document_title: Pass laws

question_text: who came up with the pass laws and when

question_tokens: who came up with the pass laws and when

text: Pass laws

text: Early history[edit]

text: The first internal passports in South Africa were introduced on 27 June 1797 by the Earl Macartney in an attempt to prevent natives from entering the Cape Colony.[1] The Cape Colony was merged with other states in the region to form the Union of South Africa in 1910, under the UK. By this time, versions of pass laws existed elsewhere. A major boost for their utilisation was the rise of the mining sector from the 1880s: pass laws provided a convenient means of controlling workers' mobility and enforcing contracts.

text: In 1896 the South African Republic brought in two pass laws which required Africans to carry a metal badge.  Only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand. Those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass which entitled them to remain for three days.[2]

text: Later legislation[edit]

text: The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as "white" and required all black African men in cities and towns to carry around permits called "passes" at all times. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. It was replaced in 1945 by the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, which imposed "influx control" on black men and also set up guidelines for removing people deemed to be living idle lives from urban areas. This act outlined requirements for African peoples' "qualification" to reside legally in white metropolitan areas. To do so, they had to have Section 10 rights, based on whether[3]

text:
the person had been born there and resided there always since birth;
the person had laboured continuously for ten years in any agreed area for any employer, or lived continuously in any such area for fifteen years;

text: The Black (Natives) Laws Amendment Act of 1952 amended the 1945 Native Urban Areas Consolidation Act, stipulating that all black people over the age of 16 were required to carry passes, and that no black person could stay in an urban area more than 72 hours unless allowed to by Section 10.[4] The Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act of 1952, commonly known as the Pass Laws Act, repealed the many regional pass laws and instituted one nationwide pass law, which made it compulsory for all black South Africans over the age of 16 to carry the "passbook" at all times within white areas. The law stipulated where, when, and for how long a person could remain. [5]

text: The document was similar to an internal passport, containing details on the bearer such as their fingerprints, photograph, the name of his/her employer, his/her address, how long the bearer had been employed, as well as other identification information. Employers often entered a behavioural evaluation, on the conduct of the pass holder. (done by Caleb Lane)

text: An employer was defined under the law and could only be a white person. The pass also documented permission requested and denied or granted to be in a certain region and the reason for seeking such permission. Under the terms of the law, any government employee could strike out such entries, basically cancelling the permission to remain in the area.

text: A passbook without a valid entry then allowed officials to arrest and imprison the bearer of the pass. These passes often became the most despised symbols of apartheid. The resistance to the Pass Law led to many thousands of arrests and was the spark that ignited the Sharpeville Massacre on March 21, 1960, and led to the arrest of Robert Sobukwe that day.

text: Colloquially, passes were often called the dompas, literally meaning the "dumb pass."

text: Apart from discrimination against black people, there was also discrimination against the so-called "coloured people." The "coloured" included all Indians, Chinese and Arabs, as well as those of "mixed" black/white ethnicity. Indian people, for example, were barred from the Orange Free State.[6]

text: Resistance by syndicalists and nationalists[edit]

text: These discriminatory regulations fueled growing discontent from the black population. The 1910s saw significant opposition to pass laws being applied to black women.

text: In 1919, the revolutionary syndicalist International Socialist League (South Africa), in conjunction with the syndicalist Industrial Workers of Africa and the early African National Congress organised a major anti-pass campaign.

text: The 1950s saw the ANC begin the Defiance Campaign to oppose the pass laws. This conflict climaxed at the Sharpeville Massacre, where the anti-pass protestors led by the rival breakaway Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) surrounded the Sharpeville police station, prompting the police to open fire, killing 69 people and injuring over 180. Subsequent protests and strikes were met with major repression and the ANC and PAC were both banned.

text: Repeal in 1986[edit]

text: On July 23, 1986, as part of a process of removing some apartheid laws, the South African government lifted the requirement to carry passbooks, although the pass law system itself was not yet repealed.[7] The system of pass laws was formally repealed retroactive on April 23, 1986, with the Abolition of Influx Control Act. Helen Suzman (MP) mentioned the act the most eminent reform of a government had ever introduced.[8]


document_title: Mind your Ps and Qs

question_text: what does mind you p's and q's mean

question_tokens: what does mind you p 's and q 's mean

root

text: Mind your Ps and Qs

text: Look up mind one's ps and qs in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

tag: table

text: Mind your Ps and Qs is an English expression meaning "mind your manners", "mind your language", "be on your best behaviour" or similar.

tag: p

text: Attempts at explaining the origin of the phrase go back to the mid-19th century. One explanation favoured in a letter to the editors of Notes and Queries dated 1851, as well as by the Oxford English Dictionary upon their revision of the relevant entry in 2007, is literal interpretation of the saying, concerning the distinction of the lowercase letters p and q in the context of the school-room or the printing-office.[1] As noted by W. D. Henkle in Educational Notes and Queries in 1876, in this case the proper spelling of the phrase should be "note your p's and q's", because the distinction of majuscule P and Q does not pose a problem.[2]

text: Nevertheless, a number of alternative explanations have been considered as more or less plausible. Another explanation suggests that "Ps and Qs" is short for "pleases" and "thank-yous", the latter of which contains a sound similar to the pronunciation of the name of the letter "Q". Another proposed origin is from the English pubs and taverns of the 17th century. Bartenders would keep a watch on the alcohol consumption of the patrons; keeping an eye on the pints and quarts that were consumed. As a reminder to the patrons, the bartender would recommend they "mind their Ps and Qs".[3] This may also have been a reminder to bartenders not to confuse the two units, written as "p" and "q" on the tally slate.[4]

text: Other origin stories, some considered "fanciful",[4] could come from French instructions to mind one's pieds (feet) and queues (wigs) while dancing. However, there is no French translation for this expression.[5] Another origin could be from sailors in the 18th century who were reminded to pay attention to their peas (pea coat) and queues (pony tail).[5]

text: Another proposal concerns the use of Norman French in medieval England; as the English dialect of the 11th century had no qs,[dubious – discuss] one must watch their usage in court or discourse with the French Norman conquerors. [6][dubious – discuss]

text: Quinion cites an apparently related expression of pee and kew for "highest quality" used in 17th-century English.[7]


document_title: North American Car of the Year

question_text: north american car and truck of the year

text: North American Car of the Year

text: Example[edit]

text:
Car
Truck

Saturn Aura (Winner)
Honda Fit (Nominee)
Toyota Camry (Nominee)

Chevrolet Silverado (Winner)
Ford Edge (Nominee)
Mazda CX-7 (Nominee)

text:
Ford Thunderbird Super Coupe
Mercury Cougar XR7
Dodge Spirit ES
Plymouth Acclaim LX

1992

Ford Econoline

text: 1990 Toyota Camry

text: Prolapse

text:
Year
Car
Truck

1994

Mercedes-Benz C-Class
Chevrolet Camaro
Toyota Supra

Dodge Ram
Chevrolet S-10
GMC Sonoma
Land Rover Discovery

1995

Chrysler Cirrus
Ford Contour
Oldsmobile Aurora

Chevrolet Blazer
Ford Explorer
Ford Windstar

1996

Chrysler minivans
Ford Taurus
Mercury Sable
Mercedes-Benz E-Class

Ford F-150
GMC Yukon
Chevrolet Tahoe
Land Rover Range Rover

1997

Mercedes-Benz SLK-Class
Jaguar XK8
BMW 5 Series

Ford Expedition
Dodge Dakota
Toyota RAV4

1998

Chevrolet Corvette
Audi A6
Lexus GS

Mercedes-Benz M-Class
Dodge Durango
Subaru Forester

1999

Chrysler 300M
Honda Odyssey
Volkswagen New Beetle

Jeep Grand Cherokee
Chevrolet Silverado
GMC Sierra

text:
Year
Car
Truck

2000

Ford Focus
Audi TT
Lincoln LS

Nissan Xterra
Dodge Dakota
Toyota Tundra

2001

Chrysler PT Cruiser
Honda Insight
Toyota Prius

Acura MDX
Ford Escape
Toyota Sequoia

2002

Ford Thunderbird
Nissan Altima
Cadillac CTS

Chevrolet TrailBlazer
Chevrolet Avalanche
Jeep Liberty

2003

Mini Cooper
Infiniti G35
Nissan 350Z

Volvo XC90
Hummer H2
Honda Element
Nissan Murano

2004

Toyota Prius
Mazda RX-8
Cadillac XLR

Ford F-150
Nissan Titan
Cadillac SRX

2005

Chrysler 300
Chevrolet Corvette
Ford Mustang

Ford Escape Hybrid
Ford Freestyle
Land Rover LR3

2006

Honda Civic
Ford Fusion
Pontiac Solstice

Honda Ridgeline
Ford Explorer
Nissan Xterra

2007

Saturn Aura
Toyota Camry
Honda Fit

Chevrolet Silverado
Ford Edge
Mazda CX-7

2008

Chevrolet Malibu
Cadillac CTS
Honda Accord

Mazda CX-9
Chevy Tahoe Hybrid
Buick Enclave

2009

Hyundai Genesis
Ford Flex
Volkswagen Jetta TDI

Ford F-150
Dodge Ram
Mercedes-Benz ML320 BlueTEC

text:
Year
Car
Truck

2010

Ford Fusion Hybrid
Buick LaCrosse
Volkswagen Golf/GTI/TDI

Ford Transit Connect
Chevrolet Equinox
Subaru Outback

2011[2]

Chevrolet Volt
Hyundai Sonata
Nissan Leaf

Ford Explorer
Dodge Durango
Jeep Grand Cherokee

2012[3]

Hyundai Elantra
Ford Focus
Volkswagen Passat

Land Rover Range Rover Evoque
BMW X3
Honda CR-V

2013[4]

Cadillac ATS
Ford Fusion
Honda Accord

Ram 1500

2014[5]

Chevrolet Corvette Stingray

Chevrolet Silverado

2015[6]

Volkswagen Golf Mk7

Ford F-150

2016

Honda Civic

Volvo XC90

text:
2017[6]

Chevrolet Bolt

Chrysler Pacifica

Honda Ridgeline

2018[6]

