document_title: Commander-in-chief

question_text: serves as commander-in-chief of the army and navy branch

question_tokens: serves as commander-in-chief of the army and navy branch

text: Commander-in-chief

text: Definition

text: The formal role and title of a ruler commanding the armed forces derives from Imperator of the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, who possessed imperium (command and other regal) powers.[1]

text: In English use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639.[citation needed] It continued to be used during the English Civil War.[2] A nation's head of state (monarchical or republican) usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is ultimately dependent upon the will of the legislature; although the legislature does not issue orders directly to the armed forces and therefore does not control the military in any operational sense. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the military forces within their territory.

text: A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as supreme commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state (see Generalissimo). The term is also used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch, special branch or within a theatre of operations.[3]

text: Heads of state as commanders-in-chief

text: This includes heads of states who:

text:
Are chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making, including command of the armed forces.
Mostly ceremonial  heads of state (constitutional monarchs, viceroys and presidents in parliamentary republics) with residual substantive reserve powers over the armed forces, acting under normal circumstances on the constitutional advice of chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making.

tag: ul

text: Afghanistan

text: According to the Constitution of Afghanistan, The President of Afghanistan is the Commander-in-chief of Afghan Armed Forces.

text: Albania

text: According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces. The incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Ilir Meta.

text: Argentina

text: Under part II, chapter III, article 99, subsections 12, 13, 14 and 15, the Constitution of Argentina states that the President of the Argentine Nation is the "Commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Nation". It also states that the President is entitled to provide military posts in the granting of the jobs or grades of senior officers of the armed forces, and by itself on the battlefield; runs with its organization and distribution according to needs of the Nation and declares war and orders reprisals with the consent and approval of the Argentine National Congress.[4]

text: The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force).[5]

text: Australia

text: Under chapter II of section 68 titled Command of the naval and military forces, the Constitution of Australia states that:

text: The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor General as the Queen's representative.[6]

text: In practice, however, the Governor-General does not play an active part in the Australian Defence Force's command structure, and the democratically accountable Australian Cabinet (chaired by the Prime Minister) de facto controls the ADF. The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. Section 8 of the Defence Act 1903 states:

text: The Minister shall have the general control and administration of the Defence Force, and the powers vested in the Chief of the Defence Force, the Chief of Navy, the Chief of Army and the Chief of Air Force by virtue of section 9, and the powers vested jointly in the Secretary and the Chief of the Defence Force by virtue of section 9A, shall be exercised subject to and in accordance with any directions of the Minister.[7]

text: Austria

text: The Constitution (German: Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz) states, in Article 80, that the Federal President is the (nominal) Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian Armed Forces. However, it further provides that the President may only have the Armed Forces at his disposal to the extent provided in the Defence Act (German: Wehrgesetz); and that the supreme command over the Armed Forces is exercised by the minister of defence authorized to serve in this capacity by the Federal Government, i.e. the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Chancellor, as defined in Article 69.[8]

text: Bangladesh

text: The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister. The only exception was the first commander-in-chief, General M. A. G. Osmani, during Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, who was commander of all Bangladesh Forces, reinstated to active duty by official BD government order, which after independence was gazetted in 1972. He retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh.[9]

text: Brazil

text: Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the supreme command of the  President of the Republic.[10]

text: Brunei

text: The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.

text: Canada

text: The powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch,[11] and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief.[12] In this capacity, the governor general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office and special cuff braid serving as rank insignia.

text: By constitutional convention, the Crown's prerogative powers over the armed forces and constitutional powers as commander-in-chief are exercised on the advice of the prime minister and the rest of Cabinet, the governing ministry that commands the confidence of the House of Commons. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all matters related to national defence and the Canadian Armed Forces.[13] In theory, the governor general could also use his or her powers as commander-in-chief to stop any attempts to use the Canadian Forces unconstitutionally, though this has never occurred and would likely be highly controversial.

text: People's Republic of China

text: Article 93 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states the authority to direct the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China and the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China is vested with the Central Military Commission; composed of a Chairman, and numerous Vice-Chairmen and members. The same article also states that the Chairman of the Central Military Commission assumes overall responsibility for the work of the Central Military Commission, and that it is responsible to the National People's Congress and the Standing Committee.[14]

text: Furthermore, Article 80 gives the President of the People's Republic of China (in addition to ceremonial head of state duties) the power to proclaim martial law, proclaim a state of war, and to issue mobilisation orders upon the decision of National People's Congress and its Standing Committee.[14]

text: The CMC Chairman and the President are distinctly separate state offices and they have not always been held by the same persons. However, beginning in 1993, during the tenure of Jiang Zemin as CMC Chairman and General Secretary of the Communist Party, it has been standard practice to have the President, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and the General Secretary of the Communist Party to be normally held by the same person; although the slight differences in the start and end of terms for those respective offices means that there is some overlap between an occupant and his predecessor.

text: Hong Kong

text: When Hong Kong was under British authority, the civilian Governor was ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces Overseas Hong Kong. After the territory's handover to the People's Republic of China in 1997, the commanders of the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison are PLA personnel from mainland China.

text: Croatia

text: According to the Croatian constitution, the President of Croatia is the Commander-in-Chief of Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. In peace, the commander-in-chief exercises his command through the Minister of Defense. In war and in cases where the Minister of Defense is not fulfilling orders, the commander-in-chief exercises his command directly through the chief of General Staff.

text: Czech Republic

text: According to the 1992 constitution, the President of the Czech Republic is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces according to Article 63(1)(c), and appoints and promotes generals under Article 63(1)(f). The President needs the countersignature of the Prime Minister for decisions concerning the above-mentioned provisions as per Articles 63(3-4), or otherwise they are not valid. The Prime Minister may delegate to other ministers the right to countersign these decisions of the President. The political responsibility for the Armed Forces is borne by the Government, which in Article 67 is defined as the "supreme body of executive power". According to Articles 39 & 43, the Parliament must give consent to the dispatch of Czech military forces outside the territory of the Czech Republic.[15]

text: The Ministry of Defence is the central authority of the state administration for the control of the Armed Forces.[16] The actual day-to-day management is vested in the Chief of the General Staff, the Czech chief of defence equivalent.[17]

text: Denmark

text: The position of the Danish monarch as the head of the military is deeply rooted in tradition. While the 1953 constitution does not explicitly designate the monarch as commander-in-chief; it is implicit, given the general provision in article 12 and the more specific wording of article 19 (2): "Except for purposes of defence against an armed attack upon the Realm or Danish forces, the King shall not use military force against any foreign state without the consent of the Folketing. Any measure which the King may take in pursuance of this provision shall forthwith be submitted to the Folketing".[18]

text: However, when reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the King in this context is understood by Danish jurists to be read as the Government (consisting of the Prime Minister and other ministers). This is a logical consequence of articles 12, 13 and 14, all of which in essence stipulates that the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through ministers, who are responsible for all acts. Thus, the Government, in effect, holds the supreme command authority implied in articles 12 and 19(2).[19]

text: The Danish Defence Law (Danish: Forsvarsloven) designates in article 9 the Minister of Defence as the supreme authority in Defence (Danish: højeste ansvarlige myndighed for forsvaret). Under the Minister is the Chief of Defence, the senior-ranking professional military officer heading the Defence Command, who commands the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and other units not reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence.[20][21]

text:
King Christian IV onboard his flagship during the 1644 Battle of Colberger Heide, by Wilhelm Marstrand. The King's personal commitment during the battle, are memorized in first lines of the Danish royal anthem.

