document_title: History of the United Arab Emirates

question_text: where was the first meeting to discuss the formation of the uae held

text: History of the United Arab Emirates

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: In 2011 primitive hand-axes, as well as several kinds of scrapers and perforators, were excavated at the Jebel Faya archaeological site in the United Arab Emirates. These tools resemble the types used by early modern humans in East Africa. Through the technique of Thermoluminescence dating the artefacts were placed between 100,000 and 125,000 years old. This is the earliest evidence of modern humans found anywhere outside Africa and implies modern humans left Africa much earlier than previously thought.[2] The site of these discoveries has been preserved alongside finds of later cultures, including tombs and other finds from the Umm Al Nar, Wadi Suq and Islamic periods, at Sharjah's Mleiha Archaeological Centre.

text: During the glacial maximum period, 68000 to 8000 BC, Eastern Arabia is thought to have been uninhabitable. Finds from the stone age Arabian Bifacial and Ubaid cultures (including stone arrow and axe heads as well as Ubaid pottery) show human habitation in the area from 5000 to 3100 BC. The Hafit era, producing distinctive burial sites as well as finds of Jamdat Nasr pottery, stretched from 3100 to 2500 BC.

text: Umm al-Nar and Wadi Suq Cultures[edit]

text: Umm al-Nar (also known as Umm an-Nar) was a bronze age culture variously defined by archaeologists as existing around 2600 and 2000 BC in the area of the modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman. The etymology derives from the island of the same name which lies adjacent to Abu Dhabi.[3] [4]The key site is well protected, but its location between a refinery and a sensitive military area means public access is currently restricted. The UAE authorities are working to improve public access to the site, and plan to make this part of the Abu Dhabi cultural locations. One element of the Umm al-Nar culture is circular tombs typically characterized by well fitted stones in the outer wall and multiple human remains within.[5]

text: The Umm al-Nar culture, as indicated from inland 3rd millennium BC, covers around five or six centuries (2600/2500-2000 BC). It was followed by the Wadi Suq Culture, which dominated the region from 2000 to 1300 BC. Key archaeological sites pointing to major trading cities extant during both periods exist on both the Western and Eastern coasts of the UAE and in Oman, including Dalma, Umm Al Nar, Sufouh, Ed Dur, Tell Abraq, Shimal and Kalba. The domestication of camels and other animals took place during the Wadi Suq era, leading to increased inland settlement and the cultivation of diverse crops, including the date palm. Increasingly sophisticated metallurgy, pottery and stone carving led to more sophisticated weaponry and other implements even as evidence of strong trading links with the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia dwindled.

text: From 1200 BC to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive iron ages (Iron age 1, 1200-1000 BC; Iron age 2, 1000-600 BC and Iron age 3 600-300 BC) and the Mleiha period (300 BC onward), the area was variously occupied by Archaemenid and other forces and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of the falaj irrigation system.

text: Advent of Islam[edit]

text: The arrival of envoys from Muhammad in 632 heralded the conversion of the region to Islam. After Muhammad's death, one of the major battles of the Ridda Wars was fought at Dibba, in present-day Fujairah. The defeat of the non-Muslims in this battle resulted in the triumph of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula.

text: In 637, Julfar (today Ras al-Khaimah) was used as a staging post for the conquest of Iran. Over many centuries, Julfar became a wealthy port and pearling centre from which dhows travelled throughout the Indian Ocean.

text: Trucial Sheikhs[edit]

text:
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General Treaty for the Cessation of Plunder and Piracy by Land and Sea

text: Portions of what is now the UAE came under the direct influence of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century.[6] Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama's route of exploration resulted in the sacking of many coastal towns by the Portuguese. Thereafter, the region was known to the British as the "Pirate Coast",[7] as raiders based there harassed the shipping industry despite both European and Omani navies patrolling the area from the 17th to 19th centuries. British expeditions to protect the Indian trade from raiders at Ras al-Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1819. The next year, a peace treaty was signed to which all the sheikhs of the coast adhered. Raids continued intermittently until 1835, when the sheikhs agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea. In 1853, they signed a treaty with the United Kingdom, under which the sheikhs (the Trucial Sheikhdoms) agreed to a "perpetual maritime truce". It was enforced by the United Kingdom, and disputes among sheikhs were referred to the British for settlement.[8]

text: The British era[edit]

text: Primarily in reaction to the ambitions of other European countries, the United Kingdom and the Trucial Sheikhdoms established closer bonds in an 1892 treaty, similar to treaties entered into by the UK with other Persian Gulf principalities. The sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the United Kingdom and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without its consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack.[9]

text: In her book "The Judicial System in The Trucial Coast", Noora Saqr Al Falahi argues that the 1892 treaty had a profound role in isolating the country for a long time which has impeded development in comparison to other communities in the region at the time.[10]

text: The rise and fall of the pearling industry[edit]

text: During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the pearling industry thrived in the relative calm at sea, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. It began to become a good economic resource for the local people. The First World War had a severe impact on the pearl fishery, but it was the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the Japanese invention of the cultured pearl, that all but destroyed it. The industry eventually faded away shortly after the Second World War, when the newly independent Government of India imposed heavy taxation on pearls imported from the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The decline of pearling resulted in a very difficult era, with little opportunity to build any infrastructure.

