document_title: Baroque architecture

question_text: this jesuit church became the model for other italian baroque churches

question_tokens: this jesuit church became the model for other italian baroque churches

text: Baroque architecture

text: Precursors and features of Baroque architecture[edit]

text: Michelangelo's late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peter's Basilica, may be considered precursors to Baroque architecture. His pupil Giacomo della Porta continued this work in Rome, particularly in the façade of the Jesuit church Il Gesù, which leads directly to the most important church façade of the early Baroque, Santa Susanna (1603), by Carlo Maderno.[5]

text: Distinctive features of Baroque architecture can include:

text:
in churches, broader naves and sometimes given oval forms
fragmentary or deliberately incomplete architectural elements
dramatic use of light; either strong light-and-shade contrasts (chiaroscuro effects) as at the church of Weltenburg Abbey, or uniform lighting by means of several windows (e.g. church of Weingarten Abbey)
opulent use of colour and ornaments (putti or figures made of wood (often gilded), plaster or stucco, marble or faux finishing)
large-scale ceiling frescoes
an external façade often characterized by a dramatic central projection
the interior is a shell for painting, sculpture and stucco (especially in the late Baroque)
illusory effects like trompe l'oeil (an art technique involving extremely realistic imagery in order to create the optical illusion that the depicted objects appear in three dimensions.) and the blending of painting and architecture
pear-shaped domes in the Bavarian, Czech, Polish and Ukrainian Baroque
Marian and Holy Trinity columns erected in Catholic countries, often in thanksgiving for ending a plague

text: Baroque and colonialism[edit]

text: Though the tendency has been to see Baroque architecture as a European phenomenon, it coincided with, and is integrally enmeshed with, the rise of European colonialism. Colonialism required the development of centralized and powerful governments with Spain and France, the first to move in this direction.[6] Colonialism brought in huge amounts of wealth, not only in the silver that was extracted from the mines in Bolivia, Mexico and elsewhere, but also in the resultant trade in commodities, such as sugar and tobacco. The need to control trade routes, monopolies, and slavery, which lay primarily in the hands of the French during the 17th century, created an almost endless cycle of wars between the colonial powers: the French religious wars, the Thirty Years' War (1618 and 1648), Franco–Spanish War (1653), the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), and so on. The initial mismanagement of colonial wealth by the Spaniards bankrupted them in the 16th century (1557 and 1560), recovering only slowly in the following century. This explains why the Baroque style, though enthusiastically developed throughout the Spanish Empire, was to a large extent, in Spain, an architecture of surfaces and façades, unlike in France and Austria where we see the construction of numerous huge palaces and monasteries. In contrast to Spain, the French, under Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683), the minister of finance, had begun to industrialize their economy, and thus, were able to become, initially at least, the benefactors of the flow of wealth. While this was good for the building industries and the arts, the new wealth created an inflation, the likes of which had never been experienced before. Rome was known just as much for its new sumptuous churches as for its vagabonds.[7]

text: Italy[edit]

text: Rome and Southern Italy[edit]

text: A number of ecclesiastical buildings of the Baroque period in Rome had plans based on the Italian paradigm of the basilica with a crossed dome and nave, but the treatment of the architecture was very different from what had been carried out previously. One of the first Roman structures to break with the Mannerist conventions exemplified in the Gesù, was the church of Santa Susanna, designed by Carlo Maderno. The dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters, central massing, and the protrusion and condensed central decoration add complexity to the structure. There is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, but it still maintains rigor.

text: The same concerns with plasticity, massing, dramatic effects and shadow and light is evident in the architectural work of Pietro da Cortona, illustrated by his design of Santi Luca e Martina (construction began in 1635) with what was probably the first curved Baroque church façade in Rome.[8] These concerns are even more evident in his reworking of Santa Maria della Pace (1656–68). The façade with its chiaroscuro half-domed portico and concave side wings, closely resembles a theatrical stage set and the church façade projects forward so that it substantially fills the tiny trapezoidal piazza. Other Roman ensembles of the Baroque and Late Baroque period are likewise suffused with theatricality and, as urban theatres, provide points of focus within their locality in the surrounding cityscape.

text: Probably the most well known example of such an approach is Saint Peter's Square, which has been praised as a masterstroke of Baroque theatre. The piazza, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, is formed principally by two colonnades of free standing columns centred on an Egyptian obelisk. Bernini's own favourite design was his oval church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale decorated with polychome marbles and an ornate gold dome. His secular architecture included the Palazzo Barberini based on plans by Maderno and the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi (1664), both in Rome.

text: Bernini's rival, the architect Francesco Borromini, produced designs that deviated dramatically from the regular compositions of the ancient world and Renaissance. His building plans were based on complex geometric figures, his architectural forms were unusual and inventive and he employed multi-layered symbolism in his architectural designs. Borromini's architectural spaces seem to expand and contract when needed, showing some affinity with the late style of Michelangelo. His iconic masterpiece is the diminutive church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, distinguished by a complicated plan arrangement that is partly oval and partly a cross and so has complex convex-concave wall rhythms. A later work, the church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, displays the same playful inventiveness and antipathy to the flat surface, epitomized by an unusual "corkscrew" lantern above the dome.

text: Following the death of Bernini in 1680, Carlo Fontana emerged as the most influential architect working in Rome. His early style is exemplified by the slightly concave façade of San Marcello al Corso. Fontana's academic approach, though lacking the dazzling inventiveness of his Roman predecessors, exerted substantial influence on Baroque architecture both through his prolific writings and through a number of architects he trained, who would disseminate the Baroque idioms throughout 18th-century Europe.

text: The 18th century saw the capital of Europe's architectural world transferred from Rome to Paris. The Italian Rococo, which flourished in Rome from the 1720s onward, was profoundly influenced by the ideas of Borromini. The most talented architects active in Rome—Francesco de Sanctis (Spanish Steps, 1723) and Filippo Raguzzini (Piazza Sant'Ignazio, 1727)—had little influence outside their native country, as did numerous practitioners of the Sicilian Baroque, including Giovanni Battista Vaccarini, Andrea Palma, and Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia.

text: The last phase of Baroque architecture in Italy is exemplified by Luigi Vanvitelli's Caserta Palace, reputedly the largest building erected in Europe in the 18th century. Indebted to contemporary French and Spanish models, the palace is skillfully related to the landscape. At Naples and Caserta, Vanvitelli practiced a sober and classicizing academic style, with equal attention to aesthetics and engineering, a style that would make an easy transition to Neoclassicism.

text: Northern Italy[edit]

text: In the north of Italy, the monarchs from the House of Savoy were particularly receptive to the new style. They employed a brilliant triad of architects—Guarino Guarini, Filippo Juvarra, and Bernardo Vittone—to illustrate the grandiose political ambitions and the newly acquired royal status of their dynasty.

text: Guarini was a peripatetic monk who combined many traditions (including that of Gothic architecture) to create irregular structures remarkable for their oval columns and unconventional façades. Building upon the findings of contemporary geometry and stereometry, Guarini elaborated the concept of architectura obliqua, which approximated Borromini's style in both theoretical and structural audacity. Guarini's Palazzo Carignano (1679) may have been the most flamboyant application of the Baroque style to the design of a private house in the 17th century.

text: Fluid forms, weightless details, and the airy prospects of Juvarra's architecture anticipated the art of Rococo. Although his practice ranged well beyond Turin, Juvarra's most arresting designs were created for Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. The visual impact of his Basilica di Superga (1717) derives from its soaring roof-line and masterful placement on a hill above Turin. The rustic ambiance encouraged a freer articulation of architectural form at the royal hunting lodge of the Palazzina di Stupinigi (1729). Juvarra finished his short but eventful career in Madrid, where he worked on the royal palaces at La Granja and Aranjuez.

text: Among the many who were profoundly influenced by the brilliance and diversity of Juvarra and Guarini, none was more important than Bernardo Vittone. This Piedmontese architect is remembered for an outcrop of flamboyant Rococo churches, quatrefoil in plan and delicate in detailing. His sophisticated designs often feature multiple vaults, structures within structures and domes within domes.

text: Malta[edit]

text: The Baroque style was introduced in Malta in the early 17th century, possibly by the Bolognese architect and engineer Bontadino de Bontadini, who was responsible for the construction of the Wignacourt Aqueduct between 1612 and 1615. The earliest Baroque structures in Malta were the decorative elements within the aqueduct, such as the Wignacourt Arch and several fountains.[9]

text: Baroque architecture became popular after Francesco Bounamici designed the Church of the Jesuits in Valletta in 1635. In the subsequent decades, many churches, public buildings, city gates, palaces and other structures were constructed or rebuilt in this style. New churches were built in the Baroque style, while older ones were rebuilt or redecorated.[10] Examples include the interior of Saint John's Co-Cathedral, which was completely redesigned by Mattia Preti in the 1660s, and the Church of Our Lady of Victories, which had its façade rebuilt in 1752.

text: The architect Lorenzo Gafà designed many Baroque churches between the 1660s and the 1700s, including the Church of St. Lawrence in Birgu (1681–97), St. Paul's Cathedral in Mdina (1696–1705) and the Cathedral of the Assumption in Victoria, Gozo (1697–1711).[11]

text: The most monumental Baroque building in Malta is Auberge de Castille, which was rebuilt in 1741–45 by Andrea Belli.[10] Other examples of secular Baroque architecture in Malta include Hostel de Verdelin (c. 1650s), parts of Fort Manoel (1723–33), the Mdina Gate (1724) and the Castellania (1757–60).

text: The Baroque style remained popular in Malta until the late 18th and early 19th century, when the neoclassical style was introduced. However, traditional Maltese architecture continued to have significant Baroque influences.[10]

text: Spain[edit]

text: As Italian Baroque influences penetrated across the Pyrenees, they gradually superseded in popularity the restrained classicizing approach of Juan de Herrera, which had been in vogue since the late 16th century. As early as 1667, the façades of Granada Cathedral (by Alonso Cano) and Jaén Cathedral (by Eufrasio López de Rojas) suggest the artists' fluency in interpreting traditional motifs of Spanish cathedral architecture in the Baroque aesthetic idiom.