HDMY Dannebrog, the Danish royal yacht named after the national flag and operated by the Royal Danish Navy, in Vagur, Faroe Islands on 21 June 2005.

text: Dominican Republic

text: According to the Constitution, Article 128, Section II, Title IV, the President is the head of foreign policy, the civil administration and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the National Police and all other state's security agencies.[22]

text: Egypt

text: In Egypt, the President of the Republic holds the ceremonial title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. A member of the government, usually defence minister, is commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, the incumbent being Sedki Sobhi. The president still remains the only individual capable of declaring war. Until the election of Mohamed Morsi in June 2012, prior Egyptian presidents had all been former military officers, and during the Yom Kippur War the president played a major role at all levels of the planning of the war, and was in a literal sense Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces giving direct orders to the commanders from the headquarters during the war as field marshal of the army, colonel general of the air force and air defence forces and admiral of the navy. Anwar Sadat often wore his military uniform, while former president Hosni Mubarak had abandoned this tradition.

text: Finland

text: According to the Finnish constitution, the President of Finland is the commander-in-chief of all Finnish military forces. In practice, the everyday command and control is in the hands of Chief of Defence and the Commander of the Finnish Border Guard. The economic administration of the Finnish Defence Force is the responsibility of Ministry of Defence. The duty of the president is to decide upon[23]:§31

text:
main principles of the military defence of the realm
principles of the execution of the military defence
other military command matters with wide-ranging importance to the military activity or the military establishment
any other military command issue that he wishes to decide upon

text: Since the constitutional reform of 2000, the Minister of Defence has the right to be present when the president uses his command powers, unless the matter is of immediate concern. In questions of strategic importance, the Prime Minister has the same right.[23]:§32

text: The president commissions and promotes officers and decides on activating reservists for extraordinary service and on the mobilisation of the Defence Forces.[23]:§40[24][25]:§ 128.2 If Parliament is not in session when a decision to mobilise is taken, it must be immediately convened.[25]:§ 129 Declarations of a state of emergency (Finnish: valmiustila, literally, "state of preparedness") and state of war (Finnish: puolustustila, lit. "state of defence") are declared by a presidential decree, given after a motion by the government, which is then submitted to the Parliament for ratification.[26][27]

text: The president has, in a state of emergency, the right to transfer the position of the commander-in-chief to another Finnish citizen.[25]:§ 129

text: France

text: In France, the President of the Republic is designated as "Chef des Armées" (literally "Chief of the Armies") under article 15 of the constitution, and is as such the supreme executive authority in military affairs. Article 16 provides the president with extensive emergency powers.[28]

text: However, owing to the nature of the semi-presidential system, the prime minister also has key constitutional powers under article 21: "He shall be responsible for national defence" and has "power to make regulations and shall make appointments to civil and military posts".[28]

text: Since the reign of Louis XIV, France has been strongly centralized. After crushing local nobles engaged in warlord-ism, the Kings of France retained all authority with the help of able yet discreet Prime ministers (Mazarin, Richelieu).

text: The 1789 Revolution transferred the supreme authority to the King (in the context of the short-lived constitutional Monarchy), then to the multi-member Comité de Salut Public during the Convention, and later to the Directoire, before being regained in the hands of Consul Napoléon Bonaparte, later Emperor Napoléon I, alone.

text: The Restoration restored the authority of the King, first in an absolute monarchy, then the  constitutional July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, before it was overthrown in turn by the Second Republic and later the Second Empire of Napoleon III.

text: The following Third Republic was a parliamentary system, where the military authority was held by the President of the Council of Ministers. During World War I, the many visits to the trenches by the elderly statesman Georges Clemenceau impressed the soldiers and earned him the nickname Father of Victory (French: Le Père de la Victoire).

text: During World War II, Maréchal Philippe Pétain assumed power and held the supreme authority in Vichy France, while Général Charles De Gaulle, acting on behalf of the previous regime, founded the Free French Forces, upon which he held supreme authority all through the war.

text: The following and short-lived Fourth Republic was a parliamentary system, which was replaced by the present Fifth Republic, a semi-presidential system.

text: Ghana

text: Prior 1992 Commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) military rank was held by GAF military personnel until the ratification of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana ratified by Ghana Air Force (GHF) Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings and in  accordance to the Constitution of Ghana, The Head of State of Ghana and President of Ghana is the Commander-in-chief of GAF. The incumbent Commander-in-chief of GAF (Ghana Armed Forces) is Head of State of Ghana and President of Ghana John Dramani Mahama.[29][30]

text: Guyana

text: According to the Guyanese constitution, the President is Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. Unusually; there is a rank insignia for the position.

text: India

text: Supreme command of the Indian Armed Forces is vested in the President of India, although effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the Cabinet of India headed by the Prime Minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, headed by the Minister of Defence, which provides the policy framework and resources to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.

text: On 15 August 1947, each service was placed under its own commander-in-chief. In 1955, the three service chiefs were re-designated as the Chief of the Army Staff (rank of general), the Chief of the Naval Staff (rank of vice-admiral) and the Chief of the Air Staff (rank of air marshal) with the president as the supreme commander. The Chief of the Air Staff was raised to the rank of air chief marshal in 1965 and the Chief of the Naval Staff raised to the rank of admiral in 1968.

text: Indonesia

text: According to Article 10 of the Constitution of Indonesia, the President of Indonesia holds the supreme command of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Day-to-day operations of the Armed Forces is handled by the commander of the Armed Forces (Indonesian: Panglima TNI, a 4-star officer whom can be General (Army/Marine), Admiral (Navy), or Air Chief Marshal (Air Force)).

text: Indonesian Armed Forces has three service branches: Indonesian Army, Indonesian Navy (including Indonesian Marine Corps), and Indonesian Air Forces. Each service branch is headed by a Chief of Staff (also a 4-star officer) who has the task of developing soldier professionalism in each branch. However, the commanding authority is held by Commander of Indonesian National Armed Forces. Commanders have direct commanding authority to Main Combatants Command (Indonesian: Komando Utama Tempur) from all service branches such as Army Special Forces Command, Army Strategic Reserve Command, Military Area Command, Fleet Command, Military Sea Traffic Command, National Air Defense Command and Air-Force Operational Command. The Commander of the Armed Forces is appointed by the president from active Chiefs of Staff (Army, Navy, or Air Force) and must get approval from the House of Representatives. Chief of Staff is also appointed by the president from senior military officers. The president as commander-in-chief also has authority in senior military officer mutation and promotion in tour of duty. Minister of Defense has responsibility to assist the president in defense issues and create policies about authorization use of military force, manage defense budget, etc. For authorization use of military forces or declaration of war, the president must get approval from House of Representatives. The Commander of Armed Forces gives recommendations to the Minister of Defense in creating national defense policies.

