document_title: Greenhouse gas

question_text: green house gases which is present in very high quantity is

question_tokens: green house gases which is present in very high quantity is

text: Greenhouse gas

text: Gases in Earth's atmosphere[edit]

text: Greenhouse gases[edit]

text: Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength range emitted by Earth.[1] In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are:

text:
Water vapor (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Ozone (O3)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons (incl. HCFCs and HFCs)

text: Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources (emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound).[13] The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "airborne fraction" (AF). The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions. As of 2006 the annual airborne fraction for CO2 was about 0.45. The annual airborne fraction increased at a rate of 0.25 ± 0.21% per year over the period 1959–2006.[14]

text: Non-greenhouse gases[edit]

text: The major atmospheric constituents, nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because molecules containing two atoms of the same element such as N2 and O2 and monatomic molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the distribution of their electrical charges when they vibrate. Hence they are almost totally unaffected by infrared radiation. Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen chloride (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and often are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.

text: Indirect radiative effects[edit]

text: Some gases have indirect radiative effects (whether or not they are greenhouse gases themselves). This happens in two main ways. One way is that when they break down in the atmosphere they produce another greenhouse gas. For example, methane and carbon monoxide (CO) are oxidized to give carbon dioxide (and methane oxidation also produces water vapor, as discussed later). Oxidation of CO to CO2 directly produces an unambiguous increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle. The peak of the thermal IR emission from Earth's surface is very close to a strong vibrational absorption band of CO2 (15 microns, or 667 cm−1). On the other hand, the single CO vibrational band only absorbs IR at much shorter wavelengths (4.7 microns, or 2145 cm−1), where the emission of radiant energy from Earth's surface is at least a factor of ten lower.  Oxidation of methane to CO2, which requires reactions with the OH radical, produces an instantaneous reduction in radiative absorption and emission since CO2 is a weaker greenhouse gas than methane, although CO2 has a longer lifetime. As described below this is not the whole story, since the oxidations of CO and CH4 are intertwined by both consuming OH radicals. In any case, the calculation of the total radiative effect needs to include both the direct and indirect forcing.

text: A second type of indirect effect happens when chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving these gases change the concentrations of greenhouse gases. For example, the destruction of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) in the atmosphere can produce ozone. The size of the indirect effect can depend strongly on where and when the gas is emitted.[16]

text: Methane has a number of indirect effects in addition to forming CO2. First, the main chemical that reacts with methane in the atmosphere is the hydroxyl radical (OH), thus more methane means that the concentration of OH goes down. Effectively, methane increases its own atmospheric lifetime and therefore its overall radiative effect. The second effect is that the oxidation of methane can produce ozone. Third, as well as making CO2, the oxidation of methane produces water; this is a major source of water vapor in the stratosphere, which is otherwise very dry. CO and NMVOCs also produce CO2 when they are oxidized. They remove OH from the atmosphere, and this leads to higher concentrations of methane. The surprising effect of this is that the global warming potential of CO is three times that of CO2.[17] The same process that converts NMVOCs to carbon dioxide can also lead to the formation of tropospheric ozone. Halocarbons have an indirect effect because they destroy stratospheric ozone. Finally, hydrogen can lead to ozone production and CH4 increases as well as producing water vapor in the stratosphere.[16]

text: Contribution of clouds to Earth's greenhouse effect[edit]

text: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.[18][19]

text: Impacts on the overall greenhouse effect[edit]

text: The contribution of each gas to the greenhouse effect is determined by the characteristics of that gas, its abundance, and any indirect effects it may cause. For example, the direct radiative effect of a mass of methane is about 84 times stronger than the same mass of carbon dioxide over a 20-year time frame[22] but it is present in much smaller concentrations so that its total direct radiative effect is smaller, in part due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime. On the other hand, in addition to its direct radiative impact, methane has a large, indirect radiative effect because it contributes to ozone formation. Shindell et al. (2005)[23] argue that the contribution to climate change from methane is at least double previous estimates as a result of this effect.[24]

text: When ranked by their direct contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most important are:[18][not in citation given]

text:
Compound

Formula

Concentration in atmosphere[25] (ppm)

Contribution  (%)

Water vapor and clouds
H2O
10–50,000(A)
36–72%

Carbon dioxide
CO2
~400
9–26%

Methane
CH4
~1.8
4–9%

Ozone
O3
2–8(B)
3–7%

notes:
(A) Water vapor strongly varies locally[26]
(B) The concentration in stratosphere. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

text: In addition to the main greenhouse gases listed above, other greenhouse gases include sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases). Some greenhouse gases are not often listed. For example, nitrogen trifluoride has a high global warming potential (GWP) but is only present in very small quantities.[27]

text: Proportion of direct effects at a given moment[edit]

text: It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect. This is because some of the gases absorb and emit radiation at the same frequencies as others, so that the total greenhouse effect is not simply the sum of the influence of each gas. The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for each gas alone; the lower ends account for overlaps with the other gases.[18][19] In addition, some gases such as methane are known to have large indirect effects that are still being quantified.[28]

text: Atmospheric lifetime[edit]

text:
Aside from water vapor, which has a residence time of about nine days,[29] major greenhouse gases are well mixed and take many years to leave the atmosphere.[30] Although it is not easy to know with precision how long it takes greenhouse gases to leave the atmosphere, there are estimates for the principal greenhouse gases.
Jacob (1999)[31] defines the lifetime

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

 of an atmospheric species X in a one-box model as the average time that a molecule of X remains in the box. Mathematically

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

 can
be defined as the ratio of the mass

m

{\displaystyle m}

 (in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box
(

F

o
u
t

{\displaystyle F_{out}}

),
chemical loss of X
(

L

{\displaystyle L}

),
and deposition of X
(

D

{\displaystyle D}

)
(all in kg/s):

τ
=

m

F

o
u
t

+
L
+
D

{\displaystyle \tau ={\frac {m}{F_{out}+L+D}}}

.[31]
If one stopped pouring any of this gas into the box, then after a time

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

, its concentration would be about halved.

