document_title: Elections in the United States

question_text: the united states primarily uses which type of government

text: Elections in the United States

text: Voting[edit]

text: The most common method used in U.S. elections is the first-past-the-post system, where the highest polling candidate wins the election.[3] Some may use a two-round system, where if no candidate receives a required number of votes then there is a runoff between the two candidates with the most votes.[citation needed]

text: Since 2002, several cities have adopted instant-runoff voting in their elections. Voters rank the candidates in order of preference rather than voting for a single candidate. If a candidate secures more than half of votes cast, that candidate wins. Otherwise, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. Ballots assigned to the eliminated candidate are recounted and assigned to those of the remaining candidates who rank next in order of preference on each ballot. This process continues until one candidate wins by obtaining more than half the votes.[citation needed] In 2016, Maine became the first state to adopt instant-runoff voting (known in the state as ranked-choice voting) statewide for its elections, although due to state constitutional provisions, the system is only used for federal elections and state primaries.

text: Eligibility[edit]

text: The eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the constitution and also regulated at state level. The constitution states that suffrage cannot be denied on grounds of race or color, sex, or age for citizens eighteen years or older. Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate voter eligibility. Some states ban convicted criminals, especially felons, from voting for a fixed period of time or indefinitely.[4] The number of American adults who are currently or permanently ineligible to vote due to felony convictions is estimated to be 5.3 million.[5]  Some states also have legacy constitutional statements barring legally declared incompetent from voting; such references are generally considered obsolete and are being considered for review or removal where they appear.[6]

text: Voter registration[edit]

text: While the federal government has jurisdiction over federal elections, most election laws are decided at the state level. All U.S. states except North Dakota require that citizens who wish to vote be registered. Traditionally, voters had to register at state offices to vote, but in the mid-1990s efforts were made by the federal government to make registering easier, in an attempt to increase turnout. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (the "Motor Voter" law) required state governments that receive certain types of federal funding to make the voter registration process easier by providing uniform registration services through drivers' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail-in registration. Other states allow citizens same-day registration on Election Day.

text: In many states, citizens registering to vote may declare an affiliation with a political party.[7] This declaration of affiliation does not cost money, and does not make the citizen a dues-paying member of a party. A party cannot prevent a voter from declaring his or her affiliation with them, but it can refuse requests for full membership. In some states, only voters affiliated with a party may vote in that party's primary elections (see below). Declaring a party affiliation is never required. Some states, including Georgia, Michigan, Minnesota, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Washington, practice non-partisan registration.[8]

text: Absentee voting[edit]

text: Voters unable or unwilling to vote at polling stations on Election Day can vote via absentee ballots. Absentee ballots are most commonly sent and received via the United States Postal Service. Despite their name, absentee ballots are often requested and submitted in person. About half of all states and U.S. territories allow "no excuse absentee," where no reason is required to request an absentee ballot. Others require a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate using an absentee ballot. Some states, including California,[9] and Washington[10][11] allow citizens to apply for permanent absentee voter status, which will automatically receive an absentee ballot for each election. Typically a voter must request an absentee ballot before the election occurs.

text: A significant source of absentee ballots is the population of Americans living outside the United States. In 1986 Congress enacted the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA). UOCAVA requires that the states and territories allow members of the United States Uniformed Services and merchant marine, their family members, and United States citizens residing outside the United States to register and vote absentee in elections for Federal offices. Though many states had pre-existing statutes in place UOCAVA made it mandatory and nationally uniform. "Generally, all U.S. citizens 18 years or older who are or will be residing outside the United States during an election period are eligible to vote absentee in any election for Federal office. In addition, all members of the Uniformed Services, their family members and members of the Merchant Marine and their family members, who are U.S. citizens, may vote absentee in Federal, state and local elections."[12] Absentee ballots from these voters can often be transmitted private delivery services, fax, or email.[13]

text: Mail ballots[edit]

text: Mail ballots are similar in many respects to an absentee ballot. However they are used for Mailing Precincts where on Election Day no polling place is opened for a specific precinct.[14] In Oregon, Washington, and Colorado, all ballots are delivered through the mail.

text: Early voting[edit]

text: Early voting is a formal process where voters can cast their ballots prior to the official Election Day. Early voting in person is allowed in 33 states and in Washington, D.C., with no excuse required.[15]

text: Voting equipment[edit]

text: Voters casting their ballots in polling places record their votes most commonly with optical scan voting machines or DRE voting machines. Voting machine selection is typically done through a state's local election jurisdiction including counties, cities, and townships. Many of these local jurisdictions have changed their voting equipment since 2000 due to the passage of the Help America Vote Act (HAVA), which allocated funds for the replacement of lever machine and punch card voting equipment.

text: Since the 1980s many jurisdictions and voting locations have given out "I Voted" stickers to people casting ballots. In the state of Illinois it is a state law to have stickers available to voters after they have cast their ballots. State and local governments pay $30 million per year for the stickers that cost about one cent each.[16]

text: Levels of election[edit]

text: Federal elections[edit]

text: The United States has a presidential system of government, which means that the executive and legislature are elected separately. Article One of the United States Constitution requires that any election for the U.S. President must occur on a single day throughout the country; elections for Congressional offices, however, can be held at different times. Congressional and presidential elections take place simultaneously every four years, and the intervening Congressional elections, which take place every two years, are called Midterm elections.

text: The constitution states that members of the United States House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least nine years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. The President must be at least 35 years old, a natural born citizen of the United States and a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years. It is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate the qualifications for a candidate appearing on a ballot paper, although in order to get onto the ballot, a candidate must often collect a legally defined number of signatures.

text: Presidential elections[edit]

text: The President and the Vice President are elected together in a Presidential election.[17] It is an indirect election, with the winner being determined by votes cast by electors of the Electoral College. In modern times, voters in each state select a slate of electors from a list of several slates designated by different parties or candidates, and the electors typically promise in advance to vote for the candidates of their party (whose names of the presidential candidates usually appear on the ballot rather than those of the individual electors).  The winner of the election is the candidate with at least 270 Electoral College votes. It is possible for a candidate to win the electoral vote, and lose the (nationwide) popular vote (receive fewer votes nationwide than the second ranked candidate). Prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1804), the runner-up in a Presidential election[18] became the Vice President.

text: Electoral College votes are cast by individual states by a group of electors; each elector casts one electoral college vote.  Until the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1961 the District of Columbia citizens did not have representation and/or electors in the electoral college. In modern times, with electors usually committed to vote for a party candidate in advance, electors that vote against the popular vote in their state are called faithless electors, and occurrences are rare. State law regulates how states cast their electoral college votes. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the candidate that wins the most votes in the state receives all its electoral college votes (a "winner takes all" system). From 1969 in Maine, and from 1991 in Nebraska, two electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election, and the rest (two in Maine, three in Nebraska) go to the highest vote-winner in each of the state's congressional districts.

text:
showvteUnited States presidential electionsElections by year
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Related topics
Campaign slogans
Historical election polling
Election Day
Major party tickets
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Presidential debates
October surprise
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text: Congressional elections[edit]

text: Congress has two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.

text: Senate elections[edit]

text: The Senate has 100 members, elected for a six-year term in dual-seat constituencies (2 from each state), with one-third being renewed every two years. The group of the Senate seats that is up for election during a given year is known as a "class"; the three classes are staggered so that only one of the three groups is renewed every two years. Until the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, States chose how to elect Senators, and they were often elected by state legislatures, not the electorate of states.

text:
showvteUnited States Senate electionsMultiple-dateelections
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List of elections in the United States
House elections
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text: House of Representatives elections[edit]

text: The House of Representatives has 435 members, elected for a two-year term in single-seat constituencies. House of Representatives elections are held every two years on the first Tuesday after November 1 in even years. Special House elections can occur between if a member dies or resigns during a term. House elections are first-past-the-post elections that elect a Representative from each of 435 House districts which cover the United States.  The non-voting delegates of Washington, D.C. and the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected.

text: House elections occur every two years, correlated with presidential elections or halfway through a President's term. The House delegate of Puerto Rico, officially known as the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, is elected to a four-year term, coinciding with those of the President.

