document_title: Yamaha YZF-R1

question_text: how much does a 2007 yamaha r1 weight

question_tokens: how much does a 2007 yamaha r1 weight

text: Yamaha YZF-R1

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text: Yamaha launched the YZF-R1 after redesigning the Genesis engine to create a more compact engine by raising the gearbox input shaft and allowing the gearbox output shaft to be placed beneath it. This design feature was revolutionary, called a 'stacked gearbox', it has set a precedent for other manufacturers to follow. This "compacting" of the engine made the total engine length much shorter overall, thereby, allowing the wheelbase of the motorcycle to be shortened significantly. This, in turn, allowed the frame design to place the weight of the engine in the frame to aid handling because of an optimized center of gravity. The swingarm was able to be made longer without compromising the overall wheelbase, which was a short 1385mm. Four 40mm Kehin CV carburetors fed fuel to the engine; 140 bhp was claimed by the factory. USD 41mm front forks supplied by KYB mounted 300mm semi-floating disk brakes. The instrument panel was electrical with a self diagnosis system and digital speed readout. The exhaust system utilized an EXUP valve, which controlled the exhaust gas flow to maximize engine power production at all revs. This created a high powered and high torque engine. The Yamaha YZF-R6 was introduced in 1999 as the 600 cc version of the R1 super bike.

text: The 1999 R1 saw only minor changes, apart from paint and graphics. More improvements were a redesigned gear change linkage and the gear change shaft length being increased. Fuel tank reserve capacity was reduced from 5.5 to 4.0 litres (1.2 to 0.9 imp gal or 1.5 to 1.1 US gal), while the total fuel tank capacity was unchanged at 18 l (4.0 imp gal; 4.8 US gal).

text: Motorcycle Consumer News tests of the 1998 model year YZF-R1 yielded a 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) time of 2.96 seconds and 0 to 100 mph (0 to 161 km/h) of 5.93 seconds, a 1⁄4-mile (400 m) time of 10.19 seconds at 131.40 mph (211.47 km/h), and a top speed of 168 mph (270 km/h), with deceleration from 60 to 0 mph (97 to 0 km/h) of 113.9 ft (34.7 m).[1] For the 1999 model year, Cycle World tests found a 0 to 60 mph time of 3.0 seconds, 1⁄4-mile time of 10.31 seconds at 139.55 mph (224.58 km/h), and a top speed of 170 mph (270 km/h).[5]

text: In 2000, Yamaha introduced a series of changes to improve the bike, and minor changes to the bodywork to allow for better long duration ride handling. Yamaha's main design goal was to sharpen the pre-existing bike and not to redesign it. The dry weight was reduced five pounds to 414 pounds (188 kg).[6]

text: At 127.8 horsepower (95.3 kW) at the rear wheel,[6] top-end output remained the same, but changes to the engine management system were intended to result in a smoother, broader distribution of power. The bodywork was still unmistakably R1, although a few changes were made resulting in a 3% reduction in the drag coefficient. The headlight housing's profile was sharpened, the side panels were made more aerodynamic and slippery, and the windscreen was reshaped for better rider protection.

text: The seating area was also updated. The fuel tank was reshaped, with a more relaxed rear angle and deeper leg recesses to provide for a better rider feel. The seat extended further towards the rear of the tank and the new, steeper, seating position put additional weight on the front end. All of this was aimed at improving weight bias and offering sharper cornering and more stability.

text: Mechanically, the carburetors were re-jetted in an effort to improve throttle response, especially in the low end, all the way up to the bike's 11,750 rpm redline. The redesigned camshafts were lightened and used internal oil ways to lubricate journals that, when combined with reduced tappet clearance, provided less friction and created less engine noise. The gearbox received a taller first gear, a hollow chrome-moly shift-shaft with an additional bearing and a completely redesigned shift linkage and foot pedal. These changes were aimed at eliminating problems with the transmission in earlier models, and to help to seamlessly transfer the bike's power to the road.

text: A new fuel injection system was introduced for the 2002 year, which worked like a carburetor by employing a CV carburetor slide controlled by vacuum created by the engine. With a similar power output to the 2000-2001 bike, the engine remained largely the same. One notable improvement was the use of new cylinder sleeves of a high silicon content alloy containing magnesium that minimized heat induced distortion, reducing oil consumption. Also in 2002, Yamaha released the newly developed Deltabox frame,[7] which, with its hydro formed construction, reduced the total number of frame welds. These changes improved the frame's rigidity by 30%. The cooling system was redesigned for better performance and compactness. The exhaust system was changed from a 4-into-1 to a new titanium 4-into-2-into-1 design. The rear end of the motorcycle was updated and streamlined with a LED taillight. This allowed for very clean rear body lines when choosing one of several common after market modifications, such as removal of the turn signal stalks and stock license plate bracket; and replacing them with assorted available replacements that "hug" the body or frame. Also, front end lighting was improved in 2002, between the higher definition headlights and also side "parking" lights within the twin-headlight panel, giving a more angular appearance. This also gave additional after market possibilities, such as to remove the front turn signals and use these front lights as directional or hazard markers while stopped. For 2003, the only change was fitted hazard warning lights and dipped headlights, which stay on all the time the engine is running.

text: In 2002, Cycle World reported fuel mileage of 38 mpg‑US (6.2 L/100 km; 46 mpg‑imp), a 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) time of 2.9 seconds, a 1⁄4-mile (400 m) time of 10.32 seconds at 137.60 mph (221.45 km/h), and a top speed of 167 mph (269 km/h).[8]

text: With the competition advancing, Yamaha made some major changes to the model. This included style updates, like an under seat twin exhaust, and performance upgrades including radial brakes, and, for the first time an R1 Ram-air intake. Furthermore, the tendency for wheelies by earlier productions was reduced by changing the geometry of the frame and weight distribution. The all-new engine was no longer used as a stressed member of the chassis, and had a separate top crankcase and cylinder block.

text: The 2004 R1 weighs 172 kilograms (379 lb) dry. The conventional front brake calipers were replaced by radially mounted calipers, activated by a radial master cylinder. A factory-installed steering damper was also added this year. Combined with the changes to the frame, this helped to eliminate the tendency of the handlebars to shake violently during rapid acceleration or deceleration on less-than-perfect surfaces, a phenomenon known as a speed wobble or tank slapper.

text: Motorcycle Consumer News tests of the 2004 model year YZF-R1S yielded a 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) time of 3.04 seconds and 0 to 100 mph (0 to 161 km/h) of 5.42 seconds, a quarter-mile time of 9.90 seconds at 144.98 mph (233.32 km/h), and a top speed of 179 mph (288 km/h).[1]

text: John McGuinness won the senior race at the 2005 Isle of Man TT.

text: For 2006, the swingarm was extended by 20 millimetres (0.79 in) to reduce acceleration instability. In this year, Yamaha also released a limited edition version in original Yamaha racing colors to celebrate its 50th anniversary. The model (LE/SP) had a Kenny Roberts front and rear custom Öhlins suspension units developed by the same team as the YZR-M1 MotoGP bike. Custom forged aluminum Marchesini wheels specifically designed for the LE shaved nearly a pound off the unsprung weight. A back torque-limiting slipper clutch, and an integrated lap timer rounded out the package, making the LE virtually a production racer. Only 500 units were made for the United States with another 500 units for Europe.

text: An all-new YZF-R1 for the 2007 model year was announced on 8 October 2006. It had an all-new inline four-cylinder engine, going back to a more conventional four-valves per cylinder, rather than Yamaha's trade mark five-valve Genesis layout. It also had the Yamaha Chip Control Intake (YCC-I) electronic variable-length intake funnel system, Yamaha Chip Control Throttle (YCC-T) fly-by-wire throttle system, slipper-type clutch, all-new aluminum Deltabox frame and swingarm, six-piston radial-mount front brake calipers with 310 mm discs, a wider radiator, and M1 styling on the new large ram-air ports in the front fairing. There were no major changes for 2008. Power at the rear wheel was 156.7 horsepower (116.9 kW) @ 10,160 rpm.[2]

text: Motorcycle Consumer News tests of the 2007 model year YZF-R1 yielded a 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) time of 2.94 seconds and 0 to 100 mph (0 to 161 km/h) of 5.46 seconds, a ¼ mile time of 9.88 seconds at 145.50 mph (234.16 km/h).[1]

text: In late 2008, Yamaha announced they would release an all new R1 for 2009. The new R1 takes engine technology from the M1 MotoGP bike with its cross plane crankshaft. Crossplane technology puts each connecting rod 90° from the next, with an uneven firing interval of 270°- 180°- 90°- 180°. The 2009 R1 was the first production sportbike to use a crossplane crankshaft and big-bang firing order.[9] The power delivery is the same as a 90° V4 with a 180° crank, such as the Honda VFR800 and very similar to the Yamaha V-Max which has been lauded for its exhaust sound.[10] Yamaha claims the bike would give the rider 'two engines in one', the low end torque of a twin and the pace of an inline four. As with previous incarnations of the R1, the 2009 model keeps its Yamaha Chip Controlled Throttle (YCC-T).

text: Another advancement included on the 2009 model was D-Mode Throttle Control Valve Mapping, which allows a rider to choose between three distinct maps depending on the rider’s environment. Each mode of operation controls YCC-T characteristics, changing how the R1 reacts to rider input. The first mode is Standard Mode, which delivers performance for a wide variety of driving conditions. The second mode is "A" mode which will give a rider more available power in the lower to mid RPM range. The third mode is "B" mode, which is a dial back of the previous mode, designed to soften throttle response in inclement weather and heavy traffic. D-Mode throttle control is controlled by the rider through a forward mode button near the throttle. The instrument panel is more comprehensive than previous models, and the 2009/2010 Yamaha YZF-R1 model had a gear indicator as standard.

text: Overall handling of the R1 was improved through changes to frame and suspension. A new sub frame was designed for the 2009 R1, cast from magnesium giving lower weight aiding mass centralisation. The rear shock absorber on the 2009 offers variable speed damping, as well as an easy to tweak pre-load via a screw adjustment. The rear shock now connects underneath the swing arm through a different linkage; a change from previous years' models. To improve overall handling and safety, Yamaha included an electronic steering damper.

text: The front has the same classic R1 shape, though the air intake location and headlamp design have been revamped on the 2009 model; using only projector lamps, and using the new-found design space within the nose cone to reroute ram air tubes next to the lights.

text: Testing the 2010 model year in the confines of a tri-oval racetrack, Motorcyclist magazine reported a 1⁄4-mile (400 m) time of 10.02 seconds @ 144.23 mph (232.12 km/h), and fuel consumption of 25 miles per US gallon (9.4 L/100 km; 30 mpg‑imp).[11] Motorcycle Consumer News reported a tested top speed of 176.7 mph (284.4 km/h).[1]

text: In 2012 the Yamaha YZF-R1 received traction control, redesigned upper cowl (nose of bike), and a special edition 50th Anniversary R1 was released. The special edition color is inspired from Assen TT-winning MotoGP bike. The special edition commemorates the participation of Yamaha in MotoGP.