Honda Accord

Volvo XC60

Lincoln Navigator


document_title: What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962 film)

question_text: who won the oscar for what happened to baby jane

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1917, "Baby Jane" Hudson is an adored yet ill-tempered vaudevillian child star while her older sister Blanche lives in her shadow. By 1935, their fortunes have reversed: Blanche is a successful film actress and Jane lives in obscurity, her films having failed. One night, Jane mocks Blanche at a party, prompting Blanche to run away in tears. That same night, Blanche is paralyzed from the waist down in a mysterious car accident that is unofficially blamed on Jane, who is found three days later in a drunken stupor.

text: In 1962 a wheelchair-bound Blanche (Joan Crawford) and Jane (Bette Davis) are living together in Blanche's mansion, purchased with Blanche's movie earnings. By now, Jane has descended into alcoholism and mental illness and treats Blanche with cruelty to punish her for stealing her spotlight. Later, when Blanche informs Jane she may be selling the house, Jane's mental health begins to deteriorate further. During an argument, she removes the telephone from Blanche's bedroom, cutting Blanche off from the outside world. Later, Jane begins denying Blanche food, until she serves Blanche her dead parakeet on a platter—and, at a later meal, a rat that she killed in the cellar.

text: Jane becomes obsessed with recapturing her childhood stardom and puts an advertisement in the paper for a pianist to accompany her singing, When Jane leaves the house, Blanche tries to get the attention of her neighbor, Mrs. Bates (Anna Lee), by writing a note pleading for help and throwing it out her bedroom window. Jane returns in time to notice the note and prevents Mrs. Bates from seeing it. When Jane reads the note, the two sisters quarrel again.

text: When Blanche's caretaker Elvira Stitt (Maidie Norman) comes to clean the house, Jane pays her and gives her the day off, but when Elvira returns later on, Jane abruptly fires her and sends her away. After Jane goes to the bank to get some cash, Elvira comes back and finds that Jane has locked Blanche in her room. When Jane returns, a neighbor tells her she saw Elvira go into the house. Jane confronts Elvira. Meanwhile, eccentric and cash-strapped Edwin Flagg (Victor Buono) sees Jane's newspaper advertisement and arrives at the mansion, where Jane hires him as her accompanist. Desperate for cash, Edwin insincerely flatters Jane and encourages her to revive her act. While Jane drives Edwin home, Blanche searches the house for food and discovers Jane has been forging her signature on checks. Desperate for help, Blanche crawls down the stairs and calls their doctor, telling him of Jane's erratic behavior and begging him to come to the house. Jane returns in time to find Blanche on the phone and beats her unconscious before imitating her voice over the phone and telling the doctor not to come. She then binds and gags Blanche and locks her back in her upstairs bedroom. Elvira, still suspicious of Jane, returns the next day and discovers Blanche in a weakened and starved state. Before she can rescue her, however, Jane beats Elvira to death with a hammer and disposes of her body.

text: Days later, the police call upon the Hudson house and tell Jane that her maid's cousin has reported her missing. The panicked Jane prepares to leave, taking Blanche with her. Before they can leave, Edwin shows up uninvited and drunk, and discovers Blanche in her bed, bound and emaciated. Edwin flees to a drugstore where he notifies the authorities.

text: Jane drives Blanche to the beach and reverts to her childhood self. Near death, Blanche confesses that her paralysis is her own fault: on the night of the accident, she had tried to run Jane over because she was angry at her sister for mocking her, and ever since she has let Jane believe she was to blame for her spine being severed when the car struck the iron gate of their house. Pathetically, Jane asks, "You mean all this time we could have been friends?" With childlike joy, Jane goes to a beachside snack bar to get ice-cream cones for herself and Blanche, then succumbs completely to her insanity and dances before a crowd of puzzled onlookers, believing she is once again "Baby Jane", performing for her adoring fans. Two police officers, who have come to arrest Jane for Elvira's murder, see Blanche lying motionless in the sand and rush to her. The film ends here, without revealing whether Blanche has survived her ordeal.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Bette Davis as Jane Hudson

Julie Allred as nine-year-old Jane
Debbie Burton as young Jane's singing voice

Joan Crawford as Blanche Hudson

Gina Gillespie as thirteen-year-old Blanche

Victor Buono as Edwin Flagg
Marjorie Bennett as Dehlia Flagg
Maidie Norman as Elvira Stitt
Anna Lee as Mrs. Bates
B. D. Merrill as Liza Bates
Dave Willock as Ray Hudson
Anne Barton as Cora Hudson
Wesley Addy as Marty McDonald
Bert Freed as Ben Golden
Robert Cornthwaite as Doctor Shelby

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Bette Davis came up with her own makeup for her role. She said that Jane was someone who never washed her face, but just added more makeup.

text: The house exterior of the Hudson mansion is located at 172 South McCadden Place in the neighborhood of Hancock Park, Los Angeles. Other residential exteriors show cottages on DeLongpre Avenue near Harvard Avenue in Hollywood without their current gated courtyards. The scene on the beach was shot in Malibu, reportedly the same site where Aldrich filmed the final scene of Kiss Me Deadly (1955).

text: Footage from the Bette Davis films Parachute Jumper and Ex-Lady (both 1933) and the Joan Crawford film Sadie McKee (1934) was used to represent the film acting of Baby Jane and Blanche respectively.

text: The neighbour's daughter was played by Davis' daughter B. D. Merrill who, following in the footsteps of Crawford's daughter Christina, later wrote a memoir that depicted her mother in an unfavorable light.

text: Crawford was scheduled to appear alongside Davis on a publicity tour of Baby Jane but cancelled at the last minute. Davis claimed that Crawford backed out because she didn't want to share the stage with her.[12] In a 1972 telephone conversation, Crawford related to future author Shaun Considine that after seeing a screening of the film she urged Davis to go and have a look. When she didn't hear back from her co-star, Crawford called Davis and asked her what she thought of the film to which Davis replied, "You were so right, Joan. The picture is good. And I was terrific." Crawford replied, "That was it. She never said anything about my performance. Not a word." Considine alleges that this denial from Davis (with regard to Joan's talent as an actress) prompted Crawford to cancel the publicity tour and upstage Davis at the Oscars.[13]

text: Prior to the Oscars ceremony, Crawford contacted the Best Actress nominees who were unable to attend the ceremonies and offered to accept the award on their behalf should they win. Davis claimed that Crawford lobbied against her among Academy voters. When Anne Bancroft was declared the winner for The Miracle Worker, she was in New York performing in a play, and had agreed to have Crawford accept her award if she won. Crawford triumphantly swept on-stage to pick up the trophy. Davis later commented, "It would have meant a million more dollars to our film if I had won. Joan was thrilled I hadn't."[14] As both Davis and Crawford had accepted lower salaries in exchange for a share of the film's profits,[15] Davis considered it especially foolish of Crawford to have worked against their common interests, especially at a time when roles for actresses of their generation were hard to find.

text: During the filming of Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964), Crawford acknowledged to visiting reporter/author Lawrence J. Quirk the difficulty she was having with Davis because of the Oscar incident but added, "She acted like Baby Jane was a one-woman show after they nominated her. What was I supposed to do, let her hog all the glory, act like I hadn't even been in the movie? She got the nomination. I didn't begrudge her that, but it would have been nice if she'd been a little gracious in interviews and given me a little credit. I would have done it for her."[16]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received very positive reviews and elicited mixed responses over the Davis/Crawford combination. In his review in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther observed, "[Davis and Crawford] do get off some amusing and eventually blood-chilling displays of screaming sororal hatred and general monstrousness ... The feeble attempts that Mr. Aldrich has made to suggest the irony of two once idolized and wealthy females living in such depravity, and the pathos of their deep-seated envy having brought them to this, wash out very quickly under the flood of sheer grotesquerie."[17]

text: Variety stated, "Although the results heavily favor Davis (and she earns the credit), it should be recognized that the plot, of necessity, allows her to run unfettered through all the stages of oncoming insanity ... Crawford gives a quiet, remarkably fine interpretation of the crippled Blanche, held in emotionally by the nature and temperament of the role."[18]

text: In a retrospective review, TV Guide awarded the film four stars, calling it "Star wars, trenchantly served" and adding, "If it sometimes looks like a poisonous senior citizen show with over-the-top spoiled ham, just try to look away ... As in the best Hitchcock movies, suspense, rather than actual mayhem, drives the film."[19]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 48 reviews.[20]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one for Best Costume Design.[21]

text:
Academy Award for Best Actress (Bette Davis, nominee)
Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Victor Buono, nominee)
Academy Award for Best Costume Design, Black and White (Norma Koch, winner)
Academy Award for Best Cinematography, Black and White (Ernest Haller, nominee)
Academy Award for Best Sound (Joseph D. Kelly, nominee)
BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress (Crawford, nominee)
BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress (Davis, nominee)
Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama (Davis, nominee)
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture (Buono, nominee)
Laurel Award for Golden Laurel for Sleeper of the Year (Winner)
Golden Palm – 1963 Cannes Film Festival (nominee)[22]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was a surprise box office hit, grossing $9 million at the worldwide box office and $4,050,000 in theatrical rentals in North America.[3][23] Its estimated budget was only $980,000.[1]

text: In the United Kingdom, the film was given an X certificate by the BBFC in 1962, with a few minor cuts. These cuts were waived for a video submission, which was given an 18 certificate in 1988, meaning no-one under 18 years of age could purchase a copy of the film.[1] However, in 2004, the film was re-submitted for a theatrical re-release, and it was given a 12A certificate, now meaning persons under 12 years of age could view it if accompanied by an adult. It remains at this category.[24]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (July 2017)

text: The film's success spawned a succession of horror/thriller films featuring psychotic older women, later dubbed the psycho-biddy subgenre, among them Aldrich's Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte, What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?, and director Curtis Harrington's Whoever Slew Auntie Roo? and What's the Matter with Helen?. It was parodied by the Italian comedy film What Ever Happened to Baby Toto?[25]

text: Shaun Considine's 1989 book Bette and Joan: The Divine Feud chronicles the actresses' rivalry, including their experience shooting this film.[26]

text: Comedy duo French and Saunders (Jennifer Saunders and Dawn French) did a BBC episode called "Whatever Happened to Baby Dawn" on 22 March 1990.[27]

text: The film was remade in 1991 as a television film starring real-life sisters Vanessa and Lynn Redgrave.[28]

text: In 2006, Christina Aguilera adopted a new alter ego called Baby Jane after Bette Davis' character in the film.[29]

text: In episode 4 of RuPaul's Drag Race: All Stars (season 2), the queens' acting chops are tested in parody movie sequels of RuPaul's favourite movies. A parody of ''What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?'' called ''Wha' Ha' Happened To Baby JJ?'' was made by Alaska and Alyssa Edwards.[30]

text: The backstage battle between Crawford and Davis during the production of the film is the basis for Feud: Bette and Joan, the 2017 first season of the Ryan Murphy television series Feud. It stars Jessica Lange as Crawford and Susan Sarandon as Davis.[31][32] It premiered on March 5, 2017.


