document_title: Seven-digit dialing

question_text: when did phone numbers change to 7 digits

text: Seven-digit dialing

text: History[edit]

text: Originally, telephone exchanges consisted of manual boards operated by switchboard operators. Numbers were typically four digits or fewer for local calls within an exchange due to practical limitations (if each line had a jack on the switchboard, four digits or 10000 possible numbers filled a 100 x 100 board). As the number of subscribers grew, multiple exchanges served individual neighborhoods of large cities. A city telephone number consisted of an exchange name and four digits, such as "Pennsylvania 5000". A rural telephone number, often party line, was often up to four digits plus a letter or letter and digits to indicate which of the multiple parties on the line was desired.

text: Various schemes were used to convert these to dialable numbers as dial replaced manual switchboards; many moderately-large cities used a 2L+4N format where "ADelaide 1234" would be dialled as AD-1234 (23-1234, a six-digit local call). A few of the largest cities, such as New York, used seven dial pulls ("PENnsylvania 5000" became PEN-5000 and later PEnnsylvania 6-5000, dialled PE6-5000 or 736-5000).

text: The initial 86 area codes were assigned in 1947 as routing codes for operator calls; the first cross-country Bell System direct distance dial call was made in 1951. The system was based on fixed-length numbers; a direct-dial long distance call consisted of a three-digit area code and a seven-digit local number. Numbers in 2L+4N cities (such as Montréal and Toronto) were systematically lengthened to seven digits in the 1950s, a few exchanges at a time, so that all local numbers were seven digits when direct distance dialling finally came to town.

text: Exchange prefixes were added to small-town numbers to extend four or five-digit local numbers to the standardised seven-digit length, matching in length the then-longest local numbers in the largest major US markets.

text: Structure[edit]

text: Within the multinational calling area administered by the North American Numbering Plan, telephone numbers are composed of three fixed-length fields: a three-digit numbering plan area (NPA) code (area code), a three-digit (NXX) central office code, and a four-digit (XXXX) station number.

text: In seven-digit dialing, only the central office code and the station number is dialed, indicating that the call destination is within the local area code. This was the standard in most of North America from the 1950s onward. In some small villages with only one local exchange, it may have been permissible to dial only the four-digit station number.

text: A long distance call within the same area code could often be dialed as 1+7D, without using an area code. The scheme relied on the second digit of an area code being 0-1 and the second digit of a local exchange being 2-9. This dialing plan was incompatible with the introduction of area code 334 and area code 360, and was therefore eliminated by January 1, 1995 in the United States, and by September 1994 in Canada. It also was eliminated as early as 1981 in some numbering plan areas in the United States that had introduced interchangeable central office codes.

text: Interchangeable central office codes are central office codes (NXXs) which, with a zero or one as the middle digit, resemble and duplicate area codes in the pre-1995 format. They were introduced to postpone area code splits in major cities such as New York City and Los Angeles, but in 1988, AT&T/Bellcore made them mandatory for area codes nearing exhaust of non-interchangeable codes. The Massachusetts 617/508 split was the last one before the policy changed—617 did not yet have interchangeable NXXs at the time. Area codes with interchangeable NXXs had mandatory 10-digit long distance dialing in order to allow exchanges to distinguish between intra- and inter-area code calls. From 1988 to 1994, few area codes splits were possible due to the dwindling supply of area codes, so conservation measures became necessary.

text: As of 1995, with the introduction of interchangeable NPA codes, nearly all code combinations are useful as NPAs or as NXXes.

text: Office code protection[edit]

text: Traditionally, identical central office codes in adjacent Numbering Plan Areas (NPAs) would be assigned as far apart from each other as possible, so that callers living near an NPA boundary would not confuse numbers in the adjacent NPAs. Central office code protection made it possible in some low density areas to use seven digits to reach areas in another area code.

text: Examples:

text:
Washington, D.C. (area code 202) to adjacent areas of Maryland (area code 301) and Virginia (area code 703), discontinued on October 1, 1990 to allow assignment of a code in all three area codes.
Hull from Ottawa before 2006, as every Ottawa-Hull local number originally was reserved in both area code 613 and 819).[1] This was terminated on 21 October 2006 to allow assignment of a code in both 613 and 819, although five central office codes associated with the federal government were protected in 819 to allow dialing without potentially reaching non-government lines.

text: Limitations[edit]

text: Area code overlay plans introduced a requirement in most areas that calls must include the area code, resulting in a 10-digit dialing requirement. Seven-digit dialing remains possible in some areas of North America.

text: Traditionally, calling from one area code to another, specifically for long distance calls, requires the caller to dial the trunk digit "1" before the code and number. More recently, with the increasing number and decreasing geographic size of area codes, it is increasingly possible to dial a number in another area code that is not long distance where such a call does require the area code, but not the trunk digit (initial "1").

text: Many modern cellular phones automatically prepend the telephone's own area code if the user enters only seven digits, sending a total of ten digits.[citation needed] In many voice-over-IP services, users can configure default handling of seven-digit dialing.

text: Timeline[edit]

text: Before 1947[edit]

text: Local numbers were of varying length depending on local provisioning of service and the technology in place. Places without dial service varied between those with "modern-looking" numbers such as an exchange name and digits (e.g. General 5678) and those with numbers that referenced a multi-party line identification (e.g. 2-R-48). New York City had the longest numbers, as two-letter-five-number.

