document_title: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

question_text: who chooses the speaker of the house of representatives

text: Selection[edit]

text: The House of Representatives elects the Speaker of the House on the first day of every new Congress and in the event of the death, resignation or removal from the Chair of an incumbent Speaker.[5] The Clerk of the House of Representatives requests nominations: there are normally two, one from each major party (each party having previously met to decide on its nominee). The Clerk then calls the roll of the Representatives, each Representative indicating the surname of the candidate the Representative is supporting. Representatives are not restricted to voting for one of the nominated candidates and may vote for any person, even for someone who is not a member of the House at all. They may also abstain by voting "present".[6]

text: Although no rule exists, based on tradition and practice from the earliest days of the nation, to be elected speaker a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, i.e. excluding those who abstain. If no candidate wins such a majority, then the roll call is repeated until a speaker is elected. The last time repeated votes were required was in 1923, when the Speaker was elected on the ninth ballot.[6]

text: The new Speaker is then sworn in by the Dean of the United States House of Representatives, the chamber's longest-serving member.

text: In modern practice, the Speaker is chosen by the majority party from among its senior leaders either when a vacancy in the office arrives or when the majority party changes. Previous Speakers have been minority leaders (when the majority party changes, as they are already the House party leader, and as the minority leader are usually their party's nominee for Speaker), or majority leaders (upon departure of the current Speaker in the majority party), assuming that the party leadership hierarchy is followed. In the past, other candidates have included chairpersons of influential standing committees.

text: So far, the Democrats have always elevated their minority leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority control of the House. However, Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, Republicans bypassed James Robert Mann, R-IL, who had been Minority Leader for eight years, and elected a backbencher representative, Frederick H. Gillett, R-MA, to be Speaker. Mann had "angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor," and was also a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon (R-IL18) who had been Speaker from 1903 to 1911, and was still in the House. Many members "suspected that he [Mann] would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker."[7] More recently, although Robert H. Michel was Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the "Contract with America", which was unveiled six weeks before Election Day. Michel opted not to seek re-election because he had been isolated in the caucus by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich and other younger and more aggressive Congressmen.

text: It is expected that members of the House vote for their party's candidate. If they do not, they usually vote for someone else in their party or vote "present". Those who vote for the other party's candidate often face serious consequences, up to and including the loss of seniority. The last instance where a representative voted for the other party's candidate was in 2000, when Democrat Jim Traficant of Ohio voted for Republican Dennis Hastert. In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority and he lost all of his committee posts.

text: If the Speaker's party loses control of the House in an election, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has historically had one less leadership position after losing the Speaker's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions; upon losing control of the House after the 2010 election, the Democrats created the position of Assistant Democratic Leader in order to prevent such a contest. Most Speakers whose party has lost control of the House have not returned to the party leadership (Tom Foley lost his seat, Dennis Hastert returned to the backbenches and resigned from the House in late 2007). However, Speakers Joseph William Martin, Jr. and Sam Rayburn did seek the post of Minority Leader in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker who was elected Minority Leader, after the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections.

text: History[edit]

text: The first Speaker was Frederick Muhlenberg: he was elected as a Pro-Administration candidate to the 1st Congress, an Anti-Administration candidate to the 2nd and 3rd Congresses, and a Republican candidate to the 4th Congress,[8] according to the Biographical Directory of Congress, though Oswald Seidensticker wrote that he was elected as a Federalist for the first four Congresses.[9]

text: The position of Speaker started to gain its partisan role and its power in legislative development under Henry Clay (1811–1814, 1815–1820, and 1823–1825).[10] In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates, and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported—for instance, the declaration of the War of 1812, and various laws relating to Clay's "American System" economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election causing the President to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson, thereby ensuring Adams' victory. Following Clay's retirement in 1825, the power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for Speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. During this time, Speakers tended to have very short tenures. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven Speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. To date, James K. Polk is the only Speaker of the House later elected President of the United States.

text: Towards the end of the 19th century, the office of Speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the Speaker's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules, which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of the House. Furthermore, several Speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall, John Griffin Carlisle, and Charles F. Crisp, and Republicans James G. Blaine, Thomas Brackett Reed, and Joseph Gurney Cannon.

text: The power of the Speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889–1891, 1895–1899). "Czar Reed", as he was called by his opponents,[11] sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the "disappearing quorum".[12] By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved, and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for the purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda.

text: The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903–1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed the Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined together to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee.[13] Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of the lost influence of the position.

text: One of the most influential Speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn.[14] Rayburn was the longest-serving Speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Rayburn's successor, Democrat John William McCormack (served 1962–1971), was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert. The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the Speaker was granted the authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the Speaker.

text: Albert's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill, was a prominent Speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan. O'Neill is the longest continually serving Speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill the target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years.

text: The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the "Contract with America", an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich. Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton, leading to the United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as Speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert, had been chosen as a compromise candidate, since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert played a much less prominent role than other contemporary Speakers, being overshadowed by House Majority Leader Tom DeLay and President George W. Bush. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001–2002 and 2003–2007 were the first times since 1953–1955 that there was single-party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001–2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51-49 majority.

text: In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats won a majority in the House. Nancy Pelosi became Speaker when the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, making her the first female to hold the office. With the election of Barack Obama as President and Democratic gains in both houses of Congress, Pelosi became the first Speaker since Tom Foley to hold the office during single-party Democratic leadership in Washington.[15] During the 111th Congress, Pelosi was the driving force behind several of Obama's major initiatives that proved controversial, and the Republicans campaigned against the Democrats' legislation by staging a "Fire Pelosi" bus tour[16] and regained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections. House Minority Leader John Boehner was elected as Speaker.[17]

text: Notable elections[edit]

text:
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text: Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin the speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the "Broad Seal War". Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit a speakership election with the opposite party's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a Speaker was finally chosen on December 17.

text: Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress. The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under a bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican, American (Know Nothing), and simply "Opposition". By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of the 234 Representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as Speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for Speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentiss Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as a Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the Speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected.[19] The House found itself in a similar dilemma when the 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman, was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a Speaker for several months. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N. H. Smith, Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey, a former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected Speaker at the end of January 1860.[20]

text: The last speakership elections in which the House had to vote more than once occurred in the 65th and 72nd United States Congress. In 1917, neither the Republican nor the Democratic candidate could attain a majority because three members of the Progressive Party and other individual members of other parties voted for their own party. The Republicans had a plurality in the House but James "Champ" Clark remained Speaker of the House because of the support of the Progressive Party members. In 1931, both the Republicans and the Democrats had 217 members with the Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party having one member who served as the deciding vote. The Farmer-Labor Party eventually voted for the Democrats' candidate for Speaker, John Nance Garner, who later became Vice President under Franklin Roosevelt.

