document_title: Tropical cyclone effects in Europe

question_text: when was the last time a hurricane hit the british isles

text: Tropical cyclone effects in Europe

text: Climatology and predictions[edit]

text: Beginning in the 1860s, advanced meteorological observation stations, as well as ship reports, allowed Atlantic hurricanes to be tracked for extended durations, including to the European mainland in some cases. Most storms that affected Europe have done so from August to October, which is the climatological peak of the Atlantic hurricane season. In a survey of such European tropical cyclones from 1961 to 2010, Dr. Kieran Hickey observed that the storms generally formed west of Africa and recurved to the northeast, or formed off the east coast of the United States and proceeded eastward. Due to their positions far to the west of the rest of Europe, Ireland and the United Kingdom experienced the most effects, although countries as far east as Russia and Cyprus have experienced tropical cyclone impacts.[2]

text: Tropical-like systems, referred to as "medicanes,"[3] are occasionally observed over the Mediterranean Sea. Several of these storms have developed eye-like features and hurricane-force winds; however, their nature is contrary to that of a tropical cyclone. The majority of these storm originate from deep, cold-core lows which they do not fully disassociate from. Additionally, unlike tropical systems, sea surface temperatures above 26 °C (79 °F) are not required for their development.[4]

text: In a paper published in April 2013, the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute predicted that by the year 2100, global warming would greatly increase the threat of hurricane-force winds to western Europe from former tropical cyclones and hybrid storms, the latter similar to Hurricane Sandy in 2012. One model predicted an increase from 2 to 13 in the number of cyclones with hurricane-force winds in the waters offshore western Europe. The study suggested that conditions favorable for tropical cyclones would expand 1,100 km (700 mi) to the east. A separate study based out of University of Castile-La Mancha predicted that hurricanes would develop in the Mediterranean Sea in Septembers by the year 2100, which would threaten countries in southern Europe.[5]

text: Storms[edit]

text: August 1680 – A reconstructed path of a hurricane proposed by researchers from contemporary records which is thought to have undergone extra-tropical transition over the North Atlantic before affecting Wales and southern England.[6]

text:
November 18–19, 1724 – One of the most destructive storms ever experienced in Portugal since the early 17th century,[7] caused damage to the east coast of Madeira and central and northern Portugal. (There is some conjecture whether this storm was a tropical system such as Hurricane Vince in 2005 which impacted Europe).[8]
October 29, 1842 – Research presented to the American Meteorological Society suggested that the equivalent of a Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale was located over the extreme eastern Atlantic Ocean in late October 1842. While passing near Madeira, the storm produced a pressure of 965 mbar (28.5 inHg), causing heavy damage there. Moving to the northeast, the cyclone struck southwestern Spain on October 29 with winds estimated at over 95 km/h (60 mph), which was strong enough to uproot trees and damage houses. Researchers estimated that the storm was becoming extratropical at or shortly after landfall; if tropical, the cyclone would be the only tropical storm to make landfall in continental Europe. The storm was considered an analog to Hurricane Vince in 2005.[9]
September 1848 – A hurricane travelled from the Caribbean to the east coast of the United States, eventually dissipating near the United Kingdom. It resulted in one of the earliest completed track maps for an Atlantic hurricane.[10]
September 1, 1883 – An extratropical storm, which previously passed near Bermuda as a major hurricane, crossed over the British Isles, producing hurricane-force winds and rough seas in London.[11]
September 6, 1884 – After moving across Newfoundland as a tropical storm, an extratropical storm struck Ireland with gusty winds.[12]
September 6, 1887 – The remnants of a hurricane produced strong winds along the northern Irish coastline.[13]
November 6, 1887 – A tropical storm that struck Florida became extratropical, moved across the Atlantic Ocean, and eventually brushed southern Ireland before striking France.[14]

text:
October 2, 1906 – After tracking across the Azores, a former tropical storm dissipated near Wales, bringing rainfall and strong winds to the United Kingdom.[15]
September 7, 1917 – The remnants of a hurricane were noted just south of Iceland; impacts, if any, are unknown.[16]
September 26, 1922 – The remnants of a hurricane brought gale-force winds to parts of Wales.[17]
August 26–27, 1927 – The powerful remnants of a hurricane moved over Iceland with a central pressure of 963 mb (hPa; 28.44 inHg). Hurricane-force winds were measured over the North Atlantic, though winds in Iceland only reached 65 km/h (40 mph).[18]
September 13–17, 1932 – The extratropical remnants of a hurricane that previously struck the Bahamas later tracked across Iceland, Jan Mayen Island, northern Scandinavia, and into northwestern Russia.[19][20] Sustained winds in Finland reached 83 km/h (52 mph) while Iceland experienced winds up to 74 km/h (46 mph).[21]
September 28, 1944 – The remnants of a hurricane merged with another extratropical system over Iceland; impacts, if any, are unknown.[22]
October 16, 1944 – The remnants of a hurricane moved over the Iberian Peninsula; sustained winds reached 74 km/h (46 mph) in Seville, Spain.[23]
September 17, 1950 – Former Hurricane Dog dissipated near Ireland, after having crossed much of the Atlantic Ocean.[24]
September 17, 1953 – The remnants of Hurricane Dolly dissipated along the coast of Portugal.[24]
September 24–25, 1957 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Carrie brought strong winds, waves, and severe flooding to the British Isles, resulting in three fatalities.[25][26]
October 4, 1958 – The remnants of Hurricane Helene dissipated along the coast of Great Britain.[24]
September 17, 1961 – Hurricane Debbie struck Ireland, although official records are unclear whether it was tropical or not at landfall.[24][27] Regardless of its status, Debbie produced among the lowest pressures in Europe from a post-tropical cyclone, with a pressure of 950 mbar (28 inHg) reported between Ireland and Scotland. At Malin Head in northwestern Ireland, a gust of 183 km/h (114 mph) was reported, which was the highest gust in a survey of post-tropical cyclones from 1960 to 2009. Sustained winds reached 126 km/h (78 mph) at the same location.[2] The high winds caused heavy damage across Ireland, estimated at over $40 million (1961 USD). There were also 12 deaths in the country.[28] High winds also affected Northern Ireland, killing six people.[29][30]