text: In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the period appealed to the emotions rather than seeking to please the intellect. The Churriguera family, which specialized in designing altars and retables, revolted against the sobriety of the Herreresque classicism and promoted an intricate, exaggerated, almost capricious style of surface decoration known as the Churrigueresque. Within half a century, they transformed Salamanca into an exemplary Churrigueresque city. Among the highlights of the style, the interiors of the Granada Charterhouse offer some of the most impressive combinations of space and light in 18th-century Europe. Integrating sculpture and architecture even more radically, Narciso Tomé achieved striking chiaroscuro effects in his Transparente for the Toledo Cathedral.

text: The development of the style passed through three phases. Between 1680 and 1720, the Churriguera popularized Guarini's blend of Solomonic columns and composite order, known as the "supreme order". Between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column, or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk, was established as a central element of ornamental decoration. The years from 1760 to 1780 saw a gradual shift of interest away from twisted movement and excessive ornamentation toward a neoclassical balance and sobriety.

text: Two of the most eye-catching creations of Spanish Baroque are the energetic façades of the University of Valladolid (Diego Tomé, 1716-1718) and Hospicio de San Fernando in Madrid (Pedro de Ribera, 1722), whose curvilinear extravagance seems to herald Antonio Gaudí and Art Nouveau. In this case as in many others, the design involves a play of tectonic and decorative elements with little relation to structure and function. The focus of the florid ornamentation is an elaborately sculptured surround to a main doorway. If we remove the intricate maze of broken pediments, undulating cornices, stucco shells, inverted tapers, and garlands from the rather plain wall it is set against, the building's form would not be affected in the slightest.

text: Spanish America and territories[edit]

text: The combination of the Native American and Moorish decorative influences with an extremely expressive interpretation of the Churrigueresque idiom may account for the full-bodied and varied character of the Baroque in the American colonies of Spain. Even more than its Spanish counterpart, American Baroque developed as a style of stucco decoration. Twin-towered façades of many American cathedrals of the 17th century had medieval roots and the full-fledged Baroque did not appear until 1664, when a Jesuit shrine on Plaza des Armas in Cusco was built. Even then, the new style hardly affected the structure of churches.

text: To the north, the richest province of 18th-century New Spain—Mexico—produced some fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic architecture known as Mexican Churrigueresque. This ultra-Baroque approach culminates in the works of Lorenzo Rodriguez, whose masterpiece is the Sagrario Metropolitano in Mexico City. Other fine examples of the style may be found in remote silver-mining towns. For instance, the Sanctuary at Ocotlán (begun in 1745) is a top-notch Baroque cathedral surfaced in bright red tiles, which contrast delightfully with a plethora of compressed ornament lavishly applied to the main entrance and the slender flanking towers.[12]

text: The true capital of Mexican Baroque is Puebla, where a ready supply of hand-painted ceramics (talavera) and vernacular gray stone led to its evolving further into a personalised and highly localised art form with a pronounced Indian flavour. There are about sixty churches whose façades and domes display glazed tiles of many colours, often arranged in Arabic designs. The interiors are densely saturated with elaborate gold leaf ornamentation. In the 18th century, local artisans developed a distinctive brand of white stucco decoration, named "alfenique" after a Pueblan candy made from egg whites and sugar.

text: The Peruvian Baroque was particularly lavish, as evidenced by the monastery of San Francisco at Lima (1673). While the rural Baroque of the Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba in Córdoba, Argentina, followed the model of Il Gesu, provincial "mestizo" (crossbred) styles emerged in Arequipa, Potosí, and La Paz. In the 18th century, architects of the region turned for inspiration to the Mudéjar art of medieval Spain. The late Baroque type of Peruvian façade first appears in the Church of Our Lady of La Merced in Lima. Similarly, the Church of La Compañia in Quito suggests a carved altarpiece with its richly sculpted façade and a surfeit of spiral salomónica.

text: Earthquake Baroque is a style of Baroque architecture found in the Philippines, which suffered destructive earthquakes during the 17th century and 18th century, where large public buildings, such as churches, were rebuilt in a Baroque style. Similar events led to the Pombaline architecture in Lisbon following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and Sicilian Baroque in Sicily following the 1693 earthquake.

text: Portugal and Portuguese Empire[edit]

text: Nothwithstanding a prodigality of sensually rich surface decoration associated with Baroque architecture of the Iberian Peninsula, the royal courts of Madrid and Lisbon generally favoured a more sober architectural vocabulary distilled from 17th-century Italy. The royal palaces of Madrid, La Granja, Aranjuez and Mafra were designed by architects under strong influence of Bernini and Juvarra. In the realm of church architecture, Guarini's design for Santa Maria della Divina Providenza in Lisbon was a pace-setter for structural audacity in the region (even though it was never built).

text: In Portugal, the first fully Baroque church was the Church of Santa Engrácia, in Lisbon, designed by royal architect João Antunes, which has a Greek cross floorplan and curved facades. Antunes also designed churches in which the inner space is rectangular but with curved corners (like the Menino de Deus Church in Lisbon), a scheme that is found in several 18th-century churches in Portugal and Brazil. The court of John V, on the other hand, favoured Roman baroque models, as attested by the work of royal architect Ludovice, a German who designed the Royal Palace of Mafra, built after 1715.

text: By the mid-18th century, northern Portuguese architects had absorbed the concepts of Italian Baroque to revel in the plasticity of local granite in such projects as the surging 75-metre-high Torre dos Clérigos in Porto. The foremost centre of the national Baroque tradition was Braga, whose buildings encompass virtually every important feature of Portuguese architecture and design. The Baroque shrines and palaces of Braga are noted for polychrome ornamental patterns, undulating roof-lines, and irregularly shaped window surrounds.

text: Brazilian architects also explored plasticity in form and decoration, though they rarely surpassed their continental peers in ostentation. The churches of Mariana and the Rosario at Ouro Preto are based on Borromini's vision of interlocking elliptical spaces. At São Pedro dos Clérigos, Recife), a conventional stucco-and-stone façade is enlivened by "a high scrolled gable squeezed tightly between the towers".

text: Even after the Baroque conventions passed out of fashion in Europe, the style was long practised in Brazil by Aleijadinho, a brilliant and prolific architect in whose designs hints of Rococo could be discerned. His church of Bom Jesus de Matozinhos at Congonhas is distinguished by a picturesque silhouette and dark ornamental detail on a light stuccoed façade. Although Aleijadinho was originally commissioned to design São Francisco de Assis at São João del Rei, his designs were rejected, and were displaced to the church of São Francisco in Ouro Preto instead.

text: Kingdom of Hungary[edit]

text: In the Kingdom of Hungary, the first great Baroque building was the Jesuit Church of Trnava (today in Slovakia) built by Pietro Spozzo in 1629–37, modelling the Church of the Gesu in Rome. Jesuits were the main propagators of the new style with their churches in Győr (1634–1641), Košice (1671–1684), Eger (1731–1733) and Székesfehérvár (1745–1751). The reconstruction of the territories devastated by the Ottoman Empire was carried out in Baroque style in the 18th century. Intact Baroque townscapes can be found in Győr, Székesfehérvár, Eger, Veszprém, Esztergom and the Castle District of Buda. The most important Baroque palaces in Hungary were the Royal Palace in Buda, Grassalkovich Palace in Gödöllő, and Esterházy Palace in Fertőd. Smaller Baroque edifices of the Hungarian aristocracy are scattered all over the country. Hungarian Baroque shows the double influence of Austrian and Italian artistic tendencies as many German and Italian architects worked in the country. The main characteristics of the local version of the style were modesty, lack of excessive decoration, and some "rural" flavour, especially in the works of the local masters. Important architects of the Hungarian Baroque were Andreas Mayerhoffer, Ignác Oraschek and Márton Wittwer. Franz Anton Pilgram also worked in the Kingdom of Hungary, for example on the great Premonstratensian monastery of Jasov (today in Slovakia). In the last decades of the 18th century Neo-Classical tendencies became dominant. The two most important architects of that period were Melchior Hefele and Jakab Fellner.

text: By the time Hungarian varieties of Baroque architecture appeared with several types of forms, shapes and decorations. Those that have become famous and nice, have been copied. That's why the Hungarian baroque edifices make groups based on similarities. The major kinds of buildings are the following: Eszterháza-type, Széchenyi-type, Gödöllő-type, religious (ecclesiastical) baroque, houses, and others (castles, peasant houses).

text:
Grassalkovich Palace in Gödöllő (the Gödöllő-type)

Esterházy Palace in Fertőd (the Eszterháza-type)

Interior of Minorite church in Eger (ecclesiastical-type)

Parish Church of St. Anne in Budapest

The Primate's Palace and the Cathedral in Szombathely

text: Romania[edit]

text: Some representative Baroque structures in Romania are the Bánffy Palace in Cluj, the Brukenthal Palace in Sibiu and the Bishopric Palace in Oradea. Besides, almost every Transylvanian town has at least a Baroque church, the most representatives of which being St. George's Cathedral of Timişoara, Saint John the Baptist Church of Târgu Mureş, the Holy Trinity Cathedral of Blaj and the Piarist Church of Cluj.

text: France[edit]

text: The centre of Baroque secular architecture was France, where the open three-wing layout of the palace was established as the canonical solution as early as the 16th century. But it was the Palais du Luxembourg by Salomon de Brosse that determined the sober and classicizing direction that French Baroque architecture was to take. For the first time, the corps de logis was emphasized as the representative main part of the building, while the side wings were treated as hierarchically inferior and appropriately scaled down. The medieval tower has been completely replaced by the central projection in the shape of a monumental three-storey gateway.

text: De Brosse's melding of traditional French elements (e.g. lofty mansard roofs and a complex roof-line) with extensive Italianate quotations (e.g. ubiquitous rustication, derived from Palazzo Pitti in Florence) came to characterize the Louis XIII style. Probably the most accomplished formulator of the new manner was François Mansart, a tireless perfectionist credited with introducing the full Baroque to France. In his design for Château de Maisons (1642), Mansart succeeded in reconciling academic and Baroque approaches, while demonstrating respect for the gothic-inherited idiosyncrasies of the French tradition.

