document_title: Renaming of cities in India

question_text: when was mumbai's name officially changed from bombay

question_tokens: when was mumbai 's name officially changed from bombay

text: Renaming of cities in India

text: Renaming in local languages[edit]

text: In the post-colonial era, several Indian states' names were changed. Some of these changes coincided with the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, a major reform of the boundaries of India's states and territories that organised them along linguistic lines. At this time, for example, Travancore-Cochin was renamed Kerala. Later state name changes include the reorganisation of Madhya Bharat into Madhya Pradesh in 1959;[2] and the renamings of the Madras State to Tamil Nadu in 1969, of the Mysore State to Karnataka in 1973, and of Uttaranchal to Uttarakhand in 2007.

text: Name changes have varied with respect to the levels of language at which they have been applied, and also accepted. Some of these local name changes were changes made in all languages: the immediate local name, and also all India's other languages. An example of this is the renaming of predominantly Hindi-speaking Uttaranchal (Hindi: उत्तराञ्चल) to a new local Hindi name (Hindi: उत्तराखण्ड Uttarakhand). Other changes were only changes in some of the indigenous languages. For example, the renaming of the Madras Presidency to Madras State in 1947 and then Tamil Nadu in 1969 required non-Tamil speakers to change from an approximation of the British name (Tamil: மதராஸ் மாகாணம் Madras Presidency, then  Madras State Tamil: மதராஸ் மாநிலம்) to a native Tamil name (Tamil: தமிழ்நாடு Tamil Nadu, "Tamil land").

text: In general, changes to the local names of cities in the indigenous languages are less common. However, a change in English may sometimes also be a reflection of changes in other Indian languages other than the specific local one. For example, the change of Madras (Tamil: மதராஸ் Madras) to Chennai (Tamil: சென்னை Chennai) was reflected in many of India's languages, and incidentally in English, while the Tamil endonym had always been Chennai and remained unaffected by the change.

text: Renaming in English[edit]

text: Change in official English spelling[edit]

text: The renaming of cities is often specifically from English to Indian English in connection with that dialect's internal reforms. In other words, the city itself is not actually renamed in the local language, and the local name (or endonym) in the indigenous languages of India does not change, but the official spelling in Indian English is amended. An example is the change from English "Calcutta" to English "Kolkata" – the local Bengali name (কলকাতা Kôlkata) did not change. Such changes in English spelling may be in order to better reflect a more accurate phonetic transliteration of the local name, or may be for other reasons. In the early years after Indian independence, many name changes were effected in northern India for English spellings of Hindi place names that had simply been romanised inconsistently by the British administration – such as the British spelling "Jubbulpore," renamed "Jabalpur" (जबलपुर) among the first changes in 1947. These changes did not generate significant controversy. More recent and high-profile changes – including renaming such major cities as Calcutta to Kolkata – have generated greater controversy.[3] Since independence, such changes have typically been enacted officially by legislation at local or national Indian government level, and may or may not then be adopted by the Indian media, particularly the influential Indian press. In the case of smaller towns and districts which were less notable outside and inside India, and where a well known English name (or exonym) could not be said to exist, older spellings used under British India may not have had any specific legislation other than changes in practice on the romanisation of indigenous Indian language names.

text: Realignment of the official Indian English name to an alternative local name[edit]

text: Aside from changes to the official English spellings of local names there have also been renaming proposals to realign the official name, hence the English name with an alternative local name. Ethnically sensitive examples include the proposals by the Bharatiya Janata Party (1990, 2001) to rename Ahmedabad to Karnavati[4] and Allahabad to Prayag. These two proposals are changes from the Muslim (or Mughal) name to a Hindu native name. These can be represented as a change from Urdu language to Hindi language, but since the two languages are variants of Hindustani the proposal is effectively a cultural and ethno-religious proposal rather than a linguistic one.[5]

text: Adoption of name changes in India and overseas[edit]

text: Official name changes take place quickly if not immediately in official government sources.[6] Adoption may be slower among the media in India and abroad, and among Indian authors.[7][8][9]

text: Important examples[edit]

text: States[edit]

text:
Travancore-Cochin → Kerala (1 November 1956).
Madhya Bharat → Madhya Pradesh (1 November 1959)
Madras State → Tamil Nadu (14 January 1969)
Mysore State → Karnataka (1 November 1973)
Uttaranchal → Uttarakhand (1 January 2007)
Orissa → Odisha (4 November 2011)

text: Cities[edit]

text: Notable city names that were officially changed by legislation after independence include:

text:
Jabalpur (Hindi: जबलपुर), from Jubbulpore, respelled in 1947
Jajmau (Hindi: जाजमऊ), from Jajesmow, respelled in 1948 [10]
Kanpur (Hindi: कानपुर), from Cawnpore, respelled in 1948
Vadodara (Gujarati: વડોદરા), from Baroda, respelled in 1974
Thiruvananthapuram (Malayalam: തിരുവനന്തപുരം), from Trivandrum, respelled in 1991
Mumbai (Marathi: मुंबई), from Bombay, renamed in 1995 [11]
Kochi (Malayalam: കൊച്ചി), from Cochin, respelled in 1996
Chennai (Tamil: சென்னை), from Madras, renamed in 1996
Kolkata (Bengali: কলকাতা), from Calcutta, respelled in 2001
Kadapa (Telugu: కడప), from Cuddapah, respelled in 2005
Puducherry (Tamil: புதுச்சேரி), from Pondicherry, renamed in 2006
Bengaluru (Kannada: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು), from Bangalore, respelled in 2007 [12]
Belagavi from Belgaum in 2014 [13][14]
Tumakuru from Tumkur in 2014
Hubballi from Hubli in 2014
Shivamogga from Shimoga in 2014
Hosapete from Hospet in 2014
Mysuru from Mysore in 2014
Kalaburagi from Gulbarga in 2014
Chikkamagaluru from Chikmagalur
Vijapura from Bijapur in 2014
Ballari from Bellary in 2014
Mangaluru from Mangalore in 2014
Rajahmahendravaram from Rajahmundry in 2015
Gurugram from Gurgaon in 2016

text: For others, by state order, see list of renamed Indian cities and states.

text:
Alappuzha, from Alleppey
Guwahati (Assamese: গুৱাহাটী), from Gauhati
Indore, from Indhur
Kanchipuram from Kāñci-pura And Conjevaram
Kannur, from Cannanore
Kollam, from Quilon
Koyilandy, from Quilandi
Kozhikode, from Calicut
Kumbakonam from ancient name Kudanthai
Mayiladuthurai from Mayavaram ancient name Mayuram
Narmada, from Nerbudda
Nagaon (Assamese: নগাওঁ), from Nowgong
Palakkad, from Palghat
Panaji, from Panjim
Pune, from Poona
Ramanathapuram, from Ramnad
Sagar, from Saugor
Shimla, from Simla
Thalassery, from Tellicherry
Thanjavur, from ancient name Tanjore
Thoothukudi, from Tuticorin
Thrissur, from Trichur
Tindivanam, from Tinthirivanam
Tiruchirapalli, from Trichinopoly and its short form Trichy
Tirunelveli, from Tinnevelly
Tiruvallikeni, from Triplicane
Udhagamandalam, from Ootacamund and its short form Ooty
Viluppuram, from Vizhupparaiyar And Vizhimaa Nagaram
Varanasi, from Benares
Vatakara, from Badagara
Virudhachalam, from  Vriddhachalam ancient name Thirumudhukundram
Vijayawada, from Bejawada
Visakhapatnam, from Waltair, and before that Vizagapatnam and its short form Vizag

text: Town names that derive from ancient names:

text:
Mandi, derived from Mandav Nagar [15]
Nellore, in ancient times Simhapuri [16]

text: Proposed changes[edit]

text: Several other changes have been proposed for states and towns.

text: States and Union territories[edit]

text:
Goa to Govapuri [17]
Kerala to Keralam
Nagaland to Naganchi [18]
West Bengal to Bengal

text: Towns[edit]

text:
Ahmedabad to Karnavati
Allahabad to Prayagraj[19][20]
Aurangabad to Sambhajinagar
Azamgarh to Aryamgarh [21]
Bhopal to Bhojpal [22]
Lucknow to Lakshmanpur [23]
Hyderabad to Bhagyanagar
Mahabubabad to Manukota
Mahbubnagar to Palamuru

text: Need for unification of spelling[edit]

text: India has various local languages. Even (Romanised) English spellings in long and wide use often vary depending upon which government department or agency uses them. To the point, a few examples are Quilandy vs. Koyilandy, Canannore vs. Kannur, and Rangiya vs. Rangia. Different departments of the government may have used official spellings in use at the time, while locations associated with Indian railways mostly maintained British-era spellings. The confusion inherent in such variations has often resulted in serious consequences like people having two "different" addresses (theoretically designating the same place) in their official records leading to legal disputes, or one house having residents of different house addresses due to differing place names. Many people argue that such confusion can lead to indeterminate and/or unintended consequences.[24]


document_title: Alcohol laws of Indiana

question_text: when do stores stop selling alcohol in indiana

root

text: Alcohol laws of Indiana

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)

tag: table

text: Until 2018, Indiana was one of nearly a dozen U.S. states to ban all Sunday alcohol sales outside of bars and restaurants.  That ban was repealed when Senate Bill 1 was signed by Gov. Eric Holcomb on February 28, 2018 [1].  Effective March 4, 2018, convenience stores, grocers, and liquor stores may sell alcohol from 12:00 PM to 8:00 PM on Sundays [2].

tag: p

text: Effective July 4, 2010, beer sold in microbreweries may be sold on Sundays pursuant to Senate Bill 75.  The sales must take place where the brewing is done. However, off-site sales may take place in trade shows and similar back door events.[3]  The sales limit is two cases per person, or 576 ounces.

text: In Indiana, alcohol may be sold only to those 21 years of age or older during the hours 7 a.m. to 3 a.m.

text: Establishments that sell beverages by the "drink" must have food service for 25 persons at a minimum (hot soups, hot sandwiches, coffee, milk, and soft drinks) available at all times. It is unlawful for establishments to provide discounts on alcohol to certain customers or at certain times of day (e.g., during "happy hour") that are not available to everyone.[4]

text: Sale or serving of alcoholic beverages from 3 a.m. Christmas Day until 7 a.m. December 26 was banned until HB 1542 was passed in 2015.[5]

text: Indiana is not an alcoholic beverage control state.