text: Iran

text: Before 1979, the Shah was the commander-in-chief in Iran.  After the inception of the Islamic Republic, the President of Iran was initially appointed that task, with Abolhassan Bani Sadr being the first commander-in-chief. However, Abolhassan Bani Sadr was impeached on 22 June 1981. It was after this event that the role of commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran was given to the Supreme Leader of Iran.

text: Ireland

text: The Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces is the President of Ireland,[31] but in practice the Minister for Defence acts on the President's behalf and reports to the Government of Ireland.[32] The Minister for Defence is advised by the Council of Defence on the business of the Department of Defence.[33] The Defence Forces are organised under the Chief of Staff, a three star officer, and are organised into three service branches, the Army, Naval Service, and Air Corps.

text: Italy

text:
The Constitution of Italy, in article 87, states that the President of the Republic:
"is the commander of the armed forces and chairman of the supreme defense council constituted by law; he declares war according to the decision of the parliament".[34]

text: Kenya

text: Chapter 131 of the Constitution of Kenya identifies the President as the Commander-in-Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces and the chairperson of the National Security Council.[35] The President appoints a chief of general staff, known as the Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces, who acts as the principal military adviser to the President and the National Security Council. The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces is drawn from one of the branches of the Armed Forces, the Kenya Army, the Kenya Navy or the Kenya Air Force.

text: Malaysia

text: In accordance with Article 41 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, he is the highest-ranking officer in the military establishment, with the power to appoint the Chief of Staff (on the advice of the Armed Forces Council). He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military.

text: The Federal Constitution establishes that the office of Supreme Commander is attached to the person of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the Federation's head of state:

text: Federal Constitution, Article 41 - The Yang di-Pertuan Agong shall be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the Federation.

text: The Federal Parliament passed the Federal Armed Forces Act to consolidate in one law all regulations that govern the three services ( Army, Navy, and Air Force ). It establishes the function and duties of the Federal Head of State in the capacity as Supreme Commander.

text: Mauritius

text: In the Republic of Mauritius, the President of the Republic is the commander-in-chief, according to Article 28 of the Constitution.[36]

text: After independence in 1968, Mauritius continued to recognise the Queen of Mauritius, as represented by the Governor-General of Mauritius, as commander-in-chief. After the country was proclaimed a Commonwealth Republic in 1992, the new constitution stipulated that a President would assume the position of the head of state and commander-in-chief.

text: Nigeria

text: In accordance with the Nigerian Constitution, the President of Nigeria is the commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces.

text: Norway

text: Harald V, King of Norway, officially retains executive power. Article 25 of the constitution states: "The King is commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the realm"

text: However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government.  Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and as a symbol of unity.

text: Pakistan

text: In the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, before the 1973 Constitution, the head of the army, i.e., the Chief of the Army Staff, was referred as "Commander-in-Chief".:105[37]  The term was replaced by "Chief of Army Staff" on 20 March 1972:62[38] The Chief of Army Staff is a four-star general whose term is 3 years, but can be extended or renewed once. The Chief of Army Staff is chosen by the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

text: Philippines

text: The President of the Philippines is both head of state and head of government, and is mandated by Article VII, Section 18 of the 1987 Constitution to be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[39]

text: During the Fourth Republic, the 1973 Constitution introduced by Ferdinand Marcos created a parliamentary system that split the Executive into two, with the prime minister retaining the office of commander-in-chief and the president reduced to a mere figurehead. The wording of Article VII, Section 9 in the previous constitution enabled Marcos as commander-in-chief to declare Martial Law and suspend the writ of habeas corpus on 21 September 1972. Marcos also issued an edict, conferring the rank of five-star general in the military to the President, as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He consequently sat as both president and prime minister until 1981, when martial law was lifted and Cesar Virata succeeded him to the latter office and amendments were made to the 1973 Constitution to turn it into a strong president semi-presidential system in which the office of commander-in-chief was officially returned to the President. Salvador Laurel was the country's last prime minister when the office was abolished after the 1986 People Power Revolution, and the position's powers were again merged with the Presidency.

text: The current Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines is President Rodrigo Duterte, serving as the supreme commander of all Filipino military units in the Philippines.

text: Poland

text: In Poland, the President is Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. However, the art. 134 ust. 4 of the constitution states:

text: The President of the Republic, for a period of war, shall appoint the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces on request of the Prime Minister. He may dismiss the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in accordance with the same procedure. The authority of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, as well as the principle of his subordination to the constitutional organs of the Republic of Poland, shall be specified by statute.

text: During the interbellum period, the General Inspector of the Armed Forces was appointed the commander-in-chief for the time of war (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces). However, after the war this function ceased to exist—thus it is likely that if Poland formally participates in a war, Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces will be appointed Supreme Commander.

text: Portugal

text: The President of the Portuguese Republic is the constitutional Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (in Portuguese: Comandante Supremo das Forças Armadas). However, the operational command is delegated in the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces.

text: In the Portuguese military parlance, the term "Commander-in-Chief" (in Portuguese: comandante-em-chefe or simply comandante-chefe) refers to the unified military commander of all the land, naval and air forces in a theater of operations.

text: Republic of China

text: As stipulated in the Constitution of the Republic of China, the President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the ROC Armed Forces (including the Military Police), the Special Forces, and the National Space Organization.

text: Russia

text: According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, (Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1) the President is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[41] The President approves the military doctrine and appoints the defense minister and the chief and other members of the general staff.[42]

text: The Russian Armed Forces is divided into three services: the Russian Ground Forces, the Russian Navy, and the Russian Air Force. In addition there are three independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, Russian Aerospace Defense Forces, and the Russian Airborne Troops. The Air Defence Troops, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces, have been subordinated into the Air Force since 1998.

text: Saudi Arabia

text: Article 60 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states: "The King is the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces. He appoints officers and puts an end to their duties in accordance with the law."

text: Article 61 further states: "The King declares a state of emergency, general mobilization and war, and the law defines the rules for this."

text: Lastly, Article 62 states: "If there is a danger threatening the safety of the Kingdom or its territorial integrity, or the security of its people and its interests, or which impedes the functioning of the state institutions, the King may take urgent measures in order to deal with this danger And if the King considers that these measures should continue, he may then implement the necessary regulations to this end."

text: Serbia

text: In accordance with the law, the President of Serbia is Commander-in-chief of Armed Forces and in command of the military. He  appoints, promotes and recalls officers of the Army of Serbia.[43]

text: Slovenia

text: In Slovenia, the commander-in-chief is formally the President of Slovenia, although he or she does not exercise this position in peacetime. Instead, this role is usually assumed by the Minister of Defence.

text: South Korea

text: In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, the commander-in-chief is the President of South Korea.