text: The atmospheric lifetime of a species therefore measures the time required to restore equilibrium following a sudden increase or decrease in its concentration in the atmosphere. Individual atoms or molecules may be lost or deposited to sinks such as the soil, the oceans and other waters, or vegetation and other biological systems, reducing the excess to background concentrations. The average time taken to achieve this is the mean lifetime.

text:
Carbon dioxide has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and cannot be specified precisely.[32] The atmospheric lifetime of CO2 is estimated of the order of 30–95 years.[33]
This figure accounts for CO2 molecules being removed from the atmosphere by mixing into the ocean, photosynthesis, and other processes. However, this excludes the balancing fluxes of CO2 into the atmosphere from the geological reservoirs, which have slower characteristic rates.[34] Although more than half of the CO2 emitted is removed from the atmosphere within a century, some fraction (about 20%) of emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere for many thousands of years.[35]
[36]
[37] Similar issues apply to other greenhouse gases, many of which have longer mean lifetimes than CO2. E.g., N2O has a mean atmospheric lifetime of 121 years.[22]

text: Radiative forcing[edit]

text: Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat.[38] Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy.[38] If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.[38]

text: A number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth's climate.[38] Greenhouse gases are one such mechanism.[38] Greenhouse gases absorb and emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from Earth's surface, causing that heat to be retained in the lower atmosphere.[38] As explained above, some greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for decades or even centuries, and therefore can affect Earth's energy balance over a long period.[38] Radiative forcing quantifies the effect of factors that influence Earth's energy balance, including changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases.[38] Positive radiative forcing leads to warming by increasing the net incoming energy, whereas negative radiative forcing leads to cooling.[38]

text: Global warming potential[edit]

text: The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO2 and evaluated for a specific timescale. Thus, if a gas has a high (positive) radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20-year scale but a small one on a 100-year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO2 its GWP will increase with the timescale considered. Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.

text: Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years. The 2007 IPCC report lists the GWP as 72 over a time scale of 20 years, 25 over 100 years and 7.6 over 500 years.[39] A 2014 analysis, however, states that although methane's initial impact is about 100 times greater than that of CO2, because of the shorter atmospheric lifetime, after six or seven decades, the impact of the two gases is about equal, and from then on methane's relative role continues to decline.[40] The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane is degraded to water and CO2 through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

text: Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:

text:
Atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 at different time horizon for various greenhouse gases

Gas name

Chemical  formula
Lifetime  (years)[22]

Global warming potential (GWP) for given time horizon

20-yr[22]
100-yr[22]
500-yr[39]

Carbon dioxide

CO2
30–95
1
1
1

Methane

CH4
12
84
28
7.6

Nitrous oxide

N2O
121
264
265
153

CFC-12

CCl2F2
100
10 800
10 200
5 200

HCFC-22

CHClF2
12
5 280
1 760
549

Tetrafluoromethane

CF4
50 000
4 880
6 630
11 200

Hexafluoroethane

C2F6
10 000
8 210
11 100
18 200

Sulfur hexafluoride

SF6
3 200
17 500
23 500
32 600

Nitrogen trifluoride

NF3
500
12 800
16 100
20 700

text: The use of CFC-12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting properties.[41] The phasing-out of less active HCFC-compounds will be completed in 2030.[42]

text: Natural and anthropogenic sources[edit]

text: Aside from purely human-produced synthetic halocarbons, most greenhouse gases have both natural and human-caused sources. During the pre-industrial Holocene, concentrations of existing gases were roughly constant, because the large natural sources and sinks roughly balance. In the industrial era, human activities have added greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.[47][48]

text: The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report compiled by the IPCC (AR4) noted that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system", and concluded that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century".[49] In AR4, "most of" is defined as more than 50%.

text: Abbreviations used in the two tables below: ppm = parts-per-million; ppb = parts-per-billion; ppt = parts-per-trillion; W/m2 = watts per square metre

text:
Current greenhouse gas concentrations[50]

Gas

Pre-1750troposphericconcentration[51]
Recenttroposphericconcentration[52]
Absolute increasesince 1750
Percentageincreasesince 1750
Increasedradiative forcing(W/m2)[53]

Carbon dioxide (CO2)
280 ppm[54]
395.4 ppm[55]
115.4 ppm
41.2%
1.88

Methane (CH4)
700 ppb[56]
1893 ppb /[57]1762 ppb[57]
1193 ppb /1062 ppb
170.4% /151.7%
0.49

Nitrous oxide (N2O)
270 ppb[53][58]
326 ppb /[57]324 ppb[57]
56 ppb /54 ppb
20.7% /20.0%
0.17

Troposphericozone (O3)
237 ppb[51]
337 ppb[51]
100 ppb
42%
0.4[59]

text:
Relevant to radiative forcing and/or ozone depletion; all of the following have no natural sources and hence zero amounts pre-industrial[50]

Gas
Recenttroposphericconcentration
Increasedradiative forcing(W/m2)

CFC-11(trichlorofluoromethane)(CCl3F)
236 ppt /234 ppt
0.061

CFC-12 (CCl2F2)
527 ppt /527 ppt
0.169

CFC-113 (Cl2FC-CClF2)
74 ppt /74 ppt
0.022

HCFC-22 (CHClF2)
231 ppt /210 ppt
0.046

HCFC-141b (CH3CCl2F)
24 ppt /21 ppt
0.0036

HCFC-142b (CH3CClF2)
23 ppt /21 ppt
0.0042

Halon 1211 (CBrClF2)
4.1 ppt /4.0 ppt
0.0012

Halon 1301 (CBrClF3)
3.3 ppt /3.3 ppt
0.001

HFC-134a (CH2FCF3)
75 ppt /64 ppt
0.0108

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
85 ppt /83 ppt
0.0143

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
7.79 ppt /[60]7.39 ppt[60]
0.0043