text: Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor in Indiana.


document_title: Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna

question_text: who is the first woman boxer to be honoured with the rajiv

text: Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna

text: Nominations[edit]

text: The nominations for the award are received from all government recognised National Sports Federations, the Indian Olympic Association, the Sports Authority of India (SAI), the Sports Promotion and Control Boards, and the state and the union territory governments with not more than two eligible sportspersons nominated for each sports discipline. In case of cricket, the nominations are received from the Board of Control for Cricket in India and SAI is authorised to submit the nominations on behalf of all the de-recognised or under suspension National Sports Federations.[b] The previous award recipients can also nominate one sportsperson for the discipline for which they themselves were awarded. The Government can nominate up to two sportspersons in deserving cases where no such nominations have been received from the nominating authorities. The nominations for a given year are accepted till 30 April or last working day of April.[1]

text: Selection process[edit]

text: All the received nominations are sent to SAI and National Anti-Doping Agency for the verification against the claimed achievements and doping clearance respectively. Any sportsperson who is either penalised or being enquired for usage of drugs or substances banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency is not eligible for the award. A committee consisting of the Joint Secretary and the Director/Deputy Secretary of Department of Sports, the Secretary and the Executive Director/Director (TEAMS) of SAI verify and validate the nominations.[1]

text: The valid nominations are placed before the selection committee constituted by the Government. This twelve member committee consists of a Chairperson nominated by the Ministry, four Olympians or previous recipients of Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna or Arjuna Award, three sports journalists/experts/commentators, one sportsperson/expert/administrator associated with parasports, one sports administrator, the Director General of SAI, and the Joint Secretary of Department of Sports, with not more than one sportsperson from a particular discipline included in the committee.[1] When instituted in 1991–92, the award was given for the performance by a sportsperson in a year.[4][9] Based on the suggestions provided by 2014 award selection committee headed by Kapil Dev,[10][11] the Ministry revised the criteria in February 2015 to consider the performance over a period of four years.[12]

text: The medals won in various International championships and events of the disciplines which include Summer and Winter Olympic and Paralympics Games, Asian Games, and Commonwealth Games are given 80% weightage. The remaining 20% weightage is given to the profile and standard of the events. For any other games not included in Olympic, Asian Games, and Commonwealth Games like cricket and indigenous games, the individuals performance of a sportsperson is taken into consideration. The sportsperson with maximum points is given 80 marks. Rest of the sportspersons are given marks in proportion to the maximum points. For team events, marks are given as per the strength of the team.[1] Following are the points defined for medals at the given events:

text:
Points for winning medals for the performance during the last four years

Event
Medal

01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze

Olympic Games/Paralympic Games
80
70
55

World Championship/World Cup[c]
40
30
20

Asian Games
30
25
20

Commonwealth Games
25
20
15

text: For a given discipline, not more than two sportspersons, one male and one female, are given highest marks. The committee may not recommend the award to the sportsperson with the highest marks across disciplines but can only recommend the recipient of the highest aggregate marks in a particular sports discipline. The recommendations of the selection committee are submitted to the Union Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports for further approval.[1]

text: List of recipients[edit]

text:
Key

†
Indicates a joint award for the given year

text:
List of award recipients, showing the year, and discipline(s)

Year
Recipient(s)
Discipline(s)
Refs.

1991–92
Anand, ViswanathanViswanathan Anand
Chess
[14]

1992–93
Sethi, GeetGeet Sethi
Billiards
[14]

1993–94 †
Motivala, HomiHomi Motivala
Yachting (Team Event)
[15]

1993–94 †
Pushpendra Kumar, GargGarg Pushpendra Kumar
Yachting (Team Event)
[15]

1994–95
Malleswari, KarnamKarnam Malleswari
Weightlifting
[14]

1995–96
Kunjarani, NameirakpamNameirakpam Kunjarani
Weightlifting
[14]

1996–97
Paes, LeanderLeander Paes
Tennis
[14]

1997–98
Tendulkar, SachinSachin Tendulkar
Cricket
[14]

1998–99
Sikdar, JyotirmoyeeJyotirmoyee Sikdar
Athletics
[4]

1999–2000
Pillay, DhanrajDhanraj Pillay
Hockey (Men)
[5][14]

2000–01
Gopichand, PullelaPullela Gopichand
Badminton
[16]

2001
Bindra, AbhinavAbhinav Bindra
Shooting
[6]

2002 †
Beenamol, K. M.K. M. Beenamol
Athletics
[17]

2002 †
Bhagwat, AnjaliAnjali Bhagwat
Shooting
[17]

2003
George, Anju BobbyAnju Bobby George
Athletics
[18]

2004
Rathore, Rajyavardhan SinghRajyavardhan Singh Rathore
Shooting
[19]

2005
Advani, PankajPankaj Advani
Billiards and Snooker
[20]

2006
Sandhu, Manavjit SinghManavjit Singh Sandhu
Shooting
[21]

2007
Dhoni, Mahendra SinghMahendra Singh Dhoni
Cricket
[22]

2008
No award[d]
[14]

2009 †
Kom, MaryMary Kom
Boxing (Women)
[7]

2009 †
Singh, VijenderVijender Singh
Boxing
[7]

2009 †
Kumar, SushilSushil Kumar
Wrestling
[7]

2010
Nehwal, SainaSaina Nehwal
Badminton
[23]

2011
Narang, GaganGagan Narang
Shooting
[24]

2012 †
Kumar, VijayVijay Kumar
Shooting
[25]

2012 †
Dutt, YogeshwarYogeshwar Dutt
Wrestling
[25]

2013
Sodhi, RonjanRonjan Sodhi
Shooting
[26]

2014
No award
[10]

2015
Mirza, SaniaSania Mirza
Tennis
[27]

2016 †
Sindhu, P. V.P. V. Sindhu
Badminton
[28]

2016 †
Karmakar, DipaDipa Karmakar
Gymnastics
[28]

2016 †
Rai, JituJitu Rai
Shooting
[28]

2016 †
Malik, SakshiSakshi Malik
Wrestling
[28]

2017 †
Jhajharia, DevendraDevendra Jhajharia
Para Athlete
[29]

2017 †
Singh, SardaraSardara Singh
Hockey
[29]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: The 2002 selection committee headed by former football player Pradip Kumar Banerjee made twenty one recommendations for the Arjuna Award and two recommendations for the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award, athlete K. M. Beenamol and shooter Anjali Bhagwat. The government rejected the recommendations and asked the committee to cut down the list to comply with the award guidelines, where only one sportsperson for the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award and fifteen sportspersons along with one disabled athlete for the Arjuna Awards could be recommended each year.[30] The committee revised the list to recommend Beenamol for the award over Bhagwat but also put a request "to consider everyone".[31] The decision spurred criticism for ignoring the achievements of the shooter and Bhagwat and the National Rifle Association of India expressed their "disappointment" with the decision.[32] Later, the government accepted all the recommendations "as an exception" and jointly awarded Beenamol and Bhagwat for the year 2002.[33]

text: In August 2013, the selection committee headed by Michael Ferreira recommended sport shooter Ronjan Sodhi for the award, with some committee members questioning the process of selection.[34] A committee member noted that discus thrower Krishna Poonia, and Paralympic athlete H. N. Girisha were shortlisted and Sodhi was not the initial choice. However, Girisha's name was removed, and the final voting was done between Sodhi and Poonia.[35] Poonia was accused of lobbying for the award by one of the committee member Anjali Bhagwat,[36] but the accused met the then Union Sports Minister Jitendra Singh to promote her case and also rubbished the lobbying allegations.[37][38] The Ministry conducted a separate enquiry by Secretary of Department of Sports and decided not to increase the number of awards "to maintain the stature of the awards".[37]

text: Following an announcement, in August 2015, that tennis player Sania Mirza was to be awarded, a Public-Interest Litigation was filed in the Karnataka High Court. The petitioner, Paralympic athlete H. N. Girisha, mentioned that his performance was ignored by the committee.[39] Girisha claimed to be a top contender for the award with 90 points, owing to his silver medal winning act at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in the Men's High Jump F42 event.[40] The petition mentioned that the points for Mirza's Grand Slam titles from 2011 until 2015 should not be counted as the events were not a part of the list of sports events to be considered for the performance evaluation.[e] The court withheld the conferment and sought replies from the Ministry about the selection process. The Ministry nevertheless presented the award to Mirza on 29 August 2015 amidst the case processing.[2]

text: Explanatory notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The cash prize was revised from ₹1 lakh (US$1,600) to ₹3 lakh (US$4,700) in 2000,[4][5] to ₹5 lakh (US$7,800) in 2002,[6] and to ₹7.5 lakh (US$12,000) in 2009.[7]
Jump up ^ For cricket, there is no National Sports Federation recognised by the Government.[1]
Jump up ^ A World Championship/World Cup is generally organised every four years. For different cyclicities, proportionate marks are given.
Jump up ^ The award for the performance in 2008 is being referred to as award for 2009.[14]
Jump up ^ Mirza has won 2012 French Open – Mixed Doubles with Mahesh Bhupathi, 2014 US Open – Mixed Doubles with Bruno Soares, and 2015 US Open – Women's Doubles and 2015 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Doubles with Martina Hingis.[41]

tag: ol


document_title: List of Tour de France general classification winners

question_text: when was the last time a french man won the tour de france

text: History[edit]

text: The Tour de France was established in 1903 by newspaper L'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race was won by Frenchman Maurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose. Henri Cornet became the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a points-based system, in which the cyclist who has the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until 1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour was François Faber of Luxembourg, who won in 1909.[8]

text: Belgian riders were more successful before and after the First World War (which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such as Nicolas Frantz won the Tour with the Alcyon team. However, when Alcyon cyclist Maurice De Waele won the Tour in 1929 while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of the Second World War, the Tour de France was suspended from 1940 to 1946.[9]

text: After the Second World War, no one dominated the Tour until Louison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from 1953 to 1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.[10] This was bettered by the French cyclist Jacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from 1961 to 1964. Anquetil, who also won in 1957, became the first to win five Tours.[11] Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx won four successive Tours from 1969 to 1972 and the 1974 Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour.[12]

text: Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in 1975, but Bernard Thévenet beat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in 1977; however, he was eclipsed in following years by fellow Frenchman Bernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in 1978 and 1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx, Hugo Koblet and Fausto Coppi) managed to do so.[13] In 1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won by Joop Zoetemelk.[14] Hinault returned in 1981 and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in 1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in 1985 to win his fifth Tour.