text: The Château of Maisons demonstrates the ongoing transition from the post-medieval chateaux of the 16th century to the villa-like country houses of the 18th. The structure is strictly symmetrical, with an order applied to each storey, mostly in pilaster form. The frontispiece, crowned with a separate aggrandized roof, is infused with remarkable plasticity and the ensemble reads like a three-dimensional whole. Mansart's structures are stripped of overblown decorative effects, so typical of contemporary Rome. Italian Baroque influence is muted and relegated to the field of decorative ornamentation.

text: The next step in the development of European residential architecture involved the integration of the gardens in the composition of the palace, as is exemplified by Vaux-le-Vicomte), where the architect Louis Le Vau, the designer Charles Le Brun and the gardener André Le Nôtre complemented one another. From the main cornice to a low plinth, the miniature palace is clothed in the so-called "colossal order", which makes the structure look more impressive. The creative collaboration of Le Vau and Le Nôtre marked the arrival of the "Magnificent Manner" which allowed to extend Baroque architecture outside the palace walls and transform the surrounding landscape into an immaculate mosaic of expansive vistas.

text: The same three artists scaled this concept to monumental proportions in the royal hunting lodge and later main residence at Versailles. On a far grander scale, the palace is an exaggerated and somewhat repetitive version of Vaux-le-Vicomte. It was both the most grandiose and the most imitated residential building of the 17th century. Mannheim, Nordkirchen and Drottningholm were among many foreign residences for which Versailles provided a model.

text: The final expansion of Versailles was superintended by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, whose key design is the Dome des Invalides, generally regarded as the most important French church of the century. Hardouin-Mansart profited from his uncle's instruction and plans to instill the edifice with an imperial grandeur unprecedented in the countries north of Italy. The majestic hemispherical dome balances the vigorous vertical thrust of the orders, which do not accurately convey the structure of the interior. The younger architect not only revived the harmony and balance associated with the work of the elder Mansart but also set the tone for Late Baroque French architecture, with its grand ponderousness and increasing concessions to academicism.

text: The reign of Louis XV saw a reaction against the official Louis XIV Style in the shape of a more delicate and intimate manner, known as Rococo. The style was pioneered by Nicolas Pineau, who collaborated with Hardouin-Mansart on the interiors of the royal Château de Marly. Further elaborated by Pierre Le Pautre and Juste-Aurèle Meissonier, the "genre pittoresque" culminated in the interiors of the Petit Château at Chantilly (c. 1722) and Hôtel de Soubise in Paris (c. 1732), where a fashionable emphasis on the curvilinear went beyond all reasonable measure, while sculpture, paintings, furniture, and porcelain tended to overshadow architectural divisions of the interior.

text: The Low Countries[edit]

text: Flanders and Belgium[edit]

text: Baroque architecture in the south, Flanders and Belgium developed rather differently from in the Protestant . After the Twelve Years' Truce, the Southern Netherlands remained in Catholic hands, ruled by the Spanish Habsburg Kings. Important architectural projects were set up in the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. In them, florid decorative detailing was more tightly knit to the structure, thus precluding concerns of superfluity. A remarkable convergence of Spanish, French, and Dutch Baroque aesthetics may be seen in the Abbey of Averbode (1667). Another characteristic example is the Church of St. Michel at Louvain, with its exuberant two-storey façade, clusters of half-columns, and the complex aggregation of French-inspired sculptural detailing.

text: Six decades later, a Flemish architect, Jaime Borty Milia, was the first to introduce Rococo to Spain (Cathedral of Murcia, west façade, 1733). The greatest practitioner of the Spanish Rococo style was a native master, Ventura Rodríguez, responsible for the dazzling interior of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar in Zaragoza (1750).

text: Some Flemish architects such as Wenceslas Cobergher were trained in Italy and their works were inspired by architects such as Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta. Cobergher's most major project was the Basilica of Our Lady of Scherpenheuvel which he designed as the center of a new town in the form of a heptagon.

text: The influence of the painter Peter Paul Rubens on architecture was very important. With his book "I Palazzi di Genova" he introduced novel Italian models for the conception of profane buildings and decoration in the Southern Netherlands. The courtyard and portico of his own house in Antwerp (Rubenshuis) are good examples of his architectural activity. He also took part in the decoration of the Antwerp Jesuit Church (now Carolus Borromeuskerk) where he introduced a lavish Baroque decoration, integrating sculpture and painting in the architectural program.

text: Northern Netherlands[edit]

text: There is little Baroque about Dutch architecture of the 17th century. The architecture of the first republic in Northern Europe was meant to reflect democratic values by quoting extensively from classical antiquity. Like contemporary developments in England, Dutch Palladianism is marked by sobriety and restraint. Two leading architects, Jacob van Campen and Pieter Post, used such eclectic elements as giant-order pilasters, gable roofs, central pediments, and vigorous steeples in a coherent combination that anticipated Wren's Classicism.

text: The most ambitious constructions of the period included the seats of self-government in Amsterdam (1646) and Maastricht (1658), designed by Campen and Post, respectively. On the other hand, the residences of the House of Orange are closer to a typical burgher mansion than to a royal palace. Two of these, Huis ten Bosch and Mauritshuis, are symmetrical blocks with large windows, stripped of ostentatious Baroque flourishes and mannerisms. The same austerely geometrical effect is achieved without great cost or pretentious effects at the Stadholder's summer residence of Het Loo.

text: The Dutch Republic was one of the great powers of 17th-century Europe and its influence on European architecture was by no means negligible. Dutch architects were employed on important projects in Northern Germany, Scandinavia and Russia, disseminating their ideas in those countries. The Dutch colonial architecture, once flourishing in the Hudson River Valley and associated primarily with red-brick gabled houses, may still be seen in Willemstad, Curaçao.

text: England[edit]

text: Baroque aesthetics, whose influence was so potent in mid-17th-century France, made little impact in England during the Protectorate and the first Restoration years. For a decade between the death of Inigo Jones in 1652 and Christopher Wren's visit to Paris in 1665 there was no English architect of the accepted premier class. Unsurprisingly, general interest in European architectural developments was slight.

text: It was Wren who presided over the genesis of the English Baroque manner, which differed from the continental models by a clarity of design and a subtle taste for classicism. Following the Great Fire of London, Wren rebuilt fifty-three churches, where Baroque aesthetics are apparent primarily in dynamic structure and multiple changing views. His most ambitious work was St Paul's Cathedral, which bears comparison with the most effulgent domed churches of Italy and France. In this majestically proportioned edifice, the Palladian tradition of Inigo Jones is fused with contemporary continental sensibilities in masterly equilibrium. Less influential were straightforward attempts to engraft the Berniniesque vision onto British church architecture (e.g. by Thomas Archer in St. John's, Smith Square, 1728).

text: Although Wren was also active in secular architecture, the first truly Baroque country house in England was built to a design by William Talman at Chatsworth, starting in 1687. The culmination of Baroque architectural forms comes with Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor. Each was capable of a fully developed architectural statement, yet they preferred to work in tandem, most notably at Castle Howard (1699) and Blenheim Palace (1705).

text: Although these two palaces may appear somewhat ponderous or turgid to Italian eyes, their heavy embellishment and overpowering mass captivated the British public, albeit for a short while. Castle Howard is a flamboyant assembly of restless masses dominated by a cylindrical domed tower which would not be out of place in Dresden or Munich. Blenheim is a more solid construction, where the massed stone of the arched gates and the huge solid portico becomes the main ornament. Vanbrugh's final work was Seaton Delaval Hall (1718), a comparatively modest mansion yet unique in the structural audacity of its style. It was at Seaton Delaval that Vanbrugh, a skillful playwright, achieved the peak of Restoration drama, once again highlighting a parallel between Baroque architecture and contemporary theatre. Despite his efforts, Baroque was never truly to the English taste and well before his death in 1724, the style had lost currency in Britain.

text: Holy Roman Empire[edit]

text: In the Holy Roman Empire, the Baroque period began somewhat later. Although the Augsburg architect Elias Holl (1573–1646) and some theoretists, including Joseph Furttenbach the Elder already practiced the Baroque style, they remained without successors due to the ravages of the Thirty Years' War. From about 1650 on, construction work resumed, and secular and ecclesiastical architecture were of equal importance. During an initial phase, master-masons from southern Switzerland and northern Italy, the so-called magistri Grigioni and the Lombard master-masons, particularly the Carlone family from Val d'Intelvi, dominated the field. However, Austria came soon to develop its own characteristic Baroque style during the last third of the 17th century. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was impressed by Bernini. He forged a new Imperial style by compiling architectural motifs from the entire history, most prominently seen in his Karlskirche in Vienna. Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt also had an Italian training. He developed a highly decorative style, particularly in façade architecture, which exerted strong influences on southern Germany.

text: Frequently, the Southern German Baroque is distinguished from the Northern German Baroque, which is more properly the distinction between the Catholic and the Protestant Baroque. In the Catholic South, the Jesuit church of St. Michael in Munich was the first to bring Italian style across the Alps. However, its influence on the further development of church architecture was rather limited. A much more practical and more adaptable model of church architecture was provided by the Jesuit church in Dillingen): the wall-pillar church, a barrel-vaulted nave accompanied by large open chapels separated by wall-pillars. As opposed to St. Michael's in Munich, the chapels almost reach the height of the nave in the wall-pillar church, and their vault (usually transverse barrel-vaults) springs from the same level as the main vault of the nave. The chapels provide ample lighting; seen from the entrance of the church, the wall-pillars form a theatrical setting for the side altars. The wall-pillar church was further developed by the Vorarlberg school, as well as the master-masons of Bavaria. This new church also integrated well with the hall church model of the German late Gothic age. The wall-pillar church continued to be used throughout the 18th century (e.g. even in the early neo-classical church of Rot an der Rot Abbey), and early wall-pillar churches could easily be refurbished by re-decoration without any structural changes, such as the church at Dillingen.

text: However, the Catholic South also received influences from other sources, such as the so-called radical Baroque of Bohemia. The radical Baroque of Christoph Dientzenhofer and his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, both residing at Prague, was inspired by examples from northern Italy, particularly by the works of Guarino Guarini. It is characterized by the curvature of walls and intersection of oval spaces. While some Bohemian influence is visible in Bavaria's most prominent architect of the period, Johann Michael Fischer (the curved balconies of some of his earlier wall-pillar churches), the works of Balthasar Neumann, in particular the Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen, are generally considered to be the final synthesis of Bohemian and German traditions.