text: The beginning of the oil era[edit]

text: In the 1930s, the first oil company teams carried out preliminary surveys. An onshore concession was granted to Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) in 1939, and an offshore concession to D'Arcy Exploration Ltd in 1952.[11] Oil was discovered under an old pearling bed in the Persian Gulf, Umm Shaif, in 1958, and in the desert at Murban in 1960. The first cargo of crude was exported from Jabel Dhanna in Abu Dhabi in 1962. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was also able to use oil revenues to improve his people's quality of life.[12]

text: Border disputes[edit]

text: In 1955, the United Kingdom sided with Abu Dhabi in the latter's dispute with Oman over the Buraimi Oasis, another territory to the south.[13] A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia would have settled the Abu Dhabi – Saudi border dispute; however, the agreement has yet to be ratified by the UAE government and is not recognised by the Saudi government[citation needed]. The border with Oman also remains officially unsettled, but the two governments agreed to delineate the border in May 1999.[14]

text: Sheikh Zayed and the Union[edit]

text: In the early 1960s, oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi, an event that led to quick unification calls made by UAE sheikdoms. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966, and the British started losing their oil investments and contracts to U.S. oil companies.[15]

text: The British had earlier started a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. They formed the Trucial States Council,[16] and appointed Adi Bitar, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. This council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.[17]

text: Independence[edit]

text: By 1966, the British government had come to the conclusion that it could no longer afford to govern what is now the United Arab Emirates[citation needed]. Much deliberation took place in the British parliament, with a number of MPs arguing that the Royal Navy would not be able to defend the Trucial Sheikhdoms[citation needed]. Denis Healey, who, at the time, was the UK Secretary of State for Defence, reported that the British Armed Forces were severely overextended, and in some respects, dangerously under-equipped to defend the Sheikhdoms[citation needed]. On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the decision to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms which had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection[citation needed]. The British decision to withdraw was reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath.[18]

text: Days after the announcement Sheikh Zayed, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay in full the costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. The British Labour government rebuffed the offer.[19][20]

text: Federation of Emirates[edit]

text: After Labour MP Goronwy Roberts informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a federation of Arab emirates.[20] The federation was first proposed in February 1968 when the rulers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai met in the desert location of Argoub El Sedirah and agreed on the principle of Union.[21] They announced their intention to form a coalition, extending an invitation to other Persian Gulf states to join. Later that month, in a summit meeting attended by the rulers of Bahrain, Qatar and the Trucial Coast, the government of Qatar proposed the formation of a federation of Arab Emirates to be governed by a higher council composing of nine rulers. This proposal was accepted and a declaration of union was approved.[22] There were, however, several disagreements between the rulers on matters such as the location of the capital, the drafting of the constitution and the distribution of ministries.[22]

text: Further political issues surfaced as a result of Bahrain attempting to impose a leading role in the nine-state union, as well as the emergence of a number of differences between the rulers of the Trucial Coast, Bahrain and Qatar, the latter two being in a long-running dispute over the Hawar Islands. While Dubai's ruler, Sheikh Rashid, had a strong connection to the Qatari ruling family, including the royal intermarriage of his daughter with the son of the Qatari emir,[23] the relationship between Abu Dhabi and Dubai (also cemented by intermarriage, Rashid's wife was a member of Abu Dhabi's ruling family[21]) was to endure the break-up of the talks with both Bahrain and Qatar. Overall, there were only four meetings between the nine rulers.[23] The last such meeting, which took place in Abu Dhabi, saw Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan elected as the first president of the federation. There were stalemates on numerous issues during the meeting, including the position of vice-president, the defence of the federation, and whether a constitution was required.[23]

text: Shortly after the meeting, the Political Agent in Abu Dhabi revealed the British government's interests in the outcome of the session, prompting Qatar to withdraw from the federation apparently over what it perceived as foreign interference in internal affairs[citation needed]. The nine-emirate federation was consequently disbanded despite efforts by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Britain to reinvigorate discussions.[24] Bahrain became independent in August 1971, and Qatar in September 1971.

text: When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on December 1, 1971, the Trucial States became fully independent sheikhdoms.[20][25] Four more of the Trucial states (Ajman, Sharjah, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah), had decided to join Abu Dhabi and Dubai in signing the UAE's founding treaty, with a draft constitution in place drafted in record time to meet the December 2, 1971 deadline.[26] On that date, at the Dubai Guesthouse (now known as Union House), the emirates agreed to enter into a union to be called the United Arab Emirates. Ras al-Khaimah joined later, following Iran's swift annexation of the Tunbs islands, in early 1972.[27][28]

text: The move to form a union took place at a time of unprecedented instability in the region, with a border dispute killing 22 in Kalba and a coup in Sharjah in January 1972. The then emir of Qatar was deposed by his cousin in February 1972.

text: After the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the UAE was identified as a major financial centre used by Al-Qaeda in transferring money to the hijackers. The nation immediately cooperated with the United States, freezing accounts tied to suspected terrorists and strongly clamping down on money laundering.[29]

text: The country had already signed a military defence agreement with the United States in 1994 and one with France in 1995.

text: The UAE supports military operations from the United States and other coalition nations engaged in the invasion of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terrorism for the Horn of Africa at Al Dhafra Air Base, located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch.

text: On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded him as ruler of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the constitution, the UAE's Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa as president. Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi.[30] In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and Crown Prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles.