text: American Greg LeMond became the first non-European to win the Tour in 1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.[15] In 1991, Spaniard Miguel Indurain won his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.[16] He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in 1996, but was beaten by Bjarne Riis, who later admitted to using Erythropoietin.[17] Jan Ullrich and Marco Pantani won in 1997 and 1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed by doping scandals.[18]

text: The 1999 Tour saw the first victory of Lance Armstrong,[19] which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.[20] He was stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had used performance-enhancing drugs throughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.[4] Floyd Landis won the Tour in 2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of a skewed testosterone/epitestosterone ratio.[21] Óscar Pereiro was subsequently awarded the victory. Alberto Contador won the 2007 Tour with the Discovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred by doping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in 2008, as his Astana team was banned for its part. Fellow Spaniard Carlos Sastre of Team CSC won.[22] Contador and Astana returned in 2009 to regain the title. He won the Tour again in 2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-up Andy Schleck was awarded the victory.

text: Cadel Evans became the first Australian to win the Tour in 2011.[23] The following year, Bradley Wiggins became the first British cyclist to win the Tour.[24] Chris Froome became the second successive British winner in 2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.[25] He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, with Vincenzo Nibali winning his first Tour.[26] Froome regained the title in 2015 and then successfully defended it in 2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.[27] He then backed it up with a third consecutive win in 2017.[7]

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Key

Winner won points classification in the same year

*
Winner won mountains classification in the same year

#
Winner won young rider classification in the same year

Winner won points and mountains classification in the same year

text:
The "Year" column refers to the year the competition was held, and wikilinks to the article about that season.
The "Distance" column refers to the distance over which the race was held.
The "Margin" column refers to the margin of time or points by which the winner defeated the runner-up.
The "Stage wins" column refers to the number of stage wins the winner had during the race.

tag: ul

text:
Tour de France general classification winners

Year
Country
Cyclist
Sponsor/Team
Distance
Time/Points
Margin
Stage wins
Stages in lead

1903
 France
Garin, MauriceMaurice Garin
La Française
2,428 km (1,509 mi)
094 !94h 33' 14"
24921 !+ 2h 59' 21"
3
6

1904
 France
Garin, MauriceMaurice Garin Cornet, HenriHenri Cornet[E]
Conte
2,428 km (1,509 mi)
096 !96h 05' 55"
21614 !+ 2h 16' 14"
1
3

1905
 France
Trousselier, LouisLouis Trousselier
Peugeot–Wolber
2,994 km (1,860 mi)
35
26
5
10

1906
 France
Pottier, RenéRené Pottier
Peugeot–Wolber
4,637 km (2,881 mi)
31
8
5
12

1907
 France
Petit-Breton, LucienLucien Petit-Breton
Peugeot–Wolber
4,488 km (2,789 mi)
47
19
2
5

1908
 France
Petit-Breton, LucienLucien Petit-Breton
Peugeot–Wolber
4,497 km (2,794 mi)
36
32
5
13

1909
 Luxembourg
Faber, FrançoisFrançois Faber
Alcyon–Dunlop
4,498 km (2,795 mi)
37
20
6
13

1910
 France
Lapize, OctaveOctave Lapize
Alcyon–Dunlop
4,734 km (2,942 mi)
63
4
4
3

1911
 France
Garrigou, GustaveGustave Garrigou
Alcyon–Dunlop
5,343 km (3,320 mi)
43
18
2
13

1912
 Belgium
Defraye, OdileOdile Defraye
Alcyon–Dunlop
5,289 km (3,286 mi)
49
59
3
13

1913
 Belgium
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys
Peugeot–Wolber
5,287 km (3,285 mi)
197 !197h 54' 00"
00837 !+ 8' 37"
1
8

1914
 Belgium
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys
Peugeot–Wolber
5,380 km (3,340 mi)
200 !200h 28' 48"
00150 !+ 1' 50"
1
15

1915
World War I

1916

1917

1918

1919
 Belgium
Lambot, FirminFirmin Lambot
La Sportive
5,560 km (3,450 mi)
231 !231h 07' 15"
14254 !+ 1h 42' 54"
1
2

1920
 Belgium
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys
La Sportive
5,503 km (3,419 mi)
228 !228h 36' 13"
05721 !+ 57' 21"
4
14

1921
 Belgium
Scieur, LéonLéon Scieur
La Sportive
5,485 km (3,408 mi)
221 !221h 50' 26"
01836 !+ 18' 36"
2
14

1922
 Belgium
Lambot, FirminFirmin Lambot
Peugeot–Wolber
5,375 km (3,340 mi)
222 !222h 08' 06"
04115 !+ 41' 15"
0
3

1923
 France
Pélissier, HenriHenri Pélissier
Automoto–Hutchinson
5,386 km (3,347 mi)
222 !222h 15' 30"
03041 !+ 30 '41"
3
6

1924
 Italy
Bottecchia, OttavioOttavio Bottecchia
Automoto
5,425 km (3,371 mi)
226 !226h 18' 21"
03536 !+ 35' 36"
4
15

1925
 Italy
Bottecchia, OttavioOttavio Bottecchia
Automoto–Hutchinson
5,440 km (3,380 mi)
219 !219h 10' 18"
05420 !+ 54' 20"
4
13

1926
 Belgium
Buysse, LucienLucien Buysse
Automoto–Hutchinson
5,745 km (3,570 mi)
238 !238h 44' 25"
12225 !+ 1h 22' 25"
2
8

1927
 Luxembourg
Frantz, NicolasNicolas Frantz
Alcyon–Dunlop
5,398 km (3,354 mi)
198 !198h 16' 42"
14841 !+ 1h 48' 41"
3
14

1928
 Luxembourg
Frantz, NicolasNicolas Frantz
Alcyon–Dunlop
5,476 km (3,403 mi)
192 !192h 48' 58"
05007 !+ 50' 07"
5
22

1929
 Belgium
De Waele, MauriceMaurice De Waele
Alcyon–Dunlop
5,286 km (3,285 mi)
186 !186h 39' 15"
04423 !+44' 23"
1
16

1930
 France
Leducq, AndréAndré Leducq
Alcyon–Dunlop
4,822 km (2,996 mi)
172 !172h 12' 16"
01413 !+ 14' 13"
2
13

1931
 France
Magne, AntoninAntonin Magne
France
5,091 km (3,163 mi)
177 !177h 10' 03"
01256 !+ 12' 56"
1
16

1932
 France
Leducq, AndréAndré Leducq
France
4,479 km (2,783 mi)
154 !154h 11' 49"
02403 !+ 24' 03"
6
19

1933
 France
Speicher, GeorgesGeorges Speicher
France
4,395 km (2,731 mi)
147 !147h 51' 37"
00401 !+ 4' 01"
3
12

1934
 France
Magne, AntoninAntonin Magne
France
4,470 km (2,780 mi)
147 !147h 13' 58"
02731 !+ 27' 31"
3
22

1935
 Belgium
Maes, RomainRomain Maes
Belgium
4,338 km (2,696 mi)
141 !141h 23' 00"
01752 !+ 17' 52"
3
21

1936
 Belgium
Maes, SylvèreSylvère Maes
Belgium
4,442 km (2,760 mi)
142 !142h 47' 32"
02655 !+ 26' 55"
4
14

1937
 France
Lapébie, RogerRoger Lapébie
France
4,415 km (2,743 mi)
138 !138h 58' 31"
00717 !+ 7' 17"
3
4

1938
 Italy
Bartali, GinoGino Bartali*
Italy
4,694 km (2,917 mi)
148 !148h 29' 12"
01827 !+ 18' 27"
2
8

1939
 Belgium
Maes, SylvèreSylvère Maes*
Belgium
4,224 km (2,625 mi)
132 !132h 03' 17"
03038 !+ 30' 38"
2
4

1940
World War II

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947
 France
Robic, JeanJean Robic
France
4,642 km (2,884 mi)
148 !148h 11' 25"
00358 !+ 3' 58"
3
1

1948
 Italy
Bartali, GinoGino Bartali*
Italy
4,922 km (3,058 mi)
147 !147h 10' 36"
02616 !+ 26' 16"
7
9

1949
 Italy
Coppi, FaustoFausto Coppi*
Italy
4,808 km (2,988 mi)
149 !149h 40' 49"
01055 !+ 10' 55"
3
5

1950
  Switzerland
Kübler, FerdinandFerdinand Kübler
Switzerland
4,773 km (2,966 mi)
145 !145h 36' 56"
00930 !+ 9' 30"
3
11

1951
  Switzerland
Koblet, HugoHugo Koblet
Switzerland
4,690 km (2,910 mi)
142 !142h 20' 14"
02200 !+ 22' 00"
5
11

1952
 Italy
Coppi, FaustoFausto Coppi*
Italy
4,898 km (3,043 mi)
151 !151h 57' 20"
02817 !+ 28' 17"
5
14

1953
 France
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet
France
4,476 km (2,781 mi)
129 !129h 23' 25"
01418 !+ 14' 18"
2
5

1954
 France
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet
France
4,656 km (2,893 mi)
140 !140h 06' 05"
01549 !+ 15' 49"
3
14

1955
 France
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet
France
4,495 km (2,793 mi)
130 !130h 29' 26"
00453 !+ 4' 53"
2
6

1956
 France
Walkowiak, RogerRoger Walkowiak
France
4,498 km (2,795 mi)
124 !124h 01' 16"
00125 !+ 1' 25"
0
8

1957
 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
France
4,669 km (2,901 mi)
135 !135h 44' 42"
01456 !+ 14' 56"
4
15