text: The North American Numbering Plan was implemented in 1947, on paper, assigning 86 area codes to approximate areas of 48 states, D.C. and nine provinces. All area codes had a zero or one as the middle digit.

text: 1947 to 1951[edit]

text: The NANP area codes were implemented in use to allow operators to dial other operators for call completion assistance. Several cities were upgraded in this period to seven-digit (two-letter-five-number) phone numbers. As there are no letters on the 0 or 1 position, it fit with the assumption that no central office code would have a zero or one as the middle digit.

text: Direct Distance Dialing was implemented in late 1951 in Englewood, New Jersey, giving customers in that exchange the ability to directly dial phones in a select number of cities as far away as San Francisco.

text: 1951 to 1960[edit]

text: Direct distance dialing slowly was expanded to other major cities, restrained by the complexity of the technology, the time needed to expand local exchanges to seven-digit numbers, and the limited technology to compile and process billing of long distance calls without modern computers being affordable. By 1960, a few places in Canada had DDD as well as most large American cities. This decade is notable for some thirty more area codes being implemented, including codes for Alaska, Hawaii and the Caribbean.

text: 1960 to 1981[edit]

text: Major progress in provisioning DDD service, computerizing long distance billing. Few area codes were introduced during this time. Toll free 800 service was introduced. Service demands in the largest American cities of New York and greater Los Angeles resulted in the first use of interchangeable NXXes. All-number calling is implemented, replacing 2L-5N numbers. Although a very small number of places still have non-seven-digit dialing by 1981, they are extremely rare.

text: 1981 to 1994[edit]

text: New area codes are introduced, a handful in 1981-83, then status-quo for most of the time until 1990. From 1990 to 1994, all remaining assignable codes are put into service. Exhaust of NXX codes results in interchangeable NXXes in several more area codes. 1+10 digit or 10-digit dialing is implemented in area codes that have interchangeable NXX codes. Protected dialing plans as in national capital areas are discontinued to help meet demand without an area code relief. As 1994 nears an end, 1+10 or 10 becomes required throughout the numbering plan in preparation for interchangeable NPA codes.

text: All local numbers are now seven-digit, as the last technological hold-outs have given way to modern switching technology. The concept of a ten-digit local number is now conceived, as New York has an overlay code but seven-digit dialing is still the norm.

text: 1995 to present[edit]

text: Interchangeable NPA codes are introduced in Washington and Alabama, and some 40 new area codes are introduced through the year 1999 as pent-up demand for code relief is implemented. This includes two additional toll-free prefixes as the 888 code was quickly exhausted by assorted wasteful practices). Since 1999, a more steady rate of area code introductions has taken place, the rate being slower due to one or more factors: *economic recession, *consumer resistance, *conservation measures or regulatory measures, *pent-up demand being satisfied, *new market entrants leaving the business.

text: With overlays in several areas (the relief method of choice in Canada since 2000), ten-digit local numbers are now supplanting seven-digit dialing; as of 2019, only three Canadian area codes (506, 807 and 867) will still be single-code areas (no overlay) and allow seven-digit local dialing. Although fewer American area codes are overlaid, seven-digit dialing is also disappearing in the United States.


document_title: Baseboard

question_text: what do you call the trim around the floor

root

text: Baseboard

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In architecture, a baseboard (also called skirting board, skirting, mopboard, floor molding, or base molding) is usually wooden or vinyl board covering the lowest part of an interior wall.  Its purpose is to cover the joint between the wall surface and the floor. It covers the uneven edge of flooring next to the wall; protects the wall from kicks, abrasion, and furniture; and can serve as a decorative molding.[1]

tag: p

text: At its simplest, baseboard consists of a simple plank nailed, screwed or glued to the wall; however, particularly in older houses, it can be made up of a number of mouldings for decoration. A baseboard differs from a wainscot; a wainscot typically covers from the floor to around 1-1.5m high (waist or chest height), whereas a baseboard is typically under 0.2m high (ankle height).

text: Plastic baseboard comes in various plastic compounds, the most common of which is UPVC. It is usually available in white or a flexible version in several colors and is usually glued to the wall.[2] Vinyl baseboard is glued with adhesive and can be difficult to remove or to replace. It has a long lifespan, which can mean lower maintenance.[3]

text: Wooden baseboard can be available in untreated, lacquered or prepainted versions. Prepainted baseboards can be made from a single piece or finger jointed wood, often softwoods, while  hardwoods are either lacquered, or raw for staining and made from a single piece of wood.

text: Radiators are sometimes installed inside or in front of baseboards (baseboard radiators). These radiators rely on hot water as their heat source.[4] Electric heating is also used in this manner.

text: Country variations[edit]

text: Baseboards / skirting boards generally have typical variations depending on the country. For example, in China the baseboards are usually very low in height, are made of plastic or redwood, and have a very simple or unprofiled design. In contrast, in the UK there are a vast number of profiles available. These profiles are frequently named after the period when they were developed, such as Victorian or Edwardian.


document_title: The Dukes of Hazzard (film)

question_text: who played roscoe in dukes of hazzard movie

text: The Dukes of Hazzard (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Cousins Bo, Luke, and Daisy Duke run a moonshine business for their Uncle Jesse in Hazzard County, Georgia. The cousins' primary mode of transportation is an orange 1969 Dodge Charger that the boys affectionately refer to as the "General Lee". Along the way, the family is tormented by corrupt Hazzard County Commissioner Jefferson Davis Hogg, widely known as "Boss Hogg", and his willing but dimwitted henchman, Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane.