text:
September 6, 1966 – Hurricane Faith was officially declared extratropical to the north of Scotland,[24] having tracked 13,000 km (8,000 miles) as a tropical cyclone. That day, a pressure of 960 mbar (28 inHg) was reported in the North Sea, along with winds of 167 km/h (104 mph). Faith capsized a boat off the coast of Denmark, killing one person,[1] although the other 144 people on board were rescued.[31] The storm later struck Norway with high winds and rainfall,[1] causing flooding,[32] and proceeded to move over northern Russia.[33]
September 21, 1967 – Tropical Storm Chloe evolved into an extratropical cyclone off the northern coast of France before moving over western Europe.[24] Details on the storm's impact are unknown, though 14 people drowned when the Fiete Schulze sank in the Bay of Biscay.[34][35]
October 13, 1973 – Hurricane Fran evolved into a powerful extratropical cyclone as it approached the British Isles; it was absorbed by a cold front before moving through the region. Several vessels measured winds up to 95 km/h (59 mph) off the coasts of England and France.[36]
September 1978 – The remnants of Hurricane Flossie produced extreme winds over parts of Northern Scotland, with a peak value of 167 km/h (104 mph) between Orkney and Shetland.[2]
October 3, 1981 – The remnants of Hurricane Irene moved ashore in France with winds of about 55 km/h (35 mph).[37]
October 4, 1985 – The warmest October day on record was recorded at Basel, Switzerland due to the remnants of Hurricane Gloria.[38]
August 26, 1986 – Former Hurricane Charley moved through Ireland and Great Britain, later dissipating near Denmark.[24] In Dublin, the storm dropped over 200 mm (7.9 in) of rainfall in a 24‑hour period, which set a record and caused severe flooding.[2] Near the city, 451 buildings were flooded after two rivers overflowed their banks.[39] In the Wicklow Mountains, the rainfall resulted in significant runoff, which caused erosion along the Cloghoge River.[40] Record-breaking rainfall also occurred in Wales,[41] causing flooding. Throughout Europe, Charley caused 11 deaths,[42] and the Irish government paid $8.65 million (1986 USD) to pay for road and rail repairs.[2]
August 28, 1987 – The remnants of Hurricane Arlene dissipated over Spain,[24], which produced heavy rain over parts of southern Spain,[43] as well as Portugal, reaching 127 mm (5 in) at Porto.[1] Moisture from the storm also fueled rains in Italy.[44]
August 29, 1991 – Former Hurricane Bob dissipated along the coast of Portugal.[24]
October 30, 1992 – The remnants of Hurricane Frances dissipated over northwestern Spain,[24] causing heavy rains in northern Portugal.[1]

text:
September 13–15, 1993 – A pressure of 960 mbar (hPa; 28.35 inHg) was measured as the remnants of Hurricane Floyd struck France.[2] Off the coast of the British Isles and France, a few vessels became stranded in high seas and 113 km/h (70 mph) winds. The Meteorological Office and the National Rivers Authority stated that tides from the storm could be among the highest of the century. In France, gusts reached 129 km/h (80 mph).[45] Heavy rains around London triggered flooding that closed a few major roads and inundated 50 homes.[46]
August 25, 1995 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Felix dissipated near the Faroe Islands.[24]
September 7–9, 1995 – After becoming a powerful mid-latitude cyclone, with a pressure of 957 mbar (hPa; 28.26 inHg) and a core of hurricane-force winds, the remnants of Hurricane Iris struck the British Isles and France.[47] The storm produced wind gusts up to 129 km/h (80 mph) in France and 97 km/h (60 mph) in Britain. More than 2.5 cm (1 in) of rain fell in parts of Devon.[48]
October 16, 1996 – The remnants of Tropical Storm Josephine merged with another extratropical low near Iceland.[49]
October 28, 1996 – As an extratropical storm, Hurricane Lili moved across Ireland and the United Kingdom, producing winds up to 148 km/h (92 mph) in Swansea in Wales. The storm left thousands without power and damaged about 500 cottages. A storm surge flooded areas along the River Thames, and high waves nearly grounded an oil rig in Somerset. Damage was estimated at $300 million (1996 USD, £150 million in 1996 pound sterlings),[1] and there were six deaths.[50]
September 8, 1998 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Danielle merged with another storm north of Ireland, which produced strong waves and high winds in Great Britain that forced some evacuations.[51] The storm also spawned a tornado in England.[2]
September 27, 1998 – Tropical Storm Ivan became extratropical near the Azores,[24] and later affected portions of Europe.[2]
September 29, 1998 – Ireland and the United Kingdom experienced rains and gusty winds from the remnants of Hurricane Karl.[52]
October 3, 1998 – Former Hurricane Jeanne dissipated over Spain after striking Portugal.[53]
November 9, 1998 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Mitch produced 145 km/h (90 mph) wind gusts that left over 30,000 homes without power in Ireland. The winds also knocked down trees, one of which severely injured a driver.[54]

text:
August 24, 2000 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Alberto crossed western Iceland with gale force winds.[55]
October 3, 2000 – As an extratropical storm, Hurricane Isaac moved across Northern Ireland and Scotland with gale force winds,[56] which swept the blue-winged warbler bird to the continent for the first time on record.[57]
October 10, 2000 – The National Hurricane Center tracked the remnants of Tropical Storm Leslie to a position just off the west coast of Ireland.[58] It proceeded to move across the British Isles.[59]
October 23, 2002 – An extratropical storm absorbed Hurricane Kyle and later passed near the British Isles, causing one death due to rough seas.[60]
April 28, 2003 – After being absorbed by a cold front, the remnants of Tropical Storm Ana crossed the British Isles and dropped rainfall.[61]
October 10, 2003 – Former Hurricane Kate produced 110 km/h (70 mph) in Scotland after passing south of Iceland the previous day.[62]
August 8, 2004 – The remnants of Hurricane Alex produced 30 mm (1.18 in) of rainfall in portions of County Down in Northern Ireland.[63]
August 16, 2004 – Heavy rainfall from former Tropical Storm Bonnie, reaching 35 mm (1.38 in), caused flooding in Derry, Northern Ireland.[63]
August 23, 2004 – The third storm to affect Northern Ireland in the month, former Hurricane Charley, dropped about 25 mm (1 in) of rainfall.[63]
September 28, 2004 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Karl dissipated after striking northwestern Norway,[64] producing high winds and surf but little damage.[1]
October 3, 2004 – Light rainfall of around 25 mm (1 in), associated with former Hurricane Lisa, affected Northern Ireland,[65] and a tornado related to the system was reported in England.[2]
September 14, 2005 – The remnants of Hurricane Maria merged with an extratropical storm in the far northeastern Atlantic Ocean,[66] dropping 130 mm (5.1 in) of rainfall on the island of Skye in Scotland.[2] The system produced an atmospheric river over Norway, in combination with moisture from former Hurricane Nate.[67] The systems dropped heavy rainfall, reaching about 150 mm (6 in) of rainfall in some areas.[68] The rains amounted to about 5% of the annual precipitation total in just 12 hours.[69] In Bergen – the second largest city in the country – the rains caused a mudslide that destroyed several homes,[68] injured seven, and killed three people.[69] This was the first heavy precipitation event named by The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, who named it extreme weather Kirstin.[70]

