document_title: Islam in Australia

question_text: when was the first mosque built in australia

question_tokens: when was the first mosque built in australia

root

text: Islam in Australia

text: History[edit]

text: Prior to 1860[edit]

text: Indonesian Muslims trepangers from the southwest corner of Sulawesi visited the coast of northern Australia, "from at least the eighteenth century"[10] to collect and process trepang, a marine invertebrate prized for its culinary and medicinal values in Chinese markets. Remnants of their influence can be seen in the culture of some of the northern Aboriginal peoples. Regina Ganter, an associate professor at Griffith University, says, "Staying on the safe grounds of historical method ... the beginning of the trepang industry in Australia [can be dated] to between the 1720s and 1750s, although this does not preclude earlier, less organised contact." Ganter also writes "the cultural imprint on the Yolngu people of this contact is everywhere: in their language, in their art, in their stories, in their cuisine."[11] According to anthropologist John Bradley from Monash University, the contact between the two groups was a success: "They traded together. It was fair - there was no racial judgement, no race policy." Even into the early 21st century, the shared history between the two peoples is still celebrated by Aboriginal communities in Northern Australia as a period of mutual trust and respect.[12]

tag: p

text: Others who have studied this period have come to a different conclusion regarding the relationship between the Aboriginal people and the visiting trepangers. Anthropologist Ian McIntosh[13] has said that the initial effects of the Macassan fishermen were "terrible", which resulted in "turmoil"[14]:65–67 with the extent of Islamic influence being "indeterminate".[14]:76 In another paper McIntosh concludes, "strife, poverty and domination . . is a previously unrecorded legacy of contact between Aborigines and Indonesians."[15]:138 A report prepared by the History Department of the Australian National University says that the Macassans appear to have been welcomed initially, however relations deteriorated when, "aborigines began to feel they were being exploited . . leading to violence on both sides".[16]:81–82

text: A number of "Mohammedans" were listed in the musters of 1802, 1811, 1822, and the 1828 census, and a small number of Muslims arrived during the convict period. Beyond this, Muslims generally are not thought to have settled in large numbers in other regions of Australia until 1860.[17]:10

text: Muslims were among the earliest settlers of Norfolk Island while the island was used as a British penal colony in the early 19th century. They arrived from 1796, having been employed on British ships. They left following the closure of the penal colony and moved to Tasmania. The community left no remnants; only seven permanent residents of the island identified themselves as "non-Christian" in a 2006 census.[18][19][20]

text: 1860 to 1900[edit]

text: Among the early Muslims were the "Afghan" camel drivers who migrated to and settled in Australia during the mid to late 19th century. Between 1860 and the 1890s a number of Central Asians came to Australia to work as camel drivers. Camels were first imported into Australia in 1840, initially for exploring the arid interior (see Australian camel), and later for the camel trains that were uniquely suited to the demands of Australia's vast deserts. The first camel drivers arrived in Melbourne, Victoria, in June 1860, when eight Muslims and Hindus arrived with the camels for the Burke and Wills expedition. The next arrival of camel drivers was in 1866 when 31 men from Rajasthan and Baluchistan arrived in South Australia with camels for Thomas Elder. Although they came from several countries, they were usually known in Australia as 'Afghans' and they brought with them the first formal establishment of Islam in Australia.[21]

text: Cameleers settled in the areas near Alice Springs and other areas of the Northern Territory and inter-married with the Indigenous population. The Adelaide, South Australia to Darwin, Northern Territory, railway is named The Ghan (short for The Afghan) in their memory.[22]

text: The first mosque in Australia was built in 1861 at Marree, South Australia.[23] The Great Mosque of Adelaide was built in 1888 by the descendants of the Afghan cameleers.

text: During the 1870s, Muslim Malay divers were recruited through an agreement with the Dutch to work on Western Australian and Northern Territory pearling grounds. By 1875, there were 1800 Malay divers working in Western Australia. Most returned to their home countries.

text: One of the earliest recorded Islamic festivals celebrated in Australia occurred on 23 July 1884 when 70 Muslims assembled for Eid prayers at Albert Park in Melbourne. “During the whole service the worshippers wore a remarkably reverential aspect.”[24]

text: 1900 to present[edit]

text: In the early 20th century, under the provisions of the White Australia policy, immigration to Australia was restricted to persons of white European descent (including white Europeans of the Muslim faith). Meanwhile, persons not of white European heritage (including most Muslims) were denied entry to Australia during this period.

text: Thus, in the 1920s and 1930s Albanian Muslims, whose European heritage made them compatible with the White Australia Policy, immigrated to the country. Albanian Muslims built the first mosque in Shepparton, Victoria in 1960 and the first mosque in Melbourne in 1963.

text: Notable events involving Australian Muslims during this early period include what has been described either as an act of war by the Ottoman Empire, or the earliest terrorist attack planned against Australian civilians.[25] The attack was carried out at Broken Hill, New South Wales, in 1915, in what was described as the Battle of Broken Hill. Two Afghans who pledged allegiance to the Ottoman Empire shot and killed four Australians and wounded seven others before being killed by the police.[26]

text: Increased immigration[edit]

text: The perceived need for population growth and economic development in Australia led to the broadening of Australia's immigration policy in the post-World War II period. This allowed for the acceptance of a number of displaced white European Muslims who began to arrive from other parts of Europe, mainly from the Balkans, especially from Bosnia and Herzegovina. As with the Albanian Muslim immigrants before them, the European heritage of these dispaced Muslims also made them compatible with the White Australia Policy.

text: Later, between 1967 and 1971, during the final years of the step-by-step dismantling of the White Australia policy, approximately 10,000 Turkish citizens settled in Australia under an agreement between Australia and Turkey. From the 1970s onwards, there was a significant shift in the government's attitude towards immigration, and with the White Australia policy now totally dismantled from 1973 onwards, instead of trying to make newer foreign nationals assimilate and forgo their heritage, the government became more accommodating and tolerant of differences by adopting a policy of multiculturalism.

text: Larger-scale Muslim migration of non-White non-European Muslims began in 1975 with the migration of Lebanese Muslims, which rapidly increased during the Lebanese Civil War from 22,311 or 0.17% of the Australian population in 1971, to 45,200 or 0.33% in 1976.[citation needed] Lebanese Muslims are still the largest and highest-profile Muslim group in Australia, although Lebanese Christians form a majority of Lebanese Australians, outnumbering their Muslim counterparts at a 6-to-4 ratio.

text: By the beginning of the 21st-century, Muslims from more than sixty countries had settled in Australia. While a very large number of them come from Bosnia, Turkey, and Lebanon, there are Muslims from Indonesia, Malaysia, Iran, Fiji, Albania, Sudan, Somalia, Egypt, the Palestinian territories, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh, among others.[citation needed] At the time of the 2011 census, 476,000 Australians (representing 2.2 percent of the population) reported Islam as their religion.[27]

text: Since the 1990s[edit]

text: Trade and educational links have been developed between Australia and several Muslim countries. Muslim students from countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, are among the thousands of international students studying in Australian universities.[quantify][citation needed]

text: A number of Australian Arabs experienced anti-Arab backlash during the First Gulf War. Newspapers received numerous letters calling for Arab Australians to "prove their loyalty" or "go home", and some Arab Australian Muslim women wearing hijab head coverings were reportedly harassed in public. The Australian government's Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission included accounts of racial harassment experienced by some Australian Arabs in their 1991 report on racism in Australia.[17]:11–13

text: On a few occasions in the 2000s and 2010s, tensions have flared between Australian Muslims and the general population. The Sydney gang rapes formed a much reported set of incidents in 2000; a group of Lebanese men sexually assaulted non-Muslim women. In 2005, tensions between Muslims and non-Muslims in the Cronulla area of Sydney led to violent rioting; the incident resulted in mass arrests and criminal prosecution. In 2012, Muslims protesting in central Sydney against Innocence of Muslims, an anti-Islam film trailer, resulted in rioting.[28] There was an increase in anti-Muslim sentiment in the aftermath of the Sydney hostage crisis on 15–16 December 2014, including a threat made against a mosque in Sydney.[29] However, the Muslim community also received support from the Australian public through a social media campaign.[30][31]

text: The founding president of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils has said that with moderate Muslims being sidelined by those promoting more fundamentalist views, there is a need to be more careful in regard to potential Australian immigrants. Keysar Trad has said moderate Muslims need to take back control.[32] An article in The Australian in May 2015 opined, "Most Muslims want the peace and prosperity that comes from an Islam that coexists with modernity; it is a fanatical fringe that seeks to impose a fabricated medieval Islam". It describes Dr Jamal Rifi as a brave insider who is working to assist "the cause of good Muslims who are struggling for the soul of Islam".[33]

text: Schools of jurisprudence in Australia[edit]

text: Most Australian Muslims are Sunni, with Shia then Sufi and Ahmadiyya as minorities.[34]

text: Sunni[edit]

text: In Sydney, adherents of the Sunni denomination of Islam are concentrated in the suburb of Lakemba and surrounding areas such as Punchbowl, Wiley Park, Bankstown and Auburn.

