned for around a year (1701–1702), eight months (October 1711 – June 1712), three months (November 1713-5 January 1714)

Chúa Trịnh Cán

Vietnam

Trịnh

1782

1782

≈2 months

Trịnh Cán succeeded his father Trịnh Sâm to the throne aged 6 years and his half brother Trịnh Khải soon killed him and usurped his throne.

Duke Joachim Ernst

Anhalt

Ascania

13 September 1918

12 November 1918

1 month, 30 days

Succeeded with the death of his father, Eduard (above). Abdicated during the German Revolution at the end of the First World War, with the Duchy then becoming the Free State of Anhalt. Died in Buchenwald concentration camp in 1947, as a prisoner of the Soviet Union.

King Bolesław I Chrobry

Poland

Piast

18 April 1025

17 June 1025

1 month, 30 days

Duke of Poland from 992; crowned himself King in 1025. Died not long after his coronation, most likely due to an illness.

King Edgar II

Kingdom of England

Wessex

15 October 1066

10 December 1066

1 month, 25 days

Grandson of Edmund II (above). Elected king by the Witenagemot following the death of Harold II at the Battle of Hastings but never crowned; subsequently submitted to William the Conqueror.

King Charles II

Hungary

Capetian House of Anjou

31 December 1385

24 February 1386

1 month, 24 days

After the death of Louis I, he had claimed the Hungarian throne as the senior Angevin male, and ousted Louis' daughter Mary in December 1385. He was murdered in February 1386.

Tsar Feodor II

All Russia

Godunov

23 April 1605

20 June 1605

1 month, 22 days

Tsar Feodor II succeeded to the throne after the death of his father Boris Godunov and was soon after killed during the Time of Troubles.

Emperor Ziying

China

mid-October 207 BC

December 207 BC

1 month, 16 days

Ziying was the last ruler of the Qin Dynasty of China

Sultan Al-Mansur Abu Bakr

Mamluk Egypt

17 June 1341

5 August 1341

49 days

He was deposed and arrested by his father's senior emir, Qawsun. After being sent to prison, he was executed on Qawsun's orders two months later.

Emperor Ningzong

China

c. 1332

c. 1332

1 month, 13 days

Ningzong was briefly installed as Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, a ruling dynasty of China.

Tirigan

Sumer

Dynasty of Guti

c. 2050 BC

c. 2050 BC

40 days

Last king of Guti, according to the Sumerian King List.

Khan Umor

First Bulgarian Empire

Dynasty of Uokil

766

766

40 days

King Sweyn I

England

25 December 1013

3 February 1014

1 month, 9 days

King of Denmark from c. 985; also ruled most of Norway. Seized the English throne from Æthelred II following a successful invasion of the country; Æthelred regained the throne following Sweyn's death. Sweyn's son, Canute, ruled England from 1016 to 1035.

King Umberto II

Italy

Savoy

9 May 1946

12 June 1946

1 month, 3 days

Ascended the throne when his father, Victor Emmanuel III, abdicated in an attempt to strengthen support for the monarchy against a referendum to abolish it. After the referendum passed and a republic was declared, Umberto left Italy and never returned.

Emperor Li Zicheng

China

Li

25 April 1644

27 May 1644

1 month, 2 days

Li Zicheng declared himself Emperor of China after Chongzhen committed suicide and was then forced from power after the Battle of Shanhai Pass.

Pope John Paul I

Holy See

26 August 1978

28 September 1978

1 month, 2 days

Pope Benedict V

Holy See

22 May 964

23 June 964

1 month, 1 day

King Reccared II

King of Hispania, Septimania and Galicia

Visigoths

612

612

≈1 month

King Shallum of Israel

Israel

773 BC[8]

c. 772 BC

1 month[9]

Biblical King from the Second Book of Kings. Because he became King in the 38th year but died in the 39th year, then his reign probably spans the Jewish New year.

text: Less than a month[edit]

text:
Name

Country

Royal house/dynasty

Reign began

Reign ended

Length

Comments

Taichang Emperor

China

Ming

28 August 1620

26 September 1620

29 days

Died after a bout of diarrhea which could have been caused by poisoning.

Emperor Liu He

China

Han

74 BC

74 BC

27 days

Installed and deposed by Regent Huo Guang.