text: As the redistricting commissions of states are often partisan, districts are often drawn which benefit incumbents. An increasing trend has been for incumbents to have an overwhelming advantage in House elections, and since the 1994 election, an unusually low number of seats has changed hands in each election.[citation needed]  Due to gerrymandering, fewer than 10% of all House seats are contested in each election cycle. Over 90% of House members are reelected every two years, due to lack of electoral competition. Gerrymandering of the House, combined with the divisions inherent in the design of the Senate and of the Electoral College, result in a discrepancy between the percentage of popular support for various political parties and the actual level of the parties' representation.

text:
showvteUnited States House of Representatives electionsYears
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text: State elections[edit]

text: State law and state constitutions, controlled by state legislatures regulate elections at state level and local level. Various officials at state level are elected. Since the separation of powers applies to states as well as the federal government, state legislatures and the executive (the governor) are elected separately. Governors and lieutenant governor are elected in all states, in some states on a joint ticket and in some states separately, some separately in different electoral cycles. The governors of the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected. In some states, executive positions such as Attorney General and Secretary of State are also elected offices. All members of state legislatures and territorial jurisdiction legislatures are elected. In some states, members of the state supreme court and other members of the state judiciary are elected. Proposals to amend the state constitution are also placed on the ballot in some states.

text: As a matter of convenience and cost saving, elections for many of these state and local offices are held at the same time as either the federal presidential or midterm elections. There are a handful of states, however, that instead hold their elections during odd-numbered "off years."

text:
showvteUnited States gubernatorial elections
List of current Governors

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text: Local elections[edit]

text: At the local level, county and city government positions are usually filled by election, especially within the legislative branch. The extent to which offices in the executive or judicial branches are elected vary from county-to-county or city-to-city. Some examples of local elected positions include sheriffs at the county level and mayors and school board members at the city level. Like state elections, an election for a specific local office may be held at the same time as either the presidential, midterm, or off-year elections.

text: Comparison of recent and upcoming election years[edit]

text:
Basic rotation of U.S. general elections (fixed-terms only[1])

Year

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Type

Presidential

Off-yeara

Midterm

Off-yearb

Presidential

President

Yes

No

Yes

Senate

Class III (34 seats)

No

Class I (33 seats)

No

Class II (33 seats)

House

All 435 seats[2]

No

All 435 seats[3]

No

All 435 seats[2]

Gubernatorial

11 states, 2 territories  AS, DE, IN, MO, MT, NH, NC, ND, PR, UT, VT, WA, WV

2 states  NJ, VA

36 states, 3 territories[4]  AL, AK, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, FL, GA, GU, HI, ID, IL, IA, KS, ME, MP, MD, MA, MI, MN, NE, NV, NH, NM, NY, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, SD, TN, TX, VI, VT, WI, WY

3 states  KY, LA, MS

11 states, 2 territories  AS, DE, IN, MO, MT, NH, NC, ND, PR, UT, VT, WA, WV

Other state and local offices

Varies

text: viewtalkedit

text: Features of the election system[edit]

text: Multiple levels of regulation[edit]

text: In the US elections are actually conducted by local authorities, working under local, state, and federal law and regulation, as well as the US Constitution.  It is a highly decentralized system.[19]

text: In around half of US states, the Secretary of State is the official in charge of elections; in other states it is someone appointed for the job, or a commission.[19]  It is this person or commission who is responsible for certifying, tabulating, and reporting votes for the state.[19]

text: Party systems[edit]

text: Americans vote for a specific candidate instead of directly selecting a particular political party. The United States Constitution has never formally addressed the issue of political parties. The Founding Fathers such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison did not support domestic political factions at the time the Constitution was written.[20] In addition, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was not a member of any political party at the time of his election or throughout his tenure as president.  Furthermore, he hoped that political parties would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation.  Nevertheless, the beginnings of the American two-party system emerged from his immediate circle of advisers, with Hamilton and Madison ending up being the core leaders in this emerging party system.

text: Thus, it is up to the candidate to decide under what party he/she should run, registers to run, pays the fees, etc. In the primary elections, the party organization stays neutral until one candidate has been elected. The platform of the party is written by the winning candidate (in presidential elections; in other elections no platform is involved). Each candidate has his or her own campaign, fund raising organization, etc. The primary elections in the main parties are organized by the states, who also register the party affiliation of the voters (this also makes it easier to gerrymander the congressional districts). The party is thus little more than a campaign organization for the main elections.

text: However, elections in the United States often do become de facto national races between the political parties. In what is known as "presidential coattails", candidates in presidential elections usually bring out supporters who then vote for his or her party's candidates for other offices, usually resulting in the presidential winner's party gaining seats in Congress. On the other hand, midterm elections are sometimes regarded as a referendum on the sitting president's and/or incumbent party's performance.[21][22] There is a historical pattern that the incumbent president's party loses seats in midterm elections. This may be because the President's popularity has slipped since election, or because the President's popularity encouraged supporters to come out to vote for him or her in the presidential election, but these supporters are less likely to vote when the President is not up for election.

text: Ballot access[edit]

text: Ballot access refers to the laws which regulate under what conditions access is granted for a candidate or political party to appear on voters' ballots. Each State has its own ballot access laws to determine who may appear on ballots and who may not. According to Article I, Section 4, of the United States Constitution, the authority to regulate the time, place, and manner of federal elections is up to each State, unless Congress legislates otherwise. Depending on the office and the state, it may be possible for a voter to cast a write-in vote for a candidate whose name does not appear on the ballot, but it is extremely rare for such a candidate to win office.

text: Campaign finance[edit]

text: The funding of electoral campaigns has always been a controversial issue in American politics. Infringement of free speech (First Amendment) is an argument against restrictions on campaign contributions, while allegations of corruption arising from unlimited contributions and the need for political equality are arguments for the other side.[23] Private funds are a major source of finance, from individuals and organizations. The first attempt to regulate campaign finance by legislation was in 1867, but major legislation, with the intention to widely enforce, on campaign finance was not introduced until the 1970s.

text: Money contributed to campaigns can be classified into "hard money" and "soft money". Hard money is money contributed directly to a campaign, by an individual or organization. Soft money is money from an individual or organization not contributed to a campaign, but spent in candidate specific advertising or other efforts that benefits that candidate by groups supporting the candidate, but legally not coordinated by the official campaign.

text: The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 required candidates to disclose sources of campaign contributions and campaign expenditure. It was amended in 1974 to legally limit campaign contributions. It banned direct contributing to campaigns by corporations and trade unions and limited individual donations to $1,000 per campaign. It introduced public funding for Presidential primaries and elections. The Act also placed limits of $5,000 per campaign on PACs (political action committees). The limits on individual contributions and prohibition of direct corporate or labor union campaigns led to a huge increase in the number of PACs. Today many labor unions and corporations have their own PACs, and over 4,000 in total exist. The 1974 amendment also specified a Federal Election Commission, created in 1975 to administer and enforce campaign finance law. Various other provisions were also included, such as a ban on contributions or expenditures by foreign nationals (incorporated from the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) (1966)).

text: The case of Buckley v. Valeo (1976) challenged the Act. Most provisions were upheld, but the court found that the mandatory spending limit imposed was unconstitutional, as was the limit placed on campaign spending from the candidate's personal fortune and the provision that limited independent expenditures by individuals and organizations supporting but not officially linked to a campaign. The effect of the first decision was to allow candidates such as Ross Perot and Steve Forbes to spend enormous amounts of their own money in their own campaigns. The effect of the second decision was to allow the culture of "soft money" to develop.

text: A 1979 amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act allowed political parties to spend without limit on get-out-the-vote and voter registration activities conducted primarily for a presidential candidate. Later, they were permitted by FECA to use "soft money", unregulated, unlimited contributions to fund this effort. Increasingly, the money began to be spent on issue advertising, candidate specific advertising that was being funded mostly by soft money.