1958
 Luxembourg
Gaul, CharlyCharly Gaul
Luxembourg
4,319 km (2,684 mi)
116 !116h 59' 05"
00310 !+ 3' 10"
4
2

1959
 Spain
Bahamontes, FedericoFederico Bahamontes*
Spain
4,358 km (2,708 mi)
123 !123h 46' 45"
00401 !+ 4' 01"
1
6

1960
 Italy
Nencini, GastoneGastone Nencini
Italy
4,173 km (2,593 mi)
112 !112h 08' 42"
00502 !+ 5' 02"
0
14

1961
 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
France
4,397 km (2,732 mi)
122 !122h 01' 33"
01214 !+ 12' 14"
2
21

1962
 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
Saint-Raphaël–Helyett–Hutchinson
4,274 km (2,656 mi)
114 !114h 31' 54"
00459 !+ 4' 59"
2
3

1963
 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–R. Geminiani
4,138 km (2,571 mi)
113 !113h 30' 05"
00335 !+ 3' 35"
4
5

1964
 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–Dunlop
4,504 km (2,799 mi)
127 !127h 09' 44"
00055 !+ 55"
4
6

1965
 Italy
Gimondi, FeliceFelice Gimondi
Salvarani
4,188 km (2,602 mi)
116 !116h 42' 06"
00240 !+ 2' 40"
3
18

1966
 France
Aimar, LucienLucien Aimar
Ford France–Hutchinson
4,329 km (2,690 mi)
117 !117h 34' 21"
00107 !+ 1' 07"
0
6

1967
 France
Pingeon, RogerRoger Pingeon
Peugeot–BP–Michelin
4,779 km (2,970 mi)
136 !136h 53' 50"
00340 !+ 3' 40"
1
17

1968
 Netherlands
Janssen, JanJan Janssen
Pelforth–Sauvage–Lejeune
4,492 km (2,791 mi)
133 !133h 49' 42"
00038 !+ 38"
2
1

1969
 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Faema
4,117 km (2,558 mi)
116 !116h 16' 02"
01754 !+ 17' 54"
6
18

1970
 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx*
Faemino–Faema
4,254 km (2,643 mi)
119 !119h 31' 49"
01241 !+ 12' 41"
8
20

1971
 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Molteni
3,608 km (2,242 mi)
096 !96h 45' 14"
00951 !+ 9' 51"
4
17

1972
 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Molteni
3,846 km (2,390 mi)
108 !108h 17' 18"
01041 !+ 10' 41"
6
15

1973
 Spain
Ocaña, LuisLuis Ocaña
Bic
4,090 km (2,540 mi)
122 !122h 25' 34"
01551 !+ 15' 51"
6
14

1974
 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Molteni
4,098 km (2,546 mi)
116 !116h 16' 58"
00804 !+ 8' 04"
8
18

1975
 France
ThevenetBernard Thévenet
Peugeot–BP–Michelin
4,000 km (2,500 mi)
114 !114h 35' 31"
00247 !+ 2' 47"
2
8

1976
 Belgium
Van Impe, LucienLucien Van Impe
Gitane–Campagnolo
4,017 km (2,496 mi)
116 !116h 22' 23"
00414 !+ 4' 14"
1
12

1977
 France
ThevenetBernard Thévenet
Peugeot–Esso–Michelin
4,096 km (2,545 mi)
115 !115h 38' 30"
00048 !+ 48"
1
8

1978
 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Gitane–Campagnolo
3,908 km (2,428 mi)
108 !108h 18' 00"
00356 !+ 3' 56"
3
3

1979
 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Gitane
3,765 km (2,339 mi)
103 !103h 06' 50"
01307 !+ 13' 07"
7
17

1980
 Netherlands
Zoetemelk, JoopJoop Zoetemelk
TI–Raleigh–Creda
3,842 km (2,387 mi)
109 !109h 19' 14"
00655 !+ 6' 55"
2
10

1981
 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Elf–Gitane
3,753 km (2,332 mi)
096 !96h 19' 38"
01434 !+ 14' 34"
5
18

1982
 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Elf–Gitane
3,507 km (2,179 mi)
092 !92h 08' 46"
00621 !+ 6' 21"
4
12

1983
 France
Fignon, LaurentLaurent Fignon#
Renault–Elf
3,809 km (2,367 mi)
105 !105h 07' 52"
00404 !+ 4' 04"
1
6

1984
 France
Fignon, LaurentLaurent Fignon
Renault–Elf
4,021 km (2,499 mi)
112 !112h 03' 40"
01032 !+ 10' 32"
5
7

1985
 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
La Vie Claire
4,109 km (2,553 mi)
113 !113h 24' 23"
00142 !+ 1' 42"
2
16

1986
 United States
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond
La Vie Claire
4,094 km (2,544 mi)
110 !110h 35' 19"
00310 !+ 3' 10"
1
7

1987
 Ireland
Roche, StephenStephen Roche
Carrera Jeans–Vagabond
4,231 km (2,629 mi)
115 !115h 27' 42"
00040 !+ 40"
1
3

1988
 Spain
Delgado, PedroPedro Delgado
Reynolds
3,286 km (2,042 mi)
084 !84h 27' 53"
00713 !+ 7' 13"
1
11

1989
 United States
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond
AD Renting–W-Cup–Bottecchia
3,285 km (2,041 mi)
087 !87h 38' 35"
00008 !+ 8"
3
8

1990
 United States
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond
Z–Tomasso
3,504 km (2,177 mi)
090 !90h 43' 20"
00216 !+ 2' 16"
0
2

1991
 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto
3,914 km (2,432 mi)
101 !101h 01' 20"
00336 !+ 3' 36"
2
10

1992
 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto
3,983 km (2,475 mi)
100 !100h 49' 30"
00435 !+ 4' 35"
3
10

1993
 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto
3,714 km (2,308 mi)
095 !95h 57' 09"
00459 !+ 4' 59"
2
14

1994
 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto
3,978 km (2,472 mi)
103 !103h 38' 38"
00539 !+ 5' 39"
1
13

1995
 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto
3,635 km (2,259 mi)
092 !92h 44' 59"
00435 !+ 4' 35"
2
13

1996
 Denmark
Riis, BjarneBjarne Riis[A]
Team Telekom
3,765 km (2,339 mi)
095 !95h 57' 16"
00141 !+ 1' 41"
2
13

1997
 Germany
Ullrich, JanJan Ullrich#
Team Telekom
3,950 km (2,450 mi)
100 !100h 30' 35"
00909 !+ 9' 09"
2
12

1998
 Italy
Pantani, MarcoMarco Pantani
Mercatone Uno–Bianchi
3,875 km (2,408 mi)
092 !92h 49' 46"
00321 !+ 3' 21"
2
7

1999[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service
3,687 km (2,291 mi)
091 !91h 32' 16"
00737 !+ 7' 37"
4
15

2000[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service
3,662 km (2,275 mi)
092 !92h 33' 08"
00602 !+ 6' 02"
1
12

2001[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service
3,458 km (2,149 mi)
086 !86h 17' 28"
00644 !+ 6' 44"
4
8

2002[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service
3,272 km (2,033 mi)
082 !82h 05' 12"
00717 !+ 7' 17"
4
11

2003[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service
3,427 km (2,129 mi)
083 !83h 41' 12"
00101 !+ 1' 01"
1
13

2004[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service
3,391 km (2,107 mi)
083 !83h 36' 02"
00619 !+ 6' 19"
5
7

2005[B]
 United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
Discovery Channel
3,593 km (2,233 mi)
086 !86h 15' 02"
00440 !+ 4' 40"
1
17

2006
 Spain
Landis, FloydFloyd Landis Pereiro, ÓscarÓscar Pereiro[C]
Caisse d'Epargne–Illes Balears
3,657 km (2,272 mi)
089 !89h 40' 27"
00032 !+ 32"
0
8

2007
 Spain
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador#
Discovery Channel
3,570 km (2,220 mi)
091 !91h 00' 26"
00023 !+ 23"
1
4

2008
 Spain
Sastre, CarlosCarlos Sastre*
Team CSC
3,559 km (2,211 mi)
087 !87h 52' 52"
00058 !+ 58"
1
5

2009
 Spain
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador
Astana
3,459 km (2,149 mi)
085 !85h 48' 35"
00411 !+ 4' 11"
2
7

2010
 Luxembourg
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador Schleck, AndyAndy Schleck#[D]
Team Saxo Bank
3,642 km (2,263 mi)
091 !91h 59' 27"
00122 !+ 1' 22"
2
12

2011
 Australia
Evans, CadelCadel Evans
BMC Racing Team
3,430 km (2,130 mi)
086 !86h 12' 22"
00134 !+ 1' 34"
1
2

2012
 Great Britain
Wiggins, BradleyBradley Wiggins
Team Sky
3,496 km (2,172 mi)
087 !87h 34' 47"
00321 !+ 3' 21"
2
14

2013
 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome
Team Sky
3,404 km (2,115 mi)
083 !83h 56' 20"
00420 !+ 4' 20"
3
14

2014
 Italy
Nibali, VincenzoVincenzo Nibali
Astana
3,660.5 km (2,274.5 mi)
089 !89h 59' 06"
00737 !+ 7' 37"
4
19

2015
 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome*
Team Sky
3,360.3 km (2,088.0 mi)
084 !84h 46' 14"
00112 !+ 1' 12"
1
16

2016
 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome
Team Sky
3,529 km (2,193 mi)
089 !89h 04' 48"
00405 !+ 4' 05"
2
14

2017
 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome
Team Sky
3,540 km (2,200 mi)
086 !86h 20' 55"
00054 !+ 54"
0
15

text: Multiple winners[edit]

text: The following riders have won the Tour de France on 2 or more occasions. Since the retirement of twice winner Alberto Contador in 2017, the only active rider on the list as of that year is Chris Froome, currently with 4 wins. Contador had originally won three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation[D].

text: Lance Armstrong was removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. Had his tainted Tour victories been reallocated (as were the victories of Floyd Landis and Contador) to the second placed rider in each race, Jan Ullrich would have joined the list with 4 Tour wins. However, the race organisers ASO have decided not to reallocate the titles won in those years, in recognition of the historic doping problem in the sport at that time - Ullrich himself having been banned for a doping violation. Ullrich, therefore, has a single Tour victory to his name.

text:
Multiple winners of the Tour de France general classification

Cyclist
Total
Years

 Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil (FRA)
5
1957, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964

 Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx (BEL)
5
1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974

 Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault (FRA)
5
1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985

 Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain (ESP)
5
1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995

