document_title: List of multilingual presidents of the United States

question_text: us president that could write with both hands

text: 18th century[edit]

text: John Adams[edit]

text: John Adams, the second president of the United States, learned to read Latin at young.[1] In preparation for attending Harvard University, Adams attended a school for improving his Latin skills.[2] While posted in France, Adams became fluent in French.[3]

text: 19th century[edit]

text: Thomas Jefferson[edit]

text: Thomas Jefferson spoke and read multiple languages, which included French. After his death, a number of other books, dictionaries, and grammar manuals in various languages were found in Jefferson's library, suggesting that he studied additional languages beyond those he spoke and wrote well. Among these were books in Italian, Arabic, Irish, Welsh and Dutch.[4] Regarding Spanish, Jefferson told John Quincy Adams that he had learned the language over the course of nineteen days while sailing from the United States to France. He had borrowed a Spanish grammar and a copy of Don Quixote from a friend and read them on the voyage. Adams expressed skepticism, noting Jefferson's tendency to tell "large stories".[5]

text: James Madison[edit]

text: James Madison began his studies of Latin at the age of twelve[6] and had mastered Greek and Latin by the time he entered the College of New Jersey, later Princeton University. He produced many translations of Latin orations of Grotius, Pufendorf, and Vattel.[6] He also studied Horace and Ovid.[6] He learned Greek as an admissions requirement for higher college learning.[6]

text: While in college, Madison learned to speak and read Hebrew.[1] When he could have graduated, Madison remained at college for an additional year to study ethics and Hebrew in greater depth.[7]

text: James Monroe[edit]

text: James Monroe adopted many French customs while a diplomat in Paris, including learning fluent French. The entire Monroe family knew the language, and often spoke it with one another at home.[8]

text: John Quincy Adams[edit]

text: John Quincy Adams went to school in both France and the Netherlands, and spoke fluent French and conversational Dutch.[9] Adams strove to improve his abilities in Dutch throughout his life, and at times translated a page of Dutch a day to help improve his mastery of the language.[10] Official documents that he translated were sent to the Secretary of State of the United States, so that Adams' studies would serve a useful purpose as well.[10] When his father appointed him United States Ambassador to Prussia, Adams dedicated himself to becoming proficient in German in order to give him the tools to strengthen relations between the two countries.[11] He improved his skills by translating articles from German to English, and his studies made his diplomatic efforts more successful.[11]

text: In addition to the two languages he spoke fluently, he also studied Italian, but he admitted to making little progress in it since he had no one with whom to practice speaking and hearing the language, as well as Russian, but never achieved fluency.[10] Adams also read Latin very well, translated a page a day of Latin text,[12] and studied classical Greek in his spare time.[13]

text: Martin Van Buren[edit]

text: Martin Van Buren was the only American president who did not speak English as his first language. He was born in Kinderhook, New York, a primarily Dutch community, spoke Dutch as his first language, and continued to speak it at home.[14] He learned English as a second language while attending Kinderhook's local school house. He obtained a small understanding of Latin while studying at Kinderhook Academy and solidified his understanding of English there.[15]

text: William Henry Harrison[edit]

text: At Hampden–Sydney College, William Henry Harrison spent a considerable time learning Latin, and favored reading about the military history of ancient Rome and Julius Caesar from Latin histories. At the college, he also learned a small amount of French.[16]

text: John Tyler[edit]

text: John Tyler excelled at school, where he learned both Latin and Greek.[17]

text: James K. Polk[edit]

text: Although James K. Polk had no background in foreign languages upon entering college, he proved a quick learner.[18] Upon graduating from the University of North Carolina, he was asked to give the welcoming address at graduation; he chose to do so in Latin. He proved very proficient in classical languages, and received honors in both Greek and Latin on his degree.[19]

text: James Buchanan[edit]

text: James Buchanan studied a traditional classical curriculum, which included Latin and Greek, at the private Old Stone Academy before transferring to Dickinson College. He excelled in both subjects.[20]

text: Rutherford B. Hayes[edit]

text: Rutherford B. Hayes studied Latin and Greek at the Isaac Webb school in Middletown, Connecticut. He initially struggled with the languages, but soon became proficient in them. He also briefly studied French there.[21]

text: James A. Garfield[edit]

text: James A. Garfield knew and taught both Latin and Greek, and he was the first President to campaign in two languages (English and German).[22] He was also ambidextrous. Stories emerged to the effect that Garfield would entertain his friends by having them ask him questions, and then writing the answer in Latin with one hand while simultaneously writing the answer in Greek with the other. However, specifics of these stories are not documented.[23]

text: Chester A. Arthur[edit]

text: Chester A. Arthur was known to be comfortable enough in Latin and Greek to converse with other men who knew the languages.[24]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Theodore Roosevelt[edit]

text: A foreign correspondent noted that although Roosevelt spoke clearly and quickly, he had a German accent while speaking in French.[25] He read both German and French very well and kept a good number of books written in these languages in his personal library.[26] He quite often read fiction, philosophy, religion, and history books in both French and German.[27] He was most comfortable with informal discussions in French, but he made two public addresses in the West Indies in French in 1916.[27] He recognized that, while he spoke French rapidly and was able to understand others, he used unusual grammar "without tense or gender". John Hay, secretary of state under Roosevelt, commented that Roosevelt spoke odd, grammatically incorrect French, but was never difficult to understand.[27]

text: Though he could read and understand the language thoroughly, Roosevelt struggled to speak German. When Roosevelt attempted to speak with a native German, he had to apologize after botching the attempt.[27] While not fluent in the language, Roosevelt was also able to read Italian.[28] Though he at one point studied Greek and Latin, Roosevelt found both languages a "dreary labor" to translate.[29]

text: Roosevelt understood some of the Dutch language and taught songs in Dutch to his children and grandchildren, as is documented in a letter in English that he wrote to the painter Nelly Bodenheim in Amsterdam.[30]

text: Woodrow Wilson[edit]

text: Woodrow Wilson learned German as part of earning his Ph.D. in history and political science from Johns Hopkins University. However, he never claimed proficiency in the language. While he did read German sources when they were available, he often complained about the amount of time and effort it took him.[31]

text: Herbert Hoover[edit]

text: Herbert Hoover and his wife, Lou Hoover, once translated a book from Latin to English.[32] The pair took five years, and sacrificed much of their spare time, to translating the Latin mining tract De re metallica.[33] While at Stanford University, Hoover had access to the extensive library of John Casper Branner, where he found the important mining book which had never been fully translated into English.[33] For years, five nights of the week were spent translating the book, including naming objects that the author had merely described.[33] The Hoovers also spoke Mandarin Chinese, having lived in China from April 1899 until August 1900.[34] Lou Hoover studied the language daily in China but Herbert Hoover confessed that he "never absorbed more than a hundred words."[35] Still, the two would converse in their limited Mandarin when they wanted to keep their conversations private from guests or the press.[36]

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt[edit]

text: Franklin Delano Roosevelt spoke both German and French. He was raised speaking both, as his early education consisted of governesses from Europe preparing him for boarding school in his teens. In particular, he had a German governess and a French governess who taught him their respective languages. A Swiss governess, Jeanne Sandoz, furthered his studies in both languages,[37] particularly stressing French.[38] Roosevelt spent one summer of his schooling in Germany;[39] both his time with his instructors and his frequent trips abroad allowed him to master both German and French, though he always spoke them with a distinct New England accent.[40] Though he never had a mastery of the language, his governesses also taught him a limited amount of Latin.[41]

text: Roosevelt gave a bilingual speech (in English and French) during a 1936 visit to Quebec City. [42]

text: Jimmy Carter[edit]

text: Jimmy Carter has a functional command of Spanish, but has never been grammatically perfect.[43] Carter studied the language at the United States Naval Academy[44] and continued his studies while an officer of the United States Navy.[45] Carter sometimes spoke Spanish in 1976 television campaign advertisements, but in his native South Georgia accent.[citation needed]

text: He could speak fairly fluently, but joked about his sometimes flawed understanding of the language while discoursing with native speakers.[46] Carter has written and given a number of addresses in the Spanish language[47] and sometimes spoke to constituents in Spanish.[45] To practice his Spanish, he and his wife Rosalynn read the Bible in Spanish to each other every night.[48]

text: Bill Clinton[edit]

text: While a freshman at Georgetown University, Bill Clinton was required to choose a foreign language to study, and chose German because he was "impressed by the clarity and precision of the language".[49] He is able to hold casual conversation in the language.[50] Later, while giving a speech at the Brandenburg Gate, he gave part of a speech in German, pledging to the 50,000 Germans gathered there that "Amerika steht an Ihrer Seite jetzt und für immer" ("America stands on your side, now and forever").[51]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: George W. Bush[edit]

text: George W. Bush speaks some Spanish and has delivered speeches in the language.[53] His speeches in Spanish have had English interspersed throughout.[54]

text: Barack Obama[edit]

text: Barack Obama admitted he only speaks English: "I don't speak a foreign language. It's embarrassing!"[55]

text: Barack Obama has an elementary understanding of Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), having lived in Indonesia as a child, and was enrolled at Indonesian language schools from the ages of six to ten. He has used elements of Indonesian language in some of his speeches, such as the 2011 address he gave to the University of Indonesia, when he spoke about 20 seconds in Indonesian.[56]

text: Table[edit]

text:
Presidency
President
Dutch
French
German
Greek
Hebrew
Italian
Latin
Mandarin Chinese
Russian
Spanish
Indonesian