text: Spain

text: As with most remaining European monarchies, the position of the Spanish monarch as the nominal head of the armed forces is deeply rooted in traditions going centuries back.

text: The Spanish Constitution of 1978 gives the King in article 62 (h):

text: supreme command of the Armed Forces[44]

text: However, article 64 require that all official acts of the King must be countersigned, by the President of the Government or other competent minister, for them to become valid. Furthermore, article 97 stipulates that;

text: The Government shall conduct domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration and the defence of the State[44]

text: And article 98 furthermore specifies the composition of the Government (which the King is not a member of). No provision in the constitution requires the King/Government to seek approval from the Cortes Generales before sending the armed forces abroad.[44]

text: Since 1984, the Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the armed forces and, under the authority of the Minister of Defence, is responsible for military operations and military organisation.

text: Sri Lanka

text: As head of state, the President of Sri Lanka, is nominally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The National Security Council, chaired by the president is the authority charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the nation. The highest level of military headquarters is the Ministry of Defence, since 1978 except for a few rare occasions the president retained the portfolio defence, thus being the Minister of Defence. The ministry and the armed forces have been controlled by the during these periods by either a Minister of State, Deputy Minister for defence, and of recently the Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Defence. Prior to 1978 the prime minister held the portfolio of Minister of Defence and External Affairs, and was supported by a Parliamentary Secretary for Defence and External Affairs.

text: Responsibility for the management of the forces is Ministry of Defence, while the planning and execution of combined operations is the responsibility of the Joint Operations Command (JOC). The JOC is headed by the Chief of the Defence Staff who is the most senior officer in the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an Air Chief Marshal, Admiral, or General. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the Commander of the Army, the Commander of the Navy and the Commander of the Air Force, who have much autonomy.

text: Suriname

text: In Suriname, the constitution gives the president "supreme authority over the armed forces and all of its members".[45]

text: Swaziland

text: The King is Commander in Chief of the Umbufto Swazi Defence Force

text: Thailand

text: The "Head of the Thai Armed Forces" (Thai: จอมทัพไทย; RTGS: Chom Thap Thai) is a position vested in the Thai monarch, most recently held by King Bhumibol Adulyadej until his death in October 2016, who as sovereign and head of state is the commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Armed Forces.[46]

text: Turkey

text: President of the Republic of Turkey has the constitutional right to represent the Supreme Military Command of the Turkish Armed Forces, on behalf of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, and to decide on the mobilization of the Turkish Armed Forces, to appoint the Chief of the General Staff, to call the National Security Council to meet, to preside over the National Security Council, to proclaim martial law or state of emergency, and to issue decrees having the force of law, upon a decision of the Council of Ministers meeting under his/her chairmanship. With all these issues above written in the Constitution of Turkey, the executive rights are given to the President of the Republic of Turkey to be represented as the commander-in-chief of the nation.

text: United Kingdom

text: The British monarch is the "Head of the Armed Forces"[47] and has also been described as "commander in chief of the armed forces of the Crown".[48] Long-standing constitutional convention, however, has vested de facto executive authority, by the exercise of Royal Prerogative powers, in the prime minister and the Secretary of State for Defence. The Prime Minister (acting with the support of the Cabinet) makes the key decisions on the use of the armed forces.[49][50] The Queen, however, remains the "ultimate authority" of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance only to the monarch.[51]

text: United States

text:
According to Article II, Section 2, Clause I of the Constitution, the President of the United States is “Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.”[52]
Since the National Security Act of 1947, this has been understood to mean all United States Armed Forces.
U.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the President possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status, other than the title of Commander in Chief.[53]
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the President as Commander in Chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the President wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.[54]

text: The amount of military detail handled personally by the President in wartime has varied dramatically.[55] George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination under civilian authority. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the Whiskey Rebellion—a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though James Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington D.C. during the War of 1812.[56]

text: Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant.[57] On the other extreme,  Woodrow Wilson paid very little attention to operational military details of World War I and had very little contact with the War Department or with General John J. Pershing, who had a high degree of autonomy as commander of the armies in France.[58] As President in World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt worked closely with his generals, and admirals, and assigned Admiral William D. Leahy as Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief.[59] Harry S. Truman believed in a high amount of civilian leadership of the military, making many tactical and policy decisions based on the recommendations of his advisors—including the decision to use atomic weapons on Japan, to commit American forces in the Korean War, and to terminate Douglas MacArthur from his command.[60] Lyndon B. Johnson kept a very tight personal control of operations during the Vietnam War, which some historians have sharply criticized.[61]

text: In 1990, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the ensuing Gulf War in 1991, saw George H.W. Bush assemble and lead one of the largest military coalitions of nations in modern times. Confronting a major constitutional issue of murky legislation that left the wars in Korea and Vietnam without official declarations of war, Congress quickly authorized sweeping war-making powers for Bush.[62]

text: Before 1947, the President was the only common superior of the Army (under the Secretary of War), the Navy and Marine Corps (under the Secretary of the Navy), and the Coast Guard (under the Secretary of the Treasury).[63] The National Security Act of 1947, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, among other things, created the United States Air Force as an independent service separate from the Army, and organized Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps under a newly created Department of Defense, headed by, and subject to the "authority, direction and control" of, the Secretary of Defense (acivilian cabinet-level official appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate).[64][65]

text: The Goldwater-Nichols Act in 1986 codified the default operational chain of command: running from the President to the Secretary of Defense, and from the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commander.[66]  While the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff outranks all other military officers, he does not have operational command authority over the Armed Forces.  However, the chairman does assist the President and the Secretary of Defense in the exercise of their command functions.[67]

text: During the 20th century, certain area commanders came to be called "Commander-in-chief".[68] As of 2011, there are nine combatant commanders: six have regional responsibilities, and three have functional responsibilities. Before 2002, the combatant commanders were referred to in daily use as "Commanders-in-chief" (for instance: "Commander in chief, U.S. Central Command"), even though the offices were in fact already designated as "combatant commander" (CCDR) in the law specifying the positions.[69] On 24 October 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld announced his decision that the use of "Commander-in-chief" would thereafter be reserved for the President only.[70]

text:
A painting depicting President George Washington and his troops before their march to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania, 1794.

President Abraham Lincoln and Major General George B. McClellan in a military tent after the Battle of Antietam, 1862.

President Lyndon B. Johnson awards the Distinguished Service Cross to First Lieutenant Marty A. Hammer in Vietnam, 1966.

The Football is a briefcase, carried by an aide-de-camp, which gives the President the ability to access the Gold Codes and to launch a nuclear attack while away from a fixed command center.[71]

Admiral Mike Mullen and Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates attend a meeting of combatant commanders with President George W. Bush in the Cabinet Room at the White House, 2008.