text: After Rosco has the General Lee impounded after Bo and Luke’s attempt to run away from a daughter of one their many moonshine customers, Billy Prickett, a famous stock-car driver, enters Hazzard to participate in the rally. Meanwhile, Rosco plants a fake moonshine still ("'cause he's too dumb to find the real one") in Uncle Jesse's barn and seizes the Duke property in the interest of eminent domain for Boss Hogg, forcing the family to temporarily reside with neighbor and Uncle Jesse's love-interest, Pauline. Pauline informs the Dukes that Rosco seized another farm on charges, so Bo and Luke investigate a local construction site and find geologic core samples with the help of bait-shop owner Sheev. Meanwhile, Coltrane makes arrangements to seize the General Lee as "evidence" from the local auto body shop run by the Dukes' friend Cooter Davenport, who instead turns the car into a hot rod and applies a new paint job and horn, in return for finally getting payment for all the work he has done ("...'cause that's how this works...") for the boys in the past.

text: After retrieving the General Lee before Rosco can, the Dukes go to Atlanta to visit a local university geology lab, meeting with Katie-Lynn Johnson, a Hazzard county girl and the Dukes' love interest, and her Australian roommate Annette. At the lab, they discover Boss Hogg's intentions of turning the county into a strip coal mine. They are later arrested by the Atlanta Police Department after running from campus police. Back in Hazzard, Daisy learns, with the help of Sheriff's Deputy Enos Strate, that Billy Prickett has been hired by Boss Hogg to participate in the rally as a ringer.  Boss Hogg then heads to Atlanta, where he informs the Duke boys, in lock-up, that they are too late to stop him and reveals that the vote on Hogg's proposition is at the same time as the rally, explaining Billy Prickett's involvement. During a transfer from detainment, Daisy helps the boys escape from the patrol car, and they speed home to try to inform the townsfolk, escaping Atlanta Police, and the Georgia State Patrol after Bo outmaneuvers the city cops.

text: Upon returning home, the Dukes discover that Boss Hogg and Rosco had taken Uncle Jesse and Pauline hostage, an obvious trap for the boys, and that Billy is in on the scheme because he is ashamed of the town's low status. The two race to the farmhouse to cause a distraction to the waiting Hazzard County sheriff's deputies and Georgia state troopers, while Daisy and Cooter rescue Jesse and Pauline. Meanwhile, the college girls head to the rally with Sheev to inform the townsfolk about the vote on the strip-mining ordinance. Because of Sheev's armadillo hat and lack of pants, no one listens, so Bo leaves for the rally while Luke and Jesse team up to foil the county and state police who are chasing Bo, interfering with the race. Upon crossing the finish line first, before Billy, the two continue racing back and forth all the way into town, leading the townsfolk to the courthouse just in time to vote against Boss Hogg's proposed ordinance. At the courthouse, Daisy takes advantage of the governor of Georgia's presence and TV cameras to convince him to pardoning the boys, so Uncle Jesse takes the opportunity to knock out Boss Hogg and gets a pardon for assaulting a county commissioner at the same time.

text: The final scene shows a cook-out at the Dukes' house where Pauline convinces Uncle Jesse, who could not be found because he was "using the meat smoker", to get up and play the television series' main theme. Bo and Luke are romantically involved with the girls in the General Lee when they are caught by Luke's other love-interest Laurie Pullman  from the introduction of the film, who proceeds to chase them with a shotgun as they drive away.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Johnny Knoxville as Luke Duke
Seann William Scott as Bo Duke
Jessica Simpson as Daisy Duke
Burt Reynolds as Boss Hogg
Willie Nelson as Uncle Jesse Duke
David Koechner as Cooter Davenport
M. C. Gainey as Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane
Michael Weston as Deputy Enos Strate
Lynda Carter as Pauline
James Roday as Billy Prickett
Kevin Heffernan as Derek "Sheev" Sheevington
Nikki Griffin as Katie-Lynn Johnson
Jacqui Maxwell as Annette
Alice Greczyn as Laurie Pullman
Junior Brown as The Balladeer (narrator)
Joe Don Baker as Governor Jim Applewhite
Barry Corbin as Bill Pullman
Andrew Prine as Angry Man

tag: ul

text: Cameos[edit]

text: All five members of the comedy film troupe Broken Lizard make appearances in the film, classified as cameos, except for Kevin Heffernan, who had a larger speaking role (Sheev).

text:
Steve Lemme appears as Jimmy Pullman, the son of Bill Pullman, in an early car chase scene in which he accidentally shoots the inside of his father's truck.
Jay Chandrasekhar and Erik Stolhanske reprise their roles as Ramathorn and Rabbit from the Broken Lizard comedy, Super Troopers. The characters are now campus security officers, who give a warning to the Duke boys for driving too slowly.
Paul Soter appears as TV newsman Rick Shakely, who is reporting from the Hazzard Road Rally.
Charlie Finn, who played a dimwitted fast-food employee in Super Troopers, appears as a dimwitted geology student who assists the Duke boys with the coal samples.

text:
During the bar-fight scene, Indy-car driver A. J. Foyt IV appears as himself.[citation needed]
Bloopers roll under the ending credits, one of which features Rip Taylor interrupting the bedroom scene with Luke and the two college girls. Taylor had previously appeared with Knoxville in Jackass: The Movie.