2
John Adams

Fluent

Fluent

3
Thomas Jefferson

Fluent

Fluent

Fluent
Fluent

Fluent

4
James Madison

Fluent
Fluent

Fluent

5
James Monroe

Fluent

6
John Quincy Adams
Partial mastery
Fluent
Fluent
Partial mastery

Partial mastery
Fluent

Partial mastery
Partial mastery

8
Martin Van Buren
Native

Partial mastery

9
William Henry Harrison

Partial mastery

Fluent

10
John Tyler

Fluent

Fluent

11
James K. Polk

Fluent

Fluent

15
James Buchanan

Fluent

Fluent

19
Rutherford B. Hayes

Fluent

Fluent

20
James A. Garfield

Fluent

Fluent

21
Chester A. Arthur

Fluent

Fluent

26
Theodore Roosevelt

Fluent
Fluent

Partial mastery

28
Woodrow Wilson

Fluent

31
Herbert Hoover

Fluent
Partial Mastery

32
Franklin D. Roosevelt

Fluent
Fluent

Partial mastery

39
Jimmy Carter

Partial mastery

42
Bill Clinton

Partial mastery

43
George W. Bush

Partial mastery

44
Barack Obama

Partial mastery


document_title: You Got Served

question_text: what happened to lil saint in you got served

root

text: You Got Served

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (March 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: David and Elgin lead a promising dance crew in Los Angeles, California who participate in street dancing battles at a warehouse owned by a local club owner, Mr. Rad. The film opens up with their crew battling another crew led by Vick. Their crew defeats Vick's crew.

tag: p

text: After the battle, David and Elgin go to another club to deliver drugs for a drug lord named Emerald in order to get money for the battles. Later on, David and Elgin are challenged by Wade, a rich kid from Orange County, for $5,000, they think it's easy money. After winning another battle, Wade and his best friend, Max meet Elgin at a park. Elgin tells them that his crew will battle their crew next Saturday night, but Wade and Max think that Elgin's crew are not good enough to battle them tonight. Furious, Elgin accepts their offer. He borrows money from his grandmother for the battle.

text: Due to the amount of money on the line, Mr. Rad announces that there will be no fighting during the battle and hires a bodyguard for insurance. Nonetheless a fight does breakout after David and Elgin realize their opponent has their moves set, due their crew member Sonny betraying the team to join Wade's. The crowd applauds Wade's crew but David and Elgin are furious that they have lost for the first time. Wade, crowing over his success, delivers the titular line, "You're just mad... 'cause tonight you suckas got served!" Wade's crew takes over Mr. Rad's club and David and Elgin's crew leave furiously.

text: Meanwhile, David and Liyah, Elgin's sister, are falling in love. David picks her up from work and they go to a restaurant. While playing basketball with Vick, who decides to join David and Elgin after his crew leaves him, Elgin gets a cell phone call from Emerald telling him that he wants them to come earlier to do their job. Elgin tries to call David immediately, but before David can take Elgin's call, Liyah turns off his phone, leaving Elgin to do the job himself. Elgin is beat down by some local thugs that take Emerald's money landing him in the hospital, in trouble with Emerald, and furious at David for not being there when he needed him.

text: The friends split up and form their own crews, but neither is as good as on their own as they are together. Elgin forbids Liyah to see David, ignoring the fact that she and David want to help him. Rico tells David and Elgin about the "Big Bounce," a $50,000 dance competition purportedly sponsored by MTV which will provide the winning crew the opportunity to perform in a Lil' Kim video. Elgin sees this as a way to pay back Emerald and his grandmother. Attempts to bring Elgin and David together, particularly by Liyah, are fruitless, as both nearly come to blows when encountering each other.

text: Elgin receives a visit from Emerald, who tells him he has a couple of weeks to pay him back. He warns Elgin not to cross him or he "will never walk, let alone dance again."

text: During the qualifying rounds of the Big Bounce, many crews perform and impress the judges with their skills including Wade's crew. During this time Liyah talks with Mr. Rad about David and Elgin's problems. He reveals that he knows the situation with Emerald and took care of it stating that Emerald had a 'change of heart'. When it is time for David's crew to dance, two slip-ups costs his crew a chance to make it to the finals. Elgin's crew, however, impresses the judges and gets to the finals.

text: While lamenting his loss in the semis, David and Liyah learn that Lil Saint, a young boy who has been accepted into the crew through Rico, was killed in a drive-by. The next day, Rico goes over to Elgin's house and tells him that they should reunite the crew in honor of Lil' Saint. David arrives minutes later, after Liyah asked him to come over in an attempt for him and Elgin to end their feud. David states, however, that in the competition rules they can only complete with the crews they started with. Regardless, both of them still don't forgive each other.

text: Later, Elgin's crew, going by the name "The Lil' Saints", show up to the finals of the "Big Bounce" competition. Wade Robson and Lil' Kim host the competition. The finals begin, but when they announce the winner, they discover there is a tie between "The Lil' Saints" and "Wade's Crew". Both crews refuse a tie. Lil' Kim gets advice from Mr. Rad, who declares a battle competition, "straight hood," with no rules, even allowing other people to join the battling crews. David also comes and asks to join Elgin's crew. With backup from their friends, Elgin forgives David and allows him to join.

text: They battle Wade's crew, dedicating the battle to Lil' Saint. "The Lil' Saints" win after they get the loud approval from the crowd. As they celebrate their victory, Elgin gives his blessings for David and Liyah to be together. Wade and Max, however, walk up to them, angry over their loss. David replies with, "Y'all just mad, 'cause today, you suckas got served." Their friends and the rest of the crowd begin to chant 'served' causing both Wade and Max to leave in shame. David and Elgin continue to celebrate with their friends and family.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Marques Houston - Elgin, leader of the Lil Saints
Omari "Omarion" Grandberry - David, Elgin's best friend who falls for Liyah
Jarell "J-Boog" Houston - Rico
De'Mario "Raz-B" Thornton - Vick, leader of a rival crew then later on joins Elgin & David's crew
Dreux "Lil' Fizz" Frederic - Rashann
Jennifer Freeman - Liyah Smith, Elgin's sister who has a crush on David and starts dating him
Meagan Good - Beautifull
Steve Harvey - Mr. Rad, Elgin and David longtime friend who owns & runs the warehouse club that they perform in
Christopher Jones - Wade, a spoiled rich kid
Jerome "Young Rome" Jones - Sonny, betrays David and Elgin's crew after a dispute about splitting the money they make
Robert Hoffman - Max, Wade's best friend and lackey
Malcolm David Kelley - TeShawn 'Lil' Saint' Miller, a young boy who joins David's crew but is later killed
Jackée Harry - Mama
Babbal Kumar as dark dancer
Wade Robson - Himself
Lil' Kim - Herself
Alani Vasquez - Herself
Michael Taliferro - Emerald, a crime boss whom Elgin and David work for
Kevin Federline - Dancer
Clifford McGhee - Dancer
Dyneisha Rollins - Dancer
Columbus Short - Dancer
Harry Shum Jr. - Dancer
Mike Bodden - Dancer
Aaron Davis - Dancer

tag: ul

text: Sequel[edit]

text: You Got Served: Beat The World is a straight to DVD film released on June 21, 2011 starring Lil' C.

text: Beat The World is a film written and directed by Robert Adetuyi (writer - Stomp The Yard) released in 2011, by InnerCity Films. It was distributed in the United States on DVD by Sony Home Entertainment under the name You Got Served: Beat The World.[2] The film stars Tyrone Brown, Mishael Morgan, Nikki Grant and Parkour artist Chase Armitage.

text: The original soundtrack was produced by Frank Fitzpatrick and released on Hip Hop Connect. It features KRS-One, K’naan, Ziggy Marley, Nneka, Les Nubians, MV Bill, Talib Kweli, Sway and Lina. A portion of the proceeds will be donated to the Debbie Allen Dance Academy through EarthTones.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: You Got Served Soundtrack features mainly music by B2K, but also Marques Houston, and many others. There were some profanities in the soundtrack such as "Streets Is Callin'" but did not receive a PA label. The soundtrack was released on December 23, 2003. Also, there was a release of a music video for B2K's single "Badaboom" featuring Fabolous and Marques Houston was the guest appearance.

text: Reception[edit]

text: You Got Served opened at the #1 spot in the United States and grossed $40.3 million; the total worldwide gross was $48.6 million.[1] It has a 17% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[3]

text: Parodies[edit]

text:
You Got Served was parodied in the eighth-season episode of the animated series South Park entitled "You Got F'd in the A".
The film Meet the Spartans parodies this movie in a scene where the Spartans face off the Immortals.
2009's Dance Flick also parodies this film.
The 2004 video game The Bard's Tale had a parody scene with a dance off between zombies and skeletons.
The show Robot Chicken parodies this film using characters from the anime Voltron. A second skit named "Young Black People on a Rhythm Team" also parodies the film, as well as the dance film genre in general.
In the online game Guild Wars Nightfall, if the dance command is entered at the correct place before the final battle the boss will dance and instantly kill you. The words "You Got Served" appear afterwards.