document_title: Old English literature

question_text: what happened to many manuscripts of anglo-saxon literature

question_tokens: what happened to many manuscripts of anglo-saxon literature

text: Old English literature

text: Scholarship[edit]

text: Old English literature has gone through different periods of research; in the 19th and early 20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic and pagan roots that scholars thought they could detect in Old English literature.[4] Later, on account of the work of Bernard F. Huppé,[5] the influence of Augustinian exegesis was emphasised.[6] Today, along with a focus upon paleography and the physical manuscripts themselves more generally, scholars debate such issues as dating, place of origin, authorship, and the connections between Anglo-Saxon culture and the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages, and literary merits.

text: Extant manuscripts[edit]

text: A large number of manuscripts remain from the Anglo-Saxon period, with most written during its last 300 years (9th to 11th centuries).

text: Manuscripts written in both Latin and the vernacular remain. It is believed that Irish missionaries are responsible for the scripts used in early Anglo-Saxon texts, which include the Insular half-uncial (important latin texts) and Insular minuscule (both latin and the vernacular). In the 10th century, the Caroline minuscule was adopted for Latin, however the Insular minuscule continued to be used for Old English texts. Thereafter, it was increasingly influenced by Caroline minuscule, while retaining certain distinctively Insular letter-forms.[7]

text: There were considerable losses of manuscripts as a result of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century.[2] Scholarly study of the language began when the manuscripts were collected by scholars and antiquarians such as Matthew Parker, Laurence Nowell and Sir Robert Bruce Cotton.[8]

text: Old English manuscripts have been highly prized by collectors since the 16th century, both for their historic value and for their aesthetic beauty with their uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements.[2]

text: There are four major poetic manuscripts:

text:
The Junius manuscript, also known as the Cædmon manuscript, is an illustrated collection of poems on biblical narratives.
The Exeter Book is an anthology, located in the Exeter Cathedral since it was donated there in the 11th century.
The Vercelli Book contains both poetry and prose; it is not known how it came to be in Vercelli.
The Beowulf Manuscript (British Library Cotton Vitellius A. xv), sometimes called the Nowell Codex, contains prose and poetry, typically dealing with monstrous themes, including Beowulf.[9]

text: Seven major scriptoria produced a good deal of Old English manuscripts: Winchester; Exeter; Worcester; Abingdon; Durham; and two Canterbury houses, Christ Church and St. Augustine's Abbey.[10] In addition, some Old English text survives on stone structures and other ornate objects.[2]

text: Regional dialects include: Northumbrian; Mercian; Kentish; and West Saxon.[10] The majority of extant texts are written in West Saxon; however, spelling and vocabulary often reflects more typically a Mercian or Northumbrian dialect, leading to the speculation that much of the poetry may have been translated into West Saxon at a later date.[11] An example of the dominance of the West Saxon dialect is a pair of charters, from the Stowe and British Museum collections, which outline grants of land in Kent and Mercia, but are nonetheless written in the West Saxon dialect of the period. [12]

text: Early English manuscripts often contain later annotations in the margins of the texts; it is a rarity to find a completely unannotated manuscript. These include corrections, alterations and expansions of the main text, as well as commentary upon it, and even unrelated texts.[13][14] The majority of these annotations appear to date to the 13th century and later.[15]

text: Poetry[edit]

text: Old English poetry falls broadly into two styles or fields of reference, the heroic Germanic and the Christian. Almost all Old English poets are anonymous.

text: Although there are Anglo-Saxon discourses on Latin prosody, the rules of Old English verse are understood only through modern analysis of the extant texts. The first widely accepted theory was constructed by Eduard Sievers (1893), who distinguished five distinct alliterative patterns.[16] His system of alliterative verse is based on accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English poetry are the kenning, an often formulaic phrase that describes one thing in terms of another (e.g. in Beowulf, the sea is called the whale road) and litotes, a dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect.[16] Alternative theories have been proposed, such as the theory of John C. Pope (1942), which uses musical notation to track the verse patterns.[17] J. R. R. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay "On Translating Beowulf".[18]

text: Even though all extant Old English poetry is written and literate, it is assumed that Old English poetry was an oral craft that was performed by a scop and accompanied by a harp.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Named poets[edit]

text: Most Old English poems are recorded without authors, and very few names are known with any certainty; the primary three are Cædmon, Aldhelm, and Cynewulf.[19]

text: Cædmon is considered the first Old English poet whose work still survives. According to the account in Bede's Historia ecclesiastica, he was first a herdsman before living as a monk at the abbey of Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century.[19][20] Only his first poem, comprising nine-lines, Cædmon's Hymn, remains, in Northumbrian, West-Saxon and Latin versions that appear in 19 surviving manuscripts:[21]

text:
Cædmon's Hymn in different dialects

Modern English[22]
West Saxon[23]
Northumbrian[22]

Now we must praise the Guardian of heaven,
The power and conception of the Lord,
And all His works, as He, eternal Lord,
Father of glory, started every wonder.
First He created heaven as a roof,
The holy Maker, for the sons of men.
Then the eternal Keeper of mankind
Furnished the earth below, the land, for men,
Almighty God and everlasting Lord.

Nū wē sculan herian
Metodes mihte
wera Wuldorfæder;
ēce Dryhten,
Hē ǣrest gesceop
heofon tō hrōfe,
ða middangeard,
ēce Dryhten,
fīrum foldan,
/ heofonrīces Weard,
/ and his mōdgeþonc,
/ swā hē wundra gehwæs,
/ ord onstealde.
/ eorðan bearnum
/ hālig Scyppend;
/ mǫnncynnes Weard,
/ æfter tēode
/ Frēa Ælmihtig.

Nū scylun hergan
metudæs mæcti
uerc Uuldurfadur,
ēci Dryctin,
Hē ǣrist scōp
heben til hrōfe
Thā middungeard
ēci Dryctin,
fīrum foldu,
/ hefænrīcaes Uard,
/ end His mōdgidanc
/ sue Hē uundra gihuæs,
/ ōr āstelidæ.
/ ælda barnum
/ hāleg Scepen.
/ moncynnæs Uard,
/ æfter tīadæ
/ Frēa allmectig.

text: Cynewulf has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was an Anglian poet from the early part of the 9th century. Four poems are attributed to him, signed with a runic acrostic at the end of each poem; these are The Fates of the Apostles and Elene (both found in the Vercelli Book), and Christ II and Juliana (both found in the Exeter Book).[24]

text: Although William of Malmesbury claims that Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), performed secular songs while accompanied by a harp, none of these Old English poems survives.[24] Paul G. Remely has recently proposed that the Old English Exodus may have been the work of Aldhelm, or someone closely associated with him.[25]

text: Bede is often thought to be the poet of a five-line poem entitled Bede's Death Song, on account of its appearance in a letter on his death by Cuthbert. This poem exists in a Northumbrian and later version.[26]

text: Alfred is said to be the author of some of the metrical prefaces to the Old English translations of Gregory's Pastoral Care and Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy. Alfred is also thought to be the author of 50 metrical psalms, but whether the poems were written by him, under his direction or patronage, or as a general part in his reform efforts is unknown.[27]

text: Oral tradition[edit]

text: The hypotheses of Milman Parry and Albert Lord on the Homeric Question came to be applied (by Parry and Lord, but also by Francis Magoun) to verse written in Old English. That is, the theory proposes that certain features of at least some of the poetry may be explained by positing oral-formulaic composition. While Anglo-Saxon (Old English) epic poetry may bear some resemblance to Ancient Greek epics such as the Iliad and Odyssey, the question of if and how Anglo-Saxon poetry was passed down through an oral tradition remains a subject of debate, and the question for any particular poem unlikely to be answered with perfect certainty.

text: Parry and Lord had already demonstrated the density of metrical formulas in Ancient Greek, and observed that the same phenomenon was apparent in the Old English alliterative line:

text: In addition to verbal formulas, many themes have been shown to appear among the various works of Anglo-Saxon literature. The theory proposes to explain this fact by suggesting that the poetry was composed of formulae and themes from a stock common to the poetic profession, as well as literary passages composed by individual artists in a more modern sense. Larry Benson introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes.[28] Frequent oral-formulaic themes in Old English poetry include "Beasts of Battle"[29] and the "Cliff of Death".[30] The former, for example, is characterised by the mention of ravens, eagles, and wolves preceding particularly violent depictions of battle. Among the most thoroughly documented themes is "The Hero on the Beach". D. K. Crowne[31] first proposed this theme, defined by four characteristics:

text:
A Hero on the Beach.
Accompanying "Retainers".
A Flashing Light.
The Completion or Initiation of a Journey.

text: One example Crowne cites in his article is that which concludes Beowulf's fight with the monsters during his swimming match with Breca:

text:
Beowulf (562-570a)

Modern English
West Saxon

Those sinful creatures had no
fill of rejoicing that they consumed me,
assembled at feast at the sea bottom;
rather, in the morning, wounded by blades
they lay up on the shore, put to sleep by swords,
so that never after did they hinder sailors
in their course on the sea.
The light came from the east,
the bright beacon of God.