text: At the centennial EICMA motorcycle show, Yamaha officially unveiled a new generation of R1.[12] It is similar to MotoGP's 2005–Present YZR M1. Yamaha claims a wet weight of 199 kg (439 lb)[13] The new bike has an electronics package that includes a sophisticated Traction Control (TCS) and Slide Control System (SCS), antiwheelie Lift Control System (LIF), linked antilock brakes, Launch Control System (LCS), Quick Shift System (QSS), and selectable power modes. The Slide Control System on the Yamaha YZF-R1 is the first on a production motorcycle.[14][15] Information is fed to the bike through a six-axis gyro (Inertial measurement unit) and other sensors over 100 times a second.[15] Power delivery is tapered through manipulation of the throttle butterfly and ignition and fuel cuts.[16] Engine changes include shortened bore-to-stroke ratio, larger airbox, a finger-follower valve system, and fracture split titanium conrods.[14] It comes standard with magnesium wheels. Information is presented to the rider through a user-customizable thin-film display.[14]

text: A second higher-spec, limited production model is also produced called the R1M, and is differentiated from the standard model by having more expensive components such as electronic semi-active Öhlins suspension, carbon fiber bodywork, Yamaha’s Communication Control Unit (CCU), Y-TRAC data logging system, and stickier Bridgestone tires with larger rear 200/55-size. A third model starting in 2016 is also offered a lower-spec R1S.[17][18]

text: Specifications[edit]

text:
Year
1998 - 1999[5][19]
2000–2001[20][21]
2002 - 2003[8][22]
2004–2005
2006
2006 LE
2007[23]-2008
2009[11]
2010[24]
2012-2014[25]
2015–present[26]

Engine

Type
998 cc (60.9 cu in), liquid-cooled, 20-valve, DOHC, inline four-cylinder
998 cc, liquid-cooled, 16-valve, DOHC, inline four-cylinder
998 cc, liquid-cooled, 16-valve (titanium), DOHC, in-line four-cylinder, cross-plane crankshaft
998 cc, liquid-cooled, 16-valve (titanium), DOHC, in-line four-cylinder, cross-plane crankshaft
998 cc, liquid-cooled, 16-valve (titanium), DOHC, in-line four-cylinder, cross-plane crankshaft
998 cc, liquid-cooled, 16-valve (titanium), DOHC, in-line four-cylinder, cross-plane crankshaft

Bore × stroke
74 mm × 58 mm (2.9 in × 2.3 in)
77 mm × 53.6 mm (3.03 in × 2.11 in)
78 mm × 52.2 mm (3.07 in × 2.06 in)
78.0 mm x 52.2 mm
78.0 mm x 52.2 mm
79.0 mm x 50.9 mm

Fuel system
Carburetor
Mikuni BDSR40 carburetors with TPS
Mikuni fuel injection
Fuel injection, motor-driven secondary throttle valves
Fuel injection, dual-valve throttle bodies with motor-driven secondary valves
Fuel Injection with YCC-T and YCC-I
Fuel Injection
Fuel Injection
Fuel Injection

Compression ratio
11.8:1
12.5:1
12.7:1
12.3 : 1
12.7 : 1
13.0 : 1

Rev limiter

13,750 rpm

Manufacturer rated horsepower (crank)
150 hp (110 kW)[27]
150.0 hp (111.9 kW) @ 10,000 rpm
152.0 hp (113.3 kW) @ 10,500 rpm
172 hp (128 kW), 180 hp (130 kW) with ram air[28][29]
132.4 kW (177.6 hp) @ 12,500 rpm / 139.0 kW (186.4 hp) @ 12,500 rpm with ram air [30]
133.9 kW (179.6 hp) @ 12,500 rpm without ram air [31]
182.0 hp (135.7 kW) @ 12,500 rpm (without air-induction)
182.1 hp (135.8 kW) @ 12,500 rpm (without air-induction)[16]
190.0 hp (141.7 kW)[16]
200.0 hp (149.1 kW)(with track only Circuit ECU)[16]

Rear wheel horsepower
129.4 hp (96.5 kW),[1] 129.3 hp (96.4 kW) @ 10,550 rpm[5]
130 hp (97 kW)[21]
127.2 hp (94.9 kW),[1] 134.1 hp (100.0 kW) @10,800 rpm[8]

152.9 hp (114.0 kW) @ 10,160 rpm,[2] 156.7 hp (116.9 kW)[1]
146.2 hp (109.0 kW) @11,500[11]
153.7 hp (114.6 kW)[1]

162.4 hp (121.1 kW)@ 12,720 rpm[32]

Torque
72.7 lb⋅ft (98.6 N⋅m),[1] 72.0 lb⋅ft (97.6 N⋅m) @ 8,250 rpm[5]

70.4 lb⋅ft (95.4 N⋅m)[1]

106.6 N⋅m (78.6 lbf⋅ft) @ 10,500 rpm (claimed) [29]

75.5 lb⋅ft (102.4 N⋅m),[1] 73.6 lb⋅ft (99.8 N⋅m) @ 8,150 rpm[8]
72.6 lb⋅ft (98.4 N⋅m)[11]
76.2 lb⋅ft (103.3 N⋅m),[1]

73.2 lb⋅ft (99.2 N⋅m),@ 8,790 rpm [32] (rear wheel)

Final drive
#530 O-ring chain

Ignition
TCI

Transmission
6-speed w/multi-plate clutch
6-speed w/multi-plate slipper clutch
Wet, multiple-disc coil spring
Wet, multiple-disc coil spring

Chassis

Brakes/Front

Dual 298 mm discs
Dual 320 mm discs, radial-mount forged 4-piston calipers
Dual 310 mm discs, radial-mount forged 6-piston calipers
Dual Discs, Ø 310 mm
Hydraulic dual disc, Ø 310 mm
Hydraulic dual disc, Ø 320 mm

Brakes/Rear

Single 240 mm disc
Single 220 mm disc
Single 220 mm disc, single-piston pin-slide caliper
Single 220 mm disc, single-piston caliper
Single Disc, Ø 220 mm
Hydraulic single disc, Ø 220 mm
Hydraulic single disc, Ø 220 mm

Suspension/Front
41 mm inverted telescopic fork

43 mm inverted telescopic fork, 120 mm (4.7 in) travel
43 mm inverted telescopic fork, adj. preload, compression damping, rebound damping, 120 mm (4.7 in) travel
Telescopic forks, Ø 43 mm
Upside-down telescopic fork, Ø 43 mm, 120 mm travel
Telescopic forks, Ø 43 mm. 120 mm travel

Suspension/Rear
Single shock, adj. preload, compression damping, rebound damping, 130 mm (5.1 in) travel

Single shock, 130 mm (5.1 in) travel
Single shock, adj. preload, compression damping, rebound damping, 130 mm (5.1 in) travel
Single Öhlins shock, adj. preload, adj. high-/low-speed compression damping, rebound damping, 130 mm (5.1 in) travel
Single shock, piggyback reservoir, spring preload, adj. high-/low-speed compression damping, rebound damping
Swingarm, 120 mm travel
(link suspension), Monoshock, 120 mm travel
Swingarm, (link suspension), 120 mm travel

Tires/Front
120/70-ZR17
120/70-ZR17
120/70 ZR17M/C (58W)

Tires/Rear
190/50-ZR17
190/55-ZR17
190/55 ZR17M/C (75W)

Dimensions

Length

2,035 mm (80.1 in)
2,065 mm (81.3 in)
2,090 mm (82.1 in)
2,060 mm (81.1 in)
2,070 mm (81.5 in)
2,070 mm (81 in)
2,055 mm (80.9 in)

Width

695 mm (27.4 in)

720 mm (28 in)
720 mm (28.3 in)
710 mm (28.1 in)
715 mm (28.1 in)
690 mm (27 in)

Height

1,095 mm (43.1 in)

1,105 mm (43.5 in)
1,100 mm (43.5 in)
1,110 mm (43.7 in)
1,130 mm (44.5 in)
1,130 mm (44 in)
1,150 mm (45 in)

Seat height
800 mm (31 in)
815 mm (32.1 in)
818 mm (32.2 in)
815 mm (32.1 in)
835 mm (32.9 in)
830 mm (32.8 in)
835 mm (32.9 in)
855 mm (33.7 in)

Wheelbase
1,415 mm (55.7 in) (1,394 mm (54.9 in) claimed)[19][27]
1,395 mm (54.9 in)
1,415 mm (55.7 in)
1,415 mm (55.7 in)

Rake
24.0°

Trail

92 mm (3.6 in)
103 mm (4.1 in)
97 mm (3.8 in)
100 mm (4.0 in)

102 mm (4.0 in)
102 mm (4.0 in)

Fuel capacity
18 l (4.0 imp gal; 4.8 US gal)
17 l (3.7 imp gal; 4.5 US gal)
18 l (4.0 imp gal; 4.8 US gal)
18 l (4.0 imp gal; 4.8 US gal)
17 l (3.7 imp gal; 4.5 US gal)

Dry weight
190.1 kg (419 lb)[5]
187.8 kg (414 lb)[21]
187 kg (412 lb)[8]
172.0 kg (379.2 lb)
172.8 kg (381 lb)
173.7 kg (383 lb)
177 kg (390 lb)[30]
177 kg (390 lb),[33] 203.2 kg (448 lb)[11]

Wet weight*
198.2 kg (437 lb) (claimed)[27]
200.9 kg (443 lb)[21]
193 kg (425 lb), 194 kg (428 lb) (Cali)[34]

206 kg (454 lb) (claimed),[31] 216.4 kg (477 lb)[11]
206 kg
199 kg (439 lb) [13]

Performance

Top speed
270 km/h (168 mph)[1]

278 km/h (173 mph)[1]
288 km/h (179 mph)[1]

293 km/h (182 mph)[1]
284.4 km/h (176.7 mph)[1]

293 km/h (182 mph)[14]

0 to 97 km/h (0 to 60 mph)
2.96[1] sec.

2.99[1] sec.
3.04[1] sec.

2.94[1] sec.
2.88[1] sec.

2.9 sec.[32]
2.6 sec.[35]

0 to 161 km/h (0 to 100 mph)
5.93[1] sec.

5.79[1] sec.
5.42[1] sec.

5.46[1] sec.
5.60[1] sec.

0 to 1⁄4 mile (0.00 to 0.40 km)
10.19[1] sec.

10.17[1] sec.
9.90[1] sec.

9.88[1] sec.
10.05[1] sec.