text:
September 22, 2005 – Former Hurricane Ophelia moved across the Faroe Islands.[24]
September 29 – October 6, 2005 – Former Hurricane Rita moved across Northern Europe bringing fronts all over the continent.
October 11, 2005 – Tropical Depression Vince made landfall near Huelva, Spain and dissipated shortly thereafter, making it the first tropical cyclone on record to reach the Iberian Peninsula. Vince previously formed near Madeira, and intensified into a hurricane before weakening. Vince produced wind gusts as strong as 77 km/h (48 mph) in Rota, Cádiz, and rainfall reached 84 mm (3.30 in) in Córdoba province.[71] The rains caused minor roadway flooding.[72]
June 19, 2006 – As an extratropical cyclone, former Tropical Storm Alberto crossed the British Isles and was absorbed by a frontal system.[73] Winds were unusually strong for the month of June, with a peak gust of 100 km/h (62 mph) recorded at Capel Curig in Wales.[74]
September 21, 2006 – Hurricane Gordon became extratropical about 440 km (275 mi) west of the coast of Portugal and proceeded to pass just north of the Spanish province of Galicia before turning to the north and looping off western Ireland. In Spain, the former hurricane produced wind gusts of 183 km/h (114 mph) at Punta Candieira in Galicia,[75] and waves of 7 m (23 ft) in height along the coast.[76] The winds left about 100,000 people without power in Spain and caused four injuries there. High winds also left 126,000 people without power in Northern Ireland, where one injury occurred.[75] The storm brought moist air that contributed to record warm temperatures across portions of the United Kingdom.[77]
September 28, 2006 – The remnants of Hurricane Helene merged with an extratropical storm over Scotland, producing 118 km/h (74 mph) wind gusts in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland.[78]
October 4, 2008 – A large extratropical storm absorbed former Tropical Storm Laura to the south of Iceland,[79] which later caused road flooding in Great Britain.[80]
August 27, 2009 – The remnants of Hurricane Bill dropped 31 mm (1.22 in) of rainfall in Shap, England.[81]
October 6, 2009 – Tropical Storm Grace, which formed farther northeast than any other storm since 1972, became extratropical about 370 km (230 mi) southwest of Cork, Ireland.[82] When the remnants moved over Wales and Great Britain, they dropped locally heavy rainfall, reaching 36.6 mm (1.44 in) in Sennybridge, Wales in a 24‑hour period.[83]

text:
September 12, 2011 – An extratropical cyclone, formerly Hurricane Katia, moved across northern Scotland,[84] producing strong wind gusts that reached 158 km/h (98 mph) at the top of the Cairngorms mountain.[85] The winds left thousands of houses without power,[84] while heavy rainfall caused localized flooding.[85] A falling tree killed a bus driver in County Durham, and the unsettled weather from Katia contributed to a car accident on the M54 motorway that killed one person.[84] Damage in the United Kingdom was estimated at £100 million ($157 million USD).[86] Katia was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm on September 13,[84] which subsequently caused high winds and power outages in Estonia.[87]
October 6, 2011 – The remnants of Hurricane Ophelia combined with a cold front to produce 105 km/h (65 mph) winds and snowfall in Scotland.[88]
September 12, 2012 – The remnants of Hurricane Leslie struck Iceland with gusty winds,[89] which left about 30,000 people without power after ice-laden lines were blown down.[90]
September 23, 2012 – Tropical Storm Nadine regenerated southeast of the Azores after having become extratropical a few days prior. The storm would become one of the longest-lasting Atlantic tropical cyclones.[91] While it was nearly stationary, Nadine produced a plume of moisture that dropped heavy rainfall over the United Kingdom, reaching 130 mm (5.12 in) in Ravensworth. The rains flooded houses and disrupted roads and rails.[92] In early October, the remnants of Nadine dropped heavy rainfall in Wales.[93]
October 26–27, 2012 – After moving ashore in central Portugal, the extratropical cyclone that was formerly Hurricane Rafael dissipated.[94] In mountainous areas of southern France, wind gusts reached 168 km/h (104 mph). Just offshore Barcelona, Spain, three waterspouts formed, though all remained offshore.[95]

text:
August 10–11, 2014 – The remains of Hurricane Bertha bring heavy rainfall and high winds for the time of year to Ireland, the UK and northern France.[96][97][98]
August 31 – September 1, 2014 – The remains of Hurricane Cristobal bring gusty winds and heavy rainfall to Iceland that caused flooding to Reykjavík. The fire department received many calls of flooded buildings, while in the Keflavík International Airport, Reykjavík's airport, wind gusts were recorded to be as gusty as 100 km/h (62 mph).[99]
October 21–24, 2014 – The extratropical remnants of Hurricane Gonzalo reached Europe with wind gusts of 110 km/h (70 mph) recorded in Wales and the Isle of Wight. Downed trees blocked roads and strong winds disrupted transportation. In Southwick, West Sussex three people were injured by falling trees with one woman killed in London. Two men also died in separate accidents in Essex and Merseyside.[100][101] The remnants then proceeded to batter Central Europe. Stuttgart had gusts up to 122 km/h (76 mph), Munich Airport up to 108 km/h (67 mph). Much snow fell in the Alps.[102] As of October 23, Gonzalo's remnants had moved to the Aegean Sea. On October 24, rainfall "tied to the remnants of Hurricane Gonzalo" caused intense flooding in Athens, Greece.[103]
June 25- 27, 2015 – Tropical Storm Bill's remnants caused flash flooding in North East England and bought warm temperatures across England and Wales.[104]
September 14–17, 2015 – Tropical Storm Henri's remnants left severe thunderstorms in Germany and France, bringing winds as gusty as 120 km/h (75 mph), and killing two people.[105]
October 11-15, 2015 – Hurricane Joaquin's remnants bought heavy rain across Iberia.[106]
November 15–16, 2015 – Hurricane Kate's remnants brought heavy rain and high winds to Wales.
September 13-16, 2016 – Storm Stephanie, cyclonically looped across the Bay of Biscay, exhibited tropical characteristics on Sep 15, first reported example of a "Biscane" (in analogy with Medicane (Mediterranean hurricanes)).[107]
October 16-17, 2017 – The remnants of Hurricane Ophelia hit Ireland, causing 3 deaths and power outages in Ireland, Northern Ireland, and Wales, with winds reaching almost 100 miles per hour.[108] Over 1000 homes went without power in Scotland as well as causing winds of 76 miles per hour [109]
November 10-11, 2017 – The remnants of Tropical Storm Rina are expected to hit the United Kingdom and Ireland on the night of November 10 and into the following day.[110]


document_title: Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire

question_text: what led to the ottoman military decline of the nineteenth century

question_tokens: what led to the ottoman military decline of the nineteenth century

root

text: Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire

text: Main issues of the period[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. The empire was forced to deal with nationalism from both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary, secret societies which turned into political parties during the next period rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of the Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman ruling elite questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.