text: In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for Speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then Minority Leader) as Speaker. After the 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay, chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee, Bob Livingston, declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him Speaker-designate. It was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton's perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as Speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in the 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections.

text: The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi, who was then Minority Leader, was selected as Speaker-designate by House Democrats.[21] When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd Speaker by a vote of 233-202, becoming the first woman elected Speaker of the House.[22] Pelosi remained Speaker through the 111th Congress. For the 112th Congress, Republican John Boehner was unanimously designated Speaker-designate by House Republicans and was elected the 53rd Speaker of the House. As a show of dissent, nineteen Democratic representatives voted for Democrats other than Pelosi, who had been chosen as House Minority Leader and the Democrats' candidate for Speaker.

text: Partisan role[edit]

text: The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the Speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on a clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster-style legislatures, such as the Speaker of the British House of Commons, which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The Speaker in the United States, by tradition, is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the Majority Leader. However, despite having the right to vote, the Speaker usually does not participate in debate and rarely votes.

text: The Speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the Speaker may use their power to determine when each bill reaches the floor. They also chair the majority party's steering committee in the House. While the Speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the President pro tempore of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary.

text: When the Speaker and the President belong to the same party, the Speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very low-key role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush. Nevertheless, there are times when the Speaker plays a much larger role if the President is a fellow member of their party, and thus, the Speaker is tasked with pushing through the agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic-Republican Henry Clay, who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic-Republican John Quincy Adams. Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt) was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama.[23] The Republicans campaigned against Pelosi and the Democrats' legislation with their "Fire Pelosi" bus tour.[16]

text: On the other hand, when the Speaker and the President belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the Speaker tend to increase. As the highest-ranking member of the opposition party (and de facto Leader of the Opposition), the Speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the President's agenda. In this scenario, the Speaker is known for undercutting the President's agenda by blocking measures by the minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland), a Speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led the conservative "Old Guard" wing of the Republican Party, while his President – Theodore Roosevelt – was of the more progressive clique, and more than just marginalizing the Democrats, Cannon used his power to punish the dissidents in his party and obstruct the progressive wing of the Republican Party.

text: More modern examples include Tip O'Neill, who was a vocal opponent of President Ronald Reagan's economic and defense policies; Newt Gingrich, who fought a bitter battle with President Bill Clinton for control of domestic policy; Nancy Pelosi, who argued with President George W. Bush over the Iraq War;[17] and John Boehner, who clashed with President Barack Obama over budget issues and health care.[24]

text: Presiding officer[edit]

text: As presiding officer of the House of Representatives, the Speaker holds a variety of powers over the House and is ceremonially the highest-ranking legislative official in the US government.[25] The Speaker may delegate his powers to a member of the House to act as Speaker pro tempore and preside over the House in the Speaker's absence; when this has occurred the delegation has always been to a member of the same party.[26] During important debates, the Speaker pro tempore is ordinarily a senior member of the majority party who may be chosen for his skill in presiding. At other times, more junior members may be assigned to preside to give them experience with the rules and procedures of the House. The Speaker may also designate, with approval of the House, a Speaker pro tempore for special purposes, such as designating a Representative whose district is near Washington, D.C. to sign enrolled bills during long recesses.

text: Under the Rules of the House, the Speaker, "as soon as practicable after the election of the Speaker and whenever appropriate thereafter," must deliver to the Clerk of the House a confidential list of Members who are designated to act as Speaker in the case of a vacancy or physical inability of the Speaker to perform their duties.[27]

text: On the floor of the House, the presiding officer is always addressed as "Mister Speaker" or "Madam Speaker," even if it is a Speaker pro tempore, and not the Speaker themselves. When the House resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole, the Speaker designates a member to preside over the Committee as the Chairman, who is addressed as "Mister Chairman" or "Madam Chairwoman." To speak, members must seek the presiding officer's recognition. The presiding officer also rules on all points of order but such rulings may be appealed to the whole House. The Speaker is responsible for maintaining decorum in the House and may order the Sergeant-at-Arms to enforce House rules.

text: The Speaker's powers and duties extend beyond presiding in the chamber. In particular, the Speaker has great influence over the committee process. The Speaker selects nine of the thirteen members of the powerful Committee on Rules, subject to the approval of the entire majority party. The leadership of the minority party chooses the remaining four members. Furthermore, the Speaker appoints all members of select committees and conference committees. Moreover, when a bill is introduced, the Speaker determines which committee will consider it. As a member of the House, the Speaker is entitled to participate in debate and to vote but, by custom, only does so in exceptional circumstances. Ordinarily, the Speaker votes only when the Speaker's vote would be decisive or on matters of great importance, such as constitutional amendments or major legislation.[28]

text: Other functions[edit]

text: Because joint sessions and joint meetings of Congress are held in the House chamber, the Speaker presides over joint sessions to hear addresses by the President, and joint meetings to hear addresses from foreign leaders or other invited guests. However, the Twelfth Amendment and 3 U.S.C. § 15 require that the President of the Senate preside over joint sessions of Congress assembled to count electoral votes and to certify the results of a presidential election.

text: The Speaker is also responsible for overseeing the officers of the House: the Clerk, the Sergeant-at-Arms, the Chief Administrative Officer, and the Chaplain. The Speaker can dismiss any of these officers. The Speaker appoints the House Historian and the General Counsel and, jointly with the Majority and Minority Leaders, appoints the House Inspector General.

text: The Speaker is second in the presidential line of succession, immediately after the Vice President, under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. The Speaker is followed in the line of succession by the President pro tempore of the Senate and by the heads of federal executive departments.

text: To date, the implementation of the Presidential Succession Act has never been necessary and no Speaker has ever acted as President. Implementation of the law almost became necessary in 1973 after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew. At the time, many believed that President Richard Nixon would resign because of the Watergate scandal, allowing Speaker Carl Albert to succeed to the Presidency. However, before he resigned, Nixon appointed Gerald Ford as Vice President in accordance with the Twenty-fifth Amendment. Nevertheless, the United States government takes the Speaker's place in the line of succession seriously enough that, for example, following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Speakers used military jets to fly back and forth to their districts and for other travel until Speaker Boehner discontinued the practice in 2011. The Speaker of the House is one of the officers to whom declarations of presidential inability or ability to resume the Presidency must be addressed under the Twenty-fifth Amendment.