text: In March 2006, the United States forced the state-owned Dubai Ports World to relinquish control of terminals at six major American ports. Critics of the ports deal feared an increased risk of terrorist attack, saying the UAE had been home to two of the 9/11 hijackers.[31]

text: In December 2006, the UAE prepared for its first election to determine half the members of UAE's Federal National Council from 450 candidates. However, only 7000 Emirati citizens, less than 1% of the Emirati population, were given the right to vote in the election. The exact manner of selection was opaque. Notably, women were included in the electorate.[32]

text: In 2011, the Middle East saw a number of pro-democratic uprisings, popularly known as the Arab Spring. The UAE saw comparatively little unrest, but did face one high-profile case in which five pro-democracy activists were arrested on charges of insulting the president, Sheikh Khalifa, the vice president, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, and the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi (and presumed successor to Sheikh Khalifa), Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan.[33] The trial of the UAE Five attracted international publicity and protest from a number of human rights groups,[34] including Amnesty International, which named the five men prisoners of conscience.[33] The defendants were convicted and given two- to three-year prison sentences on 27 November 2011. However, all five were pardoned without comment by Sheikh Khalifa the following day.[35]


document_title: Satavahana dynasty

question_text: who was the greatest ruler of the satavahanas

question_tokens: who was the greatest ruler of the satavahanas

root

text: Satavahana dynasty

text: Origins

text: The date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynasty's name, are a matter of debate among the historians. Some of these debates have happened in the context of regionalism, with the present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana being variously claimed as the original homeland of the Satavahanas.[6]

tag: p

text: Etymology

text: According to one theory, the word "Satavahana" is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana ("driven by seven"; in Hindu mythology, the chariot of the sun god is drawn by seven horses). This would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty, as was common in ancient India.[7] According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the dynasty's name is derived from the words sata ("sharpened", "nimble" or "swift") and vahana ("vehicle"); the expression thus means "one who rides a nimble horse".[8]

text: Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty. Yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam ("horse") and Harpan ("son"), implying "son of the performer of a horse sacrifice".[9] Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title "Satakarni". Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and Shalivahana appear to be variations of the same word. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorized that the word "Satakarni" is derived from the Munda words sada ("horse") and kon ("son").[10]

text: The Puranas use the name "Andhra" or "Andhra-Bhritya" for the Satavahanas. The term "Andhra" may refer to ethnicity or territory of the dynasty (see Original homeland below). It does not appear in the dynasty's own records.[11]

text: Original homeland

text: The use of the name "Andhra" in the Puranas has led some scholars to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region (the historic Andhra region, present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana).[12] At Kotilingala in Telangana, coins bearing the legend "Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa" were found.[13] Epigraphist and numismastist P. V. P. Sastry initially identified Chimuka with the dynasty's founder Simuka,[14] because of which Kotilingala came to be known as the only place where coins attributed to Simuka were found.[15] Coins attributed to Simuka's successors Kanha and Satakarni I were also discovered at Kotilingla.[16] Based on these discoveries, historians such as D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy and Shankar R. Goyal theorized that Kotlingala was the original home of the Satavahanas. However, the coin samples from Kotlingala are small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else.[17] Moreover, the identification of Chimuka of Kotilingala with the dynasty's founder Simuka has been contested by several scholars including P. L. Gupta and I. K. Sarma, who identified Chimuka as a later ruler.[18][19] P.V.P. Sastry also later changed his view, and stated that the two kings were different.[14] As for the Puranas, these texts were compiled much later, during the Gupta period, and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time.[19]

text: Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan (present-day Maharashtra).[12] All four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period (c. 1st century BCE) have been found in and around this region. The oldest known Satavahana inscription was found at Cave No.19 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik district, and was issued during the reign of Kanha (100-70 BCE).[20] An inscription found at Naneghat was issued by Nayanika (or Naganika), the widow of Satakarni I; another inscription found at Naneghat has been dated to the same period on a paleographic basis. A slightly later inscription dated to the reign of Satakarni II has been found at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, located to the north of Maharashtra.[6] The majority of the other Satavahana inscriptions have also been found in western Deccan.[17] On the other hand, the epigraphic evidence from eastern Deccan does not mention the Satavahanas before the 4th century CE.[19] At Nevasa, a seal and coins attributed to Kanha have been discovered.[21] Coins attributed to Satakarni I have also been discovered at Nashik, Nevasa and Pauni in Maharashtra (besides places in eastern Deccan and present-day Madhya Pradesh).[13] Based on this evidence, some historians argue that the Satavahanas initially came to power in the area around their capital Pratishthana (modern Paithan, Maharashtra) and then expanded their territory to eastern Deccan.[22] Carla Sinopoli cautions that the inference about the western Deccan origin of the Satavahanas is "tentative at best" given the small sample of early inscriptions.[23]

text: Kanha's Pandavleni mentions the term maha-matra (officer-in-charge), which indicates that the early Satavahanas followed the Mauryan administrative model.[24] C. Margabandhu theorized that the Satavahanas were called Andhras because they were natives of eastern Deccan (the Andhra region), although they first established their empire in western Deccan after having served as Mauryan subordinates. Himanshu Prabha Ray (1986) opposes this theory, stating that the Andhra was originally an ethnic term, and did not come to denote the geographical region of eastern Deccan until well after the Satavahana period.[6] According to Vidya Dehejia, the writers of the Puranas (which were compiled after the Satavahana period) mistook the Satavahana presence in eastern Deccan as evidence for their origin in that region, and wrongly labeled them as "Andhra".[25]