Pope Leo XI

Holy See

1 April 1605

27 April 1605

27 days

Pope Pius III

Holy See

22 September 1503

18 October 1503

27 days

Prince Milan Obrenović II

Serbia

Obrenović

25 June 1839

8 July 1839

26 days

Succeeded with the abdication of his father, Miloš Obrenović I, although, due to ill health, he may never have been aware of his own rule, dying after 26 days.

Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson

Kingdom of Mann and the Isles

Crovan dynasty

6 May 1249

30 May 1249

24 days

Slain by an apparent accomplice of his first cousin once removed, Haraldr Guðrøðarson, a man who certainly succeeded Rǫgnvaldr.

Pope Damasus II

Holy See

17 July 1048

9 August 1048

24 days

Emperor Constantine

Russian Empire

Romanov

1 December 1825

25 December 1825

24 days

Proclaimed Emperor of Russia after the death of his elder brother Alexander I despite his renunciation of the crown until the accession of Nicholas I.

Pope Marcellus II

Holy See

9 April 1555

1 May 1555

22 days

Emperor Gordian I

Roman Empire

Gordian

22 March 238

12 April 238

21 days

Proclaimed joint Augustus with his son Gordian II (below) after leading a revolt against Maximinus I. Gordian I hanged himself upon learning of his son's death in the Battle of Carthage.

Emperor Gordian II

Roman Empire

Gordian

22 March 238

12 April 238

21 days

Proclaimed joint Augustus with his father Gordian I (above) after leading a revolt against Maximinus I. Gordian II was killed at the Battle of Carthage.

Pope Sisinnius

Holy See

15 January 708

4 February 708

21 days

Pope Theodore II

Holy See

December 897

December 897

20 days

Emperor Shang

China

Tang

8 July 710

25 July 710

18 days

Installed by Empress Wei to succeed Emperor Zhongzong, but was deposed 18 days later in a coup.

King Anikanga Mahadipada

Polonnaruwa

1209

1209

17 days

Governor of Maya Rata, who put to death the 3 months old Infant King Dharmasoka Deva and became king.

Pope Celestine IV

Holy See

25 October 1241

10 November 1241

17 days

Died before Consecration

Pope Boniface VI

Holy See

April 896

April 896

16 days

Emperor Napoleon II

Emperor of the French

Bonaparte

22 June 1815

7 July 1815

16 days

Succeeded with the abdication of his father, Napoleon I, but never actually ruled France. Louis XVIII was restored as King on 8 July 1815.

Eleanor of Navarre

Kingdom of Navarre

28 January 1479

12 February 1479

14 days

Official reign lasted longer.

Pope Urban VII

Holy See

15 September 1590

27 September 1590

13 days

Shortest reigning Pope of all time. (See full list)

King Lodewijk II

Holland

Bonaparte

1 July 1810

13 July 1810

12 days

Succeeded with the abdication of his father Lodewijk Napoleon only to have his kingdom annexed by Napoleon I of the French.

Emperor Puyi

China

Qing

1 July 1917

12 July 1917

12 days

Restored by Zhang Xun in a coup, but the republic was restored by Duan Qirui 12 days later.

Queen Jane

England and Ireland

Tudor

10 July 1553

19 July 1553

9 days

Proclaimed Queen four days after the death of Edward VI only to be removed and later executed by Mary I.

Emir Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah

Kuwait

Al-Sabah

15 January 2006

24 January 2006

9 days

Succeeded with the death of Jaber III Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and voted out of office by parliament due to ill health before being able to issue his abdication in favour of Sabah IV Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.

King Henry V

King of France

Bourbon

2 August 1830

9 August 1830

7 days

Succeeded with the abdications of his grandfather, Charles X, and then his uncle, Louis XIX (below), twenty minutes later. Never officially proclaimed as King, he was rejected by the National Assembly in favour of Louis Philippe of Orléans. Afterwards, he was the Legitimist claimant to the throne from 1844 until his death in 1883.

King Thong Lan

Ayutthaya Kingdom

Suphannaphum

1370

1370

7 days

Succeeded with the death of Borommarachathirat I and then Ramesuan's forces quickly took the palace and executed King Thong Lan. King Ramesuan then held the throne.

King Sigeric

Spain

Visigothic Kingdom

415

415

7 days

Usurped the throne after the assassination of king Ataulf, but his cruelty raised high opposition, leading to his murder.

King Zimri

Israel

c. 885 BC or c. 876 BC

c. 885 BC or c. 876 BC

7 days

A biblical king from the Books of Kings.

text: Less than a week[edit]

text:
Name

Country

Royal house/dynasty

Reign began

Reign ended

Length

Comments

King John I

France and Navarre

Capet

15 November 1316

20 November 1316

5 days

Posthumous son of Louis X, died aged 5 days.