text: List of Speakers of the United States House of Representatives[edit]

text: Recent election results[edit]

text: To be elected as Speaker, a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, excluding those who abstain.[29]

text: January 2011[edit]

text: Source: Election of the Speaker Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. January 5, 2011.

text:
Candidate
Votes
%

✓ John Boehner (R)
242
55.6%

Nancy Pelosi (D)
173
40.0%

Heath Shuler (D)
11
2.5%

John Lewis (D)
2
0.5%

Dennis Cardoza (D)
1
0.2%

Jim Costa (D)
1
0.2%

Jim Cooper (D)
1
0.2%

Steny Hoyer (D)
1
0.2%

Marcy Kaptur (D)
1
0.2%

Total
433
100.0%

"Present"
1
0.2%

Not voting
1
0.2%

text: January 2013[edit]

text: Source: Election of the Speaker Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. January 3, 2013.

text:
Candidate
Votes
%

✓ John Boehner (R)
220
50.8%

Nancy Pelosi (D)
192
44.3%

Eric Cantor (R)
3
0.7%

Jim Cooper (D)
2
0.5%

Allen West (R)[a]
2
0.5%

Justin Amash (R)
1
0.2%

John Dingell (D)
1
0.2%

Jim Jordan (R)
1
0.2%

Raul Labrador (R)
1
0.2%

John Lewis (D)
1
0.2%

Colin Powell (R)[a]
1
0.2%

David Walker (R)[a]
1
0.2%

Total
426
100.0%

"Present"
1
0.2%

Not voting
6
1.4%

Vacant
2
0.5%

text: January 2015[edit]

text: Source: Election of the Speaker Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. January 6, 2015.

text:
Candidate
Votes
%

✓ John Boehner (R)
216
52.9%

Nancy Pelosi (D)
164
40.2%

Dan Webster (R)
12
2.9%

Louie Gohmert (R)
3
0.7%

Ted Yoho (R)
2
0.5%

Jim Jordan (R)
2
0.5%

Jeff Duncan (R)
1
0.2%

Rand Paul (R)[a]
1
0.2%

Colin Powell (R)[a]
1
0.2%

Trey Gowdy (R)
1
0.2%

Kevin McCarthy (R)
1
0.2%

Jim Cooper (D)
1
0.2%

Peter DeFazio (D)
1
0.2%

Jeff Sessions (R)[a]
1
0.2%

John Lewis (D)
1
0.2%

Total
408
100.0%

"Present"
1
0.2%

Not voting
25
5.7%

Vacant
1
0.2%

text: October 2015[edit]

text: On September 25, 2015, Speaker Boehner formally announced to the Republican congressional caucus of his intention to resign from the House on October 30, 2015, which necessitated an election for a new speaker before that time.[30] The election was held on October 29.[31]

text:
Candidate
Votes
%

✓ Paul Ryan (R)
236
54.3%

Nancy Pelosi (D)
184
42.3%

Dan Webster (R)
9
2.0%

Colin Powell (R)[a]
1
0.2%

Jim Cooper (D)
1
0.2%

John Lewis (D)
1
0.2%

Total
432

Not voting
3

Vacant
0

text: January 2017[edit]

text:
Candidate
Votes
%

✓ Paul Ryan (R)
239
55.2%

Nancy Pelosi (D)
189
43.6%

Tim Ryan (D)
2
0.5%

Jim Cooper (D)
1
0.2%

John Lewis (D)
1
0.2%

Dan Webster (R)
1
0.2%

Total
433

Not voting
2

Vacant
0


document_title: New Jersey v. T. L. O.

question_text: who won the new jersey v tlo case

question_tokens: who won the new jersey v tlo case

root

text: New Jersey v. T. L. O.

text: Background[edit]

text: A teacher at Piscataway High School in New Jersey, upon discovering respondent, then a 14-year-old freshman, and her companion smoking cigarettes in a school lavatory in violation of a school rule, took them to the Principal's office, where they met with the Assistant Vice Principal. When respondent, in response to the Assistant Vice Principal's questioning, denied that she had been smoking and claimed that she did not smoke at all, the Assistant Vice Principal demanded to see her purse. After TLO was forced to hand over the purse, he observed a pack of cigarettes. Assistant Vice Principal Choplick kept searching through the purse because rolling papers were in plain view, and his search revealed a small amount of marijuana, rolling papers, a pipe, empty plastic bags, a large quantity of money in $1 bills, an index card that appeared to list students who owed TLO money, and two letters that implicated TLO in dealing marijuana. The principal then called the police and the girl's mother, who voluntarily drove her to the police station. She was convicted of dealing and use of illicit drugs. She was expelled from the school and fined $1,000.

tag: p

text: Court decision[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of the United States, in a 6–3 decision issued by Justice White, balancing between the individual's—even a child's—legitimate expectation of privacy and the school's interest in maintaining order and discipline, held for the appellant (the state). According to school officials, they do require a "reasonable suspicion" to perform a search.

text: Her possession of any cigarettes was relevant to whether or not she was being truthful, and since she had been caught in the bathroom and taken directly to the office, it was reasonable to assume she had the cigarettes in her purse. Thus, the vice-principal had reasonable cause to suspect a school rule had been broken, and more than just a "hunch" to search the purse. When the vice-principal was searching for the cigarettes, the drug-related evidence was in plain view. Plain view is an exception to the warrant requirement of the 4th Amendment. Thus, the reasonable search for cigarettes led to some of the drug related material being discovered, which justified a search (including the zippered compartments inside the bag) resulting in the discovery of the cigarettes and other evidence including a small bag of marijuana and cigarette rolling papers.

text: The Supreme Court overturned the New Jersey Supreme Court ruling.

text: Concurrence[edit]

text: In a separate concurring opinion, Justice Powell (joined by Justice O'Connor) stated that while he agreed with the Court's opinion, he felt that students in primary and secondary educational settings should not be afforded the same level of protection for search and seizures as adults and juveniles in non-school settings.

text: Justice Brennan, joined by Justice Marshall, agreed with the majority's reasoning regarding a balancing approach to school searches. He disagreed, however, with the new standard set down by the Court, which he felt was a departure from the traditional "probable cause" approach. He explained:


document_title: Ivy League

question_text: what ivy league schools are in new york

question_tokens: what ivy league schools are in new york

text: Ivy League

text: Members

text: Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world, which allows the universities to provide many resources for their academic programs and research endeavors. As of 2014, Harvard University has an endowment of $36.4 billion.[9] Additionally, each university receives millions of dollars in research grants and other subsidies from federal and state governments.