text: Some scholars also suggest that the dynasty originated in present-day Karnataka, and initially owed allegiance to some Andhra rulers (because of which they were called Andhra-Bhrityas or "servants of the Andhras".[26] V. S. Sukthankar theorized that the territorial division Satavahani-Satahani (Satavahanihara or Satahani-rattha), in present-day Bellary district, was the homeland of the Satavahana family.[27] A stupa in Kanaganahalli village of Karnataka, dated between the first century BCE and first century CE, features limestone panels depicting portraits of Chimuka (Simuka), Satakani (Satakarni) and other Satavahana rulers.[28]

text: History

text: Information about the Satavahanas comes from the Puranas, some Buddhist and Jain texts, the dynasty's inscriptions and coins, and foreign (Greek and Roman) accounts that focus on trade.[29] The information provided by these sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty's history with absolute certainty. As a result, there are multiple theories about the Satavahana chronology.[30]

text: Foundation

text: Simuka is mentioned as the first king in a list of royals in a Satavahana inscription at Naneghat. The various Puranas state that the first king of the dynasty ruled for 23 years, and mention his name variously as Sishuka, Sindhuka, Chhismaka, Shipraka, etc. These are believed to be corrupted spellings of Simuka, resulting from copying and re-copying of manuscripts.[31] Simuka cannot be dated with certainty based on available evidence. Based on the following theories, the beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE.[32]

text:
According to the Puranas, the first Andhra king overthrew the Kanva rule. D. C. Sircar dated this event to c. 30 BCE, a theory supported by many other scholars.[30]
The Matsya Purana mentions that the Andhra dynasty ruled for around 450 years. As the Satavahana rule ended in the early 3rd century, the beginning of their rule can be dated to the 3rd century BCE. The Indica of Megasthenes (350 – 290 BCE) mentions a powerful tribe named "Andarae", whose king maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. If Andarae is identified with the Andhras, this can be considered additional evidence of Satavahana rule starting in the 3rd century BCE. The Brahmanda Purana states that "the four Kanvas will rule the earth for 45 years; then (it) will again go to the Andhras". Based on this statement, the proponents of this theory argue that the Satavahana rule began immediately after the Maurya rule, followed by a Kanva interregnum, and then, a revival of the Satavahana rule. According to one version of the theory Simuka succeeded the Mauryans. A variation of the theory is that Simuka was the person who restored the Satavahana rule by overthrowing the Kanvas; the compiler of the Puranas confused him with the founder of the dynasty.[33]

tag: ul

text: Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana ruler began in the first century BCE and lasted until the second century CE. This theory is based on Puranic records as well as archaeological and numismatic evidence. The theory that dates their rule to an earlier period is now largely discredited because the various Puranas contradict each other, and are not fully supported by epigraphic or numismatic evidence.[11]

text: Early expansion

text: Simuka was succeeded by his brother Kanha (also known as Krishna), who extended the kingdom up to Nashik in the west.[34][33] His successor Satakarni I conquered western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley) and Vidarbha, taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India. He performed Vedic sacrifices including Ashvamedha and Rajasuya. Instead of the Buddhists, he patronised Brahmins and donated a substantial amount of wealth to them.[9] The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga king Kharavela mentions a king named "Satakani" or "Satakamini", who some[35] identify with Satakarni I. The inscription describes dispatching of an army and Kharavela's threat to a city. Since the inscription is only partially legible, different scholars interpret the events described in the inscription differently. According to R. D. Banerji and Sailendra Nath Sen, Kharavela sent out an army against Satakarni.[36] According to Bhagwal Lal, Satakarni wanted to avoid an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela. So, he sent horses, elephants, chariots and men to Kharavela as a tribute.[37] According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, Kharavela's army diverted its course after failing to advance against Satakarni.[38] According to Alain Daniélou, Kharavela was friendly with Satakarni, and only crossed his kingdom without any clashes.[39]

text: Satakarni's successor Satakarni II ruled for 56 years, during which he captured eastern Malwa from the Shungas. He was succeeded by Lambodara. The coins of Lambodara's son and successor Apilaka have been found in eastern Madhya Pradesh.[9]

text: First Saka invasion

text: Little is known about Apilaka's successors, except cryptic references to one Kuntala Satakarni. The next well-known ruler of the dynasty was Hāla, who composed Gaha Sattasai in Maharashtri Prakrit. Like Hala, his four successors also ruled for very short periods (a total of 12 years), indicating troubled times for the Satavahanas.[9]

text: Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the Satavahanas earlier controlled the northern Deccan plateau, the northern Konkan coastal plains, and the mountain passes connecting these two regions. During 15-40 CE, their northern neighbours - the Western Kshatrapas - extended their influence into these regions.[40] The Western Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana is known to have ruled the former Satavahana territory, as attested by the inscriptions of his governor and son-in-law, Rishabhadatta.[41]

text: First revival

text: The Satavahana power was revived by Gautamiputra Satakarni, who is considered the greatest of the Satavahana rulers.[34] Charles Higham dates his reign c. 103 – c. 127 CE.[34] S. Nagaraju dates it 106–130 CE.[42] The king defeated by him appears to have been the Western Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana, as suggested by Nahapana's coins overstuck with names and titles of Gautamiputra.[41] The Nashik prashasti inscription of Gautamiputra's mother Gautami Balashri, dated to the 20th year after his death, records his achievements. The most liberal interpretation of the inscription suggests that his kingdom extended from the present-day Rajasthan in the north to Krishna river in the south, and from Saurashtra in the west to Kalinga in the east. He assumed the titles Raja-Raja (King of Kings) and Maharaja (Great King), and was described as the Lord of Vindhya.[9]

text: During the last years of his reign, his administration was apparently handled by his mother, which could have been a result of an illness or military preoccupation.[9] According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balashri, he was the one …[43]

text: … who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas; who destroyed the Sakas (Western Satraps), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians),... who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.