King Crateuas

Macedon

Argead Dynasty

399 BC

399 BC

4 days

Assassinated Archelaus I during a hunt. Succeeded by Archelaus's son Orestes.

Pope-elect Stephen

Holy See

23 March 752

26 March 752

3 days

Not normally recognized as a genuine Pope, Stephen died of apoplexy 3 days after his election, missing his consecration. The numbering of Stephens from Stephen I (254–257 AD) to Stephen II (752–757 AD) skips him over, and he was removed from the 1961 List of Popes.

Lê Trung Tông

Vietnam

Lê

October 1005

October 1005

3 days

Assassinated by order of his successor Lê Ngoạ Triều.

Lê Quang Trị

Vietnam

Lê

1516

1516

3 days

King Karposh

Kumanovo

October 1689

October 1689

3 days

Leader of an uprising against the Ottoman Empire.

Emperor Dục Đức

Vietnam

Nguyễn

20 July 1883

23 July 1883

3 days

Executed for failing to observe Confucian mourning etiquette, and for having intimate relations with his predecessor's concubines.

King Inayatullah Khan Seraj

Afghanistan

Barakzai

14 January 1929

17 January 1929

3 days

Inayatullah Khan Seraj replaced his brother King Amanullah Khan who had abdicated. Inayatullah Khan Seraj then abdicated himself three days later in favour of Habibullah Ghazi who was deposed 8 months later.

King Dipendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev

Nepal

Shah

1 June 2001

4 June 2001

<56 hours

Succeeded to the throne after murdering his father Birendra during the Nepalese royal massacre, in which Dipendra allegedly inflicted mortal wounds upon himself. He was comatose for the duration of his reign.

King Xiaowen of Qin

China

Qin

13 September 250 BC

15 September 250 BC

2 days

Sultan Sayyid Khalid bin Barghash

Zanzibar

Al Bu Sa'id

25 August 1896

27 August 1896

2 days

Seized power after the death of Sayyid Hamad bin Thuwaini Al-Busaid resulting in the 38 minute Anglo-Zanzibar War. Replaced by Sayyid Hamoud bin Mohammed Al-Said after surrender.

text: Less than a day[edit]

text: Due to the ephemeral nature of their reigns, the following have been disputed as genuine monarchs:

text:
Name

Country

Royal house/dynasty

Reign began

Reign ended

Length

Comments

Emperor Michael I Megas Komnenos

Empire of Trebizond

Komnenos

30 July 1341

31 July 1341

Less than 24 hours

First reign : as the legitimate male descendant of the ruling family, Michael received the support of much of the populace and was acclaimed emperor. Some of the nobility, led by the Metropolitan Akakios received him as their lord and escorted him into the palace. As soon as night fell, however, the nobles imprisoned Michael, not wishing to be ruled by a mature and forceful monarch.

Tsar Michael II

Russian Empire

Romanov

15 March 1917

16 March 1917

16 hours

Deferred acceptance. Later killed.

Emperor Mo

China

Jin

9 February 1234

9 February 1234

12 hours

Crowned while under assault by Mongolians at the Siege of Caizhou and killed after the coronation.

Victoria Kamāmalu

Hawaii

Kamehameha

30 November 1864

30 November 1864

5 hours and 45 minutes

As Kuhina Nui, she effectively became head of state upon her brother Kamehameha IV's death at 9:15 a.m. until her other brother Kamehameha V's declaration as the actual successor at 3 p.m. the same day.[10]

Daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei

China

Northern Wei

1 April 528

1 April 528

Less than 5 hours

Soon after her birth, her grandmother, the Empress Dowager Hu, falsely declared she was a boy and ordered a general pardon. Emperor Xiaoming died soon afterwards. On 1 April 528, Empress Dowager Hu installed the infant on the throne for a matter of hours before replacing her with Yuan Zhao the next day.[11]

text: Less than an hour[edit]

text: Due to the ephemeral nature of his reign, the following has been disputed as a genuine monarch:

text:
Name

Country

Royal house/dynasty

Reign began

Reign ended

Length

Comments

Prince Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, "King Louis XIX"