document_title: Nothing to fear but fear itself

question_text: who said we have nothing to fear but fear itself

text: Nothing to fear but fear itself

text: Nothing to fear but fear itself may refer to:

text:
A paraphrase of the famous line used in the inaugural address of Franklin D. Roosevelt
An episode of The Golden Girls
A paraphrase of the line "Nothing is terrible except fear itself" from an essay by Sir Francis Bacon
Used as the opening lyric of The Weapon by Rush, the Canadian Rock Band
Used in the lyrics of The Slow Surrender by Parkway Drive on their album Atlas.
A line spoken in the movies The American Friend and Batman Begins
A song by Oingo Boingo on their album Nothing to Fear
Referred to by The Fonz in an episode of Happy Days Series 2 episode 6.
Named in the DVD extras of Dawn of the Dead.
Referred to in Chapter One of "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee
In Martin Luther King Jr's speech "I've been to the Mountaintop"
A line from The Final Cut, third series of House of Cards (1990) 'What do we have to fear but fear itself?', Francis Urquhart.

text: Also said by Barney in the episode of the Andy Griffith show entitled "The Haunted House"

text:
Disambiguation page providing links to articles with similar titles
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Nothing to fear but fear itself.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

text: Disambiguation pages

text: Articles with short descriptionAll article disambiguation pagesAll disambiguation pages


document_title: She's the Man

question_text: who plays the coach in she's the man

question_tokens: who plays the coach in she 's the man

text: She's the Man

text: Plot[edit]

text: Viola Hastings (Amanda Bynes) is a teenage girl who plays for Cornwall High School's soccer team until it gets cut. Meanwhile, her twin brother, Sebastian (James Kirk), is supposed to enroll in Illyria, an elite boarding school, but he secretly goes to London with his fledgling band instead. Viola agrees to cover for him and decides to pass herself off as Sebastian, in hopes of joining their boys' team and beating Cornwall to prove their coach and her cocky ex-boyfriend, Justin (Robert Hoffman), wrong. With the help of her stylist friend, Paul (Jonathan Sadowski), she is transformed into "Sebastian" and attends Illyria in his place.

text: While moving in, she meets her roommate, Duke Orsino (Channing Tatum), an attractive soccer player and Illyria's team captain. During tryouts, Viola fails to impress Coach Dinklage (Vinnie Jones) and is assigned to second string, much to her dismay. Her teammates, including Duke, initially dislike "Sebastian" due to his awkward and strange behavior. However, with help from Paul once again, they begin to accept him into their social circle. "Sebastian" then gets the popular and pretty Olivia (Laura Ramsey) as his lab partner, which frustrates Duke, as he has feelings for her. "Sebastian" agrees to put in a good word for Duke if he promises to train him to be a better soccer player. Coach Dinklage eventually notices "Sebastian's" effort and improvement, thus promoting him to first string.

text: At the Junior League carnival, where her mother has made her volunteer, Viola works a shift at the kissing booth and shares a kiss with Duke. Duke expresses to "Sebastian" that he might move on from Olivia as he is starting to like Viola now. Viola is delighted as she secretly feels the same way.

text: Olivia who now has a crush on "Sebastian", asks Duke out on a date in hopes that it will make "Sebastian" jealous. Viola, who is unaware of Olivia's true intentions, is enraged instead because Duke has now abandoned his interest in Viola. When Viola finds out the truth, she encourages Olivia to tell "Sebastian" directly about her feelings.

text: The situation becomes even more complicated when the real Sebastian returns from London a day early, unbeknownst to Viola. As soon as he arrives at Illyria, Olivia confesses her feelings and kisses him. Duke, seeing this, believes his roommate has betrayed him. When "Sebastian" returns to their room, the two have an argument and Duke kicks him out. Viola oversleeps and misses the first half of the game, while the real Sebastian is mistaken for "Sebastian" and winds up poorly playing his sister's game instead. At half-time, Viola explains the situation to Sebastian and they switch places again.

text: Duke, still furious at "Sebastian", refuses to cooperate with him on the field. Determined to makes amends with Duke, "Sebastian" explains that he is actually Viola. Illyria wins the game when Viola scores a goal, finally humiliating Justin and the rest of the Cornwall boys.

text: Everyone at Illyria celebrates their victory over Cornwall, except for Duke who is hurt about Viola's deception. Viola introduces Sebastian and Olivia officially, and they begin dating. Viola and Sebastian's divorced parents also make up, exchanging contact information so as to be better parents towards their children. She invites Duke to her debutante ball, with an invitation delivered by Sebastian, now Duke's roommate. Still hurt, Duke doesn't respond to Viola's invitation, which devastates her. At the ball, Viola is skeptical that Duke will show up; she distracts herself by assisting Olivia, who is being escorted by Sebastian to the ball, and is touched when Paul asks to be her date. Her mother shows up with a dress that will suit Viola's "no ruffles" policy, but Viola decides to go for a walk instead. She runs into Duke outside, who tells her that he has feelings for her, but that he doesn't want there to be any more deception on her part; Viola promises to be honest with him. Later, Monique is escorted by Justin, Olivia is escorted by Sebastian, and Viola and Duke enter the stage late, but together, with Viola in her new dress, much to the joy of her mother. Viola and Duke share a kiss before joining the crowd. At the end of the film, Viola and Duke are shown happily playing on Illyria's soccer team together.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Amanda Bynes as Viola Hastings
Channing Tatum as Duke Orsino
Laura Ramsey as Olivia Lennox
Robert Hoffman as Justin Drayton
Alex Breckenridge as Monique Valentine
Brandon Jay McLaren as Toby
Clifton Murray as Andrew
James Kirk as Sebastian Hastings
David Cross as Principal Horatio Gold
Vinnie Jones as Coach Dinklage
Emily Perkins as Eunice Bates
John Pyper-Ferguson as Roger
Julie Hagerty as Daphne
Lynda Boyd as Cheryl
Jonathan Sadowski as Paul Antonio
Amanda Crew as Kia
Jessica Lucas as Yvonne
James Snyder as Malcolm Festes
Robert Torti as Coach Pistonek
Mark Acheson as Groundskeeper

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened at #4 at the North American box office making $10.7 million USD in its opening weekend. Its budget was approximately $20,000,000. She's the Man grossed a total of $33.7 million domestically with a total gross of $57.2 million worldwide.[1]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave She's the Man a rating of 43%, based on 109 reviews. The critical consensus reads, "Shakespeare's wit gets lost in translation with She's the Man's broad slapstick, predictable jokes, and unconvincing plotline."[2] Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 55 out of 100 based on 28 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[3]


document_title: Haematopoiesis

question_text: where does the process of hematopoiesis occur in adults

text: Haematopoiesis

text: Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)[edit]

text: Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues.[1] HSCs are self-renewing cells: when they differentiate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs, so the pool of stem cells is not depleted.This phenomenon is called asymmetric division.[4] The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells) can follow any of the other differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cell, but cannot renew themselves. The pool of progenitors is heterogeneous and can be divided into two groups; long-term self-renewing HSC and only transiently self-renewing HSC, also called short-terms.[5] This is one of the main vital processes in the body.

text: All blood cells are divided into three lineages.[6]

text:
Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, are the oxygen-carrying cells. Erythrocytes are functional and are released into the blood. The number of reticulocytes, immature red blood cells, gives an estimate of the rate of erythropoiesis.
Lymphocytes are the cornerstone of the adaptive immune system. They are derived from common lymphoid progenitors. The lymphoid lineage is composed of T-cells, B-cells and natural killer cells. This is lymphopoiesis.
Cells of the myeloid lineage, which include granulocytes, megakaryocytes and macrophages, are derived from common myeloid progenitors, and are involved in such diverse roles as innate immunity and blood clotting. This is myelopoiesis.

text: Granulopoiesis (or granulocytopoiesis) is haematopoiesis of granulocytes.

text: Megakaryocytopoiesis is haematopoiesis of megakaryocytes.

text: Locations[edit]

text: In developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells in the yolk sac, called blood islands. As development progresses, blood formation occurs in the spleen, liver and lymph nodes. When bone marrow develops, it eventually assumes the task of forming most of the blood cells for the entire organism.[1] However, maturation, activation, and some proliferation of lymphoid cells occurs in the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. In children, haematopoiesis occurs in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[7]

text: Extramedullary[edit]

text: In some cases, the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function, if necessary. This is called extramedullary haematopoiesis. It may cause these organs to increase in size substantially. During fetal development, since bones and thus the bone marrow develop later, the liver functions as the main haematopoetic organ. Therefore, the liver is enlarged during development.[8]

text: Other vertebrates[edit]

text: In some vertebrates, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose stroma of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the gut, spleen or kidney.[9]

text: Maturation[edit]

text: As a stem cell matures it undergoes changes in gene expression that limit the cell types that it can become and moves it closer to a specific cell type (cellular differentiation). These changes can often be tracked by monitoring the presence of proteins on the surface of the cell. Each successive change moves the cell closer to the final cell type and further limits its potential to become a different cell type.