text: Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi (or Pulumayi). According to Sailendra Nath Sen, Pulumavi ruled from 96–119 CE.[9] According to Charles Higham, he ascended the throne around 110 CE.[34] Pulumavi features in a large number of Satavahana inscriptions and his coins have been found distributed over a wide area. This indicates that he maintained Gautamiputra's territory, and ruled a prosperous kingdom. He is believed to have added the Bellary region to Satakarni's kingdom. His coins featuring ships with double mast have been found on the Coromandel Coast, indicating involvement in maritime trade and naval power. The old stupa at Amaravati was renovated during his reign.[9]

text: Second Saka invasion

text: Pulumavi's successor was his brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni. According to S. N. Sen he ruled during 120–149 CE;[9] according to Charles Higham, his regnal years spanned 138–145 CE.[34] He entered into a marriage alliance with the Western Satraps, marrying the daughter of Rudradaman I.[9]

text: The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I states that he defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan), twice. It also states that he spared the life of the defeated ruler because of close relations:[34]

text: "Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him."

text: According to D. R. Bhandarkar and Dineshchandra Sircar, the ruler defeated by Rudradaman was Gautamiputra Satakarni. However, E. J. Rapson believed that the defeated ruler was his son Vasishthiputra Pulumavi.[44] Shailendra Nath Sen and Charles Higham believe that the defeated ruler was Vashishtiputra's successor Shivaskanda or Shiva Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi).[34][9]

text: As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Pune and Nasik. Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati.

text: Second revival

text: Sri Yajna Sātakarni, the last person belonging to the main Satavahana dynastic line, briefly revived the Satavahana rule. According to S. N. Sen, he ruled during 170–199 CE.[9] Charles Higham dates the end of his reign to 181 CE. His coins feature images of ships, which suggest naval and marine trade success.[34] Wide distribution of his coins, and inscriptions at Nashik, Kanheri and Guntur indicate that his rule extended over both eastern and western parts of Deccan. He recovered much of the territory lost the Western Kshatrapas, and issued silver coinage, imitating them. During the last years of his reign, the Abhiras captured the northern parts of the kingdom, around Nashik region.[9]

text: Decline

text: After Yajna Satakarni, the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power.[45] Yajna Sri was succeeded by Madhariputra Swami Isvarasena. The next king Vijaya ruled for 6 years. His son Vasishthiputra Sri Chadha Satakarni ruled for 10 years.[9] Pulumavi IV, the last king of the main line, ruled until c. 225 CE. During his reign, several Buddhist monuments were constructed at Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati.[34] Madhya Pradesh was also part of his kingdom.[9]

text: After the death of Pulumavi IV, the Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms:[9]

text:
Northern part, ruled by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas (which ended in early 4th century[34])
Western part around Nashik, ruled by the Abhiras
Eastern part (Krishna-Guntur region), ruled by the Andhra Ikshvakus
South-western parts (northern Karanataka), ruled by the Chutus of Banavasi
South-eastern part, ruled by the Pallavas

tag: ol

text: Territorial extent

text: The Satavahana territory included northern Deccan region, spanning the present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Telangana states. At times, their rule also extended to present-day Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. The Nashik prashasti inscription issued by Gautami Balashri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims that her son ruled an extensive territory that stretched from Gujarat in the north to northern Karnataka in the south. It is not clear if Gautamiputra had effective control over these claimed territories. In any case, historical evidence suggests that his control over these territories did not last long.[48] Moreover, this realm was not continuous: many areas in this region remained under the control of the hunter-gatherers and other tribal communities.[49]

text: The Satavahana capital kept shifting with time. The Nashik inscription describes Gautamiputra as the lord of Benakataka, suggesting that this was the name of his capital. Ptolemy (2nd century CE) mentioned Pratishthana (modern Paithan) as the capital of Pulumavi.[48] At other times, the Satavahana capitals included Amaravati (Dharanikota) and Junnar.[50] M. K. Dhavalikar theorized that the original Satavahana capital was located at Junnar, but had to be moved to Pratishthana because of Saka-Kushana incursions from the north-west.[51]

text: Several Satavahana-era inscriptions record grants to religious monasteries. The settlements most frequently mentioned as the residences of donors in these inscriptions include the sea ports of Sopara, Kalyan, Bharucha, Kuda (unidentified), and Chaul. The most frequently mentioned inland settlements include Dhenukakata (unidentified), Junnar, Nashik, Paithan, and Karadh.[48]

text: Other important Satavahana sites in western Deccan include Govardhana, Nevasa, Ter, and Vadgaon-Madhavpur. The ones in eastern Deccan include Amaravati, Dhulikatta, Kotalingala and Peddabankur.[52]

text: Administration

text: The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:[9]

text:
Rajan, the hereditary rulers
Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
Mahabhojas
Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV)
Mahatalavara ("great watchman")

text: The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.[9]

text: The ahara appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several inscriptions refer to aharas named after the governors appointed to rule them (e.g. Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and Kapurahara).[48] This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure.[53]