10.31 @ 148.12 [36]
10.11 sec. @ 146.62 mph [32]
9.83 sec. @ 149.91 mph [35]

Braking 97 to 0 km/h (60 to 0 mph)
34.7 m (113.9 ft)[1]

35.1 m (115.3 ft)[1]
35.8 m (117.3 ft)[1]

35.9 m (117.9 ft)[1]
37.8 m (124.0 ft)[1]

38.4 m (126.0 ft)[32]

Fuel consumption
5.50 L/100 km; 51.4 mpg‑imp (42.8 mpg‑US)[1]

5.67 L/100 km; 49.8 mpg‑imp (41.5 mpg‑US)[1]
5.65 L/100 km; 50.0 mpg‑imp (41.6 mpg‑US)[1]

6.53 L/100 km; 43.2 mpg‑imp (36.0 mpg‑US)[1]
8.0 L/100 km; 35.3 mpg‑imp (29.4 mpg‑US)[1]

text: Includes oil and full fuel tank.

text: Motorsport[edit]

text: The bike had 5 wins in the Macau Grand Prix between 1999 and 2013. Lorenzo Alfonsi won the 2004 FIM Superstock 1000 Cup, followed by Didier Van Keymeulen in 2005.[37] Yamaha World Superbike riders Troy Corser and Noriyuki Haga finished 2nd and 3rd respectively in the 2008 Superbike World Championship season.[37] Yamaha World Superbike rider Ben Spies won the 2009 Superbike World Championship season title recording 14 wins and 11 poles in his one season in WSBK.[37] The Yamaha Factory Racing Team with riders N. Nakasuga, P. Espargaro, and B. Smith won the 2015 Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race.[38] Katsuyuki Nakasuga, Alex Lowes, Pol Espargaro won the 2016 Suzuka 8 Hours endurance Race. Tommy Hill won the British Superbike title in 2011 on board a YZF-R1. Yamaha rider Josh Brookes won the 2015 British Superbike series title.[39]


document_title: Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut

question_text: who sang everyone's a fruit and nutcase

question_tokens: who sang everyone 's a fruit and nutcase

root

text: Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut

text: Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut is a chocolate bar, made by Cadbury UK, and sold in the United Kingdom and other countries. It contains, as the fruit and nut, raisins and almonds. Early recipes included Brazil nuts as well as almonds.[1]

tag: p

text: The bar was launched in 1926 as Cadbury's Fruit & Nut, but was renamed Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut in 2003. In the early years, along with the other Dairy Milk varieties, it was advertised as being essentially Dairy Milk with added ingredients. By the 1960s, each variety was advertised and branded separately, distancing itself from its Dairy Milk parent, in order to appeal to a younger market. The marketing approach produced a wide variety of wrappers and graphics. The famous Fruit and Nut television advert used the slogan 'Everyone's a fruit and nutcase', sung by humourist Frank Muir to the tune of the Danse des mirlitons from Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker. However, by the 1980s, Cadbury went full circle and all branding and wrappers were again realigned with the Dairy Milk family; all bars became predominantly purple and so were unmistakably Dairy Milk. In 2003 the move was further reinforced with a rebranding to Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit and Nut. The product wrapper uses the ampersand: Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut.


document_title: Sigma Chi

question_text: who is credited with establishing the constantine chapter

text: Sigma Chi

text: History[edit]

text: Founding[edit]

text: Sigma Chi was founded in 1855 by Benjamin Piatt Runkle, Thomas Cowan Bell, William Lewis Lockwood, Isaac M. Jordan, Daniel William Cooper, Franklin Howard Scobey, and James Parks Caldwell as the result of a disagreement over who would be elected Poet in the Erodelphian Literary Society of Miami University in Ohio.[8][9]

text: Several members of Miami University's Delta Kappa Epsilon chapter (of which all but one of Sigma Chi's founders were members) were also members of the Erodelphian Literary Society. In the fall of 1854 the literary society was to elect its Poet and a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon was nominated for the position. He was supported by five of his brothers, but four others (James Caldwell, Isaac Jordan, Benjamin Runkle, and Franklin Scobey) supported another man who was not a member of the fraternity. Although Thomas Bell and Daniel Cooper were not members of Erodelphian they had aligned themselves with the four dissenting members. The chapter had twelve members total and were evenly divided on the issue. Both sides saw this as a matter of principle and over the next few months their friendships became distanced.[8][9]

text: In February 1855 Runkle and his companions planned a dinner for their brothers in an attempt to seal the rift. Whitelaw Reid, one of the other brothers who supported the Delta Kappa Epsilon member as poet, was the only one to arrive. Reid brought a Delta Kappa Epsilon alumnus named Minor Millikin from a nearby town.[8] Reid had told Millikin his side of the dispute and they had arrived to punish the group for not supporting their Delta Kappa Epsilon brother. The leaders of the rebellion, Runkle and Scobey, were to be expelled from the fraternity. The other four would be allowed to stay in the fraternity.[8] Runkle resigned, and after the parent chapter at Yale University was contacted, all six men were formally expelled.[8]

text: The six men decided to form their own fraternity along with William Lewis Lockwood, a student from New York who had not joined a fraternity. On June 28, 1855, the organization was founded under the name Sigma Phi Fraternity.[10] Lockwood used his business training to help organize the fraternity in its early years.[11] The eventual theft of Sigma Phi's constitution, rituals, seals, and other records from Lockwood's room in Oxford in January 1856 prompted them to change the name of the fraternity to Sigma Chi.[12] It is possible this action could have been forced upon the group as there was already a Sigma Phi Society.

text: Much of Sigma Chi's heraldry was inspired by the legendary story of the Emperor Constantine from the Battle of Milvian Bridge against Maxentius. The White Cross and the motto "In Hoc Signo Vinces" are examples of the Constantine link. Although many of the symbols of Sigma Chi relate to Christianity, Sigma Chi is not a Christian fraternity.[13]

text: The founders[edit]

text:
Benjamin Piatt Runkle (September 3, 1836 – June 28, 1916) was born in West Liberty, Ohio. Runkle helped design the badge of Sigma Chi based on the story of Constantine and the vision of the Cross. Runkle was known for having a fierce pride and was suspended from Miami University when he fought a member of Beta Theta Pi for sneering at his badge. When the Civil War began Runkle joined the Union Army. He was badly wounded at the Battle of Shiloh and left for dead on the battlefield. Runkle stayed in the army as a career and retired as a major general. After the army he was ordained an Episcopal priest. He was the only founder to serve as Grand Consul. He died on Sigma Chi's 61st birthday in Ohio. He is now buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.[14]

Benjamin Piatt Runkle circa 1857, then an undergraduate student at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio.

Thomas Cowan Bell (May 14, 1832 – February 3, 1919) was born near Dayton, Ohio. He was twenty-three years old when Sigma Chi was founded, second oldest of the founders. He graduated from Miami University in 1857 and began teaching. In 1861 he enlisted in the Union Army and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. After the war he returned to his career in education, serving as the superintendent of schools in Nobles County, Minnesota as well as the principal and president of several preparatory and collegiate institutions in the Western United States. Bell died the day after attending the initiation of alpha beta chapter at University of California Berkeley on February 3, 1919. He is buried at the Presidio of San Francisco in San Francisco National Cemetery in California.[15] Section OS, Row 43A, Grave 3.[16]
William Lewis Lockwood (October 31, 1836 – August 17, 1867) was born in New York City. He was the only founder who had not been a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon. He was considered the "businessman" of the founders and managed the first chapter's funds and general operations, becoming the first treasurer of Sigma Chi. After graduating from Miami University in 1858 he moved back to New York and began work as a lawyer. He received serious wounds serving in the Union Army during the Civil War, from which he never fully recovered. He named his son after Franklin Howard Scobey.[17]
Isaac M. Jordan (May 5, 1835 – December 3, 1890) was born in Mifflinburg, Pennsylvania[18] as Isaac Alfred Jordan.[19] His family later moved to Ohio where Jordan met Benjamin Piatt Runkle and became close friends. After graduating from Miami University in 1857 he went on to graduate school, where he graduated in 1862. He then began work as an attorney and was elected to the United States Congress in 1882.[20] He proceeded to change his middle name, Alfred, to just the letter "M" to help distinguish himself from his brother and law partner, Jackson A. Jordan. He died in 1890 after accidentally falling down an elevator shaft while greeting a friend.[21] He is buried in Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati, Ohio.[18]
Daniel William Cooper (September 2, 1830 – December 11, 1920) was born near Fredericktown, Ohio. Cooper was the oldest founder and was elected the first consul of Sigma Chi. After graduating from Miami University in 1857 he became a Presbyterian minister. Cooper's original Sigma Chi badge came into the possession of the Fraternity at the time of his death. It is pinned on every new Grand Consul at their installation. Cooper is buried at the Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh, Pa.[22]
Franklin Howard Scobey (May 27, 1837 – July 22, 1888) was born in Hamilton, Ohio. Scobey was considered The Spirit of Sigma Chi for being friendly with everybody and not just a select group of people.[23] After graduating from Miami University in 1858 he went on to graduate again in 1861 with a law degree. He worked as a journalist in his hometown until 1879 but went on to become a cattleman in Kansas until 1882. Scobey then moved back to Ohio where he took up farming until his death. Never physically robust, Scobey was afflicted with hearing loss in his final years.[24]
James Parks Caldwell (March 27, 1841 – April 5, 1912) was born in Monroe, Ohio. By the age of thirteen Caldwell had completed all academics which could be offered at his local academy. He was then sent to Miami University with advanced credits. Caldwell was just fourteen at the time of the founding making him the youngest of the founders. After Caldwell graduated from Miami University in 1857 he practiced some law in Ohio but moved to Mississippi to begin a career as an educator. When the Civil War broke out he joined the Confederate Army. During the war he was taken prisoner but later, due to the influence of General Benjamin Piatt Runkle, was offered freedom on the condition that he renounce his allegiance to the Confederacy. He rejected this offer and remained loyal to the south. He was later released, again due to the influence of General Runkle. After the war he moved back to Mississippi and was admitted to the bar. He moved to California in 1867 and practiced law. In 1875, he began to travel frequently practicing law and editing newspapers. He died in Biloxi, Mississippi where the latest issues of The Sigma Chi Quarterly were found in his room.[25]

tag: ul

text: Early years[edit]

text: Constantine Chapter[edit]

text: Harry St. John Dixon, a brother from the Psi Chapter at the University of Virginia who fought for the Confederacy, kept a record of all Sigma Chis within his vicinity on the flyleaf of his diary during the American Civil War.[26] He began planning a Confederate Army chapter of Sigma Chi with this information. On September 17, 1864 Dixon founded the Constantine Chapter of Sigma Chi during the Atlanta campaign with Harry Yerger, a brother from Mississippi who was in Dixon's division. Dixon stated the reasons for which the war-time chapter was created saying,

text:
“
It was ascertained that a number of the fraternity were in the army of Tennessee under General Joseph E. Johnston during the Atlanta campaign in 1864. It was conceded that the South was forever disunited from the general government, and it was assumed that all chapters throughout the South would cease to exist. Furthermore, it was deemed expedient that we brothers should know each other and our several commands for the purpose of relief in distress, and communication in a case of need, with our Northern brethren. In the ruin at hand my sentiment was to preserve the lofty principles typified by the White Cross. I know that I had no authority to establish a chapter of Sigma Chi outside a college, or at all; but, isolated as we were, I thought I should raise the standard and fix a rallying point. By doing so we should preserve the Order, whether we failed or not in our struggle for independence.[27][28]
”

tag: table

text: Dixon and Yerger contacted all brothers listed in the diary who could come to the meeting.[26] They met at night in a deserted log cabin a few miles southwest of Atlanta. Dixon later wrote,

text:
“
The cabin was in a state of frightful dilapidation. Its rude walls and rafters were covered with soot and cobwebs, and the floor showed evidences of having been the resting place of sundry heaps of sheep.
”

text: Dixon was elected "Sigma" (president) and Yerger was elected "Chi" (vice president); the chapter also initiated two men. The only badge in the chapter was one Dixon had made from a silver half-dollar.