text:
Institution
Location
Athletic nickname
Enrollment
2015 Endowment
Academic staff
Colors

Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island
Bears
7003864900000000000♠8,649
$3.3 billion[10]
7002736000000000000♠736[11]

Columbia University
New York City, New York
Lions
7004229200000000000♠22,920
$9.6 billion[12]
7003376300000000000♠3,763[13]

Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Big Red
7004206330000000000♠20,633
$6.2 billion[14]
7003290800000000000♠2,908

Dartmouth College
Hanover, New Hampshire
Big Green
7003614100000000000♠6,141
$4.7 billion[15]
571

Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Crimson
7004212250000000000♠21,225
$37.6 billion[16]
7003467100000000000♠4,671[17]

University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Quakers
7004206430000000000♠20,643
$10.1 billion[18]
7003446400000000000♠4,464[19]

Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey
Tigers
7003759200000000000♠7,592
$22.7 billion[14]
7003117200000000000♠1,172

Yale University
New Haven, Connecticut
Bulldogs
7004116660000000000♠11,666
$25.6 billion[20]
7003414000000000000♠4,140[21]

tag: table

text: History

text: Year founded

text:
Institution
Founded
Founding affiliation

Harvard University[22]
1636 as New College
Calvinist (Congregationalist Puritans)

Yale University
1701 as Collegiate School
Calvinist (Congregationalist)

University of Pennsylvania
1740 as Unnamed Charity School[23]
Nonsectarian,[24] founded by Church of England/Methodists members[25][26]

Princeton University
1746 as College of New Jersey
Nonsectarian,[27] founded by Calvinist Presbyterians[27]

Columbia University
1754 as King's College
Church of England

Brown University
1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Baptist, founding charter promises "no religious tests" and "full liberty of conscience"[28]

Dartmouth College
1769
Calvinist (Congregationalist)

Cornell University
1865
Nonsectarian

text: Origin of the name

text: Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges. "Planting the ivy" was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893 an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, "In 1850, class day was placed upon the University Calendar.... the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time."[30] At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as "Ivy Day" in 1874.[31] Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale,[32] Simmons,[33] Bryn Mawr[34] and many others. Princeton's "Ivy Club" was founded in 1879.[35]

text: The first usage of Ivy in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward (1895–1965).

text: A proportion of our eastern ivy colleges are meeting little fellows another Saturday before plunging into the strife and the turmoil.

text: The first known instance of the term Ivy League being used appeared in The Christian Science Monitor on February 7, 1935.[3][37][38] Several sportswriters and other journalists used the term shortly later to refer to the older colleges, those along the northeastern seaboard of the United States, chiefly the nine institutions with origins dating from the colonial era, together with the United States Military Academy (West Point), the United States Naval Academy, and a few others. These schools were known for their long-standing traditions in intercollegiate athletics, often being the first schools to participate in such activities. However, at this time, none of these institutions made efforts to form an athletic league.

text: A common folk etymology attributes the name to the Roman numeral for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins helped to perpetuate this belief. The supposed "IV League" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a fourth school that varies depending on who is telling the story.[39][40][41] However, it is clear that Harvard, Princeton, Yale and Columbia met on November 23, 1876 at the so-called Massasoit Convention to decide on uniform rules for the emerging game of American football, which rapidly spread.[42]

text: Pre–Ivy League

text: Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools were founded before the American Revolution; Cornell was founded just after the American Civil War. These seven were the primary colleges in the Northern and Middle Colonies, and their early faculties and founding boards were largely, therefore, drawn from other Ivy League institutions. There were also some British graduates from the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the University of St. Andrews, the University of Edinburgh, and elsewhere on their boards. Similarly, the founder of The College of William & Mary, in 1693, was a British graduate of the University of Edinburgh. Cornell provided Stanford University with its first president.

text: The influence of these institutions on the founding of other colleges and universities is notable. This included the Southern public college movement which blossomed in the decades surrounding the turn of the 19th century when Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia established what became the flagship universities for each of these states. In 1801, a majority of the first board of trustees for what became the University of South Carolina were Princeton alumni. They appointed Jonathan Maxcy, a Brown graduate, as the university's first president. Thomas Cooper, an Oxford alumnus and University of Pennsylvania faculty member, became the second president of the South Carolina college. The founders of the University of California came from Yale, hence the school colors of University of California are Yale Blue and California Gold.[43]

text: Some of the Ivy League schools have identifiable Protestant roots, while others were founded as non-sectarian schools. Church of England King's College broke up during the Revolution and was reformed as public nonsectarian Columbia College. In the early nineteenth century, the specific purpose of training Calvinist ministers was handed off to theological seminaries, but a denominational tone and such relics as compulsory chapel often lasted well into the twentieth century. Penn and Brown were officially founded as nonsectarian schools. Brown's charter promised no religious tests and "full liberty of conscience", but placed control in the hands of a board of twenty-two Baptists, five Quakers, four Congregationalists, and five Episcopalians. Cornell has been strongly nonsectarian from its founding.

text: "Ivy League" is sometimes used as a way of referring to an elite class, even though institutions such as Cornell University were among the first in the United States to reject racial and gender discrimination in their admissions policies. This dates back to at least 1935.[44] Novels[45] and memoirs[46] attest this sense, as a social elite; to some degree independent of the actual schools.

text: After the Second World War, the present Ivy League institutions slowly widened their selection of their students. They had always had distinguished faculties; some of the first Americans with doctorates had taught for them; but they now decided that they could not both be world-class research institutions and be competitive in the highest ranks of American college sport; in addition, the schools experienced the scandals of any other big-time football programs, although more quietly.[47]

text: History of the athletic league

text: 19th and early 20th centuries

text: The first formal athletic league involving eventual Ivy League schools (or any US colleges, for that matter) was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges. The RAAC hosted a de facto national championship in rowing during the period 1870–1894. In 1895, Cornell, Columbia, and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US. To this day, the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete.

text: A basketball league was later created in 1902, when Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Yale and Princeton formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League; they were later joined by Penn and Dartmouth.

text: In 1906, the organization that eventually became the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed, primarily to formalize rules for the emerging sport of football. But of the 39 original member colleges in the NCAA, only two of them (Dartmouth and Penn) later became Ivies.