 Froome, ChrisChris Froome (GBR)
4
2013, 2015, 2016, 2017

 Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys (BEL)
3
1913, 1914, 1920

 Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet (FRA)
3
1953, 1954, 1955

 LeMond, GregGreg LeMond (USA)
3
1986, 1989, 1990

 Petit-Breton, LucienLucien Petit-Breton (FRA)
2
1907, 1908

 Lambot, FirminFirmin Lambot (BEL)
2
1919, 1922

 Bottecchia, OttavioOttavio Bottecchia (ITA)
2
1924, 1925

 Frantz, NicolasNicolas Frantz (LUX)
2
1927, 1928

 Leducq, AndréAndré Leducq (FRA)
2
1930, 1932

 Magne, AntoninAntonin Magne (FRA)
2
1931, 1934

 Maes, SylvèreSylvère Maes (BEL)
2
1936, 1939

 Bartali, GinoGino Bartali (ITA)
2
1938, 1948

 Coppi, FaustoFausto Coppi (ITA)
2
1949, 1952

 Thévenet, BernardBernard Thévenet (FRA)
2
1975, 1977

 Fignon, LaurentLaurent Fignon (FRA)
2
1983, 1984

 Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador (ESP)[D]
2
2007, 2009

text: By nationality[edit]

text:
Tour de France general classification winners by nationality

Country
No. of winning cyclists
No. of wins

 France
23
36

 Belgium
10
18

 Spain[D]
7
12

 Italy
7
10

 Luxembourg
4
5

 Great Britain
2
5

 United States[B][C]
1
3

 Netherlands
2
2

  Switzerland
2
2

 Denmark
1
1

 Germany
1
1

 Ireland
1
1

 Australia
1
1

text: Footnotes[edit]

text: A. ^ Bjarne Riis has admitted to doping during the 1996 Tour de France. The organizers of the Tour de France have stated that they no longer consider him to be the winner, although Union Cycliste Internationale has so far refused to change the official status due to the amount of time passed since his win. Jan Ullrich was placed second on the podium in Paris.[28]

text: B. a b c d e f g h Lance Armstrong was declared winner of seven consecutive Tours from 1999 to 2005. However, in October 2012 he was stripped of all titles by the UCI due to the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The Tour director Christian Prudhomme had previously declared that if this happened, there would be no alternate winners for those years, but this has not yet been made official.[29]

text: C. a b Floyd Landis was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2006 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs during stage 17 of the race. The United States Anti-Doping Agency found him guilty of using synthetic testosterone during the race and stripped him of his title on 20 September 2007.[30]

text: D. a b c Alberto Contador was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2010 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for the prohibited substance Clenbuterol on a rest day. The Court of Arbitration for Sport found him guilty of using clenbuterol during the race and stripped him of his title on 6 February 2012.[31]

text: E. ^ Henri Cornet was declared the winner after the disqualification of Maurice Garin for cheating.


document_title: Indigenous music of North America

question_text: early native american music features intervals that are

text: Indigenous music of North America

text: Characteristics[edit]

text:
Dance Song of the Thompson River Indians

Phonograph cylinder recording of song by Nlaka'pamux in British Columbia, 1897

Eagle Song of the Hopi Indians

Phonograph cylinder recording of song by Hopi Indians in Arizona, 1906

Problems playing these files? See media help.

text: Singing and percussion are the most important aspects of traditional Native American music. Vocalization takes many forms, ranging from solo and choral song to responsorial, unison and multipart singing. Percussion, especially drums and rattles, are common accompaniment to keep the rhythm steady for the singers, who generally use their native language or non-lexical vocables (nonsense syllables). Traditional music usually begins with slow and steady beats that grow gradually faster and more emphatic, while various flourishes like drum and rattle tremolos, shouts and accented patterns add variety and signal changes in performance for singers and dancers.[1]

text: Song texts and sources[edit]

text: Native American song texts include both public pieces and secret songs, said to be "ancient and unchanging", which are used for only sacred and ceremonial purposes. There are also public sacred songs, as well as ritual speeches that are sometimes perceived as musical because of their use of rhythm and melody. These ritual speeches often directly describe the events of a ceremony, and the reasons and ramifications of the night.[2]

text: Vocables, or lexically meaningless syllables, are a common part of many kinds of Native American songs. They frequently mark the beginning and end of phrases, sections or songs themselves. Often songs make frequent use of vocables and other untranslatable elements. Songs that are translatable include historical songs, like the Navajo "Shi' naasha', which celebrates the end of Navajo internment in Fort Sumner, New Mexico in 1868. Tribal flag songs and national anthems are also a major part of the Native American musical corpus, and are a frequent starter to public ceremonies, especially powwows. Native American music also includes a range of courtship songs, dancing songs and popular American or Canadian tunes like "Amazing Grace, "Dixie", "Jambalaya" and "Sugar Time". Many songs celebrate harvest, planting season or other important times of year.[3]

text: Societal role[edit]

text: Native American music plays a vital role in history and education, with ceremonies and stories orally passing on ancestral customs to new generations. Native American ceremonial music is traditionally said to originate from deities or spirits, or from particularly respected individuals. Rituals are shaped by every aspect of song, dance and costuming, and each aspect informs about the "makers, wearers and symbols important to the nation, tribe, village, clan, family, or individual".[4] Native Americans perform stories through song, music and dance, and the historical facts thus propagated are an integral part of Native American beliefs. Epic legends and stories about culture heroes are a part of tribal music traditions, and these tales are often an iconic part of local culture.[5] They can vary slightly from year to year, with leaders recombining and introducing slight variations. The Pueblo compose a number of new songs each year in a committee which uses dreams and visions.[6]

text: The styles and purposes of music vary greatly between and among each Native American tribe. However, a common concept amongst many indigenous groups is a conflation of music and power. For example, the Pima people feel many of their songs were given in the beginning and sung by the Creator. It was believed that some people then have more of an inclination to musical talent than others because of an individual's peculiar power.[7]

text: Gender[edit]

text: Within various Native American communities, gender plays an important role in music. Men and women play sex-specific roles in many musical activities. Instruments, songs and dances are often peculiar to one or the other sex, and many musical settings are strictly controlled by sex. In modern powwows, women play a vital role as backup singers and dancers.[8] The Cherokee people, for example, hold dances before stickball games. At these pre-game events, men and women perform separate dances and follow separate regulations. Men will dance in a circle around a fire, while women dance in place. Men sing their own songs, while women have their songs sung for them by an elder. Whereas the men's songs invoke power, the women's songs draw power away from the opposing stickball team.[9] In some societies, there are customs where certain ceremonial drums are to be played by men only. For the Southern Plains Indians, it is believed that the first drum was given to a woman by the Great Spirit, who instructed her to share it with all women of native nations. However, there also exist prohibitions against women sitting at the Beg Drum.[9]

text: Many tribal music cultures have a relative paucity of traditional women's songs and dances, especially in the Northeast and Southeast regions. The Southeast is, however, home to a prominent women's musical tradition in the use of leg rattles for ceremonial stomp and friendship dances, and the women's singing during Horse and Ball Game contests. The West Coast tribes of North America tend to more prominence in women's music, with special women's love songs, medicine songs and handgame songs; the Southwest is particularly diverse in women's musical offerings, with major ceremonial, instrumental and social roles in dances. Women also play a vital ceremonial role in the Sun Dance of the Great Plains and Great Basin, and sing during social dances. Shoshone women still sang the songs of the Ghost Dance into the 1980s.[8]

text: History[edit]

text: Music and history are tightly interwoven in Native American life. A tribe's history is constantly told and retold through music, which keeps alive an oral narrative of history. These historical narratives vary widely from tribe to tribe and are an integral part of tribal identity. However, their historical authenticity cannot be verified; aside from supposition and some archaeological evidence, the earliest documentation of Native American music came with the arrival of European explorers.[10] Musical instruments and pictographs depicting music and dance have been dated as far back as the 7th century.[11]

text: Bruno Nettl refers to the style of the Great Basin area as the oldest style and common throughout the entire continent before Mesoamerica but continued in only the Great Basin and in the lullaby, gambling, and tale genres around the continent. A style featuring relaxed vocal technique and the rise may have originated in Mesoamerican Mexico and spread northward, particularly into the California-Yuman and Eastern music areas. According to Nettl, these styles also feature "relative" rhythmic simplicity in drumming and percussion, with isometric material and pentatonic scales in the singing, and motives created from shorter sections into longer ones.[12]

text: While this process occurred, three Asian styles may have influenced North American music across the Bering Strait, all featuring pulsating vocal technique and possibly evident in recent Paleo-Siberian tribes such as Chuckchee, Yukaghir, Koryak. Also, these may have influenced the Plains-Pueblo, Athabascan, and Inuit-Northwest Coast areas. According to Nettl, the boundary between these southward and the above northward influences are the areas of greatest musical complexity: the Northwest Coast, Pueblo music, and Navajo music. Evidence of influences between the Northwest Coast and Mexico are indicated, for example, by bird-shaped whistles.[12] The Plains-Pueblo area has influenced and continues to influence the surrounding cultures, with contemporary musicians of all tribes learning Plains-Pueblo-influenced pantribal genres such as Peyote songs.[12]

text: Music areas[edit]

text: Nettl uses the following music areas which approximately coincide with Wissler, Kroeber, and Driver's cultural areas: Inuit-Northwest coast, Great Basin, California-Yuman, Plains-Pueblo, Athabascan, and Eastern.[13]

text: Southwest[edit]

text: Native Americans of the Southwestern United States were limited to idiophones and aerophones as mediums to sound production beginning date in the seventh century. The applicable idiophones included: plank resonators, footed drums, percussion stones, shaken idiophones, vessel rattles, and copper and clay bells. The applicable aerophones included bullroarers, decomposable whistles and flutes, clay resonator whistles, shell trumpets and prehistoric reed instruments. The wood flute was of particular significance.

text: Arid American Southwest is home to two broad groupings of closely related cultures, the Pueblo and Athabaskan. The Southern Athabaskan Navajo and Apache tribes sing in Plains-style nasal vocals with unblended monophony, while the Pueblos emphasize a relaxed, low range and highly blended monophonic style. Athabaskan songs are swift and use drums or rattles, as well as an instrument unique to this area, the Apache fiddle, or "Tsii'edo'a'tl" meaning "wood that sings" in the Apache language.[15]

text: Pueblo songs are complex and meticulously detailed, usually with five sections divided into four or more phrases characterized by detailed introductory and cadential formulas. They are much slower in tempo than Athabaskan songs, and use various percussion instruments as accompaniment.