tag: p

text: The Russian extension in this century developed with the main theme of supporting independence of Ottomans' former provinces and then bringing all of the Slav peoples of the Balkans under Bulgaria or using Armenians in the east sets the stage. At the end of the century from Russian perspective; Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and autonomy of Bulgaria was achieved. That alarmed the Great Powers. After the Congress of Berlin the Russian expansion was controlled through stopping the expansion of Bulgaria. The Russian public felt that at the end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing.

text: The military of the Ottoman Empire remained an effective fighting force until the second half of the eighteenth century, when it suffered a catastrophic defeat against Russia in the 1768-74 war.[2] Selim III came to the throne with an ambitious effort in military reforms in 1789. He failed. Selim III was replaced by Mahmud II in 1808 who established martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha. His first task was to ally with the Janissaries in order to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries and removed them from power during Auspicious Incident in 1826. Efforts for a new system (1826–1858) began following the Auspicious incident.

text: The stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire (1683–1827) ended with the dismemberment of Ottoman Classical Army. The issue during the decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908) was to create a military (a security apparatus) that could win wars and bring security to its subjects. That goal took multiple Sultans with multiple reorganizations during this period. At the end of this period, with the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, -with a degree of- Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized in the form of European Armies.

text: Modernization 1828–1839[edit]

text: 1808–1839 Mahmud II[edit]

text:
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text: Mahmud II had to deal with multiple issues inherited from generations past. These issues lasted all through his reign. Shortly, the Eastern Question with Russia, England, and France, and military problems arising from mutinous Janissaries and factious Ulemas. He also faced numerous internal conflicts with Egyptians, Wahabbis, Serbians, Albanians, Greeks and Syrians, and had administrative problems from rebellious Pashas, who would fain have founded new kingdoms on the ruins of the House of Osman.

text: Mahmud understood the growing problems of the state and the approaching overthrow of the monarchy, and began to deal with the problems as he saw them. For example, he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the pashas. He personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council. The practice of the sultan's avoiding the Divan had been introduced two centuries prior, during the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered to be one of the causes of the decline of the Empire. Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the Vakifs, by placing their revenues under state administration. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government.

text: Serbs, 1810s[edit]

text: In 1804 the Serbian Revolution against Ottoman rule erupted in the Balkans, running in parallel with the Napoleonic invasion. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of self-governing monarchy under nominal Ottoman suzerainty.[3] In 1821 the First Hellenic Republic became the first Balkan country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognised by the Porte in 1829, after the end of the Greek War of Independence.

text: Greeks, 1820s[edit]

text: In 1814, a secret organization called the Filiki Eteria was founded with the aim of liberating Greece. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities, and capital with its surrounding areas. The first of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities which was put down by the Ottomans. On 17 March 1821, the Maniots declared war which was the start of revolutionary actions from other controlled states. In October 1821, Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa, followed by other revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece. Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. Mehmet Ali of Egypt agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain. By the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of Missolonghi was put under siege and fell in April 1826. Ibrahim had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken. Russia, Britain and France decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece. Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet in the battle of Navarino. Following a week long standoff, a battle began which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet. With the help of a French expeditionary force proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828.

text: The Greek War of Independence saw the beginning of the spread of the Western notion of nationalism, stimulated the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, and eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman millet concept. Unquestionably, the concept of nationhood prevalent in the Ottoman Empire was different from the current one as it was centered on religion.

text: The Auspicious Incident, 1826[edit]

text: Mahmud II's most notable achievements include the abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826, the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, and the preparation of the Tanzimat reforms in 1839. By 1826, the sultan was ready to move against the Janissary in favor of a more modern military. Mahmud II incited them to revolt on purpose, describing it as the sultan's "coup against the Janissaries". The sultan informed them, through a fatwa, that he was forming a new army, organised and trained along modern European lines. As predicted, they mutinied, advancing on the sultan's palace. In the ensuing fight, the Janissary barracks were set in flames by artillery fire resulting in 4,000 Janissary fatalities. The survivors were either exiled or executed, and their possessions were confiscated by the Sultan. This event is now called the Auspicious Incident. The last of the Janissaries were then put to death by decapitation in what was later called the blood tower, in Thessaloniki.[4][unreliable source]

text: These marked the beginning of the modernization and had immediate effects such as introducing European-style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization and land reform.

text: Russia, 1828–1829[edit]

text: The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 did not give him time to organize a new army, and the Sultan was forced to use these young and undisciplined recruits in the fight against the veterans of the Tsar. The war was brought to a close by the disastrous Treaty of Adrianople. While the reforms in question were mainly implemented to improve the military, the most notable development that arose out of these efforts was a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine to train new officers.

text: Egypt, 1830s[edit]

text: Later in his reign, Mahmud became involved in disputes with the Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, Muhammad Ali, who was technically Mahmud's vassal. The Sultan had asked for Muhammad Ali's help in suppressing a rebellion in Greece, but had not paid the promised price for his services. In 1831, Muhammad Ali declared war and managed to take control of Syria and Arabia by the war's end in 1833. In 1839, Mahmud resumed the war, hoping to recover his losses, but he died at the time news was on its way to Constantinople that the Empire's army had been signally defeated at Nezib by an Egyptian army led by Muhammad Ali's son, Ibrahim Pasha.

text: Economy[edit]

text: In his time the financial situation of the Empire was dire, and certain social classes had long been oppressed by burdensome taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs. A Firman of 22 February 1834 abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as an abuse. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."