President Donald Trump (third from right), as commander-in-chief, meets with Marine Gen. Joseph F. Dunford Jr., chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Army Gen. Joseph Votel, commander of U.S. Central Command Commander, and Gen. Raymond A. "Tony" Thomas, U.S. Special Operations Command Commander at USCENTCOM headquarters on MacDill Air Force Base, 2017.

text: U.S. States

text: In U.S. states, the governor also serves as the commander-in-chief of the National Guard, State Militia, and State Defense Forces. In the Commonwealth of Kentucky, for example, KRS 37.180[72] states:

text:
“

The Governor shall be commander in chief of the Kentucky active militia, and the adjutant general shall be the executive officer and shall be responsible to the Governor for the proper functioning of the Kentucky active militia, and he is hereby authorized and empowered to take necessary action to perfect and maintain an efficient organization for the purposes herein set out. He shall have charge of all matters of administration and organization, which shall be in all respects, insofar as necessary and applicable, the same as that of the National Guard.

”

text: Similarly, Section 7 of Article 5[73] of the Constitution of the State of California states:

text:
“

The Governor is commander in chief of a militia that shall be provided by statute.  The Governor may call it forth to execute the law.

”

text: Venezuela

text: According to the Venezuelan constitution, the President is Commander in chief of the Armed Forces. The office of the Venezuelan military supreme commander in chief has always been held by the President of Venezuela as per constitutional requirements. However, with a new law sanctioned in 2008, the "Comandante en Jefe" rank is not only a function attributed to the executive branch but a full military rank given to the president upon taking office. Upon assumption he receives a saber, epaulette, shoulder knot, shoulder board and sleeve insignia and full military uniform to be used in military events while performing the duties as president. The shoulder insignia mirrors Cuban practice but is derived from the German-styled officer rank insignia.

text: Vietnam

text: The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the President of Vietnam, through his post as Chairman of National Defense and Security Council. Though this position is nominal and real power is assumed by the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The Secretary of Central Military Commission (usually the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam) is the de facto Commander.

text: The Minister of Defence oversees operations of the Ministry of Defence, and the Vietnam People's Army. He also oversees such agencies as the General Staff and the General Logistics Department. However, military policy is ultimately directed by the Central Military Commission of the ruling Communist Party of Vietnam.

text: Other officeholders as commanders-in-chief or other situations

text: Ethiopia

text: The 1995 Constitution designates the Prime Minister of Ethiopia as "Commander-in-Chief of the national armed forces" in Article 74(1).[74]

text: Germany

text: Present, Federal Republic (1956-)

text: Upon the re-militarization of West Germany in 1955, when it joined NATO, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany was amended in 1956 to include constitutional provisions for the command of the armed forces.

text:
In peacetime, under Article 65a, the Federal Minister of Defence (German: Bundesminister der Verteidigung) holds the supreme command authority (German: Inhaber der Befehls- und Kommandogewalt - IBuK) over the Bundeswehr.[75]
If the Bundestag declares the state of defence (German: Verteidigungsfall), the Federal Chancellor, under Article 115b, assumes the command authority over the armed forces.[75] As of  2018[update], this has never happened.
The President of Germany has thus no role in the command of the forces, although he continues to receive the ceremonial honors due to his position as a head of state.

text: The rationale for placing the command authority over the armed forces directly with the responsible minister in charge of the military establishment, and thus breaking with the longstanding German constitutional tradition in both earlier monarchical and republican systems of placing it with the head of state, was that in a democratic parliamentary system the command authority should directly reside where it would be exercised and where it is subject to the parliamentary control of the Bundestag at all times. By assigning it directly to the responsible minister, instead of with the Federal Chancellor, this also meant that military affairs is but one of the many integrated responsibilities of the government; in stark contrast of earlier times when the separate division of the military establishment from the civil administration allowed the former to act as a state within a state (in contrast to the Federal Republic, the Weimar Republic began with the Ebert–Groener pact, which kept the military establishment as an autonomous force outside the control of politics; the 1925 election of Paul von Hindenburg as Reichpräsident, surrounded by his camarilla and the machinations of Kurt von Schleicher, did little to reverse the trend).[76][77]

text: East Germany (1960-1990)

text: The legislature of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the Volkskammer, enacted on 13 February 1960 the Law on the Formation of the National Defense Council of the GDR, which established a council consisting of a chairman and at least 12 members.  This was later incorporated into the GDR Constitution in April 1968.  The National Defense Council held the supreme command of the National People's Army (including the internal security forces), and the Council's chairman (usually the General Secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party) was considered the GDR's commander-in-chief.

text: The GDR joined with the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990, upon which the GDR's constitution and armed forces were abolished.

text: Before 1945

text: During the Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire, Weimar Republic and the Nazi era, whoever was the head of state—the King of Prussia/German Emperor (under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia/Constitution of the German Empire) to 1918, the Reichspräsident (under the Weimar Constitution) to 1934, and the Führer from 1934 to 1945—was the Head of the Armed Forces (German: Oberbefehlshaber: literally "Supreme Commander").

text: Below the level of the Head of State, each military branch (German: Teilstreitkraft) had its own head who reported directly to the Head of State and held the highest rank in his service; in the Reichsheer - Generalfeldmarschall, and in the Reichsmarine - Grossadmiral.

text: After Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed power as Führer[78] (after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg), he would later grant his war minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in 1935, when conscription was reintroduced. However, in 1938 due to the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler withdrew the Commander-in-Chief title, abolished the war ministerial post and assumed personal command of the Armed Forces. The war ministerial post was de facto overtaken by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was headed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel until the German surrender.

text: Greece

text: According to Article 45 of the Greek Constitution, the President is the Head of the Greek Armed Forces, but their administration is exercised by the Government.[79] The Prime Minister, the Minister for National Defence and the Chief of the General Staff are the ones who command the Armed Forces.

text: Israel

text: In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel (chaired by the Prime Minister) as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government. However, the Commander-in-Chief of the IDF is the Chief of General Staff who, despite being subordinate to the Minister of Defense, holds the highest level of command within the military.[80]

text: Japan

text: In Japan, prior to the Meiji Restoration the role of the commander-in-chief was vested in the shōgun (the most militarily powerful samurai daimyō). After the dissolution of the Tokugawa shogunate the role of the commander-in-chief, resided with the Emperor of Japan. The present-day constitutional role of the Emperor is that of a ceremonial figurehead without any military role.

text: After Japan's move towards democracy, the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces is held by the Prime Minister of Japan. Military authority runs from the Prime Minister to the cabinet-level Minister of Defense of the Japanese Ministry of Defense.[81][82][83][84]

text: Malta

text: The Malta Armed Forces Act does not directly establish the President of Malta as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. However, Maltese law allows the President to raise by voluntary enlistment and maintain an armed force. Likewise, the law allows the President to issue orders in order to the administrate the armed forces.

text: It is important to note that the Armed Forces do not swear allegiance to the President of Malta but rather to the Republic of Malta. On this basis, there is no direct link between the head of state and the armed forces. For this reason, this link is mediated by the Minister responsible for defence.

text: Nonetheless, the Presidential Palaces are guarded by the Armed Forces as a symbolic gesture of social cohesion.