text: The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords". The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara. It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota, who according to archaeologist James Burgess' interpretation, was the chief lady-in-waiting of Gautamiputra's mother.[54]

text: The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gama (village).[48]

text: Economy

text: The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited from) economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.[55]

text: During the Satavahana period, several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly, as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs.[53]

text: The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period, leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as Kotalingala, as well as epigraphic references to artisans and guilds.[53]

text: The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions two important Satavahana trade centres: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other important urban centres included Kondapur, Banavasi and Madhavpur. Nanaghat was the site of an important pass that linked the Satavahana capital Pratishthana to the sea.[34]

text: Religion

text: The Satavahanas were Hindus and claimed Brahmanical status,[56] although they also made generous donations to Buddhist monasteries.[57] The lay people in the Satavahana period generally did not exclusively support a particular religious group .[40]

text: The Naneghat inscription of Nayanika, recorded on the walls of a Buddhist monastic cave, mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Vedic sacrifices, including ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), rajasuya (royal consecration), and agnyadheya (fire ceremony).[58] The inscription also records subsantial fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. For example, 10,001 cows were granted for the Bhagala-Dasaratra sacrifice; and 24,400 coins were granted for another sacrifice, whose name is not clear.[59]

text: In the Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri, her son Gautamiputra Satakarni is called "ekabamhana", which is interpreted by some as "unrivaled Brahmana", thus indicating a Brahmin origin. However, R. G. Bhandarkar interprets this word as "the only protector of the Brahmins".[60]

text: A number of Buddhist monastic sites emerged in the Deccan region during the Satavahana period. However, the exact relations between these monasteries and the Satavahana government is not clear.[52] The Pandavleni Caves inscription issued during the reign of Kanha states that the cave was excavated by maha-matra (officer-in-charge) of the shramanas (non-Vedic ascetics). Based on this, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya concludes that Kanha favoured Buddhism, and had an administrative department dedicated to the welfare of Buddhist monks.[24]

text: However, Carla M. Sinopoli notes that although there are some records of donations to the Buddhist monasteries by the Satavahana royals, the vast majority of the donations were made by the non-royals. The most common among these donors were merchants, and many of the monasteries were located along the important trade routes.[52] The merchants probably donated to the monasteries, because these sites facilitated trade by serving as rest houses, and possibly by directly participating in the trade.[56] The monasteries appear to have been an important venue for displaying charitable donations, including the donations made to non-Buddhists (especially Brahmins).[57]

text: Inscriptions

text: Several Brahmi script inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals, and do not provide much information about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations, although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure.[5]

text: The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19, which states that the cave was commissioned by Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha.[6]

text: At Naneghat, an inscription issued by Nayanika, the widow of Satakarni I, has been found. It records Nayanika's lineage and mentions the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family.[6] Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names of Satavahana royals, appearing as labels over their bas-relief portraits. The portraits are now completely eroded, but the inscription is believed to be contemporary to Nayanika's inscription on a paleographic basis.[17]

text: The next oldest Satavahana-era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi. It states that the element was donated by Ananda, who was the son of Siri Satakarni's foreman of artisans. This inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni II.[17]

text: Coinage

text: The Satavahanas are among the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated, itself originating with the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.

text: Thousands of lead, copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage.[5]

text: The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in Tamil,[62] and Telugu languages.[5][63]

text: Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty. The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the various coins. Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs.[5]

text: The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end.

text:
Early Satavahana coinage, Satakarni issue, Maharashtra – Vidarbha type, 1st century BCE.

Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". British Museum

Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni (r. 167 – 196 CE).

text: Cultural achievements

text: The Satavahanas patronised the Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit.[9] The Satavahana king Hāla is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gāthā Saptashatī), although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re-edited in the succeeding century or two. Through this book, it was evident that agriculture was the main means of livelihood. Also many sorts of superstitions had prevailed. Additionally, Gunadhya, the minister of Hala, was the author of Brihatkatha.[64]

text: Sculptures

text: Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar writes that "The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals."[65] Dhavalikar also writes that in Chankama "the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (chankama) to and fro."[66]

text: Along with some of the above major Satavahana sculptures some more sculptures existed—namely, Dvarapala, Gajalaksmi, Shalabhanjikas, Royal Procession, Decorative pillar, etc.[67]

text: Bronze

text: Several metal figurines are found that could be attributed to the Satavahanas. A hoard of unique bronze objects were also found from Bramhapuri. Numerous articles obtained from there were Indian but also reflected Roman and Italian influence. A small statue of Poseidon, wine jugs, and a plaque depicting Perseus and Andromeda were also obtained from the house from where the objects were found.[68] The fine elephant in the Ashmolean Museum, the Yaksi image in the British Museum,[69] and the cornucopia found in Posheri, kept at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya[70] can also be attributed to the Satavahana period.

text: Architecture

text: Sculptures of Amravati represent the architectural development of the Satavahana periods. They built Buddhist stupas in Amravati (95 feet high). They also constructed a large number of stupas at Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Gantasala, Amravati Bhattiprolu, and Shri Parvatam. Caves IX and X, containing Ajanta paintings, were patronized by Satavahana, and the painting throughout the caves appear to have started with them. Ashokan Stupas were enlarged, the earlier bricks and wood works being replaced with stone works. The most famous of these monuments are the stupas, the most famous among them being the Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa.