text: Protestant sacred architecture was of lesser importance during the Baroque, and produced only a few works of prime importance, particularly the Frauenkirche in Dresden. Architectural theory was more lively in the north than in the south of Germany, with Leonhard Christoph Sturm's edition of Nikolaus Goldmann, but Sturm's theoretical considerations (e.g. on Protestant church architecture) never really made it to practical application. In the south, theory essentially reduced to the use of buildings and elements from illustrated books and engravings as a prototype.

text: Palace architecture was equally important both in the Catholic South and the Protestant North. After an initial phase when Italian architects and influences dominated (Vienna, Rastatt), French influence prevailed from the second decade of the 18th century onwards. The French model is characterized by the horseshoe-like layout enclosing a cour d'honneur (courtyard) on the town side (chateau entre cour et jardin), whereas the Italian (and also Austrian) scheme presents a block-like villa. The principal achievements of German Palace architecture, often worked out in close collaboration of several architects, provide a synthesis of Austro-Italian and French models. The most outstanding palace which blends Austro-Italian and French influences into a completely new type of building is the Würzburg Residence. While its general layout is the horseshoe-like French plan, it encloses interior courtyards. Its façades combine Lucas von Hildebrandt's love of decoration with French-style classical orders in two superimposed stories; its interior features the famous Austrian "imperial staircase", but also a French-type enfilade of rooms on the garden side, inspired by the "apartement semi-double" layout of French castles.

text: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[edit]

text: The first Baroque structure in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was the Corpus Christi Church build between 1586 and 1593 in Nieśwież (present day Niasvizh, Belarus).[13][14] The church also holds a distinction of being the first domed basilica with a Baroque façade in the Commonwealth and Eastern Europe.[14]

text: In the subsequent years of the early 17th century, Baroque architecture spread over the Commonwealth. Important Baroque churches build during this early phase of the style included the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Kraków,[15] the Vasa Chapel in the Wawel Cathedral (which was the Baroque equivalent to a neighboring Sigismund's Chapel build years earlier in the Renaissance style), and the Visitationist Church in Kraków. Most of these early Baroque churches followed a design pattern set by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola's Church of the Gesù in Rome.[15] Other important Baroque churches and chapels erected in the mid-17th century were St. Casimir's Chapel in the Vilnius Cathedral,[16] St. Peter and Paul Church and St. Casimir's Church in Vilnius, Pažaislis monastery in Kaunas, the Dominican Church[17] and St. George's Church in Lwów (present day Lviv, Ukraine). Examples from the late 17th-century include the Jesuit Church in Poznań, St. Francis Xavier Cathedral in Grodno, Royal Chapel in Gdańsk (which incorporates an eclectic architectural style based on a mix of Polish and Dutch building traditions),[18] and Sanctuary of St. Mary in Masuria (build in the Tyrolean Baroque style).[19] Notable examples of residential Baroque architecture from this time period include the Ujazdów Castle, Kazanowski Palace (destroyed), Wilanów Palace and Krasiński Palace in Warsaw.

text: The monumental castle Krzyżtopór (ruins), built in the style palazzo in fortezza between 1627 and 1644, had several courtyards surrounded by fortifications. Also, Late baroque fascination with the culture and art of China is reflected in Queen Masysieńka's Chinese Palace in Zolochiv.[20] 18th-century magnate palaces represents the characteristic type of baroque suburban residence built entre cour et jardin (between the entrance court and the garden). Its architecture, a merger of European art with old Commonwealth building traditions, is visible in Potocki Palace in Radzyń Podlaski, Raczyński Palace in Rogalin and Wiśniowiecki Palace in Vyshnivets.

text: During the late 17th century, the most famous architect in the Commonwealth was the Dutch-born Tylman van Gameren, who, at the age of 28, settled in Poland (the Crown of the Commonwealth) and worked for Queen Marie Casimire and King John III Sobieski.[21][22] Tylman left behind a lifelong legacy of buildings that are regarded as gems of Polish Baroque architecture, they include among others, the Ostrogski Palace, Otwock Palace, Branicki Palace, St. Kazimierz Church and the Church of St. Anne.

text: By the end of the century, Polish Baroque influences crossed the Dnieper river into the Cossack Hetmanate, where it gave birth to a particular style of architecture, known as the Cossack Baroque.[23] Also, a notable style of baroque architecture emerged in the 18th century with the work of Johann Christoph Glaubitz who was assigned to rebuild the Grand Duchy of Lithuania's capital of Vilnius. The style was therefore named Vilnian Baroque and Old Vilnius was named the "City of Baroque".[24] The most notable buildings by Glaubitz in Vilnius are the Church of St. Catherine started in 1743,[25] the Church of the Ascension started in 1750, the Church of St. John, the monastery gate and the towers of the Church of the Holy Trinity. The magnificent and dynamic Baroque facade of the formerly Gothic Church of St. Johns is mentioned among his best works. Many church interiors including the one of the Great Synagogue of Vilna were reconstructed by Glaubitz as well as the Town Hall build in 1769. Notable buildings of Vilnian Baroque in other places are Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk, Belarus (rebuilt between 1738 and 1765), Carmelite church in Hlybokaye, Belarus and the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Berezovichi, Belarus (built in 1776, and 1960s-1970s).

text: Ukraine (Cossack Hetmanate)[edit]

text: Ukrainian Baroque is an architectural style that emerged in Ukraine during the Hetmanate era, in the 17th and 18th centuries. Ukrainian Baroque is distinct from the Western European Baroque in having more moderate ornamentation and simpler forms, and as such was considered more constructivist. One of the unique features of the Ukrainian baroque, were bud and pear-shaped domes, that were later borrowed by the similar Naryshkin baroque.[26] Many Ukrainian Baroque buildings have been preserved, including several buildings in Kiev Pechersk Lavra and the Vydubychi Monastery. The best examples of Baroque painting are the church paintings in the Holy Trinity Church of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. Rapid development in engraving techniques occurred during the Ukrainian Baroque period. Advances utilized a complex system of symbolism, allegories, heraldic signs, and sumptuous ornamentation.

text: Russia[edit]

text: In Russia, Baroque architecture passed through three stages—the early Moscow Baroque, with elegant white decorations on red-brick walls of rather traditional churches, the mature Petrine Baroque, mostly imported from the Low Countries, and the late Rastrelliesque Baroque, which was, in the words of William Brumfield, "extravagant in design and execution, yet ordered by the rhythmic insistence of massed columns and Baroque statuary."

text: The first baroque churches were built in the estates of the Naryshkin family of Moscow boyars. It was the family of Natalia Naryshkina, Peter the Great's mother. Most notable in this category of small suburban churches were the Intercession in Fili (1693–96), the Holy Tritity church in Troitse-Lykovo (1690–1695) and the Saviour in Ubory (1694–97). They were built in red brick with profuse detailed decoration in white stone. The belfry was not any more placed beside the church as was common in the 17th century, but on the facade itself, usually surmounting the octagonal central church and producing daring vertical compositions. As the style gradually spread around Russia, many monasteries were remodeled after the latest fashion. The most delightful of these were the Novodevichy Convent and the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow, as well as Krutitsy metochion and Solotcha Cloister near Riazan. Civic architecture also sought to conform to the baroque aesthetics, e.g., the Sukharev Tower in Moscow and there is also a neo-form of this style like the Principal Medicine Store on Red Square. The most important architects associated with the Naryshkin Baroque were Yakov Bukhvostov and Peter Potapov.

text: Petrine Baroque is a name applied by art historians to a style of Baroque architecture and decoration favoured by Peter the Great and employed to design buildings in the newly founded Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, under this monarch and his immediate successors. Unlike contemporaneous Naryshkin Baroque, favoured in Moscow, the Petrine Baroque represented a drastic rupture with Byzantine traditions that had dominated Russian architecture for almost a millennium. Its chief practitioners—Domenico Trezzini, Andreas Schlüter, and Mikhail Zemtsov—drew inspiration from a rather modest Dutch, Danish, and Swedish architecture of the time. Extant examples of the style in St Petersburg are the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the Twelve Colleges, the Kunstkamera, Kikin Hall and Menshikov Palace.The Petrine Baroque structures outside St Petersburg are scarce; they include the Menshikov Tower in Moscow and the Kadriorg Palace in Tallinn.

text: Scandinavia[edit]

text: During the golden age of the Swedish Empire, the architecture of Nordic countries was dominated by the Swedish court architect Nicodemus Tessin the Elder and his son Nicodemus Tessin the Younger. Their aesthetic was readily adopted across the Baltic, in Copenhagen and Saint Petersburg.

text: Born in Germany, Tessin the Elder endowed Sweden with a truly national style, a well-balanced mixture of contemporary French and medieval Hanseatic elements. His designs for the royal manor of Drottningholm seasoned French prototypes with Italian elements, while retaining some peculiarly Nordic features, such as the hipped roof (säteritak).

text: Tessin the Younger shared his father's enthusiasm for discrete palace façades. His design for the Stockholm Palace draws so heavily on Bernini's unexecuted plans for the Louvre that one could well imagine it standing in Naples, Vienna, or Saint Petersburg. Another example of the so-called International Baroque, based on Roman models with little concern for national specifics, is the Royal Palace of Madrid. The same approach is manifested is Tessin's polychrome domeless Kalmar Cathedral, a skillful pastiche of early Italian Baroque, clothed in a giant order of paired Ionic pilasters.

text: It was not until the mid-18th century that Danish and Russian architecture were emancipated from Swedish influence. A milestone of this late period is Nicolai Eigtved's design for a new district of Copenhagen centred on the Amalienborg Palace. The palace is composed of four rectangular mansions, originally owned by four of Denmark's greatest noble families, arranged across the angles of an octagonal square. The restrained façades of the mansions hark back to French antecedents, while their interiors contain some of the finest Rococo decoration in Northern Europe. Amalienborg Palace has served as the residence of the Danish royal family since the late 18th century.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: Istanbul, once the capital of the Ottoman Empire, hosts many different varieties of Baroque architecture. As reforms and innovations to modernize the country came out in 18th and 19th century, various architecture styles were used in Turkey, one of them was the Baroque Style. As Turkish architecture (which is also a combination of Islamic and Byzantine architecture) combined with Baroque, a new style called Ottoman Baroque appeared. Baroque architecture is mostly seen in mosques and palaces built in this centuries. The Ortaköy Mosque, is one of the best examples of the Ottoman Baroque architecture.