text: Production[edit]

text: Stunts[edit]

text: Knoxville said he was initially reluctant to take on the role, but was persuaded by script changes and the presence of Dan Bradley as stunt coordinator and second unit for the car chase scenes. Knoxville praised him, saying, "everyone in Hollywood wants Dan Bradley to shoot their car stuff".[1]

text: Locations[edit]

text: The majority of the film was shot in and around Clinton, Louisiana. The street scenes are set in Atlanta, but filmed in the New Orleans Central Business District, and the university scenes were shot on the campus of Louisiana State University.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was number one at the box office its opening weekend and grossed $30.7 million on 3,785 screens. It also had an adjusted-dollar rank of number 24 all-time for August releases.[2] The film eventually collected $111 million worldwide, although it was much less successful financially outside the United States.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one star, calling it a "lame-brained, outdated wheeze" and wondered that Burt Reynolds' part in the film is "karma-wise... the second half of what Smokey and the Bandit was the first half of".[3] Ebert also named it the second-worst film of the year and Richard Roeper named it the worst film of 2005.[4]

text: According to review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 14% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 168 reviews; the website's consensus called the film "A dumb, goofy, and vacuous adaptation of a TV show where plot is simply an excuse to string together the car chases." The film received an average rating of 33% on Metacritic based on 36 reviews, indicating "Generally unfavorable reviews."[5] Longtime fans of the original Dukes of Hazzard series were generally disappointed by the film.[6]

text: Awards[edit]

text: At the 26th Golden Raspberry Awards, the film received seven nominations, but did not win any.

text:
Worst Picture - lost to Dirty Love
Worst Director (Jay Chandrasekhar) - lost to John Mallory Asher for Dirty Love
Worst Screenplay (John O'Brien) - lost to Jenny McCarthy for Dirty Love
Worst Supporting Actor (Burt Reynolds) - lost to Hayden Christensen in Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith
Worst Supporting Actress (Jessica Simpson) - lost to Paris Hilton in House of Wax
Worst Screen Couple (Jessica Simpson and her Daisy Dukes) - lost to Nicole Kidman and Will Ferrell in Bewitched
Worst Remake or Sequel - lost to Son of the Mask

text: At the People's Choice Awards, Simpson won the "Favorite Song from a Movie" award for her cover of Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots Are Made For Walkin'".

text: The film was nominated for two MTV Movie Awards, including Best On-Screen Team (Johnny Knoxville, Seann William Scott, and Jessica Simpson), and Sexiest Performance (Jessica Simpson).

text: Simpson won the Choice Breakout Female award for her role in the film at the Teen Choice Awards.

text: Controversy[edit]

text:
Before the release of this film, Warner Bros. reportedly paid $17.5 million to the producer of Moonrunners, the movie that inspired the television series. This was soon followed by a claim from screenwriter Gy Waldron. The Hollywood Reporter reported that James Best, who portrayed Rosco P. Coltrane in the original series, filed suit in late July 2011 over royalties he was contracted to receive over spinoffs that "used his identity".[7]
Ben Jones, who played Cooter Davenport in the original series, criticized the film for its emphasis on sexual content, suggesting that the original series was more family-oriented and not as sexualized.[8] He called for fans of the television series to boycott the film "unless they clean it up before the August 5th release date."

text: Some have countered that the original series also contained sexual themes, primarily Catherine Bach's (Daisy Duke) much-displayed "short shorts" (which have become so ubiquitous in American culture that skimpy blue jean cutoff shorts are now often simply called "Daisy Dukes"). In a film review, a New York Daily News entertainment columnist said the movie's sex humor is "cruder" than the TV series, but that it is "nearly identical to the TV series in... its ogling of the posterior of cousin Daisy Duke."[9]

text: Although initially he commented that he enjoyed the new style of relationship between the movie versions of Bo and Luke, John Schneider, who played Bo Duke in the original series, was later asked if he saw the film and said: "My gosh... it was terrible! It wasn’t Dukes. It was true to whatever it was; I just don’t know what that was!"[10]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Jessica Simpson recorded her own version of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" (and added her own lyrics) for the soundtrack to the film The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Performed from the point of view of her character in the movie, Simpson's cover was co-produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, and was released as the soundtrack's first single in 2005. It became Simpson's fifth top-20 single in the United States and its music video drew some controversy because of its sexual imagery.[11] Both the original Ram Jam version of "Black Betty", and the Sylvia Massy produced remake by Spiderbait appear in the film. "If You Want Blood (You've Got It)" and "Shoot to Thrill" are played by AC/DC.[12]

text: Unrated Cut[edit]

text: In 2008, an unrated cut restored changes made to get a PG-13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America. The unrated cut was released on DVD, and included rated and unrated bonus features, including unrated deleted scenes and blooper scenes. This edition was not rated by the MPAA, but would have unquestionably been rated R for nudity, language, and violent driving stunts.[13]

text: Prequel[edit]

text: A prequel to the film, titled The Dukes of Hazzard: The Beginning, was released to television on March 4, 2007, and released to DVD on March 13, 2007.