text: In Australia there are also groups associated with the "hardline" Salafi branch of Sunni Islam, including the Islamic Information and Services Network of Australasia[35] and Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah Association (Australia) (ASWJA).[36] While their numbers are small,[37] the ASWJA is said to "punch above its weight".[8]

text: There are communities of NSW Muslims who adhere to Tablighi Jamaat form of Islam and worship at the Granville, Al Noor Masjid, which is led by Sheik Omar El-Banna.[38][39] Similarly many Bangladeshi Tablighi Jamaat, Muslims[40] worship at mosques in Seaton, NSW[41] and in Huntingdale Victoria.[42]

text: Dawateislami, which is a "non-political Islamic organisation based in Pakistan", has adherents in Australia.[43]

text: In 2015, Wikileaks cables released information that Saudi Arabia closely monitores the situation of Islam and Arab community in Australia, whilst at the same time spending considerately to promote its fundamentalist version of Sunni Islam within the country to counter, what it perceives as a threat, the spread of peacful Shia Islam in the country.[44]

text: Shia[edit]

text: The Shi'a denomination of Islam is centred in the St George, Campbelltown, Fairfield, Auburn and Liverpool regions of Sydney, with the al-Zahra Mosque, built in Arncliffe in 1983,[45] and the Al-Rasool Al-A'dham Mosque serves the region in Bankstown. In 2008, the mainstream Shia community numbered 30,000 followers nationally.[46]

text: In October 2004 Sheikh Mansour Leghaei established the Imam Hasan Centre[47] in Annangrove, NSW.

text: In November 2014, up to 3,000 Shi'a Muslims marched in Sydney on the annual Ashura Procession to mark the death of the prophet's grandson.[48][49] In November 2015 there was Ashura march in Sydney[50] and a Victorian school observed Muharram.[51]

text: There are also others from smaller non-mainstream sects of Shia Islam, including approximately 20,000 Alawites from Turkish, Syrian and Lebanese backgrounds.[52] They have at least one school called Al Sadiq College, with campuses in the Sydney suburbs of Yagoona and Greenacre.[53] There is also a population of the related, though distinct, Alevis.[54]

text: There is also an Ismaili population of unspecified size.[55][56] While Dawoodi Bohra, a small Ismaili Shia sect[57] has its Sydney Jamaat located in Auburn NSW.[58]

text: Additionally, the Druze, who practice Druzism, a religion that began as an offshoot of 11th-century Ismaili Shiite Islam,[59] are reported to have around 20,000 followers living in Australia.[60]

text: Sufi[edit]

text: There are communities of Sufis, estimated to number about 5,000,[61] most notably the Ahbash, who operate under the name Islamic Charitable Projects Association.[62] The communities are linked to Darulfatwa - Islamic High Council of Australia and run Al Amanah College, as well as a mosque and a community radio station in suburban Sydney.[63] There have been tensions between the Ahbash and other Muslim communities.[64][65]

text: Ahmadiyya[edit]

text: The Ahmadiyya[66][67] community is reported to have 3,000 followers in Australia.[68] There are 4 Ahmadiyya mosques in Australia in Sydney; Masjid Bait-ul Huda, Melbourne; Masjid Bait-ul Salam, Brisbane; Masjid Bait-ul Masroor and Adelaide; Masjid Mahmood. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has its headquarters located at the Masjid Bait-ul Huda, Marsden Park to the west of Sydney.[69]

text: The leaders of the Ahmadiyya community condemn terrorism, support law enforcement authorities,[70] advocate speaking English and being loyal to Australia.[71] Ahmadiyya Muslim Association Australia national spokesman Aziz Omer said, "We are loyal to Australia and we want our kids to be loyal to Australia", with association members delivering 500,000 Loyalty to Homeland leaflets.[72]

text: Ahmadi Muslims have been subject to various forms of intra-Muslim religious persecution and discrimination.

text: Sectarian tensions[edit]

text: Conflict between religious groups in the Middle East are reflecting as tensions within the Australian community[73][74][75][76] and in the schools.[77]

text: Religious life[edit]

text: The Australian Muslim community has built a number of mosques and Islamic schools, and a number of imams and clerics act as the community's spiritual and religious leaders. In 1988, the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils (AFIC) appointed Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly as the first Grand Mufti of Australia and New Zealand.[citation needed] In 2007, Hilaly was succeeded by Fehmi Naji in June 2007[78] who was succeeded by the current Grand Mufti, Ibrahim Abu Mohamed in September 2011.[79]

text: Fatwas, edicts based on Islamic jurisprudence which aim to provide "guidance to Muslim Australians in the personal, individual and private spheres of life",[80] are issued by various Australian Islamic authorities.[81][82]

text: Organisations[edit]

text: A number of organisations and associations are run by the Australian Islamic community including mosques, private schools and charities and other community groups and associations. Broad community associations which represent large segments of the Australian Muslim public are usually termed "Islamic councils". Some organisations are focused on providing assistance and support for specific sectors within the community, such as women.

text: Two organisations with strong political emphasis are Hizb ut-Tahrir[83] which describes itself as a, "political party whose ideology is Islam"[84][85] and Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah Association (ASWJA).[86][87]

text: A number of financial institutions have developed Sharia-compliant finance products,[88] with university courses leading to Islamic financial qualifications also being established.[89] Other Australian Islamic organisations have been set up to manage sharia-compliant investments, superannuation,[90] Islamic wills[91] and zakat management.[92][93]

text: Halal certification[edit]

text: There are close to two dozen Halal certification authorities in Australia. Halal meat and meat product exports to the Middle East and Southeast Asia have greatly increased from the 1970s onwards; this expansion was due in part to efforts of the AFIC.[17]:151 Halal certification has been criticised by anti-Halal campaigners who argue that the practice funds the growth of Islam, results in added costs, a requirement to officially certify intrinsically-halal foods and with consumers required to subsidise a particular religious belief.[94]

text: An inquiry by an Australian Senate committee, which concluded in December 2015, found the current system is "lacklustre" and made recommendations for improvement.[95] It found there was no evidence to support claims that the profits of halal certification are used to fund terrorism.[96][97] The report recognised that halal certification has economic benefits for Australia because of increased export opportunities.[95] It recommended that the federal government increase its oversight of halal certifiers to address fraudulent conduct, with halal products to be clearly labelled and for meat products sourced from animals subject to religious slaughter, to be specifically labelled.[98] It said that it had heard, "credible reports suggesting that the lack of regulation has been unscrupulously exploited". In tabling the report, committee chairman Sam Dastyari said, "Some certifiers are nothing more than scammers."[99] The committee recommended a single halal certification authority.[99] The committee in recommending clearer labelling, specifically referred to the need for meat processors to label products sourced from animals subject to religious slaughter.[100]

text: Demography[edit]

text: Trends[edit]

text:
Historical population

Year
Pop.
±%

1981
76,792
—

1991
147,487
+92.1%

2001
281,600
+90.9%

2011
476,291
+69.1%

2016
604,200
+26.9%

tag: table

text: During the 1980s the Australian Muslim population increased from 76,792 or 0.53% of the Australian population in 1981, to 109,523 or 0.70% in 1986.[citation needed] In the 2011 Census, the Muslim population was 479,300 or 2.25%, an increase of 438% on the 1981 number.