text: The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 banned local and national parties from spending "soft money" and banned national party committees from accepting or spending soft money. It increased the limit of contributions by individuals from $1,000 to $2,000. It banned corporations or labor unions from funding issue advertising directly, and banned the use of corporate or labor money for advertisements that mention a federal candidate within 60 days of a general election or 30 days of a primary. The constitutionality of the bill was challenged and in December 2003, the Supreme Court upheld most provisions of the legislation. (See McConnell v. FEC.)

text: A large number of "527 groups" were active for the first time in the 2004 election. These groups receive donations from individuals and groups and then spend the money on issue advocacy, such as the anti-Kerry ads by Swift Boat Veterans for Truth. This is a new form of soft money, and not surprisingly it is controversial. Many 527 groups have close links with the Democratic or Republican parties, even though legally they cannot coordinate their activities with them. John McCain, one of the senators behind the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, and President Bush have both declared a desire to ban 527s.

text: Changing campaign finance laws is a highly controversial issue. Some reformers wish to see laws changed in order to improve electoral competition and political equality.  Opponents wish to see the system stay as it is, whereas other reformers wish even fewer restrictions on the freedom to spend and contribute money. The Supreme Court has made it increasingly difficult for those who wish to regulate election financing, but options like partial public funding of campaigns are still possible and offer the potential to address reformers' concerns with minimal restrictions on the freedom to contribute.[24]

text: Primaries and caucuses[edit]

text: In partisan elections, candidates are chosen by primary elections (abbreviated to "primaries") and caucuses in the states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

text: A primary election is an election in which registered voters in a jurisdiction (nominating primary) select a political party's candidate for a later election. There are various types of primary: either the whole electorate is eligible, and voters choose one party's primary at the polling booth (an open primary); or only independent voters can choose a party's primary at the polling booth (a semi-closed primary); or only registered members of the party are allowed to vote (closed primary). The blanket primary, when voters could vote for all parties' primaries on the same ballot was struck down by the United States Supreme Court as violating the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of assembly in the case California Democratic Party v. Jones. Primaries are also used to select candidates at the state level, for example in gubernatorial elections.

text: Caucuses also nominate candidates by election, but they are very different from primaries. Caucuses are meetings that occur at precincts and involve discussion of each party's platform and issues such as voter turnout in addition to voting. Eleven states: Iowa, New Mexico, North Dakota, Maine, Nevada, Hawaii, Minnesota, Kansas, Alaska, Wyoming, Colorado and the District of Columbia use caucuses, for one or more political parties.

text: The primary and caucus season in Presidential elections lasts from the Iowa caucus in January to the last primaries in June. Front-loading - when larger numbers of contests take place in the opening weeks of the season—can have an effect on the nomination process, potentially reducing the number of realistic candidates, as fund-raisers and donors quickly abandon those they see as untenable. However, it is not the case that the successful candidate is always the candidate that does the best in the early primaries. There is also a period dubbed the "invisible primary" that takes place before the primary season, when candidates attempt to solicit media coverage and funding well before the real primary season begins.

text: A state's presidential primary election or caucus usually is an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for President, it determines how many delegates each party's national political convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party's presidential nominee. Held in the summer, a political convention's purpose is also to adopt a statement of the party's principles and goals known as the platform and adopt the rules for the party's activities.

text: The day on which primaries are held for congressional seats, and state and local offices may also vary between states. The only federally mandated day for elections is Election Day for the general elections of the President and Congress; all other elections are at the discretion of the individual state and local governments.

text: Election information on the web[edit]

text: In most states of the U.S., the chief election officer is the Secretary of state.  In some states, local officials like a county Registrar of Voters or Supervisor of Elections manages the conduct of elections under the supervision of (or in coordination with) the chief election officer of the state.  Many of these state and county offices have web sites that provide information to help voters obtain information on their polling places for each election, the various districts to which they belong (e.g., house and senate districts in the state and federal legislature, school boards, water districts, municipalities, etc.), as well as dates of elections and deadlines to file to run or register to vote.  Some allow voters to download a sample ballot in advance of the election.

text: Beyond this, various media outlets provide information they think will interest their audience.

text: More systematic coverage is provided by web sites devoted specifically to collecting election information and making it available to the public.  Two of the better known such sites are Ballotpedia and Vote Smart.  These are run by non-profit, non-partisan organizations.  They have paid staffs and are much more tightly controlled than Wikipedia.

text: USElections.com[25] tries to provide similar information but relies on volunteers in a way that is more like Wikipedia than Ballotpedia and Vote Smart.

text: The website 270towin provides actual electoral college maps (both current and historic) but also the ability to use an interactive map in order to make election predictions.  Ongoing election news is reported as well as data on Senate and House races.[26]

text: The Center for Responsive Politics (opensecrets.org) and the National Institute on Money in State Politics (followthemoney.org) also provide useful election information focusing especially on campaign finance.

text: Hurdles[edit]

text: In 2014 scientists from Princeton University did a study on the influence of the "elite", and their derived power from special interest lobbying, versus the "ordinary" US citizen within the US political system. They found that the US was looking more like an oligarchy than a real representative democracy; thus eroding a government of the people, by the people, for the people as stated by Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address. In fact, the study found that average citizens had an almost nonexistent influence on public policies and that the ordinary citizen had little or no independent influence on policy at all.[27]

text: There were many US presidential elections in which foreign countries manipulate the voters.[28] Electoral College is criticised for being un-democratic (it can choose candidate who did not win the popular vote) and for focusing campaigns only on swing states.[29]


document_title: Light brown apple moth

question_text: where did the light brown apple moth came from

root

text: Light brown apple moth

text: Identification[edit]

text: Adult moths[edit]

text: Light brown apple moth adults are variable in colour and may be confused with other leafroller moths and similar species. DNA analysis is currently required to positively identify the species which are otherwise indistinguishable on gross characteristics from other moths of similar species. Typical males have a forewing length of 6–10 mm with a light brown area at the base, which is distinguishable from a much darker, red-brown area at the tip. The latter may be absent, with the moth appearing uniformly light brown, as in the females, which have only slightly darker oblique markings distinguishing the area at the tip of the wing. Females have a forewing length of 7–13 mm.

tag: p

text:
Female, dorsal view

Female, ventral view

Male, dorsal view

Male, ventral view

tag: ul

text: Larvae[edit]

text: Larvae are not easily distinguished from the larvae of other tortricid leafrollers; only DNA testing is a certain identification method. The first larval instar has a dark brown head; all other instars have a light fawn head and prothoracic plate. Overwintering larvae are darker. First instar larvae are approximately 1.6 mm long, and final instar larvae range from 10–18 mm in length. The body of a mature larva is medium green with a darker green central stripe and two side stripes.

text: Distribution[edit]

text: The light brown apple moth is a native insect of Australia. It has been introduced and now also lives in New Caledonia, the British Isles, Hawaii (since 1896), and New Zealand. In March 2007 the moth was positively identified in California by DNA samples across hundreds of miles, from Los Angeles to Napa, north of San Francisco.

text: Life cycle[edit]

text: Light brown apple moth pass through three generations annually with a partial fourth generation in some years.  The moth has no winter resting stage. There is considerable overlap in the generations.  In warmer areas, four or even five generations are completed annually, with major flight periods occurring during September–October, December–January, February–March, and April–May. In cooler climates, the number of complete generations may be reduced to two.

text: Eggs are laid in clusters of 3–150 on leaves or fruit. A single female might lay hundreds of eggs.  Adults produced by the overwintering larval generation emerge during October and November. These give rise to the first summer generation, in which final instar larvae mature between January and mid February. Second generation larvae reach maturity during March and April, and the adults from this generation provide third generation eggs. Normally, the rate of larval development is slowed considerably during the winter, particularly when temperatures approach freezing; thus the majority of larvae over-winter in the prolonged early juvenile phases of the second third, and fourth instars. During this period they normally feed on herbaceous plants. Re-invasion of apple trees takes place during October–December, when moths of the third generation start laying eggs again on apple leaves.