text: Paintings

text: The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens—excluding prehistoric—in India, and they are to be found only at the Ajanta. There were two phases of artistic activity of Ajanta: the first occurring in the 2nd to 1st centuries BC, when Hinayana caves were excavated during Satavahana rule; the later in the second half of the 5th century under the Vakatakas. Vagaries of nature and some vandalism have taken a heavy toll on the Ajanta Caves. Only a few fragments related to the Satavahanas have survived in Caves No. 9 and 10, both of which are chaitya-grihas with stupas.

text: The most important surviving painting of the Satavahana period at Ajanta is the Chhadanta Jataka in Cave No. 10, but that, too, is only fragmentary. It is a painting of an elephant named Bodhisattva with six tusks, related to a mythological story. The human figures, both male and female, are typically Satavahanas, almost identical with their counterparts on the Sanchi Gateways so far as their physiognomy, costumes, and jewellery are concerned. The only difference is that the Sanchi figures have shed some of their weight.[71]

text: Art of Sanchi

text: The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. It was heavily repaired under King Satakarni II. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahanas.  An inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work of Satakarni II's royal architect Ananda.[72] An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana Emperor Satakarni:

text: Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni[73]

text:
Sanchi under the Satavahanas1st century BCE/CE.

Architrave

Architrave

Yakshini.

Pillar capital.

Lion pillar capital.

The Miracle of Walking in the air at Savrasti.

Pipal tree.

Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River Nairanjana

Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.

Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi.

Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu.

tag: table

text: Art of Amaravati

text: The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture. They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style. The Amaravati style of sculpture also influenced the sculpture of Southeast Asia.[74]

text:
Amaravati Marbles, fragments of Buddhist stupa

Fragment of Amaravati stupa

Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century, Amaravati

Ajanta Cave No. 9, possibly of Satavahana era

Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd–3rd century CE.

text: List of rulers

text: Multiple Puranas contain chronology of Satavahana kings. However, there are inconsistencies among the various Puranas over the number of kings in the dynasty, the names of the kings, and the length of their rule. In addition, some of the kings listed in the Puranas are not attested via archaeological and numismatic evidence. Similarly, there are some kings known from coins and inscriptions, whose names are not found in the Puranic lists.[32][33]

text: The reconstructions of the Satavahana kings by historians fall into two categories. According to the first one, 30 Satavahana kings ruled for around 450 years, starting from Simuka's rule immediately after the fall of the Mauryan empire. This view relies heavily on the Puranas, and is now largely discredited. According to the second (and more widely accepted) category of reconstructions, the Satavahana rule started in around first century BCE. The chronologies in this category contain a smaller number of kings, and combine Puranic records with archaeological, numismatic and textual evidence.[75]

text: Because of uncertainty regarding the establishment date of the Satavahana kingdom, it is difficult to give absolute dates for the reigns of the Satavahana kings.[32] Therefore, many modern scholars do not assign absolute dates to the reigns of the historically attested Satavahana kings, and those who do vary greatly with each other.[11]

text: Himanshu Prabha Ray provides the following chronology, based on archaeological and numismatic evidence:[12]

text:
Simuka (before 100 BCE)
Kanha (100–70 BCE)
Satakarni I (70–60 BCE)
Satakarni II (50–25 BCE)
Kshatrapa interregnum with vassal Satavahana kings like Hāla
Nahapana (54-100 CE)
Gautamiputra Satakarni (86–110 CE)
Pulumavi (110–138 CE)
Vashishtiputra Satakarni (138–145 CE)
Shiva Shri Pulumavi (145–152 CE)
Shiva Skanda Satakarni (145–152 CE)
Yajna Shri Satakarni (152–181 CE)
Vijaya Satakarni
Regional rulers of south-eastern Deccan:[55]
Chandra Shri
Pulumavi II
Abhira Isvasena
Madhariputra Sakasena
Haritiputra Satakarni

text: Puranic lists

text: The various Puranas give different lists of the Satavahana rulers. The Matsya Purana states that 30 Andhra kings ruled for 460 years, but some of its manuscripts name only 19 kings whose reigns add up to 448.5 years. The Vayu Purana also mentions that there were 30 Andhra kings, but its various manuscripts name only 17, 18, and 19 kings respectively; the reigns add up to 272.5, 300, and 411 years respectively. Many of these kings are not attested by historical evidence. On the other hand, some Satavahana kings attested by numismatic evidence (such as Rudra Satakarni) are not mentioned in the Puranas at all.[76]

text: Different scholars have explained these anamolies in different ways. Scholars such as R. G. Bhandarkar, D. C. Sircar and H. C. Raychaudhuri theorized that the Vayu Purana mentions only the main imperial branch of the dynasty, while the Matsya Purana puts together princes of all its branches.[76]

text: The names of the Andhra kings (in IAST), as mentioned in the various Puranas, are given below. These names vary across different manuscripts of the same Puranas, and some names are missing in some of the manuscripts. The list given below for each Purana contains the most exhaustive version. In the Puranas, Krishna (IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is described as brother of the first king, who overthrew the Kanva king Susharman. All other kings are described as sons of their predecessors. The first king of the Andhra-Bhrityas is also known as Shudraka or Suraka in the Kumarika Khanda  of Skanda Purana (not present in the table below).[77]

text:
Puranic genealogy of Andhra dynasty[78]

#

Ruler

Coins

Epigraphy

Bhagavata

Brahmanda

Matsya

Vayu

Vishnu

Reign (years)

Alternative names and reigns[79][80]

1
Simuka
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
23
Śiśuka (Matsya), Sindhuka (Vayu), Śipraka (Vishnu), Chhismaka (Brahmanda)