text: The Tanzimat Era caused more architectural development. The architectural change continued with Sultan Mahmud II, one of the most reformist sultans in Turkish History. One of his sons, Sultan Abdülmecid and his family left the Topkapı Palace and moved to the Dolmabahçe Palace which is the first European-style palace in the country.

text: Baroque architecture in Istanbul was mostly used in palaces near the Bosphorus and Golden Horn. Beyoğlu was one of the places that Baroque and other European style architecture buildings were largely used. The famous streets called Istiklal Avenue, Nişantaşı, Bankalar Caddesi consist of these architecture style apartments. The Ottoman flavour gives it its unique atmosphere, which also distinguishes it from the later "colonial" Baroque styles, largely used in the Middle East, especially Lebanon. Later and more mature Baroque forms in Istanbul can be found in the gates of the Dolmabahçe Palace which also has a very "eastern" flavour, combining Baroque, Romantic, and Oriental architecture.


document_title: Sangai festival

question_text: sangai festval is celebrated in which state of india

root

text: Sangai festival

text: This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (December 2012)

tag: table

text: Sangai festival is an annual cultural festival organised by Manipur Tourism Department every year from November 21 to 30.[1] Even though many editions of this Festival has been celebrated over the past few years with the name of Tourism Festival, since 2010 this has been renamed as the Sangai Festival to stage the uniqueness of the shy and gentle brow-antlered deer popularly known as the Sangai Deer, which is the state animal of Manipur. As this festival is being celebrated to promote Manipur as a world class tourism destination, it showcases the best of what the state has to offer to the world in terms of art and culture, handloom, handicrafts & fine arts, indigenous sports, cuisines & music, eco & adventure sports as well as the scenic natural beauty of the land.[2]

tag: p


document_title: Vehicle registration plates of Arizona

question_text: what does cj on a license plate mean

question_tokens: what does cj on a license plate mean

text: Vehicle registration plates of Arizona

text: Passenger baseplates[edit]

text: 1914 to 1955[edit]

text:
Image
Dates issued
Design
Slogan
Serial format
Serials issued
Notes

1914
Embossed white numbers on blue plate; "ARIZ 1914" at right
none
1234
1 to approximately 5000

1915
Embossed black numbers on white plate; "ARIZ 1915" at right
none
1234
1 to approximately 7500

1916
Embossed black numbers on copper plate with border line; vertical "ARIZ" and "1916" at left and right respectively
none
12345
1 to approximately 12500

1917
Embossed white numbers on black plate; embossed steer head graphic at left with "ARIZ" above and "1917" below
none
12345
1 to approximately 20000

1918
Embossed dark blue numbers on olive-gray plate; "1918 ARIZ" at right
none
12345
1 to approximately 24000

1919
Embossed white numbers on black plate with border line; "ARIZ 1919" at left
none
12345
1 to approximately 29000

1920
Embossed black numbers on white plate with border line; vertical "ARIZ" and "1920" at left and right respectively
none
12345
1 to approximately 35000

1921
Embossed white numbers on black plate with border line; stylized "ARIZ" and "21" at right
none
12345
1 to approximately 36000

1922
Embossed green numbers on white plate with border line; vertical "ARIZ" and "1922" at left and right respectively
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)

1923
Embossed dark blue numbers on white plate with border line; stylized vertical "ARIZ" and "23" at left
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)

1924
Embossed white numbers on dark blue plate with border line; "24" and stylized vertical "ARIZ" at left
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)

1925
Embossed black numbers on copper plate with border line; "ARIZONA" at bottom, offset to left; vertical "1925" at right
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)
First use of the full state name.

1926
Embossed black numbers on white plate with border line; "ARIZONA" at bottom, offset to left; vertical "1926" at right
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)

1927
Embossed black numbers on copper plate with border line; "ARIZONA" at bottom, offset to left; vertical "1927" at right
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)

1928
Embossed red numbers on copper plate with border line; "ARIZONA" at bottom, offset to right; vertical "1928" at left
none
1-12345
10-1234
Coded by county of issuance (1 or 10)

1929
Embossed slanted orange numbers on black plate with border line; slanted "19 ARIZ 29" centered at bottom
none
123-456

1930
Embossed slanted black numbers on white plate; slanted "ARIZONA" and "1930" centered at top and bottom respectively; letter in top left corner denoting county of issuance
none
12-34-56

1931
Embossed slanted black numbers on orange plate; slanted "1931" and "ARIZONA" centered at top and bottom respectively; letter in top left corner denoting county of issuance
none
12-34-56

1932
Embossed slanted white numbers on copper plate; slanted "ARIZONA-1932" at top
none
1AB1
1A1B
AA12
A1A2
Coded by county of issuance (1 or A)

1933
Debossed slanted copper numbers within embossed black rectangle on copper plate; "ARIZONA-1933" embossed in slanted black block letters at bottom
none
1AB1
1A1B
AA12
A1A2
Coded by county of issuance (1 or A)

1934
Debossed slanted copper numbers within embossed light blue rectangle on copper plate; "ARIZONA-1934" embossed in slanted light blue block letters at top
none
1AB1
1A1B
AA12
A1A2
Coded by county of issuance (1 or A)

1935
Embossed slanted black numbers within black rectangular outline on copper plate; "ARIZONA-1935" embossed in slanted black block letters at bottom
none
1AB1
1A1B
AA12
A1A2
Coded by county of issuance (1 or A)

1936
Embossed black numbers on copper plate; "ARIZ" and "1936" embossed vertically in black block letters at left and right respectively; county name embossed in same letters centered at bottom
none
1A B1
1A 1B
AA 12
A1 A2
Coded by county of issuance (1 or A)

1937
Embossed black numbers on copper plate with border line; "ARIZONA-37" and county name embossed in black block letters centered at top and bottom respectively
none
A1-234
Coded by county of issuance (A)

1938
Embossed black numbers on yellow plate with border line; "ARIZONA-38" and county name embossed in black block letters centered at top and bottom respectively
none
A1234
Coded by county of issuance (A)

1939
Embossed black numbers on copper plate; "ARIZONA" embossed in black block letters centered at top; "1539" and "1939" embossed vertically at left and right respectively
"MARCOS DE NIZA" embossed in black block letters centered at bottom
A12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Commemorated the 400th anniversary of the expedition of Fray Marcos de Niza.

1940
Embossed dark blue numbers on white plate; "ARIZONA-40" embossed in dark blue block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in dark blue block letters at bottom
A12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
First use of the "Grand Canyon State" slogan.

1941
Embossed black numbers on copper plate; "ARIZONA-41" embossed in black block letters centered at bottom
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in black block letters at top
A12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)

1942–44
Embossed black numbers on white plate; "42-ARIZONA" embossed in black block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in black block letters at bottom
A123
1A234
12A345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Revalidated for 1943 and 1944 with windshield stickers, due to metal conservation for World War II.

1945–46
As 1942–44 base, but with "ARIZ. 45" embossed at top
none
A1234
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Revalidated for 1946 with windshield stickers.

1947
Embossed red numbers on unpainted aluminum plate; "ARIZ. 47" embossed in red block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in red block letters centered at bottom
A/B 1234
Coded by county of issuance (A/B)

1948
Embossed black numbers on unpainted aluminum plate; "ARIZ. 48" embossed in black block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in black block letters centered at bottom
A/B 1234
Coded by county of issuance (A/B)

1949
Embossed green numbers on waffle-textured unpainted aluminum plate; "ARIZONA 49" embossed in green block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in green block letters centered at bottom
A-12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)

1950–51
Embossed black numbers on white plate; "ARIZONA 50" embossed in black block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in black block letters centered at bottom
A-12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Revalidated for 1951 with aluminum tabs.

1952–53
Embossed white numbers on black plate; "ARIZONA 52" embossed in white block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in white block letters centered at bottom
A-12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Revalidated for 1953 with black tabs.

1954–55
As 1950–51 base, but with "ARIZONA 54" at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" as on 1950–51 base
A-12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Revalidated for 1955 with aluminum tabs.

text: 1956 to present[edit]

text: In 1956, the U.S. states and Canadian provinces came to an agreement with the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators, the Automobile Manufacturers Association and the National Safety Council that standardized the size for license plates for vehicles (except those for motorcycles) at 6 inches (15 cm) in height by 12 inches (30 cm) in width, with standardized mounting holes.[2] The 1955 (dated 1956) issue was the first Arizona license plate that complied with these standards.

text:
Image
Dates issued
Design
Slogan
Serial format
Serials issued
Notes

1956–58
Embossed white numbers on black plate with border line; "ARIZONA 56" embossed in white block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in white block letters centered at bottom
A-12345
Coded by county of issuance (A)
Revalidated for 1957 and 1958 with stickers.

1959–60
Embossed white numbers on blue plate with border line; "ARIZONA 59" embossed in white block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in white block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
AAA-001 to approximately BDY-999
Revalidated for 1960 with stickers.

1961–63
Embossed blue numbers on white plate with border line; "ARIZONA 61" embossed in blue block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in blue block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
CAA-001 to approximately DMC-999
Revalidated for 1962 and 1963 with stickers.

1964–65
Embossed white numbers on blue plate with border line; "ARIZONA 64" embossed in white block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in white block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
EAA-001 to approximately FMJ-999
Revalidated for 1965 with stickers.

1966–68
Embossed black numbers on white plate with border line; "ARIZONA 66" embossed in black block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in black block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
HAA-001 to
JZZ-999;
NAA-001 to approximately NEF-999
Revalidated for 1967 and 1968 with stickers.

1969–72
Embossed black numbers on yellow plate with border line; "ARIZONA 69" embossed in black block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in black block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
KAA-001 to
MZZ-999;
YAA-001 to approximately YDF-999
Revalidated for 1970, 1971 and 1972 with stickers.

1973–80
Embossed green numbers on pale orange plate with border line; "ARIZONA 73" embossed in green block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in green block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
PAA-001 to approximately WNJ-999
Revalidated with stickers until 1990.