document_title: Social Democratic Party (Nigeria)

question_text: who was the first national chairman of the proscribed social democratic party

text: Social Democratic Party (Nigeria)

text: Party structure and strength[edit]

text: After the banning of 13 prospective parties by the administration of Ibrahim Babangida in 1989. Some of the associations decided to re-align. The People's Front of Nigeria, People's Solidarity Party and the Nigerian Labor Party were the three main inchoate groups that emerged to form the core constituency of the new SDP. The leadership of the party was mostly dominated by Northern Nigerians, with Babagana Kingibe elected party chairman in 1990 over his rival Mohammed Arzika. On the other hand, the electoral strength of the party lain in the Yoruba states and Imo and Anambra states. The party won 57% of the Senate seats in the 1992 National Assembly election, and won 53% of the seats of the House of Representatives in the same election. The party was largely financed by the Federal Government and a few individuals, such as Shehu Musa Yar'Adua, Francis Nzeribe and M.K.O. Abiola. The first presidential primary election conducted by the party, Yar'adua collated about 480,000 votes dominating his primary opponent, Olu Falae in the first round.[1] However, those elections were cancelled by Babangida. In second primary election under an adopted system called Option A4, another financier, Abiola (a former member of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons and once a state chairman of the National Party of Nigeria) won the primary election on March 1993, after the first election was canceled. Abiola's contested the national election which was later annulled, a seemingly coherent legacy of Nigeria's swivelling and revolving door like historical political landscape.

text: Among former members, Atiku Abubakar, Jerry Gana, Abubakar Rimi, Rabiu Musa Kwankwaso, Umaru Yar'Adua, Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila, Dapo Sarumi, and Mohammed Arzika later became senior figures in the People's Democratic Party (PDP).

text: Manifesto[edit]

text: 1.Energy: The State shall supervise adequate energy supply for both industrial and social purposes

text: 2. Rural Development: The State shall be committed to the reduction of rural poverty and rural-urban migrations through support for community organizations and community development.

text: 3. Mining and Petrochemicals: The State shall exclusively ensure a responsible and controlled exploitation of mineral resources.

text: 4. Labour, Employment and Wages. There shall be representation of Labour in all organs of government dealing with the affairs of the working people. SDP shall improve workers' welfare, the unemployment situation and the quality of industrial arbitration.

text: 5. Education: SDP shall ultimately provide free education programs at all levels. SDP shall integrate in the formal system the political education of the citizenry.

text: 6. Defense: SDP shall encourage as a deliberate policy of self reliance, local production of arms and military armament as well as exploring the possibilities of setting up armament industries in locations within the country.

text: 7. Police: SDP shall launch an in house political education of among the police to change their attitude to the state, perception of their and obligations and relations with the citizenry.

text: SDP Revived[edit]

text: After the ban on old SDP as part of democratic process of Major General Ibrahim Babangida. A new merger party emerged in the name of SDP was formed by coalition of 13 political party.[2][3]  The revived party contested for various political posts in the 2015 Nigerian general elections conducted election[4] except the President which conceded to People's Democratic Party candidate Ex- President Goodluck Jonathan[5][6]

text: Ideology of the Revived Party[edit]

text: According to Chief Olu Falae,[7] SDP was created to mount pressure on the two prominent Parties in Nigeria People's Democratic Party and All Progressive Congress. And also provide credible alternative to Nigerians, as the SDP predates but the APC and PDP and has a rich history of winning elections in Nigeria.

text: Reasons for the Reviving of the Party[edit]

text:
In furtherance of the CREDIBLE demeocratic ideas of the SDP after the mass endosement by the Nigerian electorate in June 12 General Election of 1993
To be the third political platform that will attract Credible, Competent and Dynamic Leaders into governance
A platform that will truly fight corruption in Nigeria and enthrone the RULE OF LAW
A congregation of patriot and social Democrats that will give the people TRUE REPRESENTATION
A Rebirth of an Idological Party with structured deliverables for the people
A truly National Party for all Nigerian devoid of Imposition and Impunity
An inclusive Party that opens its political space for Young Nigerians to further their political aspirations
A party this is Gender Sensitive and also in Affirmative standing with people with Disability
A Party that will unify the Nigerian people and give voice and action to their aspirations and desires


document_title: Ice house (building)

question_text: how did they get ice in ancient rome

question_tokens: how did they get ice in ancient rome

text: Ice house (building)

text: History[edit]

text: A cuneiform tablet from c. 1780 BC records the construction of an icehouse in the northern Mesopotamian town of Terqa by Zimri-Lim, the King of Mari, "which never before had any king built."[2] In China, archaeologists have found remains of ice pits from the seventh century BC, and references suggest they were in use before 1100 BC. Alexander the Great around 300 BC stored snow in pits dug for that purpose. In Rome in the third century AD, snow was imported from the mountains, stored in straw-covered pits, and sold from snow shops. The ice formed in the bottom of the pits sold at a higher price than the snow on top.[3]

text: In the UK[edit]

text: Ice was often imported into the UK from Scandinavia up until the 1950s. Usually only large mansions had purpose-built buildings to store ice. Many examples of ice houses exist in the UK, some of which have fallen into disrepair. Good examples of 19th-century ice houses can be found at Ashton Court, Bristol, Albrighton, Bridgnorth, Grendon, Warwickshire, and at Christchurch Mansion, Ipswich, Suffolk, Petworth House, Sussex, Danny House, Sussex, Ayscoughfee Hall, Spalding, Rufford Abbey, Eglinton Country Park in Scotland, Parlington Hall in Yorkshire and Croxteth Hall Liverpool, Burghley House, Stamford. An unusual example of an ice house that was converted from a redundant brick springhead can be found in the former grounds of Norton House, Midsomer Norton, Somerset.[4]

text: The ice house was introduced to Britain around 1660. Various types and designs of ice house exist. However, British ice houses were commonly brick lined, domed structures, with most of their volume underground. Ice houses varied in design depending on the date and builder, but were mainly conical or rounded at the bottom to hold melted ice. They usually had a drain to take away any water. It is recorded that the idea for ice houses was brought to Britain by travellers who had seen similar arrangements in Italy, where peasants collected ice from the mountains and used it to keep food fresh inside caves.[5] Ice houses may also be known as ice wells, ice pits or ice mounds.