text: The general increase of the Muslim population in this decade was from 147,487 or 0.88% of the Australian population in 1991, to 200,885 or 1.12% in 1996.[citation needed]

text: In 2005 the overall Muslim population in Australia had grown from 281,600 or 1.50% of the general Australian population in 2001, to 340,400 or 1.71% in 2006. The growth of Muslim population at this time was recorded as 3.88% compared to 1.13% for the general Australian population.[citation needed]. From 2011-2016, Muslim population grew by 27% from 476,291 to 604,200 with majority residing in New South Wales.

text: The following is a breakdown of the country of birth of Muslims in Australia from 2001:[101]

text: There were 281,578 Muslims recorded in this survey; in the 2006 census the population had grown to 340,392.[102] 48% of Australian-born Muslims claimed Lebanese or Turkish ancestry.[101]

text: The distribution by state of the nation's Islamic followers has New South Wales with 50% of the total number of Muslims, followed by Victoria (33%), Western Australia (7%), Queensland (5%), South Australia (3%), ACT (1%) and both Northern Territory and Tasmania sharing 0.3%.[citation needed]

text: The majority of people who reported Islam as their religion in the 2006 Census were born overseas: 58% (198,400).[102] Of all persons affiliating with Islam in 2006 almost 9% were born in Lebanon and 7% were born in Turkey.[103]

text: Areas[edit]

text: According to the 2016 census, the Muslim population numbered 604,235 individuals, of whom 42% live in Greater Sydney, 31% in Greater Melbourne, and 8% in Greater Perth. The states and territories with the highest proportion of Muslims are New South Wales (3.58%) and Victoria (3.32%), whereas those with the lowest are Queensland (0.95%) and Tasmania (0.49%).[104]

text: Many Muslims living in Melbourne are Bosnian and Turkish. Melbourne's Australian Muslims live primarily in the northern suburbs surrounding Broadmeadows (mostly Turkish) and a few in the outer southern suburbs such as Noble Park and Dandenong (mainly Bosnian).

text: Very few Muslims live in regional areas with the exceptions of the sizeable Turkish and Albanian community in Shepparton, which has Victoria's oldest mosque, and Malays in Katanning, Western Australia. A community of Iraqis have settled in Cobram on the Murray River in Victoria.[105]

text: Perth also has a Muslim community focussed in and around the suburb of Thornlie, where there is a mosque. Perth's Australian Islamic School has around 2,000 students on three campuses.

text: Mirrabooka and Beechboro contain predominantly Bosnian communities. The oldest mosque in Perth is the Perth Mosque on William Street in Northbridge. It has undergone many renovations although the original section still remains. Other mosques in Perth are located in Rivervale, Mirrabooka, Beechboro and Hepburn.

text: There are also communities of Muslims from Turkey, the Indian subcontinent (Pakistan, India and Bangladesh) and South-East Asia, in Sydney and Melbourne, the Turkish communities around Auburn, New South Wales and Meadow Heights and Roxburgh Park and the South Asian communities around Parramatta. Indonesian Muslims, are more widely distributed in Darwin.

text: Communities[edit]

text: Muslim population by country of origin

text: It is estimated that Australian Muslims come from 63 different backgrounds, with "loose associations" between them.[38]

text: Aboriginal Muslims[edit]

text: According to Australia's 2011 census, 1,140 people identify as Aboriginal Muslims, almost double the number of Aboriginal Muslims recorded in the 2001 census.[106] Many are converts and some are descendants of Afghan cameleers or, as in the Arnhem Land people, have Macassan ancestry as a result of the historical Makassan contact with Australia.[107][108] In north east Arnhem Land, there is some Islamic influence on the songs, paintings, dances, prayers with certains hymns to Allah and funeral rituals like facing west during prayers, roughly the direction of Mecca, and ritual prostration reminiscent of the Muslim sujud.[106] As a result of Malay indentured laborers, plenty of families in Northern Australia have names like Doolah, Hassan and Khan.[106] Notable Aboriginal Muslims include the boxer Anthony Mundine and Rugby League footballer Aidan Sezer.[109] Many indigenous converts are attracted to Islam because they see a compatibility between Aboriginal and Islamic beliefs,[110] while others see it as a fresh start and an aid against common social ills afflicting indigenous Australians, such as alcohol and drug abuse.[106]

text: Some academics who have studied these issues have come to less positive conclusions regarding the relationship between the Aboriginal people and the visiting trepangers.[14]:65–67 [14]:76 [15]:138 [16]:81–82

text: Bangladeshi Muslims[edit]

text: Bangladeshi Muslims are located primarily in Western Sydney with a mosque at Seaton[111] and in the south-east of Melbourne, with a mosque at Huntingdale.[112] The Seaton Mosque has been linked to the Tablighi Jamaat School of Islam[113] and has hosted Hizb ut-Tahrir.[114] For Bangladeshi Muslims attending the Huntingdale Mosque, all Islamic lunar months, such as Ramadan are observed using local moon-sightings, rather than being based on Middle-Eastern, or other, timings.[115][116]

text: Bosnian Muslims[edit]

text: Bosnian Muslims have predominantly arrived in Australia after 1992, with most of the community living in the south east of Melbourne and in the south west of Sydney. There are Bosnian run mosques in Deer Park, Noble Park, and Penshurst.[117]

text: Egyptian Muslims[edit]

text: Egyptian Muslims in Sydney are represented by The Islamic Egyptian Society.[118] The Society has managed the Arkana College[119] in Kingsgrove since 1986. It is reported that enrolments for its 203 co-educational places are booked out until 2020.[120]

text: Iraqi Australians[edit]

text: Iraqi Muslims mainly came to the country as a refugees after the Iran-Iraq War, failed 1991 uprisings in Iraq, and then post-2003. They predominately settled in the western suburbs of Sydney, such as Fairfield and Auburn.

text: Kurdish Muslims[edit]

text: Kurdish Muslims have predominantly arrived in Australia since the second half of the 1980s, with most of the community settling in Melbourne and Sydney. Although the large majority of the Kurdish Australians are Muslims, there are no registered Kurdish run mosques in Australia.[121]

text: Lebanese Muslims[edit]

text: Lebanese Muslims form the core of Australia's Muslim Arab population, particularly in Sydney where most Arabs in Australia live. Approximately 3.4% of Sydney's population are Muslim.

text: In November 2016, Immigration Minister, Peter Dutton said that it was a mistake of a previous administration to have brought out Lebanese Muslim immigrants.[122][123] Foreign Minister, Julie Bishop said Mr Dutton was making a specific point about those charged with terrorism offences. "He made it quite clear that he respects and appreciates the contribution that the Lebanese community make in Australia".[124]

text: Somali Muslims[edit]

text: Although the first Somali community in Victoria was established in 1988, most Somalis began to settle in the country in the early 1990s following the civil war in Somalia.[125] Somalis are active in the wider Australian Muslim community, and have also contributed significantly to local business.[126] Somalian Muslims live in Melbourne, Brisbane, Gold Coast, Perth and Sydney.[citation needed]

text: Turkish Muslims[edit]

text: Turkish Muslims are a significant segment of the Australian Muslim community. Some statistical reports forecast the Turkish Muslim population in Australia surpassing the Lebanese Muslim population in the 2020s and 2030s. The majority of Turkish Muslims in Sydney are from Auburn, Eastlakes and Prestons. Despite still having a large Turkish population in Auburn and Eastlakes, many Turks moved out of these areas and moved to Prestons to be close to the new and growing Turkish private school, Amity College which is run by people closely affiliated with the Galaxy Foundation (formerly Feza Foundation).