text: Cell fate determination[edit]

text: Two models for hematopoiesis have been proposed: determinism and stochastic theory.[10] For the stem cells and other undifferentiated blood cells in the bone marrow, the determination is generally explained by the determinism theory of haematopoiesis, saying that colony stimulating factors and other factors of the haematopoietic microenvironment determine the cells to follow a certain path of cell differentiation.[1] This is the classical way of describing haematopoiesis. In stochastic theory, undifferentiated blood cells differentiate to specific cell types by randomness. This theory has been supported by experiments showing that within a population of mouse haematopoietic progenitor cells, underlying stochastic variability in the distribution of Sca-1, a stem cell factor, subdivides the population into groups exhibiting variable rates of cellular differentiation. For example, under the influence of erythropoietin (an erythrocyte-differentiation factor), a subpopulation of cells (as defined by the levels of Sca-1) differentiated into erythrocytes at a sevenfold higher rate than the rest of the population.[11] Furthermore, it was shown that if allowed to grow, this subpopulation re-established the original subpopulation of cells, supporting the theory that this is a stochastic, reversible process. Another level at which stochasticity may be important is in the process of apoptosis and self-renewal. In this case, the haematopoietic microenvironment prevails upon some of the cells to survive and some, on the other hand, to perform apoptosis and die.[1] By regulating this balance between different cell types, the bone marrow can alter the quantity of different cells to ultimately be produced.[12]

text: Growth factors[edit]

text: Red and white blood cell production is regulated with great precision in healthy humans, and the production of leukocytes is rapidly increased during infection. The proliferation and self-renewal of these cells depend on growth factors. One of the key players in self-renewal and development of haematopoietic cells is stem cell factor (SCF),[15] which binds to the c-kit receptor on the HSC. Absence of SCF is lethal. There are other important glycoprotein growth factors which regulate the proliferation and maturation, such as interleukins IL-2, IL-3, IL-6, IL-7. Other factors, termed colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), specifically stimulate the production of committed cells. Three CSFs are granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF), granulocyte CSF (G-CSF) and macrophage CSF (M-CSF).[16] These stimulate granulocyte formation and are active on either progenitor cells or end product cells.

text: Erythropoietin is required for a myeloid progenitor cell to become an erythrocyte.[13] On the other hand, thrombopoietin makes myeloid progenitor cells differentiate to megakaryocytes (thrombocyte-forming cells).[13] The diagram to the right provides examples of cytokines and the differentiated blood cells they give rise to.[17]

text: Transcription factors[edit]

text: Growth factors initiate signal transduction pathways, which lead to activation of transcription factors. Growth factors elicit different outcomes depending on the combination of factors and the cell's stage of differentiation. For example, long-term expression of PU.1 results in myeloid commitment, and short-term induction of PU.1 activity leads to the formation of immature eosinophils.[18] Recently, it was reported that transcription factors such as NF-κB can be regulated by microRNAs (e.g., miR-125b) in haematopoiesis.[19]

text: The first key player of differentiation from HSC to a multipotent progenitor (MPP) is transcription factor CCAAT-enhancer binding protein α (C/EBPα). Mutations in C/EBPα are associated with acute myeloid leukaemia.[20] From this point, cells can either differentiate along the Erythroid-megakaryocyte lineage or lymphoid and myeloid lineage, which have common progenitor, called lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitor. There are two main transcription factors. PU.1 for Erythroid-megakaryocyte lineage and GATA-1, which leads to a lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitor.[21]

text: Other transcription factors include Ikaros[22] (B cell development), and Gfi1[23] (promotes Th2 development and inhibits Th1) or IRF8[24] (basophils and mast cells). Significantly, certain factors elicit different responses at different stages in the haematopoiesis. For example, CEBPα in neutrophil development or PU.1 in monocytes and dendritic cell development. It is important to note that processes are not unidirectional: differentiated cells may regain attributes of progenitor cells.

text: An example is PAX5 factor, which is important in B cell development and associated with lymphomas.[25] Surprisingly, pax5 conditional knock out mice allowed peripheral mature B cells to de-differentiate to early bone marrow progenitors. These findings show that transcription factors act as caretakers of differentiation level and not only as initiators.[26]

text: Mutations in transcription factors are tightly connected to blood cancers, as acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) or acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). For example, Ikaros is known to be regulator of numerous biological events. Mice with no Ikaros lack B cells, Natural killer and T cells.[27] Ikaros has six zinc fingers domains, four are conserved DNA-binding domain and two are for dimerization.[28] Very important finding is, that different zinc fingers are involved in binding to different place in DNA and this is the reason for pleiotropic effect of Ikaros and different involvement in cancer, but mainly are mutations associated with BCR-Abl patients and it is bad prognostic marker.[29]

text: Myeloid-based model[edit]

text: For a decade now, the evidence is growing that HSC maturation follows a myeloid-based model instead of the 'classical' schoolbook dichotomy model. In the latter model, the HSC first generates a common myeloid-erythroid progenitor (CMEP) and a common lymphoid progenitor (CLP). The CLP produces only T or B cells. The myeloid-based model postulates that HSCs first diverge into the CMEP and a common myelo-lymphoid progenitor (CMLP), which generates T and B cell progenitors through a bipotential myeloid-T progenitor and a myeloid-B progenitor stage. The main difference is that in this new model, all erythroid, T and B lineage branches retain the potential to generate myeloid cells (even after the segregation of T and B cell lineages). The model proposes the idea of erythroid, T and B cells as specialized types of a prototypic myeloid HSC. Read more in Kawamoto et al. 2010.[30]


document_title: United States dollar

question_text: who's face is on the one dollar bill

question_tokens: who 's face is on the one dollar bill

text: United States dollar

text: Overview[edit]

text: Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power "To coin money".[13] Laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U.S.C. § 5112. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued.[14] These coins are both designated in Section 5112 as "legal tender" in payment of debts.[14] The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar. The pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins, which have values ranging from one cent to 100 dollars.[14] These other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar.

text: The Constitution provides that "a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time".[15] That provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code.[16] The sums of money reported in the "Statements" are currently being expressed in U.S. dollars (for example, see the 2009 Financial Report of the United States Government).[17] The U.S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States.

text: The word "dollar" is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution. There, "dollars" is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U.S. Congress passed a Coinage Act. Section 9 of that act authorized the production of various coins, including "DOLLARS OR UNITS—each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver". Section 20 of the act provided, "That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units... and that all accounts in the public offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation". In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States.

text: Unlike the Spanish milled dollar, the U.S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. In addition to the dollar the coinage act officially established monetary units of mill or one-thousandth of a dollar (symbol ₥), cent or one-hundredth of a dollar (symbol ¢), dime or one-tenth of a dollar, and eagle or ten dollars, with prescribed weights and composition of gold, silver, or copper for each. It was proposed in the mid-1800s that one hundred dollars be known as a union, but no union coins were ever struck and only patterns for the $50 half union exist. However, only cents are in everyday use as divisions of the dollar; "dime" is used solely as the name of the coin with the value of 10¢, while "eagle" and "mill" are largely unknown to the general public, though mills are sometimes used in matters of tax levies, and gasoline prices are usually in the form of $X.XX9 per gallon, e.g., $3.599, more commonly written as $3.59 9⁄10. When currently issued in circulating form, denominations equal to or less than a dollar are emitted as U.S. coins while denominations equal to or greater than a dollar are emitted as Federal Reserve notes (with the exception of gold, silver and platinum coins valued up to $100 as legal tender, but worth far more as bullion). Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the note form is significantly more common. In the past, "paper money" was occasionally issued in denominations less than a dollar (fractional currency) and gold coins were issued for circulation up to the value of $20 (known as the "double eagle", discontinued in the 1930s). The term eagle was used in the Coinage Act of 1792 for the denomination of ten dollars, and subsequently was used in naming gold coins. Paper currency less than one dollar in denomination, known as "fractional currency", was also sometimes pejoratively referred to as "shinplasters". In 1854, James Guthrie, then Secretary of the Treasury, proposed creating $100, $50 and $25 gold coins, which were referred to as a "Union", "Half Union", and "Quarter Union",[18] thus implying a denomination of 1 Union = $100.

text: Today, USD notes are made from cotton fiber paper, unlike most common paper, which is made of wood fiber. U.S. coins are produced by the United States Mint. U.S. dollar banknotes are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and, since 1914, have been issued by the Federal Reserve. The "large-sized notes" issued before 1928 measured 7.42 by 3.125 inches (188.5 by 79.4 mm); small-sized notes, introduced that year, measure 6.14 by 2.61 by 0.0043 inches (155.96 by 66.29 by 0.11 mm). When the current, smaller sized U.S. currency was introduced it was referred to as Philippine-sized currency because the Philippines had previously adopted the same size for its legal currency.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimstalers (from German thal, or nowadays usually Tal, "valley", cognate with "dale" in English), named for Joachimstal, the valley where the silver was mined (St. Joachim's Valley, now Jáchymov; then part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, now part of the Czech Republic).[19] Joachimstaler was later shortened to the German Taler, a word that eventually found its way into Danish and Swedish as daler, Norwegian as dalar and daler, Dutch as daler or daalder, Ethiopian as ታላሪ (talari), Hungarian as tallér, Italian as tallero, and English as dollar.[19] Alternatively, thaler is said to come from the German coin Guldengroschen ("great guilder", being of silver but equal in value to a gold guilder), minted from the silver from Joachimsthal.

text: The coins minted at Joachimsthal soon lent their name to other coins of similar size and weight from other places. One such example, was a Dutch coin depicting a lion, hence its Dutch name leeuwendaler (in English: lion daler).

text: The leeuwendaler was authorized to contain 427.16 grains of .75 fine silver and passed locally for between 36 and 42 stuivers. It was lighter than the large-denomination coins then in circulation, thus it was more advantageous for a Dutch merchant to pay a foreign debt in leeuwendalers and it became the coin of choice for foreign trade.

text: The leeuwendaler was popular in the Dutch East Indies and in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York), and circulated throughout the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. It was also popular throughout Eastern Europe, where it led to the current Romanian and Moldovan currency being called leu (literally "lion").