Kingdom of France

Bourbon

2 August 1830

2 August 1830

20 minutes

Succeeded with the abdication of his father, Charles X, only to himself abdicate in favour of his nephew, Henry V (above). The question of whether Louis actually "reigned" is a philosophical one, as after his father signed the document of abdication, he contemplated his future for twenty minutes before himself signing. Many Legitimists did not recognise the abdications as valid, and recognised Charles X as king until his death in 1836, before recognising Louis as king until his own death in 1844.


document_title: Bangladesh Liberation War

question_text: who was heading indian army during the bangladesh liberation 1971

question_tokens: who was heading indian army during the bangladesh liberation 1971

text: Bangladesh Liberation War

text: Background[edit]

text: Prior to the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim-majority states in the eastern and northwestern zones of British India. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946, but was opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India. Eventually, political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India,[20] giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus respectively following the departure of the British. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west with India in between.[21] The western zone was popularly (and for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern-day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge.[22] On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal[23] suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment,[24] in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight.[25] The violent crackdown by Pakistan Army[26] led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971.[27] Most Bengalis threw their support behind this move although Islamists and Biharis opposed this and sided with the Pakistan Army instead.[28] Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government's authority, beginning the civil war.[27] The war led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million)[29][30] flooding into the eastern provinces of India.[31] Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the Bangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.

text: Language controversy[edit]

text: In 1948, Governor-General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu" would be the federal language of Pakistan.[32][33] However, Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western region of the subcontinent; whereas in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo-European languages.[34] The Bengali-speaking people of Pakistan constituted over 30% of the country's population. The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of the Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj. The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. Later, in memory of the deaths in 1952, UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day in November 1999.[35]

text: Disparities[edit]

text: Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.

text:
Year
Spending on West Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees)
Spending on East Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees)
Amount spent on East as percentage of West

1950–55
11,290
5,240
46.4

1955–60
16,550
5,240
31.7

1960–65
33,550
14,040
41.8

1965–70
51,950
21,410
41.2

Total
113,340
45,930
40.5

Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol. I,
published by the planning commission of Pakistan.

text: Bengalis were under-represented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5% of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts.[36] West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined" unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "Martial races" notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis.[36] Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under-strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.[37][38]

text: Religious and cultural differences[edit]

text: The only common bond between the two Pakistani wings was religion. But there were differences even in religious practices. Bengali Muslims tended to be less conservative in religious zeal, and had come to accept their Hindu minority and neighbours despite some communal clashes.[39] Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm imposed by the Pakistani state.[40] Most members of West Pakistan's ruling elite also belonged to a liberal society, yet understood a common faith as the mobilising factor behind Pakistan's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan's multiple identities into one.[40]

text: Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings outweighed any religious unity. The Bengalis were very proud of their culture and language which with its Devnagari script and Sanskrit vocabulary was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite who considered it to smack of Hindu culture.[41]

text: The Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders.[42] With this reality and the feeling of Islamic solidarity in the background, Islamists in East Pakistan viewed Bengali nationalism as unacceptable and instead sided with the Pakistani Army's efforts to crush the Bengali independence movement.[43] Secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion-centred Pakistani nationalism.[44]

text: Most of the politically-active ulama of East Pakistan either remained neutral or sided with the Pakistani state, since they perceived the break-up of Pakistan as a loss for Islam. [45]

text: Political differences[edit]

text: Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country's population,[46] political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit" scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing's votes.

text: After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to devolve to the new President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.

text: The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment would swiftly depose any East Pakistanis elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, or Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 – 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 – 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan.[47] Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme". Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan.[47] A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto.[47] Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as Premier and Bhutto as President.[47] However, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.[47]

text: On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:

text:
The immediate lifting of martial law.
Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks.
An inquiry into the loss of life.
Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting 25 March.

text: He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence." This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.

text: Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly "government passengers" to Dacca. These "government passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.

text: Response to the 1970 cyclone[edit]

text: The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide,[48] killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is not known, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record.[49] A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips" and "mistakes" in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.[50]

text: A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference". They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage.[51] On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government's response.[52] Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.

text: As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long-term planning was curtailed.[53] This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.[54]

text: Operation Searchlight[edit]

text: A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army – codenamed Operation Searchlight – started on 25 March to curb the Bengali independence movement[25] by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military,[55] within one month. The Pakistani state claimed to justify starting Operation Searchlight on the basis of anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March.[56]

text: Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.[57]

text: The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000–35,000 in Dacca, and 200,000–3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole[58], although independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward the figure ranging from between 125,000 and 505,000.[59] American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million.[60] The atrocities have been referred to as acts of genocide.[61]

text: According to the Asia Times,[62]

text: At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands." Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush" Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able-bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.