text: The haraç, or capitation tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of government collectors. The Firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it, and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the Kadı, the Muslim governors, and the Ayans, or municipal chiefs of Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were effected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II gave a valuable personal example of good sense and economy, organised the imperial household, suppressed all titles without duties and eliminated all the positions of salaried officials without functions.

text: Tanzimat Era 1839–1876[edit]

text: In 1839, the Hatt-i Sharif proclamation launched the Tanzimat (from Arabic: تنظيم tanẓīm, meaning "organisation") (1839–76), period. Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown, which kept a sordid motive for acts of cruelty in perpetual operation, besides encouraging a host of vile Delators. The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to condemn men to instant death at will; the Paşas, the Ağas, and other officers were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadi, and regularly signed by the judge."

text: The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and the Principality of Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and Montenegro, and the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. Bulgaria also achieved virtual independence[citation needed] (as the Principality of Bulgaria); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations.

text: The government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law[5] and guilds with modern factories.

text: 1839–1861 Abdülmecit I[edit]

text: The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.[6][7] The first post office was the Postahane-i Amire near the courtyard of the Yeni Mosque.[6] In

text: The introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganization of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye (1841) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti, 1847, which later became the Maarif Nezareti, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (darülfünun, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (darülmuallimin, 1848);

text: The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.[6][7] The first post office was the Postahane-i Amire near the courtyard of the Yeni Mosque.[6]

text: Samuel Morse received his first ever patent for the telegraph in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present Beylerbeyi Palace was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention.[8] Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-Adrianople–Şumnu)[9] began on 9 August 1847.[10]

text: Identity Card and Ottoman Census, 1844[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: While the Ottoman Empire had population records prior to the 1830s, it was only in 1831 that the Office of Population Registers fund (Ceride-i Nüfus Nezareti) was founded. The Office decentralized in 1839 to draw more accurate data. Registrars, inspectors, and population officials were appointed to the provinces and smaller administrative districts. They recorded births and deaths periodically and compared lists indicating the population in each district. These records were not a total count of population. Rather, they were based on what is known as “head of household”. Only the ages, occupation, and property of the male family members only were counted.

text: The first nationwide Ottoman census was in 1844. The first national identity cards which officially named the Mecidiye identity papers, or informally kafa kağıdı (head paper) documents.

text: In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane. Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included[11] guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour and property;

text: Establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (Tıbbiye Nezareti, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Daniş, 1851); establishment of the Şirket-i Hayriye which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti, 1854) and the City Planning Council (İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu, 1855); the abolition of the capitation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and railways (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganised as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)[12] and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası, established in 1866);[13] the Land Code (Arazi Kanunnamesi, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (Mekteb-i Mülkiye, 1859);

text: In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established.[6][7][9]

text: Crimean War, 1853–1856[edit]

text: The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia.[14]

text: Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's Crimean Peninsula to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph.[15] The subsequent Treaty of Paris (1856) secured Ottoman control over the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea basin. That lasted until defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

text: The Ottoman Empire took its first foreign loans on 4 August 1854,[16] shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.[17]

text: The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.[18] Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and settled in the Ottoman Empire.[19] During the 19th century, there was an exodus to present-day Turkey by a large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea and Crete, By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim, had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called Muhacir under a general definition.[20] By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.[21] Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Turkish education.[21]

text: Armenians, 1860s[edit]

text: Armenian national awakening is influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, the Armenian national movement developed in the early 1860s. The factors contributing to its emergence made the movement similar to that of the Balkan nations, especially the Greeks. The Armenian élite and various militant groups sought to improve and defend the mostly rural Armenian population of the eastern Ottoman Empire from the Muslims, but the ultimate goal was the creation of an Armenian state in the Armenian-populated areas controlled at the time by the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire.

text: 1861–1876 Abdülaziz[edit]

text: Abdülaziz continued the Tanzimat and Islahat reforms. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861. Abdülaziz was also the first sultan who traveled outside his empire. His 1867 trip included a visit to the United Kingdom. The Press and Journalism Regulation Code (Matbuat Nizamnamesi, 1864); among others.[11] 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established.[6] In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational.[6] In 1868 homosexuality was decriminalised[22]

text: The Christian millets gained privileges, such as in the Armenian National Constitution of 1863. This Divan-approved form of the Code of Regulations consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed Armenian National Assembly.[23] The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter.[21] In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.[21] In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy.[21] In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.[21]

text: In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph.[7] In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter.[10] On 23 May 1909, the first manual telephone exchange with a 50 line capacity entered service in the Büyük Postane (Grand Post Office) in Sirkeci.[10]

text: Bulgaria, 1870s[edit]

text: The rise of national awakening of Bulgaria led to the Bulgarian revival movement. Unlike Greece and Serbia, the nationalist movement in Bulgaria did not concentrate initially on armed resistance against the Ottoman Empire. After the establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate on 28 February 1870 a large-scale armed struggle started to develop as late as the beginning of the 1870s with the establishment of the Internal Revolutionary Organisation and the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee, as well as the active involvement of Vasil Levski in both organisations. The struggle reached its peak with the April Uprising of 1876 in several Bulgarian districts in Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. The suppression of the uprising and the atrocities committed by Ottoman soldiers against the civilian population increased the Bulgarian desire for independence.

text: Albanians, 1870s[edit]

text: Because of religious ties of the Albanian majority of the population with the ruling Ottomans and the lack of an Albanian state in past, nationalism was less developed among Albanians in the 19th century than among other southeast European nations. Only from the 1870s and onwards did a movement of ‘national awakening‘ evolve among them - greatly delayed, compared to the Greeks and the Serbs. The 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War dealt a decisive blow to Ottoman power in the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians' fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece fueled the rise of Albanian nationalism.

text: Ottoman Constitution, 1876[edit]

text: The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The empire's First Constitutional era, was short-lived. But the idea of Ottomanism proved influential. A group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would give an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî.

text: 1876 Murat V[edit]

text: After Abdülaziz's dethronement Murat was enthroned. It was hoped that he would sign the constitution. However, due to health problems Murat was also dethroned after 93 days; he was the shortest reigning sultan of the Empire.

text: First Constitutional Era, 1876–1878[edit]

text: The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878. The era ended with the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Abdülhamid II.