text: In February 1903, intercollegiate wrestling began when Yale accepted a challenge from Columbia, published in the Yale News. The dual meet took place prior to a basketball game hosted by Columbia and resulted in a tie. Two years later, Penn and Princeton also added wrestling teams, leading to the formation of the student-run Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, now the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA), the first and oldest collegiate wrestling league in the US.[49]

text: In 1930, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Penn, Princeton and Yale formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League; they were later joined by Harvard, Brown, Army and Navy.

text: Before the formal establishment of the Ivy League, there was an "unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations". The earliest reference to the "Ivy colleges" came in 1933, when Stanley Woodward of the New York Herald Tribune used it to refer to the eight current members plus Army.[3] In 1935, the Associated Press reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:

text: The athletic authorities of the so-called "Ivy League" are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields.

text: Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent. Romeyn Berry, Cornell's manager of athletics, reported the situation in January 1936 as follows:

text: I can say with certainty that in the last five years—and markedly in the last three months—there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency.

text: Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic "Ivy League". That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment.[51]

text: Within a year of this statement and having held month-long discussions about the proposal, on December 3, 1936, the idea of "the formation of an Ivy League" gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the Columbia Daily Spectator, The Cornell Daily Sun, The Dartmouth, The Harvard Crimson, The Daily Pennsylvanian, The Daily Princetonian and the Yale Daily News would simultaneously run an editorial entitled "Now Is the Time", encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics.[52] Part of the editorial read as follows:

text: The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association. The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.[53]

text: The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Rowing teams from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire, on August 3, 1852. Harvard's team, "The Oneida", won the race and was presented with trophy black walnut oars from then presidential nominee General Franklin Pierce. The proposal did not succeed—on January 11, 1937, the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the "possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track." However, they noted that the league "has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration."[54]

text: Post–World War II

text: In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first Ivy Group Agreement, which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of 1916. The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions:

text: The members of the Group reaffirm their prohibition of athletic scholarships. Athletes shall be admitted as students and awarded financial aid only on the basis of the same academic standards and economic need as are applied to all other students.[55]

text: In 1954, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports, effective with the 1955–56 basketball season. This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League. As part of the transition, Brown, the only Ivy that hadn't joined the EIBL, did so for the 1954–55 season. A year later, the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL. The Ivy League claims the EIBL's history as its own. Through the EIBL, it is the oldest basketball conference in Division I.[56][57]

text: As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational. Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women's colleges, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College, which are adjacent to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well. The movie Animal House includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women, a drive of more than two hours. As noted by Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra, "The 'Seven Sisters' was the name given to Barnard, Smith, Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Wellesley, and Radcliffe, because of their parallel to the Ivy League men’s colleges."[58]

text: In 1982 the Ivy League considered adding two members, with Army, Navy, and Northwestern as the most likely candidates; if it had done so, the league could probably have avoided being moved into the recently created Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) for football.[59] In 1983, following the admission of women to Columbia College, Columbia University and Barnard College entered into an athletic consortium agreement by which students from both schools compete together on Columbia University women's athletic teams, which replaced the women's teams previously sponsored by Barnard.

text: When Army and Navy departed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League in 1992, all intercollegiate competition involving the eight schools became united under the Ivy League banner.

text: Academics

text: Admissions

text:
Admission statistics (Class of 2020)[60]

Applicants
Admission rates

Brown
32,390
9.01%[61]

Columbia
36,292
6.04%[62]

Cornell
44,966
13.96%[63]

Dartmouth
20,675
10.52%[64]

Harvard
39,041
5.22%[65]

Penn
38,918
9.4%[66]

Princeton
29,303
6.46%[67]

Yale
31,455
6.27%[68]

text: The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with acceptance rates since 2000 ranging from 6 to 16 percent at each of the universities. Admitted students come from around the world, although students from New England and the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students.[69][70][71]

text: Prestige

text: Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings.

text:
National academic rankings

University
(in alphabetical order)
ARWU
(2014)[72]
Forbes
(2016)[73]
USNWR
(2014)[74]
Washington Monthly
(2014)[75]

Brown
43
8
16
113

Columbia
7
16
4
51

Cornell
11
29
15
39

Dartmouth
78–104
17
11
54

Harvard
1
4
2
10

Penn
14
11
8
41

Princeton
5
3
1
27

Yale
9
6
3
57

text: Further, Ivy League members have produced many Nobel laureates, winners of the Nobel Prize and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. According to the Nobel Foundation's website, as of 2016 the number of prize-winners affiliated with each Ivy League university at the time of their awards is: Brown, 2; Columbia, 17; Cornell, 8; Dartmouth, 0; Harvard, 36; Penn, 4; Princeton, 14; and Yale, 8.[76] In addition, each university self-reports their number of affiliated Nobel laureates, but they use varying definitions for which Nobel winners they claim (for example, alumni, active faculty, former faculty, visiting faculty, adjunct faculty, etc.)

text: Collaboration

text: Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year, with representatives from every Ivy League school. The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group Presidents, composed of each university president. During meetings, the presidents often discuss common procedures and initiatives for the universities.

text: Culture

text: Fashion and lifestyle

text: Different fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time, and fashion trends such as Ivy League and Preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture.

text: Ivy League style is a style of men's dress, popular during the late 1950s, believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses. The clothing stores J. Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner. The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress.

text: Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress.[77] J. Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand, stemming from the collegiate traditions that shaped the preppy subculture. In the mid-twentieth century J. Press and Brooks Brothers, both being pioneers in preppy fashion, had stores on Ivy League school campuses, including Harvard, Princeton, and Yale.

text: Some typical preppy styles also reflect traditional upper class New England leisure activities, such as equestrian, sailing or yachting, hunting, fencing, rowing, lacrosse, tennis, golf, and rugby. Longtime New England outdoor outfitters, such as L.L. Bean,[78] became part of conventional preppy style. This can be seen in sport stripes and colours, equestrian clothing, plaid shirts, field jackets and nautical-themed accessories. Vacationing in Palm Beach, Florida, long popular with the East Coast upper class, led to the emergence of bright colour combinations in leisure wear seen in some brands such as Lilly Pulitzer.[78] By the 1980s, other brands such as Lacoste, Izod[79] and Dooney & Bourke became associated with preppy style.'

