document_title: Fashion capital

question_text: which city is the fashion capital of india

text: Fashion capital

text: Definition of a fashion capital[edit]

text: A fashion capital assumes leadership role in clothing and design. In addition, fashion capitals usually have a broad mix of business, artistic, entertainment, cultural and leisure activities and are internationally recognised for having a unique and strong identity.[2] It has also been noted that the status of a fashion capital has become increasingly linked to a city's domestic and international profile.[3] Fashion capitals are also likely be part of a wider design scene, with design schools, fashion magazines and a local market of affluent consumers.[3]

text: Since the 16th century, Milan has been regarded as the Fashion Capital of the World. Nowadays, often the term fashion capital is used to describe the cities that hold fashion weeks, most prominently Milan, Paris, London and New York,[4][5][6][7][8] to showcase their industry.[9][10] Also various other cities host notable fashion events and are influential in global fashion.[11]

text: History[edit]

text: Historically, several cities have been, in turn, fashion capitals. During the Renaissance era, different city-states in what would become modern-day Italy were Europe's main trendsetters,[12] due to the cultural power they exerted in that period of time; this includes cities such as Florence, Milan, Rome, Naples, Genoa, and Venice.

text: Progressing into the late-16th century, with influence of the English Royal Court, London became a major city in European fashion. Similarly, due to the power of Spain at the period, the Spanish court started to influence fashion, making it a major centre. In the 17th century, as the Renaissance started to fade away, with the power of the French court under Louis XIV, Paris established itself as Europe's main fashion centre.[13]

text: During the 19th century, with the powerful British Empire and a young Queen Victoria on the throne (from 1837), London once again became a major fashion leader.[14] However, it continued to look to Paris for stylistic inspiration, and the British 'father of haute couture' Charles Frederick Worth relocated to Paris in 1846 to perfect and then commercialise his craft, also holding the first fashion shows and launching the concept of fashion labels there.[15]

text: 20th century and beyond[edit]

text: During the Golden Twenties, Berlin was considered the vanguard fashion capital.[16]

text: Throughout the 20th century – but particularly after World War II – New York City rose in stature as a fashion capital, challenging the dominance of Paris with a different approach, especially in its development and popularisation of sportswear as fashion during the 1940s and '50s.[17]

text: During the 1950s Italy rose in prominence again.[18] Florence re-emerged as a leading city in fashion,[19] although focus shifted to Milan from the 1970s on as leading design houses moved to the city.[20]

text: In the 1980s, Tokyo claimed its place as a fashion capital with a new generation of avant-garde designers, including Issey Miyake or Rei Kawakubo of Comme des Garçons gaining worldwide attention, even if the fashion show were all in Paris. The fashion was radically different in both its use of textiles and in the way designers cut and draped.[21][22]

text: More recently, new fashion hubs have emerged worldwide, and the old order has faced challenges from all corners of the globe, including Africa, Australasia and South America.[23] Since 2007, Berlin has again been highlighted as an increasingly important centre for global fashion trends.[24][25]

text: A 2011 issue of Fashion Theory: Journal of Dress, Body and Culture explored the move away from the traditional dominance of five key cities (London, Milan, New York, Paris, Tokyo), with co-editor Lise Skov suggesting what she described as a "poly-centric" fashion industry developing in the 21st century.[17]

text: Annual fashion capital rankings[edit]

text: An annual ranking of the leading fashion capitals is produced by Global Language Monitor, a US-based company that tracks trends through language use worldwide. The 2017 top-sixty three fashion capitals, according to its rankings, are listed below.[26]

text:
Current (2017)

City

Previous (2016)

Rank

1
 New York City
2
 1

2
 Paris
1
 1

3
 Barcelona
7
 4

4
 Milan
6
 2

5
 Rome
5

6
 London
3
 3

7
 Amsterdam
23
 15

8
 Berlin
8

9
 Las Vegas
26
 14

10
 Dubai
17
 7

11
 Singapore
14
 3

12
 Hong Kong
12

13
 Florence
11
 2

14
 Los Angeles
4
 10

15
 Madrid
9
 6

16
 Bali
40
 24

17
 Seoul
56
 39

18
 Prague
33
 15

19
 Rio de Janeiro
18
 1

20
 Buenos Aires
29
 9

21
 Washington, D.C.
54
 33

22
 Moscow
22

23
 Tokyo
10
 13

24
 Santiago
43
 19

25
 Vienna
34
 9

26
 Shanghai
15
 11

27
 Mumbai
38
 11

28
 Melbourne
49
 21

29
 Stockholm
46
 23

30
 Bangkok
50
 20

31
 Warsaw
42
 11

32
 Copenhagen
36
 4

33
 San Francisco
37
 4

34
 Sydney
13
 21

35
 São Paulo
16
 19

36
 Antwerpen
25
 11

37
 Johannesburg
48
 11

38
 Dallas
20
 18

39
 Austin
45
 6

40
 Abu Dhabi
Debut

41
 St Petersburg
35
 6

42
 Cape Town
41
 1

43
 Mexico City
53
 10

44
 Portland, Oregon
Debut

45
 Frankfurt
51
 6

46
 Boston
24
 18

47
 Kuala Lumpur
Debut

48
 Johannesburg
37
 11

49
 Monaco
21
 28

50
 Atlanta
47
 3

51
 New Delhi
39
 12

52
 Vancouver
52

53
 Chicago, Illinois
27
 26

54
 Houston, Texas
30
 24

55
 Montreal
47
 8

56
 Dakar
Debut

57
 Beirut
Debut

58
 Kraków
44
 14

59
 Toronto
28
 31

60
 Lagos
Debut

61
 Columbus
Debut

62
 Accra
Debut

63
 Caracas
Hiatus

text: Commentary from Global Language Monitor about the 2017 edition of its annual fashion capital rankings[edit]

text: The current 2017 rankings now include 63 fashion capitals. There are three new fashion capitals from West Africa: Accra, Ghana; Dakar, Senegal; and Lagos, Nigeria. There is one new fashion capital from East Asia: Kuala Lumpur. There is one new fashion capital from the Middle East: Beirut, Lebanon. Before the various insurgencies in the region, Beirut was known as the Paris of the Middle East. There are two new fashion capitals from North America: Portland, Oregon known for its ‘weird’ culture, much like Austin, Texas and Columbus, Ohio known in the fashion world as the manufacturing headquarters of Henri Bendel, Victoria’s Secret, the Bath & Body Works, Abercrombie & Fitch (A&F), and others.

text: Commentary from Global Language Monitor individual cities in the 2017 edition[edit]

text: No. 3 Barcelona — Moving into Big Four Territory is Big News by definition.

text: No. 4 Milano — Reclaiming its Big Four status; hmm, perhaps all that re-thinking and revamping just might be having an impact (we’ll see in 2018).

text: No. 6 London — Had a great run earlier in the decade, but not so great lately (If you consider the No. 6 spot not so great).

text: No. 7 Amsterdam — Moving up 15 spots is quite a move.

text: No. 9 Vegas — Back in the Top Ten, more evidence that the Red Carpet experience does indeed have an impact.

text: No. 10 Dubai — More evidence that billions of dollars Do, indeed, have an impact.

text: No. 17 Seoul — Finally making the move in Asia, not No. 1, but a respectable No. 3 regionally.

text: No. 21 Washington, DC — A move into respectability!?

text: No. 28 Melbourne and No. 34 Sydney — Trading Places

text: No. 44 Portland, OR — A very nice debut.

text: No. 47 Kuala Lumpur — Another solid debut.

text: No. 46 Boston, No. 48 Miami, No.53 Chicago, No. 54 Houston, and No. 59 Toronto — All down by twenty spots, or more.

text: No. 63 Caracas — On Hiatus due to Insurrection.


document_title: The End (Beatles song)

question_text: who wrote the love you take is equal to the love you make

root

text: The End (Beatles song)

text: Composition and recording[edit]

text: McCartney said, "I wanted [the medley] to end with a little meaningful couplet, so I followed the Bard and wrote a couplet."[3] In his 1980 interview with Playboy, John Lennon acknowledged McCartney's authorship by saying, "That's Paul again ... He had a line in it, 'And in the end, the love you get is equal to the love you give,' which is a very cosmic, philosophical line. Which again proves that if he wants to, he can think."[4] Lennon misquoted the line; the actual words are, "And in the end, the love you take is equal to the love you make."[5]

tag: p

text: Recording began on 23 July 1969, when the Beatles recorded a one-minute, thirty-second master take that was extended via overdubs to two minutes and five seconds. At this point, the song was called "Ending."[6] The first vocals for the song were added on 5 August, additional vocals and guitar overdubs were added on 7 August, and bass and drums on 8 August, the day the Abbey Road cover picture was taken.[7] Orchestral overdubs were added 15 August, and the closing piano and accompanying vocal on 18 August.[8]

text: All four Beatles have a solo in "The End", including a Ringo Starr drum solo. Starr disliked solos; he preferred to cater drumwork to whoever sang in a particular performance.[9] The take in which he performed the solo originally had guitar and tambourine accompaniment,[6] but other instruments were muted during mixing giving the effect of a drum solo. The additional instruments were restored for a remix on the Anthology 3 compilation album.[10] The drum solo was also later used at the beginning of "Get Back" on the 2006 album Love.

text: McCartney, Harrison, and Lennon perform a rotating sequence of three, two-bar guitar solos.[2][11] The solos begin approximately 53 seconds into the song and end just before the final piano part. Lennon described it in his 1970 interview with Rolling Stone: "There's a nice little bit I played on Abbey Road. Paul gave us each a piece, a little break where Paul plays, George plays and I play."[12] The first two bars are played by McCartney, the second two by Harrison, and the third two by Lennon, then the sequence repeats.[2] Each has a distinctive style which McCartney felt reflected their personalities: McCartney's playing included string bends similar to his lead guitar work on "Another Girl" from the Help! album and the stinging style he had first perfected on "Taxman" from Revolver; Harrison's solo incorporated the melodic yet technically advanced slides that were becoming his trademark; lastly Lennon's contribution was rhythmic, snarling, and had the heaviest distortion, echoing his lead work in "Revolution". Immediately after Lennon's third solo, the piano chords of the final line "And in the end..." begin. Then the orchestration arrangement takes over with a humming chorus and Harrison playing a final guitar solo that ends the song.

text: The rough version of "The End" that concludes the Anthology 3 is followed by a slow fade-in and fade-out of a piano chord, which acts as a mirror to the long chord that ends "A Day in the Life".

text: "The End" was initially intended to be the final track on Abbey Road, but it ended up being followed by "Her Majesty".