text: Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall – Jagannath Hall – was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.[63]

text: The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan's actions, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role", with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India's armed intervention".[64]

text: Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dacca was burning, especially the Hindu-dominated eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred."[65]

text: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.[66]

text: Declaration of independence[edit]

text: The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:

text: Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla [May Bangladesh be victorious].

text: Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25–26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971).

text: A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation. However, the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by some rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security of the station and he also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971.[68] Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.

text: This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.[69]

text: The Kalurghat Radio Station's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia[70] and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.

text: M. A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.[71]

text: 26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh.[72] Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until 16 December 1971.

text: Liberation war[edit]

text: March–June[edit]

text: At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged.[73] However, when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al-Badrs and Al-Shams (who were mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.

text: On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, Tajuddin Ahmad as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander-in-Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.[74]

text: June–September[edit]

text: Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M. A. G. Osmani as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col., Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain A K Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A R Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).

text: General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership regarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small elite guerrilla force of 8,000 members, led by the surviving East Bengal Regiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate the eventual Indian intervention,[75] but with the Bangladesh government in exile, General Osmani favoured a different strategy:[76][77]

text:
Bengali conventional forces would occupy lodgment areas inside Bangladesh and then the Bangladesh government would request international diplomatic recognition and intervention. Initially Mymensingh was picked for this operation, but Gen. Osmani later settled on Sylhet.
Sending the maximum number to guerrillas inside Bangladesh as soon as possible with the following objectives:[78][79]

Increasing Pakistani casualties through raids and ambush.
Cripple economic activity by hitting power stations, railway lines, storage depots and communication networks.
Destroy Pakistan army mobility by blowing up bridges/culverts, fuel depots, trains and river crafts.
The strategic objective was to make the Pakistanis spread their forces inside the province, so attacks could be made on isolated Pakistani detachments.

text: Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July,[80] each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their training camps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directly placed under the Commander in Chief (C-in-C) General M. A. G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos and C-in-C's special force.[81] Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.[82]

text: Three brigades (eight infantry battalions and three artillery batteries) were put into action between July and September.[83] During June and July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2000–5000 guerrillas across the border,[84] the so-called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives.[85][86][87] Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near-accurate observation.[88][89]

text: Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.[90][91]

text: October–December[edit]

text: Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar.[2] Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.

text: Indian involvement[edit]

text: Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan.[92] As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to “Go into East Pakistan”.[93] Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India's decision to intervene in Pakistan's civil war. Resultantly, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini. For this, RAW, helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, thus creating conditions conducive for a full-scale Indian military intervention in early December.[92] Thus, wary of the growing involvement of India[why?], the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force's Operation Focus during the Six-Day War, and intended to neutralise the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. The strike was seen by India as an open act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War.

text: As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries", even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.[94]

text: Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions.[95] The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini.[96] Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.

text: Air and naval war[edit]

text: The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near-total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No.14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladesh airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, Lal Munir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.[97]

text: Surrender and aftermath[edit]

text: On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces & Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II,[8][98] although the Pakistani Army had fought gallantly according to Indian Army Chief Sam Manekshaw.[99] Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally.[100] The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition.[101] To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925.[102] It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.[8] Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back 13,000 km2 (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas;[103] most notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace" and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. However, some in India[104] felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis.

text: Reaction in West Pakistan to the war[edit]

text: Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan".[105][106]

text: Atrocities[edit]

text: During the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities – including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights began with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting Islamist militias from Jamaat e Islami killed an estimated 300,000[64] to 3,000,000 people and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape.[107][108][109] Some Islamic clerics issued fatwas in support of raping Bengali women, especially Hindu women, as they considered the conflict a holy war.[110] During the war, a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali freedom fighters were Hindus and that their women could be taken as "the booty of war".[111]

text: A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al-Shams and Al-Badr forces,[112] at the instruction of the Pakistani Army.[113] Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.[114]

text: Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh.[115] The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians.[116] Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies.[117][118][119] The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex-slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most of the girls were captured from Dacca University and private homes.[120] There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army,[121] but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis.[122] In June 1971, Bihari representatives stated that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis.[123] R.J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.[124]

text: On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C.[116] These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide"[125] and "genocide" (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term that is still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh,[126][127] although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.

text: Foreign reaction[edit]

text: Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.

text: Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world's context of the war and to justify military action by India.[130] Also, following Pakistan's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.

text: United Nations[edit]

text: Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.