text: Today, these styles continue to be popular on Ivy League campuses, throughout the U.S., and abroad, and are oftentimes labeled as "Classic American style" or "Traditional American style".[80][81]

text: Social elitism

text: The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old Money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes.[82][83][84][85] Although most Ivy League students come from upper middle- and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse. The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students.[86] Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low.[87][88]

text: Phrases such as "Ivy League snobbery"[89] are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century. A Louis Auchincloss character dreads "the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges".[45] A business writer, warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring, presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid (the bracketed phrase is his):

text: We Ivy Leaguers [read: mostly white and Anglo] know that an Ivy League degree is a mark of the kind of person who is likely to succeed in this organization.[90]

text: The phrase Ivy League historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence, but also with social elitism. In 1936, sportswriter John Kieran noted that student editors at Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Cornell, Columbia, Dartmouth, and Penn were advocating the formation of an athletic association. In urging them to consider "Army and Navy and Georgetown and Fordham and Syracuse and Brown and Pitt" as candidates for membership, he exhorted:

text: It would be well for the proponents of the Ivy League to make it clear (to themselves especially) that the proposed group would be inclusive but not "exclusive" as this term is used with a slight up-tilting of the tip of the nose.[91]

text: Aspects of Ivy stereotyping were illustrated during the 1988 presidential election, when George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis (graduate of Harvard Law School) for having "foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique."[92] New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd asked "Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?" Bush explained, however, that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was "so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it.... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism" and said Harvard in his remark was intended to represent "a philosophical enclave" and not a statement about class.[93] Columnist Russell Baker opined that "Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard. All they know is that both are full of rich, fancy, stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets."[94] Still, the last five presidents have all attended Ivy League schools for at least part of their education— George H. W. Bush (Yale undergrad), Bill Clinton (Yale Law School), George W. Bush (Yale undergrad, Harvard Business School), Barack Obama (Columbia undergrad, Harvard Law School), and Donald Trump (Penn undergrad).

text: U.S. presidents in the Ivy League

text: Of the forty-four men who have served as President of the United States, fifteen have graduated from an Ivy League university. Of them, eight have degrees from Harvard, five from Yale, three from Columbia, two from Princeton and one from Penn. Twelve presidents have earned Ivy undergraduate degrees. Three of these were transfer students: Donald Trump transferred from Fordham University, Barack Obama transferred from Occidental College and John F. Kennedy transferred from another Ivy, Princeton, where he had been class of 1939. John Adams was the first president to graduate from college, graduating from Harvard in 1755.

text:
President
School(s)
Graduation year

John Adams
Harvard University
1755

James Madison
Princeton University
1771

John Quincy Adams
Harvard University
1787

William Henry Harrison
University of Pennsylvania
(withdrew)

Rutherford B. Hayes
Harvard Law School
1845

Theodore Roosevelt
Harvard University
Columbia Law School
1880
(withdrew) (Awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1882)[95]

William Howard Taft
Yale University
1878

Woodrow Wilson
Princeton University
1879

Franklin D. Roosevelt
Harvard University
Columbia Law School
1903
(withdrew) (Awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1907)[96]

John F. Kennedy
Princeton University
Harvard University
(withdrew)
1940

Gerald Ford
Yale Law School
1941

George H. W. Bush
Yale University
1948

Bill Clinton
Yale Law School
1973

George W. Bush
Yale University
Harvard Business School
1968
1975

Barack Obama
Columbia University
Harvard Law School
1983
1991

Donald Trump
University of Pennsylvania
1968

text: Student demographics

text:
Racial and/or ethnic background (2011)[97]

Asian
Black
Hispanic
(of any race)
Non-Hispanic White
Other/international
Unknown

Brown
14%
6%
10%
45%
14%
11%

Columbia
15%
8%
13%
41%
17%
6%

Cornell
17%
6%
10%
46%
13%
10%

Dartmouth
14%
8%
9%
48%
13%
8%

Harvard
12%
7%
9%
45%
22%
6%

Penn
19%
7%
8%
46%
13%
7%

Princeton
18%
7%
8%
49%
15%
3%

Yale
15%
6%
8%
58%
5%
8%

United States[98]
5%
13%
17%
63%
4%
NA

text: Geographic distribution

text: Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast, it is no surprise that most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation. An unscientific survey of Harvard seniors from the Class of 2013 found that 42% hailed from the Northeast and 55% overall were planning on working and residing in the Northeast.[99] Boston and New York City are traditionally where many Ivy League graduates end up living.[100][101][102][103]

text: Socioeconomics and social class

text: Students of the Ivy League, both graduate and undergraduate, come primarily from upper middle and upper class families. In recent years, however, the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity, by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower, working, and middle class American families.[86][104]

text: In 2013, 46% of Harvard undergraduate students came from families in the top 3.8% of all American households (i.e., over $200,000 annual income).[104] In 2012, the bottom 25% of the American income distribution accounted for only 3–4% of students at Brown, a figure that had remained unchanged since 1992.[105] In 2014, 69% of incoming freshmen students at Yale College came from families with annual incomes of over $120,000, putting most Yale College students in the upper middle and/or upper class. (The median household income in the U.S. in 2013 was $52,700.)[106]

text: In the 2011–2012 academic year, students qualifying for Pell Grants (federally funded scholarships on the basis of need) comprised 20% at Harvard, 18% at Cornell, 17% at Penn, 16% at Columbia, 15% at Dartmouth and Brown, 14% at Yale, and 12% at Princeton. Nationally, 35% of American university students qualify for a Pell Grant.[107]

text: Competition and athletics

text: Ivy champions are recognized in sixteen men's and sixteen women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other; for example, the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of ECAC Hockey, but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year. The Ivy League was the last Division I basketball conference to institute a conference postseason tournament; the first tournaments for men and women will be held at the end of the 2016–17 season. The tournaments will only award the Ivy League automatic bids for the NCAA Division I Men's and Women's Basketball Tournaments; the official conference championships will continue to be awarded based solely on regular-season results.[108] Before the 2016–17 season, the automatic bids were based solely on regular-season record, with a one-game playoff (or series of one-game playoffs if more than two teams were tied) held to determine the automatic bid.[109] The Ivy League is one of only two Division I conferences which award their official basketball championships solely on regular-season results; the other is the Southeastern Conference.[110][111] Since its inception, an Ivy League school has yet to win either the men's or women's Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament.

text: On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based (financial aid).[112] In addition, the Ivies have a rigid policy against redshirting, even for medical reasons; an athlete loses a year of eligibility for every year enrolled at an Ivy institution.[113] Ivy League teams' non-league games are often against the members of the Patriot League, which have similar academic standards and athletic scholarship policies (although unlike the Ivies, the Patriot League allows redshirting).