text: Issues[edit]

text: Concerns and contemporary issues facing the Australian Muslim community include rates of unemployment, the rights of women, concerns over Islamism and Islamic radicalism, among others.

text: Islamic preachers and clerics in Australia have been covered in the Australian press on account of the messages they have delivered publicly to the Muslim community or have otherwise shared with others in public settings. In some instances, various ideas and viewpoints espoused by these preachers have been subject of public or internal debate.[127] Statements viewed as misogynistic and radically paternalistic have come under criticism.[128]

text: Radical Islam[edit]

text: A number of incidents have highlighted the issues associated with radical Islam in Australia, including terrorism and militant activity.[129]

text: Several foreign terrorist organisations have sponsored the establishment of cells in Australia, including Lashkar-e-Taiba,[130][131] and Jemaah Islamiah.[132][133]:111[134]:38 Al-Shabaab is believed to have been behind the Holsworthy Barracks terror plot.[135][136][137][138] A man known as "Ahmed Y" established a small militant group in Australia in 2001 and advocated the idea of establishing an Islamic State in Australia.[139]:14 Groups led by Abdul Nacer Benbrika and Khaled Cheikho were active in Melbourne and Sydney, respectively, until police arrested their members in 2005.[140][141] Instances of domestic terror inspired by radical political Islam include the plots by Faheem Khalid Lodhi, Abdul Nacer Benbrika and Joseph T. Thomas.

text: The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), proscribed by the government as a terrorist organisation,[142] has targeted Australian Muslims for recruitment.[143] Making use of social media, recruiters target those vulnerable to radicalisation,[144][145] and encourage local jihad activities.[146][147] Some of those targeted have been minors, including a teenager who was arrested in Melbourne in May 2015 for plotting to detonate home-made bombs.[148] In June 2014, the government claimed that roughly 150 Australians had been recruited to fight in the conflicts in Syria and Iraq.[149][150] A list released in April 2015 showed that most were young males who have come from a range of occupations, including students.[151] It was also reported at the time that 20 Australians had been killed fighting overseas for terror groups, with 249 suspected jihadists prevented from leaving Australia.[152] The Border Force Counter-Terrorism Unit, tasked with stopping jihadists from leaving the country,[153] had cancelled more than 100 passports by the end of March 2015.[145] Several jihadists have expressed the desire to return to Australia,[154] but Prime Minister Tony Abbott has said that any who do would be prosecuted on their arrival.[155][156]

text: In December 2015 the Director General of ASIO Duncan Lewis stated that the number of Australians seeking to travel overseas to fight with groups such as ISIS had "plateaued a bit" due to better awareness of the issue among the Islamic community, few young Australians being attracted to ISIS and improvements to the speed with which passports could be cancelled. He also stated that a "tiny, tiny" proportion of Australian Muslims were influenced by ISIS. At this time the government believed there were around 110 Australians fighting with extremist groups, which was slightly lower than previous levels, and 44 Australians had been killed in Syria.[157]

text: In an Australia-wide survey published in November 2015, which was based on 1,573 interviews, which asked, "What is the likelihood that Islamic State will carry out a large scale terrorist attack in Australia?" 24% of the respondents said "it is inevitable", 23% said "very likely" and 29% said "likely". Greens' voters were least concerned about an attack.[158][159]

text: Saudi influence[edit]

text: Saudi Arabia has been involved in the funding of Sunni-Salafi mosques, schools and charitable organisations, a university and Australian Islamic institutions, with estimates up to $120 million.[160][161] This funding has generated tensions between Australian Muslim organisations.[162] In 2015, it was uncovered by WikiLeaks, that the Saudi Government has provided finance to build Salafi mosques, to support Sunni Islamic community activities and to fund visits by Sunni clerics to "counter Shiite influence".[163]

text: Promotion of antisemitism[edit]

text: The leader of Hizb ut-Tahrir has said that the Jews "are evil creatures",[164] and the principal of Al-Taqwa College told students that ISIL is a scheme created by Israel.[165] An Islamic bookstore in Lakemba was found to be selling a children's book that describes Jews as "much conceited" and intent on world domination.[77]

text: Sheik Taj el-Din al-Hilali, former Grand Mufti of Australia said, "Jews try to control the world through sex, then sexual perversion, then the promotion of espionage, treason and economic hoarding"[166][167] with Christians and Jews being, "the worst in God's creation".[168] At a Victorian university, a Muslim group held workshops based on the teachings of Islamic scholars who have recommended the death penalty for homosexuals and apostates, promoted terrorism and preached hatred of Jews and Christians.[169]

text: A Sheik who leads a Sydney prayer hall, told a group including children, that Jews, "don't have mercy. They don't have anything in the heart. They've got only envy (and) they've got hatred". Dvir Abramovich, a Jewish community leader, said he was deeply troubled by Sheik Hassan’s "divisive rhetoric".[170]

text: Promotion of extremism[edit]

text: Material sold at some Sunni Islamic bookshops have raised concerns. For example, the Islamic Information Bookshop in Melbourne was stocking literature "calling for violence against non-Muslims";[171] the Al Risalah Bookshop[172] was said to be "encouraging young Australians to fight in Syria";[173][174] and the Al-Furqan Bookshop[175][176] was said to be polarising members with extreme views.[177]

text: The Bukhari House Islamic Bookshop[178] in Auburn, New South Wales, which is aligned to the Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah Association has featured heavily in counter-terrorism raids.[179] The gunman responsible for the 2015 Parramatta shooting is said to have spent his final days under the influence of Bukhari House leaders.[180]

text: In Brisbane, the iQraa Bookstore was said to promote extremism.[181][182] It was reported in 2015 that the al-Furqan and al-Risalah bookshops had both closed, but concern has been raised that this might be the "worst thing that could happen" as they provided a place for people to go to "express their frustrations".[183]

text: Responses[edit]

text: A number of forums and meetings have been held about the problem of extremist groups or ideology within the Australian Islamic community.[184] After the London bombings in 2005, Prime Minister John Howard established a Muslim Community Reference Group to assist governmental relations with the Muslim community.

text: Sydney's Muslim leaders, including Keysar Trad, have condemned the actions of suicide bombers and denounced ISIS.[185] The Shia community in Australia have also expressed their concern regarding ISIS.[48][186] In February 2015, Ameer Ali former president of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils called on religious leaders to oppose Islamic State as, "I haven't heard so far any single imam in this country that has named IS and condemned it."[187]

text: Glenn Mohammed a Muslim lawyer has written, "Muslims need to be able to discuss these issues openly and denounce barbaric behaviour. Instead, we choose to remain silent and then criticise a government that tries to make Australia safer."[188] Psychiatrist Tanveer Ahmed has examined underlying causes and has identified the significance of issues relating to 'family' and to 'denial'. He has said, "Muslim youths have unique difficulties in coming to terms with their identity, especially when they have conflicting value systems at home compared with school or work".[189]

text: In September 2014, the external affairs secretary of Australia's Ahmadiyya muslims, urged the Islamic community to denounce ISIS, "because they know very well that ISIS is responsible for brutal, reprehensible killings of Muslims in Syria and Iraq".[190]

text: Peter Jennings, Executive Director of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute has said Australian Muslim leaders need to recognise that there are a "disturbing number of radicalised ideologues" who do not believe Islam is peaceful. He says, "some dramatic self-healing is needed".[191]

text: In May 2015, the Abbott Government committed a further AU$450 million to fight home-grown terrorism.[192]

text: Muslim leaders have criticised the current Grand Mufti of Australia, following the Muftis response to the November 2015 Paris attacks.[193] Ameer Ali has said, "The problem I have with the Mufti is he cannot communicate in English. That means he has to rely on the people around him."[194] Anthony Albanese described the Grand Mufti's contribution as "completely unacceptable".[195] Josh Frydenberg along with other senior politicians have urged moderate Islamic leaders to speak with one voice against extremism.[196]

text: The founder of Australia’s biggest Muslim media organisation Ahmed Kilani is seeking a "revolution" within the Islamic community and has called upon Muslim leaders to unequivocally repudiate violence conducted in the name of Islam.[197] Dr Recep Dogan of Charles Sturt University’s Centre for Islamic Sciences and Civilisation, said as Muslim leaders in Australia do not seem to be engaged at a community level.[198]