Næs hie ðære
manfordædlan,
symbel ymbsæton
ac on mergenne
be yðlafe
sweordum aswefede,
ymb brontne
lade ne letton.
beorht beacen godes;
/ fylle gefean hæfdon,
/ þæt hie me þegon,
/ sægrunde neah;
/ mecum wunde
/ uppe lægon,
/ þæt syðþan na
/ ford brimliðende
/ Leoht eastan com,
/ ...

text: Crowne drew on examples of the theme's appearance in twelve Anglo-Saxon texts, including one occurrence in Beowulf. It was also observed in other works of Germanic origin, Middle English poetry, and even an Icelandic prose saga. John Richardson held that the schema was so general as to apply to virtually any character at some point in the narrative, and thought it an instance of the "threshold" feature of Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey monomyth. J.A. Dane, in an article[32] (characterised by Foley as "polemics without rigour"[33]) claimed that the appearance of the theme in Ancient Greek poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet." Foley's response was that Dane misunderstood the nature of oral tradition, and that in fact the appearance of the theme in other cultures showed that it was a traditional form.[34]

text: Genres and themes[edit]

text: Heroic poetry[edit]

text: The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic past. The longest at 3,182 lines, and the most important, is Beowulf, which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex. Beowulf relates the exploits of the hero Beowulf, King of the Weder-Geats or Angles, around the middle of the 5th century. The author is unknown, and no mention of Britain occurs. Scholars are divided over the date of the present text, with hypotheses ranging from the 8th to the 11th centuries.[35][36] It has achieved much acclaim as well as sustained academic and artistic interest.[citation needed]

text: Other heroic poems besides Beowulf exist. Two have survived in fragments: The Fight at Finnsburh, controversially interpreted by many to be a retelling of one of the battle scenes in Beowulf, and Waldere, a version of the events of the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Two other poems mention heroic figures: Widsith is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning Eormanric and the Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. Deor is a lyric, in the style of Consolation of Philosophy, applying examples of famous heroes, including Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case.[24]

text: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called The Battle of Brunanburh, which celebrates the victory of King Athelstan over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Alfred the son of King Æthelred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065).[24]

text: The 325 line poem The Battle of Maldon celebrates Earl Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle against the Vikings in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731.[37] A well-known speech is near the end of the poem:

text:
The Battle of Maldon (312-319)

Modern English
West Saxon[38]

Thought shall be the harder, the heart the keener,
courage the greater, as our strength lessens.
Here lies our leader in the dust,
all cut down; always may he mourn
who now thinks to turn away from this warplay.
I am old, I will not go away,
but I plan to lie down by the side of my lord,
by the man so dearly loved.

Hige sceal þē heardra,
mōd sceal þē māre,
Hēr līð ūre ealdor
gōd on grēote;
se ðe nū fram þis wīgplegan
Ic eom frōd fēores;
ac ic mē be healfe
be swā lēofan men
/ heorte þē cēnre,
/ þē ūre mægen lȳtlað.
/ eall forhēawen,
/ ā mæg gnornian
/ wendan þenceð.
/ fram ic ne wille,
/ mīnum hlāforde,
/ licgan þence.

text: Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity began to appear, re-tellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories.

text: Elegiac poetry[edit]

text: Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the Exeter Book which have come to be described as "elegies"[39] or "wisdom poetry".[40][41] They are lyrical and Boethian in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is The Ruin, which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman Britain (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th century, as the early English continued to live their rural life), and The Wanderer, in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, where his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to preserve civil society, and must not rush into battle but seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. The Seafarer is the story of a somber exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife's Lament, and The Husband's Message. Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of Boethius called the Lays of Boethius.[42]

text: Classical and Latin poetry[edit]

text: Several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th-century translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy contained in the Cotton manuscript Otho A.vi.[43] Another is The Phoenix in the Exeter Book, an allegorisation of the De ave phoenice by Lactantius.[44]

text: Other short poems derive from the Latin bestiary tradition. Some examples include The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge.[44]

text: Riddles[edit]

text: Anglo-Saxon riddles are part of Anglo-Saxon literature. The most famous Anglo-Saxon riddles are found in the Exeter Book. This book contains secular and religious poems and other writings, along with a collection of 94 riddles, although there is speculation that there may have been closer to 100 riddles in the book. The riddles are written in a similar manner, but "it is unlikely that the whole collection was written by one person."[45] It is more likely that many scribes worked on this collection of riddles. Although the Exeter Book has a unique and extensive collection of Anglo-Saxon riddles,[46] riddles were not uncommon during this era. Riddles were both comical and obscene.[45]

text: Christian poetry[edit]

text: Saints' lives[edit]

text: The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or hagiography. In Vercelli are Andreas and Elene and in Exeter are Guthlac and Juliana.

text: Andreas is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to Beowulf in style and tone. It is the story of Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue Saint Matthew from the Mermedonians. Elene is the story of Saint Helena (mother of Constantine) and her discovery of the True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental.[47]

text: Guthlac consists of two poems about the English 7th century Saint Guthlac. Juliana describes the life of Saint Juliana, including a discussion with the devil during her imprisonment.[47]

text: Biblical paraphrases[edit]

text: There are a number of partial Old English Bible translations and paraphrases surviving. The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of Genesis (originally presented as one work in the Junius manuscript but now thought to consist of two separate poems, A and B), the second is of Exodus and the third is Daniel. Contained in Daniel are two lyrics, Song of the Three Children and Song of Azarias, the latter also appearing in the Exeter Book after Guthlac.[48] The fourth and last poem, Christ and Satan, which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament.[49]

text: The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after Beowulf, called Judith, a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric's homily Judith, which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose.[44]

text: Old English translations of Psalms 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms.[44] There are verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed, as well as some hymns and proverbs.[42]

text: Original Christian poems[edit]

text: In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative).[44]

text: The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled Christ, sectioned into Christ I, Christ II and Christ III.[44]

text: Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is Dream of the Rood, contained in the Vercelli Book.[44] The presence of a portion of the poem (in Northumbrian dialect[50]) carved in ruins on an 8th century stone cross found in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, verifies the age of at least this portion of the poem. The Dream of the Rood is a dream vision in which the personified cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Christ appears as a young hero-king, confidant of victory, while the cross itself feels all the physical pain of the crucifixion, as well as the pain of being forced to kill the young lord.[51]

text:
The Dream of the Rood (50-56)

Modern English[52]
West Saxon[52]

Full many a dire experience
on that hill. I saw the God of hosts
stretched grimly out. Darkness covered
the Ruler's corpse with clouds, A shadow passed
across his shining beauty, under the dark sky.
All creation wept, bewailed
the King's death. Christ was on the cross.

Feala ic on þǣm beorge
wrāðra wyrda.
þearle þenian;
bewrigen mid wolcnum
scīrne scīman
wann under wolcnum.
cwīðdon Cyninges fyll.
/ gebiden hæbbe
/ Geseah ic weruda God
/ þȳstro hæfdon
/ Wealdendes hrǣw,
/ sceadu forðēode,
/ Wēop eal gesceaft,
/ Crīst wæs on rōde.

text: The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven.

text: There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is Christ and Satan in the Junius manuscript, it deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is Solomon and Saturn, surviving in a number of textual fragments, Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king Solomon.[44]

text: Other poems[edit]

text: Other poetic forms exist in Old English including short verses, gnomes, and mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names.[42]

text: There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice, such as remedies against the loss of cattle or how to deal with a delayed birth, often grouped as charms. The longest is called Nine Herbs Charm and is probably of pagan origin. Other similar short verses, or charms, include For a Swarm of Bees, Against a Dwarf, Against a Stabbing Pain, and Against a Wen.[42]

text: There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named Menologium, The Fates of the Apostles, The Rune Poem, The Seasons for Fasting, and the Instructions for Christians.[42]

text: Features[edit]

text: Simile and metaphor[edit]

text: Anglo-Saxon poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of similes. This is a particular feature of Anglo-Saxon verse style, and is a consequence both of its structure and of the rapidity with which images are deployed, to be unable to effectively support the expanded simile. As an example of this, Beowulf contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety. This can be contrasted sharply with the strong and extensive dependence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has upon metaphor, particularly that afforded by the use of kennings. The most prominent example of this in The Wanderer is the reference to battle as a "storm of spears".[53] This reference to battle shows how Anglo-Saxons viewed battle: as unpredictable, chaotic, violent, and perhaps even a function of nature.

text: Alliteration[edit]

text: Old English poetry traditionally alliterates, meaning that a sound (usually the initial consonant sound) is repeated throughout a line. For instance, in the first line of Beowulf, "Hwaet! We Gar-Dena | in gear-dagum",[54] (meaning "Lo! We ... of the Spear Danes in days of yore"), the stressed words Gar-Dena and gear-dagum alliterate on the consonant "G".

text: Variation[edit]

text: The Old English poet was particularly fond of describing the same person or object with varied phrases, (often appositives) that indicated different qualities of that person or object. For instance, the Beowulf poet refers in three and a half lines to a Danish king as "lord of the Danes" (referring to the people in general), "king of the Scyldings" (the name of the specific Danish tribe), "giver of rings" (one of the king's functions is to distribute treasure), and "famous chief". Such variation, which the modern reader (who likes verbal precision) is not used to, is frequently a difficulty in producing a readable translation.[55]

text: Caesura[edit]

text: Old English poetry, like other Old Germanic alliterative verse, is also commonly marked by the caesura or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line, the caesura also grouped each line into two couplets.

text: Prose[edit]

text: The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry.[42] Of the surviving prose, the majority consists of the homilies, saints' lives and biblical translations from Latin.[2] The division of early medieval written prose works into categories of "Christian" and "secular", as below, is for convenience's sake only, for literacy in Anglo-Saxon England was largely the province of monks, nuns, and ecclesiastics (or of those laypeople to whom they had taught the skills of reading and writing Latin and/or Old English). Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardised West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men.[42]

text: Christian prose[edit]

text: The most widely known secular author of Old English was King Alfred the Great (849–899), who translated several books, many of them religious, from Latin into Old English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education:

text: So general was [educational] decay in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could...translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe there were not many beyond the Humber

text: Alfred proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled should go on to learn Latin. Alfred's cultural program produced the following translations: Gregory the Great's The Pastoral Care, a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties; The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius; and The Soliloquies of Saint Augustine.[56] In the process, some original content was interweaved through the translations.[57]

text: Other important[56] Old English translations include: Historiae adversum paganos by Orosius, a companion piece for St. Augustine's The City of God; the Dialogues of Gregory the Great; and Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People.[58]

text: Ælfric of Eynsham, who wrote in the late 10th and early 11th century, is believed to have been a pupil of Æthelwold.[42] He was the greatest and most prolific writer of Anglo-Saxon sermons,[56] which were copied and adapted for use well into the 13th century.[59] In the translation of the first six books of the Bible (Old English Hexateuch), portions have been assigned to Ælfric on stylistic grounds. He included some lives of the saints in the Catholic Homilies, as well as a cycle of saints' lives to be used in sermons. Ælfric also wrote an Old English work on time-reckoning, and pastoral letters.[59]