text: Myanmar

text: See also Tatmadaw

text: Netherlands

text: The Constitution of the Netherlands states, in article 97, that "the Government shall have supreme authority over the armed forces". Article 42 defines the Government as the Monarch and the ministers, and that only ministers are responsible for acts of government. Article 45 further defines the ministers as constituting the Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, with "authority to decide upon overall government policy".[85][86]

text: Before a constitution change took place in 1983, even though the equivalent section stated that: "The King shall have supreme authority over the armed forces"; that did not give the monarch any autonomous command authority.[86]

text: The Minister of Defence has the primary ministerial responsibility for the armed forces, which are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence.[86] The Chief of Defence is the highest ranked professional military officer, and serves as an intermediary between the Minister of Defence and the Armed Forces, and is responsible to the Minister for military-strategic planning, operations and deployment of the Armed Forces.[87]

text: North Korea

text: The Constitution of North Korea is ambiguous about which official really is the country's head of state.

text:
Is it the Eternal President of the Republic, the late Kim Il-sung, designated as such in the preamble;[88]
is it the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who under article 117 of the constitution directs the work of the Presidium, represents the State, and accredits North Korean diplomats and receives credentials from foreign diplomats;[89]
or is it the Chairman of the National Defence Commission who in article 100 is described as the "highest military leading organ of State power and an organ for general control over national defense of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea"?[90]

text: In any case, the North Korean constitution, in article 102, is quite explicit regarding which official commands the armed forces:

text: The Chairman of the National Defence Commission of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is the supreme commander of the whole armed forces of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and commands and directs all the armed forces of the State.[90]

text: The Chairman is formally elected by the Supreme People's Assembly (article 91:5[91]) and serves for terms of office of five years (articles 101[90] & 90:1[91]); but in practice, the office is hereditary within the Kim Dynasty, as the late Kim Jong-il was posthumously designated as "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission", while his son, Kim Jong-un, was appointed as the "First Chairman of the National Defence Commission".[92]

text: Sweden

text: In Sweden, with the Ordinance of Alsnö in 1280, nobles were exempted from land taxation if they provided cavalrymen to the King's service. Following the Swedish War of Liberation (1521–53) from the Kalmar Union, a Guards Regiment was formed under the King and from there the modern Swedish Army has its roots. During the age of the Swedish Empire, several kings—Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X, Charles XI & Charles XII—personally led their forces into battle. Under the Instrument of Government of 1809, which was in force until the current Instrument of Government of 1974 went into force on 1 January 1975; the Monarch was in §§ 14-15 explicitly designated as the Commander-in-Chief of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Högste befälhavare).[93]

text: At present, the Government (Swedish: Regeringen) as a collective body, chaired and formed by the Prime Minister of Sweden, holds the highest Executive Authority, subject to the will of the Riksdag; and is thus the present day closest equivalent of a command-in-chief, although not explicitly designated as such.[94] The reason for this change was, apart from the fact that the King was since 1917 no longer expected to make political decisions without ministerial advice, that the new Instrument of Government was intended to be made as descriptive on the workings of the State as possible, and reflective on how decisions are actually made. Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer further remarked in the government bill that any continued pretensions of royal involvement in government decisions would be of a "fictitious nature" and "highly unsatisfactory".[95]

text: Certain Government decisions regarding the Armed Forces (Swedish: Särskilda regeringsbeslut) may be delegated to the Minister for Defence, under the supervision of the Prime Minister and to the extent laid down in ordinances.[96]

text: To add to some confusion to the above, the title of the agency head of the Swedish Armed Forces and highest ranked commissioned officer on active duty, is actually Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Överbefälhavaren).[97]

text: However, the Monarch (as of present King Carl XVI Gustaf), is still a four-star general and admiral à la suite in the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force and is by unwritten convention regarded as the foremost representative of the Swedish Armed Forces.[98] The King has, as part of his court, a military staff. The military staff is headed by a senior officer (usually a general or admiral, retired from active service) and is composed of active duty military officers serving as aides to the King and his family.[99]

text: Switzerland

text: Supreme authority over the military belongs to the Federal Council, which is the Swiss collegial head of state. Nothwithstanding the previous sentence, under the Constitution, the Federal Council can only, in the operational sense, command a maximum of 4,000 soldiers, with a time limit of three weeks of mobilisation.[100] For it to field more service personnel, the Federal Assembly must elect a General (see below)[100] who is given four stars.[101] Thus, the General is elected by the Federal Assembly to give him the same democratic legitimacy as the Federal Council.[100]

text: In peacetime, the Armed Forces are led by the Chief of the Armed Forces (Chef der Armee), who reports to the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports and to the Federal Council as a whole. The Chief of the Armed Forces has the rank of Korpskommandant or Commandant de corps (OF-8 in NATO equivalence).

text: In a time of declared war or national emergency, however, the Federal Assembly, assembled as the United Federal Assembly, specifically for the purpose of taking on the war-time responsibilities elect a General as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces under Article 168 of the Constitution. While The General acts as the highest military authority with a high degree of autonomy, he is still subordinate to the Federal Council (See Articles 58, 60, 174, 177, 180 & 185).[102] The Federal Assembly retains the sole power to dismiss the General, but the General remains subordinate to the Federal Council by the Council's ability to demobilise and hence making the position of General redundant.[100]

text: Four generals were appointed in Swiss history, General Henri Dufour during the Swiss Civil War, General Hans Herzog during the Franco-Prussian War, General Ulrich Wille during the First World War, and General Henri Guisan during the Second World War ("la Mob", "the Mobilisation"). Although Switzerland remained neutral during the latter three conflicts, the threat of having its territory used as a battlefield by the much bigger war parties of Germany and France required mobilization of the army.


document_title: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state

question_text: when did hawaii raise the drinking age to 21

root

text: The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time.  This history is given in the table below.  Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21").  In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.

tag: p

text:
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the
repeal of Prohibition in 1933.  Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s.  From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.

text: From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]

text:
State
Pre-Prohibition(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment(adopted in 1971)
1980s / Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century

Alabama

Pre 1881:None1881:21 (none with consent of parent)[6]
21
1975:Lowered to 19[7]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21  (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)

Alaska

?
21[7]
1970:Lowered to 19[9]
1984:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11]
21

Arizona

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 19[12][13]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Arkansas

Pre 1925:None[7]1925:21[7]
21
21[14]
21[8]
21

California

Pre 1891:Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]1891:18 (statewide)[18]
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)

Colorado

None[11]
1945:18: for beer21: for wine and liquor[7]
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1987[8]
21

Connecticut

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 18[20]
1982:Raised to 191983:Raised to 201985:Raised to 21[21]
21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person's employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person's exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]

Delaware

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 20[13]
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

District of Columbia

?
18: for beer and wine[11]21: for liquor[23][24]
18: for beer and wine[13][24]21: for liquor
1986:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26]
21

Florida

?
18[7]
1980:19[27]
1985:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[27]
21[28]

Georgia

?
21[11]
1972: Lowered to 18[12]
1984:Raised to 19[14]1985:Raised to 20[14]1986:Raised to 21[14]
21

Hawaii

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18[13]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Idaho

?
20: for beer[29][30]21: for wine and liquor[11][31]
1972:Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32]
1987:Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33]
21

Illinois

1872:Age of majority (none with written consent of parent)[34]
pre 1961: Age of majority      1961:  Raised to 21[35]
1973:Lowered to 19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[36]
1980:Raised to 21[37]
21

Indiana

?
Post-1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Iowa

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)1973:Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38]
1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38]
21

Kansas

?
1949:18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]21: for liquor[14][19]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)

Kentucky

?
1938:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Louisiana

?
As of 1948:18[13]
18[19]
1987:Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.1995:De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]1996:In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]Other exceptions still remain.[41]
21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]
For an established religious purpose;When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)

Maine

?
21[7]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 18[12]1977:Raised to 20[8][43]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Maryland

?
21[7]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[44][45]
1982:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[8][46]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)

Massachusetts

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 181979:Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49]
Raised to 21 in 1985[8]
21

Michigan

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50]
1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]1978:Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered
21

Minnesota

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18 (June 1)1976:Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]First state to raise age after lowering.