Other halocarbons
Varies bysubstance
collectively0.02

Halocarbons in total

0.3574

text:
Ice cores provide evidence for greenhouse gas concentration variations over the past 800,000 years (see the following section). Both CO2 and CH4 vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and concentrations of these gases correlate strongly with temperature. Direct data does not exist for periods earlier than those represented in the ice core record, a record that indicates CO2 mole fractions stayed within a range of 180 ppm to 280 ppm throughout the last 800,000 years, until the increase of the last 250 years. However, various proxies and modeling suggests larger variations in past epochs; 500 million years ago CO2 levels were likely 10 times higher than now.[61] Indeed, higher CO2 concentrations are thought to have prevailed throughout most of the Phanerozoic eon, with concentrations four to six times current concentrations during the Mesozoic era, and ten to fifteen times current concentrations during the early Palaeozoic era until the middle of the Devonian period, about 400 Ma.[62][63][64] The spread of land plants is thought to have reduced CO2 concentrations during the late Devonian, and plant activities as both sources and sinks of CO2 have since been important in providing stabilising feedbacks.[65]
Earlier still, a 200-million year period of intermittent, widespread glaciation extending close to the equator (Snowball Earth) appears to have been ended suddenly, about 550 Ma, by a colossal volcanic outgassing that raised the CO2 concentration of the atmosphere abruptly to 12%, about 350 times modern levels, causing extreme greenhouse conditions and carbonate deposition as limestone at the rate of about 1 mm per day.[66] This episode marked the close of the Precambrian eon, and was succeeded by the generally warmer conditions of the Phanerozoic, during which multicellular animal and plant life evolved. No volcanic carbon dioxide emission of comparable scale has occurred since. In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are only about 1% of emissions from human sources.[66][67][68]

text: Ice cores[edit]

text:
Measurements from Antarctic ice cores
show that before industrial emissions started atmospheric CO2 mole fractions were about 280 parts per million (ppm), and stayed between 260 and 280 during the preceding ten thousand years.[69] Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009. One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago,[70] though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO2 variability.[71][72] Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.

text: Changes since the Industrial Revolution[edit]

text: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentrations of most of the greenhouse gases have increased. For example, the mole fraction of carbon dioxide has increased from 280 ppm to 400 ppm, or 120 ppm over modern pre-industrial levels. The first 30 ppm increase took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to 1958; however the next 90 ppm increase took place within 56 years, from 1958 to 2014.[73][74]

text: Recent data also shows that the concentration is increasing at a higher rate. In the 1960s, the average annual increase was only 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007.[75]

text: Today, the stock of carbon in the atmosphere increases by more than 3 million tonnes per annum (0.04%) compared with the existing stock.[clarification needed] This increase is the result of human activities by burning fossil fuels, deforestation and forest degradation in tropical and boreal regions.[76]

text: The other greenhouse gases produced from human activity show similar increases in both amount and rate of increase. Many observations are available online in a variety of Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases.

text: Anthropogenic greenhouse gases[edit]

text: Since about 1750 human activity has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.[79] Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity,[80] but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks, mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton. As a result of this balance, the atmospheric mole fraction of carbon dioxide remained between 260 and 280 parts per million for the 10,000 years between the end of the last glacial maximum and the start of the industrial era.[81]

text: It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems.[82] Future warming is projected to have a range of impacts, including sea level rise,[83] increased frequencies and severities of some extreme weather events,[83] loss of biodiversity,[84] and regional changes in agricultural productivity.[84]

text: The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:

text:
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the air. Land use change (mainly deforestation in the tropics) account for up to one third of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions.[81]
livestock enteric fermentation and manure management,[85] paddy rice farming, land use and wetland changes, man-made lakes,[86] pipeline losses, and covered vented landfill emissions leading to higher methane atmospheric concentrations. Many of the newer style fully vented septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are sources of atmospheric methane.
use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration systems, and use of CFCs and halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes.
agricultural activities, including the use of fertilizers, that lead to higher nitrous oxide (N2O) concentrations.

text: The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004):[87]

text:
Seven main fossil fuel  combustion sources
Contribution  (%)

Liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline, fuel oil)
36%

Solid fuels (e.g., coal)
35%

Gaseous fuels (e.g., natural gas)
20%

Cement production
 3 %

Flaring gas industrially and at wells
< 1%

Non-fuel hydrocarbons
< 1%

"International bunker fuels" of transport  not included in national inventories[88]
 4 %

text: Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O) and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases,[89]:147[90] and are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol international treaty, which came into force in 2005.[91] Emissions limitations specified in the Kyoto Protocol expired in 2012.[91] The Cancún agreement, agreed in 2010, includes voluntary pledges made by 76 countries to control emissions.[92] At the time of the agreement, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions.[92]

text: Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused in the media. On 15 October 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.[93][94][95]

text: Sectors[edit]

text: This section needs expansion with: Information on emissions from other sectors. You can help by adding to it. (July 2013)

text: Tourism[edit]

text: According to UNEP global tourism is closely linked to climate change. Tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Tourism accounts for about 50% of traffic movements. Rapidly expanding air traffic contributes about 2.5% of the production of CO2. The number of international travelers is expected to increase from 594 million in 1996 to 1.6 billion by 2020, adding greatly to the problem unless steps are taken to reduce emissions.[96]

text: Road Haulage[edit]

text:
The road haulage industry plays a part in production of CO2, contributing around 20% of the UK's total carbon emissions a year, with only the energy industry having a larger impact at around 39%.[97]
Average carbon emissions within the haulage industry are falling—in the thirty-year period from 1977 to 2007, the carbon emissions associated with a 200-mile journey fell by 21 percent; NOx emissions are also down 87 percent, whereas journey times have fallen by around a third.[98] Due to their size, HGVs often receive criticism regarding their CO2 emissions; however, rapid development in engine technology and fuel management is having a largely positive effect.

text: Plastic[edit]

text: Plastic is produced mainly from Fossil fuels.  Plastic manufacturing is estimated to use 8 percent of yearly global oil production. The EPA estimates as many as five ounces of carbon dioxide are emitted for each ounce of polyethylene (PET) produced—the type of plastic most commonly used for beverage bottles,[99] the transportation produce greenhouse gases also.[100] Plastic waste emmit carbon dioxide when it degrades. In 2018 a research claimed that some of the most common plastics in the environment release the greenhouse gasses Methane and Ethylene when exposed to sunlight in an amount that can affect the earth climate.[101][102]

text:
From the other side, if it is placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink[103] although biodegradable plastics have caused methane emissions.
[104] Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy, if the glass or metal packag is single use, of course .[105]

text: Role of water vapor[edit]

text: Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when including clouds.[19] Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at local scales, such as near irrigated fields. Indirectly, human activity that increases global temperatures will increase water vapor concentrations, a process known as water vapor feedback.[106] The atmospheric concentration of vapor is highly variable and depends largely on temperature, from less than 0.01% in extremely cold regions up to 3% by mass in saturated air at about 32 °C.[107] (See Relative humidity#other important facts.)