text: In the same category as Ælfric, and a contemporary, was Wulfstan II, archbishop of York. His sermons were highly stylistic. His best known work is Sermo Lupi ad Anglos in which he blames the sins of the English for the Viking invasions. He wrote a number of clerical legal texts Institutes of Polity and Canons of Edgar.[60]

text: One of the earliest Old English texts in prose is the Martyrology, information about saints and martyrs according to their anniversaries and feasts in the church calendar. It has survived in six fragments. It is believed to date from the 9th century by an anonymous Mercian author.[56]

text: The oldest collections of church sermons is the Blickling homilies, found in a 10th-century manuscript.[56]

text: There are a number of saint's lives prose works; beyond those written by Ælfric are the prose life of Saint Guthlac (Vercelli Book), the life of Saint Margaret and the life of Saint Chad. There are four additional lives in the earliest manuscript of the Lives of Saints, the Julius manuscript: Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, Saint Mary of Egypt, Saint Eustace and Saint Euphrosyne.[59]

text: There are six major manuscripts of the Wessex Gospels, dating from the 11th and 12th centuries. The most popular, Old English Gospel of Nicodemus, is treated in one manuscript as though it were a 5th gospel; other apocryphal gospels in translation include the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, Vindicta salvatoris, Vision of Saint Paul and the Apocalypse of Thomas.[59]

text: Secular prose[edit]

text: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was probably started in the time of King Alfred the Great and continued for over 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history.[56]

text: A single example of a Classical romance has survived: a fragment of the story of Apollonius of Tyre was translated in the 11th century from the Gesta Romanorum.[59][61]

text: A monk who was writing in Old English at the same time as Ælfric and Wulfstan was Byrhtferth of Ramsey, whose book Handboc was a study of mathematics and rhetoric. He also produced a work entitled Computus, which outlined the practical application of arithmetic to the calculation of calendar days and movable feasts, as well as tide tables.[56]

text: Ælfric wrote two proto-scientific works, Hexameron and Interrogationes Sigewulfi, dealing with the stories of Creation. He also wrote a grammar and glossary in Old English called Latin, later used by students interested in learning Old French because it had been glossed in Old French.[59]

text: In the Nowell Codex is the text of The Wonders of the East which includes a remarkable map of the world, and other illustrations. Also contained in Nowell is Alexander's Letter to Aristotle. Because this is the same manuscript that contains Beowulf, some scholars speculate it may have been a collection of materials on exotic places and creatures.[62]

text: There are a number of interesting medical works. There is a translation of Apuleius's Herbarium with striking illustrations, found together with Medicina de Quadrupedibus. A second collection of texts is Bald's Leechbook, a 10th-century book containing herbal and even some surgical cures. A third collection, known as the Lacnunga, includes many charms and incantations.[8]

text: Anglo-Saxon legal texts are a large and important part of the overall corpus. By the 12th century they had been arranged into two large collections (see Textus Roffensis). They include laws of the kings, beginning with those of Aethelbert of Kent and ending with those of Cnut, and texts dealing with specific cases and places in the country. An interesting example is Gerefa which outlines the duties of a reeve on a large manor estate. There is also a large volume of legal documents related to religious houses. These include many kinds of texts: records of donations by nobles; wills; documents of emancipation; lists of books and relics; court cases; guild rules. All of these texts provide valuable insights into the social history of Anglo-Saxon times, but are also of literary value. For example, some of the court case narratives are interesting for their use of rhetoric.[8]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Old English literature did not disappear in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Many sermons and works continued to be read and used in part or whole up through the 14th century, and were further catalogued and organised. During the Reformation, when monastic libraries were dispersed, the manuscripts were collected by antiquarians and scholars. These included Laurence Nowell, Matthew Parker, Robert Bruce Cotton and Humfrey Wanley. In the 17th century there began a tradition of Old English literature dictionaries and references. The first was William Somner's Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum (1659). Lexicographer Joseph Bosworth began a dictionary in the 19th century which was completed by Thomas Northcote Toller in 1898 called An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, which was updated by Alistair Campbell in 1972.[63]

text: Because Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down, nineteenth-century scholars searching for the roots of European "national culture" (see Romantic Nationalism) took special interest in studying Anglo-Saxon literature, and Old English became a regular part of university curriculum. Since WWII there has been increasing interest in the manuscripts themselves—Neil Ker, a paleographer, published the groundbreaking Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon in 1957, and by 1980 nearly all Anglo-Saxon manuscript texts were in print. J.R.R. Tolkien is credited with creating a movement to look at Old English as a subject of literary theory in his seminal lecture Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1936).[64]

text: Old English literature has had some influence on modern literature, and notable poets have translated and incorporated Old English poetry. Well-known early translations include Alfred, Lord Tennyson's translation of The Battle of Brunanburh William Morris's translation of Beowulf and Ezra Pound's translation of The Seafarer. The influence of the poetry can be seen in modern poets T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and W. H. Auden. Tolkien adapted the subject matter and terminology of heroic poetry for works like The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and John Gardner wrote Grendel, which tells the story of Beowulf's opponent from his own perspective.[64]

text: More recently other notable poets such as Paul Muldoon, Seamus Heaney, Denise Levertov and U. A. Fanthorpe have all shown an interest in Old English poetry. In 1987 Denise Levertov published a translation of Cædmon's Hymn under her title "Caedmon" in the collection Breathing the Water. This was then followed by Seamus Heaney's version of the poem "Whitby-sur-Moyola" in his The Spirit Level (1996) Paul Muldoon's "Caedmona's Hymn" in his Moy Sand and Gravel (2002) and U. A. Fanthorpe's "Caedmon's Song" in her Queuing for the Sun (2003). These translations differ greatly from one another, just as Seamus Heaney's Beowulf (1999) deviates from earlier, similar projects. Heaney uses Irish diction across Beowulf to bring what he calls a "special body and force" to the poem, foregrounding his own Ulster heritage, "in order to render (the poem) ever more 'willable forward/again and again and again.'"


document_title: Project Fame West Africa

question_text: who won the 9th season of project fame west africa

text: Project Fame West Africa

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Season
Year
Winner
Country
Host

1

2008

Iyanya
Nigeria

2

2009

Ethan Bryson
Singapore

3

2010

Chidinma
Nigeria

4

2011

Monica Ogah
Nigeria

5

2012

Ayoola
Nigeria

6

2013

Olawale
Nigeria

7

2014

Geoffrey Oji
Nigeria

8

2015

Jeffery Akor
Nigeria

9

2016

Okiemute Ighorodje[2]
Nigeria

text: Season 1 (2008)[edit]

text: This section needs expansion with: details. You can help by adding to it. (September 2015)

text: Season 2 (2009)[edit]

text: Season 3 (2010)[edit]

text:
Candidate
Age
Residence
Result

Adebola Kester
29
 Ghana

Chidinma
22
 Ikorodu, Nigeria

Christian
22
 Ashanti Region, Ghana

Eyo
29
 Lagos, Nigeria

Kesse
24
 Ghana

Ochuko

 Lagos, Nigeria

Tolu
29
 Kaduna, Nigeria

Yetunde

 Ibadan, Nigeria

Joecelia Gbondo

 Freetown, Sierra Leone
10th Evicted

Rhoda
26
 Lagos, Nigeria
9th Evicted

Vwede Akpoguma

 Benin, Nigeria
8th Evicted

Helen Pajebo-Jackson
23
 Monrovia, Liberia
7th Evicted

Shehu
30
 Kaduna, Nigeria
6th Evicted

Monica
24
 Enugu, Nigeria
5th Evicted

Samuel Stryker

 Monrovia, Liberia
4th Evicted

Modele
22
 Abeokuta, Nigeria
3rd Evicted

Lindsey

 Abuja, Nigeria
2nd Evicted

Gold
21
 Lagos, Nigeria
1st Evicted

text: Gala evenings[edit]

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Tolu
"When A Man Loves A Woman" (Michael Bolton)
Safe

2

Rhoda
"For You I Will" (Monica)
Safe

3

Lindsey
"Time After Time" (Cyndi Lauper)
Safe

4

Joecelia
"Breathe Again" (Toni Braxton)
Safe

5

Helen
"Nothing Compares To You" (Sinéad O'Connor)
Safe

6

Vwede
"Coast to Coast" (Westlife)
Safe

7

Yetunde
"You Gotta Be" (Des'ree)
Safe

8

Eyo
"I Just Called To Say I Love You" (Stevie Wonder)
Safe

9

Chidinma
"Stickwitu" (The Pussycat Dolls)
Safe

10

Shehu
"Careless Whispers" (George Michael)
Safe

11

Modele
"Same Old Love" (Anita Baker)
Safe

12

Kesse
"Rock Me Tonight" (Freddie Jackson)
Safe

13

Gold
"Smooth Operator" (Sade Adu)
Safe

14

Samuel
"Lady In Red" (Chris de Burg)
Safe

15

Adebola
"Where Do Broken Hearts Go" (Whitney Houston)
Safe

16

Monica
"Still the One" (Shania Twain)
Safe

17

Christian
"No Matter Why" (Boyzone)
Safe

18

Ocuhko
"My Girl" (Temptations)
Safe

text: [5] Mentor: Aṣa

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Yetunde
"Eye Adaba" (Aṣa)
Safe

2

Eyo
"Change" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

3

Joecelia
"Fire on the Mountain" (Aṣa)
Bottom Five

4

Shehu
"Kiss the Rain" (Tracy Chapman)
Bottom Five

5

Modele
"You're the One" (Tracy Chapman)
Bottom Five

6

Tolu
"Jailer Man" (Aṣa)
Safe

7

Rhoda
"For My Love" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

8

Lindsey
"Give Me One Reason" (Tracy Chapman)
Eliminated

9

Chidinma
"Fast Cars" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

10

Helen
"Sorry" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

11

Vwede
"If You Want Me" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

12

Christian
"360 Degrees" (Aṣa)
Safe

13

Ochuko
"She's Got Her Ticket" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

14

Samuel
"Peace" (Aṣa)
Safe

15

Adebola
"Iba" (Aṣa)
Safe

16

Monica
"Why?" (Tracy Chapman)
Safe

17

Gold
"Waidi" (Aṣa)
Eliminated

18

Kesse
"So Beautiful" (Aṣa)
Safe

text: [6] Mentor: Samini

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Ochuko
"Rock Me Baby" (Johnny Nash)
Safe