text: 1876–1879 Abdul Hamid II[edit]

text: Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878[edit]

text: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 had its origins in a rise in nationalism in the Balkans as well as in the Russian goal of recovering territorial losses it had suffered during the Crimean War, reestablishing itself in the Black Sea and following the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. As a result of the war, the principalities of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, each of which had de facto sovereignty for some time, formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire. After almost half a millennium of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), the Bulgarian state was reestablished as the Principality of Bulgaria, covering the land between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains (except Northern Dobrudja which was given to Romania) and the region of Sofia, which became the new state's capital. The Congress of Berlin also allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and Great Britain to take over Cyprus, while the Russian Empire annexed Southern Bessarabia and the Kars region.

text: Congress of Berlin, 1878[edit]

text: The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the Balkan Peninsula, the urgent need was to stabilise and reorganise the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimise the risks of major war, while recognising the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.

text: As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.

text: In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the Young Turk Revolution and annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks.

text: In return for British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878[24] and later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the Urabi Revolt; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers.) France, on its part, occupied Tunisia in 1881.

text: The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into world war in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.[25]

text: In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the First Balkan War in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia.[26][27] Muslims had been the majority in some parts of Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern Thrace remained as the Muslim land.[28]

text: Istibdat 1879-1908[edit]

text: 1879–1908 Abdul Hamid II[edit]

text: Abdul Hamid is also considered one of the last sultans to have full control. His reign struggled with the culmination of 75 years of change throughout the empire and an opposing reaction to that change.[21] He was particularly concerned with the centralization of the empire.[29] His efforts to centralize the Sublime Porte were not unheard of among other sultans. The Ottoman Empire’s local provinces had more control over their areas than the central government. Abdul Hamid II's foreign relations came from a “policy of non-commitment."[30] The sultan understood the fragility of the Ottoman military, and the Empire’s weaknesses of its domestic control.[30] Pan-Islamism became Abdülhamid’s solution to the empire’s loss of identity and power.[31] His efforts to promote Pan-Islamism were for the most part unsuccessful because of the large non-Muslim population, and the European influence onto the empire.[32] His policies essentially isolated the Empire, which further aided in its decline. Several of the elite who sought a new constitution and reform for the empire were forced to flee to Europe.[32] New groups of radicals began to threaten the power of the Ottoman Empire.

text: Egypt 1880s[edit]

text: After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals.

text: In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response.

text: 1893–96 Ottoman Census[edit]

text: In 1867, the Council of States took charge of drawing population tables, increasing the precision of population records. They introduced new measures of recording population counts in 1874. This led to the establishment of a General Population Administration, attached to the Ministry of Interior in 1881-1882.

text: The first official census (1881–93) took 10 years to finish. In 1893, the results were compiled and presented. This census is the first modern, general and standardized census accomplished not for taxation nor for military purposes, but to acquire demographic data. The population was divided into ethno-religious and gender characteristics. Numbers of both male and female subjects are given in ethno-religious categories including Muslims, Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Catholics, Jews, Protestants, Latins, Syriacs and Gypsies[33][34]

text: Armenians, 1890s[edit]

text: Although granted their own constitution and national assembly with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.[36]

text: Autonomists[edit]

text: During 1880 - 1881, while the Armenian national liberation movement was in its early stage; lack of outside support and inability to maintain a trained, organized Kurdish force diminished Kurdish aspirations. However, two prominent Kurdish families (tribes) mounted opposition to the empire, based more from an ethno-nationalistic stand point. The Badr Khans were successionists while the Sayyids of Nihiri were autonomists. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed in 1880 - 1881 by the attempt of Shaykh Ubayd Allah[disambiguation needed] of Nihri to found an "independent Kurd principality" around Ottoman-Persian border (including the Van Vilayet) where Armenian population was significant. Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri gathered 20,000 fighters.[37] Lacking discipline, his man left the ranks after pillaging and acquiring riches from the villages in the region (indiscriminately, including Armenian villages). Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri captured by the Ottoman forces in 1882 and this movement ended.[37]

text: The Bashkaleh clash was the bloody encounter between the Armenakan Party and the Ottoman Empire in May 1889. Its name comes from Başkale, a border town of Van Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. The event was important, as it was reflected on main Armenian newspapers as the recovered documents on the Armenakans showed an extensive plot for a national movement.[38] Ottoman officials believed that the men were members of a large revolutionary apparatus and the discussion was reflected on newspapers, (Eastern Express, Oriental Advertiser, Saadet, and Tarik) and the responses were on the Armenian papers. In some Armenian circles, this event was considered as a martyrdom and brought other armed conflicts.[39] The Bashkaleh Resistance was on the Persian border, which the Armenakans were in communication with Armenians in the Persian Empire. The Gugunian Expedition, which followed within the couple months, was an attempt by a small group of Armenian nationalists from the Russian Armenia to launch an armed expedition across the border into the Ottoman Empire in 1890 in support of local Armenians.

text: The Kum Kapu demonstration occurred at the Armenian quarter of Kum Kapu, the seat of the Armenian Patriarch, was spared through the prompt action of the commandant, Hassan Aga.[40] On 27 July 1890, Harutiun Jangülian, Mihran Damadian and Hambartsum Boyajian interrupted the Armenian mass to read a manifesto and denounce the indifference of the Armenian patriarch and Armenian National Assembly. Harutiun Jangülian (member from Van) tried to assassinate the Patriarch of Istanbul. The goal was to persuade the Armenian clerics to bring their policies into alignment with the national politics. They soon forced the patriarch to join the procession heading to the Yildiz Palace to demand implementation of Article 61 of the Treaty of Berlin. It is significant that this massacre, in which 6000 Armenians are said to have perished, was not the result of a general rising of the Muslim population.[40] The Softas took no part in it, and many Armenians found refuge in the Muslim sections of the city.[40]

text: Reform program[edit]

text: The Kurdish (force, rebels, bandits) sacked neighboring towns and villages with impunity.[41]

text: The central assumption of the Hamidiye system—Kurdish tribes (Kurdish chiefdoms cited among Armenian security concerns) could be brought under military discipline—proved to be "Utopian". The Persian Cossack Brigade later proved that it can function as independent unit, but Ottoman example, which was modeled after, never replaced the tribal loyalty to Ottoman Sultan or even to its establishing unit.