text: During an interview on ABC Lateline program, the authors of a book entitled Islam and the Future of Tolerance, Sam Harris, an atheist and neuroscientist, and Maajid Nawaz, a former Hizb-ut-Tahrir member, argued that Islam has failed to modernise. Harris said, "We have a task ahead of us, a monumental task ahead of us, and that is to begin the process of adapting, reinterpreting our scriptures for the modern day and age." [199] Politician Andrew Hastie has said, "Modern Islam needs to cohere with the Australian way of life, our values and institutions. In so far as it doesn’t, it needs reform."[200] Former federal Treasurer, Peter Costello has said, "Islamic scholars need to tell would-be jihadis, why these difficult sections of the Koran and the Hadiths," which may have been acceptable in the 7th century, "are not to be taken literally and not to be followed today".[201]

text: Former Prime Minister, Tony Abbott has said, "there needs to be a concerted ‘hearts and minds’ campaign against the versions of Islam that make excuses for terrorists".[202][203]

text: However, Hizb ut-Tahrir (Australia) spokesman, Uthman Badar, said, "Islam is not up for negotiation or reform. Islam is what it is."[204] Hizb ut-Tahrir advocates capital punishment for apostates.[205][206] Australia's Race Discrimination Commissioner, Tim Soutphommasane has said that Hizb ut-Tahrir's views are, "absurd."[207]

text: In December 2015 the Grand Mufti of Australia and several high profile imams issued a new year's message supporting a fatwa against Islamic State. In the message they stated that "most Islamic Legal Circles and Fatwa Boards have condemned ISIS", and warned young people to avoid the organisation's propaganda.[208]

text: In March 2017, the Prime Minister said that since September 2014 Australian security forces have disrupted 12 planned domestic attacks and charged 62 people with terrorist-related offences.[209]

text: Discrimination[edit]

text: According to some scholars, a particular trend of anti-Muslim prejudice has developed in Australia since the late 1980s.[210] Since the 2001 World Trade Center attacks in New York, and the 2005 Bali bombings, Islam and its place in Australian society has been the subject of much public debate.[211]

text: A report published in 2004 by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission pointed to many Muslim Australians who felt the Australian media was unfairly critical of, and often vilified their community due to generalisations of terrorism and the emphasis on crime. The use of ethnic or religious labels in news reports about crime was thought to stir up racial tensions.[212]

text: After the White Australia immigration laws were replaced with multicultural policies the social disadvantage of Muslims was thought to have been alleviated. Some sources, however, note that Muslims now face some disadvantages on account of their religion.[17]:15–16 At times there has been opposition to the construction of new mosques in Australia. A 2014 report from the Islamic Sciences and Research Academy, University of Western Sydney, on mosques in New South Wales found that 44 percent of mosques in the state had "experienced resistance from the local community when the mosque was initially proposed". In around 20 percent of these cases opposition was from a small number of people.[213]

text: According to Michael Humphrey, a professor of sociology at the University of Sydney, much of Islamic culture and organisation in Australia has been borne of the social marginalisation experiences of Muslim working class migrants. This "immigrant Islam" is often viewed by the host society as a force of "cultural resistance" toward the multicultural and secular nature of the general Australian culture. Muslim practices of praying, fasting and veiling appear as challenging the conformity within public spaces and the values of gender equality in social relationships and individual rights. The immigrant Muslims are often required to "negotiate their Muslimness" in the course of their encounters with Australian society, the governmental and other social institutions and bureaucracies.[214]

text: A poll of nearly 600 Muslim residents of Sydney released in November 2015 found that the respondents were three to five times more likely to have experienced racism than the general Australian population. However, approximately 97 per cent of the Muslim respondents reported that they had friendly relations with non-Muslims and felt welcome in Australia.[215]

text: In an Australia-wide survey published in November 2015, which was based on 1,573 interviews, which asked, "Are Muslims that live in Australia doing enough to integrate into the Australian community, or should they be doing more?", only 20% of respondents thought Muslims are currently "doing enough".[158][159]

text: A poll conducted by the University of South Australia's International Centre for Muslim and non-Muslim Understanding which was released in 2016 found that 10 per cent of Australians have hostile attitudes towards Muslims.[216] The accompanying report concluded that "the great majority of Australians in all states and regions are comfortable to live alongside Australian Muslims".[217]

text: A Council for the Prevention of Islamophobia Inc has been established. An Australian speaking tour by Ayaan Hirsi Ali, was proposed for April 2017. Because of her alleged Islamophobia, the Council for the Prevention of Islamophobia told organisers that there would be 5,000 protesters outside the Festival Hall in Melbourne if she was to speak at that venue.[218] Her Australian tour was cancelled.[219][218]

text: Women's rights[edit]

text: As part of the broader issue of women's rights and Islam, the gender inequality in Islam has often been the focal point of criticism in Australia through comparisons to the situation of women in Islamic nations. Muslim women can face hurdles both from within the Muslim community and from the wider community.[211][220] Following a successful appeal to the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal by a Muslim lady, who believes it is a sin to be seen without a niqab, the policy of the Monash hospital is now for female doctors to attend to female patients, if requested.[221] Several Melbourne councils have women-only sessions in their swimming pools. Monash Council has provided a curtain to ensure privacy for Muslim women.[222][223]

text: It has been reported that a "growing number of Muslim men [have] multiple wives"; the same story cited Islamic Friendship Association of Australia president Keysar Trad as stating that there were "not many more than 50" polygamist Muslim families in Australia.[224] Centrelink has been paying spousal benefits to Islamic families with several wives, with Centrelink saying that the payment of spousal benefits for multiple wives is done to save taxpayers’ money, rather than paying single-parent-benefits for each wife.[225]

text: The AFIC has advocated Australian Muslims being able to marry and divorce under the principles of Sharia law, saying that Australian Muslims should enjoy "legal pluralism".[226][227] There are Sharia law based mediation centres in Sydney and Melbourne.[228] To expedite a religious divorce, Australian Muslim women often agree to sharia law principles which result in an unequal distribution of assets and rights.[229] A Melbourne based, Muslim lawyer has said, "his clients, almost all female, say they have been disadvantaged by Sharia settlements."[228]

text: At a major Sydney mosque women are required to remain behind tinted glass on the second floor.[230][231]

text: The leader of the Islamic Information and Services Network of Australasia, Samir Abu Hamza has told his followers that it is permissible to hit women as a, "last resort" but, "you are not allowed to bruise them . . . or to make them bleed".[232][233] In response, he said that his message was taken out of context.[232]

text: In March 2016 the New South Wales Civil and Administrative Tribunal determined that separate male and female seating arrangements at public events hosted by Hizb ut-Tahrir contravened section 33 of the NSW Anti-Discrimination Act. The Tribunal ordered that all future publicity materials for public events hosted by Hizb ut-Tahrir must clearly inform attendees that segregated seating arrangements are not compulsory.[234][235]

text: In May 2016 the United Muslims of Australia held a conference in Sydney where genders were separated by a fence.[236]

text: The president of the Australian National Imams Council, Sheikh Shady Alsuleiman has said that women would be "hung by their breasts in hell" and women should not look at men.[237] He has also said that women must obey their husbands to enter paradise.[238]

text: In February 2017 the promotional flyers for an Islamic Peace Conference, organised by the Islamic Research and Educational Academy, the three females had their faces replaced with black ink, while the faces of all other 12 male speakers were displayed.[239]

text: In February 2017, in response to a question regarding the meaning of Quran Chapter 4, Surah 34, Keysar Trad president of the AFIC said a husband can beat his wife, but only as "a last resort".[240] He later apologised for his statements conceding Islam does allow for this, but saying he was "clumsy" in the television interview, adding that he condemns all violence against women.[241] In April 2017 Hizb ut-Tahrir (Australia) produced a video in which two women discussed how to resolve marital conflicts. One of the women said, "a man is permitted to hit a woman as an act of discipline" and described the permissive text as "beautiful" and "a blessing".[242] The video was strongly repudiated by Muslim leaders,[243][244] with the women subsequently saying, "more thought needs to be given to the question of purpose, worth and risk of sharing content online. We acknowledge our mistake in this respect in this instance".[245][246]