2

Christian
"I Shot the Sheriff" (Bob Marley)
Safe

3

Joecelia
"Cherry Oh Baby" (UB40)
Safe

4

Monica
"Pass the Dutchie" (Musical Youth)
Safe

5

Modele
"Rat Race" (Mandators)
Eliminated

6

Eyo
"Romba Stylee" (Ras Kimono)
Safe

7

Tolu
"Get Up, Stand Up" (Bob Marley)
Safe

8

Chidinma
"Gnashing of Teeth" (Mighty Diamonds)
Safe

9

Helen
"Just Don’t Wanna be Lonely" (Freddie McGregor)
Bottom Five

10

Rhoda
"Mama Africa" (Peter Tosh)
Bottom Five

11

Vwede
"Kpobaro" (Evi Edna)
Safe

12

Samuel
"Don’t Turn Around" (Aswad)
Eliminated

13

Adebola
"I Wanna Wake Up With You" (Boris Gardiner)
Bottom Five

14

Shehu
"Back To My Roots" (Lucky Dube)
Safe

15

Kesse
"Land of my Birth" (Eric Donaldson)
Safe

16

Yetunde
"I Need a Roof" (Mighty Diamonds)
Safe

text: [7] Mentor: Lagbaja

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Eyo
"Lady" (Fela)
Safe

2

Shehu
"Coolu Temper" (Lagbaja)
Eliminated

3

Joecelia
"I Shall Sing" (Miriam Makeba)
Safe

4

Monica
"Nigeria Go Survive" (Veno)
Eliminated

5

Kesse
"Dambebi" (Ofori Amponsah)
Safe

6

Chidinma
"Ipi Tombia" (Miriam Mekeba)
Safe

7

Rhoda
"I'm Burning Up" (Yvonne Chaka Chaka)
Bottom Five

8

Helen
"Taxi Driver" (Mandy Brown)
Safe

9

Vwede
"Rhumba Dance" (Mike Okri)
Bottom Five

10

Tolu
"Palava" (Fela)
Safe

11

Adebola
"Thank you Mr. DJ" (Yvonne Chaka Chaka)
Bottom Five

12

Yetunde
"Wombo Lombo" (Angélique Kidjo)
Safe

13

Christian
"Wo Se Keta A Bae Mu" (Daddy Lumba)
Safe

14

Ochuko
"Konko Below" (Lagbaja)
Safe

text: [8] Mentor: Frank Edoho

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Adebola
"You Make Me Feel Like A Natural Woman" (Celine Dion)
Safe

2

Yetunde
"Big Girls Don't Cry" (Fergie)
Safe

3

Eyo
"Three Times A Lady" (Kenny Rogers)
Safe

4

Joecelia
"It's My House" (Diana Ross)
Safe

5

Kesse
"Knocking on Heaven's Door" (Bob Dylan)
Safe

6

Rhoda
"Runaway" (The Corrs)
Safe

7

Vwede
"Take My Breath Away" (Berlin)
Safe

8

Tolu
"First Cut Is The Deepest" (Rod Stewart)
Safe

9

Ochuko
"One More Night" (Phil Collins)
Safe

10

Christian
"If You Don't Know Me By Now" (Simply Red)
Safe

11

Helen
"Lake A Prayer" (Madonna)
Safe

12

Chidinma
"I Want To Know What Love Is" (Mariah Carey)
Safe

text: [9] Mentor: Yinka Davies

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Eyo
"Same Girl" (Usher & R. Kelly)
Safe

Kesse
Safe

2

Christian
"Two Wrongs" (Wyclef Jean & Claudette Ortizt)
Bottom 5

Helen
Eliminated

3

Vwede
"Love of My Life" (George Benson & Roberta Flack)
Eliminated

Adebola
Safe

4

Joecelia
"I Got You Babe" (UB40)
Safe

Ochuko
Bottom 5

5

Tolu
"My Boo" (Usher & Alicia Keys)
Safe

Chidinma
Safe

6

Rhoda
"Frankie" (Sister Sledge)
Bottom 5

Yetunde
Safe

7

Eyo
"Cassanova" (Gerald Levert)
Safe

8

Kesse
"Ladies Man" (Kool & the Gang)
Safe

9

Helen
"Ain’t Nobody" (Chaka Khan)
Eliminated

10

Christian
"Rock The Boat" (The Hues Corporation)
Bottom 5

11

Vwede
"Night Shift" (The Commodores)
Eliminated

12

Adebola
"Staying Alive" (Bee Gees)
Safe

13

Joecelia
"I’m in Love" (Evlyn King)
Safe

14

Ochuko
"Wet My Whistle" (Midnight Star)
Bottom 5

15

Tolu
"Caribbean Quee" (Billy Ocean)
Safe

16

Chidinma
"I’m Every Woman" (Whitney Houston)
Safe

17

Yetunde
"Somebody Else's Guy" (Jocelyn Brown)
Safe

18

Rhoda
"Ring My Bell" (Anita Ward)
Bottom 5

text: [8] Mentor: Onyeka Onwenu

text:
Order
Contestant
Song (Original Artist)
Result

1

Adebola
"Halleluyah" (Onyeka Onwenu)
Bottom 5

2

Eyo
"Ifeoma" (Felix Liberty)
Safe

3

Joecelia
"Baby Let Me Love You" (Bonny Macs)
Eliminated

4

Kesse
"Searching" (Bongos Ikwe)
Safe

5

Christian
"Bonsue" (Joe Mensah)
Safe

6

Yetunde
"Jafunmi" (Sunny Adé)
Bottom 5

7

Chidinma
"Ekwe" (Onyeka Onwenu)
Safe

8

Tolu
"You & I" (Onyeka Onwenu)
Safe

9

Rhoda
"Hot Hot Hot" (Mighty Diamonds)
Eliminated

10

Ochuko
"Afro Juju" (Sir Shina Peters)
Bottom 5

text: Elimination chart[edit]

text:
Elimination Chart

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Adebola
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Chidinma
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Christian
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Eyo
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Kesse
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Ochuko
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Tolu
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Yetunde
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN

Rhoda
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
OUT

Joecelia
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
OUT

Vwede
IN
IN
IN
IN
OUT

Helen
IN
IN
IN
IN
OUT

Shehu
IN
IN
OUT

Monica
IN
IN
OUT

Samuel
IN
OUT

Modele
IN
OUT

Lindsey
OUT

Gold
OUT

text: Season 4 (2011)[edit]

text: Season 5 (2012)[edit]

text: Season 6 (2013)[edit]

text: Season 7 (2014)[edit]

text: Season 8 (2015)[edit]

text: Season 8 is being broadcast on TVC, MITV, DBN, SOUNDCITY, ONTV and GETTV. the finalists are Ada, Anderson, Arewa, Deinde, Jeff and Pearl.

text: Season 9 (2016)[edit]

text: This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (September 2016)


document_title: Bob's Burgers

question_text: who is the voice for bob's burgers

question_tokens: who is the voice for bob 's burgers

text: Bob's Burgers

text: Plot[edit]

text: The show centers on the Belcher family—Bob, Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise; who run a hamburger restaurant on Ocean Avenue in an unnamed seaside community (informally known as "Seymour's Bay" among the show's writing staff).[11] While series creator Loren Bouchard has said that the show's location was an indeterminate Northeastern United States shore town (calling the setting a "semi-Springfield)",[12] some critics, particularly after the episode "It Snakes a Village", have deduced that the unidentified setting appears to actually be southern New Jersey.[13]

text: Bob's Burgers is located in a green two-story building which features an apartment on the second floor where Bob and his family reside. The restaurant is sandwiched between two other commercial buildings, one of which houses "It's Your Funeral Home and Crematorium", whose owner Mort is a regular at the restaurant. One of the show's running gags involves the other building, which is generally vacant during episodes but has been home to such businesses as "Uncle Marty's Breast Pumps", "Extra Moist Yoga", "That's A-Door-A-Bell Doorbells", and "Tire-Rhea".

text: Success is not easy, as Bob must compete with several other eateries for business. His biggest rival is Jimmy Pesto's Pizzeria, which is located right across the street. It attracts many more customers than Bob's Burgers, creating tension between the two owners. Jimmy particularly enjoys humiliating Bob, an example being when he got a higher score on an arcade machine than Bob, who had rented the game, and taunted him by putting "BOB SUX" as his initials. The hatred between Bob and Jimmy Pesto is full of humor as although they dislike each other very much, Bob's daughter, Tina, shows obsessive interest toward Pesto's son, Jimmy Jr. However, it is often unclear how Jimmy Jr. feels toward Tina, although he always tries to get her back when she strays. He approves of her erotic friend fiction, starring himself, in "Bad Tina", but tends to forget they are dating because he is always occupied with activities, such as spending time with best friend and wrestling buddy, Zeke, and dancing by himself.[clarification needed]

text: Bob's restaurant also has seen its fair share of bad luck. For example, in the show's opening, the property falls victim to a fire, an infestation of vermin, and a broken front window caused by a car knocking down a utility pole. In spite of all this, Bob does have a small but loyal group of regular customers, including the aforementioned Mort and Teddy, the local handyman.

text: Characters[edit]

text: The Belcher family runs a hamburger restaurant. Bob is the restaurant's owner and husband to the fun-loving and happy-go-lucky Linda. Their three children are Tina, the oldest, Gene, the only boy, and Louise, the youngest. All three kids help out around the restaurant to some extent. Louise is somewhat of a precocious menace and an instigator of many of the debacles that face the Belcher family. Tina is awkward, but full of heart, and muddles her way through her pubescent experiences, such as leg waxing and strong fixations on neighborhood boys. Gene is the more light hearted goofball type and aspires to be a great musician. His musical numbers are often featured throughout the show, though Linda is very musical herself. One of her songs from Episode 5 Season 3, "An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal," gained so much popularity that it was covered by the band The National.[14] Of all the musical numbers throughout the first three seasons however, the show's writers dub "Electric Love" as the best musical number so far. This song is written by Gene and featured in the episode "Topsy" from season 3.[15]

text: There are various recurring characters in the series including Jimmy Pesto, Sr., Bob's rival who owns a pizzeria across the street, and his sons Jimmy Jr. (Tina's love interest) and hyperactive twins Andy and Ollie, who are friends of Louise. Other recurring characters include the aforementioned Mort and Teddy, as well as Linda's eccentric sister Gayle, and the Belchers' sometimes-meddling landlord, Calvin Fischoeder.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
January 9, 2011 (2011-01-09)
May 22, 2011 (2011-05-22)