1980–96
Embossed white numbers on maroon plate with border line; embossed white saguaro cactus used as divider between letters and digits; "ARIZONA" embossed in white block letters centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" embossed in white block letters centered at bottom
ABC-123
AAA-001 to approximately NXG-999
Front and rear plates issued until around the ETT series (1989); rear plates only thereafter. Still currently revalidated.

1996–2008
Embossed dark green numbers on desert scene with turquoise, white and orange gradient sky, white setting sun and purple mountains and cacti; "ARIZONA" screened in wide dark green block letters, with white outlines, centered at top
"GRAND CANYON STATE" screened in narrow dark green block letters offset to right below numbers, on orange part of sky
123·ABC
001·AAA to 999·ZZZ
Awarded "Plate of the Year" for best new license plate of 1996 by the Automobile License Plate Collectors Association, the first time Arizona was so honored.

2008–present
As above, but with numbers screened and security threads added to center of plate
ABC1234
AAA0001 to CEE9999 (as of December 23, 2017)

text: Non-passenger types[edit]

text: 1997 to present[edit]

text:
Image
Type
First issued
Design
Serial format
Notes

Alternative Fuel – Government

Blue on sky and clouds graphic
GA·12345

Alternative Fuel – Passenger

Blue on sky and clouds graphic
AF·1234
AF·123A
AF·12A3
AF1A23
Early plates had lighter-colored background. Serials became screened at around AF·00P1, then unspaced (without a separator after the AF prefix) at around AF00S1.

Alternative Fuel – hybrid vehicle
2008
Blue on sky and clouds graphic
12L N34
Issuance ceased at 99L N99.

Amateur Radio

As passenger base. Starting in 1955, a radio tower graphic appears to the left of the serial, and "GRAND CANYON STATE" is replaced with "AMATEUR RADIO OPERATOR"
The plate number is the FCC assigned call sign
One of the earliest special plates that is still available as February 2013.

Apportioned

As passenger base, but with "APPORTIONED" in place of slogan
AA·12345
Began at AA·00001; currently issuing AG series. AC reserved for optional It Shouldn't Hurt to Be a Child plate, and AF skipped to avoid confusion with Alternative Fuel passenger plates. Serials became screened midway through the AD series.

Commercial
October 1997
As passenger base
CA·12345
Began at CA·00001; currently issuing CJ series. Serials became screened early in the CF series.

Disabled Person
1996
As passenger base
-1ABC
Large wheelchair embossed to left of serial with hyphen. First series used older dies.

Disabled Person
1997
As passenger base
ABC12
Small wheelchair embossed to left of serial. First series used older dies.

Historic Vehicle

All-embossed red on copper
1A2

ABC1
Dated-1977 base issued continuously through the present.

Manufacturer

As passenger base
MT-1234

Motorcycle

M/C1ABC

Trailer
1997
As passenger base
A-12345
12345-A
Letters J through Y (excluding O, Q and U) were used in the A-12345 format. Serials became screened late in the T series.

Transporter

As passenger base
XP-123A

text: 1980 to 1996[edit]

text:
Image
Type
Design
Serial format
Notes

Apportioned
As passenger base, but with "APPORTIONED" in place of slogan
12A-345

Commercial
As passenger base
1AB-234

Trailer
As passenger base, but with "TLR." to left of state name
A-12345
Letters D, E, F and G were used.

text: Optional types[edit]

text: Arizona offers its motorists a number of optional issue designs that are available upon the payment of an additional fee.

text:
Image
Type
First issued
Serial format
Notes

Arizona Centennial
October 30, 2011
A1234Z
A1234C

Awarded "Plate of the Year" for best new license plate of 2011 by the Automobile License Plate Collectors Association, the second time Arizona was so honored.

Arizona Diamondbacks
April 4, 2007
DB12345

Arizona Highways Magazine
early 2009
1AH2345

Arizona Historical Society
June 2007
AH123

Arizona State University

A1234

C1234 (series halted early for Pet plates)

D1234

Choose Life
early 2009
12CL34

Conserving Wildlife

W/A12345

Donate Life/Be an Organ Donor

B1ABC

Early Detection Saves Lives
March 26, 2006
JK1234

Environmental
October 1, 1992
December 27, 1994 (redesigned version)
E1234

1234E

123E4

12E34

1E234

EA·1234 (counting up from EV)
Originally had yellow numbers which were replaced due to poor visibility. Replaced with the black letters still in use today.[5]

Former Prisoner of War

A12

Fraternal Order of Police

L/E1234

Freedom
January 14, 2007
1FR2345

Gold Star Family
May 2009
B123[citation needed]
Serials are surface-printed.

Historic Route 66
December 19, 2016[6]
RT1234
Awarded "Plate of the Year" for best new license plate of 2016 by the Automobile License Plate Collectors Association, the third time Arizona was so honored.

Home of the Apache
March 2007
C123E4

Honoring Fallen Officers
November 2007
FP12345
Serials are surface-printed.

It Shouldn't Hurt to Be a Child

AC·12345

It Shouldn't Hurt to Be a Child—Disabled Person

AC·1234
Wheelchair embossed to left of serial

Live the Golden Rule
November 2007
LM12345
Serials are surface-printed.

Medal of Honor

123

National Guard

N1234

Navajo Nation
September 2003
B/A1234

Northern Arizona University

V1234

Pets Enrich Our Lives
May 2005
C1234

1234C

Phoenix Suns
May 5, 2009
1PS2345
Serials are surface-printed.

Professional Fire Fighters

F/F1234

Purple Heart

1234

A State of Good Character
September 2005
A12B34

Veteran

V/T1234

Veteran—Disabled Person

V/T123
Wheelchair embossed to left of serial.

University of Arizona

P1234
S1234

University of Phoenix

F/A1234

White Mountain Apache
November 2007
WM123

123WM
Serials are surface-printed.


document_title: Treebeard

question_text: who voiced the ent in lord of the rings

question_tokens: who voiced the ent in lord of the rings

text: Treebeard

text: Literature[edit]

text: Spirits were sent by Eru Ilúvatar to inhabit the trees, which the Vala Yavanna had created along with other plants or olvar. The Vala longed for their protection since Morgoth or Melkor was destroying the trees and olvar, which could not defend themselves from him.  The Ents were created by Ilúvatar at the behest of Yavanna  as the Shepherds of the Forest or Tree-herders. Entwives  were also created for the Ents, but, in the Second Age, were driven out by Sauron.[2][3][4]

text: Treebeard is the oldest of three remaining original Ents.[2][5] He is said to have once roamed all of the forests in Middle-earth, which included the Misty Mountains, Mirkwood, Mordor, and the Blue Mountains. After the loss of the Entwives by the end of the Third Age, he and the remaining Ents dwelt in the Forest of Fangorn. This led the remaining Ents into isolation and all information from the outside world was cut off.[2] The arrival of Merry and Pippin shifted Treebeard's attention to take action against Saruman for hacking down his trees. He led the Ents to war against Saruman and his Orcs. Treebeard later realised that while Saruman had learned much from him, the Wizard had shared no useful information of his own.[2]

text: a large Man-like figure, at least fourteen foot high, very sturdy, with a tall head, and hardly any neck. Whether it was clad in stuff like green and grey bark, or whether that was its hide, was difficult to say. Arms, at a short distance from the trunk, were not wrinkled, but covered with a brown smooth skin. The large feet had seven toes each. Grey beard, deep brown eyes, shot with a green light.”

text: Treebeard had been friends with Saruman. It is described in The Two Towers that Saruman visited Treebeard in Fangorn Forest and had talked with him on various subjects of concern. Saruman gathered information from Treebeard about the Forest of Fangorn; its intertwining paths were of particular concern to him.[2]

text: After Merry and Pippin's meeting with Treebeard, Treebeard called an Entmoot, which lasted three days, to decide to call an attack on Isengard and Saruman.[2][3][5] Since Leaflock and Skinbark were the oldest of the Ents along with Treebeard, they refused to fight, however, Treebeard thought he was going to his doom during "the last march of the Ents."[2][5] Treebeard hoped that some of the younger Ents would come instead of just the two, and, during the night he spread the word. They later launched an assault on Isengard.[2][3][5]

text: After Treebeard ordered the Ents to march to Isengard, the Ents felled Saruman's walls and destroyed every object in and around Isengard; the Tower of Orthanc could not be breached, but Saruman was trapped within. Treebeard stopped the attack on the tower when he realised their efforts were in vain; the tower was too strong. The Ents were ordered to unleash the waters of the River Isen, which flooded Isengard.[3]  When Merry and Pippin departed Treebeard he requested them to watch for the Entwives.[2] At one point in the book, Tolkien gives hints on the whereabouts of the Entwives. It is speculated[according to whom?] that they were spotted by Samwise Gamgee's cousin Hal in the North Farthing. However, this may or may not be conjecture:

text: But what about these Tree-men, these giants, as you might call them? They do say that one bigger than a tree was seen up away beyond the North Moors not long back ... But this one was as big as an elm tree, and walking – walking seven yards to a stride, if it was an inch.