text: The last meeting was held New Year's Day 1865. The men at that meeting passed a resolution to pay a "tribute of respect" to the four brothers from the chapter who had died during the war. In May 1939 the Constantine Chapter Memorial was erected by Sigma Chi in memory of the Constantine Chapter and its members. The memorial is located on U.S. 41 in Clayton County, Georgia.[27][28]

text: Purdue case[edit]

text: In 1876, Emerson E. White became president of Purdue University. He required each applicant for admission to sign a pledge "not to join or belong to any so-called Greek society or other college secret society" while attending the school. The Sigma Chi chapter at Purdue, which was already established at the university, sent petitions to the faculty and pleaded their case to the board of trustees, but was unsuccessful in changing the rule.[29]

text: In the fall of 1881, Thomas P. Hawley applied for admission to the university. Having already been initiated into Sigma Chi, Hawley refused to sign the pledge and was denied admission. Hawley took Purdue to court, but the judge ruled in favor of the faculty's decision. He also ruled, however, that the faculty had no right to deny Hawley from his classes based on the fraternity issue. The case was brought to the Indiana Supreme Court, which reversed the decision on June 21, 1882. This victory for Sigma Chi also allowed other fraternities at Purdue and led to the Purdue president's resignation in 1883.[30]

text: First half of the 20th century[edit]

text: During the first half of the 20th century the General Fraternity expanded in many places. In 1899 the Fraternity adopted the flag design created by Henry V. Vinton. In 1901 the Grand Chapter approved the Fraternity's pledge pin. In 1903 at the Grand Chapter in Detroit the Board of Grand Trustees was established. In 1922 the Alpha Beta chapter at University of California, Berkeley held the "Channingway Derby" which led to the creation of the "Sigma Chi Derby Days".[31][32] Some of the awards created during this time include the Significant Sig Award in 1935 and the Order of Constantine in 1948.[33]

text: Coming into the beginning of the 20th century, Sigma Chi had installed a total of 74 chapters with 58 still active.[34] Having only established a centralized form of government in 1922, Sigma Chi was installing new chapters at a rate of about one chapter per year. On April 22, 1922 the Beta Omega chapter was installed at the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario thus making Sigma Chi an international fraternity.[35]

text: The Sigma Chi Foundation was created on November 9, 1939 when the Sigma Chi Endowment Foundation was incorporated in Colorado. This educational endowment was first discussed in 1898 by alumni who wanted to assist undergraduates financially so they could finish their undergraduate studies.[35]

text: The world wars of the 20th century took the lives of 103 Sigs in World War I and 738 in World War II. A great resurgence in undergraduate activity followed World War II due to an increase in chapter memberships. This increase was caused by the men returning from military service who went back to school as well as the usual addition of new brothers.[35]

text: During World War II it became apparent to the General Fraternity officers that a few alumni as well as a few undergraduate chapters believed some of the prerequisites for membership in Sigma Chi were outdated and should be changed or eliminated. This led to the first discussions about membership within the fraternity that continued until early in 1970. Until this time, membership requirements had specified that a potential member must be a "bona fide white male student". After the first discussion in 1948 at the Grand Chapter in Seattle, the committee on Constitutional Amendments tabled the issue pending a further study of the problem to be reported to the 1950 Grand Chapter. The study showed that the issue was "very hot" on 13 campuses with Sigma Chi chapters and only "lukewarm" on a dozen other campuses.[36]

text: During this time period, the remaining four founders of Sigma Chi (of the original seven) all died; Daniel William Cooper was the last founder to die. Cooper's death led up to the Fraternity gaining one of its most priceless objects, Cooper's Sigma Phi badge. Cooper's body was sent by train to his final resting place in Pittsburgh, and the Beta Theta chapter at the University of Pittsburgh was given the privilege to administer his memorial service. On December 13, 1920, Cooper's body was conveyed to the Beta Theta chapter house where Beta Theta Consul Donald E. Walker removed Cooper's Sigma Phi Badge and replaced it with his own. Beta Theta Pro-Consul, Regis Toomey, sang the hymn "With Sacred Circle Broken" before Cooper was taken to his final resting place.[37]

text: Nomenclature and insignia[edit]

text: The Badge[edit]

text: The badge of Sigma Chi is a white cross with white and black enamel. Two gold chains connect the two upper arms. Crossed keys are in the upper arm, an eagle's head lies in the left arm, and a scroll lies in its right arm. In the bottom arm lie two clasped hands and seven stars.

text: The Seal[edit]

text: The seal of Sigma Chi is circular. On the outer edge is "Sigma Chi Fraternity" and at the bottom are the numbers "1855". In the middle lie seven stars and a seven-branched candlestick.

text: The Coat of Arms[edit]

text: The crest of Sigma Chi is a blue Norman Shield with a white cross in its center. On top of the Norman Shield is a scroll and a crest of an eagle's head holding a key. Below it, the fraternity's public motto, "In Hoc Signo Vinces" is placed on a scroll. It can be translated as, "In this sign, you will conquer."[38]

text: Organization of the fraternity[edit]

text: Chapter Officers[edit]

text: Officers in undergraduate chapters mostly have titles derived from Imperial Rome. The top officers of each chapter are known as the Consul (president), Pro Consul (vice-president), Annotator (secretary), Quaestor (treasurer), Magister (pledge trainer), Kustos (sergeant-at-arms), Tribune (communications), and Historian. Those titles are the primary officers common to all chapters. Chapters also have other positions, such as Social Chairman, Sports Chairman, Scholarship Chairman, House Manager, Recruitment Chairman, etc., plus other positions and titles varying from chapter to chapter.[citation needed]

text: Alumni chapter positions and duties may also vary from chapter to chapter. Alumni chapters use the more common office titles such as: president, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer.

text: Grand Officers[edit]

text: The international organization uses similar Roman titles, typically with the prefix of "Grand". The Grand Consul is the international president of Sigma Chi. He presides over the Executive Committee and the Grand Chapter,

text: Grand Chapter[edit]

text: Grand Chapter is the supreme legislative body of Sigma Chi and convenes on odd numbered years. It is composed of one delegate from each active undergraduate chapter and alumni chapter, the Grand Consul and Past Grand Consuls, each being entitled to one vote. The Grand Chapter elects the officers of the Fraternity as well as alter or amend the Constitution, Statutes, and Executive Committee Regulations. It may grant or revoke charters as well as discipline any chapter, officer or member.[39] The most recent Sigma Chi Grand Chapter was held in Providence, Rhode Island on June 23–25, 2017.[citation needed]

text: Grand Council[edit]

text: The Grand Council meets every year when no Grand Chapter is held. The Grand Council consists of the Grand Officers, Past Grand Consuls, members of the Executive Committee, Grand Trustees, Grand Praetors, members of the Leadership Training Board and one undergraduate from each province. It may amend the Statutes or Executive Committee Regulations.[39]

text: The Executive Committee[edit]

text: The Executive Committee meets at least four times a year. The Executive Committee consists of 12 members; Grand Consul, Grand Pro Consul, Grand Quaestor, the immediate Past Grand Consul, a Grand Trustee elected by the Board of Grand Trustees, two Grand Praetors elected by the Praetorial College, one alumnus member-at-large, two undergraduate representatives elected by the undergraduate delegates from each chapter, and the two most recent International Balfour Award winners. The committee regulates the budget and expenditures as well as assign duties to the International Headquarters staff.[39]

text: Charitable foundations[edit]

text: The Sigma Chi Foundation is a charitable and educational tax-exempt organization, separate and independent from the Fraternity, whose express purpose is to serve as an educational funding resource for the undergraduate and graduate student members of the Sigma Chi Fraternity.

text: A Board of Governors, headed by Chairman Bob Johnson, governs the Foundation. The Foundation's President and CEO is Ashley Woods and the Foundation's offices are based in Evanston, Ill.

text: The Sigma Chi Canadian Foundation is the Canadian counterpart of The Sigma Chi Foundation. It serves independently of both the fraternity and the American foundation. It was formed by Canadian Sigma Chi Alumni as a registered charitable foundation to provide a tax-effective way for Canadian Sigma Chi to support the educational pursuits of Canadian undergraduate chapters.[40] The Foundation is guided by a Chair and a Board of Directors of alumni members.[41]

text: Leadership programs[edit]

text:
The Balfour Leadership Training Workshop (BLTW) is a three-day retreat held annually since 1947. Undergraduate members receive training for specific roles within their chapter. Alumni volunteers are also given mentorship training. The BLTW is named after the 29th Grand Consul of the Fraternity, Lloyd G. Balfour.[42]
Horizons is a six-day workshop for undergraduate brothers. The program aims to create lifelong values-based leaders.[43]
Mission 365 is a recruitment workshop. Participants are taught how to "increase both the quality and quantity" of potential new members.[44]
The Journey Program is self-improvement training for undergraduate chapters. There are six Journey workshops, each with a specific aim to better one aspect of the chapter.[45]
The Sigma Chi Choices program and The Sigma Chi Crossroads Workshop both aim to combat drug and alcohol abuse and address mental health among members.[46]
Sigma Chi Lifeline is an online resource for those suffering from mental illness. The program aims to prevent suicide among college students by providing information and support for those affected by emotional and mental health issues.[46]

text: Philanthropy[edit]

text: Derby Days[edit]

text: Derby Days is a series of charity events held by many Sigma Chi chapters. Throughout the course of a week, a participating chapter organizes and hosts a series of events and competitions among their campus's sororities. Money is raised through either donations, or through fundraising-type events. Hosting a Derby Days event is not mandatory for any chapter. A common event held across many campuses is the Derby Run, where brothers must wear derbies throughout the day, while sisters in participating sororities attempt to steal them. According to the International Fraternity's official website, the basic mission of Derby Days is to serve the community.[47] According to archival information at Sigma Chi International Headquarters, the first "Derby Day" event was held in 1916 at the University of California-Berkeley. Then known as the "Channing Way Derby" because of the California-Berkeley chapter's location on Channing Way and College Avenue, the event spread to other chapters who created their own Derby Day.[48] The most money raised by any Sigma Chi chapter was the Iota Psi chapter at Rutgers University in the fall of 2016. The brothers of the Iota Psi chapter raised $300,007 with the help of the eight sororities at the University: Zeta Tau Alpha, Phi Sigma Sigma, Sigma Delta Tau, Phi Mu, Delta Gamma, Gamma Phi Beta, Sigma Kappa, and Alpha Gamma Delta. This money is all donated to the Children's Miracle Network right down the street in New Brunswick. $300,007 is the most money raised by any single Greek Organization in the world.