text: Although "The End" stands as the last known new recording involving all four members of the Beatles, one additional song, "I Me Mine", would be recorded by three members of the group (Lennon being absent due to being on holiday in Denmark) in January 1970 for the album Let It Be.

text: Musical structure[edit]

text: The song commences in A major, with an initial I–IV–II–V–I structure matching the vocals on "Oh, yeah, all right!" This is followed by a ♯iv dim–I pattern (D♯dim to A chord) on "dreams tonight." During this, the accompanying bass and one guitar move chromatically from A to B and D♯, while the second guitar harmonises a minor third higher to reach F♯.[13] An eight bar drum solo as a final statement of recognition to their "steady, solid drummer"[14] ends with a crescendo of eighth notes and bass and rhythm guitar in seventh chords to the chant "Love you."[15] The sequential three guitar solos rotate through I7 (A7 chord)–IV7 (D7 chord) changes in the key of A in a mix of "major and minor pentatonic scales with slides, double-stops, repeated notes, low-bass string runs and wailing bends".[16] Gould terms these live studio takes "little character sketches":

text: Paul opens with a characteristically fluid and melodically balanced line that sounds a high A before snaking an octave down the scale; George responds by soaring to an even higher D and sustaining it for half a bar before descending in syncopated pairs of 16th notes; John then picks upon the pattern of George's 16ths with a series of choppy thirds that hammer relentlessly on the second and flattened seventh degrees of the scale. The second time through, Paul answers John's blusey flattened 7ths with bluesy minor thirds and then proceeds to echo George's earlier line, spiraling up to that same high D; George responds with some minor thirds of his own, while mimicking the choppy rhythm of John's part; John then drops two octaves to unleash a growling single-note line. On this final two-bar solo, Paul plays almost nothing but minor thirds and flattened sevenths in a herky-jerky rhythm that ends with a sudden plunge to a low A; George then reaches for the stars with a steeply ascending line that is pitched an octave above any notes heard so far; and John finishes with a string of insistent and heavily distorted 4ths, phrased in triplets, that drag behind the beat and grate against the background harmony.[15]

text: The final "Ah" is in C with a spiritually evocative Plagal cadence IV–I (F–C chord) on piano while the voices do an F to E shift.[17] "And in the end the love you take" is in A major, but the G/A chord supporting the word "love" begins to dissolve our certainty that we are in A, by adding a ♭VII. The next line shifts us to the fresh key of C, with a iv (F) chord that threatens the dominance of the departing A key's F♯: "Is eq-ual" (supported successively by IV (F)–iii (Em) chords with an A–G bass line) "to the love" (supported successively by ii (Dm)–vi (Am)–ii7 (Dm7) chords with a F–E bass line) "you make" (supported by a V7 (G7) chord).[18] The final bars in the key of C involve a I–II–♭III rock-type progression and a IV–I soothing cadence that appear to instinctively reconcile different musical genres.[19]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Richie Unterberger of Allmusic considered "The End" to be "the group's take on the improvised jamming common to heavy rock of the late '60s, though as usual The Beatles did it with far more economic precision than anyone else."[20] John Mendelsohn of Rolling Stone said it was "a perfect epitaph for our visit to the world of Beatle daydreams: 'The love you take is equal to the love you make.'"[21]

text: Legacy[edit]

text:
The song is included as the encore on The Beatles: Rock Band.
McCartney's second guitar solo, Lennon's last guitar solo and Starr's drum solo were used in the intro to "Get Back" in the Beatles' Love.
In Ralph Bakshi's 1972 film Fritz the Cat, Fritz quotes the line "the love you give is equal to the love you get" when deciding not to plant a bomb in a nuclear power plant and rejecting violent revolutionary politics. The character's creator, Robert Crumb, denounced this dialogue as "red-neck and fascistic".[22]
The Beastie Boys sampled a portion of "The End" for their track "The Sounds of Science" from Paul's Boutique.[23]
Chris Farley famously asked McCartney on the Chris Farley Show skit on Saturday Night Live, whether it was true that "the love you take is equal to the love you make." McCartney replied, to Farley's delight, that, in his experiences, it was, saying "the more you give, the more you get."
Paul McCartney performed the closing couplet of "The End" at the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony just prior to closing the event with a performance of the song "Hey Jude."
Peter Brown used the song's lyric as the title of his book about the Beatles, The Love You Make.
The closing couplet is sung by k.d. lang and partly spoken by Robin Williams (as the character Lovelace) at the end of the movie Happy Feet.
The final episode of the long-running, American TV series ER (1994–2009) is titled after some of the song's lyrics, "And in The End ...".

tag: ul

text: Cover versions[edit]

text:
When Mojo released Abbey Road Now! in 2009, part of a continuing series of CDs of Beatles albums covered track-by-track by modern artists, "The End" was covered by The Loose Salute.[24]
Beatallica covered the song using the melody of Metallica's "The End of the Line".[25]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals, bass guitar, piano, guitar solo
John Lennon – backing vocals, rhythm guitar, guitar solo
George Harrison – backing vocals, rhythm and lead guitar, guitar solo
Ringo Starr – drums, backing vocals on the "Love you" chorus

text: George Martin – orchestration[8]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ James M Lowrance. A Fan's Tribute to the Beatles: Growing up with John, Paul, George and Ringo. Some of the songs they recorded are easily included in the heavy metal category, including; Revolution, Helter Skelter, The End...
^ Jump up to: a b c d MacDonald 2005, p. 361.
Jump up ^ Miles 1997, p. 558.
Jump up ^ Sheff 2000, p. 204.
Jump up ^ Hal Leonard 1993, pp. 252–253.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewisohn 1988, p. 181.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, pp. 185–186.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewisohn 1988, p. 190.
Jump up ^ Larry King Show 2007.
Jump up ^ Apple Records 1996.
Jump up ^ The Beatles 2000, p. 337.
Jump up ^ Wenner 2000, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Dominic Pedler. The Songwriting Secrets of the Beatles. Music Sales Limited. Omnibus Press. NY. 2003. pp. 392–394
Jump up ^ Jonathan Gould. Can't Buy Me Love: The Beatles, Britain and America. Piatkus 2007 pp. 589–590.
^ Jump up to: a b Gould, p. 590
Jump up ^ Pedler, p. 669
Jump up ^ Pedler, p. 33
Jump up ^ Pedler, pp. 669–670
Jump up ^ Pedler, p. 671
Jump up ^ Unterberger 2007.
Jump up ^ Mendelsohn 1969.
Jump up ^ Maremaa, Thomas (2004) [1972]. "Who Is This Crumb?". In Holm, D. K. R. Crumb: Conversations. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 28. ISBN 1-57806-637-9.
Jump up ^ Search
Jump up ^ "Abbey Road Now - Track Listing - Mojo Cover CDs - The Definitive List".
Jump up ^ "Beatallica - Carry That Weight is another Jaymz tune, so... - Facebook".

tag: ol


document_title: List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders

question_text: who led the league in rebounds this year

text: Key[edit]

text:
^
Denotes player who is still active in the NBA

*
Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Player (X)
Denotes the number of times the player had been the
rebounding leader up to and including that season

G
Guard
F
Forward
C
Center

tag: table

text: Season leaders[edit]

text:
Season
Player
Pos.[a]
Team
Games
played
Offensive
rebounds
Defensive
rebounds
Total
rebounds
Rebounds
per game
References

1950–51
Schayes, DolphDolph Schayes*
F/C
Syracuse Nationals
66
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,080
16.36
[8][9]

1951–52
Foust, LarryLarry Foust
C
Fort Wayne Pistons
66
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
880
13.33
[8][10]

1951–52
Hutchins, MelMel Hutchins
C
Milwaukee Hawks
66
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
880
13.33
[8][11]

1952–53
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan*
C
Minneapolis Lakers
70
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,007
14.39
[8][12]

1953–54
Gallatin, HarryHarry Gallatin*
F/C
New York Knicks
72
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,098
15.25
[8][13]

1954–55
Johnston, NeilNeil Johnston*
C
Philadelphia Warriors
72
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,085
15.07
[8][14]

1955–56
Pettit, BobBob Pettit*
C
St. Louis Hawks
72
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,164
16.17
[8][15]

1956–57
Stokes, MauriceMaurice Stokes*
F
Rochester Royals
72
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,256
17.44
[8][16]

1957–58
Russell, BillBill Russell*
C
Boston Celtics
69
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,564
22.67
[8][17]

1958–59
Russell, BillBill Russell* (2)
C
Boston Celtics
70
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,612
23.03
[8][17]

1959–60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*[b]
C
Philadelphia Warriors
72
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,941
26.96
[8][18]

1960–61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (2)[c]
C
Philadelphia Warriors
79
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
2,149
27.20
[8][18]

1961–62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (3)
C
Philadelphia Warriors
80
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
2,052
25.65
[8][18]

1962–63
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (4)
C
San Francisco Warriors
80
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,946
24.32
[8][18]

1963–64
Russell, BillBill Russell* (3)
C
Boston Celtics
78
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,930
24.74
[8][17]

1964–65
Russell, BillBill Russell* (4)
C
Boston Celtics
78
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,878
24.08
[8][17]

1965–66
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (5)
C
Philadelphia 76ers
79
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,943
24.59
[8][18]

1966–67
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (6)
C
Philadelphia 76ers
81
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,957
24.16
[8][18]

1967–68
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (7)
C
Philadelphia 76ers
82
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,952
23.80
[8][18]

1968–69
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (8)
C
Los Angeles Lakers
81
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,712
21.14
[8][18]

1969–70
Hayes, ElvinElvin Hayes*
C
San Diego Rockets
82
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,386
16.90
[8][19][20]

1970–71
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (9)
C
Los Angeles Lakers
82
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,493
18.21
[8][18][21]

1971–72
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (10)
C
Los Angeles Lakers
82
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,572
19.17
[8][18][22]

1972–73
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain* (11)
C
Los Angeles Lakers
82
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
1,526
18.61
[8][18][23]

1973–74
Hayes, ElvinElvin Hayes* (2)
F
Capital Bullets
81
7002354000000000000♠354
7003110900000000000♠1,109
1,463
18.06
[8][20][24]

1974–75
Unseld, WesWes Unseld*[d]
C/F
Washington Bullets
73
7002318000000000000♠318
7002759000000000000♠759
1,077
14.75
[8][25][26]

1975–76
Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar*
C
Los Angeles Lakers
82
7002272000000000000♠272
7003111100000000000♠1,111
1,383
16.87
[8][27][28]

1976–77
Walton, BillBill Walton*[e]
C/F
Portland Trail Blazers
65
7002211000000000000♠211
7002723000000000000♠723
934
14.37
[8][29][30]