text: Game larders and venison larders were sometimes marked on Ordnance Survey maps as ice houses.

text: Bruce Walker, an expert on Scottish Vernacular buildings, has suggested that the relatively numerous and usually long ruined ice houses on country estates have led to Scotland's many legends of secret tunnels. The appearance of ice house entrances lends itself to the uninitiated making such deductions, seeing as how ice houses are found in ha-ha walls, house and stable basements, woodland banks, open fields, etc.[6]

text: In the Republic of Ireland[edit]

text: In 1985 a passage was discovered beneath Ardgillan Castle, Co. Dublin, in the Republic of Ireland. This passage was found to be the ice house that was known to exist on the grounds, but whose location had not been rediscovered until this date.[7]

text: In the U.S.[edit]

text: Ice houses allowed a trade in ice that was a major part of the early economy of the New England region of the United States, which saw fortunes made by people who shipped ice in straw-packed ships to the southern U.S. and throughout the Caribbean Sea. Most notably was Frederic Tudor (known as Boston's Ice King) who formed the Tudor Ice Company in the early 19th century. In winter months, ice was chopped from a lake surface and often dragged by sled to the ice house. In summer months icemen delivered it to residences in ice-wagons, where it would be stored in an icebox, which was used much like a modern refrigerator.

text: As home and business refrigeration became more common, ice houses disappeared. The home ice delivery business declined, and was virtually gone by the late 1960s. Smaller ice houses, usually no more than a sawdust pile covered by a makeshift roof or tarpaulin, continued to be maintained to store ice for use in local events such as fairs. Today, most ice for daily consumption is made in a home freezer, while bulk ice is manufactured, distributed and sold like other retail commodities.

text: Southern ice houses[edit]

text: In Texas, former ice houses are a cultural tradition. Ice merchants diversified to sell groceries and cold beer, serving as early convenience stores and local gathering places. The widespread US 7-Eleven convenience store chain developed from ice houses operated by the Southland ice manufacturing company in Dallas and San Antonio in the 1930s, which were first known as Tote'm stores.[8] Today many Texas ice houses have converted into open-air bars. In central Texas, southeast Texas (especially the Houston area), and the Texas Hill Country, the word "icehouse" has become a colloquialism for an establishment that derives the majority of its income from the sale of cold beer.[9]

text: Southland was not the only company in the Southern U.S. to develop a convenience-store corporation from an ice business. Munford, Incorporated, of Atlanta, Georgia, began in the early 20th century by vending both ice and coal from mule-drawn wagons, as the Atlantic Ice and Coal Company.[10] By the 1970s, Munford, Inc., operated a large chain of convenience stores with the name Majik Market. (The company was sold in 1988 and filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990.)[11]

text: Persia[edit]

text: While most European and U.S. ice houses conserve ice merely by insulation, elsewhere evaporative cooling techniques have been used. One ancient type of cooling structure is the Persian Yakhchāl.


document_title: Smallest organisms

question_text: what is the smallest vertebrate in the world

text: Smallest organisms

text: Microorganisms[edit]

text: Viruses[edit]

text: Many biologists consider viruses to be non-living because they lack a cellular structure and cannot metabolize by themselves, requiring a host cell to replicate and synthesize new products. A minority of scientists hold that, because viruses do have genetic material and can employ the metabolism of their host, they can be considered organisms. As well, an emerging idea that is gaining traction among some virologists is the concept of the virocell, in which the actual phenotype of a virus is the infected cell, and the virus particle is simply a reproductive or dispersal stage, much like pollen or a spore.[1]

text: The smallest viruses in terms of genome size are single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. Perhaps the most famous is the bacteriophage Phi-X174 with a genome size of 5386 nucleotides.[2]  However, some ssDNA viruses can be even smaller. For example, Porcine circovirus type 1 has a genome of only 1759 nucleotides[3] and a capsid diameter of only 17 nm.[4] As a whole, the viral family geminiviridae is only about 30 nm in length. However, the two capsids making up the virus are fused; divided, the capsids would be 15 nm in length. Other environmentally characterized ssDNA viruses such as CRESS DNA viruses as well as others can have genomes that are considerably less that 2,000 nucleotides.[5][6]

text: The smallest RNA viruses in terms of genome size are small retroviruses such as rous sarcoma virus with genomes of 3.5 kilo base pairs (kb) and particle diameters of 80 nanometres (nm). The smallest double stranded DNA viruses are the hepadnaviruses such as Hepatitis B, at 3.2 kb and 42 nm; parvoviruses have smaller capsids, at 18-26 nm, but larger genomes, at 5 kb. It is important to consider other self replicating genetic elements, such as satelliviruses, viroids and ribozymes.

text: Obligate endosymbiotic bacteria[edit]

text: The genome of Nasuia deltocephalinicola, a symbiont of the European pest leafhopper, Macrosteles quadripunctulatus consists of a circular chromosome of 112,031 base pairs.[7]

text: Nanoarchaeum equitans's genome is 490,885 nucleotides long.