2
Kṛṣṇa (Kanha)
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
18

3
Śatakarṇi I
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
10
Śantakarṇa (Bhagavata), Mallakarni - 10 or 18 years (Matsya), Śri Śatakarṇi (Vishnu)

4
Pūrṇotsanga

✓
✓
✓

✓
18
Paurṇamāsa (Bhagavata)

5
Skandastambhi

✓
✓

18
Śrivasvani (Matsya)

6
Śatakarṇi II
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
56

7
Lambodara

✓
✓
✓

✓
18

8
Āpīlaka
✓

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
12
Apītaka (Matsya), Ivīlaka (Vishnu), Hivilaka (Bhagavata)

9
Meghasvāti
✓

✓
✓
✓

✓
18
Saudāsa (Brahmanda)

10
Svāti (Śatakarṇi)

✓
✓
✓

✓
12

11
Skandasvāti

✓
✓

7
Skandasvati - 28 years (Brahmanda)

12
Mṛgendra-Svātikarṇa

✓
✓

3
Mahendra Śatakarṇi (Brahmanda)

13
Kuntala-Svātikarṇa

✓
✓

8

14
Svātikarṇa

✓
✓

1

15
Pulomavi I
✓

✓

✓
✓
✓
24
Pulomavi - 36 years (Matsya), Aṭamāna (Bhagavata), Paṭimavi (Vayu), Paṭumat (Vishnu), Ābhi - Brahmanda

16
Gaurakṛṣṇa

✓

✓
✓
✓
25
Gorakśāśvaśri (Matsya), Nemi Kṛṣṇa (Vayu), Arishṭakarman (Vishnu)

17
Hāla

✓

✓
✓
✓
5
Hāleya (Bhagavata); 1 year in one manuscript

18
Mandalaka

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
5
Talaka (Bhagavata), Saptaka (Vayu), Pattalaka (Vishnu), Bhavaka (Brahmanda)

19
Purindrasena

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
5
Purīṣabhiru (Bhagavata), Purikaṣena - 21 years (Vayu), Pravillasena (Vishnu), Pravillasena - 12 years (Brahmanda)

20
Sundara Śatakarṇi

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
1
Sundara Svatikarṇa (Matsya), Sunandana (Bhagavata)

21
Cakora Śatakarṇi (Chakora)

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
0.5

22
Śivasvāti

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
28
Svātisena - 1 year (Brahmanda), Śivasvāmi (Vayu)

23
Gautamīputra
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
21
Yantramati - 34 years (Brahmanda), Gotamīputra (Bhagavata and Vishnu); 24 years according to inscriptions

24
Pulomavi II (Vashishtiputra)
✓
✓
✓

✓

✓
28
Purīmān (Bhagavata), Pulomat (Matsya), Pulimat (Vishnu). See also: Vashishtiputra Satakarni.

25
Śivaśri
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

✓
7
Madaśirā (Bhagavata)

26
Śivaskanda Śatakarṇi
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

✓
7

27
Yajñaśri
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
29
Yajñaśri Śatakarṇi - 19 years (Brahmanda), Yajñaśri - 9, 20 or 29 years (Matsya)

28
Vijaya
✓
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓
6

29
Candraśri (Chandrashri)
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
3
Candravijaya (Bhagavata), Daṇḍaśri (Brahmanda and Vayu), Vada-Śri or Candra-Śri-Śatakarṇi - 10 years (Matsya)

30
Pulomavi III
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
7
Sulomadhi (Bhagavata), Pulomavit (Matsya), Pulomarchis (Vishnu)

text: Purana-based lists

text: S. Nagaraju relies on the Puranic lists of 30 kings, and gives the following regnal dates:[42]

text:
Simuka (r. 228 – 205 BCE)
Krishna (r. 205 – 187 BCE)
Satakarni I (r. 187 – 177 BCE)
Purnotsanga (r. 177 – 159 BCE)
Skandhastambhi (r. 159 – 141 BCE)
Satakarni II (r. 141 – 85 BCE)
Lambodara (r. 85 – 67 BCE)
Apilaka (r. 67 – 55 BCE)
Meghasvati (r. 55 – 37 BCE)
Svati (r. 37 – 19 BCE)
Skandasvati (r. 19 – 12 BCE)
Mrigendra Satakarni (r. 12 – 9 BCE)
Kunatala Satakarni (r. 9 – 1 BCE)
Satakarni III (r. 1 BCE-1 CE)
Pulumavi I (r. 1 – 36 CE)
Gaura Krishna (r. 36 – 61 CE)
Hāla (r. 61 – 66 CE)
Mandalaka aka Puttalaka or Pulumavi II (r. 69 – 71 CE)
Purindrasena (r. 71 – 76 CE)
Sundara Satakarni (r. 76 – 77 CE)
Chakora Satakarni (r. 77 – 78 CE)
Shivasvati (r. 78 – 106 CE)
Gautamiputra Satkarni (r. 106 – 130 CE)
Vasisthiputra aka Pulumavi III (r. 130 – 158 CE)
Shiva Sri Satakarni (r. 158 – 165 CE)
Shivaskanda Satakarni (r. 165–172)
Sri Yajna Satakarni (r. 172 – 201 CE)
Vijaya Satakarni (r. 201 – 207 CE)
Chandra Sri Satakarni (r. 207 – 214 CE)
Pulumavi IV (r. 217 – 224 CE)