2
9
March 11, 2012 (2012-03-11)
May 20, 2012 (2012-05-20)

3
23
September 30, 2012 (2012-09-30)
May 12, 2013 (2013-05-12)

4
22
September 29, 2013 (2013-09-29)
May 18, 2014 (2014-05-18)

5
21
October 5, 2014 (2014-10-05)
May 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)

6
19
September 27, 2015 (2015-09-27)
May 22, 2016 (2016-05-22)

7
22
September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
June 11, 2017 (2017-06-11)

8
TBA
October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01)
TBA

text: Production[edit]

text: Creator Loren Bouchard said Bob's Burgers came about because Fox's animation brand centers mostly on family, but he also wanted to dabble in workplace comedy.[16] The show has generally been viewed as a spiritual successor to King of the Hill, which carried less emphasis on shock comedy and focused more on character-driven humor; Bob's Burgers executive producer Jim Dauterive worked on King of the Hill for nearly its entire run.[17]

text: Proof of concept[edit]

text: Before the show was aired, the team created a proof of concept so Fox Broadcasting Company knew what to expect if they bought the show. Jay Howell had his art featured in a test animation based on Bob forgetting about his and Linda's wedding anniversary. The actual show has never used a word that needed to be censored by the network. The proof of concept eventually turned into the pilot episode. It had the same synopsis as the official pilot (aired in 2011) but had both cosmetic and substantial differences. These included:

text:
Cruder animation
Character models having longer noses
Bob wears a white tank top/singlet (in the series he wears a white T-shirt)
The eldest child is male, and called Daniel. In the broadcast pilot, Tina's dialogue is almost the same as Daniel's and the voice characterization by Dan Mintz is the same, despite being changed to a female character.
The intro had slower animation due to budget
Extra dialogue and plot elements were added to the pilot: a scene where the community reacts badly to the restaurant's health safety alert and Bob confronts Hugo about it, and a denouement wrapping up plot elements.
This extra material expanded the running time from thirteen and a half minutes to twenty-one and a half minutes.

text: The original pilot can be seen on the DVD release of the first season, released on April 17, 2012.[18]

text: Development[edit]

text: Bob's Burgers first appeared on the development slate at Fox on August 6, 2009.[19] On December 1, 2009, Fox ordered 13 episodes for the first season.[20] On May 17, 2010, Fox placed the series on the primetime slate for the 2010–11 television season.[21] A special preview aired on Thanksgiving on November 25, 2010.[22]

text: Executive producers[edit]

text: Creator Loren Bouchard serves as the executive producer, alongside developer Jim Dauterive. They have served as executive producers since the first season. Dan Fybel and Rich Rinaldi were promoted to executive producers during season 6.

text: Writing[edit]

text: The team of writers includes Loren Bouchard, Jim Dauterive, Scott Jacobson, Lizzie Molyneux, Wendy Molyneux, Holly Schlesinger, Nora Smith, Steven Davis, Kelvin Yu, Dan Fybel, Rich Rinaldi, and Jon Schroeder. Past writers on the show include Kit Boss, Aron Abrams and Mike Benner. H. Jon Benjamin, Rachel Hastings, Justin Hook, Dan Mintz, and Mike Olsen have also written or co-written episodes. After the writing has been completed, the voice actors read the script as written, but later are allowed to improvise lines. The editors and writer decide what improvised lines make the final cut.

text: Voice cast[edit]

text: Bob's Burgers has five main cast members: H. Jon Benjamin as Bob Belcher, John Roberts as Linda Belcher, Dan Mintz as Tina Belcher, Eugene Mirman as Gene Belcher, and Kristen Schaal as Louise Belcher.[23]

text: Hallmarks[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Opening sequence[edit]

text: The components of a burger fall into place on a white screen, and Bob's hands appear underneath to hold it. The other family members appear around him one at a time, beginning with Linda and ending with Louise. Linda puts her arm around Bob, Tina stands there expressionless, Gene plays a sound effect on his keyboard, and Louise poses for the camera. The restaurant then materializes behind them and the neighboring businesses slide into place, with a funeral parlor at screen left, and the street slides into view in front. A "Grand Opening" banner is placed over the door, followed by a series of mishaps. First, the restaurant catches on fire. Then, vermin come running toward the restaurant as an exterminator pulls up in a van. Lastly, a car crashes into the utility pole next to the funeral home, which causes the pole to fall through the front window of the restaurant. A new banner is hung up after each event: "Grand Re-Opening," "Grand Re-Re-Opening," and finally "Grand Re-Re-Re-Opening." The camera then zooms in on the burger Bob is holding, and the view fades in to the start of the episode.

text: As with other Fox animated series such as Futurama, The Simpsons and American Dad!, the show employs the "changing element" running gag in its opening credits. The gag present on Bob's Burgers involves the store located to the right of the restaurant, which has a new, humorously named client in every episode (such as "Betty's Machetes" in "Purple Rain-Union"). Additionally, beginning with Season 2, the pest control van in the sequence has the name of a different company on each episode; the van read "Rat's all Folks! Exterminators" on all episodes of Season 1. On certain episodes, an element is changed for a special night (a flash frame saying "HAPPY HALLOWEEN" was shown during the title sequence of "Fort Night").

text: In an article written by the writers of the show ranking the best 10 musical numbers of the first three seasons, it is explained by show creator and theme composer Loren Bouchard that the ukulele track heard in the theme is an edited version of the first recording he did as well as the first take in 2008. Bouchard explains that if the EQ is taken off the original track, there is noise audible from the nightclub below the apartment he was living in when he recorded the theme.[15]

text: Credits sequence[edit]

text: The credits sequence of Bob's Burgers often features the Belcher family at work. The scene is the kitchen of Bob's Burgers drawn with a black outline over a white background and the characters in full color, with the credits off to the right hand side. The sequence consists of Bob cooking a burger and Louise and Tina doing prep. Bob places the burger on the plate for Louise to give to Linda, who takes it from the window, and a few seconds later Gene walks through the kitchen wearing his burger costume.

text: Although the kitchen scene is still the main closing sequence the show uses, beginning in season two the producers began to use different elements from the show in the credits. Some examples:

text:
In "Ear-sy Rider", the kids ride their bikes down a highway.
In "Full Bars", Bob and Linda fool around in the kitchen in their Halloween costumes.
In "An Indecent Thanksgiving Proposal", Linda performs a song she came up with for Thanksgiving, and annoys Bob with it while he is trying to work.
In "Broadcast Wagstaff School News", Gene, who was given a makeover to resemble Bob, stands next to Bob at the grill. They shoot each other disapproving looks.
In "O.T.: The Outside Toilet", the family works while Gene hugs the titular toilet.
In "Mother Daughter Laser Razor", Linda and Louise play Lazer Tag and Gene walks through wearing no pants.
In "The Belchies", "Topsy", and "It Snakes a Village", as well as some other episodes, an extended musical ending revisiting a song or sequence from earlier closes the show.

text: Other times, the scene will play out as usual, but with something from the episode going on in the background, etc. For instance:

text:
In "Moody Foodie", deli owner Reggie dances around like Michael Madsen in Reservoir Dogs.
In "Bad Tina" and "Seaplane!", Tina performs actions she imagined herself doing during the course of the episode.
In "Burgerboss", the entire scene is animated to look like a video game.
In "Nude Beach", several customers are nudists from the aforementioned beach.
In "The Equestranauts", Bob works while wearing his Equestranaut costume and Tina plays with one of her Equestranaut toys. The theme song to the fictional TV series that gave the episode its title is played, with everyone except Bob singing along.
In "Best Burger", everybody except Bob has chocolate covering their faces, implying that they all went to the "hot fudge car wash" at the food festival where most of the episode took place.
In "A River Runs Through Bob", Tina performs the Thundergirls anthem and Bob is attacked by squirrels, revisiting elements from earlier in the episode.
In "Broadcast Wagstaff School News", the subplot of the episode involving Gene being made up to look like his father sees Bob and Gene working the grill to each other's annoyance.
In "Dawn of the Peck", Bob sings and dances to Donna Summer's "Love Is In Control" while he works.

text: Daily special[edit]

text: Every episode features one or more "Today's Special" burgers on a chalk board on the wall behind the counter. The name of the special is usually a play on words that indicates what comes on the burger (ex.: "It's Fun to Eat at the rYe M C A Burger": Comes with Rye, Mustard, Cheese, and Avocado). Other "Special" burgers are also mentioned by the family without being written on their chalkboard. The joke is often that the play on words is overly complex or obscure.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The first season through the current season of the show are available on the iTunes Store for download & Hulu. The first 6 seasons are available from Amazon Video.

text: DVD releases[edit]

text:
Region
Set title
Episode count
Time length
Release date
Notes

1
Bob's Burgers: The Complete 1st Season[24]
13
286 minutes
April 17, 2012

1
Bob's Burgers: The Complete 2nd Season[25]
9
198 minutes
May 7, 2013
Manufactured on demand (MOD) on DVD-R

1
Bob's Burgers: The Complete 3rd Season[26]
23
506 minutes
May 13, 2014
Manufactured on demand (MOD) on DVD-R

1
Bob's Burgers: The Complete 4th Season[27]
22
484 minutes
May 12, 2015
Manufactured on demand (MOD) on DVD-R

1
Bob's Burgers: The Complete 5th Season[28]
21
484 minutes
July 20, 2016
Manufactured on demand (MOD) on DVD-R

text: Reception and achievements[edit]

text: Bob's Burgers initially received mixed reviews for season 1, with a Metacritic score of 54 out of 100.[29] However, by season 2, the ratings had reached a score of 78 out of 100, proving a rise in popularity with praises about its "daffy comedic momentum" and how it is "new and fresh." [30] Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a 58% from the collective critic feedback, admitting while it has potential, it needs to find its "rhythm." [31] The Washington Post described the show as "pointlessly vulgar and derivatively dull", while Reuters stated that "It's unwise – and unnecessary – to launch an animated sitcom on Fox that appears intent to ape the vulgarity quotient of Family Guy."[32][33] USA Today stated that "Bob's Burgers isn't very tasty" describing the comedy as just "lop[ing] along, stumbling from one tasteless moment to the next"[34] The New York Times described the show as having "a lackadaisical vibe; its humor, no matter how anarchic, slides by in a deadpan monotone."[35]

text: However, as the first season progressed and concluded and the second began, critics began giving the series praise. Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club has recalled, "...the show was amusing, yes, and there was certainly potential, but it took half a dozen episodes before it really began to meet that potential."[36] Season 2 has a Metacritic score of 78 out 100.[37] The first season is considered by many fans as very rough in comparison to the quality in later seasons.