text: In 1892, first time a trained and organized Kurdish force encouraged by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II. There are several reasons advanced as to why the Hamidiye light cavalry was created. The establishment of the Hamidiye was in one part a response to the Russian threat, but scholars believe that the central reason was to suppress Armenian socialist/nationalist revolutionaries.[42] The Armenian revolutionaries posed a threat because they were seen as disruptive, and they could work with the Russians against the Ottoman Empire.[42] The Hamidiye corps or Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments were well-armed, irregular, majority Kurdish cavalry (minor amounts of other nationalities, such as Turcoman) formations that operated in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire.[43] They were intended to be modeled after the Caucasian Cossack Regiments (example Persian Cossack Brigade) and were firstly tasked to patrol the Russo-Ottoman frontier[44] and secondly, to reduce the potential of Kurdish-Armenian cooperation.[45] The Hamidiye Cavalry was in no way a cross-tribal force, despite their military appearance, organization, and potential.[46] Hamidiye quickly find out that they could only be tried through a military court martial[47] They became immune to civil administration. Realizing their immunity, they turned their tribes into “legalized robber brigades” as they steal grain, reap fields not of their possession, drive off herds, and openly steal from shopkeepers.[48] Some argue that the creation of the Hamidiye “further antagonized the Armenian population” and it worsened the very conflict they were created to prevent.[49]

text: Kurdish chieftain also taxed the population of the region in sustaining these units, which Armenian's perceived this Kurdish taxation as an exploitation. When Armenian spokesmen confronted the Kurdish chieftain (issue of double taxation), it brought about enmity between both populations. The Hamidiye cavalry harassed and assaulted Armenians.[50]

text: In 1908, after the overthrow of Sultan, the Hamidiye Cavalry was disbanded as an organized force, but as they were “tribal forces” before official recognition, they stayed as “tribal forces” after dismemberment. The Hamidiye Cavalry is described as a military disappointment and a failure because of its contribution to tribal feuds.[51]

text: Armenians[edit]

text: A major role in the Hamidian massacres of 1894-96 has been often ascribed to the Hamidiye regiments, particularly during the bloody suppression of Sasun (1894). On July 25, 1897 the Khanasor Expedition was against the Kurdish Mazrik tribe (Muzuri Kurds) who owned a significant portion of this cavalry. The first notable battle in the Armenian resistance movement took place in Sassoun, where nationalist ideals were proliferated by Hunchak activists, such as Mihran Damadian, Hampartsoum Boyadjian, and Hrayr. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation also played a significant role in arming the people of the region. The Armenians of Sassoun confronted the Ottoman army and Kurdish irregulars at Sassoun, succumbing to superior numbers.[52] This was followed by Zeitun Rebellion (1895–1896), which between the years 1891 and 1895, Hunchak activists toured various regions of Cilicia and Zeitun to encourage resistance, and established new branches of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party.

text: In this area, something resembling a civil war between Armenians and Muslims (involving Hamidiye (cavalry)) raged for months before being brought to an end through mediation by the Great Powers. However instead of Armenian autonomy in these regions, Kurds (Kurdish tribal chiefs) retained much of their autonomy and power.[53] The Abdulhamid made little attempt to alter the traditional power structure of “segmented, agrarian Kurish societies” – agha, shayk, and tribal chief.[53] Because of their geographical position at the southern and eastern fringe of the empire and mountainous topography, and limited transportation and communication system.[53] The state had little access to these provinces and were forced to make informal agreements with tribal chiefs, for instance the Ottoman qadi and mufti did not have jurisdiction over religious law which bolstered Kurdish authority and autonomy.[53]

text: The 1896 Ottoman Bank takeover was perpetrated by an Armenian group armed with pistols, grenades, dynamite and hand-held bombs against the Ottoman Bank in Istanbul. The seizure of the bank lasted 14 hours, resulting in the deaths of 10 of the Armenian men and Ottoman soldiers. The Ottoman reaction to takeover saw further massacres and pogroms of the several thousand Armenians living in Constantinople and Sultan Abdul Hamid II threatening to level the entire building itself. However, intervention on part of the European diplomats in the city managed to persuade the men to give, assigning safe passage to the survivors to France. Despite the level of violence the incident had wrought, the takeover was reported positively in the European press, praising the men for their courage and the objectives they attempted to accomplish.[54]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Economically, the empire had difficulty in repaying the Ottoman public debt to European banks, which caused the establishment of the Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the empire was not overrun by Western powers was their attempt to maintain a balance of power in the area. Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, but were kept in check mostly by Britain, which feared Russian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.

text: Image gallery[edit]

text:
Mahmud II

Abdülmecid

Abdülaziz

Murad V

tag: ul


document_title: War Machine (film)

question_text: who is the general brad pitt plays in war machine

text: War Machine (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the summer of 2009, Four-star General Glen McMahon (Brad Pitt), having won renown for his effective leadership in Iraq, is sent to Afghanistan to prepare an assessment so that the government can end the ongoing war.[4][5] He is given wide latitudes to write it, on the sole condition that he not request more troops. McMahon and his staff, particularly his right hand man Major General Greg Pulver (Anthony Michael Hall), are united in their belief that the war can be won, and decide to recommend that President Obama authorize a surge of 40,000 additional troops to secure Helmand province in order to stabilize the country. However, the Secretary of State (Sian Thomas) informs McMahon that his report will not be reviewed until after the upcoming presidential election.

text: Captain Badi Basim (Aymen Hamdouchi), a member of the ANA, joins McMahon's staff as a "representative" of the Afghan people. He arrives, however, in civilian clothes as he would rather not wear his uniform, which he has in a bag, outside the compound near his home as he walked. Meanwhile, McMahon is informed that, due to alleged irregularities in the counting of votes, a runoff election will have to be held, delaying the review of the assessment further. Fed up, McMahon secretly leaks the assessment to the Washington Post and organizes an interview with 60 Minutes, during which he reveals that, in the last seventy days, he has only been granted one meeting with the president. In response, the government announces that they will send 30,000 troops to Afghanistan, and that all US and coalition forces in the country will leave in 18 months. To gather the remaining 10,000 troops needed for his strategy to work, McMahon and his men head to Paris to negotiate with the other coalition nations.

text: In Paris, McMahon learns that the president is passing through, and wishes to meet with him. The ambassador to Afghanistan (Alan Ruck) warns McMahon that he needs to understand his position: if he continues to anger the president, he will be fired for insubordination. The president, however, merely shakes his hand as he climbs aboard Air Force One due to time constraints, and McMahon and his staff attend a dinner in McMahon's honor, accompanied by Rolling Stone writer Sean Cullen (Scoot McNairy), who intends to write a feature story about his performance for an upcoming issue. The next day, during their anniversary dinner, McMahon's wife Jeanie confronts him about how much time he's spending fighting abroad instead of being with his family back home.