text: In the Years of the Trees where the Ents were thriving in 1495 Morgoth had re-established his realm in Middle-earth.[2]  With this the Entwives had moved across to the east where Anduin lay.[2] Treebeard's Entwife Fimbrethil was driven from her land and the two were separated forever. This may have been the dominant cause of the loss of the Entwives and the loss of the Entings.[2][7]

text: The Elven-realm Lothlórien was situated near the North of Fangorn Forest and Treebeard had met the Lord and Lady of the Galadhrim of Lothlórien, who refer to him as "Eldest".[2][8] Over time the Ents and the Elves separated and the Elves had nothing more to do with the business of Ents.[2][8]

text: Portrayal in adaptations[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Treebeard has inspired a number of artists and illustrators such as Inger Edelfeldt, John Howe,[9] Ted Nasmith,[10] Anke Eißmann,[11] and Alan Lee.[12]

text: In Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated adaptation of The Lord of the Rings, John Westbrook provided the voice of Treebeard.[13] Stephen Thorne voiced the character in BBC Radio's 1981 serialization.[14] Treebeard was originated onstage by Brian Amidei in the Lifeline Theatre's 1999 production of The Two Towers.[citation needed]

text: In Peter Jackson's films The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002) and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003), Treebeard is a combination of a large animatronic model and a CGI construct; his voice is performed by John Rhys-Davies, who also portrays Gimli. In The Two Towers, Merry and Pippin run into the Fangorn Forest in an attempt to escape a band of Uruk-hai and orcs that kidnapped them. There, they are pursued by one orc. Treebeard awakens, crushes the orc, and takes Merry and Pippin to the "White Wizard" (later revealed to be a revived Gandalf) to see if they were "little orcs" or not. Assured that they are not orcs, Treebeard keeps the hobbits with him for safety. The Ents at the Entmoot decline Merry and Pippin's request for help. Treebeard is carrying the Hobbits through Fangorn Forest when Pippin gets an idea: he asks Treebeard to carry them toward Isengard, because that is the "last place" Saruman would look for them. When Treebeard gets close to the forest's edge, he sees the devastation wrought by Saruman's Orcs. The trees have all been hacked down to serve as fuel for Saruman's war machines. In anger, Treebeard summons the other Ents, who emerge from the forest. They attack Isengard and flood it. Treebeard, in addition, sends the Huorns to attack Saruman's Orcs as they retreated from Helm's Deep. In a deleted scene, Treebeard mentions to the hobbits about the Entwives and how they literally were lost. He also rescues them from a tree that holds them captive (similar to a scene in the novel of The Fellowship of the Ring, with Tom Bombadil).

text: Treebeard makes a brief appearance in The Return of the King, keeping watch over Isengard with Merry and Pippin as Théoden, Gandalf, Legolas, Gimli, and Aragorn arrive to pick up the two hobbits.

text: A 6-metre-high sculpture of Treebeard by Tolkien's great-nephew Tim Tolkien was built in Birmingham, where Tolkien grew up.[15] There is also a statue of an Ent, which looks very similar to Treebeard, in Grizedale Forest, Cumbria.

text: Treebeard also makes an appearance in The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers video game as an unplayable character. Treebeard is also a temporary playable character in the game Lego The Lord of the Rings.

text: In the Battle for Middle-earth series of video games, Treebeard appears as a purchasable hero for the forces of light.

text: In the Top Trumps games franchise card game the age stated of Treebeard is 17,051 years.

text: On the Dawn in Rivendell (the Tolkien Ensemble) compact disc, Treebeard is voiced by Christopher Lee.


document_title: Saint Valentine's Day Massacre

question_text: who ordered the st valentine's day massacre

question_tokens: who ordered the st valentine 's day massacre

text: Saint Valentine's Day Massacre

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: At 10:30 a.m. on Thursday, February 14, 1929, seven men were murdered at the garage at 2122 North Clark Street,[3][4] in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Chicago's North Side. They were shot by four men using weapons that included two Thompson submachine guns. Two of the shooters were dressed as uniformed policemen, while the others wore suits, ties, overcoats and hats. Witnesses saw the "police" leading the other men at gunpoint out of the garage after the shooting.

text: The victims included five members of George "Bugs" Moran's North Side Gang. Moran's second-in-command and brother-in-law, Albert Kachellek (alias James Clark), was killed along with Adam Heyer, the gang's bookkeeper and business manager, Albert Weinshank, who managed several cleaning and dyeing operations for Moran, and gang enforcers Frank Gusenberg and Peter Gusenberg. Two collaborators were also shot: Reinhardt H. Schwimmer, a former optician turned gambler and gang associate, and John May, an occasional mechanic for the Moran gang.

text: When real Chicago police officers arrived at the scene, one of the victims, Frank Gusenberg was still alive. He was taken to the hospital, where doctors stabilized him for a short time. Police tried to question Gusenberg. When asked who shot him, Gusenberg, who had sustained fourteen bullet wounds, replied "No one shot me." He died three hours later.[5]

text: The massacre was allegedly planned by the organization led by Al Capone to eliminate George "Bugs" Moran, the boss of the long-established North Side Gang. The former boss of the North Side Gang, Dean O'Banion, had been murdered by four gunmen in his flower shop on North State Street in 1924.[6] After the murder of O'Banion, each successive leader of the North Siders was also killed, allegedly by various members or associates of the Capone organization.

text: Several factors contributed to the timing of the plan to kill George "Bugs" Moran. Earlier in the year, North Sider Frank Gusenberg and his brother Peter unsuccessfully attempted to murder Jack McGurn. The North Side Gang was complicit in the murders of Pasqualino "Patsy" Lolordo and Antonio "The Scourge" Lombardo. Both had been presidents of the Unione Siciliana, the local Mafia, and close associates of Capone. Moran and Capone had been vying for control of the lucrative Chicago bootlegging trade, and Bugs Moran had been moving in on several of Capone's enterprises. Moran was muscling in on a Capone-run dog track in the Chicago suburbs and he had taken over several saloons that were run by Capone, insisting they were in his territory.

text: The plan was to lure Bugs Moran to the SMC Cartage warehouse on North Clark Street on February 14, 1929. The intent was to kill Moran, and perhaps two or three of his lieutenants. It is usually assumed that the North Siders were lured to the garage with the promise of a stolen, cut-rate shipment of whiskey, supplied by Detroit's Purple Gang, which was associated with Capone. The Gusenberg brothers were supposed to drive two empty trucks to Detroit that day to pick up two loads of stolen Canadian whiskey. All of the victims, with the exception of John May, were dressed in their best clothes, as was customary for the North Siders and other gangsters at the time.

text: On St. Valentine's Day, most of the Moran gang had already arrived at the warehouse by approximately 10:30 a.m. Moran was not there, having left his Parkway Hotel apartment late. As Moran and one of his men, Ted Newberry, approached the rear of the warehouse from a side street, they saw a police car approach the building. They immediately turned and retraced their steps, going to a nearby coffee shop. They encountered another gang member, Henry Gusenberg, on the street. Henry was warned and turned back. Willie Marks, also a North Side Gang member, spotted the police car on his way to the garage. He ducked into a doorway and jotted down the license number before leaving the neighborhood.

text: Capone's lookouts likely mistook one of Moran's men for Moran himself – probably Albert Weinshank, who was the same height and build. That morning the physical similarity between the two men was enhanced by their dress: both happened to be wearing the same color overcoats and hats. Witnesses outside the garage saw a Cadillac sedan pull to a stop in front of the garage. Four men, two dressed in police uniform, emerged and walked inside. The two fake police officers, carrying shotguns, entered the rear portion of the garage and found members of Moran's gang and two gang collaborators, Reinhart Schwimmer and John May, who was fixing one of the trucks. The "police officers" then ordered the men to line up against the wall.

text: The two "police officers" then signaled to the pair in civilian clothes who had accompanied them. Two of the killers opened fire with Thompson sub-machine guns, one with a 20-round box magazine and the other a 50-round drum. They were thorough, spraying their victims left and right, even continuing to fire after all seven had hit the floor. The seven men were ripped apart in the volley. Two shotgun blasts afterward all but obliterated the faces of John May and James Clark, according to the coroner's report.

text: To give the appearance that everything was under control, the men in street clothes came out with their hands up, prodded by the two uniformed police officers. Inside the garage, the only survivors in the warehouse were Highball (May's dog) and Frank Gusenberg. Despite fourteen bullet wounds, he was still conscious, but died three hours later, refusing to utter a word about the identities of the killers. The Valentine's Day Massacre set off a public outcry that posed a problem for all mob bosses.[7]

text: Victims[edit]

text:
Peter Gusenberg, a frontline enforcer for the Moran organizations.
Frank Gusenberg, the brother of Peter Gusenberg and also an enforcer.
Albert Kachellek (alias "James Clark"), Moran's second-in-command.[8]
Adam Heyer, the bookkeeper and business manager of the Moran gang.[9]
Reinhardt Schwimmer, an optician who had abandoned his practice to gamble on horse racing and associated with the gang.[10]
Albert Weinshank,[11] who managed several cleaning and dyeing operations for Moran. His resemblance to Moran, including the clothes he was wearing, is what allegedly set the massacre in motion before Moran actually arrived.[12][self-published source]
John May, an occasional car mechanic for the Moran gang.[12]

tag: ul

text: Investigation[edit]

text: Since it was common knowledge that Moran was hijacking Capone's Detroit-based liquor shipments, police focused their attention on Detroit's predominantly Jewish Purple Gang. Mug shots of Purple members George Lewis, Eddie Fletcher, Phil Keywell and his younger brother Harry, were picked out by landladies Mrs. Doody and Mrs. Orvidson, who had taken in three men as roomers ten days before the massacre; their rooming houses were directly across the street from the Clark Street garage. Later, these women wavered in their identification, and Fletcher, Lewis, and Harry Keywell were all questioned and cleared by Chicago Police. Nevertheless, the Keywell brothers (and by extension the Purple Gang) would remain ensnared in the massacre case for all time. Many also believed what the killers wanted them to believe – that the police did it.

text: February 22, police were called to the scene of a garage fire on Wood Street where a 1927 Cadillac Sedan was found disassembled and partially burned. It was determined that the car had been used by the killers. The engine number was traced to a Michigan Avenue dealer, who had sold the car to a James Morton of Los Angeles. The garage had been rented by a man calling himself Frank Rogers, who gave his address as 1859 West North Avenue – which happened to be the address of the Circus Café, operated by Claude Maddox, a former St. Louis gangster with ties to the Capone organization, the Purple Gang, and a St. Louis gang called Egan's Rats. Police could not turn up any information about persons named James Morton or Frank Rogers. But they had a definite lead on one of the killers. Just minutes before the killings, a truck driver named Elmer Lewis had turned a corner only a block away from 2122 North Clark and sideswiped what he took to be a police car. He told police later that he stopped immediately but was waved away by the uniformed driver, whom he noticed was missing a front tooth. The same description of the car's driver was also given by the president of the Board of Education, H. Wallace Caldwell, who had also witnessed the accident. Police knew that this description could be none other than a former member of Egan's Rats, Fred 'Killer' Burke; Burke and a close companion, James Ray, were well known to wear police uniforms whenever on a robbery spree. Burke was also a fugitive, under indictment for robbery and murder in Ohio. Police also suggested that Joseph Lolordo could have been one of the killers, because of his brother Pasqualino's recent murder by the North Side Gang.