text: The average residence time of a water molecule in the atmosphere is only about nine days, compared to years or centuries for other greenhouse gases such as CH4 and CO2.[108] Thus, water vapor responds to and amplifies effects of the other greenhouse gases. The Clausius–Clapeyron relation establishes that more water vapor will be present per unit volume at elevated temperatures. This and other basic principles indicate that warming associated with increased concentrations of the other greenhouse gases also will increase the concentration of water vapor (assuming that the relative humidity remains approximately constant; modeling and observational studies find that this is indeed so). Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback" that amplifies the original warming. Eventually other earth processes offset these positive feedbacks, stabilizing the global temperature at a new equilibrium and preventing the loss of Earth's water through a Venus-like runaway greenhouse effect.[109]

text: Direct greenhouse gas emissions[edit]

text: Between the period 1970 to 2004, greenhouse gas emissions (measured in CO2-equivalent)[110] increased at an average rate of 1.6% per year, with CO2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels growing at a rate of 1.9% per year.[111][112] Total anthropogenic emissions at the end of 2009 were estimated at 49.5 gigatonnes CO2-equivalent.[113]:15 These emissions include CO2 from fossil fuel use and from land use, as well as emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol.

text: At present, the primary source of CO2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.[114]

text: Regional and national attribution of emissions[edit]

text: According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), GHG emissions in the United States can be traced from different sectors.[115]

text: There are several different ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions, for example, see World Bank (2010)[116]:362 for tables of national emissions data. Some variables that have been reported[117] include:

text:
Definition of measurement boundaries: Emissions can be attributed geographically, to the area where they were emitted (the territory principle) or by the activity principle to the territory produced the emissions. These two principles result in different totals when measuring, for example, electricity importation from one country to another, or emissions at an international airport.
Time horizon of different gases: Contribution of a given greenhouse gas is reported as a CO2 equivalent. The calculation to determine this takes into account how long that gas remains in the atmosphere. This is not always known accurately and calculations must be regularly updated to reflect new information.
What sectors are included in the calculation (e.g., energy industries, industrial processes, agriculture etc.): There is often a conflict between transparency and availability of data.
The measurement protocol itself: This may be via direct measurement or estimation. The four main methods are the emission factor-based method, mass balance method, predictive emissions monitoring systems, and continuous emissions monitoring systems. These methods differ in accuracy, cost, and usability.

text:
These different measures are sometimes used by different countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 94).[118]
This use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools.[117]

text: Emissions may be measured over long time periods. This measurement type is called historical or cumulative emissions. Cumulative emissions give some indication of who is responsible for the build-up in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (IEA, 2007, p. 199).[119]

text: The national accounts balance would be positively related to carbon emissions. The national accounts balance shows the difference between exports and imports. For many richer nations, such as the United States, the accounts balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading the economies of developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. We believed that a positive accounts balance would means that more production was occurring in a country, so more factories working would increase carbon emission levels.[120]

text: Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against a base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995).[89]:146, 149 A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.

text: Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population.[116]:370 Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 106–07).[118]

text: While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions, per-capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries.[121]

text: From land-use change[edit]

text: Land-use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks.[122] Accounting for land-use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 92–93).[118]

text: There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions.[123] Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 93).[118] For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.

text: Greenhouse gas intensity[edit]

text:
Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change.

 Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982–2011.

 Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982–2011.

text: Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and "emissions intensity" are also sometimes used.[124] Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP) (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 96).[118] Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences.

text: Cumulative and historical emissions[edit]

text: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming,[125] and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.[126]:15

text:
Top-5 historic CO2 contributors by region over the years 1800 to 1988 (in %)

Region

Industrial  CO2

Total  CO2

OECD North America
33.2
29.7

OECD Europe
26.1
16.6

Former USSR
14.1
12.5

China
  5.5
  6.0

Eastern Europe
  5.5
  4.8

text: The table above to the left is based on Banuri et al. (1996, p. 94).[118] Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial CO2 emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total CO2 emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial CO2 emissions of 16.2% over this time period, and 32.2% of total CO2 emissions. The estimate of total CO2 emissions includes biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation. Banuri et al. (1996, p. 94)[118] calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then-current population. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1.

text: Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 93–94).[118] The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.

text: Non-OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related CO2 emissions between 1890 and 2007.[127]:179–80 Over this time period, the US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; other OECD countries, 5%; Japan, 4%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%.[127]:179–80

text: Changes since a particular base year[edit]

text: Between 1970 and 2004, global growth in annual CO2 emissions was driven by North America, Asia, and the Middle East.[128]  The sharp acceleration in CO2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported.[87] In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N2O by 0.25% y−1.

text: Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming.[126]:17–18[129] This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between different base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries.[126]:17–18 Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO2 emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).

text: Annual emissions[edit]

text: Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.[89]:144 Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the US).[130] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest percapita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the US are gradually decreasing over time.[130] Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries.[131]

text: Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for the industrialized countries. For China's annual emissions in 2008, the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency estimated an uncertainty range of about 10%.[130]

text: The  greenhouse gas footprint refers to the emissions resulting from the creation of products or services. It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint, which measures only carbon dioxide, one of many greenhouse gases.

text: 2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions.[132]

text: Top emitter countries[edit]

text: Annual[edit]

text: In 2009, the annual top ten emitting countries accounted for about two-thirds of the world's annual energy-related CO2 emissions.[133]

text:
Top-10 annual energy-related CO2 emitters for the year 2009[citation needed]

Country

% of global total  annual emissions

Tonnes of GHG  per capita

 China
23.6
5.1

 United States
17.9
16.9

 India
5.5
1.4

 Russia
5.3
10.8

 Japan
3.8
8.6

 Germany
2.6
9.2

 Iran
1.8
7.3

 Canada
1.8
15.4

 South Korea
1.8
10.6

 United Kingdom
1.6
7.5

text: Cumulative[edit]

text:
Top-10 cumulative energy-related CO2 emitters between 1850 and 2008[citation needed]