1977–78
Robinson, Len "Truck"Len "Truck" Robinson
C/F
New Orleans Jazz
82
7002298000000000000♠298
7002990000000000000♠990
1,288
15.71
[8][31][32]

1978–79
Malone, MosesMoses Malone*
C
Houston Rockets
82
7002587000000000000♠587
7002857000000000000♠857
1,444
17.61
[8][33][34]

1979–80
Nater, SwenSwen Nater
C
San Diego Clippers
81
7002352000000000000♠352
7002864000000000000♠864
1,216
15.01
[8][35][36]

1980–81
Malone, MosesMoses Malone* (2)
C
Houston Rockets
80
7002474000000000000♠474
7002706000000000000♠706
1,180
14.75
[8][34][37]

1981–82
Malone, MosesMoses Malone* (3)
C
Houston Rockets
81
7002558000000000000♠558
7002630000000000000♠630
1,188
14.67
[8][34][38]

1982–83
Malone, MosesMoses Malone* (4)
C
Philadelphia 76ers
78
7002445000000000000♠445
7002749000000000000♠749
1,194
15.31
[8][34][39]

1983–84
Malone, MosesMoses Malone* (5)[f]
C
Philadelphia 76ers
71
7002352000000000000♠352
7002598000000000000♠598
950
13.38
[8][34][40]

1984–85
Malone, MosesMoses Malone* (6)
C
Philadelphia 76ers
79
7002385000000000000♠385
7002646000000000000♠646
1,031
13.05
[8][34][41]

1985–86
Laimbeer, BillBill Laimbeer
C
Detroit Pistons
82
7002305000000000000♠305
7002770000000000000♠770
1,075
13.11
[8][42][43]

1986–87
Barkley, CharlesCharles Barkley*[g]
F
Philadelphia 76ers
68
7002390000000000000♠390
7002604000000000000♠604
994
14.62
[8][44][45]

1987–88
Cage, MichaelMichael Cage[h]
F/C
Los Angeles Clippers
72
7002371000000000000♠371
7002567000000000000♠567
938
13.03
[8][46][47]

1988–89
Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon*[i]
C
Houston Rockets
82
7002338000000000000♠338
7002767000000000000♠767
1,105
13.48
[8][51][52]

1989–90
Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon* (2)
C
Houston Rockets
82
7002299000000000000♠299
7002850000000000000♠850
1,149
14.01
[8][52][53]

1990–91
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*
C
San Antonio Spurs
82
7002335000000000000♠335
7002728000000000000♠728
1,063
12.96
[8][54][55]

1991–92
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman*
F
Detroit Pistons
82
7002523000000000000♠523
7003100700000000000♠1,007
1,530
18.66
[8][56][57]

1992–93
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman* (2)
F
Detroit Pistons
62
7002367000000000000♠367
7002765000000000000♠765
1,132
18.26
[8][57][58]

1993–94
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman* (3)
F
San Antonio Spurs
79
7002453000000000000♠453
7002914000000000000♠914
1,367
17.30
[8][57][59]

1994–95
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman* (4)[j]
F
San Antonio Spurs
49
7002274000000000000♠274
7002549000000000000♠549
823
16.80
[8][57][60]

1995–96
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman* (5)[k]
F
Chicago Bulls
64
7002356000000000000♠356
7002596000000000000♠596
952
14.88
[8][57][61]

1996–97
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman* (6)[l]
F
Chicago Bulls
55
7002320000000000000♠320
7002563000000000000♠563
883
16.05
[8][57][62]

1997–98
Rodman, DennisDennis Rodman* (7)
F
Chicago Bulls
80
7002421000000000000♠421
7002780000000000000♠780
1,201
15.01
[8][57][63]

1998–99[m]
Webber, ChrisChris Webber[n]
F/C
Sacramento Kings
42
7002149000000000000♠149
7002396000000000000♠396
545
12.98
[8][65][66]

1999–00
Mutombo, DikembeDikembe Mutombo*
C
Atlanta Hawks
82
7002304000000000000♠304
7002853000000000000♠853
1,157
14.11
[8][67][68]

2000–01
Mutombo, DikembeDikembe Mutombo* (2)[o]
C
Atlanta Hawks
Philadelphia 76ers
75
7002307000000000000♠307
7002708000000000000♠708
1,015
13.53
[8][68][69]

2001–02
Wallace, BenBen Wallace[p]
C/F
Detroit Pistons
80
7002318000000000000♠318
7002721000000000000♠721
1,039
12.99
[8][70][71]

2002–03
Wallace, BenBen Wallace (2)
C/F
Detroit Pistons
73
7002293000000000000♠293
7002833000000000000♠833
1,126
15.42
[8][71][72]

2003–04
Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett
F/C
Minnesota Timberwolves
82
7002245000000000000♠245
7002894000000000000♠894
1,139
13.89
[8][73][74]

2004–05
Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett (2)
F/C
Minnesota Timberwolves
82
7002247000000000000♠247
7002861000000000000♠861
1,108
13.51
[8][74][75]

2005–06
Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett (3)[q]
F/C
Minnesota Timberwolves
76
7002214000000000000♠214
7002752000000000000♠752
966
12.71
[8][74][76]

2006–07
Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett (4)[r]
F/C
Minnesota Timberwolves
76
7002183000000000000♠183
7002792000000000000♠792
975
12.83
[8][74][77]

2007–08
Howard, DwightDwight Howard^
C
Orlando Magic
82
7002279000000000000♠279
7002882000000000000♠882
1,161
14.16
[8][78][79]

2008–09
Howard, DwightDwight Howard^ (2)
C
Orlando Magic
79
7002336000000000000♠336
7002757000000000000♠757
1,093
13.84
[8][79]

2009–10
Howard, DwightDwight Howard^ (3)
C
Orlando Magic
82
7002284000000000000♠284
7002798000000000000♠798
1,082
13.20
[8][79]

2010–11
Love, KevinKevin Love^
F/C
Minnesota Timberwolves
73
7002330000000000000♠330
7002782000000000000♠782
1,112
15.23
[8][80]

2011–12[s]
Howard, DwightDwight Howard^ (4)
C
Orlando Magic
54
7002200000000000000♠200
7002585000000000000♠585
785
14.54
[8][79]

2012–13
Howard, DwightDwight Howard^ (5)[t]
C
Los Angeles Lakers
76
7002251000000000000♠251
7002694000000000000♠694
945
12.43
[8][79][82]

2013–14
Jordan, DeAndreDeAndre Jordan^
C
Los Angeles Clippers
82
7002331000000000000♠331
7002783000000000000♠783
1,114
13.59
[83]

2014–15
Jordan, DeAndreDeAndre Jordan^ (2)
C
Los Angeles Clippers
82
7002397000000000000♠397
7002829000000000000♠829
1,226
14.95
[84]

2015–16
Drummond, AndreAndre Drummond^
C
Detroit Pistons
81
7002395000000000000♠395
7002803000000000000♠803
1,198
14.79
[85]

2016–17
Whiteside, HassanHassan Whiteside^
C
Miami Heat
77
293
7002795000000000000♠795
1,088
14.13
[86]

2017–18
Drummond, AndreAndre Drummond^ (2)
C
Detroit Pistons
78
399
7002848000000000000♠848
1,247
15.99
[85]

text: Multiple-time leaders[edit]

text:
Ranking
Player
Team
Times leader
Years

1
Wilt Chamberlain
Philadelphia Warriors/San Francisco Warriors (4) / Philadelphia 76ers (3) / Los Angeles Lakers (4)
11
1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973

2
Dennis Rodman
Detroit Pistons (2) / San Antonio Spurs (2) / Chicago Bulls (3)
7
1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998

3
Moses Malone
Houston Rockets (3) / Philadelphia 76ers (3)
6
1979, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985

4
Dwight Howard
Orlando Magic (4) / Los Angeles Lakers (1)
5
2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013

5
Kevin Garnett
Bill Russell
Minnesota Timberwolves
Boston Celtics
4
2004, 2005, 2006, 2007
1958, 1959, 1964, 1965

7
Elvin Hayes
DeAndre Jordan
Dikembe Mutombo
Hakeem Olajuwon
Ben Wallace
Andre Drummond
San Diego Rockets (1) / Capital Bullets (1)
Los Angeles Clippers
Atlanta Hawks (1) / Philadelphia 76ers (1)
Houston Rockets
Detroit Pistons
Detroit Pistons
2
1970, 1974
2014, 2015
2000, 2001
1989, 1990
2002, 2003
2016, 2018

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The player's primary position is listed first.
Jump up ^ Wilt Chamberlain holds the all-time rookie record for total rebounds.[5]
Jump up ^ Wilt Chamberlain holds the all-time record for total rebounds and rebounds per game in a single season.[4][5]
Jump up ^ In the 1974–75 season, Bob McAdoo and Sam Lacey both had higher rebound totals (1,155 and 1,149 respectively) but they ranked fourth and third in rebounding average (14.1 and 14.2 respectively).[25]
Jump up ^ In the 1976–77 season, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Moses Malone, Artis Gilmore and Elvin Hayes all had higher rebound total (1,090, 1,072, 1,070 and 1,029 respectively) but they ranked second, third, fourth and sixth in rebounding average (13.3, 13.1, 13.0 and 12.5 respectively).[29]
Jump up ^ In the 1983–84 season, Bill Laimbeer and Buck Williams both had higher rebound totals (1,003 and 1,000 respectively) but they ranked fourth and second in rebounding average (12.2 and 12.3 respectively).[40]
Jump up ^ In the 1986–87 season, Charles Oakley and Buck Williams both had higher rebound totals (1,074 and 1,023 respectively) but they ranked second to third in rebounding average (13.1 and 12.5 respectively).[44]
Jump up ^ In the 1987–88 season, Charles Oakley had the highest rebound total (1,066) but was second in rebounding average (13.0).[46]
Jump up ^ When Olajuwon arrived in the United States, the University of Houston incorrectly spelled his first name "Akeem". He used that spelling until March 9, 1991, when he announced that he would add an H.[48][49][50]
Jump up ^ In the 1994–95 season, Dennis Rodman had only played in 49 games and ranked tenth in rebound total. Dikembe Mutombo had the highest total (1,029).[60]
Jump up ^ In the 1995–96 season, David Robinson had the highest rebound total (1,000) but was second in rebounding average (12.2).[61]
Jump up ^ In the 1996–97 season, Dikembe Mutombo and Ervin Johnson both had higher rebound totals (929 and 913 respectively) but they ranked second and fourth in rebounding average (11.6 and 11.1 respectively).[62]
Jump up ^ The 1998–99 season was shortened to 50 games due to the league's lockout.[64] The qualification of this season's rebounding title is to appear in at least 43 games (out of 50) or to have at least 488 rebounds.[3]
Jump up ^ In the 1998–99 season, Dikembe Mutombo, Danny Fortson and Tim Duncan all had higher rebound totals (610, 581, and 571 respectively) but they ranked third to fifth in rebounding average (12.2, 11.6 and 11.4 respectively).[65]
Jump up ^ In the 2000–01 season, Ben Wallace had the highest rebound total (1,052) but was second in rebounding average (13.2).[69]
Jump up ^ In the 2001–02 season, Tim Duncan had the highest rebound total (1,042) but was second in rebounding average (12.7).[70]
Jump up ^ In the 2005–06 season, Dwight Howard had the highest rebound total (1,022) but was second in rebounding average (12.5).[76]
Jump up ^ In the 2006–07 season, Dwight Howard had the highest rebound total (1,008) but was third in rebounding average (12.3).[77]
Jump up ^ The 2011–12 season was shortened to 66 games due to the league's lockout.[81] The qualification of this season's rebounding title is to appear in at least 57 games (out of 66) or to have at least 644 rebounds.[3]
Jump up ^ In the 2012–13 season, Ömer Aşık had the highest rebound total (956) but was third in rebounding average (11.7).[82]