text: Entertainment Weekly gave the show an A- grade in its review, remarking that "a comedy this well done is very rare indeed".[38] Ain't It Cool News called Bob's Burgers "perhaps the funniest half-hour currently airing on broadcast TV."[39] In its review, CNN called the show "wickedly funny" and said there are "too many highlights to list here".[40] Speaking about the show during its second season, The A.V. Club reviewer Rowan Kaiser said: "After an uneven start, Bob's Burgers is becoming one of television's best comedies!"[41] Since the debut of season two of the series, the show's positive reception has increased.[citation needed]

text: The A.V. Club voted Bob's Burgers as the 10th best TV show of 2012,[42] the 3rd best show of 2013,[43] the 20th best show of 2014,[44] and the 35th best show of 2015.[45]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result
References

2011
Teen Choice Award
Choice TV: Animated Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[46]

2012
Critics' Choice Television Award
Best Animated Series
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[47]

Teen Choice Award
Choice TV: Animated Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[48]

Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Animated Program
For "Burgerboss"
Nominated
[49]

2013
Artios Award
Outstanding Achievement in Casting – Television Animation (Children and Adult)
Julie Ashton
Nominated
[50]

Annie Award
Best General Audience Animated TV/Broadcast Production
For "Ear-sy Rider"
Nominated
[51]

Teen Choice Award
Choice TV: Animated Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[52]

Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Animated Program
For "O.T.: The Outside Toilet"
Nominated
[53]

2014
Annie Award
Best General Audience Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[54]

Critics' Choice Television Award
Best Animated Series
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[55]

Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Animated Program
For "Mazel-Tina"
Won
[56]

2015
People's Choice Award
Favorite Animated TV Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[57]

Artios Award
Outstanding Achievement in Casting – Television Animation (Children and Adult)
Julie Ashton
Nominated
[58]

Annie Award
Best General Audience Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[59]

Outstanding Achievement, Directing in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Jennifer Coyle & Bernard Derriman
Nominated

Writers Guild of America Award
Best Television Writing in Animation
Greg Thompson for "Bob and Deliver"
Nominated
[60]

Nora Smith for "Work Hard or Die Trying, Girl"
Nominated

Critics' Choice Television Award
Best Animated Series
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[61]

Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Animated Program
For "Can't Buy Me Math"
Nominated
[62]

Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance
John Roberts for "Eat, Spray, Linda"
Nominated

Environmental Media Award
Television Episodic Comedy
For "Late Afternoon in the Garden of Bob and Louise"
Nominated
[63]

2016
People's Choice Award
Favorite Animated TV Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[64]

Critics' Choice Television Award
Best Animated Series
Nominated
[65]

Nominated
[66]

Artios Award
Outstanding Achievement in Casting – Television Animation (Adult)
Julie Ashton
Won
[67]

Annie Awards
Best General Audience TV/Broadcast Production
For "Can't Buy Me Math"
Nominated
[68]

Outstanding Achievement, Voice Acting in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Kristen Schaal for "Hawk & Chick"
Won

Outstanding Achievement, Writing in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Steven Davis & Kelvin Yu for "The Hauntening"
Won

Writers Guild of America Award
Best Television Writing in Animation
Lizzie Molyneux & Wendy Molyneux for "Gayle Makin' Bob Sled"
Nominated
[69]

Dan Fybel for "Housetrap"
Won

Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Animated Program
"The Horse Rider-er"
Nominated
[70]

2017
People's Choice Award
Favorite Animated TV Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[71]

Annie Award
Best General Audience Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Bob's Burgers for "Glued, Where's My Bob?"
Won
[72]

Outstanding Achievement, Music in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Loren Bouchard and John Dylan Keith for "Glued, Where's My Bob?"
Nominated

Outstanding Achievement, Writing in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Lizzie Molyneux and Wendy Molyneux for "The Hormone-iums"
Won

Teen Choice Award
Choice Animated TV Show
Bob's Burgers
Nominated
[73]

Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Animated Program
"Bob Actually"
Won
[74]

Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance
Kevin Kline for "The Last Gingerbread House on the Left"
Nominated

text: Ratings[edit]

text: After airing, the show became the highest-rated series premiere of the season and also finished 9th in the ratings for the week it aired.[75][76] Despite this, the ratings went on a slide with ratings expert Bill Gorman of TV by the Numbers calling it a "toss up" for renewal before the series was renewed for a second season[77] which premiered on March 11, 2012.

text:
Season
Timeslot (ET)
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
TV season
Rank
Avg. viewers
(millions)

Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)

1
Sunday 8:30 pm
13
January 9, 2011 (2011-01-09)
9.38[78]
May 22, 2011 (2011-05-22)
4.31[79]
2010–11
117
5.07[80]

2
9
March 11, 2012 (2012-03-11)
4.04[81]
May 20, 2012 (2012-05-20)
3.57[82]
2011–12
142
4.18[83]

3
Sunday 8:30 pm (1–14, 18–23)
Sunday 9:30 pm (15–17)
23
September 30, 2012 (2012-09-30)
5.46[84]
May 12, 2013 (2013-05-12)
3.38[85]
2012–13
107
4.45[86]

4
Sunday 8:30 pm (1–11)
Sunday 7:00 pm (12–22)
22
September 29, 2013 (2013-09-29)
4.48[87]
May 18, 2014 (2014-05-18)
1.95[88]
2013–14
96
4.93[89]

5
Sunday 7:30 pm (1–2, 13–18)
Sunday 9:30 pm (3–12, 19–21)
21
October 5, 2014 (2014-10-05)
3.14[90]
May 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)
2.44[91]
2014–15
147
3.18[92]

6
Sunday 7:30 pm (1–10)
Sunday 8:30 pm (11–19)
19
September 27, 2015 (2015-09-27)
2.51[93]
May 22, 2016 (2016-05-22)
2.04[94]
2015–16
144
2.90[95]

7
Sunday 7:30 pm
22
September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
2.60[96]
June 11, 2017
1.52[97]
2016–17
138
2.78[98]

8
TBA
October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01)
2.93[99]
TBA
TBD
2017–18
TBD
TBD

text: Syndication[edit]

text: Adult Swim acquired the rights to air Bob's Burgers in 2013. Episodes air six nights a week, with a 1:30 am airing on Sunday and 8:30 pm airings Monday through Friday. An additional episode airs every Monday through Thursday at 9:00 pm. Adult Swim currently has rights to all five seasons of Bob's Burgers and recently began airing the season five episodes on Mondays.[100]

text: 20th Television began distributing Bob's Burgers to local stations in 2015. The syndication package began airing on its affiliates on the weekend of September 19–20, 2015, and two episodes air each weekend.[citation needed]

text: The series also premiered on September 26, 2016 on TBS and airs Mondays afternoons (along with Family Guy, American Dad!, and The Cleveland Show) and on Friday nights.[101]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: On January 6, 2011, some Fatburger locations were re-branded as Bob's Burgers for the day as a promotion.[102] It also offered limited-time offers, such as a free burger giveaway, and a special, "The Thanks a Brunch Burger", on the menu until February 2011.[102] There were also "Bob's Burgers" coupons offered for a free medium Fatburger special.[102][103] Across the United States, 4 locations were re-branded as Bob's Burgers, in California, New Jersey, Nevada, and Illinois.[102][103] At least one restaurant location in California continues to use the Bob's Burgers appellation into 2016.

text: In the Family Guy episode "Space Cadet", the principal shows Peter and Lois a picture of Bob Belcher as a sign that Chris is doing poorly in his Advanced Art class. Peter mutters "I'm very embarrassed", and the principal replies "Yeah, well, someone should be." In "Boopa-dee Bappa-dee", Louise is one of many characters Stewie is turned into by Peter using a remote control. Bob's Burgers is also mentioned on "He's Bla-ack!", as one of the reasons why The Cleveland Show did not succeed.

text: The season 4 premiere episode of Archer features a crossover where the Belcher family is shown, but Bob is revealed to be Sterling Archer (also voiced by H. Jon Benjamin) in a fugue state. Archer has taken the place of Bob Belcher, with Bob inexplicably missing. The menu board touts the "Thomas Elphinstone Hambledurger, with Manning Coleslaw", a play on amnesiac secret agent Tommy Hambledon, a character in a series of novels by Manning Coles.

text: "Homerland", the season 25 premiere episode of The Simpsons, features a couch gag in which the Belcher family (skinned yellow according to the standard character coloring of the series) attend a 25th anniversary party in the Simpson family living room with the main characters of their fellow Animation Domination series. Bob made another cameo in the episode "The Girl Code", where a picture of him is shown, and explaining that the restaurant was boycotted by short people due to an offensive Burger of the Day.

text: Bob makes a cameo appearance in the hour-long The Simpsons-Family Guy crossover "The Simpsons Guy".[104] He appears on the same airplane as Homer and Peter in a cutaway about them being a greater team than the Air Force. Peter remarks to Homer that they have to carry Bob, and then Peter points to Cleveland's plane and says "We let that other guy try and look what happened." Cleveland, repeatedly saying "no", crashes in flames. This is a reference to the poor ratings of Bob's Burgers and the cancellation of The Cleveland Show.[105]

text: In Aqua Teen Hunger Force, a character previously known as Dr. Eugene Mirman (obviously played by himself) was renamed to Dr. Gene Belcher in the episode "Hospice". The character's name was revealed on Aqua Teen Hunger Force's creator Dave Willis' Twitter account two hours before the episode. The character had been introduced in 2006, which was 5 years before Bob's Burgers aired.[106]

text: Seattle rock band Sleater-Kinney collaborated with Bob's Burgers and its crew for their 2015 single "A New Wave", off of the album No Cities to Love. The resultant music video featured the band, animated in the cartoon's style, performing for the Belcher children in Tina's bedroom.[107][108][109]

text: In 2016, The Bob's Burgers Burger Book, edited by series creator Bouchard, was released. There are 75 burger recipes pulled from the fan-based blog "The Bob's Burger Experiment" based on the Specials of the Day that appear on the chalkboard menu in the show.[110]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: On October 4, 2017, Fox announced that a Bob's Burgers movie was in the works to be released on July 17, 2020.[10]