Country

% of world  total

Metric tonnes  CO2 per person

 United States
28.5
1,132.7

 China
9.36
85.4

 Russia
7.95
677.2

 Germany
6.78
998.9

 United Kingdom
5.73
1,127.8

 Japan
3.88
367

 France
2.73
514.9

 India
2.52
26.7

 Canada
2.17
789.2

 Ukraine
2.13
556.4

text: Embedded emissions[edit]

text: One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption.[134] For example, in the main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels.[127]:179[135]:1 Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.

text: Davis and Caldeira (2010)[135]:4 found that a substantial proportion of CO2 emissions are traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe. Based on annual emissions data from the year 2004, and on a per-capita consumption basis, the top-5 emitting countries were found to be (in tCO2 per person, per year): Luxembourg (34.7), the US (22.0), Singapore (20.2), Australia (16.7), and Canada (16.6).[135]:5 Carbon Trust research revealed that approximately 25% of all CO2 emissions from human activities 'flow' (i.e., are imported or exported) from one country to another. Major developed economies were found to be typically net importers of embodied carbon emissions—with UK consumption emissions 34% higher than production emissions, and Germany (29%), Japan (19%) and the US (13%) also significant net importers of embodied emissions.[136]

text: Effect of policy[edit]

text: Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation). Assessments of policy effectiveness have included work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,[137] International Energy Agency,[138][139] and United Nations Environment Programme.[140] Policies implemented by governments have included[141][142][143] national and regional targets to reduce emissions, promoting energy efficiency, and support for renewable energy such as Solar energy as an effective use of renewable energy because solar uses energy from the sun and does not release pollutants into the air.

text: Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (i.e., the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union) are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change.[143]:3 Analysis by the UNFCCC (2011)[143]:8 suggested that policies and measures undertaken by Annex I Parties may have produced emission savings of 1.5 thousand Tg CO2-eq in the year 2010, with most savings made in the energy sector. The projected emissions saving of 1.5 thousand Tg CO2-eq is measured against a hypothetical "baseline" of Annex I emissions, i.e., projected Annex I emissions in the absence of policies and measures. The total projected Annex I saving of 1.5 thousand CO2-eq does not include emissions savings in seven of the Annex I Parties.[143]:8

text: Projections[edit]

text: A wide range of projections of future emissions have been produced.[144] Rogner et al. (2007)[145] assessed the scientific literature on greenhouse gas projections. Rogner et al. (2007)[111] concluded that unless energy policies changed substantially, the world would continue to depend on fossil fuels until 2025–2030. Projections suggest that more than 80% of the world's energy will come from fossil fuels. This conclusion was based on "much evidence" and "high agreement" in the literature.[111] Projected annual energy-related CO2 emissions in 2030 were 40–110% higher than in 2000, with two-thirds of the increase originating in developing countries.[111] Projected annual per capita emissions in developed country regions remained substantially lower (2.8–5.1 tonnes CO2) than those in developed country regions (9.6–15.1 tonnes CO2).[146] Projections consistently showed increase in annual world emissions of "Kyoto" gases,[147] measured in CO2-equivalent) of 25–90% by 2030, compared to 2000.[111]

text: Relative CO2 emission from various fuels[edit]

text: One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (1,291.5 gallons or 172.65 cubic feet)[148][149][150]

text:
Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels[151]

Fuel name

CO2  emitted  (lbs/106 Btu)

CO2  emitted  (g/MJ)

CO2  emitted  (g/kWh)

Natural gas

117

50.30

181.08

Liquefied petroleum gas

139

59.76

215.14

Propane

139

59.76

215.14

Aviation gasoline

153

65.78

236.81

Automobile gasoline

156

67.07

241.45

Kerosene

159

68.36

246.10

Fuel oil

161

69.22

249.19

Tires/tire derived fuel

189

81.26

292.54

Wood and wood waste

195

83.83

301.79

Coal (bituminous)

205

88.13

317.27

Coal (sub-bituminous)

213

91.57

329.65

Coal (lignite)

215

92.43

332.75

Petroleum coke

225

96.73

348.23

Tar-sand Bitumen

[citation needed]

[citation needed]

[citation needed]

Coal (anthracite)

227

97.59

351.32

text: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources[edit]

text: A literature review of numerous energy sources CO2 emissions by the IPCC in 2011, found that, the CO2 emission value that fell within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies conducted was as follows.[152]

text:
Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source.

Technology
Description
50th percentile  (g CO2/kWhe)

Hydroelectric
reservoir
4

Ocean Energy
wave and tidal
8

Wind
onshore
12

Nuclear
various generation II reactor types
16

Biomass
various
18

Solar thermal
parabolic trough
22

Geothermal
hot dry rock
45

Solar PV
Polycrystalline silicon
46

Natural gas
various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing
469

Coal
various generator types without scrubbing
1001

text: Removal from the atmosphere ("sinks")[edit]

text: Natural processes[edit]

text: Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes, as a consequence of:

text:
a physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from the atmosphere).
a chemical reaction within the atmosphere. For example, methane is oxidized by reaction with naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH· and degraded to CO2 and water vapor (CO2 from the oxidation of methane is not included in the methane Global warming potential). Other chemical reactions include solution and solid phase chemistry occurring in atmospheric aerosols.
a physical exchange between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans.
a chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. This is the case for CO2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).
a photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by UV light releasing Cl· and F· as free radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are generally too stable to disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).

text: Negative emissions[edit]

text: A number of technologies remove greenhouse gases emissions from the atmosphere. Most widely analysed are those that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either to geologic formations such as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage[153][154][155] and carbon dioxide air capture,[155] or to the soil as in the case with biochar.[155] The IPCC has pointed out that many long-term climate scenario models require large-scale manmade negative emissions to avoid serious climate change.[156]

text: History of scientific research[edit]

text: In the late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that N2 and O2 do not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation"), while water (both as true vapor and condensed in the form of microscopic droplets suspended in clouds) and CO2 and other poly-atomic gaseous molecules do absorb infrared radiation. In the early 20th century researchers realized that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere made Earth's overall temperature higher than it would be without them. During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system,[157] with consequences for the environment and for human health.