document_title: France in the American Revolutionary War

question_text: who was sent to france at the beginning of the american revolution to ask for help

text: American origins of the conflict[edit]

text: After its defeat in the Seven Years' War in 1763, France lost its vast holdings in North America and wanted revenge. Meanwhile, the American colonists and the British government began to fight over whether Parliament in London, or the colonial assemblies had primary responsibility for taxation. The ideological conflict escalated into open warfare in 1775, at which point the American patriots took control of each of the 13 colonies away from Royal officials. The British refused to consider independence. The French, which had been rebuilding their Navy and other forces, now saw an opportunity to seriously weaken its perennial enemy. [3]

text: French involvement[edit]

text: France bitterly resented its loss on the Seven Years' War and sought revenge; it also wanted to keep Britain from becoming too powerful. The opportunity was now at hand. Following the Declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was well received in France, by both the general population and the aristocracy. The Revolution was perceived as the incarnation of the Enlightenment Spirit against the "English tyranny." Benjamin Franklin, dispatched to France in December 1776 to rally its support, was welcomed with great enthusiasm. The French had become interested in the American Revolution from the outset. They saw the revolution as an opportunity to strip Britain of their North American possessions in retaliation for France's loss of Canada a decade before. At first, French support was covert; French agents sent the Patriots military aid (predominantly gunpowder) through a company called Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie, beginning in the spring of 1776. Estimates place the percentage of French supplied arms to the Americans in the Saratoga campaign up to 90%.[4] By 1777, over five million livres of aid had been sent to the American rebels.

text: Motivated by the prospect of glory in battle or animated by the sincere ideals of liberty and republicanism, volunteers joined the American army such as Pierre Charles L'Enfant. The most famous was Lafayette, a charming young aristocrat who defied the king's order and enlisted in 1777 at age 20. He became an aide to Washington and a combat general. More importantly he solidified a favourable American view of France. Kramer argues that Lafayette provided a legitimacy for the war and confidence that there was serious European support for independence. Lafayette's personal style was highly attractive; the young man learned quickly, adapted to the Patriot style, avoided politics, and became a fast friend of General Washington. Fifty years later, after a major career in French politics, he returned as a beloved hero of the war.[5]

text: Debate over quiet aid or declaring open war[edit]

text: Up against the British power, the young nation lacked arms and allies, and so turned towards France. France was not directly interested in the conflict, but saw it as an opportunity to contest British power by supporting a new British opponent. Through negotiations conducted first by Silas Deane and then Benjamin Franklin, France began covert support of the American cause.

text: Secretly approached by Louis XVI and France's foreign minister, the comte de Vergennes, Pierre Beaumarchais was given authorization to sell gunpowder and ammunition to the Americans for close to a million pounds under the veil of the French company Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie. The aid given by France, much of which passed through the neutral Dutch West Indies port of Sint Eustatius, contributed to George Washington's survival against the British onslaught in 1776 and 1777, and was a major factor in the defeat of General Burgoyne's expedition down the Champlain corridor that ended in a British disaster at Saratoga. French ports accommodated American ships, including privateers and Continental Navy warships, that acted against British merchant ships. France provided significant economic aid, either as donations or loans, and also offered technical assistance, granting some of its military strategists "vacations", so they could assist American troops.

text: Silas Deane, appointed by the Americans, and, helped by French animosity towards Britain, obtained unofficial aid, starting in early 1776. However, the goal was the total involvement of France in the war. A new delegation composed of Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, was appointed to lobby for the involvement of European nations. Franklin, age 70 and already well known in French intellectual circles for his scientific discoveries, served as the chief diplomat with the title of "minister" (the term "ambassador" was not used). He dressed in rough frontier clothes rather than formal court dress, and met with many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists and financiers. Franklin's image and writings caught the French imagination – there were many images of him sold on the market – and he became the image of the archetypal new American and even a hero for aspirations for a new order inside France. When the international climate at the end of 1777 had become more tense, Habsburg Austria requested the support of France in the War of the Bavarian Succession against Prussia in line with the Franco-Austrian Alliance. France refused, causing the relationship with Austria to turn sour. Under these conditions, asking Austria to assist France in a war against the British was impossible. Attempts to rally Spain also failed: Spain did not immediately recognize potential gains, and the American revolutionary spirit was seen as threatening the legitimacy of the Spanish Crown in its own American colonies.

text: Public opinion in France was in favor of open war, but King Louis and his advisors were reluctant due to the possible risks and heavy expenses involved. The king's economic and military advisors in particular remained reluctant. The French Navy was being rapidly rebuilt, but there were doubts as to how ready it was for serious conflict. Financiers Turgot and Necker warned war would be very expensive for France's wobbly system of taxation and finance.

text: The Americans argued that an alliance of the United States, France, and Spain would assure a rapid defeat of the British, but Vergennes, waiting until his navy was ready, hesitated. On July 23, 1777, Vergennes decided that it was time to decide either total assistance, with war, or abandonment of the new nation. The choice, ratified by the king, was war.[6]

text: Entry into the war[edit]

text: The British had taken Philadelphia in 1777, but American victory at the Battle of Saratoga brought back hope to the Patriots and enthusiasm in France. The army of Burgoyne surrendered to American forces after Saratoga and France realized that the United States could be victorious. The king directed Vergennes to negotiate an alliance with the Americans.[7]

text: France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778, with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. Hostilities soon followed after Britain declared war on France on March 17, 1778. The British naval force, then the largest fleet afloat, and French fleet confronted each other from the beginning. The British avoided intercepting a French fleet that left Toulon under the comte d'Estaing in April for North America, fearing the French fleet at Brest might then be used to launch an invasion of Britain. France had kept the Brest fleet to protect commercial shipping in European waters, and it sailed out only after a British fleet was confirmed to have left in pursuit of d'Estaing, thus weakening the British Channel fleet. In spite of this reduction the British fleet still outnumbered the French fleet at Brest, and Admiral d'Orvilliers was instructed to avoid combat when he sailed in July. D'Orvilliers met the fleet of Admiral Augustus Keppel in the indecisive Battle of Ushant on July 27, after which both fleets returned to port for repairs.

text: France did consider the landing of 40,000 men in the nearby British Isles but abandoned the idea because of logistical issues. On the continent, France was protected through its alliance with Austria which, even if it did not take part in the American Revolutionary War, affirmed its diplomatic support of France.

text: Other nations in Europe at first refused to openly join the war but both Spain and the Dutch Republic gave unofficial support to the American cause. Vergennes was able to convince the Spanish to formally enter the war in 1779 and, in 1780, Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic over claims of Dutch violations of neutrality.

text: North American operations[edit]

text: French participation in North America was initially maritime in nature and marked by some indecision on the part of its military leaders. In 1778, American and French planners organized an attempt to capture Newport, Rhode Island, then under British occupation. The attempt failed, in part because Admiral d'Estaing did not land French troops prior to sailing out of Narragansett Bay to meet the British fleet. He then sailed for Boston after his fleet was damaged in a storm. In 1779, d'Estaing again led his fleet to North America for joint operations, this time against British-held Savannah, Georgia. About 3,000 French joined with 2,000 Americans in the Siege of Savannah, in which a naval bombardment was unsuccessful. An attempted assault of the entrenched British position was repulsed with heavy losses.

text: Support became more notable when, in 1780, 6,000 soldiers led by Rochambeau landed at Newport, itself abandoned in 1779 by the British, where the French established a naval base. These forces were largely inactive since the fleet was closely watched by the British fleet from its bases in New York and eastern Long Island. By early 1781, with the war dragging on, French military planners were finally convinced that more significant operations would be required in North America to bring a decisive end to the war. That year's West Indies fleet was commanded by the comte de Grasse, and specific arrangements were made to coordinate operations with him. De Grasse asked to be supplied with North American pilots and to be informed of possible operations in North America to which he might contribute. Rochambeau and Washington met at Wethersfield, Connecticut in May 1781 to discuss their options. Washington wanted to drive the British from both New York City and Virginia (the latter led first by turncoat Benedict Arnold, then by Brigadier William Phillips and eventually by Charles Cornwallis). Virginia was also seen as a potent threat that could be fought with naval assistance. These two options were dispatched to the Caribbean along with the requested pilots. Rochambeau, in a separate letter, urged de Grasse to come to the Chesapeake Bay for operations in Virginia. Following the Wethersfield conference, Rochambeau moved his army to White Plains, New York and placed his command under Washington.

text: De Grasse received these letters in July at roughly the same time Cornwallis was preparing to occupy Yorktown, Virginia. De Grasse concurred with Rochambeau and subsequently sent a dispatch indicating that he would reach the Chesapeake at the end of August but that agreements with the Spanish meant he could only stay until mid-October. The arrival of his dispatches prompted the Franco-American army to begin a march for Virginia. De Grasse reached the Chesapeake as planned and his troops were sent to assist Lafayette's army in the blockade of Cornwallis. A British fleet sent to confront de Grasse's control of the Chesapeake was defeated by the French on September 5 at the Battle of the Chesapeake and the Newport fleet delivered the French siege train to complete the allied military arrival. The Siege of Yorktown and following surrender by Cornwallis on October 19 were decisive in ending major hostilities in North America.[8]

text: Other theaters[edit]

text: Other important battles between the French and the British were spaced out around the globe, from the West Indies to India. France's navy at first dominated in the West Indies, capturing Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Montserrat, Tobago, and St. Kitts, but losing St. Lucia at the beginning of the war. A planned Franco-Spanish invasion of Jamaica was aborted after the decisive Battle of the Saintes in 1782. At the end of the war the French captured the Turks and Caicos Islands. In European waters, France and Spain joined forces with the entry of Spain into the war in 1779. An attempted invasion of Britain failed due to a variety of factors. French and Spanish forces besieged Gibraltar from 1779 to 1783, but were unsuccessful in either storming the site, or preventing repeated British relief of its garrison. They were more successful in capturing Minorca in Europe and Demerara and Essequibo in South America in February 1782.