text: Pelagibacter ubique[edit]

text: Pelagibacter ubique is one of the smallest known free-living bacterium with a length of 0.37-0.89 μm and an average cell diameter of 0.12-0.20 μm. They also have the smallest free-living bacterium genome; 1.8Mbp, 1354 protein genes, 35 RNA genes. They are one of the most common and smallest organisms in the ocean, with their total weight equaling more than all fish presently in the sea.[8]

text: Mycoplasma genitalium[edit]

text: Mycoplasma genitalium, a parasitic bacterium which lives in the primate bladder, waste disposal organs, genital, and respiratory tracts, is thought to be the smallest known organism capable of independent growth and reproduction. With a size of approximately 200 to 300 nm, M. genitalium is an ultramicrobacterium, smaller than other small bacteria, including rickettsia and chlamydia. However, the vast majority of bacterial strains have not been studied, and the marine ultramicrobacteria Sphingomonas sp strain RB2256 is reported to have passed through a 220 nm ultrafilter. A complicating factor is nutrient-downsized bacteria, bacteria that become much smaller due to a lack of available nutrients.[9]

text: Nanoarchaeum[edit]

text: Nanoarchaeum equitans is a species of tiny microbe 400 nm in diameter. It was discovered in 2002 in a hydrothermal vent off the coast of Iceland by Karl Stetter. A thermophile that grows in near-boiling temperatures, Nanoarchaeum appears to be an obligatory symbiont on the archaeon Ignicoccus; it must be in contact with the host organism to survive.

text: Eukaryotes[edit]

text: Prasinophyte algae of the genus Ostreococcus is the smallest free-living eukaryote. The single cell of an Ostreococcus measures only 0.8 μm across.

text: Animals[edit]

text: Several species of Myxozoa never grow larger than 20 µm.[10] One of the smallest species (Myxobolus shekel) is no more than 8.5 µm when fully grown.[11]

text: Molluscs[edit]

text: The smallest water snail (of all snails) is Ammonicera minortalis in North America, originally described from Cuba. It measures 0.32 to 0.46 mm.[12][13]

text: The smallest land snail is Acmella nana. Discovered in Borneo, Malaysia, and described in November 2015, it measures only 0.7 mm.[14] The previous record was that of Angustopila dominikae from China, which was reported in September 2015. This snail measures 0.86 mm.[15]

text: Arthropods[edit]

text: Smallest crustacean[edit]

text: The smallest crustacean, and indeed the smallest arthropod, is the tantulocarid Stygotantulus stocki, at a length of only 94 μm (0.0037 in).[16]

text: Arachnids[edit]

text: Eriophyid mites measure 125 to 250 μm in length.[17]

text: Insects[edit]

text: Adult males of the parasitic wasp Dicopomorpha echmepterygis can be as small as 139 μm long, smaller than some species of protozoa (single-cell creatures); females are 40% larger.[18]

text: Megaphragma caribea from Guadeloupe, measuring 170 μm long, is another contender for smallest known insect in the world.

text: Beetles

text: Beetles of the tribe Nanosellini are all less than 1 mm long; the smallest confirmed specimen is of Scydosella musawasensis at 325 μm long; a few other nanosellines are reportedly smaller, in historical literature, but none of these records have been confirmed using accurate modern tools. These are among the tiniest non-parasitic insects.[19]

text: Butterflies

text: The western pygmy blue (Brephidium exilis) is one of the smallest butterflies in the world.

text: Echinoderms[edit]

text:
The smallest sea cucumber, and also the smallest echinoderm, is Psammothuria ganapati, a synaptid that lives between sand grains on the coast of India. Its maximum length is only 4 mm.[20]
[21]

text: Sea urchins[edit]

text: The smallest sea urchin, Echinocyamus scaber, has a test only 6 mm across.[21]

text: Starfish[edit]

text: Patiriella parvivipara is the smallest starfish, at only 5 mm across.[21]

text: Vertebrates[edit]

text: The smallest vertebrates (and smallest amphibians) known are Paedophryne amauensis frogs from Papua New Guinea, which range in length from 7.0–8.0 millimetres (0.28–0.31 in), and average 7.7 millimetres (0.30 in).[22][23] Previously, the title of smallest vertebrate was held by members of the fish genus Paedocypris of Indonesia.

text: Fish[edit]

text: The world's smallest fish based on the minimum size at maturity is Paedocypris progenetica from Indonesia, with mature females measuring as little as 7.9 mm (0.31 in) in standard length.[24] This fish, a member of the carp family, has a translucent body and a head unprotected by a skeleton.

text: Male individuals of the anglerfish species Photocorynus spiniceps have been documented to be 6.2–7.3 millimetres (0.24–0.29 in) at maturity, and thus claimed to be a smaller species. However, these survive only by sexual parasitism and the female individuals reach the significantly larger size of 50.5 millimetres (1.99 in).[25][26][27][28]

text: Amphibians[edit]

text: Salamanders[edit]

text: The average snout-to-vent length of several specimens of the salamander Thorius arboreus was only 17 millimetres (0.67 in).