text: Merlin Olsen Day of Service[edit]

text: In honor of notable Sigma Chi alumni and NFL Hall of Fame inductee Merlin Olsen September 15 is recognized by the fraternity as the Merlin Olsen Day of Service. On this day, members of the fraternity are encouraged to volunteer to improve their communities.[47]

text: Children's Miracle Network Hospitals (CMNH) is Sigma Chi's suggested beneficiary. The organization was introduced to the fraternity by Olsen in 1992. Since then Sigma Chi alumni and undergraduate chapters have raised more than 6.9 million for CMNH. Every chapter has a CMNH affiliate within less than 200 miles, with each chapter donating to the nearest affiliated hospital.[47]

text: Huntsman Cancer Institute[edit]

text: The Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI) is another one of Sigma Chi's preferred charitable organizations. It was chosen at Sigma Chi's 150th anniversary celebration in 2005. The Huntsman Cancer Institute today is dedicated to researching the causes, treatments, and preventative methods of cancer. The institute was founded in 1995 by Sigma Chi alumnus, and founder of the Huntsman Corporation, Jon M. Huntsman Sr.. Huntsman has donated more than 350 million dollars to the institute, and has encouraged his fellow brothers to contribute as well.[49]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Undergraduate awards[edit]

text: Sigma Chi gives out two undergraduate awards, The Peterson Significant Chapter Award, which is given to chapters who show a strong performance in all areas of chapter operations,[50][51] and The International Balfour Award, which is given each year to one graduating senior who excels in four criteria; scholarship, character, Fraternity service and campus leadership.[50][51]

text: Alumni awards[edit]

text: The fraternity also gives out three alumni awards: The Significant Sig Award is given to a member who has excelled greatly in his field of study or occupation. The first seven Significant Sig awards were given to George Ade, Roy Chapman Andrews, John T. McCutcheon, Chase S. Osborn, James Wallington, F. Dudleigh Vernor, and Samuel P. Cowley.[52] The Order of Constantine is awarded to alumni members who have devoted long and distinguished service to the Fraternity.[52][53] The Semi-Century Sig Award is given to brothers who have been active in the fraternity for 50 years or more.[52]

text: International Sweetheart[edit]

text: Most undergraduate chapters elect a female associated with the chapter as the chapter sweetheart. At each Grand Chapter, the fraternity chooses a Sweetheart from one chapter to be the International Sweetheart of Sigma Chi for two years. The International Sweetheart Award is presented based on personality, character, campus involvement, Sigma Chi activities, general accomplishments, poise, and grace. Each nominee must be the sweetheart of an undergraduate chapter for the year nominated and a student at the nominating chapter's university.[54] Judy Garland was a Sigma Chi Sweetheart from The New York State University chapter.[55]

text: Military Service Recognition Pin[edit]

text: The Military Service Recognition Pin recognizes honorably discharged veterans or currently serving members of the armed forces who are in good standing with the Sigma Chi Fraternity. The pin consists of a single Norman-style sword thrust upward with a small Sigma Chi Norman Shield with a cross embossed upon it placed upon the lower end of the blade just above the hilt and is to be worn on the brother's lapel. The Military service pin concept and design was created by Life Loyal Sig Anthony Dauer Theta Beta 1993 and was first presented at the 2007 Grand Chapter.[56][57]

text: Publications[edit]

text: The Magazine of Sigma Chi[edit]

text: The Magazine of Sigma Chi is the official quarterly publication for undergraduate and alumni brothers of the Sigma Chi Fraternity. First published in 1881 at Gettysburg College, Theta Chapter, as The Sigma Chi, publication eventually moved to Chicago and the name was changed to The Sigma Chi Quarterly.[12] The name was later changed to The Magazine of Sigma Chi[citation needed]

text: The Norman Shield[edit]

text: The Norman Shield is the reference manual of the Fraternity.[58] It was authorized by the 24th Grand Consul Herbert C. Arms at the 1924 Grand Chapter. It was first compiled in 1929 by Arthur Vos, Jr. and based on the booklet he prepared for the Beta Mu chapter at the University of Colorado at Boulder which Vos indicated was based on the material contained in the 1922 Manual and Directory.[59] It contained biographies of the founders, significant alumni, a history of the Fraternity, the Constitution and Statutes, and other writings relevant to the fraternity.[citation needed]

text: Notable Sigma Chi Alumni[edit]

text: Sigma Chi has alumni who are notable in many different industries and fields. In athletics Sigma Chi has 5 MLB all-stars, 6 World Series champions, 7 NFL All-Pro players, 6 Super Bowl champions, 2 NCAA Basketball champions, and 3 Olympic medal holders. Some of these notable Sigs include Mike Ditka, Drew Brees, Joe Gordon, Jay Wright, and Eric Fonoimoana. In politics Sigma Chi has had 24 U.S. Representatives, 11 U.S. Senators, 8 United States Governors, 5 Lieutenant governors, and 1 United States President through the honorary membership of Grover Cleveland to the University of Michigan chapter.[60][61][62] Among Sigma Chi's notable actors include 9 Emmy Award winners, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award winners, 4 Golden Globe Award winners, and 3 Academy Award winners. These notable alumni include Brad Pitt, John Wayne, Tom Selleck, David Letterman, and Ty Burrell.

text: Hazing and controversies[edit]

text: In response to concerns over safety, negative publicity, and difficulty in getting insurance Sigma Chi announced a zero-tolerance stance on the issue of hazing on January 31, 2005.[63]

text: The chapter at the University of Nebraska was suspended for hazing and alcohol consumption violations. The hazing pledges endured included taking shots of Tabasco hot sauce and vodka until they vomited, they were ordered to do strenuous exercises while their big brothers threw objects at them, and one pledge was randomly chosen and screamed in agony as he was anally penetrated with a vibrating dildo by a hired female stripper during an initiation party. Eight members were arrested and charged with hazing and providing alcohol to minors.[64]

text: The chapter at the University of Alabama was sued by a former pledge after he was severely beaten by fraternity members at a party that resulted in serious injuries, depression, and severe anxiety. The chapter was also cited for providing alcohol to underage people.[65]

text:
The chapter at Auburn University was suspended by the organization (with the university's support) for hazing of new members in 2005.[66]
The chapter at the University of Dayton was suspended for three years for damaging a store's property, urinating inside the store and exposing themselves to passersby.[67]
A fraternity member at Westminster College served 120 days in jail for violently beating up one of his fraternity brothers.[68]
The chapter at the University of Central Florida was placed on suspension after photos surfaced on social media of pledges being forced to consume alcohol and sick from over-consuming alcohol. Several other fraternities on campus were also accused of hazing and alcohol abuse with their pledges that same semester which led to the president of the university temporarily banning all Greek Life activities on campus.[69][70]

text:
Three Sigma Chi members at James Madison University were found guilty of sexually assaulting a female student and distributing a recording of the incident. The members were banned from the campus after their graduation.[71]
The chapter at the University of West Virginia had six members arrested and cited by the Morgantown police department for hazing pledges and facilitating underage drinking. After a party hosted by the fraternity, several members dropped off 19 pledges (most of whom were intoxicated) at a random location far away from campus without their cellphones and wallets and told them to find their way back to their fraternity house on campus as part of a "team building" exercise.[72]
The University of Dayton permanently banned the fraternity after a member’s death revealed the chapter had not been abiding by the parameters of its suspension.[73]

text:
The University of Houston suspended its Sigma Chi chapter for hazing. The university also suspended five students pending investigation, and forwarded its findings to the district attorney.[74] The university has accused the national organization of withholding information about the chapter's activities.[75] The chapter was later closed by the national organization.[76]
Westminster College and the national fraternity jointly suspended that school's chapter. The suspension was in response to hazing, academic problems, and racist and sexist comments by members on social media.[77][78]
The chapter at Indiana University of Pennsylvania was suspended by its national governing board after a woman was violently pinned down and raped by a student who was not a member or a pledge of the Fraternity.[79]
A Sigma Chi member at Utah State University was kicked out the fraternity after being charged with two counts of rape and aggravated sexual assault.[80] The attacks are believed to have taken place at the fraternity house.[81]
The chapter at Brown University was suspended for facilitating sexual misconduct and hosting an unauthorized party with alcohol.[82]
The chapter at Louisiana State University was shut down for repeatedly hazing pledges and illegal drug use in the fraternity house. Two months before the chapter closure a 21 years old fraternity member died of a heroin overdose.[83][84]

text:
The chapter at the University of South Carolina (USC) was shut down for mentally and physically abusing pledges. Sigma Chi was the 5th fraternity at USC to be closed or suspended since fall 2014.[85]
The chapter at the University of Arkansas was suspended for repeatedly hazing pledges and violating the fraternity and school's no-hazing policy.[86]
A former pledge at the University of Arizona sued his chapter after his fraternity brothers blamed him for the nonfatal overdose of a female party attendee.[87]

text:
The chapter at Eastern Illinois University was suspended indefinitely for several allegations of extremely hazing pledges.[88]
The chapter at Rutgers University was shut down after they were accused by members of Sigma Delta Tau sorority of drugging them during a private social mixer with intentions of sexual assault. The fraternity hosted an event where Xanax was found inside a communal container full of alcohol and fruit juice. Records obtained by the Rutgers' students' newspaper reported about 10 Sigma Delta Tau members suffered bouts of vomiting, incoherence and blackouts.[89]


document_title: Pride and Prejudice (1995 TV series)

question_text: what year is bbc pride and prejudice set

text: Pride and Prejudice (1995 TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Episode 1 – Part One: Mr. Charles Bingley, a rich man from the north of England, settles down at Netherfield estate near Meryton village in Hertfordshire for the autumn. Mrs Bennet, unlike her husband, is excited at the prospect of marrying off one of her five daughters (Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty, and Lydia) to the newcomer. Bingley takes an immediate liking to Jane at a local country-dance, while his best friend Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy, rumoured to be twice as rich, refuses to dance with anyone including Elizabeth. Elizabeth's poor impression of his character is confirmed at a later gathering at Lucas Lodge, and she and Darcy verbally clash on the two nights she spends at Netherfield caring for the sick Jane.