text: Nettl describes Pueblo music, including Hopi, Zuni, Taos Pueblo, San Ildefonso Pueblo, Santo Domingo Pueblo, and many others, as one of the most complex on the continent, featuring increased length and number of scale tones (hexatonic and heptatonic common), variety of form, melodic contour, and percussive accompaniment, ranges between an octave and a twelfth, with rhythmic complexity equal to the Plains sub-area. He sites the Kachina dance songs as the most complex songs and Hopi and Zuni material as the most complex of the Pueblo, while Tanoan and Keresan music is simpler and intermediate between the Plains and western Pueblos. The music of the Pima and Tohono O'odham is intermediary between the Plains-Pueblo and the California-Yuman music areas, with melodic movement of the Yuman, though including the rise, and the form and rhythm of the Pueblo.[16]

text: He describes Southern Athabascan music, that of the Apache and Navajo, as the simplest next to the Great Basin style, featuring strophic form, tense vocals using pulsation and falsetto, tritonic and tetratonic scales in triad formation, simple rhythms and values of limited duration (usually only two per song), arc-type melodic contours, and large melodic intervals with a predominance of major and minor thirds and perfect fourths and fifths with octave leaps not rare. Peyote songs share characteristics of Apache music and Plains-Pueblo music having been promoted among the Plains by the Apache people.[16]

text: He describes the structural characteristics of California-Yuman music, including that of Pomo, Miwak, Luiseno, Catalineno, and Gabrielino, and the Yuman tribes, including, Mohave, Yuman, Havasupai, Maricopa, as using the rise in almost all songs, a relaxed nonpulsating vocal technique (like European classical music), a relatively large amount of isorhythmic material, some isorhythmic tendencies, simple rhythms, pentatonic scales without semitones, an average melodic range of an octave, sequence, and syncopated figures such as a sixteenth-note, eight-note, sixteenth-note figure. The form of rise used varies throughout the area, usually being rhythmically related to the preceding non-rise section but differing in melodic material or pitch. The rise may be no higher than the highest pitch of the original section, but will contain a much larger number of higher pitches. In California the non-rise is usually one reiterate phrase, the rise being the phrase transposed an octave higher, the Yumans use a non-rise of long repeated sections each consisting of several phrases, the rise being three to five phrases performed only once, and in southern California the previous two and progressive forms are found.[17]

text: Eastern Woodlands[edit]

text: Inhabiting a wide swath of the United States and Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands, according to Nettl, can be distinguished by antiphony (call and response style singing), which does not occur in other areas. Their territory includes Maritime Canada, New England, U.S. Mid-Atlantic, Great Lakes and Southeast regions. Songs are rhythmically complex, characterized by frequent metric changes and a close relationship to ritual dance. Flutes and whistles are solo instruments, and a wide variety of drums, rattles and striking sticks are played. Nettl describes the Eastern music area as the region between the Mississippi river and the Atlantic. The most complex styles are that of the Southeastern Creek, Yuchi, Cherokee, Choctaw, Iroquois and their language group, with the simpler style being that of the Algonquian language group including Delaware and Penobscot. The Algonquian-speaking Shawnee have a relatively complex style influenced by the nearby southeastern tribes.[18]

text: The characteristics of this entire area include short iterative phrases; reverting relationships; shouts before, during, and after singing anhemitonic pentatonic scales; simple rhythms and meter and, according to Nettl, antiphonal or responsorial techniques including "rudimentary imitative polyphony". Melodic movement tends to be gradually descending throughout the area and vocals include a moderate amount of tension and pulsation.[18]

text: Plains[edit]

text: Extending across the American Midwest into Canada, Plains-area music is nasal, with high pitches and frequent falsettos, with a terraced descent (a step-by-step descent down an octave) in an unblended monophony. Strophes use incomplete repetition, meaning that songs are divided into two parts, the second of which is always repeated before returning to the beginning.

text: Large double-sided skin drums are characteristic of the Plains tribes, and solo end-blown flutes (flageolet) are also common.

text: Nettl describes the central Plains Indians, from Canada to Texas: Blackfoot, Crow, Dakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, and Comanche, as the most typical and simple sub-area of the Plains-Pueblo music area. This area's music is characterized by extreme vocal tension, pulsation, melodic preference for perfect fourths and a range averring a tenth, rhythmic complexity, and increased frequency of tetratonic scales. The musics of the Arapaho and Cheyenne intensify these characteristics, while the northern tribes, especially Blackfoot music, feature simpler material, smaller melodic ranges, and fewer scale tones.[19]

text: Nettl Arapaho music includes ceremonial and secular songs, such as the ritualistic Sun Dance, performed in the summer when the various bands of the Arapaho people would come together. Arapaho traditional songs consist of two sections exhibiting terraced descent, with a range greater than an octave and scales between four and six tones. Other ceremonial songs were received in visions, or taught as part of a man's initiations into a society for his age group. Secular songs include a number of social dances, such as the triple meter round dances and songs to inspire warriors or recent exploits. There are also songs said to be taught by a guardian spirit, which should be sung only when the recipient is near death.[20]

text: Great Basin[edit]

text: Music of the Great Basin is simple, discreet and ornate, characterized by short melodies with a range smaller than an octave, moderately-blended monophony, relaxed and open vocals and, most unusually, paired-phrase structure, in which a melodic phrase, repeated twice, is alternated with one to two additional phrases. A song of this type might be diagrammed as follows: AA BB CC AA BB CC, etc.

text: Nettl describes the music of the sparsely settled Great Basin, including most of desert Utah and Nevada (Paiute, Ute, Shoshoni) and some of southern Oregon (Modoc and Klamath), as "extremely simple," featuring melodic ranges averaging just over a perfect fifth, many tetratonic scales, and short forms. The majority of songs are iterative with each phrase repeated once, though occasional songs with multiple repetitions are found. Many Modoc and Klamath songs contain only one repeated phrase and many of their scales only two to three notes (ditonic or tritonic). This style was carried to the Great Plains by the Ghost Dance religion which originated among the Paiute, and very frequently features paired-phrase patterns and a relaxed nonpulsating vocal style. Herzog attributes the similarly simple lullabies, song-stories, and gambling songs found all over the continent historically to the music of the Great Basin which was preserved through relative cultural isolation and low population.[21]

text: Northwest Coast[edit]

text: Open vocals with monophony are common in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia, though polyphony also occurs (this is the only area of North America with native polyphony). Chromatic intervals accompanying long melodies are also characteristic, and rhythms are complex and declamatory, deriving from speech. Instrumentation is more diverse than in the rest of North America, and includes a wide variety of whistles, flutes, horns and percussion instruments.

text: Nettl describes the music of the Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-chah-nulth, Tsimshian, Makah, and Quileute as some of the most complex on the continent, with the music of the Salish nations (Nlaka'pamux, Nuxálk, and Sliammon, and others directly east of the Northwest tribes) as being intermediary between these Northwest Coast tribes and Inuit music. The music of the Salish tribes, and even more so the Northwest coast, intensifies the significant features of Inuit music, see below, however their melodic movement is often pendulum-type ("leaping in broad intervals from one limit of the range to the other"). The Northwest coast music also "is among the most complicated on the continent, especially in regard to rhythmic structure," featuring intricate rhythmic patterns distinct from but related to the vocal melody and rigid percussion. He also reports unrecorded use of incipient polyphony in the form of drones or parallel intervals in addition to antiphonal and responorial forms. Vocals are extremely tense, producing dynamic contrast, ornamentation, and pulsation, and also often using multiple sudden accents in one held tone.[22]

text: Arctic[edit]

text: The Inuit of Alaska, Northwest Territories, Yukon Territory, Nunavut and Greenland are well known for their throat-singing, an unusual method of vocalizing found only in a few cultures worldwide. Throat-singing is used as the basis for a game among the Inuit. Narrow-ranged melodies and declamatory effects are common, as in the Northwest. Repeated notes mark the ends of phrases. Box drums, which are found elsewhere, are common, as is a tambourine-like hand drum. Nettl describes "Eskimo" music as some of the simplest on the continent, listing characteristics including recitative-like singing, complex rhythmic organization, relatively small melodic range averaging about a sixth, prominence of major thirds and minor seconds melodically, with undulating melodic movement.[22]

text: Academic study[edit]

text: Archaeological evidence of Native American music dates as far back as the 7th century. However, the earliest written documentation comes from the arrival of European explorers on the American continent, and the earliest academic research comes from the late 19th century. During that period, early musicologists and folklorists collected and studied Native American music, and propounded theories about indigenous styles. In the early 20th century, more systematic research began led by comparative musicologists like Frances Densmore, Natalie Curtis, George Herzog and Helen Heffron Roberts. Densmore was the most prolific of the era, publishing more than one hundred works on Native American music. Most recently, since the 1950s, Native American music has been a part of ethnomusicological research, studied by Bruno Nettl, William Powers and David McAllester, among others.[23]

text: Intertribal music[edit]

text: Many music genres span multiple tribes. Pan-tribalism is the syncretic adoption of traditions from foreign communities. Since the rise of the United States and Canada, Native Americans have forged a common identity, and invented pan-Indian music, most famously including powwows, peyote songs, and the Ghost Dance.

text: The Ghost Dance spread throughout the Plains tribes in the 1890s and many songs are sung today. They are characterized by relaxed vocals and a narrow range. Apache-derived peyote songs, prayers in the Native American Church, use a descending melody and monophony. Rattles and water drums are used, in a swift tempo. The Sun Dance and Grass Dance of the plains are the roots of intertribal powwows, which feature music with terraced descent and nasal vocals, both Plains characteristic features.

text: An example of an intertribal song is the AIM Song, which uses meaningless vocables to make it accessible to people of all tribes. However, because of its origins from the Lakota and Ojibwe people, it still retains some Northern Plains and Great Lakes characteristics.