text: Sex pheromone[edit]

text: Females release a specific blend of sex pheromone to attract males. The blend is a mixture of two compounds (E)-11-tetradecen-1-yl acetate, comprising 95% of the mixture and (E,E)-9,11-tetradecadien-1-yl acetate comprising the remaining 5%.[3]  As an attractant used in moth traps, the synthetic versions of these pheromones are highly specific.  Only very closely related species of moths are attracted to the pheromone's scent.[citation needed]

text: Diet and damage[edit]

text: The insect is regarded as an herbivorous generalist, and the larvae feed on numerous horticultural crops in Australia and New Zealand, where they have limited natural predators. It is known to feed on 123 dicotyledonous plant species, including 22 Australian natives, belonging to 55 different families. In New Zealand, over 250 host species have been recorded. It feeds on nearly all types of fruit crops, ornamentals, vegetables, glasshouse crops, and occasionally young pine seedlings.[4]

text: The larvae cause significant damage to foliage and fruit.[5]  Early instars feed on tissue beneath the upper epidermis (surface layer) of leaves, while protected under self-constructed silken webs on the undersurface of leaves. Larger larvae migrate from these positions to construct feeding niches between adjacent leaves, between a leaf and a fruit, in the developing bud, or on a single leaf, where the leaf roll develops. The late stage larvae feed on all leaf tissue except main veins, and can often be found tunneling into berry fruits such as strawberries and caneberries.

text: Superficial fruit damage is common in apple varieties which form compact fruit clusters, though more significant damage may also occur such that crops are no longer commercially viable. Leaves are webbed to the fruit and feeding injury takes place under the protection of the leaf; or larvae spin up between fruits of a cluster. Internal damage to apple, pear, and citrus fruits is less common, but a young larva may enter the interior of an apple or pear fruit through the calyx or beneath the stem of a citrus fruit. Excreta are usually ejected on to the outside of the fruit.

text: In sharp contrast to most affected regions, the Hawaii Department of Agriculture says the moth "has not been a significant pest in Hawaii" and finds it beneficial in a few cases, because it kills some invasive plants, including gorse and blackberry.[6]

text: In April 2008, an attorney for the California Department of Agriculture acknowledged in court papers that there were "no documented crop losses in California at this time".[7]

text: Control[edit]

text: The species has been classified as a noxious insect in the United States and Canada, leading to restrictions on produce from counties with substantial populations. Typical orchard control of the insect commonly involves Integrated Pest Management (IPM) regimes using a variety of methods such as insecticide applications and application of horticultural oils to smother insects and egg masses, biological control including Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) and occasionally mating disruption, which typically involves releasing synthetic insect pheromones to confuse the male moth's tracking of female scent.  This results in fewer fertile pairings and thus fewer offspring. Sex pheromone lures are also often used to assess and monitor populations of moths in specific areas.

text: Control measures in Australia and New Zealand[edit]

text: The moth is native to Australia,[8] and its natural predators keep the population in check.  It is a pest in New Zealand where various measures, including using natural enemies, insecticides and pheromones (to disrupt mating), have been taken for more than a decade.[9]

text: Natural enemies of the moth include species of tachinid fly and ichneumonid wasp. These are parasitoids which deposit their eggs on or within the bodies of the moth larvae. The parasitoid larva hatches and consumes the interior of the moth larva's body, killing the pest larva. Historically, the most abundant parasitoid has been the braconid wasp Dolichogenidea tasmanica, and it is still the most common natural enemy found with the moth in New Zealand.[10] This wasp, like the moth, is native to Australia and was probably imported along with it.[10] Other common parasitoids include the tachinid fly Trigonospila brevifacies, the braconid wasp Glyptapanteles demeter, and the bethylid wasp Goniozus jacintae.[10] The combination of these parasitoids have played a role in reducing moth damage.[10]

text: Eradication measures in California[edit]

text: It is unknown how long LBAM has been present in California, though widespread confirmed insect captures have been found across much of the coastal region of the state. After the moth was confirmed for the first time by DNA testing to be present in California in 2007, quarantine measures and a controversial program of aerial spraying proprietary synthetic pheromones over urban and suburban areas was begun.  Other less controversial efforts included nursery and grower treatment of potential infestations in plants using graduated Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques with pesticides, smothering oils, and biologic controls such as Bacillus thuringiensis. USDA officials obtained an Emergency Exemption from Registration from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency that allowed them to bypass state rules for the use of pesticides,[11] such as the production of an environmental impact report that would normally be required.

text: Public outcry was significant after an initial round of aerial spraying, when over 600 complaints of adverse health effects were reported to government agencies and local groups opposing the aerial spraying.[12]  In June 2008, the California Department of Food and Agriculture announced that it was abandoning plans for aerial spraying over population centers in favor of using local application of pheromone-impregnated twist-ties, a control measure that has proven effective in New Zealand.[13] In December 2015, an appeals court ruled against the LBAM pesticide program on the grounds that it violated state environmental laws.[14]


document_title: The Quick and the Dead (1995 film)

question_text: where was the quick and the dead 1995 filmed

text: The Quick and the Dead (1995 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1881 an unnamed gunslinger known only as The Lady arrives at the Old West town of Redemption, where she enters a single elimination gunfighting contest held by Redemption's ruthless mayor and former outlaw John Herod. She encounters the Blind Shoeshine Boy and the repulsive escaped convict named Scars, whose proposition she harshly rebuffs. That night in the saloon it is made clear that all contestants are free to indulge in whatever they want in town and the rules of the competition are explained: Any contestant who is challenged cannot refuse, each contestant must fight once a day, and the fight ends when a contestant yields or is dead. While there she meets Cort, a former Herod henchman turned preacher whom Herod has captured and forced to enter the contest. During her first night in town, The Lady saves Cort's life by shooting through the rope Herod's men had used to hang him. She drunkenly spends the night with "The Kid", a brash young man who runs a gun store and hopes to impress Herod. The Kid believes Herod is his father and that he can earn his father's respect by entering and winning the contest.

text: In the first round of duels, The Kid defeats a Swedish quick-draw champion while Herod kills a braggart named Ace Hanlon, who had taken credit for some of Herod's own accomplishments. The Lady defeats an enemy she had previously left shackled to a wagon. Cort, who has renounced violence and doesn't have a weapon, is taken to the Kid's store. Herod buys Cort a cheap rusty gun and decrees that Cort (an exceptionally skilled gunfighter) can only have one bullet at a time so that he doesn't shoot his way out of town. Despite telling everyone he wouldn't fight, Cort draws his gun and wins his first round fight.

text: During a rainstorm, Herod meets with Clay Cantrell, a professional gunfighter hired by the townspeople to kill Herod. Before they duel, Herod changes the rules and proclaims that all contests are now to the death. After killing Cantrell, Herod angrily addresses the townspeople and informs them that he will continue to raise his taxes on them until they understand that he is in charge of everything. During a rainstorm that evening The Lady faces off with Eugene Dred after he rapes the saloon owner's young daughter. She shoots him in the genitals but spares his life and returns to the bar, but Dred ambushes her and she is ultimately forced to kill him.

text: The next day, Cort is slated to fight Spotted Horse, a Native American who claims he "cannot be killed by a bullet". The Lady, still upset over killing Dred the night before, saddles up and rides out of town before Cort's fight. Cort narrowly beats Spotted Horse after having to beg for a second bullet. The Lady is found at a nearby cemetery by Doc Wallace, who tells her that he recognizes her and knows why she is there. During flashbacks, it is revealed that the Lady's real name is Ellen, and her father used to be the Marshal in Redemption until Herod invaded, killed all the deputies and had him strung up. Herod gave Ellen a pistol and three shots to try and break the rope her father was hanging from, but she accidentally killed him. Doc Wallace tells her that Herod's men dug up her father's body and burned it. He hands Ellen her father's old badge and begs her to come back and help rid the town of Herod, as she and Cort are now Redemption's only hope.