text: Children's rights[edit]

text: It has been reported that female circumcision has been carried out in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia.[247][248] The act has been a criminal offence since the 1990s. The first criminal trial concerning female circumcision in Australia ended with the conviction of three members of the Dawoodi Bohra Shia Muslim community in November 2015 and in 2016 a community leader was imprisoned.[249][250][251] There are reportedly 120,000 migrant women living in Australia who have had their genitals mutilated.[252]

text: A study, conducted by researchers from the Australian paediatric surveillance unit at Westmead Children's Hospital in Sydney, has determined at least 60 Australian girls, from the age of 6 months, have undergone female genital mutilation.[253]

text: The school uniform at Sydney's Al-Faisal College "thought to have the strictest uniform policy for girls in the country" requires summer and winter, ankle-length dresses, long-sleeved shirts, plus head covering, for girls, while the boys can wear short-sleeved shirts - has been described as discriminatory.[254][255]

text: There have been prosecutions under Australian law in regards to Islamic marriages involving underage girls.[256][257][258] There have been allegations of failure by Australian authorities to respond to reports of child brides. However, the Australian Federal Police has stated that it is unable to follow up on the reports as they concern alleged child marriages which occurred before specific legislation outlawing the practice came into effect in March 2013, and the legislation was not retrospective.[259][260]

text: At a Sydney school, Muslim boys were told not to shake the hands of females presenting awards at the school.[261] The instruction is understood to derive from an Islamic hadith which says, "it is better to be stabbed in the head with an iron needle than to touch the hand of a woman who is not permissible to you".[262] There are claims that another Sydney public school is, "run like a mosque"[263] with the school refusing to adopt a program aimed at countering violent religious extremism. The principal of the school was removed.[264]

text: Views on homosexuality[edit]

text: In line with the views of most Islamic scholars world wide, Islamic leaders in Australia generally believe that homosexuality is not permitted by their faith.[265]

text: In June 2016, the president of the Australian National Imams Council (ANIC), Sheikh Shady Alsuleiman participated in an Iftar dinner at Kirribilli House hosted by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister said he would not have been invited Alsuleiman had he known of his position regarding homosexuals.[266] The sheikh had previously spoken about the "evil actions" of homosexuality.[267] Australia's Grand Mufti, Ibrahim Abu Mohamed has defended Alsuleiman, saying Islam has a, "longstanding" position on homosexuality" which "no person can ever change". He said that any attempt to call out its teachings could lead to radicalisation.[268] ANIC treasurer Imam Mohamed Imraan Husain said, "Islam prevents lesbianism and being gay." Uthman Badar spokesman for Hizb ut-Tahrir (Australia), said that Mr Turnbull was condemning the "normative Islamic position on homosexuality".[269]

text: Yusuf Peer, president of the Council of Imams Queensland, in referring to the sharia law death penalty for homosexuality said, "that is what Islam teaches and that will never change."[270] The Imam of Australia's largest mosque, located in Lakemba, NSW, Shaykh Yahya Safi has said, "In Islam we believe it's a major sin to have such relations between men and men, a sexual relation. We don't discuss this because it's obvious."[271]

text: In August 2017 the National Imams Council issued a statement opposing the proposed introduction of same-sex marriage in Australia, and several individual religious leaders have also argued against same-sex marriage. However, some Australian Muslims support same-sex marriage, and the Muslims for Progressive Values and Muslims for Marriage Equality groups have campaigned in favour of such a reform.[265] As of September 2017 there was no polling data on the Australian Islamic community's views on this issue.[272]

text: Employment, education and crime[edit]

text: As of 2007[update], average wages of Muslims were much lower than those of the national average, with just 5% of Muslims earning over $1000 per week compared to the average of 11%. Unemployment rates amongst Muslims born overseas were higher than Muslims born in Australia.[211] Muslims are over-represented in jails in New South Wales, at 9% to 10% of the prison population, compared to less than 3% within the NSW population.[273][274]

text: In literature and film[edit]

text: There are a number of notable works in Australian literature that discuss the Muslims during the "Afghan period" (1860-1900).[17]:10

text:
The Camel in Australia, by Tom L. McKnight
Fear and Hatred, by Andrew Markus
Afghans in Australia, by Michael Cigler
Tin Mosques and Ghantowns, by Christine Stevens
Ali Abdul v The King, by Hanifa Deen
Australia's Muslim Cameleers: Pioneers of the inland, 1860s–1930s, by Dr Anna Kenny

text: Veiled Ambition is a documentary created by Rebel Films for the SBS independent network following a Lebanese-Australian woman named Frida as she opens a shop selling fashionable clothing for Muslim women on Melbourne's Sydney Road. The documentary follows Frida as she develops her business in Melbourne while juggling a husband and home in Sydney and a pregnancy.[275] Veiled Ambition won the Palace Films Award for Short Film Promoting Human Rights at the 2006 Melbourne International Film Festival.[276]

text: Notable figures[edit]

text:
Houssam Abiad, Deputy Lord Mayor City of Adelaide & Entrepreneur
Randa Abdel-Fattah, novelist
Aziza Abdel-Halim, female political activist
Waqar Younis, former Pakistani fast bowler
Yassmin Abdel-Magied, multicultural activist
Mohammad Hussein al-Ansari, Ayatollah for Shia Islam
Fawad Ahmed, cricket player
Ameer Ali, academic and political activist
Shady Alsuleiman, controversial, senior Muslim cleric
Waleed Aly, radio and television presenter
Abdul Nacer Benbrika, Muslim cleric, convicted terrorist
Sam Dastyari, Senator
Wassim Doureihi, spokesman for Hizb ut-Tahrir
Ahmed Fahour, former CEO of Australia Post
Mamdouh Habib, former Guantanamo Bay detainee, anti-war activist
Abu Hamza, community activist
David Hicks, former Guantanamo Bay detainee
Taj El-Din Hilaly, Sunni Imam and Mufti
Bachar Houli, football player
Ed Husic, Member of Parliament
Nazeem Hussain, comedian
Rabiah Hutchinson, convert, wife of Mustafa Hamid
John Ibrahim, businessman
John Ilhan, businessman
Usman Khawaja, cricket player
Mansour Leghaei, Shia sheikh
Rashid Mahazi, football player
Hazem El-Masri, rugby league player
Ibrahim Abu Mohamed, Grand Mufti of Australia
Feiz Mohammad, Muslim preacher
Man Haron Monis, aka Sheik Haron, gunman in the 2014 Sydney hostage crisis
Anthony Mundine, boxer and former rugby league player
Fehmi Naji, Muslim Imam and Mufti
Mohammed Omran, ASWJA Sheikh
Aamer Rahman, comedian
Jamal Rifi, General Practitioner and community leader
Osamah Sami, actor
Mohammed Junaid Thorne, Islamic preacher
Keysar Trad, community and political activist
Mariam Veiszadeh, lawyer and community advocate
Samina Yasmeen, academic
Irfan Yusuf, author


document_title: Ohio River

question_text: where does the ohio river join the mississippi river

text: Ohio River

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
The Allegheny River, left, and Monongahela River join to form the Ohio River at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the largest metropolitan area on the river.

Built between 1849 and 1851, the Wheeling Suspension Bridge was the first bridge across the river.

Louisville, Kentucky, The deepest point of the Ohio River is a scour hole just below Cannelton locks and dam (river mile 720.7). The widest point of the river is at the confluence of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers.

A barge hauls coal in the Louisville and Portland Canal, the only artificial portion of the Ohio River.