text: John Trudell (Santee Dakota) launched a new genre of spoken word poetry in the 1980s, beginning with Aka Graffiti Man (1986). The next decade saw further innovations in Native American popular music, including Robbie Robertson (of The Band) releasing a soundtrack for a documentary, Music for the Native Americans, that saw limited mainstream success, as well as Verdell Primeaux and Johnny Mike's modernized peyote songs, which they began experimenting with on Sacred Path: Healing Songs of the Native American Church.

text: Waila (or chicken scratch music of the Tohono O'odham) has gained performers like the Joaquin Brothers fame across Native American communities, while hip hop crews like WithOut Rezervation and Robby Bee & the Boyz From the Rez (Reservation of Education) have a distinctively Native American flourish to hip hop. In the 21st century the leading light of contemporary Native American music has been Martha Redbone whose award winning albums Home of the Brave (2002) and Skintalk (2005) have incorporated both traditional song and culture references into a brew of soul, funk, rock and jazz that has reached audiences across Europe and Japan as well as into the urban communities of the US. Meanwhile, young Native musicians such as Red Earth (see "Zia Soul" (2003) ), DJ Abel, Derek Miller, Ethnic DeGeneration, War Water, and Casper are producing outstanding underground music (ranging from hip-hop to funk to reggae to metal) defying stereotypes of Native people (without label support).

text: American Indian opera is an intertribal music tradition, created when Gertrude Bonnin, a Yankton Dakota activist collaborated with a classical composer William Hanson to create the opera, Sun Dance in 1913.[24] Cherokee Nation mezzo-soprano opera singer, Barbara McAlister has performed in many opera troupes and has sung at New York's Metropolitan Opera House.[25] Brulé Lakota band Brulé and the American Indian Rock Opera create fullscale contemporary musical performances, including "Concert for Reconciliation of the Cultures."[26]

text: Native American flute[edit]

text: The Native American flute has achieved some measure of fame for its distinctive sound, used in a variety of new age and world music recordings. Its music was used in courtship, healing, meditation, and spiritual rituals.

text: The late 1960s saw a roots revival centered around the flute, with a new wave of flautists and artisans like Doc Tate Nevaquaya (Comanche) and Carl Running Deer. Notable and award winning Native American flautists include: Mary Youngblood, Kevin Locke, Charles Littleleaf, Jay Red Eagle, Robert Tree Cody, Robert Mirabal, Joseph Firecrow, and Jeff Ball. Tommy Wildcat is a contemporary flutist, who makes traditional Cherokee river cane flutes.[28] Of special importance is R. Carlos Nakai (Changes, 1983), who has achieved Gold record status and mainstream credibility for his mixture of the flute with other contemporary genres.

text: The Native American flute is the only flute in the world constructed with two air chambers - there is a wall inside the flute between the top (slow) air chamber and the bottom chamber which has the whistle and finger holes. The top chamber also serves as a secondary resonator, which gives the flute its distinctive sound. There is a hole at the bottom of the "slow" air chamber and a (generally) square hole at the top of the playing chamber. A block (or "bird") with a spacer is tied on top of the flute to form a thin, flat airstream for the whistle hole (or "window"). Some more modern flutes use an undercut either in the block or the flute to eliminate the need for a spacer.[29]

text: The "traditional" Native American flute was constructed using measurements based on the body - the length of the flute would be the distance from armpit to wrist, the length of the top air chamber would be one fist-width, the distance from the whistle to the first hole also a fist-width, the distance between holes would be one thumb-width, and the distance from the last hole to the end would generally be one fist-width. Unlike Western music, traditional American Indian music had no standard pitch reference such as A440, so flutes were not standardized for pitch.

text: Historic Native American flutes are generally tuned to a variation of the minor pentatonic scale (such as you would get playing the black keys on a piano), which gives the instrument its distinctive plaintive sound.[30] Recently some makers have begun experimenting with different scales, giving players new melodic options.[31] Also, modern flutes are generally tuned in concert keys (such as A or D) so that they can be easily played with other instruments. The root keys of modern Native American flutes span a range of about three and a half octaves, from C2 to A5.

text: Native American flutes most commonly have either 5 or 6 holes, but instruments can have anything from no holes to seven (including a thumb hole). Various makers employ different scales and fingerings for their flutes.

text: Some modern Native American flutes are called "drone" flutes, and are two (or more) flutes built together. Generally, the drone chamber plays a fixed note which the other flute can play against in harmony.

text: Drums[edit]

text: Drums are highly influential in American Indian music. Different tribes have different traditions about their drums and how to play them. For larger dance or powwow type drums, the basic construction is very similar in most tribes: a wooden frame or a carved and hollowed-out log, with rawhide buckskin or elk skin stretched out across the opening by sinew thongs. Traditionally American Indian drums are large, two to three feet in diameter, and they are played communally by groups of singers who sit around them in a circle. For smaller single-sided hand drums, a thinner frame or shell is used, and a rawhide surface is strung onto only one side, with lacing across the other. Other types include two basic styles of water drums: the Iroquois type and the Yaqui type. The Iroquois water drum is a small cup-shaped wooden vessel, with water inside it, and a moistened tanned hide stretched across the top opening; the wetness and tightness of the tanned hide produce changes in pitch as the water drum is played over time. The Yaqui type of water drum is actually a half gourd, large in size, that floats in a tub of water like a bubble on the surface; the outer round surface of the gourd is struck with a drum stick, and the vibrations are amplified using the tub of water as a resonator.

text: Another type of drum called a foot drum have been found in several southwestern and central-Californian Native American archaeological sites inhabited, or formally inhabited, by the Miwok, Maidu, Nahua, and Hopi Indian tribes. These drums were often semicircle cross-sectioned hollow logs laid over wood covered 'resonating' pits positioned according to custom in kivas or dance houses. The foot drums were played by stomping on top of the hollow log with the structure's poles used for steadying.

text: Awards[edit]

text: The dedicated Native American Music Awards, which successfully proposed the Grammy Award for Best Native American Music Album, was launched in 1998 and continues to be held annually. The Native American Music Awards or N.A.M.A. was the first national awards program for Native American music in North America. The awards were born out of a need for greater recognition for Native American music initiatives and remains the largest professional membership based organization in the world.

text: From 2001 to 2011, the American Grammy Awards presented an annual award for Best Native American Music Album, and the Canadian Juno Awards present an annual award for Aboriginal Recording of the Year. On April 6, 2011, it was announced that the Grammy Award for Best Native American Music Album would be merged with the Best Hawaiian Music Album and Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album categories into a new category, Best Regional Roots Music Album. This change was part of a massive restructuring of Grammy categories.[32][33]

text: Samples[edit]

text:
Media:Bice'waan Song.ogg is a recording from the Library of Congress, collected by Alice Cunningham Fletcher and Francis La Flesche and published in 1897. The singer is George Miller, who was probably born in about 1852. It was described as: "The true love-song, called by the Omaha Bethae waan, an old designation and not a descriptive name, is sung generally in the early morning, when the lover is keeping his tryst and watching for the maiden to emerge from the tent and go to the spring. They belong to the secret courtship and are sometimes called Me-the-g'thun wa-an - courting songs. . . . They were sung without drum, bell or rattle, to accent the rhythm, in which these songs is subordinated to tonality and is felt only in the musical phrases. . . . Vibrations for the purpose of giving greater expression were not only affected by the tremolo of the voice, but they were enhanced by waving the hand, or a spray of artemesia before the lips, while the body often swayed gently to the rhythm of the song (Fletcher, 1894, p. 156)."
Download recording Ghost Dance and gambling song from the Paiute and Arapaho Native Americans from the Library of Congress' Emile Berliner and the Birth of the Recording Industry Collection; performed by James Mooney (possibly along with Charles Mooney; neither are believed to be Native Americans) on July 5, 1894

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Heth, Charlotte, "Overview" in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, pp. 367–368
Jump up ^ Heth, pp. 368–370
Jump up ^ Heth, pg. 368-369
Jump up ^ Overview 367–368
Jump up ^ Crawford, pp. 4–5
Jump up ^ Herndon, pp. 14–16
Jump up ^ Herndon 14–16
^ Jump up to: a b Heth, "Overview" in the Garland Encyclopaedia of World Music, pp. 370–372
^ Jump up to: a b Herndon, p. 124
Jump up ^ Crawford, p. 3 Crawford refers to the "historical knowledge valuable to a Native musician" as falling "more readily into the category of myth than of fact".
Jump up ^ Heth, Charlotte, "Overview" in The Garland Encyclopaedia of World Music, p. 366
^ Jump up to: a b c Nettl, 1956, pp. 117–118
Jump up ^ Nettl, 1956, p.107-116
Jump up ^ "Portrait of Chasi, Bonito's Son..." National Anthropological Archives. (retrieved 29 July 2010
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 37
^ Jump up to: a b Nettl, 1956, pp. 112–114
Jump up ^ Nettl, 1956, pp.109–110
^ Jump up to: a b Nettl, 1956, pp.114–115
Jump up ^ Nettl, 1956, p. 112
Jump up ^ Nettl, 1965, p. 150
Jump up ^ Nettl, 1956, p. 108–109
^ Jump up to: a b Nettl, 1956, p. 107–108
Jump up ^ Heth, Charlotte, "Overview" in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, pg. 367
Jump up ^ "Gertrude Bonnin, Zitkala Sha, Yankton Nakota." Native Authors. (retrieved 12 April 2010)
Jump up ^ "CAiR- Cherokee Artist in Residency: Barbara McAlister." Cherokee Nation Education Corporation. (retrieved 12 April 2010)
Jump up ^ "Brulé." RFD TV: The Theatre. (retrieved 12 April 2010)
Jump up ^ Speck, Frank G. Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians. Philadelphia: University Museum, 1909. p. 154. Pl. VII.
Jump up ^ Tommy Wildcat. Powersource. 1997 (retrieved 28 May 2009)
Jump up ^ Anatomy of the Native American Flute, Clint Goss
Jump up ^ NAF Scale: Pentatonic Minor, Clint Goss
Jump up ^ NAF Scales for the Native American Flute, Clint Goss
Jump up ^ "GRAMMY Awards Category Restructuring".
Jump up ^ "Explanation for Category Restructuring".


document_title: Aliens in the Attic

question_text: who plays the twins in aliens in the attic

text: Aliens in the Attic

text: Plot[edit]

text: A meteor shower rockets through open space. Four glowing pods are seen hiding behind the meteor shower. Suddenly the meteor shower makes a hard right and heads towards the distant planet Earth.