text: In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships and lowered academic standards for athletes, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 26 recognized national championships in college football (last in 1935), and Yale won 18 (last in 1927).[114] Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as Alabama, which has won 15, Notre Dame, which claims 11 but is credited by many sources with 13, and USC, which has won 11. Yale, whose coach Walter Camp was the "Father of American Football," held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire 20th century, but was finally passed by Michigan on November 10, 2001. Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Penn each have over a dozen former scholar-athletes enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame. Currently Dartmouth holds the record for most Ivy League football titles, with 18, followed closely by Harvard and Penn, each with 17 titles. In addition, the Ivy League has produced Super Bowl winners Kevin Boothe (Cornell), two-time Pro Bowler Zak DeOssie (Brown), Sean Morey (Brown), All-Pro selection Matt Birk (Harvard), Calvin Hill (Yale), Derrick Harmon (Cornell) and 1999 "Mr. Irrelevant" Jim Finn (Penn).

text: Beginning with the 1982 football season, the Ivy League has competed in Division I-AA (renamed FCS in 2006).[115] The Ivy League teams are eligible for the FCS tournament held to determine the national champion, and the league champion is eligible for an automatic bid (and any other team may qualify for an at-large selection) from the NCAA. However, the Ivy League has not played any postseason games at all since 1956 due to the league's concerns about the extended December schedule's effects on academics. For this reason, any Ivy League team invited to the FCS playoffs turns down the bid. The Ivy League plays a strict 10-game schedule, compared to other FCS members' schedules of 11 (or, in some seasons, 12) regular season games, plus post-season, which was most recently expanded in 2013 to five rounds with 24 teams, with a bye week for the top eight teams. Football is the only sport in which the Ivy League declines to compete for a national title.

text: In addition to varsity football, Penn, Princeton and Cornell also field teams in the eight-team Collegiate Sprint Football League, in which all players must weigh 172 pounds or less. Penn and Princeton are the last remaining founding members of the league from its 1934 debut, and Cornell is the next-oldest, joining in 1937. Yale and Columbia previously fielded teams in the league but no longer do so.

text:
Teams in Ivy League competition[116]

Sport
Men's
Women's

Baseball

8

-

Basketball

8

8

Cross-country

8

8

Fencing

6

7

Field hockey

-

8

Football

8

-

Golf

8

7

Ice hockey

6

6

Lacrosse

7

8

Rowing

7

7

Soccer

8

8

Softball

-

8

Swimming and diving

7

8

Squash

8

8

Tennis

8

8

Track and field (indoor)

8

8

Track and field (outdoor)

8

8

Volleyball

-

8

Wrestling

6

-

text: The Ivy League is home to some of the oldest college rugby teams in the United States. Although these teams are not "varsity" sports, they compete annually in the Ivy Rugby Conference.

text: Historical results

text:
Total championships won (1956–2012)

Institution
Ivy League
Championships
NCAA Team
Championships

Princeton University Tigers
414
10

Harvard University Crimson
361
4

Cornell University Big Red
208
5

University of Pennsylvania Quakers
195
3

Yale University Bulldogs
181
3

Dartmouth College Big Green
130
3

Brown University Bears
119
7

Columbia University Lions
88
9

text: The table above includes the number of team championships won from the beginning of official Ivy League competition (1956–57 academic year) through 2011–12. Princeton and Harvard have on occasion won ten or more Ivy League titles in a year, an achievement accomplished six times by Harvard and 21 times by Princeton, including a conference-record 15 championships in 2010–11. Only once has one of the other six schools earned more than eight titles in a single academic year (Cornell with nine in 2005–06). In the 33 academic years beginning 1979–80, Princeton has averaged 11 championships per year, one-third of the conference total of 33 sponsored sports.[117]

text: In the seven academic years beginning 2005–06, Harvard has won Ivy titles in 22 different sports, two-thirds of the league total, and Princeton has won championships in 31 different sports, all except wrestling and men's tennis.[118]

text: Rivalries

text: Rivalries run deep in the Ivy League. For instance, Princeton and Penn are longstanding men's basketball rivals;[119] "Puck Frinceton", and "Pennetrate the Puss" T-shirts are worn by Quaker fans at games.[120] In only 11 instances in the history of Ivy League basketball, and in only seven seasons since Yale's 1962 title, has neither Penn nor Princeton won at least a share of the Ivy League title in basketball,[121] with Princeton champion or co-champion 26 times and Penn 25 times. Penn has won 21 outright, Princeton 19 outright. Princeton has been a co-champion 7 times, sharing 4 of those titles with Penn (these 4 seasons represent the only times Penn has been co-champion). Harvard won its first title of either variety in 2011, losing a dramatic play-off game to Princeton for the NCAA tournament bid, then rebounded to win outright championships in 2012, 2013, and 2014.

text: Rivalries exist between other Ivy league teams in other sports, including Cornell and Harvard in hockey, Harvard and Princeton in swimming, and Harvard and Penn in football (Penn and Harvard have won 28 Ivy League Football Championships since 1982, Penn-16; Harvard-12). During that time Penn has had 8 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships and Harvard has had 6 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships.[122] In men's lacrosse, Cornell and Princeton are perennial rivals, and they are the only two Ivy League teams to have won the NCAA tournament. In 2009, the Big Red and Tigers met for their 70th game in the NCAA tournament.[123] No team other than Harvard or Princeton has won the men's swimming conference title outright since 1972, although Yale, Columbia, and Cornell have shared the title with Harvard and Princeton during this time. Similarly, no program other than Princeton and Harvard has won the women's swimming championship since Brown's 1999 title. Princeton or Cornell has won every indoor and outdoor track and field championship, both men's and women's, every year since 2002–03, with one exception (Columbia women won indoor championship in 2012). Harvard and Yale are football and crew rivals although the competition has become unbalanced; Harvard has won all but one of the last 15 football games and all but one of the last 13 crew races.