The Tall Stacks festival celebrates the riverboats of Cincinnati, Ohio, every three or four years.

tag: ul

text: Geography and hydrography[edit]

text: The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. From there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line (near East Liverpool, Ohio; Chester, West Virginia; and Midland, Pennsylvania). From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia.

text: The river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the northern borders of West Virginia and Kentucky; and the southern borders of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, until it joins the Mississippi River near the city of Cairo, Illinois.

text: Major tributaries of the river, indicated by the location of the mouths, include:

text:
Allegheny River – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Monongahela River – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Saw Mill Run – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Chartiers Creek – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Montour Run – Coraopolis, Pennsylvania
Beaver River – Rochester, Pennsylvania
Breezewood Creek – Beaver, Pennsylvania
Raccoon Creek – Center Township
Little Beaver Creek – East Liverpool, Ohio
Wheeling Creek – Wheeling, West Virginia
Middle Island Creek – St. Marys, West Virginia
Little Muskingum River – Ohio
Duck Creek – Marietta, Ohio
Muskingum River – Marietta, Ohio
Little Kanawha River – Parkersburg, West Virginia
Hocking River – Hockingport, Ohio
Kanawha River – Point Pleasant, West Virginia
Guyandotte River – Huntington, West Virginia
Big Sandy River – Kentucky-West Virginia border
Little Sandy River – Greenup, Kentucky
Little Scioto River – Sciotoville, Ohio
Scioto River – Portsmouth, Ohio
Kinniconick Creek – Vanceburg, Kentucky
Little Miami River – Cincinnati, Ohio
Licking River – Newport-Covington, Kentucky
Mill Creek – Cincinnati, Ohio
Great Miami River – Ohio-Indiana border
Salt River – West Point, Kentucky
Kentucky River – Carrollton, Kentucky
Green River – near Henderson, Kentucky
Wabash River – Indiana-Illinois-Kentucky border
Saline River – Illinois
Cumberland River – Smithland, Kentucky
Tennessee River – Paducah, Kentucky
Cache River – Illinois

text: Drainage basin[edit]

text: The Ohio's drainage basin covers 189,422 square miles (490,600 km2), encompassing the easternmost regions of the Mississippi Basin. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions.

text:
Northeast

New York: a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny.
Pennsylvania: a corridor from the southwestern corner to north central border.

Mid-Atlantic/Upper South

Maryland: a small corridor along the Youghiogheny River on the western border.
West Virginia: all but the Eastern Panhandle.
Kentucky: all but a small part in the extreme west drained directly by the Mississippi.
Tennessee: all but a small part in the extreme west drained directly by the Mississippi, and a very small area in the southeastern corner which is drained by the Conasauga River.
Virginia: most of southwest Virginia.
North Carolina: the western quarter.

Midwest

Ohio: the southern two-thirds
Indiana: all but the northern area.
Illinois: the southeast quarter.

Deep South

Georgia: the far northwest corner.
Alabama: the northern portion.
Mississippi: the northeast corner.
South Carolina: less than 1 square mile in the northwest.

text: Geology[edit]

text: From a geological standpoint, the Ohio River is young. The river formed on a piecemeal basis beginning between 2.5 and 3 million years ago. The earliest ice ages occurred at this time and dammed portions of north-flowing rivers. The Teays River was the largest of these rivers. The modern Ohio River flows within segments of the ancient Teays. The ancient rivers were rearranged or consumed by glaciers and lakes.

text: Upper Ohio River[edit]

text: The upper Ohio River formed when one of the glacial lakes overflowed into a south-flowing tributary of the Teays River. Prior to that event, the north-flowing Steubenville River (no longer in existence) ended between New Martinsville and Paden City, West Virginia. Likewise, the south-flowing Marietta River (no longer in existence) ended between the present-day cities. The overflowing lake carved through the separating hill and connected the rivers.

text: The resulting floodwaters enlarged the small Marietta valley to a size more typical of a large river. The new large river subsequently drained glacial lakes and melting glaciers at the end of the Ice Age. The valley grew during and following the ice age.

text: Many small rivers were altered or abandoned after the upper Ohio River formed. Valleys of some abandoned rivers can still be seen on satellite and aerial images of the hills of Ohio and West Virginia between Marietta, Ohio, and Huntington, West Virginia. As testimony to the major changes that occurred, such valleys are found on hilltops.[clarification needed]

text: Middle Ohio River[edit]

text: The middle Ohio River formed in a manner similar to formation of the upper Ohio River. A north-flowing river was temporarily dammed southwest of present-day Louisville, creating a large lake until the dam burst. A new route was carved to the Mississippi. Eventually the upper and middle sections combined to form what is essentially the modern Ohio River.

text: History[edit]

text: Pre-Columbian inhabitants of eastern North America considered the Ohio part of a single river continuing on through the lower Mississippi. The river's name comes from the Seneca (Iroquoian) Ohiːyo', a proper name derived from ohiːyoːh, meaning "good river".[8] The combined Allegheny-Ohio river is 1,310 miles (2,110 km) long and carries the largest volume of water of any tributary of the Mississippi. The Indians and early explorers and settlers of the region also often considered the Allegheny to be part of the Ohio. The forks (the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at what is now Pittsburgh) was considered a strategic military location.

text: French fur traders operated in the area, and France built forts along the Allegheny River. In 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, led an expedition of French traders who became the first Europeans to see the river. He traveled from Canada and entered the headwaters of the Ohio, traveling as far as the Falls of Ohio at present-day Louisville before turning back. He returned to explore the river again in other expeditions. An Italian cartographer traveling with him created the first map of the Ohio River. La Salle claimed the Ohio Valley for France.

text: In 1749, Great Britain established the Ohio Company to settle and trade in the area. Exploration of the territory and trade with the Indians in the region near the Forks by British colonials from Pennsylvania and Virginia – both of which claimed the territory – led to conflict with the French. In 1763, following the Seven Years' War, France ceded the area to Britain.[9]

text: The 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix opened Kentucky to colonial settlement and established the Ohio River as a southern boundary for American Indian territory.[10] In 1774, the Quebec Act restored the land east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River to Quebec, in effect making the Ohio the southern boundary of Canada. This appeased the Canadien British subjects but angered the Thirteen Colonies. Lord Dunmore's War south of the Ohio river also contributed to giving the land north to Quebec to stop further encroachment of the British colonials on native land. During the American Revolution, in 1776 the British military engineer John Montrésor created a map of the river showing the strategic location of Fort Pitt, including specific navigational information about the Ohio River's rapids and tributaries in that area.[11] However, the Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the entire Ohio Valley to the United States.

text: The economic connection of the Ohio Country to the East was significantly increased in 1818 when the National Road being built westward from Cumberland, Maryland reached Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), providing an easier overland connection from the Potomac River to the Ohio River.[12]

text: Louisville was founded at the only major natural navigational barrier on the river, the Falls of the Ohio. The Falls were a series of rapids where the river dropped 26 feet (7.9 m) in a stretch of about 2 miles (3.2 km). In this area, the river flowed over hard, fossil-rich beds of limestone. The first locks on the river – the Louisville and Portland Canal – were built to circumnavigate the falls between 1825 and 1830. Fears that Louisville's transshipment industry would collapse proved ill-founded: the increasing size of steamships and barges on the river meant that the outdated locks could only service the smallest vessels until well after the Civil War. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers improvements were expanded again in the 1960s, forming the present-day McAlpine Locks and Dam.

text: Because the Ohio River flowed westward, it became a convenient means of westward movement by pioneers traveling from western Pennsylvania. After reaching the mouth of the Ohio, settlers would travel north on the Mississippi River to St. Louis, Missouri. There, some continued on up the Missouri River, some up the Mississippi, and some further west over land routes. In the early 19th century, river pirates such as Samuel Mason, operating out of Cave-In-Rock, Illinois, waylaid travelers on their way down the river. They killed travelers, stealing their goods and scuttling their boats. The folktales about Mike Fink recall the keelboats used for commerce in the early days of European settlement. The Ohio River boatmen were the inspiration for performer Dan Emmett, who in 1843 wrote the song "The Boatman's Dance".