text: Following India's entry into the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops". While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.[94][131]

text: On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.[131]

text: Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.[130]

text: Bhutan[edit]

text: As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971.[132] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.

text: US and USSR[edit]

text: The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan[133] both politically and materially. US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China. To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran,[134] while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.[135]

text: Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal,[136] a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.[137] [138][139]

text: The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals – the United States and China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.[140][141]

text: At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972.[142] The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.[143]

text: China[edit]

text: As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino-Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality.[94] China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.

text: When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application[144] because two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented.[145] China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.[130][144]

text: In popular culture[edit]


document_title: Visa requirements for Kenyan citizens

question_text: visa requirements for kenyan citizens travelling to ireland

text: Visa requirements for Kenyan citizens

text: Visa requirements map[edit]

text: Visa requirements[edit]

text:
Country
Visa requirement
Allowed stay
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Afghanistan
Visa required[2]

 Albania
Visa required[3]

 Algeria
Visa required[4]

 Andorra
Visa required[5]

 Angola
Visa required[6]

 Antigua and Barbuda
Visa not required[7]
1 month

 Argentina
Visa required[8]

 Armenia
Visa required[9]

 Australia and territories
Visa required[10]

May apply online (Online Visitor e600 visa).[11]

 Austria
Visa required[12]

 Azerbaijan
Visa required[13]

 Bahamas
Visa not required[14]
3 months

 Bahrain
eVisa[15]
14 days

 Bangladesh
Visa required[16]

 Barbados
Visa not required[17]

 Belarus
Visa required[18]

 Belgium
Visa required[19]

 Belize
Visa required[20]

 Benin
Visa not required[21]
90 days[22][23]

 Bhutan
Visa required[24]

 Bolivia
Visa on arrival[25]
90 days

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Visa required[26]

 Botswana
Visa not required[27]
90 days

 Brazil
Visa required[28]

 Brunei
Visa required[29]

 Bulgaria
Visa required[30]

 Burkina Faso
Visa on arrival[31]

 Burundi
Visa not required[32]
3 months

 Cambodia
eVisa / Visa on arrival[33]

 Cameroon
Visa required[34]

 Canada
Visa required[35]

 Cape Verde
Visa on arrival[36]

 Central African Republic
Visa required[37]

 Chad
Visa required[38]

 Chile
Visa required[39]

 China
Visa required[40]

 Colombia
Visa required[41]

May apply online.[42]

 Comoros
Visa on arrival[43]

 Republic of the Congo
Visa required[44]

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Visa on arrival[45]

 Costa Rica
Visa required[46]

 Côte d'Ivoire
Visa required[47]

 Croatia
Visa required[48]

 Cuba
Tourist card required[49]

Tourist card must be obtained in advance via travel agency, airline or at the embassy.

 Cyprus
Visa required[50]

 Czech Republic
Visa required[51]

 Denmark
Visa required[52]

 Djibouti
eVisa[53]
31 days

 Dominica
Visa not required[54]
21 days

 Dominican Republic
Visa required[55]

 Ecuador
Visa required[56]

 Egypt
Visa required[57]

 El Salvador
Visa required[58]

 Equatorial Guinea
Visa required[59]

 Eritrea
Visa required[60]

 Estonia
Visa required[61]

 Ethiopia
Visa not required[62]
1 year

 Fiji
Visa not required[63]
4 months

 Finland
Visa required[64]

 France
Visa required[65]

 Gabon
e-Visa[66][67]

Electronic visa holders must arrive via Libreville International Airport.

 Gambia
Visa not required[68]
90 days

Must obtain an entry clearance from the Gambian Immigration prior to travel</ref>[69]

 Georgia
eVisa[70]

 Germany
Visa required[71]

 Ghana
Visa not required[72]

 Greece
Visa required[73]

 Grenada
Visa not required[74]

 Guatemala
Visa required[75]

 Guinea
Visa required[76]

 Guinea-Bissau
eVisa / Visa on arrival[77]
90 days

 Guyana
Visa required[78]

 Haiti
Visa not required[79]
3 months

 Honduras
Visa required[80]

 Hungary
Visa required[81]

 Iceland
Visa required[82]

 India
e-Visa[83]
60 days

e-Visa holders must arrive via 25 designated airports[Note 1] or 3 designated seaports.[Note 2][84]
e-Tourist Visa can be obtained twice in a calendar year.