text: In a Chicago suburb, Stuart Pearson (Kevin Nealon) and his wife Nina (Gillian Vigman) head a family that includes 7-year-old Hannah (Ashley Boettcher), 17-year-old hormonal sister Bethany (Ashley Tisdale), who has just come back from a secret outing with her weirdo boyfriend Ricky Dillman (Robert Hoffman), and 15-year-old techno-geek Tom (Carter Jenkins) whose high school grades are low. After having an argument with Tom about him hacking into the school's website to change his grades and deciding the family needs some good old-fashioned togetherness, Stuart takes them to a holiday home in the middle of nowhere. Joining them is Nathan "Nate" Pearson (Andy Richter), his 14-year-old son Jake (Austin Butler), Nana Rose (Doris Roberts), and identical 12-year-old twins Art (Henri Young) and Lee (Regan Young). Ricky also arrives unexpectedly and talks his way into staying overnight, by giving them the impression that his car has broken down and needs to be repaired (though he secretly took out one of the plugs) so he can spend time with Bethany, plus saying he is 18 years old.

text: As the family settle in, dark storm clouds swirl around the house. Suddenly, the four glowing pods land on the roof. An alien crew emerges, made up of Skip (J. K. Simmons), the nasty, tough commander, Tazer (Thomas Haden Church), a muscle-bound dude armed to the teeth, Razor (Kari Wahlgren), a lethal, violent female alien soldier, and Sparks (Josh Peck), a four-armed techie, who is the only non-threatening intruder. Since the aliens crashed into the satellite dish, Ricky and Tom are sent to fix it. In the attic Ricky then reveals to Tom that he lied about his car breaking down, and his age; Ricky is actually in college and is 21 years old, four years older than Bethany. Ricky sends Tom to fix the satellite dish by himself, but it is beyond repair. Investigating further, Tom and Jake (who unexpectedly shows up on the roof) discover the aliens. Ricky is shot by Tazor with a dart-like "mind control plug", allowing the aliens to control him via a remote. The aliens, called "Zirkonians", lay claim to the planet. Like a puppet, Ricky attacks the boys, but Tom and Jake manage to get back into the house.

text: It is not long before all five kids have seen the aliens, except for Bethany. They soon discover that the alien mind control plugs don't work on children, giving them a fighting chance, and realize they have a responsibility to protect the adults by keeping the aliens' existence a secret. The kids create makeshift weapons, like a homemade potato spud gun, and repel the first alien attack from the attic. In the process, they obtain Ricky's remote control and turn him against the aliens.

text: The kids orchestrate a scheme to get the adults out of the house and then ambush the aliens as they try to reach the basement via the air vents, causing the gentle tech Sparks to become separated. He meets Hannah and they become friends. Unlike his alien cohorts, Sparks hates battle; he just wants to return home to his family, and he helps by making weapons for them. He also reveals his teammates are after a machine buried under the basement for many years. The kids forgot about their grandmother, and the aliens mind control her, which gives her superhuman strength and agility but they obtain her controller, and she defeats Ricky (now back under alien control) in a scene reminiscent of a fighting ninja video game. However, the aliens manage to capture Jake and Sparks, whom they need to complete their mission.

text: The kids finally reveal to Bethany the events that are taking place. The five of them rescue Jake in the basement. Ricky then insults Tom and the others and breaks up with Bethany because she always talks about feelings and family, and leaves. The children attack the aliens and rescue Sparks but Skip succeeds in using the enlarging machine, growing to 30 feet tall, and calls the Zirkonian invasion ships. They defeat him and shrink him again. Tazer and Razor (who have fallen in love) flee, while Skip is sucked into the machine, which was damaged in the process and malfunctions and explodes. Sparks calls off the invasion and returns home after saying goodbye. Tom and Stuart reconcile and the rest of the vacation goes back to normal, except the kids grew closer to each other during their adventure. In the distance Skip, who has been shrunk to an even smaller size than before, appears bent on revenge, but meets his demise when a crow flies over and grabs him.

text: In a mid-credits scene, Bethany and Tom take revenge on Ricky for breaking up with her and insulting her family by making him look like a fool in front of his new girlfriend Annie Filkins, using the alien mind control device. Bethany comments "I am so keeping this" after using the device to make Ricky land on his testicles.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Carter Jenkins as Tom Pearson
Austin Butler as Jake Pearson
Ashley Tisdale as Bethany Pearson
Ashley Boettcher as Hannah Pearson
Robert Hoffman as Ricky Dillman
Henri Young as Art Pearson
Regan Young as Lee Pearson
Kevin Nealon as Stuart Pearson
Gillian Vigman as Nina Pearson
Andy Richter as Nate Pearson
Doris Roberts as Nana Rose Pearson
Tim Meadows as Doug Armstrong
Malese Jow as Julie Armstrong

text: Voice Cast

text:
Josh Peck as Sparks
J. K. Simmons as Skips
Kari Wahlgren as Razor
Thomas Haden Church as Tazer

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: The script was written by Mark Burton and Adam F. Goldberg. The film is co-financed by Fox and Regency while being distributed by Fox.[3][4] Fox snapped up the script in March 2006.[4] Marc Resteghini was overseeing for Fox while Kara Francis Smith shepherds for Regency. Barry Josephson was confirmed as the main producer while Thor Freudenthal was hired to direct principal production.[5] The principal production began in March 2007.[5] The film was originally titled They Came from Upstairs but later changed to Aliens in the Attic while the first title is instead used as the film's tag line.[4] Ashley Tisdale's involvement in the film was confirmed in January 2008 as she was cast as Bethany Pearson.[3] Robert Hoffman, Carter Jenkins and Austin Butler were later cast in the film.  Doris Roberts was signed on to the film in February 2008.[6] MTV confirmed that Josh Peck joined the cast as the voice of the alien Sparks.[7] John Debney composed the original score for the film. Tisdale recorded a song titled "Switch" for the film, which is also included in her second album, Guilty Pleasure. The original motion picture soundtrack was released on August 18, 2009.[8]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography began at the end of January 2008 in Auckland, New Zealand.[3][9] Auckland-based production company New Upstairs Productions said filming would run for 30–40 days from January 28 to April 18, 2008 with no filming in weekends.[10] The film was set in a rambling old villa transported from Remuera to a farm in North Auckland. The main set was an old manor and they spent $700,000 restoring the house.[10] The main shooting ended in mid-March 2008.[11] Tisdale, Butler and Jenkins went back to the set to shoot last-minutes scenes for the film in April 2009.[12]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on July 30, 2009, in Russia and Malaysia; July 31, 2009 in United States, Canada, and Bulgaria; August 12 in the United Kingdom; September 3, 2009 in Australia. The film's original release date was in January 2009 but it was pushed back for unknown reasons.[13] The UK release also coincided with a charity auction for Save the Children which teamed up with eBay and 20th Century Fox where various celebrities, including several actors from the movie, sold items from their attics to raise money for the charity.[14]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical[edit]

text: Reviews of Aliens in the Attic were mixed to negative; the film holds a 31% "rotten" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 71 reviews, with the consensus stating "Inoffensive and kid-friendly, this mundane family comedy is light on imagination."[15] Metacritic gives the film a score of 42 based on 10 reviews.[16]

text: Entertainment Weekly described the film as "a pointless and harmless family adventure that doesn't mentally assault the 12-and-over set and looks like a lot of fun",[17] while San Francisco Chronicle has described the movie as being unoriginal and crowd pleasing.[18]

text: Variety stated the film doubtless would appeal primarily to a more narrow demographic of tweens and pre-teens and despite Tisdale's presence, it’s difficult to imagine many ticket buyers between the ages of 12 and 18[19] while The New York Times described Jenkins and Butler as the actors with more personality and Hoffman as the actor who provides the film’s occasional funny moments and stated that even though she is credited as one of the main characters, Tisdale spends most of the film off screen.[20]

text: The Los Angeles Times said the film is "an enjoyable kid-friendly film but not an out-of-this-world classic" and also mentioned the film belonged to Hoffman[21] and Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said the director John Schultz played everything for laughs and earns a more than a few but tech effects deliver a fair number of those laughs and described the film as an "amusing family comedy".[22] Radio Times gave the film a three out of five stars rating, saying that the film is "a thrilling children's yarn with enough pop-culture references to hold grown-ups' interest".[23]

text: The Dove Foundation praised the film, saying it is "one of those movies that you find to be better than anticipated" and also said the film draws on realism in family dynamics.[24] Lara Martin of Digital Spy described the film as a "kid-friendly mix of Men in Black crossed with Gremlins with a healthy dose of Home Alone-style violence" and also mentioned that one of the biggest disappointments in the movie is the lack of screen time given to Tisdale, billed as one of the leading actors, who gets a promising start as she rebels against her parents and struts around in her bikini, but she's quickly relegated to background fodder purely there to provide excess opportunities for the alien-controlled Ricky to shine and concluded saying it seems "a bizarre and sad waste of her obvious comedic talent".[25] However, The Miami Herald gave a mixed to negative review, saying the film is a "children's movie mix of live-action and animation, it has a few positive messages, a few laughs and a few comic throwdowns".[26]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Aliens in the Attic was a minor box office success. In the United States, the film was distributed by 3,106 theaters and grossed $8 million its opening weekend, resulting in No. 5 in the box office.[1] The film grossed the equivalent of US$1.3 million in Russia, US$10 million in the United Kingdom, and a total of US$57 million worldwide total.[1][27]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
2009 Teen Choice Awards
Movie Star: Female – Ashley Tisdale (Nomination)[28]
2010 Young Artist Awards
Young Ensemble Cast: Megan Parker, Henri Young, Regan Young, Austin Robert Butler, Carter Jenkins (Nomination)[29]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 3, 2009.

text: Video game[edit]

text: A video game based on the film was released on August 4, 2009, developed by Revistronic and published by Playlogic. The game features the storyline of the film and is available for  Wii, PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS and Microsoft Windows. The game also offers players two different gameplay perspectives depending upon which video game platform players choose.[30] The game allows the player to play as Tom, Hannah, Jake, Art, Lee, Bethany or The Four Alien Explorers across 15 levels.