text: In India, British troops gained control of French outposts in 1778 and 1779, sparking the Kingdom of Mysore, a longtime French ally, to begin the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Allied with the French, the Mysoreans for a time threatened British positions on the east coast, but that war ended status quo ante bellum in 1784. A French fleet commanded by the Bailli de Suffren fought a series of largely inconclusive battles with a British fleet under Sir Edward Hughes, and the only major military land action, the 1783 Siege of Cuddalore, was cut short by news that a preliminary peace had been signed.

text: Because of decisive battles on American soil, the French were in a strong position during the peace negotiations in Paris.

text: Peace and consequences[edit]

text: Starting with the Siege of Yorktown, Benjamin Franklin never informed France of the secret negotiations that took place directly between Britain and the United States. Britain acknowledged that the United States owned all the land south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River, except for Florida (which went to Spain). However, since France was not included in the American-British peace discussions, the alliance between France and the U.S. was weakened. Thus the influence of France and Spain in future negotiations was limited.[9]

text: The war formally ended in September 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. France gained (or regained) territories in the Americas, Africa, and India. Losses in the 1763 Treaty of Paris and in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) were in part regained: Tobago, Saint Lucia, the Senegal River area, as well as increased fishing rights in Terra Nova. Spain regained Florida and Minorca, but Gibraltar remained in the hands of the British.

text: Because the French involvement in the war was distant and naval in nature, over a billion livres tournois were spent by the French government to support the war effort, raising its overall debt to about 3.315 billion. The finances of the French state were in disastrous shape and were made worse by Jacques Necker, who, rather than increase taxes, used loans to pay off debts. State secretary in Finances Charles Alexandre de Calonne attempted to fix the deficit problem by asking for the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy but was dismissed and exiled for his ideas. The French instability further weakened the reforms that were essential in the re-establishment of stable French finances. Trade also severely declined during the war, but was revived by 1783.

text: The war was especially important for the prestige and pride of France, who was reinstated in the role of European arbiter. However, Great Britain, not France, became the leading trading partner of the United States.[10] The French took pride in their cultural influence on the young country through the Enlightenment, as attested by Franklin and Jefferson, and as embodied in the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the United States Constitution in 1787. In turn the Revolution influenced France.[11] Liberal elites were satisfied by the victory but there were also some major consequences. European conservative Royalists and nobility had become nervous, and began to take measures in order to secure their positions. On May 22, 1781, the Decree of Ségur closed the military post offices of the upper rank to the common persons, reserving those ranks exclusively for the nobility.

text: Financial aspects[edit]

text: By 1783, the new French debt acquired to fight the British came to a staggering 1.3 billion livres.[12] The French system of taxation was highly inefficient and could not absorb the cost. It "set off France's own fiscal crisis, in which a political brawl over taxation soon became one of the reasons for the French Revolution."[13] France had obtained its revenge against Britain; however, it gained little real value and her massive debt severely weakened the government and escalated it towards the French Revolution.[14]

text: France did gain a new, fast-growing ally that could become a welcome trading partner. However, the expected level of trade never materialized. American merchants belittled the quality of French products, and poor terms of trade. They preferred to deal with Britain.[15] In 1793 the United States proclaimed its neutrality in the war between Great Britain and the French Republic, and in 1795 the Jay Treaty strengthened Anglo-American commercial ties, despite intense opposition from friends of France such as Thomas Jefferson.

text: Most historians argue that France primarily sought revenge against Great Britain for the loss of territory in North America and India from the previous conflict. However, Jonathan R. Dull argued that France intervened because of dispassionate calculation, not because of Anglophobia or a desire to avenge the loss of Canada.[16]


document_title: Dormancy

question_text: insects undergo a period of dormancy in winter or summer called

text: Dormancy

text: Animals[edit]

text:
Part of a series on

Animal dormancy

Torpor
Hibernation

Hibernaculum
HIT

Aestivation
Cryptobiosis
Brumation
Diapause

Embryonic diapause

Winter rest
Critical thermal maximum
Sleep (non-human)
Developmental biology

v
t
e

text: Hibernation[edit]

text: Hibernation is a mechanism used by many mammals to reduce energy expenditure and survive food shortage over the winter. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential. An animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many physiological changes, including decreased heart rate (by as much as 95%) and decreased body temperature.[2] In addition to shivering, some hibernating animals also produce body heat by non-shivering thermogenesis to avoid freezing. Non-shivering thermogenesis is a regulated process in which the proton gradient generated by electron transport in mitochondria is used to produce heat instead of ATP in brown adipose tissue.[3] Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, the European hedgehog and other insectivores, monotremes and marsupials. Although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate.

text: Diapause[edit]

text: Diapause is a predictive strategy that is predetermined by an animal's genotype. Diapause is common in insects, allowing them to suspend development between autumn and spring, and in mammals such as the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, the only ungulate with embryonic diapause[citation needed]), where a delay in attachment of the embryo to the uterine lining ensures that offspring are born in spring, when conditions are most favorable.

text: Aestivation[edit]

text: Aestivation, also spelled estivation, is an example of consequential dormancy in response to very hot or dry conditions. It is common in invertebrates such as the garden snail and worm but also occurs in other animals such as the lungfish, salamanders, desert tortoises, and crocodiles.

text: Brumation[edit]

text: Brumation is an example of dormancy in reptiles that is similar to hibernation.[4] It differs from hibernation in the metabolic processes involved.[5]

text: Reptiles generally begin brumation in late autumn (more specific times depend on the species). They often wake up to drink water and return to "sleep". They can go for months without food. Reptiles may eat more than usual before the brumation time but eat less or refuse food as the temperature drops.[6] However, they do need to drink water. The brumation period is anywhere from one to eight months depending on the air temperature and the size, age, and health of the reptile. During the first year of life, many small reptiles do not fully brumate, but rather slow down and eat less often. Brumation is triggered by lack of heat and the decrease in the hours of daylight in winter, similar to hibernation.

text: Plants[edit]

text: In plant physiology, dormancy is a period of arrested plant growth. It is a survival strategy exhibited by many plant species, which enables them to survive in climates where part of the year is unsuitable for growth, such as winter or dry seasons.

text: Many plant species that exhibit dormancy have a biological clock that tells them when to slow activity and to prepare soft tissues for a period of freezing temperatures or water shortage. On the other hand, dormancy can be triggered after a normal growing season by decreasing temperatures, shortened day length, and/or a reduction in rainfall. Chemical treatment on dormant plants has been proven to an effective method to break dormancy, particularly in woody plants such as grapes, berries, apples, peaches and kiwis. Specifically, hydrogen cyanamide stimulates cell division and growth in dormant plants, causing budbreak when the plant is on the edge of breaking dormancy.[citation needed] Slight injury of cells may play a role in the mechanism of action. The injury is thought to result in increased permeability of cellular membranes.[citation needed] The injury is associated with the inhibition of catalase, which in turn stimulates the pentose phosphate cycle. Hydrogen cyanamide interacts with the cytokinin metabolic cycle, which results in triggering a new growth cycle.[citation needed] The images below show two particularly widespread dormancy patterns amongst sympodially growing orchids:

text: Seeds[edit]

text: When a mature and viable seed under a favorable condition fails to germinate, it is said to be dormant. Seed dormancy is referred to as embryo dormancy or internal dormancy and is caused by endogenous characteristics of the embryo that prevent germination (Black M, Butler J, Hughes M. 1987). Dormancy should not be confused with seed coat dormancy, external dormancy, or hardseededness, which is caused by the presence of a hard seed covering or seed coat that prevents water and oxygen from reaching and activating the embryo. It is a physical barrier to germination, not a true form of dormancy (Quinliven, 1971; Quinliven and Nichol, 1971).

text: Trees[edit]

text: Typically, temperate woody perennial plants require chilling temperatures to overcome winter dormancy (rest). The effect of chilling temperatures depends on species and growth stage (Fuchigami et al. 1987).[7] In some species, rest can be broken within hours at any stage of dormancy, with either chemicals, heat, or freezing temperatures, effective dosages of which would seem to be a function of sublethal stress, which results in stimulation of ethylene production and increased cell membrane permeability.

text: Dormancy is a general term applicable to any instance in which a tissue predisposed to elongate or grow in some other manner does not do so (Nienstaedt 1966).[8] Quiescence is dormancy imposed by the external environment. Correlated inhibition is a kind of physiological dormancy maintained by agents or conditions originating within the plant, but not within the dormant tissue itself. Rest (winter dormancy) is a kind of physiological dormancy maintained by agents or conditions within the organ itself. However, physiological subdivisions of dormancy do not coincide with the morphological dormancy found in white spruce (Picea glauca) and other conifers (Owens et al. 1977).[9] Physiological dormancy often includes early stages of bud-scale initiation before measurable shoot elongation or before flushing. It may also include late leaf initiation after shoot elongation has been completed. In either of those cases, buds that appear to be dormant are nevertheless very active morphologically and physiologically.

text: Dormancy of various kinds is expressed in white spruce (Romberger 1963).[10] White spruce, like many woody plants in temperate and cooler regions, requires exposure to low temperature for a period of weeks before it can resume normal growth and development. This “chilling requirement” for white spruce is satisfied by uninterrupted exposure to temperatures below 7°C for 4 to 8 weeks, depending on physiological condition (Nienstaedt 1966, 1967).[8][11]

text: Tree species that have well-developed dormancy needs may be tricked to some degree, but not completely. For instance, if a Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum) is given an "eternal summer" through exposure to additional daylight, it grows continuously for as long as two years. Eventually, however, a temperate-climate plant automatically goes dormant, no matter what environmental conditions it experiences. Deciduous plants lose their leaves; evergreens curtail all new growth. Going through an "eternal summer" and the resultant automatic dormancy is stressful to the plant and usually fatal. The fatality rate increases to 100% if the plant does not receive the necessary period of cold temperatures required to break the dormancy. Most plants require a certain number of hours of "chilling" at temperatures between about 0°C and 10°C to be able to break dormancy (Bewley, Black, K.D kendawg 1994).