text: Among the English-speaking community, the coin came to be popularly known as lion dollar – and is the origin of the name dollar.[20] The modern American-English pronunciation of dollar is still remarkably close to the 17th-century Dutch pronunciation of daler.[21]

text: By analogy with this lion dollar, Spanish pesos – with the same weight and shape as the lion dollar – came to be known as Spanish dollars.[21] By the mid-18th century, the lion dollar had been replaced by the Spanish dollar, the famous "piece of eight", which was distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines.[22] Eventually, dollar became the name of the first official American currency.

text: Nicknames[edit]

text: The colloquialism "buck"(s) (much like the British word "quid"(s, pl) for the pound sterling) is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial leather trade. It may also have originated from a poker term.[23] "Greenback" is another nickname originally applied specifically to the 19th century Demand Note dollars created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the costs of the Civil War for the North.[24] The original note was printed in black and green on the back side. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries). Other well-known names of the dollar as a whole in denominations include "greenmail", "green" and "dead presidents" (the last because deceased presidents are pictured on most bills).

text: A "grand", sometimes shortened to simply "G", is a common term for the amount of $1,000. The suffix "K" or "k" (from "kilo-") is also commonly used to denote this amount (such as "$10k" to mean $10,000). However, the $1,000 note is no longer in general use. A "large" or "stack", it is usually a reference to a multiple of $1,000 (such as "fifty large" meaning $50,000). The $100 note is nicknamed "Benjamin", "Benji", "Ben", or "Franklin" (after Benjamin Franklin), "C-note" (C being the Roman numeral for 100), "Century note" or "bill" (e.g. "two bills" being $200). The $50 note is occasionally called a "yardstick" or a "grant" (after President Ulysses S. Grant, pictured on the obverse). The $20 note is referred to as a "double sawbuck", "Jackson" (after Andrew Jackson), or "double eagle". The $10 note is referred to as a "sawbuck", "ten-spot" or "Hamilton" (after Alexander Hamilton). The $5 note as "Lincoln", "fin", "fiver" or "five-spot". The infrequently-used $2 note is sometimes called "deuce", "Tom", or "Jefferson" (after Thomas Jefferson). The $1 note as a "single" or "buck". The dollar has also been referred to as a "bone" and "bones" in plural (e.g. "twenty bones" is equal to $20). The newer designs, with portraits displayed in the main body of the obverse (rather than in cameo insets), upon paper color-coded by denomination, are sometimes referred to as "bigface" notes or "Monopoly money".

text: "Piastre" was the original French word for the U.S. dollar, used for example in the French text of the Louisiana Purchase. Calling the dollar a piastre is still common among the speakers of Cajun French and New England French. Modern French uses dollar for this unit of currency as well. The term is still used as slang for U.S. dollars in the French-speaking Caribbean islands, most notably Haiti.

text: Dollar sign[edit]

text: The symbol $, usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The sign was the result of a late 18th-century evolution of the scribal abbreviation "ps" for the peso, the common name for the Spanish dollars that were in wide circulation in the New World from the 16th to the 19th centuries. These Spanish pesos or dollars were minted in Spanish America, namely in Mexico City; Potosí, Bolivia; and Lima, Peru. The p and the s eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to $.[25][26][27][28]

text: Another popular explanation is that it is derived from the Pillars of Hercules on the Spanish Coat of arms of the Spanish dollar. These Pillars of Hercules on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars (||) and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an "S".

text: Yet another explanation suggests that the dollar sign was formed from the capital letters U and S written or printed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist Ayn Rand in Atlas Shrugged,[29] does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States.[30]

text: History[edit]

text: The American dollar coin was initially based on the value and look of the Spanish dollar, used widely in Spanish America from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The first dollar coins issued by the United States Mint (founded 1792) were similar in size and composition to the Spanish dollar, minted in Mexico and Peru. The Spanish, U.S. silver dollars, and later, Mexican silver pesos circulated side by side in the United States, and the Spanish dollar and Mexican peso remained legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857. The coinage of various English colonies also circulated. The lion dollar was popular in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York), but the lion dollar also circulated throughout the English colonies during the 17th century and early 18th century. Examples circulating in the colonies were usually worn so that the design was not fully distinguishable, thus they were sometimes referred to as "dog dollars".[31]

text: The U.S. dollar was first defined by the Coinage Act of 1792, which specified a "dollar" to be based in the Spanish milled dollar and of 371 grains and 4 sixteenths part of a grain of pure or 416 grains (27.0 g) of standard silver and an "eagle" to be 247 and 4 eighths of a grain or 270 grains (17 g) of gold (again depending on purity).[32] The choice of the value 371 grains arose from Alexander Hamilton's decision to base the new American unit on the average weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. Hamilton got the treasury to weigh a sample of Spanish dollars and the average weight came out to be 371 grains. A new Spanish dollar was usually about 377 grains in weight, and so the new U.S. dollar was at a slight discount in relation to the Spanish dollar.

text: The same coinage act also set the value of an eagle at 10 dollars, and the dollar at  1⁄10 eagle. It called for 90% silver alloy coins in denominations of 1,  1⁄2,  1⁄4,  1⁄10, and  1⁄20 dollars; it called for 90% gold alloy coins in denominations of 1,  1⁄2,  1⁄4, and  1⁄10 eagles. The value of gold or silver contained in the dollar was then converted into relative value in the economy for the buying and selling of goods. This allowed the value of things to remain fairly constant over time, except for the influx and outflux of gold and silver in the nation's economy.[33]

text: The early currency of the United States did not exhibit faces of presidents, as is the custom now;[34] although today, by law, only the portrait of a deceased individual may appear on United States currency.[35] In fact, the newly formed government was against having portraits of leaders on the currency, a practice compared to the policies of European monarchs.[36] The currency as we know it today did not get the faces they currently have until after the early 20th century; before that "heads" side of coinage used profile faces and striding, seated, and standing figures from Greek and Roman mythology and composite Native Americans. The last coins to be converted to profiles of historic Americans were the dime (1946) and the Dollar (1971).

text: For articles on the currencies of the colonies and states, see Connecticut pound, Delaware pound, Georgia pound, Maryland pound, Massachusetts pound, New Hampshire pound, New Jersey pound, New York pound, North Carolina pound, Pennsylvania pound, Rhode Island pound, South Carolina pound and Virginia pound.

text: Continental currency[edit]

text: During the American Revolution the thirteen colonies became independent states. Freed from British monetary regulations, they each issued £sd paper money to pay for military expenses. The Continental Congress also began issuing "Continental Currency" denominated in Spanish dollars. The dollar was valued relative to the states' currencies at the following rates:

text:
5 shillings – Georgia
6 shillings – Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Virginia
 7 1⁄2 shillings – Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania
8 shillings – New York, North Carolina
 32 1⁄2 shillings – South Carolina

text: Continental currency depreciated badly during the war, giving rise to the famous phrase "not worth a continental".[37] A primary problem was that monetary policy was not coordinated between Congress and the states, which continued to issue bills of credit. Additionally, neither Congress nor the governments of the several states had the will or the means to retire the bills from circulation through taxation or the sale of bonds.[38] The currency was ultimately replaced by the silver dollar at the rate of 1 silver dollar to 1000 continental dollars.

text: Silver and gold standards[edit]

text: From 1792, when the Mint Act was passed, the dollar was defined as 371.25 grains (24.056 g) of silver. Many historians[who?] erroneously assume gold was standardized at a fixed rate in parity with silver; however, there is no evidence of Congress making this law. This has to do with Alexander Hamilton's suggestion to Congress of a fixed 15:1 ratio of silver to gold, respectively. The gold coins that were minted however, were not given any denomination whatsoever and traded for a market value relative to the Congressional standard of the silver dollar. 1834 saw a shift in the gold standard to 23.2 grains (1.50 g), followed by a slight adjustment to 23.22 grains (1.505 g) in 1837 (16:1 ratio).[citation needed]

text: In 1862, paper money was issued without the backing of precious metals, due to the Civil War. Silver and gold coins continued to be issued and in 1878 the link between paper money and coins was reinstated. This disconnection from gold and silver backing also occurred during the War of 1812. The use of paper money not backed by precious metals had also occurred under the Articles of Confederation from 1777 to 1788. With no solid backing and being easily counterfeited, the continentals quickly lost their value, giving rise to the phrase "not worth a continental". This was a primary reason for the "No state shall... make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts" clause in article 1, section 10 of the United States Constitution.

text: In order to finance the War of 1812, Congress authorized the issuance of Treasury Notes, interest-bearing short-term debt that could be used to pay public dues. While they were intended to serve as debt, they did function "to a limited extent" as money. Treasury Notes were again printed to help resolve the reduction in public revenues resulting from the Panic of 1837 and the Panic of 1857, as well as to help finance the Mexican–American War and the Civil War.

text: In addition to Treasury Notes, in 1861, Congress authorized the Treasury to borrow $50 million in the form of Demand Notes, which did not bear interest but could be redeemed on demand for precious metals. However, by December 1861, the Union government's supply of specie was outstripped by demand for redemption and they were forced to suspend redemption temporarily. The following February, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act of 1862, issuing United States Notes, which were not redeemable on demand and bore no interest, but were legal tender, meaning that creditors had to accept them at face value for any payment except for public debts and import tariffs. However, silver and gold coins continued to be issued, resulting in the depreciation of the newly printed notes through Gresham's Law. In 1869, Supreme Court ruled in Hepburn v. Griswold that Congress could not require creditors to accept United States Notes, but overturned that ruling the next year in the Legal Tender Cases. In 1875, Congress passed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, requiring the Treasury to allow US Notes to be redeemed for gold after January 1, 1879. The Treasury ceased to issue United States Notes in 1971.