text: Episode 2 – Part Two: A sycophantic clergyman named Mr. William Collins visits his cousins, the Bennets. He is the entailed heir of their home and estate, Longbourn, and intends to marry one of Mr. Bennet's daughters. This is meant, on his part, as an act of benign goodwill towards the Bennets, because Mrs. Bennet and her unwed daughters will be rendered homeless once Mr. Bennet dies and Mr. Collins inherits the estate. He therefore invites himself for a two-week visit, to get to know the Bennets better and select a wife from among the daughters of the family. However, the Bennet girls judge Mr. Collins to be a rather ridiculous man, an "oddity" with many peculiarities of speech and deportment. They are nevertheless civil to him, and take him to balls and social events in Meryton. One day, while on a walk around Meryton village, they meet members of a newly arrived militia, including a Mr George Wickham. At a social event, Wickham befriends Elizabeth and tells her that Darcy, who is the son of Wickham's late father's employer, has denied Wickham a living (a curacy) which had been assured to him by Mr. Darcy's father. At another social event, Darcy surprises Elizabeth with a dance offer at a ball at Netherfield, which she grudgingly but politely accepts. Mr Collins proposes to Elizabeth the next day, but she resoundingly rejects him. While Mrs Bennet disagrees about Elizabeth's decision, her close friend Charlotte Lucas invites Mr Collins to stay at Lucas Lodge.

text: Episode 3 – Part Three: Elizabeth is stunned and appalled when she learns that Charlotte Lucas has accepted a proposal from Mr Collins. When the Netherfield party departs for London in autumn, Jane stays with her modest London relatives, the Gardiners, but she soon notices that the Bingleys ignore her. After befriending Mr Wickham, Elizabeth departs for the Collinses' home in Kent in the spring. They live near Rosings, the estate of the formidable Lady Catherine de Bourgh, and as Lady Catherine is Darcy's aunt, Elizabeth meets Darcy several times. Shortly after Elizabeth learns of Darcy's direct responsibility for Jane and Bingley's separation, Darcy unexpectedly proposes to her, expressing his ardent admiration and love despite Elizabeth's inferior family connections. Elizabeth flatly rejects him, noting his arrogant, disagreeable, and proud character, and his involvement in her sister's failed romance and Mr Wickham's misfortune.

text: Episode 4 – Part Four: Darcy justifies his previous actions in a long letter to Elizabeth: he misjudged Jane's affection for Bingley and exposes Wickham as a gambler who once attempted to elope with his young sister, Georgiana, to obtain her inheritance. Back at Longbourn, Mr Bennet allows Lydia to accompany the militia to Brighton as a personal friend of the militia colonel's wife. Elizabeth joins the Gardiners on a sightseeing trip to Derbyshire and visits Pemberley, Darcy's estate, during his absence. Greatly impressed by the immense scale and richness of the estate, Elizabeth listens to the housekeeper's earnest tales of her master's lifelong goodness, while Darcy refreshes from his unannounced journey home by taking a swim in a lake. After an unexpected and awkward encounter with Elizabeth, a damp Darcy is able to prevent the party's premature departure with an unusual degree of friendliness and politeness.

text: Episode 5 – Part Five: Elizabeth and the Gardiners receive an invitation to Pemberley, where Darcy and Elizabeth share significant glances. The next morning, Elizabeth receives two letters from Jane, discussing Lydia's elopement with Wickham. As Elizabeth is about to return to Longbourn, Darcy walks in and offers his help, but, upon digesting the bad news, gradually appears more remote, and soon takes his leave. Elizabeth supposes she will never see him again. Mr and Mrs Bennet try to deal with the possible scandal until they receive a letter from Mr Gardiner, saying that Lydia and Wickham have been found and are not married, but will be soon under the Gardiners' care. After Mr Bennet states his surprise at how easily the issue has been resolved, Elizabeth informs Jane about her last meeting with Darcy, including her ambivalent feelings for him.

text: Episode 6 – Part Six: After Lydia carelessly mentions Darcy's involvement in her wedding, Mrs Gardiner enlightens Elizabeth how Darcy found the errant couple and paid for all the expenses. When Bingley and Darcy return to Netherfield in the autumn, Darcy apologises to Bingley for intervening in his relationship with Jane and gives his blessing for the couple to wed. Lady Catherine de Bourgh, who has heard rumours of an engagement between Darcy and Elizabeth but wants him to marry her sickly daughter Anne, pays Elizabeth an unannounced visit. She insists that Elizabeth renounce Darcy, but Elizabeth does not rule out a future engagement. When Elizabeth thanks Darcy for his role in Lydia's marriage, Lady Catherine's story encourages Darcy to reconfirm his feelings for Elizabeth. Elizabeth admits the complete transformation of her feelings and agrees to an engagement, which takes her family by surprise. The series ends with a double wedding in the winter months: Jane with Bingley, and Elizabeth to Fitzwilliam Darcy.

text: Cast[edit]

text: When casting the many characters of Pride and Prejudice, the producer Sue Birtwistle and director Simon Langton were looking for actors with wit, charm and charisma, who could play the Regency period. Their choices for the protagonists, 20-year-old Elizabeth Bennet and 28-year-old Mr Darcy, determined the other actors cast. Hundreds of actresses between 15 and 28 auditioned, and those with the right presence were screen-tested, performing several prepared scenes in period costumes and makeup in a television studio. Straight offers were made to several established actors.[3]

text: Jennifer Ehle was chosen from six serious candidates to play Elizabeth, the second Bennet daughter, the brightest girl, and her father's favourite. At the time in her mid-20s, Ehle had read Pride and Prejudice at the age of 12 and was the only actor to be present throughout the whole filming schedule.[3][4][5] Sue Birtwistle particularly wanted Colin Firth, a relatively unknown British actor in his mid-30s at the time, to play the wealthy and aloof Mr. Darcy.[6] Birtwistle had worked with him on the mid-1980s comedy film Dutch Girls, but he repeatedly turned down her offer as he neither felt attracted to Austen's feminine perspective nor believed himself to be right for the role. Birtwistle's persistent coaxing and his deeper looks into the Darcy character finally convinced him to accept the role.[7][8] Firth and Ehle began a romantic relationship during the filming of the series, which received media attention only after the couple's separation.[9]

text: Benjamin Whitrow was cast to play Mr Bennet, Elizabeth's distinguished but financially imprudent and occasionally indulgent gentry father. BAFTA-nominated Alison Steadman was cast to play the parvenu Mrs Bennet, Elizabeth's mortifyingly affected social climbing mother. Steadman was offered the role without auditions or screen tests. Elizabeth's four sisters, whose ages ranged between 15 and 22, were cast to look dissimilar from each other. Susannah Harker portrayed Elizabeth's beautiful older sister Jane, who desires to only see good in others. Lucy Briers, Polly Maberly, and Julia Sawalha played Elizabeth's younger sisters – the plain Mary, the good-natured but flighty and susceptible Kitty, and frivolous and headstrong Lydia. Being 10 years older than 15-year-old Lydia, Julia Sawalha, of Absolutely Fabulous fame, had enough acting experience to get the role without screen tests. Joanna David and Tim Wylton appeared as the Gardiners, Elizabeth's maternal aunt and uncle. David Bamber played the unctuous clergyman, Mr Collins, a cousin of Mr Bennet. Lucy Scott portrayed Elizabeth's best friend and Mr Collins's wife, Charlotte Lucas, and David Bark-Jones portrayed Lt. Denny.[3]

text: The producers found Crispin Bonham-Carter to have the best physical contrast to Firth's Darcy and gave him his first major television role as the good-natured and wealthy Mr Charles Bingley.[3] Bonham-Carter had originally auditioned for the part of Mr George Wickham,[10] a handsome militia lieutenant whose charm conceals his licentiousness and greed, but Adrian Lukis was cast instead. Anna Chancellor, of Four Weddings and a Funeral fame, played Mr Bingley's sister Caroline Bingley. (Chancellor is also Jane Austen's six-times-great-niece)[11] Mr Bingley's other sister and his brother-in-law were played by Lucy Robinson (Louisa Hurst) and Rupert Vansittart (Mr Hurst). Casting the role of Darcy's young sister, Georgiana, proved hard as the producers were looking for a young actress who appeared innocent, proud and yet shy, had class and could also play the piano. After auditioning over 70 actresses, Simon Langton suggested Emilia Fox, the real-life daughter of Joanna David (Mrs Gardiner), for the part. Barbara Leigh-Hunt was cast as Darcy's meddling aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, without auditions or screen tests.[3]

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception and adaptation[edit]

text: Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice had already been the subject of numerous television and film adaptations, including BBC television versions in 1938, 1952, 1958, 1967 and 1980. In the autumn of 1986, after watching a preview of Austen's Northanger Abbey, Sue Birtwistle and Andrew Davies agreed to adapt Pride and Prejudice, one of their favourite books, for television.[12][13] Birtwistle in particular felt that a new adaptation on film would serve the drama better than the previous videotaped Pride and Prejudice television adaptations, which looked too "undernourished" and "unpoetic".[12] The needs of TV scheduling forced Davies to change his original plan of a five-episode adaptation to six.[14] Birtwistle and Davies then offered the first three scripts to ITV in late 1986 to build on the guaranteed BBC audience, but the recent TV adaptation led to a delay. When ITV announced its renewed interest in 1993, Michael Wearing of the BBC commissioned the final scripts with co-funding from the American A&E Network.[12] Director Simon Langton and the art department joined pre-production in January and February 1994.[5][15]

text:
"We treated the story with great respect, but if we wanted to be utterly faithful, we would have got someone to recite it over the radio."