1986:Raised to 21[54]
21

Mississippi

?
1966:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7](alcohol not legalized until 1966)
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1986[8]
21

Missouri

?
1945:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Montana

?
21[11]
1971:Lowered to 19[55]1973:Lowered to 18[56][57]1979:Raised to 19
1987:Raised to 21[8][58]
21

Nebraska

?
21[59]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 19[59]
1980:Raised to 20[14]1985:Raised to 21[14]
21

Nevada

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

New Hampshire

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18[60]1979:Raised to 20
1985:Raised to 21[8][21]
21

New Jersey

Before 1880:NonePost-1880:18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63]
21[citation needed]
1973:Lowered to 18[12]
1980:Raised to 191983:Raised to 21[8][64]
21

New Mexico

?
1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

New York

21
18[65]
18
1982:Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)1985:Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67]
21

North Carolina

?
18[11]
18: for beer and wine[19] 21: for liquor
1983:19: for beer and wine 21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

North Dakota

?
1936:21[7]
21[14]
21[68]
21

Ohio

?
1935:18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69]
18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor
1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]1982 (From Oct. 1):19: beer21: wine and liquor[70]1988:21[14]
21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)

Oklahoma

?
Men:21Women:18: 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71]
1976:Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]Last state to lower the drinking age.
1983:Raised to 21[11][73]
21

Oregon

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Pennsylvania

?
1935:21[7]
21
21[8][52]
21

Rhode Island

?
21[11]
1970:Lowered to 18[12][74]
1980:Raised to 191981:Raised to 201984:Raised to 21[21]
21

South Carolina

21[75]
1935:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine[19]21: for liquor
1984:19: for beer and wine[7]21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

South Dakota

?
1934:21 (all)1939:Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beerRaised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76]
1972:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[13]
1984:19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[8]1988:Raised to 21[58]
21

Tennessee

Pre 1881:None1881:21[77]
21[7]1964:Lowered to 18[7]
1979:Raised to 19
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

Texas

Pre 1909:21None (with written permission of parent or guardian)Post 1909:21[78][79]
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 18[80]
1981:Raised to 19[81]1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

Utah

?
1935:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Vermont

?
21[7]
1971:Lowered to 18[82][83]
1986:Raised to 21[21][83]
21

Virginia

?
21[84]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine(21: for liquor remained)[84]
1981:Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption1983:Raised to 19 (all beer)1985:Raised to 21[84]
21

Washington

"Age of majority"since 1877[85]
21[citation needed]
21
21[8]
21

West Virginia

?
18: for beer and wine 21: for liquor[11]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all)[86]
1983:Raised to 19(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Wisconsin

1839–1866:18: for wine and liquorNone: for beerPost-1866:21 (all)[87]
18: for beer21: for wine and spirits1957:21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]1963:Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]1977:Border state restriction lifted.[88]
1984:Raised to 191986:Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]

Wyoming

?
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 19[13]
1988:Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21
21

American Samoa

?
?
?
21?
21[91]

Northern Mariana Islands

–
–
?
21?
21[92]

Puerto Rico

?
18
18
Kept at 18despite 10% highway fundingpenalty under Drinking Age Act.
18[93]

Virgin Islands

?
?
?
18
18[94]

Guam

?
21?
18
18
Raised to 21 in 2010[5]

tag: table

text: Additional notes[edit]

text:
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings.  That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before.  Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39]  That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood.  Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966).  Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.


document_title: Substrate (chemistry)

question_text: hydrogen peroxide is the substrate for which enzyme

text: Substrate (chemistry)

text: Biochemistry[edit]

text: In biochemistry, the substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). In the case of a single substrate, the substrate bonds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The substrate is transformed into one or more products, which are then released from the active site. The active site is then free to accept another substrate molecule. In the case of more than one substrate, these may bind in a particular order to the active site, before reacting together to produce products. A substrate is called 'chromogenic' if it gives rise to a coloured product when acted on by an enzyme. In histological enzyme localization studies, the colored product of enzyme action can be viewed under a microscope, in thin sections of biological tissues. Similarly, a substrate is called 'fluorogenic' if it gives rise to a fluorescent product when acted on by an enzyme.

text: For example, curd formation (rennet coagulation) is a reaction that occurs upon adding the enzyme rennin to milk. In this reaction, the substrate is a milk protein (e.g., casein) and the enzyme is rennin. The products are two polypeptides that have been formed by the cleavage of the larger peptide substrate. Another example is the chemical decomposition of hydrogen peroxide carried out by the enzyme catalase. As enzymes are catalysts, they are not changed by the reactions they carry out. The substrate(s), however, is/are converted to product(s). Here, hydrogen peroxide is converted to water and oxygen gas.

text: Where E is enzyme, S is substrate, and P is product

text: While the first (binding) and third (unbinding) steps are, in general, reversible, the middle step may be irreversible (as in the rennin and catalase reactions just mentioned) or reversible (e.g. many reactions in the glycolysis metabolic pathway).

text: By increasing the substrate concentration, the rate of reaction will increase due to the likelihood that the number of enzyme-substrate complexes will increase; this occurs until the enzyme concentration becomes the limiting factor.