text: The Gold Standard Act of 1900 abandoned the bimetallic standard and defined the dollar as 23.22 grains (1.505 g) of gold, equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $20.67. Silver coins continued to be issued for circulation until 1964, when all silver was removed from dimes and quarters, and the half dollar was reduced to 40% silver. Silver half dollars were last issued for circulation in 1970. Gold coins were confiscated by Executive Order 6102 issued in 1933 by Franklin Roosevelt. The gold standard was changed to 13.71 grains (0.888 g), equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $35. This standard persisted until 1968.

text: Between 1968 and 1975, a variety of pegs to gold were put in place, eventually culminating in a sudden end, on August 15, 1971, to the convertibility of dollars to gold later dubbed the Nixon Shock. The last peg was $42.22 per ounce[citation needed] before the U.S. dollar was let to freely float on currency markets.

text: According to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the largest note it ever printed was the $100,000 Gold Certificate, Series 1934. These notes were printed from December 18, 1934, through January 9, 1935, and were issued by the Treasurer of the United States to Federal Reserve Banks only against an equal amount of gold bullion held by the Treasury. These notes were used for transactions between Federal Reserve Banks and were not circulated among the general public.

text: Coins[edit]

text: Official United States coins have been produced every year from 1792 to the present.

text:
Denomination
Common name
Obverse
Reverse
Portrait and design date
Reverse motif and design date
Weight
Diameter
Material
Edge
Circulation

Cent
1¢
penny

Abraham Lincoln
Union Shield
2.50 g
19.05 mm
97.5% Zn
2.5% Cu
plain
Wide

Five-Cent
5¢
nickel

Thomas Jefferson
Monticello
5.00 g
21.21 mm
75% Cu
25% Ni
plain
Wide

Dime
10¢
dime

Franklin D. Roosevelt
olive branch, torch, oak branch
2.27 g
17.91 mm
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
118 reeds
Wide

Quarter Dollar
25¢
quarter

George Washington
Various; five designs per year
5.67 g
24.26 mm
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
119 reeds
Wide

Half Dollar
50¢
half

John F. Kennedy
Presidential Seal
11.34 g
30.61 mm
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
150 reeds
Limited

Dollar coin
$1
dollar coin, golden dollar

Profile of Sacagawea with her child, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau
Bald eagle in flight (2000–2008), Various; new design per year
8.10 g
26.50 mm
88.5% Cu
6% Zn
3.5% Mn
2% Ni
Lettered
Limited

text: Discontinued coin denominations include:

text:
Half cent:  1⁄2¢, 1793–1857
Fugio Cent: 1¢, 1787
Two-cent piece: 2¢, 1863–1873
Three-cent bronze: 3¢, 1863 (not circulated)
Three-cent nickel: 3¢, 1865–1889
Trime: 3¢, 1851–1873
Half dime: 5¢, 1792–1873
Twenty-cent piece: 20¢, 1875–1878
Gold dollar: $1.00, 1849–1889
Quarter eagle: $2.50, 1792–1929
Three-dollar piece: $3.00, 1854–1889
Stella: $4.00, (not circulated)
Half eagle: $5.00, 1795–1929, minted as a commemorative 1986–present
Eagle: $10.00, minted as a commemorative 1984–2003
Double eagle: $20.00, 1849–1933, 2009
Half-union: $50.00, 1877 (pattern only), 1915 (Panama–Pacific International Exposition coin)
Union: $100.00, 2015 (High relief; not circulated)

text: Collector coins for which everyday transactions are non-existent.[39]

text:
American Eagles originally were not available from the Mint for individuals but had to be purchased from authorized dealers. In 2006 The Mint began direct sales to individuals of uncirculated bullion coins with a special finish, and bearing a "W" mintmark.

American Silver Eagle $1 (1 troy ounce) silver bullion coin 1986–present
American Gold Eagle $5 ( 1⁄10 troy oz), $10 ( 1⁄4 troy oz), $25 ( 1⁄2 troy oz), and $50 (1 troy oz) Gold bullion coin 1986–present
American Platinum Eagle ($10, $25, $50, and $100 platinum coin) 1997–present

United States commemorative coins—special issue coins

$50.00 (Half Union) 1915
Presidential Proofs (see below) 2007–present

text: Technically, all these coins are still legal tender at face value, though some are far more valuable today for their numismatic value, and for gold and silver coins, their precious metal value. From 1965 to 1970 the Kennedy half dollar was the only circulating coin with any silver content, which was removed in 1971 and replaced with cupronickel. However, since 1992, the U.S. Mint has produced special Silver Proof Sets in addition to the regular yearly proof sets with silver dimes, quarters, and half dollars in place of the standard copper-nickel versions. In addition, an experimental $4.00 (Stella) coin was also minted in 1879, but never placed into circulation, and is properly considered to be a pattern rather than an actual coin denomination.

text: The $50 coin mentioned was only produced in 1915 for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915) celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal. Only 1,128 were made, 645 of which were octagonal; this remains the only U.S. coin that was not round as well as the largest and heaviest U.S. coin ever produced.

text: A $100 gold coin was produced in High relief during 2015, although it was primarily produced for collectors, not for general circulation.[40]

text: From 1934 to present, the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar and dollar. The nickel is the only coin still in use today that is essentially unchanged (except in its design) from its original version. Every year since 1866, the nickel has been 75% copper and 25% nickel, except for 4 years during World War II when nickel was needed for the war.

text: Due to the penny's low value, some efforts have been made to eliminate the penny as circulating coinage.[41][42]

text: Collector coins[edit]

text: The United States Mint produces Proof Sets specifically for collectors and speculators. Silver Proofs tend to be the standard designs but with the dime, quarter, and half dollar containing 90% silver. Starting in 1983 and ending in 1997, the Mint also produced proof sets containing the year's commemorative coins alongside the regular coins. Another type of proof set is the Presidential Dollar Proof Set where four special $1 coins are minted each year featuring a president. Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new Presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 13, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Future minting of such coins will be made solely for collectors.[43]

text:
2007 had George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison
2008 had James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and Martin Van Buren
2009 had William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, James K. Polk, and Zachary Taylor
2010 had Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, and Abraham Lincoln
2011 had Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, and James A. Garfield
2012 had Chester Arthur, Grover Cleveland (1st term), Benjamin Harrison, and Grover Cleveland (2nd term)
2013 had William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson
2014 had Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Franklin D. Roosevelt
2015 had Harry S Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson
2016 had Richard M. Nixon, Gerald R. Ford and Ronald Reagan.

text: Dollar coins[edit]

text: The first United States dollar was minted in 1794. Known as the Flowing Hair Dollar, contained 416 grains of "standard silver" (89.25% silver and 10.75% copper), as specified by Section 13[44] of the Coinage Act of 1792. It was designated by Section 9 of that Act as having "the value of a Spanish milled dollar".

text: Dollar coins have not been very popular in the United States.[45] Silver dollars were minted intermittently from 1794 through 1935; a copper-nickel dollar of the same large size, featuring President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was minted from 1971 through 1978. Gold dollars were also minted in the 19th century. The Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was introduced in 1979; these proved to be unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, their milled edge, and their similar color. Minting of these dollars for circulation was suspended in 1980 (collectors' pieces were struck in 1981), but, as with all past U.S. coins, they remain legal tender. As the number of Anthony dollars held by the Federal Reserve and dispensed primarily to make change in postal and transit vending machines had been virtually exhausted, additional Anthony dollars were struck in 1999. In 2000, a new $1 coin, featuring Sacagawea, (the Sacagawea dollar) was introduced, which corrected some of the problems of the Anthony dollar by having a smooth edge and a gold color, without requiring changes to vending machines that accept the Anthony dollar. However, this new coin has failed to achieve the popularity of the still-existing $1 bill and is rarely used in daily transactions. The failure to simultaneously withdraw the dollar bill and weak publicity efforts have been cited by coin proponents as primary reasons for the failure of the dollar coin to gain popular support.[46]

text: In February 2007, the U.S. Mint, under the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005,[47] introduced a new $1 U.S. Presidential dollar coin. Based on the success of the "50 State Quarters" series, the new coin features a sequence of presidents in order of their inaugurations, starting with George Washington, on the obverse side. The reverse side features the Statue of Liberty. To allow for larger, more detailed portraits, the traditional inscriptions of "E Pluribus Unum", "In God We Trust", the year of minting or issuance, and the mint mark will be inscribed on the edge of the coin instead of the face. This feature, similar to the edge inscriptions seen on the British £1 coin, is not usually associated with U.S. coin designs. The inscription "Liberty" has been eliminated, with the Statue of Liberty serving as a sufficient replacement. In addition, due to the nature of U.S. coins, this will be the first time there will be circulating U.S. coins of different denominations with the same president featured on the obverse (heads) side (Lincoln/penny, Jefferson/nickel, Franklin D. Roosevelt/dime, Washington/quarter, Kennedy/half dollar, and Eisenhower/dollar). Another unusual fact about the new $1 coin is Grover Cleveland will have two coins with two different portraits issued due to the fact he was the only U.S. President to be elected to two non-consecutive terms.[48]

text: Early releases of the Washington coin included error coins shipped primarily from the Philadelphia mint to Florida and Tennessee banks. Highly sought after by collectors, and trading for as much as $850 each within a week of discovery, the error coins were identified by the absence of the edge impressions "E PLURIBUS UNUM IN GOD WE TRUST 2007 P". The mint of origin is generally accepted to be mostly Philadelphia, although identifying the source mint is impossible without opening a mint pack also containing marked units. Edge lettering is minted in both orientations with respect to "heads", some amateur collectors were initially duped into buying "upside down lettering error" coins.[49] Some cynics also erroneously point out that the Federal Reserve makes more profit from dollar bills than dollar coins because they wear out in a few years, whereas coins are more permanent. The fallacy of this argument arises because new notes printed to replace worn out notes, which have been withdrawn from circulation, bring in no net revenue to the government to offset the costs of printing new notes and destroying the old ones. As most vending machines are incapable of making change in banknotes, they commonly accept only $1 bills, though a few will give change in dollar coins.