—Director Simon Langton[16]

tag: div

text: Although Birtwistle and Davies wished to remain true to the tone and spirit of the novel,[14] they wanted to produce "a fresh, lively story about real people",[12] not an "old studio-bound BBC drama that was shown in the Sunday teatime slot".[7] Emphasising sex and money as the themes of the story,[12] Davies shifted the focus from Elizabeth to Elizabeth and Darcy and foreshadowed Darcy's role in the narrative resolution. To portray the characters as real human beings, Davies added short backstage scenes such as the Bennet girls dressing up to advertise themselves in the marriage market. New scenes where men pursue their hobbies with their peers departed from Jane Austen's focus on women.[14] The biggest technical difficulty proved to be adapting the long letters in the second half of the story. Davies employed techniques such as voice-overs, flashbacks, and having the characters read the letters to themselves and to each other. Davies added some dialogue to clarify events from the novel to a modern audience but left much of the novel's dialogue intact.[14]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Film locations of Pride and Prejudice (1995).

text: Director of photography John Kenway used Super 16mm film, which has a slightly smaller widescreen aspect ratio than 16:9, but the series was originally broadcast 4:3 pan and scan.[17]

text: The budget of about £1 million per episode (totalling US$9.6 million) allowed 20 shooting weeks of five days to film six 55-minute episodes. Production aimed for 10.5-hour shooting days plus time for costume and make-up.[4][16] Two weeks before filming began, about 70 of the cast and crew gathered for the script read-through, followed by rehearsals, lessons for dancing, horse-riding, fencing, and other skills that needed to be ready ahead of the actual filming.[18] Filming took place between June 1994 and 1 November 1994 to reflect the changing seasons in the plot, followed by post-production until mid-May 1995.[5] Scenes in the same place were grouped in the filming schedule.[4]

text: Twenty-four locations, most of them owned by the National Trust, and eight studio sets were used for filming.[15][18] Reflecting the wealth differences between the main characters, the filming location for Longbourn showed the comfortable family house of the Bennet family, whereas Darcy's Pemberley needed to look like the "most beautiful place", showing good taste and the history of the aristocracy.[6]

text: The first location that the producers agreed on was Lacock in Wiltshire to represent the village of Meryton. Luckington Court nearby served as the interior and exterior of Longbourn. Lyme Hall in Cheshire was chosen as Pemberley but management problems forced production to film Pemberley's interiors at Sudbury Hall in Sudbury, Derbyshire.[19]

text: The producers found Belton House in Grantham, Lincolnshire the best match for Rosings, Lady Catherine de Bourgh's estate,[19] which needed to appear "over-the-top" to reflect her disagreeableness.[6] Old Rectory at Teigh in Rutland was chosen as Hunsford parsonage, Mr Collins's modest home. Edgcote House in south-west Northamptonshire served as the interior and exterior of Bingley's Netherfield, along with Brocket Hall in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire as the Netherfield ballroom. The London streets were filmed in Lord Leycester Hospital in Warwick, Warwickshire. Wickham's and Georgiana's planned elopement in Ramsgate was filmed in the English seaside resort Weston-super-Mare in Somerset.[19] Wickham's wedding takes place in St Paul's in Deptford, London.

text: Costumes and make-up[edit]

text: Because Pride and Prejudice was a period drama, the design required more research than contemporary films. The personality and wealth of the characters were reflected in their costumes; the wealthy Bingley sisters were never shown in print dresses and they wore big feathers in their hair.[6] As the BBC's stock of early 19th century costumes was limited, costume designer Dinah Collin designed most of the costumes, visiting museums for inspiration while trying to make the clothes attractive to a modern audience (although some costumes, mostly worn by extras, were re-used from earlier BBC productions or hired). Elizabeth's clothes had earthy tones and were fitted to allow easy and natural movements in line with the character's activity and liveliness. In contrast, Collin chose pale or creamy white colours for the clothes of the other Bennet girls to highlight their innocence and simplicity and richer colours for Bingley's sisters and Lady Catherine de Bourgh. Colin Firth participated in the wardrobe decisions and wanted his character to wear darker colours, leaving the warmer colours for Bingley.[20]

text: The producers imagined Darcy to be dark despite no such references in the novel and asked Firth to dye black his light-brown hair, eyebrows and lashes; they instructed all male actors to let their hair grow before filming and shave off their moustaches. Three brunette wigs were made to cover Ehle's short, blonde hair and one wig for Alison Steadman (Mrs. Bennet) because of her thick, heavy hair. Susannah Harker's (Jane) hair was slightly lightened to contrast with Elizabeth's and was arranged in a classic Greek style to highlight the character's beauty. Mary's plainness was achieved by painting spots on Lucy Briers's face; her hair was greased to suggest an unwashed appearance and was arranged to emphasise the actress's protruding ears. As Kitty and Lydia were too young and wild to have their hair done by the maids, the actresses' hair was not changed much. Makeup artist Caroline Noble had always considered Mr. Collins a sweaty character with a moist upper lip; she also greased David Bamber's hair and gave him a low parting to suggest baldness.[20]

text: Music and choreography[edit]

text: Carl Davis had been writing scores for BBC adaptations of classic novels since the mid-1970s and approached Sue Birtwistle during pre-production. Aiming to communicate the wit and vitality of the novel and its theme of marriage and love in a small town in the early 19th century, he used contemporary classical music as inspiration, in particular a popular Beethoven septet of the period, as well as a theme strongly reminiscent of the finale of Beethoven's Emperor Concerto. For control over the sound, the music was recorded in six hours by a group of up to 18 musicians and was then fed into tiny earpieces of the screen musicians, who mimed playing the instruments. The actresses whose characters played the piano, Lucy Briers (Mary) and Emilia Fox (Georgiana), were already accomplished pianists and were given the opportunity to practise weeks ahead of filming.[21] Among the songs and movements that were played in the serial were Handel's "Air con Variazioni" from Suite No. 5 in E Major HWV 430 and "Slumber, Dear Maid" from his opera Xerxes, Mozart's "Rondo Alla Turca", "Voi Che Sapete" and other music from his operas The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni, Beethoven's Andante Favori, the second movement from Muzio Clementi's Sonatina No.4 and the traditional folk song "The Barley Mow". A soundtrack with Davis's themes was released on CD in 1995.

text: Many scenes in the book were set at dances or balls. Jane Gibson based her choreography on The Apted Book of Country Dances (1966) by W.S. Porter, which had several late-18th-century dances by Charles and Samuel Thompson such as "The Shrewsbury Lasses", "A Trip to Highgate" and "Mr. Beveridge's Maggot". Although these dances gave the story an impression of authenticity, they were anachronistic, being out of fashion by the time of the story. Some fifteen dances were choreographed and rehearsed before filming. Polly Maberly and Julia Sawalha, the dance-mad Kitty and Lydia, had three days to learn the dances. Three days were allotted for the filming of the ball at Netherfield, whose pace and style concentrated on elegance rather than the community enjoying themselves as at the dance at Meryton.[22] The musicians and dancers had earpieces with music playing to allow dialogue recording.[5] Many wide-shots of Elizabeth's and Darcy's dance at Netherfield later turned out to be unusable because of a hair in front of a lens so the editors resorted to close-up shots and material provided by a steadicam.[23]

text: Themes and style[edit]

text: The adaptation received praise for its faithfulness to the novel,[2][24] which highlights the importance of environment and upbringing on peoples' development, although privilege is not necessarily advantageous.[25] Describing the adaptation as "a witty mix of love stories and social conniving, cleverly wrapped in the ambitions and illusions of a provincial gentry",[2] critics noted that Davies's focus on sex and money and Austen's wry, incisive humour and the "deft" characterisation, prevented the television adaptation from "descending into the realm of a nicely-costumed, brilliantly-photographed melodrama".[26]

text:
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife."

—First line of Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice

text: To avoid a narrator, the serial delegates the novel's first ironic sentence to Elizabeth in an early scene.[27][28] The adaptation opens with a view of Darcy's and Bingley's horses as they race across a field toward the Netherfield estate, expressing vitality; Elizabeth watches them before breaking into a run. While the novel indicates Elizabeth's independence and energy in her three-mile trek to Netherfield, the adaptation of this scene also shows her rebelliousness and love of nature.[29]

text: In what is "perhaps the most radical revision of Austen's text",[30] the BBC drama departs from a late 18th-century vision of emotional restraint and portrays emotions in a "modern" interpretation of the story.[30] The novel leaves Elizabeth and the reader uncertain of Darcy's emotions and the adaptation uses additional scenes to hint at Darcy's inability to physically contain or verbally express his emotional turmoil.[31] On the other hand, whereas the climax of the novel describes Darcy expressing his ardent love for Elizabeth at length (though Austen leaves his actual words to the reader's imagination), the adaptation elides this moment and passes directly to the next lines of dialogue. Scholars argue that activities such as billiards, bathing, fencing and swimming (see the lake scene) offer Darcy to a female gaze; he is often presented in profile by a window or a fireplace when his friends discuss Elizabeth. Many passages relating to appearance or characters' viewpoints were lifted from the novel.[32]

text: The novel shows irony with "unmistakable strains of cynicism, ... laughing at human nature without any real hope of changing it".[33] Laughter in the story, which ranges from irresponsible laughter to laughter at people and laughter of amusement and relief, can also be linked to the sexual tensions among the different characters. Despite their appeal to modern audiences, laughter and wit were seen as vulgar and irreverent in Austen's time.[34] The BBC drama made changes "with a view to exposing a character, or adding humour or irony to a situation".[28] The adaptation comically exaggerates the characters of Mrs. Bennet, Miss Bingley and Mr. Collins, even showing Mrs. Bennet on the verge of hysteria in many of the early scenes.[28]

text: The serial expands on Austen's metaphorical use of landscapes, reinforcing beauty and authenticity. Elizabeth takes every opportunity to enjoy nature and to escape exposure to Mr. Collins and Lady Catherine. The most symbolic use of nature in the novel is Elizabeth and the Gardiners' visit to Pemberley in Derbyshire,[29] where Elizabeth becomes conscious of her love for Darcy. The story makes nature integral in the form of Old England.[35] Elizabeth's appreciation of the beauties of Derbyshire elevates Darcy in her and her relatives' opinion.[29] Darcy's gaze through the window works as a movie screen, projecting Elizabeth's actions for him and the viewer. His participation in the English landscape is his redemption.[36]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Between 10 and 11 million people watched the original six-episode broadcast on BBC One on Sunday evenings from 24 September to 29 October 1995.[37][38] The episodes were repeated each week on BBC Two.[4] The final episode of Pride and Prejudice had a market share of about 40 percent in Britain,[7] by which time eight foreign countries had bought the rights to the serial.[38] 3.7 million Americans watched the first broadcast on the A&E Network, which aired the serial in double episodes on three consecutive evenings beginning 14 January 1996.[37][39]

text: Home release and merchandise[edit]

text: The serial was released on VHS in the UK in the week running up to the original transmission of the final episode. The entire first run of 12,000 copies of the double-video set sold out within two hours of release. 70,000 copies had been sold by the end of the first week of sales,[40] increasing to 200,000 sold units within the first year of the original airing.[41] A BBC spokeswoman called the initial sale results "a huge phenomenon", as "it is unheard of for a video to sell even half as well, especially when viewers are able to tape the episodes at home for free".[40] The CD soundtrack was also popular, and 20,000 copies of an official making-of book were sold within days.[38] The serial was released on DVD four times, initially in 2000, as a digitally remastered "Tenth Anniversary Edition" in September 2005, and in April 2007 as part of a "Classic Drama DVD" magazine collection. A high-definition transfer was produced from the original negatives and released as a Blu-ray in October 2008. The HD version has not been broadcast on television; the BBC refuses to broadcast anything shot in 16mm in HD. The same restored version was released on DVD in March 2009.[42] The Blu-ray was released on 14 April 2009.[43]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The critical response to Pride and Prejudice was overwhelmingly positive.[44] Gerard Gilbert of The Independent recommended the opening episode of the serial one day before the British premiere, saying the television adaptation is "probably as good as it [can get for a literary classic]. The casting in particular deserves a tilt at a BAFTA, Firth not being in the slightest bit soft and fluffy – and Jennifer Ehle showing the right brand of spirited intelligence as Elizabeth." He considered Benjamin Whitrow a "real scene-stealer with his Mr. Bennet", but was undecided about Alison Steadman's portrayal of Mrs. Bennet.[45] Reviewing the first episode for the same newspaper on the day after transmission, Jim White praised Andrew Davies for "injecting into the proceedings a pace and energy which at last provides a visual setting to do justice to the wit of the book. With everyone slinging themselves about at high speed (the dances, in a first for the genre, actually involve a bit of sweat), it looks like people are doing something you would never have suspected they did in Austen's time: having fun."[46]