text: Ellen rides back to town and directly challenges Herod but is sickened to hear that he has already accepted a fight against The Kid. Ellen and Cort are the only other fighters left and are ordered by Herod to face off. They both proclaim they won't fight each other, but Herod tells them he will have them gunned down by his men if they refuse. Herod takes The Kid aside and asks him to withdraw from the contest, telling him his time will come. The Kid refuses and they fight, with The Kid wounding Herod in the neck while Herod delivers a fatal bullet to The Kid, who dies in Ellen's arms. Ellen and Cort then face each other, but both refuse to draw their weapons. Herod begins a countdown from ten, declaring that if neither draws by the time he gets to zero he will have them both killed. Cort begs Ellen to kill him but she still refuses. When Herod reaches one Cort draws and fires. Doc Wallace declares Ellen dead, and Cort angrily storms up to Herod and demands they fight immediately. Herod refuses, telling Cort they will meet the next day at a time of Cort's choosing. Cort chooses dawn. Later that night, one of Herod's men, Ratsy, chains Cort to a table and beats him severely before smashing Cort's gunfighting hand and breaking it.

text: The next morning, Herod sees Cort's busted hand and gives Ratsy twenty seconds to leave town. He offers to face Cort left-handed, which Herod is equally fast at drawing with. Herod kills Ratsy with a rifle and then squares off to fight Cort. Herod then secretly tells his guards to kill Cort if he is the winner. At the moment Herod draws, several buildings explode on the street. Herod's house and the clock tower are also blown up, and through the smoke and flames, Ellen walks back into town, having faked her death with the help of Cort, Doc Wallace, the Blind Boy, and the Kid's stash of dynamite. Cort proceeds to kill Herod's men who were stationed around town, then tells Herod that from now on all fights in town will be fair. Ellen and Herod face off, and she finally reveals to him who she is when she throws her father's old badge at Herod's feet. They draw on each other; Herod shoots Ellen in the arm and she fires a shot though Herod's chest. Herod raises his gun to fire again but Ellen shoots him in the eye, finishing him for good. She throws her father's badge to Cort and names him as the new Marshal before saddling up and riding out of the town.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sharon Stone as Ellen ("The Lady")
Gene Hackman as John Herod
Russell Crowe as Cort
Leonardo DiCaprio as Fee "The Kid" Herod
Pat Hingle as Horace
Kevin Conway as Eugene Dred
Keith David as Sgt. Clay Cantrell
Lance Henriksen as Ace Hanlon
Mark Boone Junior as Scars
Tobin Bell as Dog Kelly
Raynor Scheine as Ratsy
Olivia Burnette as Katie
Roberts Blossom as Doc Wallace
Gary Sinise as The Marshal
Sven-Ole Thorsen as Swede Gutzon
Scott Spiegel as Gold Teeth Ma
Woody Strode as Charlie Moonlight
Bruce Campbell as Wedding Shemp

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Writer Simon Moore finished his spec script for The Quick and the Dead in late 1992, writing it as a homage to the Spaghetti Westerns of Sergio Leone, particularly the Dollars Trilogy starring Clint Eastwood. The writer decided the lead character should be a female. "When you introduce women into that kind of world, something very interesting happens and you have an interesting dynamic straight away," Moore commented.[6] The names of the lead villain (Herod) and the town (Redemption) were intentional allusions to the Bible.[6] Moore considered directing his own script as an independent film and shooting The Quick and the Dead on a $3–4 million budget in either Spain or Italy.[6]

text: Sony Pictures Entertainment purchased Moore's script in May 1993 and approached Sharon Stone to star in the lead role in July 1993.[6] Because Stone also signed on as co-producer, she had approval over the choice of director. Sam Raimi was hired to direct because Stone was impressed with his work on Army of Darkness (1992). The actress told the producers that if Raimi did not direct the film, she would not star in it. Although she had mixed emotions on Raimi's previous work, she believed that the director still had yet to showcase his talents, feeling that The Quick and the Dead would be a perfect opportunity to "stretch the limits of his technical and creative ability."[7] Moore was also enthusiastic over Raimi's hiring, based on his previous work with the Evil Dead film series.[6]

text: When Sony began fast tracking development The Quick and the Dead, the studio commissioned a series of rewrites from Moore. The writer was eventually dismissed and replaced with John Sayles, who, according to Moore, took Sony's orders of "making more of an American Old West film."[3] Moore was rehired with filming to begin in three weeks because Sayles' script was approaching a 2.5 hour runtime. When rewriting the shooting script, Moore simply omitted Sayles' work without Sony noticing. A week before shooting, Sony considered the script good so that Moore described the rewrites "a completely fucking pointless exercise."[3]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Russell Crowe originally auditioned for a different role in the film before Sharon Stone asked that the actor try for the lead male role. "When I saw Romper Stomper (1992), I thought Russell was not only charismatic, attractive and talented but also fearless," Stone reasoned. "And I find fearlessness very attractive. I was convinced I wouldn't scare him."[8] Raimi found Crowe to be "bold and challenging. He reminds me of what we imagine the American cowboy to have been like."[8] On working with Raimi, Crowe later described the director as "sort of like the fourth Stooge."[6]

text: Sony Pictures was dubious over Stone's choice of Crowe because he was not a famous actor in the mid-1990s.[6] To cast Gene Hackman in the role of Herod, TriStar Pictures changed the shooting location from Durango, Mexico to Tucson, Arizona.[9] Sam Rockwell auditioned for The Kid, a role which ended up going to Leonardo DiCaprio.[10] Sony was also dubious over DiCaprio's casting. As a result, Stone decided to pay for the actor's salary herself.[6]

text: Filming was originally set to begin in October 1993,[11] but was delayed because Crowe was busy on another film in Australia.[6] Principal photography for The Quick and the Dead lasted from November 21, 1993 to February 27, 1994.[11][12] Locations included Old Tucson Studios in Arizona[6] and Mescal, 40 miles southeast of Tucson.[3] Production was briefly halted at times over weather problems.[13] Thell Reed, who was hired as the gun coach and weapons master,[6] worked with the cast through over three months of training.[3] To age Cort's Colt 1851 Navy Revolver and the other guns used, Reed experimented with simple measures. "I took them out by my swimming pool and dipped them in chlorine water to let them rust," he explained. "They looked rusty and old, but were brand new guns."[13] Such detail, including the nickel plating and ivory handles on Ellen's Colt Peacemakers, was accurate to the time period.[13]

text: The town of Redemption was designed by Patrizia von Brandenstein, known for her work on Amadeus (1984) and The Untouchables (1987).[3] Raimi's first choice as the visual effects supervisor was William Mesa, his collaborator on Darkman (1991) and Army of Darkness (1993). Instead, Sony chose The Computer Film Company to create the VFX sequences.[6] Pick-up scenes took place through November - December 1994. This included an extended duel between Sharon Stone and Gene Hackman.[14]

text: Stone had a love scene removed from the final cut of The Quick and the Dead before the film's release in the United States.[15] The actress/co-producer thought the scene did not fit in with the picture's established reality.[3] It was restored for the home cinema releases of the film.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The original motion picture soundtrack for The Quick and the Dead, was released by the Varèse Sarabande music label on February 14, 1995.[16] The score for the film was composed and conducted by Alan Silvestri and mixed by Dennis Sands. Kenneth Karman and Thomas Drescher edited the film's music.[17]

text:
The Quick and the Dead: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
Film score by Alan SilvestriReleased
February 14, 1995Length
31:01Label
Varèse Sarabande

tag: table

text: The Quick and the Dead: Original Motion Picture SoundtrackNo.TitleLength1."Redemption"3:252."Gunfight Montage"1:413."Couldn't Tell Us Apart"1:174."John Herod"1:215."Ellen's First Round"1:106."Lady's the Winner"0:477."Dinner Tonight"2:118."Cort's Story"1:029."Ellen vs. Dred"1:1010."Kid vs. Herod"4:1711."I Don't Wanna Die"2:0012."The Big Day"2:2713."Ellen Returns"3:5414."The Law's Come Back to Town"0:4915."The Quick and the Dead (End Credits)"3:30Total length:31:01

text: Release[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Quick and the Dead was released in the U.S. on February 10, 1995 in 2,158 theaters, earning $6,515,861 in its opening weekend. The film eventually grossed $18,636,537 in at the US box office[4] and was declared to be a box office bomb. Writer Simon Moore noted that the film performed modestly in Europe.[3]