 Indonesia
Visa not required[85]
30 days

 Iran
Visa on arrival[86]
30 days[87]

 Iraq
Visa required[88]

 Ireland
Visa required[89]

 Israel
Visa required[90]

 Italy
Visa required[91]

 Jamaica
Visa not required[92]

 Japan
Visa required[93]

 Jordan
Visa required[94]

 Kazakhstan
Visa required[95]

 Kiribati
Visa not required[96]
30 days

 North Korea
Visa required[97]

 South Korea
Visa required[98]

 Kuwait
Visa required[99]

 Kyrgyzstan
eVisa[100]

 Laos
Visa on arrival[101]
30 days

 Latvia
Visa required[102]

 Lebanon
Visa required[103]

In addition to a visa, an approval should be obtained from the Immigration department of the General Directorate of General Security (La Surete Generale).

 Lesotho
Visa not required[104]
90 days

 Liberia
Visa required[105]

 Libya
Visa required[106]

 Liechtenstein
Visa required[107]

 Lithuania
Visa required[108]

 Luxembourg
Visa required[109]

 Macedonia
Visa required[110]

 Madagascar
Visa on arrival[111]
90 days

 Malawi
Visa not required[112]
90 days

 Malaysia
Visa not required[113]
30 days

 Maldives
Visa on arrival[114]
30 days

 Mali
Visa on arrival[115]

 Malta
Visa required[116]

 Marshall Islands
Visa required[117]

 Mauritania
Visa on arrival[118]

Available at Nouakchott–Oumtounsy International Airport.

 Mauritius
Visa not required[119]
90 days

 Mexico
Visa required[120]

 Micronesia
Visa not required[121]
30 days

 Moldova
Visa required[122]

 Monaco
Visa required[123]

 Mongolia
Visa required[124]

 Montenegro
Visa required[125]

 Morocco
Visa required[126]

 Mozambique
Visa on arrival[127]
30 days[128]

 Myanmar
Visa required[129]

 Namibia
Visa not required[130]
90 days

 Nauru
Visa required[131]

   Nepal
Visa on arrival[132]

 Netherlands
Visa required[133]

 New Zealand
Visa required[134]

 Nicaragua
Visa required[135]

 Niger
Visa required[136]

 Nigeria
Visa on arrival[137]

 Norway
Visa required[138]

 Oman
Visa required[139]

 Pakistan
Visa required[140]

 Palau
Visa on arrival[141]
30 days

 Panama
Visa not required[142]
180 days

 Papua New Guinea
Visa required[143]

 Paraguay
Visa required[144]

 Peru
Visa required[145]

 Philippines
Visa not required[146]
30 days

 Poland
Visa required[147]

 Portugal
Visa required[148]

 Qatar
eVisa[149]

 Romania
Visa required[150]

 Russia
Visa required[151]

 Rwanda
Visa not required[152]
6 months

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Visa not required[153]

 Saint Lucia
Visa on arrival[154]
6 weeks

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Visa not required[155]
1 month

 Samoa
Visa on arrival !Entry Permit on arrival[156]
60 days

 San Marino
Visa required[157]

 São Tomé and Príncipe
eVisa[158]

Visa is obtained online.[159]

 Saudi Arabia
Visa required[160]

 Senegal
Visa not required[161]
90 days

 Serbia
Visa required[162]

Visa free for a maximum stay of 90 days for valid visa holders or residents of the European Union member states and the United States.

 Seychelles
Visa on arrival !Visitor's Permit on arrival[163]
3 months

 Sierra Leone
Visa on arrival[164]

 Singapore
Visa not required[165]
30 days

 Slovakia
Visa required[166]

 Slovenia
Visa required[167]

 Solomon Islands
Visa required[168]

 Somalia
Visa on arrival[169]
30 days

Available at Bosaso, Galcaio and Mogadishu airports.

 South Africa
Visa required[170]

 South Sudan
Visa on arrival[171]

 Spain
Visa required[172]

 Sri Lanka
Visa required[173]

 Sudan
Visa on arrival[174]

 Suriname
Visa required[175]

 Swaziland
Visa not required[176]
30 days

 Sweden
Visa required[177]

  Switzerland
Visa required[178]

 Syria
Visa required[179]

 Tajikistan
Visa required[180]

 Tanzania
Visa not required[181]
90 days

 Thailand
Visa required[182]

 Timor-Leste
Visa on arrival[183]
30 days

 Togo
Visa on arrival[184]
7 days

 Tonga
Visa required[185]

 Trinidad and Tobago
Visa not required[186]