text: Short photoperiods induce dormancy and permit the formation of needle primordia. Primordia formation requires 8 to 10 weeks and must be followed by 6 weeks of chilling at 2 °C. Bud break occurs promptly if seedlings are then exposed to 16-hour photoperiods at the 25°C/20°C temperature regime. The free growth mode, a juvenile characteristic that is lost after 5 years or so, ceases in seedlings experiencing environmental stress (Logan and Pollard 1976, Logan 1977).[12][13]

text: Bacteria[edit]

text: Many bacteria can survive adverse conditions such as temperature, desiccation, and antibiotics by endospores, cysts, conidia or states of reduced metabolic activity lacking specialized cellular structures.[14] Up to 80% of the bacteria in samples from the wild appear to be metabolically inactive[15]—many of which can be resuscitated.[16] Such dormancy is responsible for the high diversity levels of most natural ecosystems.[17]

text: Recent research[18] has characterized the bacterial cytoplasm as a glass forming fluid approaching the liquid-glass transition, such that large cytoplasmic components require the aid of metabolic activity to fluidize the surrounding cytoplasm, allowing them to move through a viscous, glass-like cytoplasm. During dormancy, when such metabolic activities are put on hold, the cytoplasm behaves like a solid glass, freezing subcellular structures in place and perhaps protecting them, while allowing small molecules like metabolites to move freely through the cell, which may be helpful in cells transitioning out of dormancy.[18]

text: Viruses[edit]

text: Dormancy is not relevant for viruses as they are not metabolically active themselves. Some viruses are physically stable and may remain infectious for long periods of time, such as poxviruses and picornaviruses. Some viruses may infect cells and then remain inactive for some time, for example herpesviruses.


document_title: ZIP Code

question_text: what are the extra four digits at the end of a zip code

text: ZIP Code

text: History[edit]

text: Early history and five-digit ZIP Codes[edit]

text: The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers. The United States Post Office Department (USPOD) implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943.[3] For example:

text: Mr. John Smith

text: 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue

text: The "16" was the number of the postal zone from the specific city.

text: By the early 1960s, a more organized system was needed, and non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide on July 1, 1963. The USPOD issued its Publication 59: Abbreviations for Use with ZIP Code on October 1, 1963, with the list of two-letter state abbreviations which are generally written with both letters capitalized.[4] An earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters.[4] According to Publication 59, the two-letter standard was "based on a maximum 23-position line, because this has been found to be the most universally acceptable line capacity basis for major addressing systems",[4] which would be exceeded by a long city name combined with a multi-letter state abbreviation, such as "Sacramento, Calif." along with the ZIP Code. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with the exception of Nebraska, which was changed from NB to NE in 1969 at the request of the Canadian postal administration, to avoid confusion with the Canadian province of New Brunswick.[4]

text: Robert Moon is considered the father of the ZIP Code; he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector.[5] The post office only credits Moon with the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility (SCF) or "sec center." An SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The fourth and fifth digits were proposed by Henry Bentley Hahn Sr which give a more precise locale within the SCF[6]. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes. The mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public (though the building may include a post office open to the public), and most of their employees work night shift. Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. In the cases of large cities, the last two digits coincide with the older postal zone number[citation needed] thus:

text: Mr. John Smith

text: 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue

text: In 1967, these became mandatory for second and third-class bulk mailers, and the system was soon adopted generally. The United States Post Office used a cartoon character which it called Mr. ZIP to promote the use of the ZIP Code. He was often depicted with a legend such as "USE ZIP CODE" in the selvage of panes of postage stamps or on the covers of booklet panes of stamps.

text: In 1971 Elmira (NY) Star Gazette reporter Dick Baumbach found out the White House was not using a zip code on its envelopes. Herb Klein, special assistant to President Nixon, responded by saying the next printing of envelopes would include the zip code. That did occur.[7]

text: In 1983, the U.S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called "plus-four codes", "add-on codes", or "add-ons". A ZIP+4 Code uses the basic five-digit code plus four additional digits to identify a geographic segment within the five-digit delivery area, such as a city block, a group of apartments, an individual high-volume receiver of mail, a post office box, or any other unit that could use an extra identifier to aid in efficient mail sorting and delivery. However, initial attempts to promote universal use of the new format met with public resistance and today the plus-four code is not required.[8] In general, mail is read by a multiline optical character reader (MLOCR) that almost instantly determines the correct ZIP+4 Code from the address—along with the even more specific delivery point—and sprays an Intelligent Mail barcode (IM) on the face of the mail piece that corresponds to 11 digits—nine for the ZIP+4 Code and two for the delivery point.

text: For Post Office Boxes, the general (but not invariable) rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. The add-on code is often one of the following: the last four digits of the box number (e.g. PO Box 107050, Albany, NY 12201-7050), zero plus the last three digits of the box number (e.g., PO Box 17727, Eagle River, AK 99577-0727), or, if the box number consists of fewer than four digits, enough zeros are attached to the front of the box number to produce a four-digit number (e.g., PO Box 77, Juneau, AK 99750-0077). However, there is no uniform rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box.[citation needed]

text: Postal bar code[edit]

text: The ZIP Code is often translated into an Intelligent Mail barcode that is printed on the mailpiece to make it easier for automated machines to sort. A barcode can be printed by the sender (some word-processing programs such as WordPerfect[9] and Microsoft Word[10] include the feature - but is not recommended as the address to ZIP lookup tables can be significantly out of date). It is better to let the post office put one on when it processes the piece. In general, the post office uses OCR technology, though in some cases a human might have to read and enter the address.

text: Customers who send bulk mail can get a discount on postage if they have printed the barcode themselves and have presorted the mail. This requires more than just a simple font; mailing lists must be standardized with up-to-date Coding Accuracy Support System (CASS)-certified software that adds and verifies a full, correct ZIP+4 Code and an additional two digits representing the exact delivery point.[citation needed] Furthermore, mail must be sorted in a specific manner to an 11 digit zip with at least 150 mailpieces for each qualifying ZIP code and must be accompanied by documentation confirming this. These steps are usually done with PAVE-certified software that also prints the barcoded address labels and the barcoded sack or tray tags.

text: This means that every single mailable point in the country has its own 12-digit number (at least in theory). The delivery-point digits (the 10th and 11th digits) are calculated based on the primary or secondary number of the address. The USPS publishes the rules for calculating the delivery point in a document called the CASS Technical Guide.[11] However, when confronted with two addresses like 18 and 18C, often CASS will assign the same 12-digit number to two distinct mail delivery points. The last digit is always a check digit, which is obtained by summing all 5, 9 or 11 digits, taking the residue modulo 10 of this sum (i.e., the remainder after dividing by 10) and finally subtracting this from 10. (Thus, the check digit for 10001-0001 00 would be 7, since 1+1+1=3, 3≡3(mod 10) and 10–3=7.)

text: Structure and allocation[edit]

text: Scope and international mail[edit]

text: ZIP Codes designate delivery points within the United States (including territories), and overseas stations of its armed forces. There are also ZIP Codes for independent countries of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau, each of which is integrated into the U.S. postal system under a Compact of Free Association.

text: Mail to U.S. diplomatic missions overseas is addressed as if it were addressed to a street address in Washington, D.C. The four-digit diplomatic pouch number is used as a building number, while the city in which the embassy or consulate is located is combined with the word "Place" to form a street name. Each mission uses a ZIP+4 Code consisting of 20521 and the diplomatic pouch number. For example, the mailing address of the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi, India would be:

text: Embassy of the United States of America

text: 9000 New Delhi Place

text: By type and use[edit]

text: There are four types of ZIP Codes:

text:
Unique: assigned to a single high-volume address
Post Office Box only: used only for PO Boxes at a given facility, not for any other type of delivery
Military: used to route mail for the U.S. military
Standard: all other ZIP Codes.

text: Unique ZIP Codes are used for governmental agencies, universities, businesses, or buildings that receive such extremely high volumes of mail that they need their own ZIP Codes. Government examples include 20505 for the Central Intelligence Agency in Washington, D.C.; 81009 for the Federal Citizen Information Center of the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA)[13] in Pueblo, Colorado. Examples of private address unique ZIP Codes include the headquarters of Wal-Mart (72716).

text: An example of a PO Box only ZIP Code is 22313, which is used for PO Boxes at the main post office in Alexandria, Virginia, such as those used by the United States Patent and Trademark Office. In the area surrounding that post office, home and business mail delivery addresses use ZIP Code 22314, which is thus a Standard ZIP Code.

text: In certain exceptional cases, a nominally Standard-type ZIP Code may, in practice, be used as one of the three other types. For example, the ZIP Code 43210 in Columbus, Ohio is listed as a Standard-type ZIP Code. However, since its geographic boundaries are essentially coterminous with those of The Ohio State University's main campus, it is effectively exclusive to the university even though it is not officially a "Unique"-type ZIP code.

text: By geography[edit]

text: Primary state prefixes[edit]

text: ZIP Codes are numbered with the first digit representing a certain group of U.S. states, the second and third digits together representing a region in that group (or perhaps a large city) and the fourth and fifth digits representing a group of delivery addresses within that region. The main town in a region (if applicable) often gets the first ZIP Codes for that region; afterward, the numerical order often follows the alphabetical order.[citation needed] Because ZIP Codes are intended for efficient postal delivery, there are unusual cases where a ZIP Code crosses state boundaries, such as a military facility spanning multiple states or remote areas of one state most easily serviced from a bordering state. For example, ZIP Code 42223 serves Fort Campbell, which spans Christian County, Kentucky and Montgomery County, Tennessee, and ZIP Code 97635 includes portions of Lake County, Oregon and Modoc County, California.

text: In general, the first three digits designate a sectional center facility, the mail sorting and distribution center for an area. A sectional center facility may have more than one three-digit code assigned to it. For example, the Northern Virginia sectional center facility in Merrifield is assigned codes 220, 221, 222 and 223. In some cases, a sectional center facility may serve an area in an adjacent state, usually due to the lack of a proper location for a center in that region. For example, 739 in Oklahoma is assigned to Liberal, Kansas; 865 in Arizona is assigned to Gallup, New Mexico; and 961 in California to Reno, Nevada.