text: While on route to Berlin with McMahon's staff to continue negotiations, Cullen observes their behavior and concludes that they are arrogant and seem to care little about the growing public perception that the war is costly and wasteful. At a conference to discuss his strategy, McMahon is confronted by a German official (Tilda Swinton) who is skeptical of his approach and suggests that McMahon's plans would only lead to more losses. Nevertheless, both the Germans and the French agree to furnish the troops needed for his planned offensive, codenamed "Operation Moshtarak", to begin, with Afghan President Hamid Karzai's (Ben Kingsley) approval.

text: The operation launches, but soon runs into trouble when several civilians are accidentally killed against McMahon's instructions. When he holds a public meeting to explain the incident, the crowd grows hostile and demands that he and his troops leave. Worse, McMahon learns that Cullen's article has been published, and paints a negative picture of him and his staff as openly speaking against the president and mishandling the war effort. Knowing that he will be fired for his actions, McMahon returns to Washington and later takes a job as a civilian consultant.

text: In the aftermath, Cullen ponders the consequences of his article, noting that he wished the fall of McMahon would finally convince the government to stop invading foreign countries and end the war in Afghanistan. Instead, however, the government simply assigns a new general to replace McMahon: General Bob White (Russell Crowe).

text: Cast[edit]

text: McMahon's Entourage

text:
Brad Pitt as General Glen McMahon,[6] a character based on General Stanley McChrystal.[7] He is portrayed as an accomplished general with degrees from West Point and Yale[8] brought in to bring a resolution to the conflict in Afghanistan.
Anthony Hayes[9] as Lieutenant Commander Pete Duckman, a Navy SEAL and member of McMahon's staff, possibly based on Navy SEAL David Silverman.
Emory Cohen[10] as Sgt. Willy Dunne, General McMahon's body man.
RJ Cyler as USAF Tech Sgt. Andy Moon, information technology support assistant.[11]
Daniel Betts as USN Rear Admiral Simon Ball, McMahon's Senior Public Affairs Officer.
Topher Grace as Matt Little, a former lobbyist turned McMahon's civilian media adviser.[12]
Anthony Michael Hall as Major General Greg Pulver, ISAF Director of Intelligence,[13] loosely based on Lt. General Michael Flynn.
John Magaro as Colonel Cory Staggart, an Army Ranger and General McMahon's executive officer.[14]
Aymen Hamdouchi as Captain Badi Basim, a scholarly Afghan National Army officer who becomes General McMahon's aide-de-camp.
Scoot McNairy[15] as Sean Cullen, a cynical journalist for Rolling Stone who accompanies McMahon and his staff and acts as narrator throughout the film, loosely based on author Michael Hastings.
Meg Tilly as Jeanie McMahon,[16] McMahon's wife.

text: US Diplomats

text:
Sian Thomas as United States Secretary of State Edith May, based on Hillary Rodham Clinton
Alan Ruck as Pat McKinnon, United States Ambassador to Afghanistan loosely based on Karl Eikenberry.
Nicholas Jones as Dick Waddle, loosely based on Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan Richard Holbrooke.
Griffin Dunne as Ray Canucci, a United States Department of State senior official.

text: Politicians

text:
Ben Kingsley as President Hamid Karzai[17]
Reggie Brown as President Barack Obama
Tilda Swinton as a German politician

text: Combat Marines

text:
Will Poulter as Sgt. Ricky Ortega, a Marine Corps infantry squad leader.[18]
Lakeith Stanfield as Cpl. Billy Cole, a disillusioned Marine and member of Ortega's squad.[19]
Josh Stewart as Captain Dick North, a Marine Corps officer.

text: Other

text:
Georgina Rylance as Lydia Cunningham, 60 Minutes journalist.
Russell Crowe[20] as General Bob White (uncredited), General Glen McMahon's replacement similar to David Petraeus.

text: Production[edit]

text: On April 27, 2012, it was announced that New Regency and Plan B Entertainment had acquired the film adaptation rights to the 2011 best seller non-fiction book The Operators by Michael Hastings.[21] On April 14, 2014, David Michôd was hired to write and direct the film based on the war in Afghanistan.[7] Brad Pitt was attached to star as General Stanley McChrystal and produce the film along with his Plan B partners Dede Gardner and Jeremy Kleiner, while the film would be financed by New Regency and RatPac Entertainment.[7]

text: On June 8, 2015, Netflix acquired the distribution rights to the film which was re-titled War Machine, while Ian Bryce also came on board to produce the film along with others.[22] On June 17, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that there had been a budget issue between New Regency and RatPac with producers of Plan B, and thus Netflix had stepped in to buy the distribution rights for $60 million.[1]

text: On August 4, 2015, Emory Cohen was cast in the film to play a member of Gen. McChrystal's staff.[10] On August 10, 2015, Topher Grace joined the film to play Gen. Stanley McChrystal's civilian press adviser.[12] On August 11, 2015, John Magaro signed on to play Cory Burger, a special ops soldier and close advisor to General McMahon.[14] On August 14, 2015, Scoot McNairy joined the cast of the film.[15] On August 19, 2015, Anthony Michael Hall was added to the cast to play General Hank Pulver, loosely based on General Mike Flynn.[13] On August 20, 2015, Keith Stanfield signed on to the film.[19] The same day, Will Poulter also joined the cast for an unspecified role.[18] On August 25, Anthony Hayes joined the film.[9] On October 23, 2015, TheWrap revealed that RJ Cyler had also joined the film.[11] Alan Ruck was spotted filming.[23] Meg Tilly was also spotted but her casting was not then officially confirmed.[16] It was later reported Ben Kingsley and Tilda Swinton had been cast.[24]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film began in mid-October 2015 in London.[25][26][27] Later on October 19, filming began in Abu Dhabi, the city was transformed into Kabul, streets into a military fortress, an old building as an American Embassy in Kabul, and a street as a Palestinian border crossing.[28][29] Filming also took place at the Abu Dhabi International Airport in November.[29] Some scenes were also filmed at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey, England.[23] In mid-November 2015, while final scenes were being shot, actors were spotted filming in Ras al-Khaimah and the city's old neighborhood was transformed into Pakistani villages and a military base-camp.[30]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on Netflix on May 26, 2017.[31]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Brad Pitt visited Mumbai to promote the film and attended a special screening at PVR High Street Phoenix on May 24, 2017.[32] He also met Indian superstar Shah Rukh Khan to promote War Machine.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 54% based on 73 reviews, and an average rating of 5.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "War Machine's uneven execution keeps its fact-based story from cleanly hitting its targets, but those flaws are frequently offset by sharp wit and solid acting."[33] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a 56 out of 100 score, based on 30 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[34]