text: A few days before the American premiere, Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times considered the adaptation "decidedly agreeable" despite its incidental liberties with Austen's novel, and named Elizabeth's parents and Mr. Collins as the main source of humour.[47] John O'Connor of The New York Times lauded the serial as a "splendid adaptation, with a remarkably faithful and sensitively nuanced script". He commented on Jennifer Ehle's ability to make Elizabeth "strikingly intelligent and authoritative without being overbearing", and noted how Firth "brilliantly captures Mr. Darcy's snobbish pride while conveying, largely through intense stares, that he is falling in love despite himself". O'Connor praised Barbara Leigh-Hunt's portrayal of Lady Catherine as "a marvellously imperious witch" and considered her scenes with David Bamber (Mr. Collins) "hilarious".[2]

text: However, O'Connor remarked that American audiences might find the "languorous walks across meadows" and "ornately choreographed dances" of the British production too slow.[2] In one of the most negative reviews, People Magazine considered the adaptation "a good deal more thorough than necessary" and "not the best Austen on the suddenly crowded market". Although the reviewer thought Firth "magnificent", he rebuked the casting of Jennifer Ehle as her oval face made her "look like Anaïs Nin in period clothes, and that ain't right".[48] The official A&E Network magazine summarised a year later that "critics praised the lavish production, audiences adored it, and women everywhere swooned over Darcy. So much, in fact, that newspapers began to joke about 'Darcy fever.'"[8] Commendation for the serial continued in the years following its original transmission.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Pride and Prejudice received BAFTA Television Award nominations for "Best Drama Serial", "Best Costume Design", and "Best Make Up/Hair" in 1996. Jennifer Ehle was honoured with a BAFTA for "Best Actress", while Colin Firth and Benjamin Whitrow, nominated for "Best Actor", lost to Robbie Coltrane of Cracker.[49] Firth won the 1996 Broadcasting Press Guild Award for "Best Actor", complemented by the same award for "Best Drama Series/Serial".[50] The serial was recognised in the United States with an Emmy for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Costume Design for a Miniseries or a Special", and was Emmy-nominated for its achievements as an "Outstanding Miniseries" as well as for choreography and writing.[51] Among other awards and nominations, Pride and Prejudice received a Peabody Award,[52] a Television Critics Association Award,[53] and a Golden Satellite Award nomination[54] for outstanding achievements as a serial.

text: Influence and legacy[edit]

text: As one of the BBC's and A&E's most popular presentations ever,[38][55] the serial was "a cultural phenomenon, inspiring hundreds of newspaper articles and making the novel a commuter favourite".[56] With the 1995 and 1996 films Persuasion, Sense and Sensibility and Emma, the serial was part of a wave of Jane Austen enthusiasm which caused the membership of the Jane Austen Society of North America to jump fifty percent in 1996 and to over 4,000 members in the autumn of 1997.[41] Some newspapers like The Wall Street Journal explained this "Austen-mania" as a commercial move of the television and film industry, whereas others attributed Austen's popularity to escapism.[57]

text: While Jennifer Ehle refused to capitalise on the success of the serial and joined the Royal Shakespeare Company at Stratford-upon-Avon,[58] the role of Mr. Darcy unexpectedly elevated Colin Firth to stardom.[9] Although Firth did not mind being recognised as "a romantic idol as a Darcy with smouldering sex appeal"[59] in a role that "officially turned him into a heart-throb",[60] he expressed the wish to not be associated with Pride and Prejudice forever[8] and was reluctant to accept similar roles. He took on diverse roles and co-starred in productions such as The English Patient (1996), Shakespeare in Love (1998), Bridget Jones's Diary (2001 – although this film is essentially an adaptation of Pride and Prejudice in which Firth effectively reprises the role of Darcy), Girl with a Pearl Earring (2003), Love Actually (2003) and Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (2004).[9][60]

text: Pride and Prejudice continued to be honoured years later. A 2000 poll of industry professionals conducted by the British Film Institute ranked the serial at 99 in the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century, which the BFI attributed to its "managing to combine faithfulness to the novel with a freshness that appealed across the generations".[24] Radio Times included the serial in their list of "40 greatest TV programmes ever made" in 2003.[61] It was also named by Entertainment Weekly as one of the 20 best miniseries of all time.[62] In 2007, the UK Film Council declared Pride and Prejudice one of the television dramas that have become "virtual brochures" for British history and society. Lyme Hall, Cheshire, which had served as the exterior of Pemberley, experienced a tripling in its visitor numbers after the series' broadcast and is still a popular travel destination.[61]

text: Lake scene[edit]

text: The adaptation is famous for a scene in its fourth episode where a fully dressed Darcy, having emerged from a swim in a lake at Pemberley, accidentally encounters Elizabeth. While many critics attributed the scene's appeal to Firth's sexual attractiveness,[59][63][64] Andrew Davies thought that it unwittingly "rerobed, not disrobed, Austen".[65] When Davies wrote the scene (it was not part of Austen's novel), he did not intend a sexual connection between Elizabeth and Darcy but to create "an amusing moment in which Darcy tries to maintain his dignity while improperly dressed and sopping wet".[59] The BBC opposed Davies's plan to have Darcy naked but the producers discarded the alternative of using underpants as fatuous.[66] According to Davies, Firth had "a bit of the usual tension about getting [his] kit off",[65] the scene was filmed with Firth in linen shirt, breeches and boots. A stuntman, who appears in midair in a very brief shot, was hired because of the risk of infection with Weil's disease at Lyme Park.[66] A short underwater segment was filmed separately with Firth in a tank at Ealing Studios in west London.[6]

text: The Guardian declared the lake scene "one of the most unforgettable moments in British TV history".[1] The sequence also appeared in Channel 4's Top 100 TV Moments in 1999, between the controversial programme Death on the Rock and the Gulf War.[67] The New York Times compared the scene to Marlon Brando shouting "Stella!" in his undershirt in A Streetcar Named Desire[68] and Firth's projects began alluding to it – screenwriter-director Richard Curtis added in-joke moments of Firth's characters falling into the water to Love Actually and Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason,[69] and Firth's character from the 2007 film St Trinian's emerges from a fountain in a soaking wet shirt before meeting up with an old love.[70] The creators of the 2008 ITV production Lost in Austen emulated the lake scene in their Pride and Prejudice through their contemporary heroine who cajoles Darcy into recreating the moment.[71]

text: Cheryl L. Nixon suggested in Jane Austen in Hollywood that Darcy's dive is a "revelation of his emotional capabilities", expressing a "Romantic bond with nature, a celebration of his home where he can 'strip down' to his essential self, a cleansing of social prejudices from his mind, or ... a rebirth of his love for Elizabeth".[72] Linda Troost and Sayre Greenfield wrote that the scene "tells us more about our current decade's obsession with physical perfection and acceptance of gratuitous nudity than it does about Austen's Darcy, but the image carves a new facet into the text".[73]

text: Bridget Jones[edit]

text: The fictional journalist Bridget Jones (in reality Helen Fielding of The Independent) wrote of her love of the serial in the paper's Bridget Jones's Diary column during the original British broadcast,[9] mentioning her "simple human need for Darcy to get off with Elizabeth" and regarding the couple as her "chosen representatives in the field of shagging, or rather courtship".[74] Fielding loosely reworked the plot of Pride And Prejudice in her 1996 novel of the column, naming Bridget's uptight love interest "Mark Darcy" and describing him exactly like Colin Firth.[9][75] Following a first meeting with Firth during his filming of Fever Pitch in 1996, Fielding asked Firth to collaborate in what would become a multi-page interview between Bridget Jones and Firth in her 1999 sequel novel, Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason. Conducting the real interview with Firth in Rome, Fielding lapsed into Bridget Jones mode and obsessed over Darcy in his wet shirt for the fictional interview. Firth participated in the editing of what critics called "one of the funniest sequences in the diary's sequel".[60][76] Both novels make various other references to the BBC serial.[77]

text: Andrew Davies collaborated on the screenplays for the 2001 and 2004 Bridget Jones films, in which Crispin Bonham-Carter (Mr. Bingley) and Lucy Robinson (Mrs. Hurst) appeared in minor roles. The self-referential in-joke between the projects convinced Colin Firth to accept the role of Mark Darcy,[9] as it gave him an opportunity to ridicule and liberate himself from his Pride and Prejudice character.[78] Film critic James Berardinelli would later state that Firth "plays this part [of Mark Darcy] exactly as he played the earlier role, making it evident that the two Darcys are essentially the same".[26] The producers never found a way to incorporate the Jones-Firth interview in the second film but shot a spoof interview with Firth as himself and Renée Zellweger staying in character as Bridget Jones after a day's wrap. The scene, which extended Bridget's Darcy obsession to cover Firth's lake scene in Love Actually, is available as a bonus feature on the DVD.[79]

text: Other adaptations[edit]

text: For almost a decade, the 1995 TV serial was considered "so dominant, so universally adored, [that] it has lingered in the public consciousness as a cinematic standard".[80] Comparing six Pride and Prejudice adaptations in 2005, the Daily Mirror gave 9/10 to the 1995 serial ("what may be the ultimate adaptation") and the 2005 film adaptation, leaving the other adaptations such as the 1940 film behind with six or fewer points.[63] The 2005 film was "obviously [not as] daring or revisionist" as the 1995 adaptation[81] but the youth of the film's leads, Keira Knightley and Matthew Macfadyen, was mentioned favourably over the 1995 cast, as Jennifer Ehle had formerly been "a little too 'heavy' for the role".[82] The president of the Jane Austen Society of North America noted in an otherwise positive review that the casting of the 2005 leads was "arguably a little more callow than Firth and Ehle" and that "Knightley is better looking than Lizzy should strictly be".[81] The critical reception of MacFadyen's Darcy, whose casting had proven difficult because "Colin Firth cast a very long shadow",[83] ranged from praise to pleasant surprise and dislike.[82][84] Several critics did not observe any significant impact of Macfadyen's Darcy in the following years. Garth Pearce of The Sunday Times noted in 2007 that "Colin Firth will forever be remembered as the perfect Mr. Darcy",[64] and Gene Seymour stated in a 2008 Newsday article that Firth was "'universally acknowledged' as the definitive Mr. Darcy".[85]