text: Substrate promiscuity[edit]

text: Although enzymes are typically highly specific, some are able to perform catalysis on more than one substrate, a property termed enzyme promiscuity. An enzyme may have many native substrates and broad specificity (e.g. oxidation by cytochrome p450s) or it may have a single native substrate with a set of similar non-native substrates that it can catalyse at some lower rate. The substrates that a given enzyme may react with in vitro, in a laboratory setting, may not necessarily reflect the physiological, endogenous substrates of the enzyme's reactions in vivo. That is to say that enzymes do not necessarily perform all the reactions in the body that may be possible in the laboratory. For example, while fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) can hydrolyze the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide at comparable rates in vitro, genetic or pharmacological disruption of FAAH elevates anandamide but not 2-AG, suggesting that 2-AG is not an endogenous, in vivo substrate for FAAH.[2] In another example, the N-acyl taurines (NATs) are observed to increase dramatically in FAAH-disrupted animals, but are actually poor in vitro FAAH substrates.[3]


document_title: Crazy Eyes (character)

question_text: crazy eyes girlfriend orange is the new black

text: Crazy Eyes (character)

text: Appearance[edit]

text: In season one, Aduba is credited for 11 of the 13 episodes (not the first or seventh), although she appears in the first episode via footage filmed from another episode.[2][3]

text: In season two, episode three ("Hugs Can Be Deceiving"), Eden Wiggins,and Taliyah Whitaker portray the 10-year-old and 5-year-old versions of Warren.[4] Throughout the first two seasons, it is shown that Warren aspires "to be included" and "to make friends and be valued".[5] The character is known for her bantu knots, an awkward grin, and her crazy eyes.[6][7]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Warren is fixated on Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling) at the beginning of the season.[8] When Chapman, who has offended prison matriarch Red (Kate Mulgrew), seems hopelessly isolated, Warren is the only inmate not too intimidated to help her. She helps Chapman by getting jalapeños, so she could put them in a medicinal lotion for Red's sore back, and Red forgives Chapman. Warren nicknames Chapman "Dandelion", because of her blonde hair and puts in a request to become Chapman's bunkmate. Nonetheless, Chapman resists her advances.[9][10][11] As a result, Warren urinates on the floor in Chapman's bunk quarters.[12] In episode 9, "Fucksgiving", her white adoptive parents, Pat and Dennis Warren, are introduced.[13][14]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: As she rebounds from her unrequited love for Chapman, Warren is befriended by veteran inmate Yvonne "Vee" Parker (Lorraine Toussaint) as Parker develops her powerbase in the prison. Parker takes advantage of Warren's desperation for affection, and Warren becomes Parker's fanatically loyal right-hand woman.[15] Warren serves Parker as muscle, even beating up her friend Poussey Washington (Samira Wiley) on Vee's orders.[16] When Parker attacks prison matriarch Galina "Red" Reznikov (Kate Mulgrew) and put her in the hospital ward, she manipulates Warren into believing that she committed the crime. Warren gives a statement to prison officials confessing to the attack, but inmate counselor Sam Healy (Michael J. Harney) produces evidence that exonerates her. When she realizes that Parker used her, she breaks into tears.

text: In episode 3, "Hugs Can Be Deceiving", Warren's backstory is revealed via a flashback. She was adopted by white parents and raised in the suburbs, but her mental instability alienated her classmates and their parents alike. Her adoptive mother pushed her to excel at everything she did to prove that she was as good as everyone else; ironically, the constant pressure only made Warren's psychological problems worse. In the same episode, it is revealed that Warren had run outside and knocked Chapman unconscious after Chapman had beaten Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett (Taryn Manning) unconscious at the end of season 1.[17]

text: Season 3[edit]

text: In season 3, Suzanne is still grieving Vee's death, and Taystee has her hands full trying to control her temper, mental instability and constant fighting with Poussey. Eventually, she turns to new prison counsellor Berdie Rogers's drama class. There, she begins writing a surrealistic science-fiction erotica series called "The Time Hump Chronicles" which, although considered obscene and strange by both Rogers and Taystee, soon becomes an instant hit amongst the inmates. Although they prove to be therapeutic to her mental instability Suzanne becomes stressed and irritated with the constant harassment by the other inmates for more material, the persistent ideas that are being floated past her and the fan-fiction that is left at her bunk or lying around. Eventually, some of the extracts find their way into the hands of the COs, resulting on Officer Donaldson being mocked by both his colleagues and the inmates alike upon the realisation that he is the inspiration for one of the characters. This leads to Rogers' suspension. Suzanne, meanwhile, is taken by surprise when Maureen Kukudio, one of her more prolific fans, is actually interested in her romantically, and seeks advice on how to respond from Lorna. She admits that she finds Maureen attractive, but that she has never had had a girlfriend before, and subsequently backs out of a sexual liaison with her. In the season finale, Suzanne assists Poussey and Taystee in caring for Brook Soso, whom they discover unconscious from a drug overdose, and develops a closer bond with Maureen in the final scene, owing to a misunderstanding over a turtle that bit Maureen's foot.[18]

text: Season 4[edit]

text: In season 4 it is revealed that Suzanne's crime was kidnapping and accidental manslaughter of a child she grew friendly with while working as a greeter at a shop.[19] Believing that she was only being friendly, as evidenced when she tells the kid to only call 911 as an emergency, she did not realize the true implication of what she was doing (taking the child back from the park and playing video games). However, the frightened child attempted to escape by the fire escape but soon fell off the balcony and died. It is mentioned that she took a plea deal. Suzanne and Maureen's relationship becomes rocky when Kukudio insists on running away from the prison but Suzanne refuses and goes back to the prison however in "People Persons" the two are forced to fight under the command of CO Humphrey where Maureen insults her but in a agitated state, Suzanne soon retaliates by throwing her to the ground and beating her badly until she is pulled off by the Dominicans. This fight leads her to punish herself especially when a peaceful protest turns into a chaotic scene and Poussey Washington fatally dies by suffocation. Whilst the inmates grieve over her death, Suzanne believes that Poussey is alive and tries numerous attempts to suffocate herself in which she is sent to the medical room and placed next to Kukudio.

text: Season 5[edit]

text: In season five, Suzanne continues to recover from her injuries and also assists Maureen from her beating. She continues to believe that Poussey's spirit is trying to talk to her and performs a seance in the cafeteria where Poussey died. Her sanity soon spirals out of control especially when she breaks through the fiberboard ceiling to find "heaven" and becomes catatonic after Cindy feeds her lithium instead of her normal medication which she was pressured to stop by Lorna but is soon revived by an epipen.

text: Critical commentary[edit]

text: According to Tom Meltzer of The Guardian, "Shakespeare-quoting loner 'Crazy Eyes' invites pity, shock, reproach and belly-laughs in equal measure."[20] The Huffington Post Canada entertainment editor Chris Jancelewicz, noted that after the first six episodes of season two, he was impressed by this appropriately nicknamed character: "Girl is crazy, and Aduba is genuinely frightening in the role. You can't tell if she's harmless or secretly plotting Piper's death".[21]

text: Aduba won Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards as well as Best Guest Performer in a Comedy Series at the 4th Critics' Choice Television Awards and was nominated for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 18th Satellite Awards for her season 1 performance.[22][23][24]

text: Aduba's season 2 performance earned her the Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards and a nomination Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards.[25][26][27] At the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards, due to recent rule changes, the show was forced to compete as a drama series rather than a comedy one and Aduba was nominated and won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.[28] Previously, Lou Grant played by Ed Asner was the only character for whom an actor had won both drama and comedy Emmy recognition (but in different shows).[29] She also earned a nomination at the 46th NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series.[30]

text: Aduba's season 3 performance earned another Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series win for the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards.[31] She earned a second nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series at the 47th NAACP Image Awards.[32] She also earned a Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards.[33]

text: At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, Aduba was again nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.[34]