text: Police then announced that they suspected Capone gunmen John Scalise and Albert Anselmi, as well as Jack McGurn himself, and Frank Rio, a Capone bodyguard. Police eventually charged McGurn and Scalise with the massacre. John Scalise, along with Anselmi and Joseph 'Hop Toad' Giunta, were murdered by Capone in May 1929, after Capone learned about their plan to kill him, and before he went to trial. The murder charges against Jack McGurn were finally dropped because of a lack of evidence, and he was just charged with a violation of the Mann Act: he took his girlfriend, Louise Rolfe, who was also the main witness against him and became known as the "Blonde Alibi", across state lines to marry.

text: The case stagnated until December 14, 1929, when the Berrien County, Michigan Sheriff's Department raided the St. Joseph, Michigan bungalow of “Frederick Dane”, the registered owner of a vehicle driven by Fred "Killer" Burke. Burke had been drinking that night, rear-ended another vehicle and drove off. Patrolman Charles Skelly pursued, finally forcing Burke off the road. As Skelly hopped on the running board he was shot three times and died of his wounds later that night. The car was found wrecked and abandoned just outside St. Joseph and traced to Fred Dane. By this time police photos confirmed that Dane was in fact Fred Burke, wanted by the Chicago police for his participation in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.

text: When police raided Burke's bungalow, they found a large trunk containing a bullet-proof vest, almost $320,000 in bonds recently stolen from a Wisconsin bank, two Thompson submachine guns, pistols, two shotguns, and thousands of rounds of ammunition. St. Joseph authorities immediately notified the Chicago police, who requested that both machine guns be brought there at once. Through the then relatively new science of forensic ballistics, both weapons were determined to have been used in the massacre – and that one of Burke's Tommy guns had also been used to murder New York mobster Frankie Yale (who participated in O'Banion's murder) a year and a half earlier. Unfortunately, no further concrete evidence would surface in the massacre case. Burke would be captured over a year later on a Missouri farm. As the case against him in the murder of Officer Skelly was strongest, he was tried in Michigan and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment. Burke died in prison in 1940.

text: Bolton revelations[edit]

text: On January 8, 1935, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents surrounded a Chicago apartment building at 3920 North Pine Grove, looking for the remaining members of the Barker Gang. A brief shootout erupted, resulting in the death of bank robber Russell Gibson. Taken into custody were Doc Barker, Byron Bolton, and two women. While interrogating agents got nothing out of Barker, Bolton (a hitherto obscure criminal) proved to be a "geyser of information", as one crime historian called him. Bolton, a former Navy machine-gunner and associate of Egan's Rats, had been the valet of the Chicago hit man Fred Goetz. Bolton was privy to many of the Barker Gang's crimes and pinpointed the Florida hideout of Ma and Freddie Barker (both of whom were killed in a shootout with the FBI a week later). Bolton claimed to have taken part in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre with Goetz, Fred Burke, and several others.

text: Because the FBI had no jurisdiction in a state murder case, they kept Bolton’s revelations confidential, until the Chicago American newspaper reported a second-hand version of the bank robber’s confession. The newspaper declared that the crime had been “solved”, despite being stonewalled by J. Edgar Hoover and the Bureau, who did not want any part of the massacre case. Garbled versions of Bolton’s story went out in the national media. Bolton, it was reported, claimed that the murder of Bugs Moran had been plotted in “October or November” 1928 at a Couderay, Wisconsin resort owned by Fred Goetz. Present at this meet were Goetz, Al Capone, Frank Nitti, Fred Burke, Gus Winkeler, Louis Campagna, Daniel Serritella, William Pacelli, and Bolton himself. The men stayed two or three weeks, hunting and fishing when they were not planning the murder of their enemies.

text: Byron Bolton claimed he and Jimmy Moran were charged with watching the S.M.C. Cartage garage and phoning the signal to the killers at the Circus Café when Bugs Moran arrived at the meeting. Police had indeed found a letter addressed to Bolton in the lookout nest (and possibly a vial of prescription medicine). Bolton guessed that the actual killers had been Burke, Winkeler, Goetz, Bob Carey, Raymond "Crane Neck" Nugent,[13] and Claude Maddox (four shooters and two getaway drivers). Bolton gave an account of the massacre different from the one generally told by historians. He claimed that he saw only “plainclothes” men exit the Cadillac and go into the garage. This indicates that a second car was used by the killers. One witness, George Brichet, claimed to have seen at least two uniformed men exiting a car in the alley and entering the garage through its rear doors. A Peerless sedan had been found near a Maywood house owned by Claude Maddox in the days after the massacre, and in one of the pockets was an address book belonging to victim Albert Weinshank. Bolton further indicated he had mistaken one of Moran’s men to be Moran, after which he telephoned the signal to the Circus Café. When the killers (who had expected to kill Moran and maybe two or three of his men) were unexpectedly confronted with seven men, they simply decided to kill them all and get out fast. Bolton claimed that Capone was furious with him for his mistake (and the resulting police pressure) and threatened to kill him, only to be dissuaded by Fred Goetz.[citation needed]

text: His claims were corroborated by Gus Winkeler's widow, Georgette, in both an official FBI statement and her memoirs, which were published in a four-part series in a true detective magazine during the winter of 1935–36. Georgette Winkeler revealed that her husband and his friends had formed a special crew used by Capone for high-risk jobs. The mob boss was said to have trusted them implicitly and nicknamed them the “American Boys”. Byron Bolton’s statements were also backed up by William Drury, a maverick Chicago detective who had stayed on the massacre case long after everyone else had given up. Bank robber Alvin Karpis later claimed to have heard secondhand from Ray Nugent about the massacre and that the “American Boys” were paid a collective salary of $2,000 a week plus bonuses. Karpis also claimed that Capone himself had told him while they were in Alcatraz together that Goetz had been the actual planner of the massacre.[citation needed]

text: Despite Byron Bolton’s statements, no action was taken by the FBI. All the men he named, with the exceptions of Burke and Maddox, were dead by 1935. Bank robber Harvey Bailey would later complain in his 1973 autobiography that he and Fred Burke had been drinking beer in Calumet City at the time of the massacre, and the resulting heat forced them to abandon their bank robbing ventures. Claude Maddox was questioned fruitlessly by Chicago Police, and there the matter lay. Crime historians are still divided on whether or not the “American Boys” committed the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre.[citation needed]

text: Other suspects[edit]

text: Over the years, many mobsters, in and out of Chicago, would be named as part of the Valentine's Day hit team. Two prime suspects are Cosa Nostra hit men John Scalise and Albert Anselmi; both men were effective killers and are frequently mentioned as possibilities for two of the shooters. In the days after the massacre, Scalise was heard to brag, “I am the most powerful man in Chicago.” He had recently been elevated to the position of vice-president in the Unione Siciliana by its president, Joseph Guinta. Nevertheless, Scalise, Anselmi, and Guinta would be found dead on a lonely road near Hammond, Indiana on May 8, 1929. Gangland lore has it that Al Capone had discovered that the pair was planning to betray him. Legend states that at the climax of a dinner party thrown in their honor, Capone produced a baseball bat and beat the trio to death.[14]

text: Murder weapons[edit]

text: The two Thompson submachine guns (serial numbers 2347 and 7580) found in Fred Dane’s (an alias for Fred Burke) Michigan bungalow were tested and it was determined that both had been used in the massacre. One of them had also been used in the murder of Brooklyn mob boss Frankie Yale, which confirmed the New York Police Department’s long-held theory that Burke, and by extension Al Capone, had been responsible for Yale's death.

text: Gun No. 2347 had been originally purchased on November 12, 1924, by Les Farmer, a deputy sheriff in Marion, Illinois, which happened to be the seat of Williamson County. Marion and the surrounding area were then overrun by the warring bootleg factions of the Shelton Brothers and Charlie Birger. Deputy Farmer was documented as having ties with Egan’s Rats, based 100 miles (160 km) away in St. Louis. By the beginning of 1927 at the very latest, the weapon had wound up in Fred Burke's possession. It is possible he had used this same gun in Detroit’s Milaflores Massacre on March 28, 1927.

text: Gun No. 7580 had been sold by Chicago sporting goods owner Peter von Frantzius to a Victor Thompson (also known as Frank V. Thompson) in the care of the Fox Hotel of Elgin, Illinois. Some time after the purchase the machine gun wound up with James "Bozo" Shupe, a small-time hood from Chicago’s West Side who had ties to various members of Capone’s outfit.

text: Both submachine guns are still in the possession of the Berrien County Sheriff's Department in St. Joseph, Michigan.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Crime scene and bricks from the murder wall[edit]

text: The garage, which stood at 2122 N. Clark Street, was demolished in 1967, and the site is now a parking lot for a nursing home.[15] The bricks of the north wall, against which the massacre's victims were lined up and shot, were purchased by a Canadian businessman. For many years they were displayed in various crime-related novelty displays. Many of the original bricks were later sold individually, and the remainder are now owned by the Mob Museum in Las Vegas.[citation needed]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre has been portrayed, referenced, or emulated in the following works:

text: Biographical[edit]

text:
Al Capone (film), a 1959 film directed by Richard Wilson starring Rod Steiger as Capone
Seven Against the Wall, a 1959 episode of Playhouse 90 directed by Franklin J. Schaffner starring Paul Lambert as Capone
The St. Valentine's Day Massacre, a 1967 film directed by Roger Corman starring Jason Robards as Al Capone
Capone (film), a 1975 film directed by Steve Carver starring Ben Gazzara as Capone
The Untouchables (film), a 1987 film directed by Brian De Palma that briefly mentions the massacre
The Making of the Mob: Chicago, a 2016 miniseries about Al Capone that reenacts the massacre's scene

text: Fictional[edit]

text:
Scarface, a 1932 gangster film directed by Howard Hawks that is loosely based on the life of Al Capone and depicts a version of the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre
Some Like It Hot, a 1959 comedy directed by Billy Wilder in which Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon play characters on the run after witnessing the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre
Oscar (1991 film), a comedy film directed by John Landis in which Sylvester Stallone's character is said to have been at the massacre