text: Intra-conference football rivalries

text:
Teams
Name
Trophy
First met
Games played
Series record

Columbia-Cornell
Empire State Bowl
Empire Cup
1889
103 games
36–64–3

Cornell-Penn
None
Trustee's Cup
1893
122 games
46–71–5

Dartmouth-Princeton
None
Sawhorse Dollar
1897
95 games
48–43–4

Harvard-Yale
The Game
None
1875
132 games
59–65–8

Princeton-Yale
None
None
1873
138 games
52–76–10

text: The Yale-Princeton series is the nation's second longest, exceeded only by "The Rivalry" between Lehigh and Lafayette, which began later in 1884 but included two or three games in each of 17 early seasons.[124] For the first three decades of the Yale-Princeton rivalry, the two played their season-ending game at a neutral site, usually New York City, and with one exception (1890: Harvard), the winner of the game also won at least a share of the national championship that year, covering the period 1869 through 1903.[125][126] This phenomenon of a finale contest at a neutral site for the national title created a social occasion for the society elite of the metropolitan area akin to a Super Bowl in the era prior to the establishment of the NFL in 1920.[127][128] These football games were also financially profitable for the two universities, so much that they began to play baseball games in New York City as well, drawing record crowds for that sport also, largely from the same social demographic.[129] In a period when the only professional sports were fledgling baseball leagues, these high profile early contests between Princeton and Yale played a role in popularizing spectator sports, demonstrating their financial potential and raising public awareness of Ivy universities at a time when few people attended college.

text: Extra-conference football rivalries

text:
Teams
Name
Trophy
First met
Games played
Series record

Brown-Rhode Island
None
Governor's Cup
1909
98 games
70–26–2

Columbia-Fordham
None
Liberty Cup
1890
22 games
12–10–0

Cornell-Colgate
None
None
1896
95 games
48–44–3

Dartmouth-New Hampshire
Granite Bowl
Granite Bowl Trophy
1901
37 games
17–18–2

Harvard-Holy Cross
None
None
1904
67 games
41–24–2

Penn-Lafayette
None
None
1882
90 games
63–23–4

Penn-Lehigh
None
None
1885
56 games
43-13

Princeton-Rutgers
None
None
1869
71 games
53–17–1

Yale-Army
None
None
1893
45 games
22–16–8

text: NCAA team championships

text: This list, which is current through July 1, 2015,[130] includes NCAA championships and women's AIAW championships (one each for Yale and Dartmouth). Excluded from this list are all other national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including football titles and retroactive Helms Foundation titles.

text:
School
Total
Men
Women
Co-ed
Nickname

Yale University
29[a]
26
3
0
Bulldogs

Princeton University
24[a]
19
4
1
Tigers

Columbia University
14
11
0
3
Lions

Harvard University
10[a]
7
2
1
Crimson

Brown University
7
0
7
0
Bears

Cornell University
5
5
0
0
Big Red

Dartmouth College
5[a]
1
1
3
Big Green

University of Pennsylvania
4
3
1
0
Quakers

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c d The NCAA started sponsoring the intercollegiate golf championship in 1939, but it retained the titles from the 41 championships previously conferred by the National Intercollegiate Golf Association in its records. Of these pre-NCAA titles, Yale, Princeton, Harvard and Dartmouth won 20, 11, 6 and 1, respectively.

tag: ol

text: Athletic facilities

text:
Football stadium
Basketball arena
Baseball field
Hockey rink
Soccer stadium

School[131]
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year

Brown
Brown Stadium
7004200000000000000♠20,000
1925
Pizzitola Sports Center
7003280000000000000♠2,800
1989
Murray Stadium
7003100000000000000♠1,000
1959
Meehan Auditorium
7003310000000000000♠3,100
1961
Stevenson Field
7003350000000000000♠3,500
1979

Columbia
Wien Stadium
7004170000000000000♠17,000
1984
Levien Gymnasium
7003340800000000000♠3,408
1974
Hal Robertson Field at Phillip Satow Stadium
N/A
N/A
Non-hockey school
Columbia Soccer Stadium
7003350000000000000♠3,500
1985

Cornell
Schoellkopf Field
7004255970000000000♠25,597
1915
Newman Arena
7003447200000000000♠4,472
1990
Hoy Field
7002500000000000000♠500
1922
Lynah Rink
7003426700000000000♠4,267
1957
Charles F. Berman Field
7003100000000000000♠1,000
2000

Dartmouth
Memorial Field
7004156000000000000♠15,600
1923
Leede Arena
7003210000000000000♠2,100
1986
Red Rolfe Field at Biondi Park
7003200000000000000♠2,000
N/A
Thompson Arena
7003450000000000000♠4,500
1975
Burnham Field
7003160000000000000♠1,600
2007

Harvard
Harvard Stadium
7004308980000000000♠30,898
1903
Lavietes Pavilion
7003219500000000000♠2,195
1926
Joseph J. O'Donnell Field
7003160000000000000♠1,600
1898
Bright Hockey Center
7003285000000000000♠2,850
1956
Soldiers Field Soccer Stadium
7003250000000000000♠2,500
2010

Penn
Franklin Field
7004525930000000000♠52,593
1895
The Palestra
7003872200000000000♠8,722
1927
Meiklejohn Stadium
7002850000000000000♠850
2000
Non-hockey school
Rhodes Field
7003170000000000000♠1,700
2002[132]

Princeton
Princeton University Stadium
7004278000000000000♠27,800
1998
Jadwin Gymnasium
7003685400000000000♠6,854
1969
Bill Clarke Field
N/A
1961
Hobey Baker Memorial Rink
7003209400000000000♠2,094
1923
Roberts Stadium
7003300000000000000♠3,000
2008

Yale
Yale Bowl
7004642690000000000♠64,269
1914
Payne Whitney Gymnasium
7003310000000000000♠3,100
1932
Yale Field
7003620000000000000♠6,200
1927
Ingalls Rink
7003348600000000000♠3,486
1958
Reese Stadium
7003300000000000000♠3,000
1981

text: Other Ivies

text: The term Ivy is often used to connote a positive comparison to or association with the Ivy League, often along academic lines. The term has been used to describe the Little Ivies, a grouping of small liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States.[133] Other uses include the Southern Ivies, Hidden Ivies, and the Public Ivies. The 2007 edition of Newsweek's How to Get Into College Now, the editors designated 25 schools as "New Ivies".[134]

text: Ivy Plus

text: The term Ivy Plus is sometimes used to refer to the Ancient Eight plus several other schools for purposes of alumni associations,[135][136] university affiliations,[136][137][138][139] or endowment comparisons.[140][141][142][143] In his book Untangling the Ivy League, Zawel writes, "The inclusion of non–Ivy League schools under this term is commonplace for some schools and extremely rare for others. Among these other schools, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University are almost always included. The University of Chicago and Duke University are often included as well."[136] In their 2015 book Acing Admissions, Mehta and Dixit write, "The [Ivy Plus schools] include, but are not limited to: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Stanford University and Northwestern University. Besides selectivity, these Ivy Plus colleges are thought to share similar values around academic and professional excellence, intellectual curiosity, leadership and civil engagement."[144]