document_title: Cool Hand Luke

question_text: who ate the eggs in cool hand luke

question_tokens: who ate the eggs in cool hand luke

root

text: Cool Hand Luke

text: Plot[edit]

text: Decorated war veteran Lucas "Luke" Jackson (Paul Newman), is arrested for cutting the "heads" off parking meters (cutting the meters off their poles) one drunken night. He is sentenced to two years in prison and sent to a Florida chain gang prison run by a stern warden, the Captain (Strother Martin), and a stoic rifleman, Walking Boss Godfrey (Morgan Woodward), whose eyes are always covered by a pair of mirrored sunglasses. Carr (Clifton James) the floorwalker, tells the rules to the new set of prisoners, with any violations resulting in spending the night in "the box," a small square room with limited air and very little room to move.

tag: p

text: Luke refuses to observe the established pecking order among the prisoners and quickly runs afoul of the prisoners' leader, Dragline (George Kennedy). When the pair have a boxing match, the prisoners and guards watch with interest. Although Luke is severely outmatched by his larger opponent, he refuses to acquiesce. Eventually, Dragline refuses to continue the fight. Luke's tenacity earns the prisoners' respect and draws the attention of the guards. Later, Luke wins a poker game by bluffing with a hand worth nothing. Luke comments that "sometimes, nothing can be a real cool hand", prompting Dragline to nickname him "Cool Hand Luke".

text: After a visit from his sick mother, Arletta (Jo Van Fleet), Luke becomes more optimistic about his situation. He continually confronts the Captain and the guards, and his sense of humor and independence prove to be both contagious and inspiring to the other prisoners. Luke's struggle for supremacy peaks when he leads a work crew in a seemingly impossible but successful effort to complete a road-paving job in less than one day. The other prisoners start to idolize him after he makes and wins a spur-of-the moment bet that he can eat fifty hard-boiled eggs in one hour.

text: One day, Luke picks up a deadly rattlesnake from the grassy ditch and holds it up for Boss Godfrey to shoot with his rifle. Luke tosses the snake to the boss as a joke, before he hands him his walking cane. Dragline advises Luke to be more careful about his actions pertaining to the "man with no eyes." A rainstorm causes everyone to prematurely end their work. Before he joins the other prisoners in the truck, Luke shouts to God, testing him. On that same evening, Luke receives a letter stating that his mother has died.

text: After news of his mother's death reaches Luke, the Captain, anticipating that Luke might attempt to escape in order to attend his mother's funeral, has him locked in the prison punishment box. After being released from the box, receiving word that his mother's burial is completed and being told to forget about her, Luke is determined to escape. Under the cover of a Fourth of July celebration, he makes his initial escape attempt. He is later recaptured by local police and returned to the chain gang, but not before one of the three bloodhounds sent after him dies from heat and overexertion, including the strain of repeatedly going under the wire fences, in his attempt to trail Luke. After his capture and return, the Captain has Luke fitted with leg-irons and delivers a warning speech to the other inmates, explaining, "What we've got here is failure to communicate. Some men you just can't reach. So you get what we had here last week, which is the way he wants it. Well, he gets it. And I don't like it any more than you men."

text: A short time later, Luke escapes again by using string to shake a bush and deceive the guards about his location while taking a urination break behind said bush, afterwards visiting a nearby house where he uses an axe to remove his shackles. To keep the guard dogs from following his scent, he spreads curry powder and chili powder across the ground to send them into sneezing fits and overload their sensitive sense of smell. While free, Luke mails Dragline a magazine that includes a photograph of him with two beautiful women. He is soon recaptured, beaten, returned to the prison camp, and fitted with two sets of leg irons. Luke is warned by the Captain that if he ever attempts to escape again, he will be killed on the spot. Luke is now annoyed by the other prisoners fawning over the magazine photo and reveals it to be a fake. At first, the other prisoners are angry, but after a long stay in the box, when Luke is forced to eat a huge serving of rice, they come to help him finish it.

text: As punishment for his escape, he is forced to repeatedly dig a grave-sized hole in the prison camp yard, fill it back in, and then be beaten. The prisoners observe his persecution, singing spirituals. Finally, as the other prisoners watch from the windows of the bunkhouse, an exhausted Luke collapses in the hole, begging God for mercy and pleads with the bosses not to hit him again. Believing Luke is finally broken, the Captain stops the punishment. Boss Paul warns Luke that he will be killed if ever he runs away again, which Luke promises in tears not to do. The prisoners begin to lose their idealized image of Luke, and one tears up the photograph of Luke with the women.

text: Seemingly broken, and again working on the chain gang, Luke stops working to give water to a prisoner. Watched by the disappointed prisoners, he runs to one of the trucks to take Boss Godfrey's rifle to him. After Boss Godfrey shoots a snapping turtle, Luke retrieves it from a slough for him, complimenting the boss for his shot. Luke takes one last stab at freedom when he is ordered to take the turtle to the truck. He steals the dump truck, as well as the keys to the other trucks. In the excitement of the moment, Dragline jumps in the dump truck and joins Luke in his escape. Later, after abandoning the truck, Luke tells Dragline that they should part ways. Dragline reluctantly agrees and leaves. Luke enters a church, where he talks to God and blames Him for sabotaging him so he cannot win in life. Moments later, police cars arrive. Dragline walks in and tells Luke that the police and bosses have promised not to hurt Luke if he surrenders peacefully. But Luke, feeling that his life is no longer worth living, walks to and opens a door facing the police and mocks the Captain by repeating the first part of his speech ("What we've got here is a failure to communicate."). He is immediately shot in the neck by Boss Godfrey. Dragline carries Luke outside, then charges at Boss Godfrey and attempts to strangle him until he is beaten and subdued by the other guards. In tears, Dragline implores Luke to live. The local police want to take Luke to a nearby hospital, but the Captain tells them to take him to the prison hospital instead, a long enough distance that Luke's chances of survival are slim. As the captain's car drives away, it crushes Boss Godfrey's glasses. After Luke's implied death, Dragline and the other prisoners reminisce about him. In the final scene, the prison crew is seen working near a rural intersection close to where Luke was shot. Dragline is now wearing leg irons, and there is a new Walking Boss. As the camera zooms out, the torn photograph of Luke grinning with the two women is superimposed on a bird's eye view of the cross-shaped road junction.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Paul Newman as Lucas "Luke" Jackson
George Kennedy as Dragline
Strother Martin as the Captain
Jo Van Fleet as Luke's mother, Arletta
Joy Harmon as The Girl (Lucille)
Morgan Woodward as Boss Godfrey
Luke Askew as Boss Paul
Robert Donner as Boss Shorty
Clifton James as Carr
John McLiam as Boss Keen
Andre Trottier as Boss Popler
Charles Tyner as Boss Higgins
J.D. Cannon as Society Red
Lou Antonio as Koko
Robert Drivas as Loudmouth Steve
Marc Cavell as Rabbitt
Richard Davalos as Blind Dick
Warren Finnerty as Tattoo
Dennis Hopper as Babalugats
Wayne Rogers as Gambler
Harry Dean Stanton as Tramp
Ralph Waite as Alibi
Anthony Zerbe as Dog Boy
Buck Kartalian as Dynamite
Joe Don Baker as Fixer (uncredited)