text: Frogs[edit]

text: Frogs include the smallest vertebrates known. The smallest known frog species is Paedophryne amauensis, with a snout-vent length reported as 7.7 mm, which occurs among leaf-litter in the tropical montane forests of New Guinea. Other very small frogs include Brachycephalus didactylus from Brazil (reported as 9.6-9.8 mm), several species of Eleutherodactylus such as Eleutherodactylus iberia (around 10mm) from Cuba, Gardiner's Frog Sechellophryne gardineri from the Seychelles (up to 11 mm), several species of Stumpffia such as Stumpffia tridactyla and Stumpffia pygmaea from Madagascar, and the Rough Moss-frog Arthroleptella rugosa of South Africa (11.9 - 14.1 mm). In general these extremely small frogs occur in tropical forest and montane environments. There is relatively little data on size variation among individuals, growth from metamorphosis to adulthood or size variation among populations in these species. Additional studies and the discovery of further minute frog species are likely to change the rank order of this list.

text: Reptiles[edit]

text: Lizards[edit]

text:
The dwarf gecko (Sphaerodactylus ariasae) and the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero (S. parthenopion), two geckos in the genus Sphaerodactylus, are the world's smallest known reptile species and smallest lizard, with a snout-vent length of 16 millimetres (0.63 in).[29] A few Brookesia chameleons from Madagascar are equally small, with a reported snout-vent length of 15–18  millimetres for male dwarf chameleons (B. minima), 14–19  millimetres for male Mount d'Ambre leaf chameleons (B. tuberculata)[30] and 15–16  millimetres for male B. micra,[31] though females are larger.
Of the aforementioned geckos, S. ariasae was first described in 2001 by the biologists Blair Hedges and Richard Thomas. This dwarf gecko is endangered and lives in Jaragua National Park in the Dominican Republic and on Beata Island (Isla Beata), off the southern coast of Hispaniola in the Dominican Republic.[32][33]

text: Turtles[edit]

text: The world's smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise (Homopus signatus) from South Africa. The males measure 6–8 cm (2.4–3.1 in), while females measure up to almost 10 cm (3.9 in).[34]

text: Crocodilians[edit]

text: The smallest crocodilian is the Cuvier's dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus) from northern and central South America. It reaches up to 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in length.[35]

text: Snakes[edit]

text: One of the smallest snakes known is the recently discovered Barbados threadsnake (Leptotyphlops carlae). Adults average about 10 cm (3.9 in) long, which is only about twice as long as the hatchlings.

text: Dinosaurs[edit]

text: The smallest known dinosaur (excluding modern birds) is Anchiornis, a genus of feathered dinosaur that lived in what is now China during the Late Jurassic Period 160 to 155 million years ago. Adult specimens range from 34 cm (13 in) long, and the weight has been estimated at up to 110 g (3.9 oz).[36] Nevertheless, sizes of dinosaurs are commonly labelled with a level of uncertainty, as the available material often (or even usually) is incomplete.

text: Birds[edit]

text: With a mass of approximately 1.8 grams (0.063 oz) and a length of 5 centimetres (2.0 in), the bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) is the world's smallest bird species and the smallest warm-blooded vertebrate. Called the zunzún in its native habitat on Cuba, it is lighter than a Canadian or U.S. penny. It is said that it is "more apt to be mistaken for a bee than a bird".[37] The bee hummingbird eats half its total body mass and drinks eight times its total body mass each day. Its nest is 3 cm across.

text: Mammals[edit]

text: The vulnerable Kitti's hog-nosed bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyai), also known as the bumblebee bat, from Thailand and Myanmar[38] is the smallest mammal, at 3–4 centimetres (1.2–1.6 in) in length and 1.5–2 grams (0.053–0.071 oz) in weight.

text: The Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus), is the smallest mammal by mass, weighing only about 1.8 g (0.063 oz) on average. The bumblebee bat has a smaller skull size. The smallest mammal that ever lived, the shrew-like Batodonoides vanhouteni, weighed only 1.3 grams (0.046 oz).

text: Rodents[edit]

text: The smallest member of the rodent order is the Baluchistan pygmy jerboa, with an average body length of only 4.4 cm (1.7 in).[39]

text: Carnivorans[edit]

text: The smallest member of the order Carnivora is the least weasel (Mustela nivalis), with an average body length of 114–260 mm (4.5-10.2 in). It weighs between 29.5 – 250 grams with females being lighter.

text: Marsupials[edit]

text: The smallest marsupial is the Long-tailed planigale from Australia. It has a body length of 110–130 millimetres (4.3–5.1 in) (including tail) and weigh 4.3 grams (0.15 oz) on average.

text: The Pilbara ningaui is considered to be of similar size and weight.[39]

text: Primates[edit]

text: The smallest member of the primate order is Madame Berthe's mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae), found in Madagascar,[40] with an average body length of 92 mm (3.6 in).

text: Cetaceans[edit]

text: The smallest cetacean, which is also (as of 2006) the most endangered, is the vaquita. Male vaquitas grow to an average of around 135 cm (53 in); the females are slightly longer, averaging about 141 cm (55 in) in length.

text: Plants[edit]

text: Flowering plants (angiosperms)[edit]

text: Duckweeds of the genus Wolffia are the world's smallest flowering plants.[41] Fully grown, they measure only 300 µm by 600 µm and reach a mass of just 150 µg.

text: Other[edit]

text: Nanobes[edit]

text:
Nanobes are thought by some scientists to be the smallest known organisms[42]
about one tenth the size of the smallest known bacteria. Nanobes, tiny filamental structures first found in some rocks and sediments, were first described in 1996 by Philippa Uwins of the University of Queensland.