 Tunisia
Visa required[187]

 Turkey
Visa required[188]

 Turkmenistan
Visa required[189]

 Tuvalu
Visa on arrival[190]
1 month

 Uganda
Visa not required[191]

 Ukraine
Visa required[192]

 United Arab Emirates
Visa required[193]

 United Kingdom and Crown dependencies
Visa required[194]

 United States
Visa required[195]

 Uruguay
Visa required[196]

 Uzbekistan
Visa required[197]

 Vanuatu
Visa not required[198]
30 days

  Vatican City
Visa required[199]

 Venezuela
Visa required[200]

 Vietnam
Visa required[201]

 Yemen
Visa required[202]

 Zambia
Visa not required[203]
90 days

 Zimbabwe
Visa not required[204]
3 months

text: Dependent, Disputed, or Restricted territories[edit]

text:
Territory
Conditions of access
Notes

 Abkhazia
Visa required[205]

 Kosovo
Visa required[206]
Not required if holding multiple entry C type Schengen visa

 Northern Cyprus
Visa not required[207]

 Nagorno-Karabakh
Visa required[208]
Travellers with Nagorno-Karabakh visa (expired or valid) or evidence of travel to Nagorno-Karabakh (stamps) will be permanently denied entry to Azerbaijan.[209]

 Palestine
Visa not required[210]
Arrival by sea to Gaza Strip not allowed.[211]

 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

Undefined visa regime in the Western Sahara controlled territory.

 Somaliland
Visa on arrival
30 days for 30 US dollars, payable on arrival.[212][213]

 South Ossetia
Visa not required[214]
Multiple entry visa to Russia and three day prior notification are required to enter South Ossetia.[215][216]

 Taiwan
Visa required[217][218]

 Transnistria
Visa not required[219]
Registration required after 24h.[220][221]

text:
Territory
Conditions of access
Notes

China

 Hong Kong
Visa not required[222]
90 days

 Macau
Visa on arrival[223]

Denmark

 Faroe Islands
Visa required[224]

 Greenland
Visa required[225]

France

 French Guiana
Visa required[226]

 French Polynesia
Visa required[227]

 French West Indies
Visa required
Includes overseas departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique and overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin.

 Mayotte
Visa required[228]

 New Caledonia
Visa required[229]

 Réunion
Visa required[230]

 Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Visa required[231]

 Wallis and Futuna
Visa required[232]

Netherlands

 Aruba
Visa required[233]

 Caribbean Netherlands
Visa required[234]
Includes Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba.

 Curaçao
Visa required[235]

 Sint Maarten
Visa required[236]

New Zealand

 Cook Islands
Visa not required[237]
31 days

 Niue
Visa not required[238]
30 days

 Tokelau
Visa required[239]

United Kingdom

 Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Visa required[240]

 Anguilla
Visa required[241]
Holders of a valid visa issued by the United Kingdom do not require a visa.[242]

 Bermuda
Visa required[243]

 British Indian Ocean Territory
Special permit required
Special permit required.[244]

 British Virgin Islands
Visa not required[245]

 Cayman Islands
Visa not required[246]

 Falkland Islands
Visa required[247]

 Gibraltar
Visa required[248]

 Montserrat
Visa not required[249]

 Pitcairn Islands
Visa not required
14 days visa free and landing fee 35 USD or tax of 5 USD if not going ashore.[250][251][252]

 Ascension Island
Entry Permit required
Entry Permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance (3 months for 20/30 pounds sterling, single/double entry).[253]

 Saint Helena
Visa required[254]

 Tristan da Cunha
Permission required
Permission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands.[255]

 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Permit required
Pre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[256][257]

 Turks and Caicos Islands
Visa required[258]
Holders of a valid visa issued by Canada, United Kingdom or the USA do not required a visa for a maximum stay of 90 days.

United States

 American Samoa
Visa required[259]

 Guam
Visa required[260]

 Northern Mariana Islands
Visa required[261]

 Puerto Rico
Visa required[262]

 U.S. Virgin Islands
Visa required[263]

Antarctica and adjacent islands

Special permits required for  Bouvet Island,  British Antarctic Territory,  French Southern and Antarctic Lands,  Argentine Antarctica,  Australian Antarctic Territory,  Chilean Antarctic Territory,  Heard Island and McDonald Islands,  Peter I Island,  Queen Maud Land,  Ross Dependency.[264][265][266][267][268][269][270][271][272][273][274][275]