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Script[edit]

text: Pearce, a merchant seaman who later became a counterfeiter and safe cracker, wrote the novel Cool Hand Luke, about his experiences working on a chain gang while serving in a Florida prison. He sold the story to Warner Bros. for US$80,000 and received another US$15,000 to write the screenplay.[4] After working in television for over a decade, Rosenberg chose it to make it his directorial debut in cinema. He took the idea to Jalem Productions, owned by Jack Lemmon.[5] Since Pearce had no experience writing screenplays, his draft was reworked by Frank Pierson. Conrad Hall was hired as the cinematographer,[6] while Paul Newman's brother, Arthur, was hired as the unit production manager.[7] Newman's biographer Marie Edelman Borden states that the "tough, honest" script drew together threads from earlier movies, especially Hombre, Newman's earlier film of 1967.[8] Director Stuart Rosenberg altered the original ending in the script, adding "an upbeat ending that would reprise the protagonist's (and Paul Newman's) trademark smile."[9]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Paul Newman's character, Luke, is a decorated war veteran who is sentenced to serve two years in a Florida rural prison. He constantly defies the authorities of the facility, becoming a leader among the prisoners, as well as escaping multiple times.[10] While the script was being developed, the leading role was initially considered for Jack Lemmon or Telly Savalas. Newman asked to play the leading role after hearing about the project. In order to develop his character, he traveled to West Virginia, where he recorded local accents and surveyed people's behavior.[6] George Kennedy turned in an Academy Award-winning performance as the leader of the prisoners, Dragline, who fights Luke, and comes to respect him.[11] During the nomination process, worried about the box office success of Camelot and Bonnie and Clyde, Kennedy invested US$5,000 in trade advertising to promote himself. Kennedy later stated that thanks to the award his salary was "multiplied by ten the minute (he) won," also adding "the happiest part was that I didn't have to play only villains anymore."[12]

text: Strother Martin, known for his appearances in westerns,[13] was cast as the Captain, a prison warden who is depicted as a cruel and insensitive leader, severely punishing Luke for his escapes.[14] The role of Luke's dying mother, Arletta, who visits him in prison, was passed to Jo Van Fleet after it was rejected by Bette Davis.[15] Morgan Woodward was cast as Boss Godfrey, a laconic, cruel and remorseless prison officer who Woodward described as a "walking Mephistopheles."[16] He was dubbed "the man with no eyes" by the inmates for his mirrored sunglasses.[17] The blonde Joy Harmon was cast for the scene where she teases the prisoners in washing her car after her manager, Leon Lance, contacted the producers. She auditioned in front of Rosenberg and Newman wearing a bikini, without speaking.[18]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming took place on the San Joaquin River Delta.[7] The set, imitating a southern prison farm, was built in Stockton, California.[6] The filmmakers sent a crew to Tavares Road Prison in Tavares, Florida to take photographs and measurements, where Pearce had served his time.[19] The structures that were built in Stockton included barracks, a mess hall, the warden's quarters, a guard shack and dog kennels. The trees on the set were decorated with spanish moss that the producers took to the area.[7] The construction soon attracted the attention of a county building inspector who confused it with migrant worker housing and ordered it "condemned for code violations."[6] The opening scene where Newman cuts the parking meters was filmed in Lodi, California.[7] Meanwhile, the scene in which Luke is chased by bloodhounds and other exteriors were shot in Jacksonville, Florida, at Callahan Road Prison. Luke was played by a stunt actor, using dogs from the Florida Department of Corrections.[19]

text: Rosenberg wanted the cast to internalize life on a chain gang and banned the presence of wives on set. After Joy Harmon arrived on location, she remained for two days in her hotel room, and wasn't seen by the rest of the cast until shooting commenced.[20] Despite the directors' intentions, the scene was ultimately filmed separately.[7] Rosenberg instructed an unaware Harmon of the different movements and expressions he wanted.[20] Originally planned to be shot in half a day, Harmon's scene took three. For the part of the scene featuring the chain gang, Rosenberg substituted a teenage cheerleader, who wore an overcoat.[7]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The Academy Award nominated original score was composed by Lalo Schifrin, who created tunes with a background in popular music and jazz.[21] While some of the tracks include the use of guitars, banjos and harmonicas, others include trumpets, violins, flutes and piano.[22]

text: An edited version of the musical cue from the Tar Sequence (where the inmates are energetically paving the road) has been used for years as the theme music for local television stations' news programs around the world, mostly those owned and operated by ABC in the United States. Although the music was written for the film, it became more familiar for its association with television news, in part because its staccato melody resembles the sound of a telegraph.[23]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Christian imagery[edit]

text: Pierson included in his draft explicit religious symbolism.[4] The film contains several elements based on Christian themes, including the concept of Luke as a Saint who wins over the crowds and is ultimately sacrificed.[24] Newman's character of Luke is portrayed as a "Jesus-like redeemer figure."[25] After winning the egg-eating bet, Luke lies exhausted on the table in the position of Jesus as depicted on his crucifixion. After learning about the death of his mother, Luke sings "Plastic Jesus."[26] Greg Garrett also compares Luke to Jesus, in that like Jesus, he was not physically threatening to society because of his actions, and like Jesus' crucifixion, his punishment was "out of all proportion."[27]