text: Mint marks[edit]

text:
Mint
Mint mark
Metal minted
Year established
Current status

Denver
D
All metals
1906
Facility open

Philadelphia
P or none[a]
All metals
1792
Facility open

San Francisco
S
All metals
1854
Facility open (proof only)

West Point
W or none[b]
Gold, Silver and Platinum
1973
Facility open (bullion only)

Carson City
CC
Gold and Silver
1870
Facility closed, 1893[c]

Charlotte
C
Gold only
1838
Facility closed, 1861

Dahlonega
D[d]
Gold only
1838
Facility closed, 1861

Manila[e]
M or none[f]
All metals
1920
Facility closed, 1922; re-opened 1925–1941

New Orleans
O
Gold and Silver
1838
Facility closed, 1861; re-opened 1879–1909[g]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The letter "P" is used for the Philadelphia mint mark on all coins (except cents) released from 1980 onward. Before this it had only been used on silver Jefferson nickels from 1942 to 1945.
Jump up ^ Between 1973 and 1986 there was no mint mark (these coins are indistinguishable from coins produced at the Philadelphia Mint from 1973 to 1980); after 1988 the letter "W" was used for coinage, except for the 2009 Ultra High Relief Double Eagle.
Jump up ^ It is now the home of the Nevada State Museum, which still strikes commemorative medallions with the "CC" mint mark (most recently in 2014 commemorating the Nevada Sesquicentennial), using former mint's the original coin press.
Jump up ^ Although the mint mark "D" has been used by two separate mints, it is easy to distinguish between the two, as any 19th century coinage is Dahlonega, and any 20th or 21st century coins are Denver.
Jump up ^ During the period in which this mint branch was operational, The Philippines was an insular territory and then commonwealth of the U.S.; it was the first (and to date only) U.S. branch mint located outside the Continental United States.
Jump up ^ The letter "M" was used for the Manila mint mark on all coins released from 1925 onward; before this it had produced its coins with no mintmark.
Jump up ^ During the Civil War, this mint operated under the control of the State of Louisiana (February 1861) and the Confederate States of America (March 1861) until it ran out of bullion later in that year; some Half Dollars have been identified as being the issue of the State of Louisiana and the Confederacy.

tag: ol

text: Banknotes[edit]

text:
Denomination
Obverse
Reverse
Portrait
Reverse Motif
First Series
Latest Series
Circulation

One Dollar

George Washington
Great Seal of the United States
Series 1963
Series 2013
Wide

Two Dollars

Thomas Jefferson
Trumbull's Declaration of Independence
Series 1976
Series 2013
Limited

Five Dollars

Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln Memorial
Series 2006
Series 2013
Wide

Ten Dollars

Alexander Hamilton
U.S. Treasury
Series 2004A
Series 2013
Wide

Twenty Dollars

Andrew Jackson
White House
Series 2004
Series 2013
Wide

Fifty Dollars

Ulysses S. Grant
United States Capitol
Series 2004
Series 2013
Wide

One Hundred Dollars

Benjamin Franklin
Independence Hall
Series 2009
Series 2013
Wide

text: The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to "borrow money on the credit of the United States".[50] Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are "obligations of the United States" and "shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank".[51] Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as "legal tender" for the payment of debts.[52] Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note[53] and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.

text: Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.

text: Though still predominantly green, post-2004 series incorporate other colors to better distinguish different denominations. As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the American Council of the Blind, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 and the current version of the $100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period.[54]

text: Means of issue[edit]

text: The monetary base consists of coins and Federal Reserve Notes in circulation outside the Federal Reserve Banks and the U.S. Treasury, plus deposits held by depository institutions at Federal Reserve Banks. The adjusted monetary base has increased from approximately 400 billion dollars in 1994, to 800 billion in 2005, and over 3000 billion in 2013.[55] The amount of cash in circulation is increased (or decreased) by the actions of the Federal Reserve System. Eight times a year, the 12-person Federal Open Market Committee meets to determine U.S. monetary policy.[56] Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations to carry out that monetary policy.[57] If the Federal Reserve desires to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. Conversely, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, to take dollars out of circulation.[58]

text: When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). This money is not transferred from any existing funds—it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new high-powered money. Commercial banks can freely withdraw in cash any excess reserves from their reserve account at the Federal Reserve. To fulfill those requests, the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department.[59] The Treasury Department in turn sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new dollar bills) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).

text: Usually, the short-term goal of open market operations is to achieve a specific short-term interest rate target. In other instances, monetary policy might instead entail the targeting of a specific exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold. For example, in the case of the United States the Federal Reserve targets the federal funds rate, the rate at which member banks lend to one another overnight. The other primary means of conducting monetary policy include: (i) Discount window lending (as lender of last resort); (ii) Fractional deposit lending (changes in the reserve requirement); (iii) Moral suasion (cajoling certain market players to achieve specified outcomes); (iv) "Open mouth operations" (talking monetary policy with the market).

text: Value[edit]

text:
Buying power of one U.S. dollar compared to 1774 USD

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1774
 $1.00

1780
 $0.59

1790
 $0.89

1800
 $0.64

1810
 $0.66

1820
 $0.69

1830
 $0.88

1840
 $0.94

1850
 $1.03

1860
 $0.97

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1870
 $0.62

1880
 $0.79

1890
 $0.89

1900
 $0.96

1910
 $0.85

1920
 $0.39

1930
 $0.47

1940
 $0.56

1950
 $0.33

1960
 $0.26

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1970
 $0.20

1980
 $0.10

1990
 $0.06

2000
 $0.05

2007
 $0.04

2008
 $0.04

2009
 $0.04

2010
 $0.035

2011
 $0.034

2012
 $0.03

text: The 6th paragraph of Section 8 of Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the U.S. Congress shall have the power to "coin money" and to "regulate the value" of domestic and foreign coins. Congress exercised those powers when it enacted the Coinage Act of 1792. That Act provided for the minting of the first U.S. dollar and it declared that the U.S. dollar shall have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current".[60]

text: The table to the right shows the equivalent amount of goods that, in a particular year, could be purchased with $1. The table shows that from 1774 through 2012 the U.S. dollar has lost about 97.0% of its buying power.[61]

text: The decline in the value of the U.S. dollar corresponds to price inflation, which is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.[62] A consumer price index (CPI) is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services purchased by households. The United States Consumer Price Index, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services in the United States.[63] It reflects inflation as experienced by consumers in their day-to-day living expenses.[64] A graph showing the U.S. CPI relative to 1982–1984 and the annual year-over-year change in CPI is shown at right.

text: The value of the U.S. dollar declined significantly during wartime, especially during the American Civil War, World War I, and World War II.[65] The Federal Reserve, which was established in 1913, was designed to furnish an "elastic" currency subject to "substantial changes of quantity over short periods", which differed significantly from previous forms of high-powered money such as gold, national bank notes, and silver coins.[66] Over the very long run, the prior gold standard kept prices stable—for instance, the price level and the value of the U.S. dollar in 1914 was not very different from the price level in the 1880s. The Federal Reserve initially succeeded in maintaining the value of the U.S. dollar and price stability, reversing the inflation caused by the First World War and stabilizing the value of the dollar during the 1920s, before presiding over a 30% deflation in U.S. prices in the 1930s.[67]

text: Under the Bretton Woods system established after World War II, the value of gold was fixed to $35 per ounce, and the value of the U.S. dollar was thus anchored to the value of gold. Rising government spending in the 1960s, however, led to doubts about the ability of the United States to maintain this convertibility, gold stocks dwindled as banks and international investors began to convert dollars to gold, and as a result the value of the dollar began to decline. Facing an emerging currency crisis and the imminent danger that the United States would no longer be able to redeem dollars for gold, gold convertibility was finally terminated in 1971 by President Nixon, resulting in the "Nixon shock".[68]

text: The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in stagflation and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and real economic growth were linked (the Phillips curve), and so inflation was regarded as relatively benign.[68] Between 1965 and 1981, the U.S. dollar lost two thirds of its value.[61]

text: In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.[68]

text: Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value.[61] This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called "Great Moderation" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.[69]

text: There is ongoing debate about whether central banks should target zero inflation (which would mean a constant value for the U.S. dollar over time) or low, stable inflation (which would mean a continuously but slowly declining value of the dollar over time, as is the case now). Although some economists are in favor of a zero inflation policy and therefore a constant value for the U.S. dollar,[67] others contend that such a policy limits the ability of the central bank to control interest rates and stimulate the economy when needed.[70]

text: Exchange rates[edit]

text: Historical exchange rates[edit]

text:
Currency units per U.S. dollar, averaged over the year

19702
19802
19852
19902
1993
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015[71]

Euro
 —
 —
 —
 —
 —
0.9387
1.0832
1.1171
1.0578
0.8833
0.8040
0.8033
0.7960
0.7293
0.6791
0.7176
0.6739
0.7178
0.7777
0.7530
0.7520
0.9015