text: The Quick and the Dead' faced competition at the box office from Billy Madison, The Brady Bunch Movie, Just Cause and Heavyweights.[18] Director Sam Raimi later blamed himself and his visual style for the film's failure. "I was very confused after I made that movie. For a number of years I thought, I'm like a dinosaur. I couldn't change with the material."[3] TriStar Pictures also showed The Quick and the Dead as an "out-of-competition" film at the May 1995 Cannes Film Festival.[19] Additionally, Stone was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Actress, but lost to Angela Bassett in Strange Days.[20] A novelization written by Jack Curtis was published by HarperCollins in September 1995.[21] The Region 1 DVD release came in September 1998.[22]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The Quick and the Dead received mixed reviews from film critics. Based on 41 reviews, Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 56%, with an average rating of 5.9/10.[23] Metacritic calculated an average score of 49/100, based on 21 reviews.[24]

text: Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised Stone's performance and Raimi's directing. "Stone's presence nicely underscores the genre-bending tactics of Raimi, the cult filmmaker now doing his best to reinvent the B movie in a spirit of self-referential glee."[25] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times criticized the film for being overtly cliché, but praised Raimi's direction and Dante Spinotti's cinematography.[26] Critic and Raimi biographer Bill Warren wrote that the film "is a very conscious (though not self-conscious) attempt to recreate some of the themes, style and appeal of Sergio Leone's majestically operatic Spaghetti Westerns of the 1960s, especially the Man with No Name trilogy that starred Clint Eastwood. It's brisker, more romantic and somehow more American than Leone's movies."[7]

text:
"The cinematographer, Dante Spinotti (The Last of the Mohicans) makes the material look terrific. The lowering skies around the isolated town make it look ripe for vengeance of biblical proportions, and there are quiet satirical touches, as when a man stands in a saloon door and his shadow seems about 6 miles long."

—Roger Ebert, writing in the Chicago Sun-Times[26]

text: Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader observed that "Raimi tries to do a Sergio Leone, and though The Quick and the Dead is highly enjoyable in spots, it doesn't come across as very convincing, perhaps because nothing can turn Sharon Stone into Charles Bronson."[27] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt that "The Quick and the Dead plays like a crazed compilation of highlights from famous westerns. Raimi finds the right look but misses the heartbeat. You leave the film dazed instead of dazzled, as if an expert marksman had drawn his gun only to shoot himself in the foot."[28]


document_title: Chemical Weapons Convention

question_text: when did the united nations ban chemical weapons

text: Chemical Weapons Convention

text: History[edit]

text: Intergovernmental consideration of a chemical and biological weapons ban was initiated in 1968 within the 18-nation Disarmament Committee, which, after numerous changes of name and composition, became the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in 1984.[13] On 3 September 1992 the Conference on Disarmament submitted to the U.N. General Assembly its annual report, which contained the text of the Chemical Weapons Convention. The General Assembly approved the Convention on 30 November 1992, and the U.N. Secretary-General then opened the Convention for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993. The CWC remained open for signature until its entry into force on 29 April 1997, 180 days after the deposit of the 65th instrument of ratification (by Hungary). The convention augments the Geneva Protocol of 1925 for chemical weapons and includes extensive verification measures such as on-site inspections. It does not, however, cover biological weapons.

text: Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)[edit]

text: The convention is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which acts as the legal platform for specification of the CWC provisions.[14] The Conference of the States Parties is mandated to change the CWC and pass regulations on implementation of CWC requirements. The Technical Secretariat of the organization conducts inspections to ensure compliance of member states. These inspections target destruction facilities (where permanent monitoring takes place during destruction), chemical weapons production facilities which have been dismantled or converted for civil use, as well as inspections of the chemical industry. The Secretariat may furthermore conduct "investigations of alleged use" of chemical weapons and give assistance after use of chemical weapons.

text: The 2013 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the organization because it had, with the Chemical Weapons Convention, "defined the use of chemical weapons as a taboo under international law" according to Thorbjørn Jagland, Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee.[15][16]

text: Key points of the Convention[edit]

text:
Prohibition of production and use of chemical weapons
Destruction (or monitored conversion to other functions) of chemical weapons production facilities
Destruction of all chemical weapons (including chemical weapons abandoned outside the state parties territory)
Assistance between State Parties and the OPCW in the case of use of chemical weapons
An OPCW inspection regime for the production of chemicals which might be converted to chemical weapons
International cooperation in the peaceful use of chemistry in relevant areas

text: Controlled substances[edit]

text: The convention distinguishes three classes of controlled substance,[17] chemicals that can either be used as weapons themselves or used in the manufacture of weapons. The classification is based on the quantities of the substance produced commercially for legitimate purposes. Each class is split into Part A, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B, which are chemicals useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Separate from the precursors, the convention defines toxic chemicals as "[a]ny chemical which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere."[18]

text:
Schedule 1 chemicals have few, or no uses outside chemical weapons. These may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW. A country is limited to possessing a maximum of 1 tonne of these materials. Examples are sulfur mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small scale non-military applications, for example milligram quantities of nitrogen mustard are used to treat certain cancers.
Schedule 2 chemicals have legitimate small-scale applications. Manufacture must be declared and there are restrictions on export to countries that are not CWC signatories. An example is thiodiglycol which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents, but is also used as a solvent in inks.
Schedule 3 chemicals have large-scale uses apart from chemical weapons. Plants which manufacture more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared and can be inspected, and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. Examples of these substances are phosgene (the most lethal chemical weapon employed in WWI),[19] which has been used as a chemical weapon but which is also a precursor in the manufacture of many legitimate organic compounds (e.g. pharmaceutical agents and many common pesticides), and triethanolamine, used in the manufacture of nitrogen mustard but also commonly used in toiletries and detergents.

text: The treaty also deals with carbon compounds called in the treaty "discrete organic chemicals", the majority of which exhibit moderate-high direct toxicity or can be readily converted into compounds with toxicity sufficient for practical use as a chemical weapon.[20] These are any carbon compounds apart from long chain polymers, oxides, sulfides and metal carbonates, such as organophosphates. The OPCW must be informed of, and can inspect, any plant producing (or expecting to produce) more than 200 tonnes per year, or 30 tonnes if the chemical contains phosphorus, sulfur or fluorine, unless the plant solely produces explosives or hydrocarbons.

text: Member states[edit]

text: 165 states signed the CWC prior to its entry into force in 1997, allowing them to ratify the agreement after obtaining domestic approval.[1] Following the treaty's entry into force, it was closed for signature and the only method for non-signatory states to become a party was through accession. As of April 2016, 192 states, representing over 98 percent of the world's population, are party to the CWC.[1] Of the four United Nations member states that are not parties to the treaty, Israel has signed but not ratified the treaty, while Egypt, North Korea, and South Sudan have neither signed nor acceded to the Convention. Neither has the State of Palestine, which since becoming a UN observer state in 2012 is eligible to accede to the Convention.[21] Taiwan, though not a Member State, has stated that it complies with the treaty.[22]

text: Key organizations of member states[edit]

text: Member states are represented at the OPCW by their Permanent Representative. This function is generally combined with the function of Ambassador. For the preparation of OPCW inspections and preparation of declarations, member states have to constitute a National Authority.

text: World stockpile of chemical weapons[edit]

text:
Weapons of mass destruction

By type

Biological
Chemical
Nuclear
Radiological

By country

Albania
Algeria
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
China
Egypt
France
Germany
India
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Italy
Japan
Libya
Mexico
Myanmar
Netherlands
North Korea
Pakistan
Philippines
Poland
Romania
Russia
Saudi Arabia
South Africa
South Korea
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Taiwan
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States

Proliferation

Chemical
Nuclear
Missiles

Treaties

List of treaties

 Book
 Category

v
t
e

text: A total of 72,524 metric tonnes of chemical agent, 8.67 million chemical munitions and containers, and 97 production facilities have been declared to OPCW.[11]

text: Timeline of destruction[edit]

text: The treaty set up several steps with deadlines toward complete destruction of chemical weapons, with a procedure for requesting deadline extensions. No country reached total elimination by the original treaty date although several have finished under allowed extensions[23].

text:
Reduction Phases

Phase
% Reduction
Deadline
Notes

I
1%
April 2000

II
20%
April 2002
Complete destruction of empty munitions, precursor chemicals,
filling equipment and weapons systems

III
45%
April 2004

IV
100%
April 2007
No extensions permitted past April 2012

text: Progress of destruction[edit]

text: As of October 2016, 67,098 of 72,524 (93%) metric tonnes of chemical agent have been verifiably destroyed. More than 57% (4.97 million) of chemical munitions and containers have been destroyed.[11]

text: Five State Parties, namely Albania, an unspecified state party (widely believed to be South Korea), India, Libya and Syria have completed the destruction of their declared stockpiles. Russia and the United States, which declared the largest amounts of chemical weapons, are in the process of destruction.[24] The deadline set for both countries of April 2012, however, was not met. The destruction of Libya's Category 1 chemical weapons was completed in 2014; destruction of its chemical weapon precursors is scheduled to finish in 2016.[25] Iraq has yet to start destruction. Japan and China started in October 2010 the destruction of World War II era chemical weapons abandoned by Japan in China by means of mobile destruction units and reported destruction of 35,203 chemical weapons (75% of the Nanjing stockpile).[24][26]

text:
Country
Date of Accession/
Entry into force
Declared Stockpile
(Schedule 1) (tonnes)
 % OPCW (verified destroyed)
(Date of Full destruction)
Destruction
deadline

 Albania
29 April 1997
17[27]
100% (July 2007)[27]
n.a.

 South Korea
29 April 1997
3,000–3,500[28]
100% (July 2008)[28]
n.a.

 India
29 April 1997
1,044[29]
100% (March 2009)[30]
n.a.

 Libya
5 February 2004
25[31]
100% (January 2014)[31]
n.a.

 Syria (government held)
14 October 2013[32]
1,040[33]
100% (August 2014)[33]
n.a.

 Russia
5 December 1997
40,000[34]
100% (September 2017)[35]
n.a.

 United States
29 April 1997
33,600[36]
90%[36]
29 April 2012 (intends by 2023)[37]

 Iraq
12 February 2009
remnant munitions[38]
not started[38]
-

 Japan (in China)
29 April 1997
-
ongoing
2022 (commitment)[39]

text: Iraqi stockpile[edit]

text: The U.N. Security Council ordered the dismantling of Iraq's chemical weapon stockpile in 1991. By 1998, UNSCOM inspectors had accounted for the destruction of 88,000 filled and unfilled chemical munitions, over 690 metric tons of weaponized and bulk chemical agents, approximately 4,000 tonnes of precursor chemicals, and 980 pieces of key production equipment.[40] The UNSCOM inspectors left in 1998.

text: In 2009, before Iraq joined the CWC, the OPCW reported that the United States military had destroyed almost 5,000 old chemical weapons in open-air detonations since 2004.[41] These weapons, produced before the 1991 Gulf War, contained sarin and mustard agents but were so badly corroded that they could not have been used as originally intended.[42]

text: When Iraq joined the CWC in 2009, it declared "two bunkers with filled and unfilled chemical weapons munitions, some precursors, as well as five former chemical weapons production facilities" according to OPCW Director General Rogelio Pfirter.[30] The bunker entrances were sealed with 1.5 meters of reinforced concrete in 1994 under UNSCOM supervision.[43] As of 2012, the plan to destroy the chemical weapons was still being developed, in the face of significant difficulties.[38][43] In 2014, ISIS took control of the site.[44]

text: Syrian destruction[edit]

text: Following the August 2013 Ghouta chemical attack,[45] Syria, which had long been suspected of possessing chemical weapons, acknowledged them in September 2013 and agreed to put them under international supervision.[46] On 14 September Syria deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC with the United Nations as the depositary and agreed to its provisional application pending entry into force effective 14 October.[47][48] An accelerated destruction schedule was devised by Russia and the United States on 14 September,[49] and was endorsed by United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118[50] and the OPCW Executive Council Decision EC-M-33/DEC.1.[51] Their deadline for destruction was the first half of 2014.[51] Syria gave the OPCW an inventory of its chemical weapons arsenal[52] and started its destruction in October 2013, 2 weeks before its formal entry into force, while applying the convention provisionally.[53][54] All declared Category 1 materials were destroyed by August 2014.[33] However, the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack in April 2017 revealed that undeclared stockpiles likely remained in the country.

text: Financial support for destruction[edit]

text: Financial support for the Albanian and Libyan stockpile destruction programmes was provided by the United States. Russia received support from a number of countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and Canada; with some $2 billion given by 2004. Costs for Albania's program were approximately US$48 million. The United States has spent $20 billion and expected to spend a further $40 billion.[55]

text: Known production facilities (of chemical weapons)[edit]

text: Fourteen States Parties have declared chemical weapons production facilities:[11]

text:
Bosnia and Herzegovina
 China
 France
 India

 Iran
 Iraq
 Japan

 Libya
 Russia
 Serbia

 Syria
 United Kingdom
 United States

text: 1 non-disclosed state party (referred to as "A State Party" in OPCW-communications; said to be South Korea)[56]

text: As of May 2015, all 97 declared production facilities had been inactivated and 93% (90) have been certified as destroyed or converted to civilian use.[11]


document_title: List of national animals

question_text: who is the national animal of south africa

text: List of national animals

text: This article is incomplete. Please help to improve it, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (June 2017)

text: This is a list of national animals.

text: National animals[edit]

text:
Country
Name of animal
Scientific name
Pictures
Ref.

 Algeria
Fennec fox
Vulpes zerda

[1]

 Angola
Red-crested turaco (national bird)
Tauraco erythrolophus

[2]

 Anguilla
Zenaida dove
Zenaida aurita

[3]

 Antigua and Barbuda
Fallow deer (national animal)
Dama dama

[4]

Frigate (national bird)
Fregata magnificens

[4]

Hawksbill turtle (national sea creature)
Eretmochelys imbricata

[4]

 Argentina
Rufous hornero
Furnarius rufus

[5]

 Australia
Red kangaroo (national animal)
Macropus rufus

[6]

Emu (national bird)
Dromaius novaehollandiae

[7]

 Azerbaijan
Karabakh horse
Equus ferus caballus

[8]

 Bangladesh
Royal Bengal tiger (national animal)
Panthera tigris tigris

[9]

Magpie robin (national bird)
Copsychus saularis

[9]

Ilish (national fish)
Tenualosa ilisha

[9]

 Belarus
European bison
Bison bonasus

[10]

 Belize
Baird's tapir (national animal)
Tapirus bairdii

[10][11]

Keel-billed toucan (national bird)
Ramphastos sulfuratus

[12]

 Belgium
Lion (heraldic Leo Belgicus)
Panthera leo

[13]

 Bhutan
Druk
Mythical

[14]

Takin
Budorcas taxicolor

[15]

 Brazil
Rufous-bellied thrush (national bird)
Turdus rufiventris

[16]

 Cambodia
Kouprey
Bos sauveli

[17]

 Canada
North American beaver (sovereignty animal symbol)
Castor canadensis

[18][19]

Canadian horse (national horse)
Equus ferus caballus

[19]

 China
Giant panda (national animal)
Ailuropoda melanoleuca

[20]

Chinese dragon (national animal)
Mythical

[21]

Red-crowned crane (national bird)
Grus japonensis

[22]

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Okapi
Okapia johnstoni

[10]

 Colombia
Andean condor
Vultur gryphus

[23]

 Costa Rica
Yigüirro (national bird)
Turdus grayi

[24]

White-tailed deer (national animal)
Odocoileus virginianus

[25]

West Indian manatee (national aquatic animal)
Trichechus manatus

[26]

 Croatia
Pine marten
Martes martes

[27][28]

 Cuba
Cuban trogon
Priotelus temnurus

[29][30]

 Cyprus
Cypriot mouflon
Ovis orientalis

[31]

 Czech Republic
Double-tailed lion
Mythical

[32]

 Denmark
Mute swan (national bird)
Cygnus olor

[33]

Small tortoiseshell (national butterfly)
Aglais urticae

[33]

 Egypt
Steppe eagle
Aquila nipalensis

[34]

 Estonia
Barn swallow (national bird)
Hirundo rustica

[35]

 Ethiopia
Lion
Panthera leo

[36]

 Finland
Brown bear (national animal)
Ursus arctos

[37]

Whooper swan (national bird)
Cygnus cygnus

[38]

 Faroe Islands
Eurasian oystercatcher (national bird)
Haematopus ostralgus

[39]

 France
Gallic rooster
Gallus gallus domesticus

[40]

 Germany
Unspecified Eagle
Members of Accipitridae

[41]

 Greece
Phoenix
Mythical

[42][43]

Dolphins
Delphinus

[44]

 Guatemala
Quetzal
Pharomachrus mocinno

[45]

 Haiti
Hispaniolan Trogan
Priotelus roseigaster

[46]

 Honduras
White-tailed deer
Odocoileus virginianus

[47]

 Hungary
Turul
Mythical (most probably Falco cherrug) [48]

 Iceland
Gyrfalcon
Falco rusticolus

[49]

 India
Bengal tiger (National predator)
Panthera tigris tigris

[50]

Indian peacock (National bird)
Pavo muticus

[51]

King cobra (National reptile)
Ophiophagus hannah

[52]

Ganges river dolphin (National aquatic animal)
Platanista gangetica gangetica

[53]

Indian elephant (National heritage animal)
Elephas maximus indicus

[54]

 Indonesia
Komodo dragon (national animal)
Varanus komodoensis

[55]

Garuda (historic national animal)
Mythical

[56]

 Iran
Persian lion
Panthera leo persica

[42]

 Iraq
Chukar partridge
Alectoris chukar

[57]

Goat
( KRG)
Capra aegagrus

[58]

 Israel
Hoopoe (national bird)
Upupa epops

[42]

 Jamaica
Red-billed streamertail
Trochilus polytmus

[59]

 Japan
Green pheasant (national bird)
Phasianus versicolor

[60]

Carp (national fish)
Cyprinus carpio

[61]

 Latvia
White wagtail (national bird)
Motacilla alba

[62][63]

Two-spotted ladybird (national insect)
Adalia bipunctata

[63]

 Lithuania
White stork
Ciconia ciconia

[64]

 Macedonia
Lion (in Macedonian heraldry)
Panthera leo

[65]

 Malaysia
Malayan tiger (national animal)
Panthera tigris jacksoni

[66]

 Malta
Pharaoh Hound (national animal)
Canis lupus familiaris

[1]

 Moldova
Aurochs (national animal)
Bos primigenius

[67]

 Mauritius
Dodo
Raphus cucullatus

[10][68][69]

 Mexico
Golden eagle (national animal)
Aquila Chrysaetos

[70]

Xoloitzcuintli (national dog)
Canis lupus familiaris

[70]

Jaguar (national mammal)
Panthera onca

[70]

Grasshopper (national arthropod )
Sphenarium purpurascens

[70]

Vaquita (national marine mammal)
Phocoena sinus

[70]

   Nepal
Cow (national animal)
Bos taurus indicus

[71]

Danphe (national bird)
Lophophorus impejanus

[72]

 Netherlands
Lion (heraldic symbol)
Panthera leo

[73]

Black-tailed godwit (national bird)
Limosa limosa

[74]

 New Zealand
Kiwi
Apteryx sp.

[75]

 North Korea
Chollima
Mythical

[76][77][78]

 Norway
Lion (royal national animal)
Panthera leo

[79]

White-throated dipper (national bird)
Cinclus cinclus

[80]

Fjord horse (national horse)
Equus ferus caballus

[81]

 Oman
Arabian oryx (national animal)
Oryx leucoryx

[82]

 Pakistan
Markhor (National animal)
Capra falconeri

[83]

Indus river dolphin (National aquatic mammal)
Platanista indicus minor minor

[83]

Chukar (National bird)
Alectoris chukar

[83]

Indus crocodile (National reptile)
Crocodylus palustris

[83]

Shaheen falcon (Heritage bird)
Falco peregrinus peregrinator

[84]

Snow leopard (National predator)
Panthera uncia

[83]

 Panama
Harpy eagle
Harpia harpyja

[10]

 Papua New Guinea
Dugong (national marine mammal)
Dugong dugon

[85]

 Peru
Vicuña (national animal)
Vicugna vicugna

[86]

 Philippines
Carabao (national animal)
Bubalus bubalis

[87]

Philippine eagle (national bird)
Pithecophaga jefferyi

[88]

 Poland
White-tailed eagle (national bird)
Haliaeetus albicilla

[89][90]

White stork (national bird)
Ciconia ciconia

[91]

European bison (national animal)
Bison bonasus

[92][93]

 Qatar
Arabian oryx
Oryx leucoryx

[94]

 Romania
Lynx
Lynx lynx

[95]

 Russia
Eurasian brown bear
Ursus arctos arctos

[96]

 Rwanda
Leopard
Panthera pardus

[97]

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
St Vincent parrot
Amazona guildingii

[98]

 Serbia
Wolf
Canis lupus lupus

[99]

White eagle
Mythical

[100]

Lynx
Lynx lynx

[101]

 Somalia
Leopard (national animal)
Panthera pardus

[102]

 South Africa
Springbok (national animal)
Antidorcas marsupialis

[103]

Blue crane (national bird)[103]
Anthropoides paradiseus

Galjoen (national fish)[103]
Dichistius capensis

 South Korea
Siberian tiger
Panthera tigris altaica

[104]

Korean magpie (national bird)
Pica (pica) sericea

[104]

 Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan junglefowl (national bird)
Gallus lafayettii

[105]

 Tanzania
Giraffe
Giraffa camelopardalis

[106][107][108]

 Thailand
Elephant
Elephas maximus

[109]

 Turkey
Grey wolf
Canis lupus

[110][111]

 United Arab Emirates
Arabian oryx (national animal)
Oryx leucoryx

[112]

Peregrine falcon (national bird)
Falco peregrinus

[112]

 United Kingdom
Lion (United Kingdom, England, Scotland, Wales)
Panthera leo

[113][114]

Bulldog (Britain as "British Bulldog")
Canis lupus familiaris

[115]

Red kite (Wales)
Milvus milvus

[116]

Unicorn (Scotland)
Mythical

[42][117][118][119][120]

Y Ddraig Goch (Welsh Dragon Wales)
Mythical

[116][121]

 United States
Bald eagle (national bird)
Haliaeetus leucocephalus

[122][123]

American bison (national mammal)
Bison bison

[124][125]


document_title: Andrews Liver Salts

question_text: what is the work of andrews liver salt

question_tokens: what is the work of andrews liver salt

text: Andrews Liver Salts

text: Andrews Liver Salts is a laxative and antacid for mild stomach complaints. It is sold as a powder which is added to water and mixed, creating effervescence, before being swallowed. The powder contains sugar; two antacids, sodium bicarbonate and citric acid; and a laxative, magnesium sulphate. The product is similar to Eno's salts and Kruschen salts, and a mild form of Epsom salts. The term "liver salts" or "health salts" is typically used for a laxative.

text: Andrews Liver Salts was first sold from 1894, by William Henry Scott and William Murdoch Turner. Their business in the north-east of England originally imported margarine in the 1870s and 1880s. Their offices were in Gallowgate, Newcastle upon Tyne, and the product was named after St Andrew's church nearby. The trademark "Andrews Liver Salt" was registered in 1909. From the 1930s, promotional materials recommended taking the salts for "inner cleanliness".

text: Scott and Turner's company merged with Charles Phillips, manufacturers of milk of magnesia, to become Phillips, Scott & Turner. The merged company was acquired by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug, in 1923, and later acquired by SmithKline Beecham. Andrews and Eno's salts are both now made by GlaxoSmithKline.