text: Luke challenges God during the rainstorm on the road, telling him to do anything to him. Later, while he is digging and filling trenches and confronted by the guards, an inmate performs the spiritual "No Grave Gonna Keep my Body Down."[27] Toward the end of the film, Luke speaks to God, evoking the conversation between God and Jesus at the Garden of Gethsemane, depicted in the Gospel of Luke.[27] Following Luke's talk, the film depicts Dragline as a Judas, who delivers Luke to the authorities, trying to convince him to surrender.[28] In the final scene, Dragline eulogizes Luke. He explains that despite Luke's death, his actions succeeded in defeating the system.[24] The closing shot shows inmates working on crossroads with the repaired photo of Luke and the two women superimposed.[26][29]

text: Use of traffic signs and signals[edit]

text: Different traffic signs are used throughout the film, complementing the actions of the characters during the scenes. At the beginning, while Luke cuts the heads off the parking meters, the word "Violation" appears. Stop signs are also seen. Instances include the road-paving scene and the last scene, where the road meets at a cross section. Traffic lights turn from green to red in the background at the time Luke is arrested, while at the end, when he is fatally wounded, a green light in the background turns to red.[30]

text: "Failure to communicate"[edit]

text: After writing the line, Pierson worried that the phrase was too complex for the warden. To explain its origin, he created a backstory that was included in the stage directions. Pierson explained that in order to advance in the Florida prison system, officers had to take criminology and penology courses at the state university, showing how the warden might know such words.[32] Strother Martin later clarified that he felt the line was the kind that his character would very likely have heard or read from some "pointy-headed intellectuals" who had begun to infiltrate his character's world under the general rubric of a new, enlightened approach to incarceration.[33] Some authors believe that the quotation was a metaphor for the ongoing Vietnam War conflict which was taking place during the filming,[34] and others have applied it towards corporations and even teenagers.[35] The quotation was listed at number 11 on the American Film Institute's list of the 100 most memorable movie lines.[36] An audio sample of the line is included in the Guns N' Roses songs "Civil War" and "Madagascar."[37]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Cool Hand Luke opened on November 1, 1967 at Loew's State Theatre in New York City. The proceeds of the premiere went to charities.[38] The film became a box-office success,[39] grossing US$16,217,773 in domestic screenings.[40] Kennedy won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Newman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, while Pearce and Pierson were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and Schiffrin was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score.[41]

text: Rosenberg was nominated for best director by the Writers Guild of America and Conrad Hall was nominated for best cinematography by the National Society of Film Critics.

text: Variety described Newman's performance as "excellent," noting the supporting cast as "versatile and competent."[42] The New York Times praised the film, remarking that Pearce and Pierson's "sharp script," Rosenberg's "ruthlessly realistic and plausible" staging and direction and Newman's "splendid" performance with an "unfaultable" cast, "elevates" it among other prison films.[43]

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 100% "Certified Fresh" approval rating based on 45 reviews, with an average of 8.8 out of 10. The site's consensus is that "Though hampered by Stuart Rosenberg's direction, Cool Hand Luke is held aloft by a stellar script and one of Paul Newman's most indelible performances."[44] Empire rated it five stars out of five, declaring the movie one of Newman's best performances.[45] Slant rated the film three stars out of four. It described Newman's role as "iconic," also praising its cinematography and sound score.[46] Allmovie praised Newman's performance as "one of the most indelible anti-authoritarian heroes in movie history."[47]

text: Critic Roger Ebert included the film in his review collection The Great Movies, rating it four stars out of four.[17] Ebert stated that it was a "great" film and also an anti-establishment one during the time of the Vietnam War. He believed that the film was a product of its time and that no major film company would be interested in producing a film of such "physical punishment, psychological cruelty, hopelessness and equal parts of sadism and masochism" today. He praised the cinematography, capturing the "punishing heat" of the location, and stated that "the physical presence of Paul Newman is the reason this movie works: The smile, the innocent blue eyes, the lack of strutting," which no other actor could have produced as effectively.[48]

text: Contrary to the general consensus, Newman's biographer Lawrence J. Quirk thought that it was one of Newman's weaker performances, stating "For once, even Newman's famed charisma fails him, for in Cool Hand Luke he completely lacks the charm that, say, Al Pacino in Scarecrow effortlessly exhibits when he plays a screw-up who also winds up (briefly) incarcerated."[49] However, Quirk added that Newman's performance was stronger in the second half and said that "to be fair to Newman, he was trying his damnedest to play an impossible part, since Luke is a convict's rationalization fantasy and never a real character."[50] Some authors have criticized the film's depiction of prison life at the time. In a review entitled "Sheer Beauty in the Wrong Place," Life, while praising the film's photography, criticized the influence of the visual styles in the depictions of the prison camp. The magazine declared that the landscapes turned it into "a rest camp (in which) the men are getting plenty of sleep, food and healthy outdoor exercise," that despite the presence of the guards showed that there were "worse ways to pay one's debt with society."[51] Ron Clooney also remarked that prisons "were not hotels and certainly not the stuff of Cool Hand Luke movies."[52]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: In 2003, AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains rated Luke as the number 30 greatest hero in American cinema,[53] and three years later, AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers: America's Most Inspiring Movies rated Cool Hand Luke number 71.[54] In 2006, Luke was ranked 53rd in Empire magazine's "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters."[55] The movie solidified Newman's status as a box-office star, while the film is considered a touchstone of the era.[56] In 2005, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film to be "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.[57]

text: The book was adapted into a West End play by Emma Reeves. It opened at London's Aldwych Theatre starring Marc Warren, but closed after less than two months, following poor reviews.[58] The show was chosen by The Times both as "Critic's Choice" and "What the Critics Would Pay To See."[59]

text: An episode of the TV show The Dukes of Hazzard entitled "Cool Hands Luke and Bo" was shown with Morgan Woodward playing "Colonel Cassius Claiborne" the boss of a neighboring county and warden of its prison farm. He wears the trademark shades of Boss Godfrey throughout the episode.

text: Nashville-based Christian alternative rock band Cool Hand Luke is named after the film.