text: In terms of geographic location, many of the lowest ZIP Codes, which begin with '0', are in the New England region. Also in the '0' region are New Jersey (non-contiguous with the remainder of the '0' area), Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and APO/FPO military addresses for personnel stationed in Europe, Africa, Southwest Asia and aboard vessels based in the waters adjoining those lands. The lowest ZIP Code is in Holtsville, New York (00501, a ZIP Code exclusively for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service center there).[14] Other low ZIP Codes are 00601 for Adjuntas, Puerto Rico; 01001 for Agawam, Massachusetts, and the zip codes 01002 and 01003 for Amherst, Massachusetts; 01002 is used for mail in town, while 01003 is reserved for the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Until 2001, there were six ZIP Codes lower than 00501 that were numbered from 00210 to 00215 (located in Portsmouth, New Hampshire) and were used by the Diversity Immigrant Visa program to receive applications from non-U.S. citizens.[citation needed]

text: The numbers increase southward along the East Coast, such as 02115 (Boston), 10001 (New York City), 19103 (Philadelphia), 21201 (Baltimore), 20008 (Washington, D.C.), 30303 (Atlanta) and 33130 (Miami) (these are only examples, as each of these cities contain several ZIP Codes in the same range). From there, the numbers increase heading westward and northward east of the Mississippi River, southward west of the Mississippi River, and northward on the West Coast. For example, 40202 is in Louisville, 50309 in Des Moines, 60601 in Chicago, 63101 in St. Louis, 77063 in Houston, 80202 in Denver, 94111 in San Francisco, 98101 in Seattle, and 99950 in Ketchikan, Alaska (the highest ZIP Code).

text: The first digit of the ZIP Code is allocated as follows:

text:
0 = Connecticut (CT), Massachusetts (MA), Maine (ME), New Hampshire (NH), New Jersey (NJ), New York (NY, Fishers Island only), Puerto Rico (PR), Rhode Island (RI), Vermont (VT), Virgin Islands (VI), Army Post Office Europe (AE), Fleet Post Office Europe (AE)
1 = Delaware (DE), New York (NY), Pennsylvania (PA)
2 = District of Columbia (DC), Maryland (MD), North Carolina (NC), South Carolina (SC), Virginia (VA), West Virginia (WV)
3 = Alabama (AL), Florida (FL), Georgia (GA), Mississippi (MS), Tennessee (TN), Army Post Office Americas (AA), Fleet Post Office Americas (AA)
4 = Indiana (IN), Kentucky (KY), Michigan (MI), Ohio (OH)
5 = Iowa (IA), Minnesota (MN), Montana (MT), North Dakota (ND), South Dakota (SD), Wisconsin (WI)
6 = Illinois (IL), Kansas (KS), Missouri (MO), Nebraska (NE)
7 = Arkansas (AR), Louisiana (LA), Oklahoma (OK), Texas (TX)
8 = Arizona (AZ), Colorado (CO), Idaho (ID), New Mexico (NM), Nevada (NV), Utah (UT), Wyoming (WY)
9 = Alaska (AK), American Samoa (AS), California (CA), Guam (GU), Hawaii (HI), Marshall Islands (MH), Federated States of Micronesia (FM), Northern Mariana Islands (MP), Oregon (OR), Palau (PW), Washington (WA), Army Post Office Pacific (AP), Fleet Post Office Pacific (AP)

text: Secondary regional prefixes (123xx) and local ZIP Codes (12345)[edit]

text: The next two digits represent the sectional center facility (SCF) (e.g. 477xx = Vanderburgh County, Indiana), and the fourth and fifth digits represent the area of the city (if in a metropolitan area), or a village/town (outside metro areas): 47722 (4=Indiana, 77=Vanderburgh County, 22=University of Evansville area). When a sectional center facility's area crosses state lines, that facility is assigned separate three-digit prefixes for the states that it serves.

text: In some urban areas, like 462 for Marion County, Indiana, the three-digit prefix will often exist in one county, while, in rural and most suburban areas, the prefix will exist in multiple counties; for example, the neighboring 476 prefix is found in part or entirely in six counties: Gibson, Pike, Posey, Spencer, Vanderburgh, and Warrick. In some cases, an urban county may have more than one prefix. This is the case with Allen (467, 468), Lake (464, 463), St. Joseph (465, 466), and Vanderburgh (476, 477) Counties. Cities like Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, and New York City have multiple prefixes within their city limits. In some cases, these may be served from the same SCF, such as in San Diego County, California, where the three-digit prefixes 919 and 920 are used for suburban and rural communities, and 921 for the city of San Diego itself, although all three are processed through the same SCF facility.[citation needed]

text: Despite the geographic derivation of most ZIP Codes, the codes themselves do not represent geographic regions; in general, they correspond to address groups or delivery routes. As a consequence, ZIP Code "areas" can overlap, be subsets of each other, or be artificial constructs with no geographic area (such as 095 for mail to the Navy, which is not geographically fixed). In similar fashion, in areas without regular postal routes (rural route areas) or no mail delivery (undeveloped areas), ZIP Codes are not assigned or are based on sparse delivery routes, and hence the boundary between ZIP Code areas is undefined. For example, some residents in or near Haubstadt, Indiana, which has the ZIP Code 47639, have mailing addresses with 47648, the ZIP Code for neighboring Fort Branch, Indiana, while others living in or near Fort Branch have addresses with 47639. Many rural counties have similar logistical inconsistencies caused by the aforementioned sparse delivery routes, often known as Rural Routes or by some other similar designation.

text: For example, almost all U.S. government agencies in and around the capital are assigned ZIP Codes starting with 20200 to 20599, which are Washington, D.C. ZIP Codes, even if they are not located in Washington itself. While the White House itself is located in ZIP Code 20006, it has the ZIP Code 20500. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is located in Rockville, Maryland, at ZIP Code 20852, but has been assigned by the Postal Service the address "Washington, DC 20555".

text: In similar manner, the ZIP Code for the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority, a federally chartered independent authority, is 20001-6000[15], even though the physical address of the Authority's office, "1 Aviation Circle",[16] is in Arlington, Virginia.[citation needed]

text: One current exception to this rule is the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). When the USPTO was located in the Crystal City neighborhood in Arlington, Virginia, it was assigned by the Postal Service the address "Washington, DC 20231" despite being physically located in ZIP Code 22202. However, the USPTO now uses a ZIP Code (22313-1450 in ZIP+4) assigned to its current PO box in Alexandria, Virginia.[17]

text: In rare circumstances, a locality is assigned a ZIP Code that does not match the rest of the state. In even rarer cases a ZIP Code may cross state lines. Usually, this occurs when the locality is so isolated that it is most conveniently served from a sectional center in another state. Examples:

text:
Fishers Island, New York, bears the ZIP Code 06390 and is served from Connecticut because the only ferry service is to Connecticut – all other New York ZIP Codes (excepting those at Holtsville for the IRS) begin with "1".
Returned government parcels from Washington, D.C. are sent to ZIP Codes beginning with "569" so that returned parcels are security checked at a remote facility (this was put into place after the 2001 anthrax attacks).
Some Arkansas roads north of Bull Shoals Lake can best be accessed by the Protem, Missouri, delivery unit (ZIP Code 65733).
Fort Campbell (ZIP Code 42223), primarily in Tennessee, but the main entrance is in Kentucky.

text: ZIP Codes and previous zoning lines[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A ZIP Code's address and the city name written on the same line do not necessarily mean that address is within the boundaries of that city. The Postal Service designates one preferred place name for each ZIP Code. This may be an incorporated town or city, a subentity of a large city or an unincorporated census-designated place, or a small unincorporated community. Additional place names may be recognized as acceptable for a certain ZIP Code. Still, others are deemed not acceptable, and if used may result in a delay in mail delivery.

text: Preferred place names are generally the city or town in which the address is located. However, for many cities that have incorporated since ZIP Codes were introduced, the city name is not the preferred place name. Many databases automatically assign the preferred place name for a ZIP Code, without regard to any acceptable place names. For example, Centennial, Colorado is divided among seven ZIP Codes assigned to Aurora, Englewood, or Littleton as its preferred place names; none of these seven ZIP Codes carries "Centennial" as a preferred name, and in the ZIP Code directory, Centennial addresses are listed under those three cities. Since it is acceptable to write "Centennial" in conjunction with any of the seven ZIP Codes, one can write "Centennial" in an address in Aurora, Englewood, or Littleton, as long as it is in one of the shared ZIP Codes.

text: Acceptable place names are usually added to a ZIP Code in cases where the ZIP Code boundaries divide them between two or more cities, as in the case of Centennial. However, in many cases, only the preferred name can be used, even when many addresses in the ZIP Code are in another city. People sometimes must use the name of a post office rather than their own city.

text: One extreme example is ZIP Code 85254; it was assigned the place name Scottsdale, Arizona because it is served by the Scottsdale post office, but 85% of its territory is inside the city limits of neighboring Phoenix. Another notorious example is an entire neighborhood of the city of Los Angeles known as Beverly Hills Post Office. Naturally, its residents prefer the more glamorous Beverly Hills address and 90210 ZIP Code, but this regularly causes problems with an emergency response when dispatchers have to sort out whether a given home in 90210 is in Los Angeles or Beverly Hills.

text: Similarly, Missouri City, Texas, straddles Harris and Fort Bend counties. The portion within Harris County is within the ZIP Code 77071, which must use the city name of Houston instead of Missouri City. At the same time, a small portion of the city of Houston is in Fort Bend County in the ZIP Code 77489, and residents there must use the name Missouri City for their address even though they are in Houston.

text: This also occurs in some rural areas where portions of one town have their mail delivered to other post offices. For example, while most of the town of Plainfield, Massachusetts is in ZIP Code 01070, some sections of town are in the ZIP Code area for the neighboring town of Cummington with ZIP Code 01026. Only the preferred name of Cummington is allowed in ZIP Code 01026, so residents of parts of Plainfield must list their address as being in Cummington.

text: This phenomenon is repeated across the country. The previously mentioned Englewood, Colorado is an inner-ring suburb that was built out by the 1960s. Its post office served the area that is now the high-growth southern tier of the Denver metropolitan area, and ZIP Codes in this area were assigned Englewood as their preferred place name. A business community as large as downtown Denver has grown in this area, with headquarters for many internationally recognized corporations. These companies indicate Englewood as their location (the preferred postal place name), although they are located in other cities. As a result, there are really two Englewoods – the city, small and with a largely working-class residential population, and, a number of miles away, the postal Englewood, a vast suburban area of upscale subdivisions and office parks that have nothing to do with the city of Englewood yet share a split identity with it solely because of ZIP Codes. People who say they live or work in Englewood and identify closely with it may rarely enter the city. In Indiana, the ZIP Code for a town usually indicates the ZIP Code for its corresponding township, as nearly all of Indiana's small town post offices have rural routes.[citation needed]

text: Acceptable place names also come into play in areas where citizens identify more strongly with a particular urban center than their own municipality. For example, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, has 130 distinct municipalities, yet many of the county's residents, and even some residents of adjacent counties, commonly use Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania as their postal address. On the opposite end of the spectrum, in some urban areas, neighborhood names may be acceptable even though they have no legal standing, such as La Jolla, California, which is the preferred place name for ZIP Code 92037, despite the fact that La Jolla is a district of San Diego, California and not a separate legal entity (this ZIP Code is also in the 919/920 sequence used by San Diego County's suburban and rural areas, not in the 921 sequence used in the remainder of the City of San Diego, even though La Jolla has always been part of San Diego).

text: Many ZIP Codes are for villages, census-designated places, portions of cities, or other entities that are not municipalities. For example, ZIP Code 03750 is for Etna, New Hampshire, but Etna is not a city or town; it is a village district in the town of Hanover, which itself is assigned the ZIP Code 03755. Another example is ZIP Code 08043, which corresponds to the census-designated place of Kirkwood, New Jersey, but serves the entirety of Voorhees Township. This is also the case in LaGrange, New York, a portion of which is served by the 12603 ZIP Code based in the neighboring town of Poughkeepsie. The rest of LaGrange is served by the LaGrangeville Post Office. LaGrangeville is itself not a town at all, but a section of LaGrange. Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, served by the 19090 ZIP Code, is a village that straddles the border of Upper Moreland Township and Abington Township, and that post office also serves a small portion of Upper Dublin Township. Furthermore, non-municipal place names may also share ZIP Codes with municipal place names. For example, West Windsor Township, New Jersey, is commonly referred to in most mailing databases as Princeton Junction, a census-designated place within West Windsor. Silver Spring, Maryland, (20815, 20901–20912) is neither a city nor a town, but simply the common name for an unincorporated area consisting of a large part of the lower southern portion of Montgomery County.

text: Postal designations for place names become de facto locations for their addresses, and as a result, it is difficult to convince residents and businesses that they are located in another city or town different from the preferred place name associated with their ZIP Codes. Because of issues of confusion and lack of identity, some cities, such as Signal Hill, California, (an enclave located entirely inside the separate city of Long Beach) have successfully petitioned the Postal Service to change ZIP Code boundaries or create new ZIP Codes so their cities become the preferred place name for addresses within the ZIP Code.

text: Postal designation confusion may have financial implications for local governments because mail volume is one factor used by the U.S. Census Bureau to estimate population changes between decennial census enumerations.[citation needed] Sometimes local officials in a community that is not the preferred place name for a ZIP Code but is an acceptable place name will advise residents to always use the name of the community, because if the census estimate of that town's population is low they may receive fewer funds that are computed based on population. A typical example is Paddock Lake, Wisconsin, whose preferred place name is Salem. Paddock Lake is incorporated as a village within the town of Salem, even though there are more people in the village of Paddock Lake than there are in the unincorporated parts of the town of Salem. Further confusion is caused because Silver Lake, Wisconsin, which is also a village in the town of Salem and is of similar size and status to Paddock Lake, has its own ZIP Code and post office.

text: In another case, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) denied a radio station (now WNNX FM) a move requiring a change in its city of license to Sandy Springs, Georgia, largely because it was not a city (until municipal incorporation in late 2005), despite being the seventh-largest place in the state by population. The FCC cited the use of "Atlanta" on letters of support from local organizations, even though the USPS forced them to use Atlanta for 30328 until well after incorporation took effect. Currently "Sandy Springs" is only acceptable, despite none of 30328 being in Atlanta, or anywhere else outside the Sandy Springs city limit. This even applies to the ZIP Code used only for PO boxes at the Sandy Springs main post office.

text: Because ZIP Codes and their associated place names can ignore county lines, problems may occur where street addresses are based on quadrant location within a county. For example, 30339 spans over Vinings, Georgia and Atlanta, Georgia, in southeastern Cobb County; therefore every street address is labeled SE, and has a house number on that county's grid (according to the distance from the town square in the county seat). However, because the USPS demands the use of Atlanta, Vining's addresses are written such that they appear to be in southeast Atlanta, instead of in the opposite (northwest metro Atlanta) side.

text: Division and reallocation of ZIP codes[edit]

text: Like area codes, ZIP codes are sometimes divided and changed, especially when a rural area becomes suburban. Typically, the new codes become effective once announced, and a grace period (e.g., one year) is provided in which the new and old codes are used concurrently so that postal patrons in the affected area can notify correspondents, order new stationery, etc.[18]

text: In rapidly growing communities, it is sometimes necessary to open a new sectional center facility, which must then be allocated its own three-digit ZIP-code prefix or prefixes. Such allocation can be done in various ways. For example, when a new sectional center facility was opened at Dulles Airport in Virginia, the prefix 201 was allocated to that facility; therefore, for all post offices to be served by that sectional center facility the ZIP Code changed from an old code beginning with 220 or 221 to a new code or codes beginning with 201. However, when a new sectional center facility was opened to serve Montgomery County, Maryland, no new prefix was assigned. Instead, ZIP Codes in the 207 and 208 ranges, which had previously been assigned alphabetically, were reshuffled so that 207xx ZIP Codes in the county was changed to 208xx codes, while 208xx codes outside that county were changed to 207xx codes. Because Silver Spring (whose postal area includes Wheaton) has its own prefix, 209, there was no need to apply the reshuffling to Silver Spring; instead, all mail going to 209xx ZIP Codes was simply rerouted to the new sectional center facility.

text: On the other hand, depopulation may cause a post office to close and its associated ZIP Code to be deallocated. For example, Centralia, Pennsylvania's ZIP Code, 17927, was retired in 2002.[19]

text: Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, was originally issued the 19117 ZIP Code, although it lies in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Because of the 191 prefix, which is found only in Philadelphia with that lone exception, auto insurance companies charged higher city premiums to that suburban location. For that reason, residents petitioned the USPS for a 190-prefix ZIP Code, which is common to the inner-ring Pennsylvania suburbs of that city, and, after several attempts that were initially disapproved by the USPS, Elkins Park was finally reassigned to the 19027 ZIP Code.[citation needed]

text: ZIP Codes also change when postal boundaries are realigned. For example, at the same time at which the above-noted change in Montgomery County, Maryland, took place, and under pressure from then-mayor of Washington, D.C., Marion Barry, the USPS realigned the postal boundaries between Washington, D.C. and Maryland to match the boundary. Previously, many inner suburbs, such as Bethesda and Takoma Park, Oxon Hill, Temple Hills, Suitland, and Capitol Heights had been in the Washington, D.C., postal area. As a result of the change, ZIP Codes in Maryland beginning with 200 were changed to new ZIP Codes beginning with 207, 208 or 209, depending on their location, and ZIP Codes straddling the D.C.-Maryland line were split. For example, 20016 (Bethesda) became 20816, while the Maryland portion of 20012 (Takoma Park) became 20912.

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Delivery services[edit]

text: Delivery services other than the USPS, such as FedEx, United Parcel Service, and DHL, require a ZIP Code for optimal internal routing of a package.

text: Statistics[edit]

text: There are over 42,000 ZIP Codes in the United States.[20] ZIP Codes are used not only for tracking of mail but also in gathering geographical statistics in the United States. The U.S. Census Bureau calculates approximate boundaries of ZIP Codes areas, which it calls ZIP Code Tabulation Areas (ZCTAs). Statistical census data is then provided for these approximate areas. The geographic data provided for these areas includes the latitude and longitude of the center-point of the ZCTAs. There are approximately 32,000 ZCTAs. The reason that there is not one ZCTA for every ZIP Code is that PO Boxes are excluded, since only populated areas are included in the Census data.[21] The Census Bureau provides many statistical data sets for ZIP Codes, but does not keep up-to-date datasets of all ZCTAs. Complete datasets providing a similar approximate geographic extent are commercially available.

text: ZIP Codes are inherently discrete data, or point-based data, as they are assigned only at the point of delivery, not the spaces in between the delivery points. The U.S. Census Bureau then interpolates this discrete data set to create polygons, or areal features representing the approximate extent of the ZIP Code to use for mapping and data presentation. ZCTAs are not to be confused with ZIP Codes, and they are not updated as frequently as ZIP Codes. However, for many research and planning purposes, they are very useful and can be used with ZIP Code data.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The data is often used in direct mail marketing campaigns in a process called ZIP-code marketing. Point-of-sale cashiers sometimes ask consumers their home ZIP Code. Besides providing purchasing-pattern data useful in determining the location of new business establishments, retailers can use directories to correlate this ZIP Code with the name on a credit card to obtain a consumer's full address and telephone number. ZIP-Coded data are also used in analyzing geographic factors in risk, an insurance-industry and banking practice pejoratively known as redlining. This can cause problems (e.g., expensive insurance) for people living near a town with a high crime rate and sharing its ZIP Code, while they live in a relatively crime-free town (see Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, above).

text: According to a news story, "California's high court ruled Thursday that retailers do not have the right to ask customers for their ZIP Code while completing credit card transactions, saying that doing so violates a cardholders' right to protect his or her personal information."[22]

text: Legislative districts[edit]

text: ZIP Codes cannot be used to identify legislative districts. Although the website of the U.S. House of Representatives has a "Find Your Representative" feature that looks up congressional districts based on ZIP Codes alone, it often returns multiple districts corresponding to a single ZIP Code.[23][24] This is because different parts of one ZIP Code can be in different districts.[25]

text: Internet[edit]

text: A 1978 proposal for a nationwide system of community networks suggested using ZIP Codes for routing.[26]

text: ZIP Code data is an integral part of dealer / store locator software on many websites, especially brick-and-click websites. This software processes a user-input ZIP Code and returns a list of store or business locations, usually in the order of increasing distance from the center of the input ZIP Code. As the ZIP system is confined to the U.S. Postal network, websites that require ZIP Codes cannot register customers outside the U.S. Many sites will either purchase postal code data of other countries or make allowances in cases where the ZIP Code is not recognized.

text: ZIP Codes are regularly used on the Internet to provide a location in situations where an exact address is not necessary (or desirable) but the user's municipality, or at least general location, is needed. Examples (in addition to the store locator example listed above) include weather forecasts, television listings, local news, and online dating (most general purpose sites, by default, search within a given number of miles of a given ZIP Code, based on the others' entered ZIP Codes).

text: Credit card security[edit]

text: ZIP Codes are used in credit card authorization, specifically Address Verification System (AVS). When a merchant collects the entire address, the ZIP Code is an important part of AVS. In some cases, the ZIP Code is the only thing used for AVS, specifically where collecting a signature, or other information is infeasible, such as pay at the pump or vending machines.

text: Insurance rating[edit]

text: ZIP Codes are used by most insurance carriers to determine the rate the customer will receive. Higher populated areas will generally receive a higher rate, but that is not always true. In some areas with a high population, the rate for comprehensive coverage can be lower because the area has a low crime rate.[citation needed]