Japanese yen
357.6
240.45
250.35
146.25
111.08
113.73
107.80
121.57
125.22
115.94
108.15
110.11
116.31
117.76
103.39
93.68
87.78
79.70
79.82
97.60
105.74
121.05

Pound sterling
8s 4d
=0.4167
0.4484[72]
0.8613[72]
0.6207
0.6660
0.6184
0.6598
0.6946
0.6656
0.6117
0.5456
0.5493
0.5425
0.4995
0.5392
0.6385
0.4548
0.6233
0.6308
0.6393
0.6066
0.6544

Canadian dollar
1.081
1.168
1.321
1.1605
1.2902
1.4858
1.4855
1.5487
1.5704
1.4008
1.3017
1.2115
1.1340
1.0734
1.0660
1.1412
1.0298
0.9887
0.9995
1.0300
1.1043
1.2789

Mexican peso
0.01250–0.026501
2.801
2.671
2.501
3.1237
9.553
9.459
9.337
9.663
10.793
11.290
10.894
10.906
10.928
11.143
13.498
12.623
12.427
13.154
12.758
13.302
15.837

Renminbi yuan
2.46
1.7050
2.9366
4.7832
5.7620
8.2783
8.2784
8.2770
8.2771
8.2772
8.2768
8.1936
7.9723
7.6058
6.9477
6.8307
6.7696
6.4630
6.3093
6.1478
6.1620
6.2840

Indian rupee
7.56
8.000
12.38
16.96
31.291
43.13
45.00
47.22
48.63
46.59
45.26
44.00
45.19
41.18
43.39
48.33
45.65
46.58
53.37
58.51
62.00
64.1332

Singapore dollar
 —
 —
2.179
1.903
1.6158
1.6951
1.7361
1.7930
1.7908
1.7429
1.6902
1.6639
1.5882
1.5065
1.4140
1.4543
1.24586
1.2565
1.2492
1.2511
1.2665
1.3748

South African rand
0.7182
0.7780
2.2343[73]
2.5600
3.2729
6.1191
6.9468
8.6093
10.5176
7.5550
6.4402
6.3606
6.7668
7.0477
8.2480
8.4117
7.3159
7.2510
8.2014
9.6436
10.8420
12.7759

text:
Notes:
1. Mexican peso values prior to 1993 revaluation
2. Value at the start of the year

text: Sources:

text:
US: Last 4 years, 2009–2012, 2005–2008, 2001–2004, 1997–2000, 1993–1996, all available years[74]
Multiple countries: 2004–present
Australia: 1970–present
China: 1974–1991, 1993–1995
Mexico: 1976–1991
Canada: 1977–1991

text: Current exchange rates[edit]

text:
Current USD exchange rates

From Google Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

From Yahoo! Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

From XE:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

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From fxtop.com:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY


document_title: Fire in the hole

question_text: where does the phrase fire in the hole come from

text: Fire in the hole

text: "Fire in the hole" is a warning that an explosive detonation in a confined space is imminent. It originated with miners, who needed to warn their fellows that a charge had been set.[1] The phrase appears in this sense in state mining regulations,[2][3] in military and corporate procedures,[4][5] and in various mining and military blasting-related print books and narratives,[6] e.g., during bomb disposal or throwing grenades into a confined space.[1]

text: In common parlance it has become a catchphrase for a warning of type "Watch out!" or "Heads up!". [1]

text: NASA has used the term to describe a means of staging a multistage rocket vehicle by igniting the upper stage simultaneously with the ejection of the lower stage, without a usual delay of several seconds. On the Apollo 5 unmanned flight test of the first Apollo Lunar Module, a "fire in the hole test" used this procedure to simulate a lunar landing abort. Gene Kranz describes the test in his autobiography:

text: The fire-in-the-hole test involved shutting down the descent rocket, blowing the bolts that attached the ascent and descent stages, switching control and power to the ascent stage, and igniting the ascent rocket while still nestled to the landing stage.[7]


document_title: Something old

question_text: where did something old new borrowed blue come from

text: Something old

text: "Something old" is the first line of a traditional rhyme that details what a bride should wear at her wedding for good luck:

text:
Something old,
something new,
something borrowed,
something blue,
and a silver sixpence in her shoe.

text: The old item provided protection for the baby to come.  The item borrowed from another happy bride provided good luck.  The colour blue was a sign of fidelity.  The sixpence — a silver British coin — was a symbol of prosperity or acted as a ward against evil done by frustrated suitors.  The superstition is known since 1883 when it was attributed to the county of Lancashire.[1]  An 1898 compilation of English folklore recounted that:

text: In this country an old couplet directs that the bride shall wear:— "Something old, something new, Something borrowed, something blue."   "The something blue" takes, I am given to understand, usually the form of a garter, an article of dress which plays an important part in some wedding rites, as, for instance, in the old custom of plucking off the garter of the bride. "The something old" and "something blue" are devices to baffle the Evil Eye. The usual effect on the bride of the Evil Eye is to render her barren, and this is obviated by wearing "something borrowed", which should properly be the undergarment of some woman who has been blessed with children: the clothes communicate fertility to the bride.[2]

text: Another compilation of the era frames this poem as "a Lancashire version", as contrast against a Leicestershire recitation that "a bride on her wedding day should wear—'Something new, Something blue, Something borrowed'...", and so omits the "something old". The authors note that this counters other regional folklore warning against the wearing of blue on the wedding day, but relates the use of the color to phrases like "true blue" which make positive associations with the color.[3]

text: The rhyme can earlier be found in an 1876 edition of Notes and Queries,[4] and is called an "ancient custom" in another 1876 book, Bye-gones, Relating to Wales and the Border Counties.[5] This version is referenced as well in an 1871 short story, "Marriage Superstitions, and the Miseries of a Bride Elect", in The St. James's Magazine.[6]

text: At the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, the bride had:

text:
something old – Carrickmacross lace[7][8]
something new – a pair of diamond earrings made by jewellers Robinson Pelham and given by her parents[7][8]
something borrowed – a diamond tiara made by Cartier which had been bought for the Queen Mother and which was subsequently given to the Queen on her 18th birthday[7][8]
something blue – a ribbon sewn into the dress[7][8]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: In the Friends episode "The One in Vegas", Monica says to Chandler she needs 'Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue' so they can get married. They got a new, blue sweater stolen from the shop (borrowed) and Chandler's old condom. In "The One With Monica And Chandler's Wedding, Part 2", Phoebe discovers a positive pregnancy test, assumed to be Monica's, and Phoebe asks if the baby counts as Monica's something new. In "The One With Phoebe's Wedding",  when Phoebe decides not to wear her coat while getting married outside in the snow, she said that "I can be my something blue", suggesting that she might go blue with coldness.

text: In the Grey's Anatomy episode "White Wedding", Callie Torres asks to borrow something from Sloan Riley, saying that she already has something old, new and blue, in preparation for her wedding.

text: In the "ER" seventh season episode 18 "April Showers", Isabelle Corday, Dr. Elizabeth Corday's mother, hands her daughter a pair of family heirloom earrings the morning of Elizabeth's wedding, mentioning, "Something old, something new, something borrowed...."

text: The final two episodes of Season 2 of How I Met Your Mother are titled "Something Borrowed" and "Something Blue" in reference to the wedding occurring between the characters Marshall and Lily on the show.  The final two episodes of Season 8 of How I Met Your Mother are titled "Something Old" and "Something New" in reference to the wedding occurring between the characters Barney and Robin on the show.

text: In the 3rd Rock from the Sun episode "A Dick on One Knee" Harry is tasked with finding something old, something new; something borrowed, and something blue, his second attempt is "Blind Joe", an old man who plays the blues that he borrowed from the Tip-Top Club. When Sally asks Harry what's new about him, Harry says Joe is his new friend. [9]

text: In the Doctor Who episode "The Big Bang", the Doctor connects the four elements to his TARDIS, which is "borrowed", and "brand new and ancient, and the bluest blue ever". In the same episode at Amy Pond's wedding, she recites this saying to help remember the Doctor (excluding the line "And a silver sixpence in her shoe"), who had previously been erased from time. As she finishes her speech, wind begins blowing in the hall and several seconds later the TARDIS starts materializing right in the middle of it, and the Doctor—not imaginary, but flesh and blood—steps outside into the hall.

text: The ninth episode of series two of Torchwood is entitled "Something Borrowed" in reference to the wedding occurring between the characters Gwen Cooper and Rhys Williams on the show.

text: In Thomas The Tank Engine & Friends, Season 5, Episode 19  "Happy Ever After", Percy is taking some trucks (freight cars) to Brendam Docks, when Terence, working in a field next to the line tells him Mrs. Kyndley's daughter is getting married. Further up the line, Mrs. Kyndley waves him down when Percy's driver asks her what's wrong, Mrs. Kyndley has forgotten the good luck package. The something old was Old Slow Coach, the something new was a buffer stop with shiny new buffers, the something borrowed was a flatbed truck the buffers were on, and the something blue was Thomas. The delighted bride thanks the engines and gives Percy a kiss.

text: In the penultimate episode "We're Planning a June Wedding" of the popular series The Vampire Diaries, the lead character Caroline Forbes receives a card reading "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue" and during the episode she receives items which signify the phrase for her wedding. Something Old from Stefan, Elena's necklace (Something Borrowed),  Floral-looking headband from Bonnie (Something New) and Katherine's Necklace(Something Blue).

text: On Ihsahn's album Eremita (2012) is a song entitled "Something Out There", which uses the lyrics "something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue".