document_title: Arithmetic logic unit

question_text: what is the use of alu in computer

question_tokens: what is the use of alu in computer

text: Arithmetic logic unit

text: Signals[edit]

text: An ALU has a variety of input and output nets, which are the electrical conductors used to convey digital signals between the ALU and external circuitry. When an ALU is operating, external circuits apply signals to the ALU inputs and, in response, the ALU produces and conveys signals to external circuitry via its outputs.

text: Data[edit]

text: A basic ALU has three parallel data buses consisting of two input operands (A and B) and a result output (Y). Each data bus is a group of signals that conveys one binary integer number. Typically, the A, B and Y bus widths (the number of signals comprising each bus) are identical and match the native word size of the external circuitry (e.g., the encapsulating CPU or other processor).

text: Opcode[edit]

text: The opcode input is a parallel bus that conveys to the ALU an operation selection code, which is an enumerated value that specifies the desired arithmetic or logic operation to be performed by the ALU. The opcode size (its bus width) determines the maximum number of different operations the ALU can perform; for example, a four-bit opcode can specify up to sixteen different ALU operations. Generally, an ALU opcode is not the same as a machine language opcode, though in some cases it may be directly encoded as a bit field within a machine language opcode.

text: Status[edit]

text: Outputs[edit]

text: The status outputs are various individual signals that convey supplemental information about the result of the current ALU operation. General-purpose ALUs commonly have status signals such as:

text:
Carry-out, which conveys the carry resulting from an addition operation, the borrow resulting from a subtraction operation, or the overflow bit resulting from a binary shift operation.
Zero, which indicates all bits of Y are logic zero.
Negative, which indicates the result of an arithmetic operation is negative.
Overflow, which indicates the result of an arithmetic operation has exceeded the numeric range of Y.
Parity, which indicates whether an even or odd number of bits in Y are logic one.

text: At the end of each ALU operation, the status output signals are usually stored in external registers to make them available for future ALU operations (e.g., to implement multiple-precision arithmetic) or for controlling conditional branching. The collection of bit registers that store the status outputs are often treated as a single, multi-bit register, which is referred to as the "status register" or "condition code register".

text: Inputs[edit]

text: The status inputs allow additional information to be made available to the ALU when performing an operation. Typically, this is a single "carry-in" bit that is the stored carry-out from a previous ALU operation.

text: Circuit operation[edit]

text: An ALU is a combinational logic circuit, meaning that its outputs will change asynchronously in response to input changes. In normal operation, stable signals are applied to all of the ALU inputs and, when enough time (known as the "propagation delay") has passed for the signals to propagate through the ALU circuitry, the result of the ALU operation appears at the ALU outputs. The external circuitry connected to the ALU is responsible for ensuring the stability of ALU input signals throughout the operation, and for allowing sufficient time for the signals to propagate through the ALU before sampling the ALU result.

text: In general, external circuitry controls an ALU by applying signals to its inputs. Typically, the external circuitry employs sequential logic to control the ALU operation, which is paced by a clock signal of a sufficiently low frequency to ensure enough time for the ALU outputs to settle under worst-case conditions.

text: For example, a CPU begins an ALU addition operation by routing operands from their sources (which are usually registers) to the ALU's operand inputs, while the control unit simultaneously applies a value to the ALU's opcode input, configuring it to perform addition. At the same time, the CPU also routes the ALU result output to a destination register that will receive the sum. The ALU's input signals, which are held stable until the next clock, are allowed to propagate through the ALU and to the destination register while the CPU waits for the next clock. When the next clock arrives, the destination register stores the ALU result and, since the ALU operation has completed, the ALU inputs may be set up for the next ALU operation.

text: Functions[edit]

text: A number of basic arithmetic and bitwise logic functions are commonly supported by ALUs. Basic, general purpose ALUs typically include these operations in their repertoires:

text: Arithmetic operations[edit]

text:
Add: A and B are summed and the sum appears at Y and carry-out.
Add with carry: A, B and carry-in are summed and the sum appears at Y and carry-out.
Subtract: B is subtracted from A (or vice versa) and the difference appears at Y and carry-out. For this function, carry-out is effectively a "borrow" indicator. This operation may also be used to compare the magnitudes of A and B; in such cases the Y output may be ignored by the processor, which is only interested in the status bits (particularly zero and negative) that result from the operation.
Subtract with borrow: B is subtracted from A (or vice versa) with borrow (carry-in) and the difference appears at Y and carry-out (borrow out).
Two's complement (negate): A (or B) is subtracted from zero and the difference appears at Y.
Increment: A (or B) is increased by one and the resulting value appears at Y.
Decrement: A (or B) is decreased by one and the resulting value appears at Y.
Pass through: all bits of A (or B) appear unmodified at Y. This operation is typically used to determine the parity of the operand or whether it is zero or negative, or to load the operand into a processor register.

text: Bitwise logical operations[edit]

text:
AND: the bitwise AND of A and B appears at Y.
OR: the bitwise OR of A and B appears at Y.
Exclusive-OR: the bitwise XOR of A and B appears at Y.
Ones' complement: all bits of A (or B) are inverted and appear at Y.

text: Bit shift operations[edit]

text:
Bit shift examples for an eight-bit ALU

Type

Left shift

Right shift

Arithmetic

Logical

Rotate

Rotate through carry

text: ALU shift operations cause operand A (or B) to shift left or right (depending on the opcode) and the shifted operand appears at Y. Simple ALUs typically can shift the operand by only one bit position, whereas more complex ALUs employ barrel shifters that allow them to shift the operand by an arbitrary number of bits in one operation. In all single-bit shift operations, the bit shifted out of the operand appears on carry-out; the value of the bit shifted into the operand depends on the type of shift.

text:
Arithmetic shift: the operand is treated as a two's complement integer, meaning that the most significant bit is a "sign" bit and is preserved.
Logical shift: a logic zero is shifted into the operand. This is used to shift unsigned integers.
Rotate: the operand is treated as a circular buffer of bits so its least and most significant bits are effectively adjacent.
Rotate through carry: the carry bit and operand are collectively treated as a circular buffer of bits.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Multiple-precision arithmetic[edit]

text: In integer arithmetic computations, multiple-precision arithmetic is an algorithm that operates on integers which are larger than the ALU word size. To do this, the algorithm treats each operand as an ordered collection of ALU-size fragments, arranged from most-significant (MS) to least-significant (LS) or vice versa. For example, in the case of an 8-bit ALU, the 24-bit integer 0x123456 would be treated as a collection of three 8-bit fragments: 0x12 (MS), 0x34, and 0x56 (LS). Since the size of a fragment exactly matches the ALU word size, the ALU can directly operate on this "piece" of operand.

text: The algorithm uses the ALU to directly operate on particular operand fragments and thus generate a corresponding fragment (a "partial") of the multi-precision result. Each partial, when generated, is written to an associated region of storage that has been designated for the multiple-precision result. This process is repeated for all operand fragments so as to generate a complete collection of partials, which is the result of the multiple-precision operation.

text: In arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction), the algorithm starts by invoking an ALU operation on the operands' LS fragments, thereby producing both a LS partial and a carry out bit. The algorithm writes the partial to designated storage, whereas the processor's state machine typically stores the carry out bit to an ALU status register. The algorithm then advances to the next fragment of each operand's collection and invokes an ALU operation on these fragments along with the stored carry bit from the previous ALU operation, thus producing another (more significant) partial and a carry out bit. As before, the carry bit is stored to the status register and the partial is written to designated storage. This process repeats until all operand fragments have been processed, resulting in a complete collection of partials in storage, which comprise the multi-precision arithmetic result.

text: In multiple-precision shift operations, the order of operand fragment processing depends on the shift direction. In left-shift operations, fragments are processed LS first because the LS bit of each partial—which is conveyed via the stored carry bit—must be obtained from the MS bit of the previously left-shifted, less-significant operand. Conversely, operands are processed MS first in right-shift operations because the MS bit of each partial must be obtained from the LS bit of the previously right-shifted, more-significant operand.

text: In bitwise logical operations (e.g., logical AND, logical OR), the operand fragments may be processed in any arbitrary order because each partial depends only on the corresponding operand fragments (the stored carry bit from the previous ALU operation is ignored).

text: Complex operations[edit]

text: Although an ALU can be designed to perform complex functions, the resulting higher circuit complexity, cost, power consumption and larger size makes this impractical in many cases. Consequently, ALUs are often limited to simple functions that can be executed at very high speeds (i.e., very short propagation delays), and the external processor circuitry is responsible for performing complex functions by orchestrating a sequence of simpler ALU operations.

text: For example, computing the square root of a number might be implemented in various ways, depending on ALU complexity:

text:
Calculation in a single clock: a very complex ALU that calculates a square root in one operation.
Calculation pipeline: a group of simple ALUs that calculates a square root in stages, with intermediate results passing through ALUs arranged like a factory production line. This circuit can accept new operands before finishing the previous ones and produces results as fast as the very complex ALU, though the results are delayed by the sum of the propagation delays of the ALU stages.
Iterative calculation: a simple ALU that calculates the square root through several steps under the direction of a control unit.

text: The implementations above transition from fastest and most expensive to slowest and least costly. The square root is calculated in all cases, but processors with simple ALUs will take longer to perform the calculation because multiple ALU operations must be performed.

text: Implementation[edit]

text: An ALU is usually implemented either as a stand-alone integrated circuit (IC), such as the 74181, or as part of a more complex IC. In the latter case, an ALU is typically instantiated by synthesizing it from a description written in VHDL, Verilog or some other hardware description language. For example, the following VHDL code describes a very simple 8-bit ALU:

text: History[edit]

text: Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945 in a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC.[1]

text: The cost, size, and power consumption of electronic circuitry was relatively high throughout the infancy of the information age. Consequently, all serial computers and many early computers, such as the PDP-8, had a simple ALU that operated on one data bit at a time, although they often presented a wider word size to programmers. One of the earliest computers to have multiple discrete single-bit ALU circuits was the 1948 Whirlwind I, which employed sixteen of such "math units" to enable it to operate on 16-bit words.

text: In 1967, Fairchild introduced the first ALU implemented as an integrated circuit, the Fairchild 3800, consisting of an eight-bit ALU with accumulator.[2] Other integrated-circuit ALUs soon emerged, including four-bit ALUs such as the Am2901 and 74181. These devices were typically "bit slice" capable, meaning they had "carry look ahead" signals that facilitated the use of multiple interconnected ALU chips to create an ALU with a wider word size. These devices quickly became popular and were widely used in bit-slice minicomputers.

text: Microprocessors began to appear in the early 1970s. Even though transistors had become smaller, there was often insufficient die space for a full-word-width ALU and, as a result, some early microprocessors employed a narrow ALU that required multiple cycles per machine language instruction. Examples of this includes the popular Zilog Z80, which performed eight-bit additions with a four-bit ALU.[3] Over time, transistor geometries shrank further, following Moore's law, and it became feasible to build wider ALUs on microprocessors.

text: Modern integrated circuit (IC) transistors are orders of magnitude smaller than those of the early microprocessors, making it possible to fit highly complex ALUs on ICs. Today, many modern ALUs have wide word widths, and architectural enhancements such as barrel shifters and binary multipliers that allow them to perform, in a single clock cycle, operations that would have required multiple operations on earlier ALUs.


document_title: Congo River

question_text: why is the congo river not navigable for its entire course

root

text: Congo River

text: Name[edit]

text: The name Congo/Kongo river originates from the Kingdom of Kongo once located on the southern bank of the river. The kingdom in turn was named for the indigenous Bantu Kongo people, known in the 17th century as "Esikongo".[4] South of the Kingdom of Kongo proper lay the similarly named Kakongo kingdom, mentioned in 1535. Abraham Ortelius in his world map of 1564 labeled as "Manicongo" the city at the mouth of the river.[5]

tag: p

text: The tribal names in kongo possibly derive from a word for a public gathering or tribal assembly. The modern name of the Kongo people or Bakongo was introduced in the early 20th century.[citation needed]

text: The name Zaire is from a Portuguese adaptation of a Kikongo word, nzere ("river"), a truncation of nzadi o nzere ("river swallowing rivers").[6] The river was known as Zaire during the 16th and 17th centuries; Congo seems to have replaced Zaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century, and Congo is the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to Zahir or Zaire as the name used by the inhabitants remained common.[7]

text: The Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo are named after it, as was the previous Republic of the Congo which had gained independence in 1960 from the Belgian Congo.

text: The state of Zaire during 1971–1997 was also named after the river, after its name in French and Portuguese.

text: Basin and course[edit]

text: The Congo's drainage basin covers 4,014,500 square kilometres (1,550,000 sq mi).[1] The Congo's discharge at its mouth ranges from 23,000 to 75,000 cubic metres per second (810,000 to 2,650,000 cu ft/s), with an average of 41,000 cubic metres per second (1,400,000 cu ft/s).[1]

text: The river and its tributaries flow through the Congo Rainforest, the second largest rain forest area in the world, second only to the Amazon Rainforest in South America. The river also has the second-largest flow in the world, behind the Amazon; the third-largest drainage basin of any river, behind the Amazon and Plate rivers; and is one of the deepest rivers in the world, at depths greater than 220 m (720 ft).[2][8] Because its drainage basin includes areas both north and south of the equator, its flow is stable, as there is always at least one part of the river experiencing a rainy season.[9]

text: The sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru, which feed the Lualaba River, which then becomes the Congo below Boyoma Falls. The Chambeshi River in Zambia is generally taken as the source of the Congo in line with the accepted practice worldwide of using the longest tributary, as with the Nile River.

text: The Congo flows generally toward the northwest from Kisangani just below the Boyoma falls, then gradually bends southwestwards, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville) and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool, where the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), running by Matadi and Boma, and into the sea at the small town of Muanda.

text: The Congo River Basin is one of the distinct physiographic sections of the larger Mid-African province, which in turn is part of the larger African massive physiographic division.

text: Tributaries to the great Congo river[edit]

text: The drainage basin of the Congo River includes most of Central-Africa.The rivers inclouded are: Sorted in order from the mouth heading upstream.

text: Downstream of Kinshasa, there are no important tributaries.

text: Inkisi

tag: ul

text:
Kwa-Kassai (left) – 2150 km – 881,900 km2, 9,900 m3/s

Fimi

Lukenie

Kwango
Sankuru

Lefini (right)
Sangha (right) – 1,400 km, 213,400 km2, 750 m3/s

Kadéï

Ubangi/ (right) – 2,270 km, 772,800 km2, 4,000 m3/s

Mbomou
Uele

Tshuapa River (left) – 1,000 km
Lomami River (left) – 1,400 km

text: Upstream of Boyoma Falls near Kisangani, the river Congo is known as the Lualaba River.

text:
Luvua

Luapula

Chambeshi

text: Economic importance[edit]

text: Although the Livingstone Falls prevent access from the sea, nearly the entire Congo above them is readily navigable in sections, especially between Kinshasa and Kisangani. Large river steamers worked the river until quite recently.[when?] The Congo River still is a lifeline in a land with few roads or railways.[10]

text: Railways now bypass the three major falls, and much of the trade of Central Africa passes along the river, including copper, palm oil (as kernels), sugar, coffee, and cotton.[citation needed] The river is also potentially valuable for hydroelectric power, and the Inga Dams below Pool Malebo are first to exploit the Congo river.

text: Hydro-electric power[edit]

text: The Congo River is the most powerful river in Africa. During the rainy season over 50,000 cubic metres (1,800,000 cu ft) of water per second flow into the Atlantic Ocean. Opportunities for the Congo River and its tributaries to generate hydropower are therefore enormous. Scientists have calculated that the entire Congo Basin accounts for 13 percent of global hydropower potential. This would provide sufficient power for all of sub-Saharan Africa's electricity needs.[11]

text: Currently there are about forty hydropower plants in the Congo Basin. The largest are the Inga dams, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) southwest of Kinshasa. The project was launched in the early 1970s, when the first dam was completed.[12] The plan as originally conceived called for the construction of five dams that would have had a total generating capacity of 34,500 megawatts. To date only the Inga I and Inga II dams have been built, generating 1,776 MW.[11]

text: In February 2005, South Africa's state-owned power company, Eskom, announced a proposal to expand generation through improvements and the construction of a new hydroelectric dam. The project would bring the maximum output of the facility to 40 gigawatts (54,000,000 hp), twice that of China's Three Gorges Dam.[13]

text: It is feared that these new hydroelectric dams could lead to the extinction of many of the fish species that are native to the river.[14]

text: Natural history[edit]

text: The current course of the Congo River formed 1.5–2 million years BP, during the Pleistocene.[15]

text: The Congo's formation may have led to the allopatric speciation of the bonobo and the common chimpanzee from their most recent common ancestor.[16] The bonobo is endemic to the humid forests in the region, as are other iconic species like the Allen's swamp monkey, dryas monkey, aquatic genet, okapi, and Congo peafowl.[17][18]

text: In terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high species richness, and among the highest known concentrations of endemics.[19] Until now, almost 700 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin, and large sections remain virtually unstudied.[20] This is by far the highest diversity of any African river system (in comparison, the next richest are the Niger, Volta and Nile with about 210, 140 and 130 fish species, respectively).[21] Due to this and the great ecological differences between the regions in the Congo basin, it is often divided into multiple ecoregions (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion). Among these ecoregions, the Lower Congo Rapids alone has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics[14] while the southwestern part (Kasai Basin) alone has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic.[22] The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are Cyprinidae (carp/cyprinids, such as Labeo simpsoni), Mormyridae (elephantfishes), Alestidae (African tetras), Mochokidae (squeaker catfishes), and Cichlidae (cichlids).[23] Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous giant tigerfish. Three of the more unusual endemics are the whitish (non-pigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as 160 metres (520 ft) below the surface,[14] Heterochromis multidens, which appears to be more closely related to cichlids of the Americas than other African cichlids,[24] and Caecobarbus geertsii, the only known cavefish in Central Africa.[25] There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails.[23][26] Several hydroelectric dams are planned on the river, and these may lead to the extinction of many of the endemics.[14]

text: Several species of turtles, and the slender-snouted, Nile and dwarf crocodile are native to the Congo River Basin. African manatees inhabit the lower parts of the river.[27]

text: Exploration[edit]

text: The entire Congo basin is populated by Bantu peoples, divided into several hundred ethnic or tribal groups (see ethnic groups of the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Bantu expansion is estimated to have reached the Middle Congo by about 500 BC, and the Upper Congo by the first century AD. Remnants of the aboriginal population displaced by the Bantu migration, Pygmies/Abatwa of the Ubangian phylum, remain in the remote forest areas of the Congo basin.

text: The Kingdom of Kongo was formed around 1400 on the left banks of the lower Congo River. Its territorial control along the river remained limited to what corresponds to the modern Bas-Congo province. European exploration of the Congo begins in 1482, when Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão discovered the river estuary[28] (likely in August 1482), which he marked by a Padrão, or stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark Point. Cão also sailed up the river for a short distance, establishing contact with the Kingdom of Congo. The full course of the river remained unknown throughout the early modern period.[29]

text: The upper Congo basin runs west of the Albertine Rift.[28] Its connection to the Congo was unknown until 1877. The extreme northeast of the Congo basin was reached by the Nilotic expansion at some point between the 15th and 18th centuries, by the ancestors of the Southern Luo speaking Alur people. Francisco de Lacerda following the Zambezi reached the uppermost part of the Congo basin (the Kazembe in the upper Luapula basin) in 1796.

text: The upper Congo River, known as the Lualaba was first reached by the Arab slave trade by the 19th century. Nyangwe was founded as a slavers' outpost around 1860. David Livingstone was the first European to reach Nyangwe in March 1871.[28] Livingstone proposed to prove that the Lualaba connected to the Nile, but on 15 July, he witnessed a massacre of about 400 Africans by Arab slavers in Nyangwe, which experience left him too horrified and shattered to continue his mission to find the sources of the Nile, so he turned back to Lake Tanganyika.[30][31]

text: The middle reaches of the Congo remained unexplored from either the east or west, until Henry Morton Stanley's expedition of 1876–77. At the time one of the last open questions of the exploration of Africa (or indeed of the world) whether the Lualaba River fed the Nile (Livingstone's theory), the Congo[32] or even the Niger. Financed in 1874, Stanley's first trans-Africa exploration started in Zanzibar, and reached the Lualaba on October 17, 1876. Overland he reached Nyangwe, the centre of a lawless area containing cannibal tribes at which Tippu Tip based his trade in slaves. Stanley managed to hire a force from Tippu Tip, to guard him for the next 150 kilometres (90 mi) or so, for 90 days. The party left Nyangwe overland through the dense Matimba forest. On November 19 they reached the Lualaba again. Since the going through the forest was so heavy, Tippu Tip turned around with his party on December 28, leaving Stanley on his own, with 143 people, including 8 children and 16 women. They had 23 canoes. His first encounter with a local tribe was with the cannibal Wenya. In total Stanley would report 32 unfriendly meetings on the river, some violent, even though he attempted to negotiate a peaceful thoroughfare. But the tribes were wary as their only experience of outsiders was of slave traders.

text: On January 6, 1877, after 640 kilometres (400 mi), they reached Boyoma Falls (called Stanley Falls for some time after), consisting of seven cataracts spanning 100 kilometres (60 mi) which they had to bypass overland. It took them to February 7 to reach the end of the falls. Here Stanley learned that the river was called Ikuta Yacongo,[33] proving to him that he had reached the Congo, and that the Lualaba did not feed the Nile.

text: From this point, the tribes were no longer cannibals, but possessed firearms, apparently as a result of Portuguese influence. Some four weeks and 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi) later he reached Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo), the site of the present day cities Kinshasa and Brazzaville. Further downstream were the Livingstone Falls, misnamed as Livingstone had never been on the Congo: a series of 32 falls and rapids with a fall of 270 metres (900 ft) over 350 kilometres (220 mi). On 15 March they started the descent of the falls, which took five months and cost numerous lives. From the Isangile Falls, five falls from the foot, they beached the canoes and Lady Alice and left the river, aiming for the Portuguese outpost of Boma via land. On August 3 they reached the hamlet Nsada. From there Stanley sent four men with letters forward to Boma, asking for food for his starving people. On August 7 relief came, being sent by representatives from the Liverpool trading firm Hatton & Cookson. On August 9 they reached Boma, 1,001 days since leaving Zanzibar on November 12, 1874. The party then consisted of 108 people, including three children born during the trip. Most probably (Stanley's own publications give inconsistent figures), he lost 132 people through disease, hunger, drowning, killing and desertion.[34]

text: Kinshasa was founded as a trading post by Stanley in 1881 and named Léopoldville in honour of Leopold II of Belgium. The Congo basin was claimed by Belgium as Congo Free State in 1885.

text: River crossings in the Congo Basin[edit]

text: The Congo river basin is notable for the mere absence of bridges crossing the main rivers, although there are a number of ferries available for crossing the great Congo river and the major tributaries.

text: Bridges on the Congo proper and Lualaba[edit]

text: There are only two bridges on the Congo river proper and main tributary, which both are found in the DR Congo:

text:
The Matadi Bridge, 148 km from the rivermouth, at the port of Matadi in the Kongo Central province.
The Kongolo Bridge on the Lualaba River, some 3,900 km along the tributary from the rivermouth, near the town Kongolo, in the eastern province Katanga.

text: Bridges on the Uele and Kibali rivers[edit]

text: There are one bridge on the Uele River, and two on the Kibali River, which all lies in the northern province Haut-Uele of DR Congo:

text:
The Niangara Bridge on the Uele, some 2,000 km along the tributary from the rivermouth, near the town Niangara.
The Dungu Bridge on the Kibali, some 2,050 km along the tributary from the rivermouth, near the town Dungu, at the confluence of Dungu and Kibali rivers, where the Uele river is formed.
The Kalimva Bridge on the Kibali, some 2,250 km along the tributary from the rivermouth, near the town Kalimva.

text: Bridges on the Lulua river[edit]

text: There are two bridges on the Lulua river in the provice of Kasai of DR Congo:

text:
At the town of Luebo.
Near the town of Kananga.

text: Ferries on the Congo proper[edit]

text: Angola - DR Congo border:

text: Lower Congo (Matadi - Pioka):

text:
Mafuambo - Kinganga, some 200 km from the mouth.
Near Luozi, some 250 km from the mouth.

text: DR Congo - Congo Republic border:

text: Kinshasa - Brazzaville, the ferry between the twin capitals.

text: Upper Congo (Irebu - Ubundu):

text:
Near Isangi, some 1250 km from the mouth.
At Kisangani, some 1500 km from the mouth.
At Ubundu, some 1700 km from the mouth

text: Ferries on the Kasai River and tributaries[edit]

text:
Near Bandundu on the Kasai River.
At Bandundu on the Kwango River.
Near Bandundu on the Bunzili River.
At Loange on the Loange River.

text: Ferry on the Ubangi river[edit]

text:
DR Congo - Central African Republic border:

Zongo - Bangui

text: Ferry on the Mbomou river[edit]

text:
DR Congo - Central African Republic border:

Ndu - Bangassou

text: Ferries on the Lulua river[edit]

text:
Near the township of Tshinkenke, in the province of Kasai in DR Congo.
Near the township of Mpungu, in the province of Kasai in DR Congo.

text: Ferries on the Uele river[edit]

text:
Uele river crossing at Bondo.
Uele river crossing at Malengoya.
Uele river crossing at Bambili.

text: On the minor tributaries of the great Congo there are noumerous river crossings, which cannot be included here.


document_title: Land of Oz (theme park)

question_text: where is the wizard of oz theme park in north carolina

text: Land of Oz (theme park)

text:
Land of Oz

Location
Beech Mountain, North Carolina, U.S.

Coordinates
36°11′07″N 81°52′49″W / 36.1853°N 81.8804°W / 36.1853; -81.8804Coordinates: 36°11′07″N 81°52′49″W / 36.1853°N 81.8804°W / 36.1853; -81.8804

Owner
Emerald Mountain, Inc.

Opened
1970

Closed
1980

Operating season
Weekly in June, First Weekend of September, October

Area
17.82 acres (72,100 m2)

Rides

Roller coasters
0

Water rides
0

tag: table

text: The Land of Oz is currently a private property located in the resort town of Beech Mountain, North Carolina, USA. It was opened in 1970 by Carolina Caribbean Corporation under the guidance of Grover Robbins, who had been successful with Tweetsie Railroad, and designed by Jack Pentes. It was fully operational until 1980. It now opens for Fridays in June for "Journey with Dorothy Tours" and in September for Autumn at Oz - the largest Wizard of Oz festival in the country. Visitors start off in Kansas, "experience" the tornado which struck Dorothy's house, and walk down the Yellow Brick Road to visit with the Scarecrow, Tin Woodman, the Cowardly Lion and the Wicked Witch of the West. The original Emerald City consisted of gift shops and an ampitheater that the Magic Moment Show would be staged every half hour. An artificial balloon ride, a specially modified ski lift installed by Goforth Brothers, allowed visitors to get a bird's-eye view of the park and mountain scenery before leaving Oz. A small museum showcased props and costumes from the MGM film, including one of Judy Garland's Dorothy dresses. This was jointly bought by the park and Debbie Reynolds from MGM.[citation needed]

text: The musical tracks that were lip-synced by the characters on the Yellow Brick Road and at Emerald City were composed by notables Alec Wilder and North Carolina native Loonis McGlohon (with the exception of E.Y. Harburg and Harold Arlen's "Over the Rainbow" for which rights were obtained to integrate into the Emerald City show).

text: A video and display of The Land of Oz were on exhibit at the Appalachian Cultural Museum, part of Appalachian State University, in Boone, North Carolina but the museum closed and the artifacts were returned to the park.[1]

text: History[edit]

text: Land of Oz opened in 1970 with the intention of extending the ski resort to be a 'year-round' attraction by offering an attraction at the pinnacle of Beech Mountain. A ski lift was specially designed to become the hot air balloon ride which has since been redeployed to be a ski lift on the back bowl, now Oz run, of Ski Beech. In later years, characters from the story conducted tours, but the original design was for the visitor to assume the role of Dorothy – experiencing everything from Kansas to tornado to the meeting the characters on the yellow brick road to Oz. The visit culminated in Emerald City, where Dorothy appeared with her friends to meet the Wizard.

text: The park was the top attraction in the southeast the first year. Its opening day in 1970 attracted 4,000 visitors.[2] Dampened by the death of owner Grover Robbins a few months before the park opened, the driving force to keep the park as a special experience gave way to commercial necessities foisted on Carolina Caribbean Corp (CCC) by the downturn in real estate sales. A failed investment in St. Croix left CCC bankrupt the later part of 1975. On Sunday, December 28, 1975, a fire was set to the Emerald City Ampitheater, and surrounding gifts shops. Two buildings were destroyed, along with the park's offices, costumes, sound equipment, and props. At the same time, many items were stolen from the park's museum, including Judy Garland's Dorothy dress. There is some speculation that the fires were set by disgruntled employees.[citation needed] Land of Oz would be rebuilt and managed by a new company, but it never recouped. It would finally close in 1980.[3]

text: After the park was closed much of it fell into disrepair. Props were vandalized, stolen, or left exposed to the elements. Some of the park was saved, including most of the yellow brick road, a few munchkin houses, some of the later costumes, and sections of the witch's castle were preserved.[1] On July 4, 1991, the park was re-opened for the day as part of the town of Beech Mountain's Independence Day celebration and as a kickoff to the redevelopment of the property into a condo complex. Visitors rode the ski lift up from the base of the adjacent Ski Beech. Watauga High School in nearby Boone, N.C. had staged a production of The Wizard of Oz as its spring musical a few months earlier and the student actors appeared in character and in costume to greet visitors as they came off the ski lift. Visitors then made their way to Dorothy's house, which was then the home of the property's owner, Alex Hufty Hays, and viewed a collection of original costumes and props from the 1939 movie. A year or so prior to this event, Appalachian State University in Boone opened its Appalachian Cultural Museum, which featured props and costumes from the theme park. The floor in this portion of the museum was paved with surplus yellow bricks that had been donated by their manufacturer, Sanford Brick, which had been made for the park but never used.

text: The owners of the land began restoring portions of the park over the upcoming years. In the mid-nineties, the Autumn at Oz event began as a reunion for original park employees. This quickly grew in popularity as an annual public event, and by 2009 the festival had over 8,500 people attending. The event has expanded to include all of the characters from The Wizard of Oz, shows, Museum, Emerald City set up, Omaha Vendor Fair, Petting Zoo, Pony Rides, and other activities within the Oz Theme. Money raised during this event go back into renovations and upkeep of the park, as well as adding new attractions each year.

text: In 2011, the park hosted the International Wizard of Oz Club and some of the original 1970 cast returned to share photos and tales from the original inspiration of Jack Pentes.[3] By 2013, the Land of Oz expanded openings to include "Journey with Dorothy," a guided tour through Oz every Friday in June during Beech Mountain's Family Fun Month. In 2018, it was announced a new yearly event is to be introduced.

text: Urban explorers often visit the park, shooting photos near or stealing relics from the site, including pieces of the yellow brick road.[4]

text: The park has an annual Autumn of Oz event. Also, in June 2018, the park is scheduled to open for tours led by Dorothy, with some guests playing other characters, on Fridays and on June 30.[5]


document_title: Andes

question_text: what is the most common type of vegetation in the andes

text: Andes

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means "east"[1] as in Antisuyu (Quechua for "east region"),[1] one of the four regions of the Inca Empire.

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Andes can be divided into three sections:

text:
The Southern Andes (south of Llullaillaco) in Argentina and Chile;
The Central Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia
The Northern Andes (north of the Nudo de Pasto) in Venezuela and Colombia, which consist of three parallel ranges, the western, central, and eastern (the cordillera occidental, central, and oriental).

tag: ol

text: In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word "cordel",[2] meaning "rope". The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres (398 mi) wide. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates.[3]

text: Geology[edit]

text:
Geology of the Andes

Orogenies

Pampean orogeny

Famatinian orogeny

Gondwanide orogeny

Andean orogeny

Fold-thrust belts

Central Andean | Patagonian

Batholiths

Peruvian Coastal | North Patagonian | South Patagonian

Subducted structures

Antarctic Plate | Carnegie Ridge | Chile Rise | Farallon Plate (formerly) | Juan Fernández Ridge | Nazca Plate | Nazca Ridge

Faults

Gastre | Liquiñe-Ofqui | Magallanes-Fagnano

Andean Volcanic Belt

Northern Zone| Peruvian flat-slab | Central Zone | Pampean flat-slab | Southern Zone | Patagonian Gap | Austral Zone

Paleogeographic terminology

Arequipa-Antofalla | Chilenia | Chiloé Block | Cuyania | Iapetus Ocean | Madre de Dios Terrane | Mejillonia | Pampia

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text: The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.

text: The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines. The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S.[4][5] At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile and Argentina.[5] The Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively.[5][6] The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening.[4] The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow".[7] Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30° S and 38°S with a break in trend at 33° S.[clarification needed][8] Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.[9]

text: Orogeny[edit]

text: The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic, when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana.

text: The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began to break up that resulted in developing several rifts. The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, where different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion.

text: Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate. Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.[citation needed]

text: The regions immediately east of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of earth being overridden by the Andes.[10] The Sierras de Córdoba, where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary.[11] Further south in southern Patagonia the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic.[12]

text: Volcanism[edit]

text: The Andes range has many active volcanoes, which are distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighbouring volcanoes. Despite being a type location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.

text: Ore deposits and evaporates[edit]

text: The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits and some of their eastern fold and thrust belt acts as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons. In the forelands of the Atacama desert some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occurs making Chile and Peru the first and second largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water. The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni, the first one being the largest source of lithium today and the second the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí.

text: Climate and hydrology[edit]

text: The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow-covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,800 and 15,700 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,700–17,100 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level.[13]

text: The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided in two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of Atacama Desert to the area of Maule River, precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area.

text: In the high Andes of central Chile and Mendoza Province, rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation.[14]

text: Though precipitation increases with the height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7000 m towering highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, as e.g. the Plomo glacier and the Horcones glaciers do not even reach 10 km in length and have an only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20 000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes they flowed down to 2060 m and on the west side to c. 1220 m asl.[15][16] The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua (6,961 m), Cerro Tupungato (6,550 m) and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km long, over 1020, i.e. 1250 m thick and overspanned a vertical distance of 5150 altitude metres. The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from currently 4600 m to 3200 m at glacial times.[15][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]

text: Flora[edit]

text: The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions due to its extension from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert. Rainforests and tropical dry forests[25] used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. As a direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.

text: About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot.[26] The small tree Cinchona pubescens, a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria, is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes. The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains.[27]

text: Fauna[edit]

text: The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 3,500 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for amphibians.[26] The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptile (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic).[26]

text: The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions.[28][29] The Andean condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.[30] Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul, cougar, foxes in the genus Pseudalopex,[28][29] and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of the genus Nothoprocta), Andean goose, giant coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea, Andean flicker, diademed sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches.[30]

text: Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe[30] and Titicaca water frog.[31] A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("cloud forests") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina.[30] These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir, spectacled bear and yellow-tailed woolly monkey.[28]

text: Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain-toucans, quetzals and the Andean cock-of-the-rock, while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids commonly are seen – in contrast to several vocal but typically cryptic species of wrens, tapaculos and antpittas.[30]

text: A number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white-browed tit-spinetail are associated with Polylepis, and consequently also threatened.[30]

text: Human activity[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Andes Mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management.[32] The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today.

text: Devastated by European diseases to which they had no immunity and civil wars, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu, which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.

text: Cities[edit]

text: In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are Bogotá, Colombia, with a population of about eight million, Santiago, Chile, and Medellin, Colombia. Lima is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes, and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the Andean Community of Nations.

text: La Paz, Bolivia's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto, extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft).

text: Other cities in or near the Andes include Arequipa, Cusco, and Huancayo in Peru; Quito and Cuenca in Ecuador; Cochabamba, Oruro, and Sucre in Bolivia; Mendoza, Tucumán, Salta, and San Juan in Argentina; Rancagua in Chile; Cali, Cúcuta, Bucaramanga, Pereira, Pasto, Villavicencio, and Manizales in Colombia; and Barquisimeto, San Cristóbal, Mérida, and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of Caracas, Valencia, and Maracay are in the Venezuelan Coastal Range, which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extreme of South America.

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Cities and large towns are connected with asphalt-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle.[33]

text: The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores. Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected.[34] Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.

text: However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Argentina via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. See railroad maps of that region.

text: There is one or more highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay, in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.

text: For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile, the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Argentina out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been a completely landlocked country ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978.

text: Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles are of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Locally, the relatives of the camel, the llama, and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys, mules, and horses are also useful.

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha, important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca, despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine.

text: Irrigation[edit]

text: In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans and wheat).

text: Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops which guarantees an early yield in the period of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (till 3800 m). In addition it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot.[35]

text: Mining[edit]

text: The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined in large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were one of the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina[36] derive their names from the silver of Potosí.

text: Currently, mining in the Andes of Chile and Peru places these countries as the first and third major producers of copper in the world. Peru also contains the 4th largest goldmine in the world: the Yanacocha. The Bolivian Andes produce principally tin although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the economy of 17th century Europe.

text: There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are important.

text:
Chilean huasos, 19th century

The mountain Huayna Picchu overlooks the Inca estate (land) of Machu Picchu.

text: Peaks[edit]

text: This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below).

text: Argentina[edit]

text:
Aconcagua, 6,961 m (22,838 ft)
Cerro Bonete, 6,759 m (22,175 ft)
Galán, 5,912 m (19,396 ft)
Mercedario, 6,720 m (22,047 ft)
Pissis, 6,795 m (22,293 ft)

text:
Llao Llao Hotel with the Andes in the background, in the city of Bariloche, Argentina

The Aconcagua, Argentina, the highest mountain in the Americas and in the entire world outside the Himalayas

El Chaltén, Argentina

Mount Fitz Roy

text: Border between Argentina and Chile[edit]

text:
Cerro Bayo, 5,401 m (17,720 ft)
Cerro Fitz Roy, 3,375 m (11,073 ft) or 3,405 m, Patagonia, also known as Cerro Chaltén
Cerro Escorial, 5,447 m (17,871 ft)
Cordón del Azufre, 5,463 m (17,923 ft)
Falso Azufre, 5,890 m (19,324 ft)
Incahuasi, 6,620 m (21,719 ft)
Lastarria, 5,697 m (18,691 ft)
Llullaillaco, 6,739 m (22,110 ft)
Maipo, 5,264 m (17,270 ft)
Marmolejo, 6,110 m (20,046 ft)
Ojos del Salado, 6,893 m (22,615 ft)
Olca, 5,407 m (17,740 ft)
Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas, 6,127 m (20,102 ft)
Socompa, 6,051 m (19,852 ft)
Nevado Tres Cruces, 6,749 m (22,142 ft) (south summit) (III Region)
Tronador, 3,491 m (11,453 ft)
Tupungato, 6,570 m (21,555 ft)
Nacimiento, 6,492 m (21,299 ft)

text: Bolivia[edit]

text:
Janq'u Uma, 6,427 m (21,086 ft)
Cabaraya, 5,860 m (19,226 ft)
Chacaltaya, 5,421 m (17,785 ft)
Wayna Potosí, 6,088 m (19,974 ft)
Illampu, 6,368 m (20,892 ft)
Illimani, 6,438 m (21,122 ft)
Laram Q'awa, 5,520 m (18,110 ft)
Macizo de Pacuni, 5,400 m (17,720 ft)
Nevado Anallajsi, 5,750 m (18,865 ft)
Nevado Sajama, 6,542 m (21,463 ft)
Patilla Pata, 5,300 m (17,390 ft)
Tata Sabaya, 5,430 m (17,815 ft)

text:
Illampu, Bolivia

Illimani, Bolivia

Sajama, Bolivia

Wayna Potosí, Bolivia

text: Border between Bolivia and Chile[edit]

text:
Acotango, 6,052 m (19,856 ft)
Michincha, 5,305 m (17,405 ft)
Iru Phutunqu, 5,163 m (16,939 ft)
Licancabur, 5,920 m (19,423 ft)
Olca, 5,407 m (17,740 ft)
Parinacota, 6,348 m (20,827 ft)
Paruma, 5,420 m (17,782 ft)
Pomerape, 6,282 m (20,610 ft)

text:
Licancabur, Bolivia/Chile

Parinacota, Bolivia/Chile

text: Chile[edit]

text:
Monte San Valentin, 4,058 m (13,314 ft)
Cerro Paine Grande, 2,884 m (9,462 ft)
Cerro Macá, c.2,300 m (7,546 ft)
Monte Darwin, c.2,500 m (8,202 ft)
Volcan Hudson, c.1,900 m (6,234 ft)
Cerro Castillo Dynevor, c.1,100 m (3,609 ft)
Mount Tarn, c.825 m (2,707 ft)
Polleras, c.5,993 m (19,662 ft)
Acamarachi, c.6,046 m (19,836 ft)

text:
Santiago de Chile on the western slopes of a snowcapped Andes

View of Cuernos del Paine in Torres del Paine National Park

text: Colombia[edit]

text:
Nevado del Huila, 5,365 m (17,602 ft)
Nevado del Ruiz, 5,321 m (17,457 ft)
Nevado del Tolima, 5,205 m (17,077 ft)
Pico Pan de Azucar, 5,200 m (17,060 ft)
Ritacuba Negra, 5,320 m (17,454 ft)
Nevado del Cumbal, 4,764 m (15,630 ft)
Cerro Negro de Mayasquer, 4,445 m (14,583 ft)
Ritacuba Blanco, 5,410 m (17,749 ft)
Nevado del Quindío, 5,215 m (17,110 ft)
Purace, 4,655 m (15,272 ft)
Santa Isabel, 4,955 m (16,257 ft)
Doña Juana, 4,150 m (13,615 ft)
Galeras, 4,276 m (14,029 ft)
Azufral. 4,070 m (13,353 ft)

text:
Ritacuba Blanco, the highest peak of Cordillera Oriental, Colombia.

Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia

text: Ecuador[edit]

text:
Antisana, 5,752 m (18,871 ft)
Cayambe, 5,790 m (18,996 ft)
Chimborazo, 6,268 m (20,564 ft)
Corazón, 4,790 m (15,715 ft)
Cotopaxi, 5,897 m (19,347 ft)
El Altar, 5,320 m (17,454 ft)
Illiniza, 5,248 m (17,218 ft)
Pichincha, 4,784 m (15,696 ft)
Quilotoa, 3,914 m (12,841 ft)
Reventador, 3,562 m (11,686 ft)
Sangay, 5,230 m (17,159 ft)
Tungurahua, 5,023 m (16,480 ft)
Titicaca, 5,035 m (16,519 ft)

text:
Chimborazo near Riobamba, Ecuador

Tungurahua, Ecuador

Cayambe, Ecuador

El Altar, Ecuador

Cotopaxi, Ecuador

Andes near Otavalo, Ecuador

Pichincha Volcano, an active stratovolcano in the Ecuadorian Andes, photographed from the Historic Center of Quito

Imbabura Volcano, Ecuador, an inactive stratovolcano

text: Peru[edit]

text:
Alpamayo, 5,947 m (19,511 ft)
Artesonraju, 6,025 m (19,767 ft)
Carnicero, 5,960 m (19,554 ft)
Chumpe, 6,106 m (20,033 ft)
Coropuna, 6,377 m (20,922 ft)
El Misti, 5,822 m (19,101 ft)
El Toro, 5,830 m (19,127 ft)
Huandoy, 6,395 m (20,981 ft)
Huascarán, 6,768 m (22,205 ft)
Jirishanca, 6,094 m (19,993 ft)
Pumasillo, 5,991 m (19,656 ft)
Rasac, 6,040 m (19,816 ft)
Rondoy, 5,870 m (19,259 ft)
Sarapo, 6,127 m (20,102 ft)
Salcantay, 6,271 m (20,574 ft)
Seria Norte, 5,860 m (19,226 ft)
Siula Grande, 6,344 m (20,814 ft)
Huaytapallana, 5,557 m (18,232 ft)
Yerupaja, 6,635 m (21,768 ft)
Yerupaja Chico, 6,089 m (19,977 ft)

text:
Alpamayo, Peru

Chachani and El Misti, Peru

Huandoy, Peru

Yerupaja, Peru

text: Venezuela[edit]

text:
Pico Bolívar, 5,007 m (16,427 ft)
Pico Humboldt, 4,940 m (16,207 ft)
Pico Bonpland, 4,880 m (16,010 ft)
Pico La Concha, 4,920 m (16,142 ft)
Pico Piedras Blancas, 4,740 m (15,551 ft)
Pico El Águila, 4,180 m (13,714 ft)
Pico El Toro 4,729 m (15,515 ft)
Pico El León 4,740 m (15,551 ft)
Pico Mucuñuque 4,609 m (15,121 ft)

text:
Pico Bolívar, Venezuela

Pico Humboldt, Venezuela

Pico El León, Venezuela

Snow in the Pico Humboldt, Venezuela

Pico Pan de Azúcar, Venezuela


document_title: List of Green Bay Packers players

question_text: who wore number 88 for the green bay packers

text: List of Green Bay Packers players

text: All-time roster[edit]

text:
Green Bay Packers players: A-D
Green Bay Packers players: E-K
Green Bay Packers players: L-R
Green Bay Packers players: S-Z

text: Current players[edit]

text:
Green Bay Packers roster

view
talk
edit

Quarterbacks

 7 Brett Hundley
12 Aaron Rodgers

Running backs

33 Aaron Jones
32 Devante Mays
88 Ty Montgomery
22 Aaron Ripkowski FB
30 Jamaal Williams

Wide receivers

17 Davante Adams
81 Geronimo Allison
18 Randall Cobb
11 Trevor Davis
83 Jeff Janis
87 Jordy Nelson

Tight ends

80 Martellus Bennett
84 Lance Kendricks
82 Richard Rodgers

Offensive linemen

69 David Bakhtiari T
75 Bryan Bulaga T
73 Jahri Evans G
63 Corey Linsley C
64 Justin McCray C
68 Kyle Murphy T
77 Adam Pankey T
62 Lucas Patrick G
78 Jason Spriggs T
65 Lane Taylor G

Defensive linemen

90 Montravius Adams DE
97 Kenny Clark NT
76 Mike Daniels DE
91 Quinton Dial NT
94 Dean Lowry DE

Linebackers

55 Ahmad Brooks OLB
51 Kyler Fackrell OLB
50 Blake Martinez ILB
52 Clay Matthews III OLB
98 Chris Odom OLB
53 Nick Perry OLB
47 Jake Ryan ILB
48 Joe Thomas ILB

Defensive backs

29 Kentrell Brice FS
42 Morgan Burnett SS
21 Ha Ha Clinton-Dix FS
25 Marwin Evans SS
28 Josh Hawkins CB
31 Davon House CB
27 Josh Jones SS
20 Kevin King CB
41 Lenzy Pipkins CB
23 Damarious Randall CB
24 Quinten Rollins CB

Special teams

 2 Mason Crosby K
61 Brett Goode LS
 8 Justin Vogel P

Reserve lists

67 Don Barclay C (IR)
45 Vince Biegel OLB (PUP)
39 Demetri Goodson CB (PUP)
57 David Talley OLB (IR)
26 Herb Waters CB (IR)

Practice squad

79 Kofi Amichia G
44 Donatello Brown CB
 6 Joe Callahan QB
89 Michael Clark WR
93 Reggie Gilbert OLB
72 Darrell Greene G
71 Izaah Lunsford DE
49 Derrick Mathews ILB
35 Jermaine Whitehead FS
10 DeAngelo Yancey WR

Rookies in italics
Roster updated September 13, 2017
Depth chart • Transactions
53 Active, 5 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
→ AFC rosters → NFC rosters

AFC East
BUF
MIA
NE
NYJ
North
BAL
CIN
CLE
PIT
South
HOU
IND
JAX
TEN
West
DEN
KC
LAC
OAK

NFC East
DAL
NYG
PHI
WAS
North
CHI
DET
GB
MIN
South
ATL
CAR
NO
TB
West
ARI
LAR
SF
SEA

text: Pro Football Hall of Famers[edit]

text:
26 Herb Adderly
3 Tony Canadeo
87 Willie Davis
Len Ford
75 Forrest Gregg
83 Ted Hendricks
38 Arnie Herber
30 Clarke Hinkle
5 Paul Hornung
36 Cal Hubbard
14 Don Hutson
74 Henry Jordan
Dave Robinson
2 Walt Kiesling
1 Earl (Curly) Lambeau
80 James Lofton
Vince Lombardi
24 Johnny "Blood" McNally
2 Mike Michalske
66 Ray Nitschke
51 Jim Ringo
15 Bart Starr
10 Jan Stenerud
31 Jim Taylor
Emlen Tunnell
92 Reggie White
24 Willie Wood
4 Brett Favre

text: Retired numbers[edit]

text:
#3 Tony Canadeo
#4 Brett Favre
#14 Don Hutson
#15 Bart Starr
#66 Ray Nitschke
#92 Reggie White

text: Packers Hall of Fame[edit]

text: First-round draft picks[edit]

text:
Russ Letlow – (1936)
Eddie Jankowski – (1937)
Cecil Isbell – (1938)
Larry Buhler – (1939)
Hal Van Every – (1940)
George Paskvan – (1941)
Urban Odson – (1942)
Dick Wildung – (1943)
Merv Pregulman – (1944)
Walt Schlinkman – (1945)
Johnny Strzykalski – (1946)
Ernie Case – (1947)
Earl "Jug" Girard – (1948)
Stan Heath – (1949)
Clayton Tonnemaker – (1950)
Bob Gain – (1951)
Babe Parilli – (1952)
Al Carmichael – (1953)
Art Hunter – (1954)
Veryl Switzer – (1954)
Tom Bettis – (1955)
Jack Losch – (1956)
Paul Hornung – (1957)
Ron Kramer – (1957)

Dan Currie – (1958)
Randy Duncan – (1959)
Tom Moore – (1960)
Herb Adderly – (1961)
Earl Gros – (1962)
Dave Robinson – (1963)
Lloyd Voss – (1964)
Donny Anderson – (1965)
Larry Elkins – (1965)
Jim Grabowski – (1966)
Gale Gillingham – (1966)
Bob Hyland – (1967)
Don Horn – (1967)
Fred Carr – (1968)
Bill Lueck – (1968)
Rich Moore – (1969)
Mike McCoy – (1970)
Rich McGeorge – (1970)
John Brockington – (1971)
Willie Buchanon – (1972)
Jerry Tagge – (1972)
Barry Smith – (1973)

Barty Smith – (1974)
Mark Koncar – (1976)
Mike Butler – (1977)
Ezra Johnson – (1977)
James Lofton – (1978)
John Anderson – (1978)
Eddie Lee Ivery – (1979)
Bruce Clark – (1980)
George Cumby – (1980)
Rich Campbell – (1981)
Ron Hallstrom – (1982)
Tim Lewis – (1983)
Alphonso Carreker – (1984)
Ken Ruettgers – (1985)
Brent Fullwood – (1987)
Sterling Sharpe – (1988)
Tony Mandarich – (1989)
Tony Bennett – (1990)
Darrell Thompson – (1990)
Vinnie Clark – (1991)
Terrell Buckley – (1992)
Wayne Simmons – (1993)

George Teague – (1993)
Aaron Taylor – (1994)
Craig Newsome – (1995)
John Michels – (1996)
Ross Verba – (1997)
Vonnie Holliday – (1998)
Antuan Edwards – (1999)
Bubba Franks – (2000)
Jamal Reynolds – (2001)
Javon Walker – (2002)
Nick Barnett – (2003)
Ahmad Carroll – (2004)
Aaron Rodgers – (2005)
A. J. Hawk – (2006)
Justin Harrell – (2007)
B. J. Raji – (2009)
Clay Matthews III – (2009)
Bryan Bulaga – (2010)
Derek Sherrod – (2011)
Nick Perry – (2012)
Datone Jones – (2013)
Ha Ha Clinton-Dix – (2014)
Damarious Randall – (2015)


document_title: Life as We Know It (film)

question_text: where was the movie life as we know it filmed

text: Life as We Know It (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Holly Berenson (Katherine Heigl) is the owner of a small Atlanta bakery, and Eric Messer (Josh Duhamel), (often just known as "Messer") is a promising television technical sports director for the Atlanta Hawks. Their best friends Peter (Hayes MacArthur), an attorney, and Alison Novak (Christina Hendricks) set them up on a blind date that goes horribly wrong, and results in both hating each other. As the years go by, Peter and Alison get married, and have a baby girl named Sophie Christina, and select Holly and Eric as godparents of Sophie. They have become friends, but still tease and banter with each other.

text: Shortly after Sophie's first birthday, Peter and Alison are killed in a car crash. Holly and Messer learn that in their friends' wills, they were named Sophie's joint guardians. Holly and Messer must put their differences aside and move into Sophie's home to care for her. Living together proves to be a struggle. One night, Holly leaves Sophie with Messer while she covers an important catering job - the same night that he is given the opportunity to direct a big basketball game. Messer takes Sophie to the game, but she constantly distracts him with her crying. When they get home, Messer and Holly argue, but later they make up.

text: Holly meets Sam (Josh Lucas), Sophie's pediatrician, and finds herself attracted to him. They arrange a date, which is cut short when Messer calls to tell Sam that Sophie has a high fever. Sam and Holly go to the hospital, and Messer sees Holly kiss Sam.

text: As the two guardians continue to care for Sophie, they discover that raising a child is much more expensive than they had expected, and Holly can no longer afford to implement her plans to expand her business. Messer offers to invest in her company, and eventually Holly agrees. To cement the new relationship, they decide to go on a date. They end up having sex and begin to develop feelings for each other. Their Child Protective Services caseworker, who has previously advised them against getting involved, tells them they must make a firm commitment either to stay together, or break up. Anything in between would be bad for Sophie. Messer is offered a job in Phoenix, Arizona, and he seriously considers taking it up, as it has been his dream for several years, but doesn't discuss it with Holly. Holly is upset when she finds out and tells him to take the job, accusing him of looking for a way out of raising Sophie. Messer goes to Phoenix.

text: At Thanksgiving Messer returns to Atlanta, hoping to patch things up with Holly (who is hosting a big dinner for neighbors and friends), but finds her in a relationship with Sam. Messer and Holly argue, because Sam mentions Holly is planning to sell the house soon, since it is too expensive to keep up. Messer insists it was Peter and Alison's wish that Sophie be raised in their home, by them together. Holly consistently accuses Messer of deserting her and Sophie, while Messer points out how quickly she replaced him. Messer tells her he loves her, but leaves the dinner, planning to return to Phoenix. Once alone with Holly, Sam says that if he and his ex-wife had fought in the way that Messer and Holly did, they would still be together. He tells Holly it is obvious she needs to work out her feelings for Messer, and leaves.

text: The caseworker comes for the last appointment to determine whether Holly and Messer are fit parents for Sophie. Holly realizes that she can't take care of Sophie without Messer, and that she loves him. She and Sophie drive to the airport with the caseworker. Holly rushes to buy tickets for all three of them to gain access to the departure gate, but on arriving at the gate, finds that they have missed Messer's flight, which has departed. She returns to the house disappointed. To her surprise, she finds him sitting inside. He tells her he has realized that Peter and Alison chose them to be Sophie's guardians because, together, they are a family.

text: At Sophie's second birthday party, all the neighbors and friends in attendance. Holly has made an elaborate cupcake display for Sophie, as well as another cake with the number 1 on it. When Messer asks what the cake is for, she says, "It's for us, 'cause we made it a year." They kiss. The guests sing 'Happy Birthday' to Sophie.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Katherine Heigl as Holly Berenson
Josh Duhamel as Eric Messer
Josh Lucas as Dr. Sam Nelson
Hayes MacArthur as Peter Novak
Christina Hendricks as Alison Novak
Jessica St. Clair as Beth
Melissa McCarthy as DeeDee
Sarah Burns as Janine Groff
Faizon Love as Walter
Will Sasso as Josh
DeRay Davis as Lonnie
Wilbur Fitzgerald as Peter's dad
Jean Smart as Holly's mother (uncredited)
Brooke, Brynn and Alexis Clagett (the "Clagett Triplets") as Sophie Christina Novak

Brooke and Kiley Liddell as older Sophie

Markus Flanagan as Chef Phillipe
Kumail Nanjiani as Simon

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming took place on location, in a house in the wealthy Buckhead area of Atlanta.[3] Holly Berenson's bakery was depicted at Belly General Store in Virginia-Highland, a century-old bungalow-style neighborhood with several small-scale historic retail clusters, a few miles northeast of Downtown Atlanta.[4] Scenes from Eric's workplace were filmed at Turner Broadcasting System (TBS) off Techwood Drive in Atlanta. Filming also took place at Philips Arena.[5]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Life As We Know It received negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 28% rating, based on reviews from 145 critics, with an average score of 4.6 out of 10. The site's consensus states: "Katherine Heigl and Josh Duhamel make a charming couple with plenty of chemistry, but that isn't enough to make up for Life as We Know It's formulaic plot and poorly written script."[6]

text: Release[edit]

text: Despite having been a critical failure, "Life as We Know it" had a successful run at the box office. Bringing in over 105 million internationally against an 38 million dollar budget.