text: Trading boats and ships traveled south on the Mississippi to New Orleans, and sometimes beyond to the Gulf of Mexico and other ports in the Americas and Europe. This provided a much-needed export route for goods from the west, since the trek east over the Appalachian Mountains was long and arduous. The need for access to the port of New Orleans by settlers in the Ohio Valley led to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.

text: Because the river is the southern border of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, it was part of the border between free states and slave states in the years before the American Civil War. The expression "sold down the river" originated as a lament of Upper South slaves, especially from Kentucky, who were shipped via the Ohio and Mississippi to cotton and sugar plantations in the Deep South.[13][14] Before and during the Civil War, the Ohio River was called the "River Jordan" by slaves crossing it to escape to freedom in the North via the Underground Railroad.[15] More escaping slaves, estimated in the thousands, made their perilous journey north to freedom across the Ohio River than anywhere else across the north-south frontier. Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, the bestselling novel that fueled abolitionist work, was the best known of the anti-slavery novels that portrayed such escapes across the Ohio. The times have been expressed by 20th-century novelists as well, such as the Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, whose novel Beloved was adapted as a film of the same name. She also composed the libretto for the opera Margaret Garner (2005), based on the life and trial of an enslaved woman who escaped with her family across the river.

text: The Ohio River is considered to separate Midwestern Great Lakes states from the Upper South states, which were historically border states in the Civil War.

text: The colonial charter for Virginia defined its territory as extending to the north shore of the Ohio, so that the riverbed was "owned" by Virginia. Where the river serves as a boundary between states today, Congress designated the entire river to belong to the states on the east and south, i.e., West Virginia and Kentucky at the time of admission to the Union, that were divided from Virginia. Thus Wheeling Island, the largest inhabited island in the Ohio River, belongs to West Virginia, although it is closer to the Ohio shore than to the West Virginia shore. Kentucky brought suit against Indiana in the early 1980s because of the building of the Marble Hill nuclear power plant in Indiana, which would have discharged its waste water into the river.

text: The U.S. Supreme Court held that Kentucky's jurisdiction (and, implicitly, that of West Virginia) extended only to the low-water mark of 1793 (important because the river has been extensively dammed for navigation, so that the present river bank is north of the old low-water mark.) Similarly, in the 1990s, Kentucky challenged Illinois' right to collect taxes on a riverboat casino docked in Metropolis, citing its own control of the entire river. A private casino riverboat that docked in Evansville, Indiana, on the Ohio River opened about the same time. Although such boats cruised on the Ohio River in an oval pattern up and down, the state of Kentucky soon protested. Other states had to limit their cruises to going forwards, then reversing and going backwards on the Indiana shore only. Since 2002, Indiana has allowed its riverboat casinos to be permanently docked.

text: In the early 1980s, the Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area was established at Clarksville, Indiana.

text:
The confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers is at Cairo, Illinois.

Carl D. Perkins Bridge in Portsmouth, Ohio with Ohio River and Scioto River tributary on right.

Silver Bridge in Point Pleasant, West Virginia which collapsed into the Ohio River on December 15, 1967, killing 46 persons.

Mouth of the Ohio, as it feeds into the Mississippi.

Cave-in-rock, view on the Ohio (circa 1832, Cave-In-Rock, Illinois): aquatint by Karl Bodmer from the book Maximilian, Prince of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, during the years 1832–1834

text: Pollution[edit]

text: The Ohio River as a whole is ranked as the most polluted river in the US based on 2009 and 2010 data although the more industrial and regional Ohio tributary, Monongahela River, ranked behind 16 other American rivers for pollution at number 17.[16]

text: The Ohio River was polluted with hundreds of thousands of pounds of PFOA by DuPont chemical company, from an outflow pipe, for several decades beginning in the 1950s.[17]

text: River depth[edit]

text: The Ohio River is a naturally shallow river that was artificially deepened by a series of dams. The natural depth of the river varied from about 3 to 20 feet (0.91 to 6.10 m). The dams raise the water level and have turned the river largely into a series of reservoirs, eliminating shallow stretches and allowing for commercial navigation. From its origin to Cincinnati, the average depth is approximately 15 feet (5 m). The largest immediate drop in water level is below the McAlpine Locks and Dam at the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville, Kentucky, where flood stage is reached when the water reaches 23 feet (7 m) on the lower gauge. However, the river's deepest point is 168 feet (51 m) on the western side of Louisville, Kentucky. From Louisville, the river loses depth very gradually until its confluence with the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois, where it has an approximate depth of 19 feet (6 m).

text: Water levels for the Ohio River from Smithland Lock and Dam upstream to Pittsburgh are predicted daily by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Ohio River Forecast Center.[18] The water depth predictions are relative to each local flood plain based upon predicted rainfall in the Ohio River basin in five reports as follows:

text:
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Hannibal Locks and Dam, Ohio (including the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers)
Willow Island Locks and Dam, Ohio, to Greenup Lock and Dam, Kentucky (including the Kanawha River)
Portsmouth, Ohio, to Markland Locks and Dam, Kentucky
McAlpine Locks and Dam, Kentucky, to Cannelton Locks and Dam, Indiana
Newburgh Lock and Dam, Indiana, to Golconda, Illinois

text: The water levels for the Ohio River from Smithland Lock and Dam to Cairo, Illinois, are predicted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Lower Mississippi River Forecast Center.[19]

text: Smithland Lock and Dam, Illinois, to Cairo, Illinois

text: Cities and towns along the river[edit]

text:
Metro Area
Population

Pittsburgh
2.4 million

Cincinnati
2.2 million

Louisville
1.4 million

Huntington-Ashland
365,419

Evansville
358,000

Parkersburg
160,000

Wheeling
145,000

Weirton-Steubenville
132,000

Owensboro
112,000

text: Cities along the Ohio River include:

text:
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
McKees Rocks
Coraopolis
South Heights
Ambridge
Aliquippa
Rochester
Monaca
Beaver
Shippingport
Midland
Freedom
Rochester
Conway
Neville Island
Baden
Bellevue
Edgeworth
Leetsdale

text:
East Liverpool
Steubenville
Martins Ferry
Bellaire
Marietta
Belpre
Pomeroy
Gallipolis
Ironton
Portsmouth
New Boston
Manchester
Aberdeen
Ripley
New Richmond
Cincinnati

text:
Chester
Weirton
Wheeling
Moundsville
New Martinsville
Paden City
Sistersville
St. Marys
Parkersburg
Ravenswood
Point Pleasant
Huntington
Kenova

text:
Big Bone
Rabbit Hash
Constance
Hamilton
Petersburg
Belleview
Henderson
Uniontown
Ashland
Vanceburg
Maysville
Augusta
Fort Thomas
Newport
Covington
Ludlow
Louisville
Hawesville
Lewisport
Owensboro
Paducah
Smithland
Warsaw
Ghent
Carrollton
Brandenburg
Bellevue
Dayton
Concord

text:
Lawrenceburg
Aurora
Rising Sun
Vevay
Madison
Jeffersonville
Clarksville
New Albany
Cannelton
Tell City
Troy
Rockport
Newburgh
Evansville
Mount Vernon

text:
Old Shawneetown
Cave-In-Rock
Elizabethtown
Rosiclare
Golconda
Brookport
Metropolis
Mound City
Cairo


document_title: Management by objectives

question_text: which of the following is the first step in the process of management by objectives

text: Management by objectives

text: History[edit]

text: Peter Drucker first used the term "management by objectives" in his 1954 book The Practice of Management.[1] While the basic ideas of MBO were not original to Drucker, they pulled from other management practices to create a complete “system”.[4] The idea draws on the many ideas presented in Mary Parker Follett's 1926 essay, "The Giving of Orders".

text: After the term and idea were brought up, Drucker's student, George Odiorne, continued to develop the idea in his book Management Decisions by Objectives, published in the mid-1960s.[5][6] MBO was popularized by companies like Hewlett-Packard, who claimed it led to their success.[5][7]

text: Concept and framework[edit]

text: Management by objectives at its core is the process of employers/supervisors attempting to manage their subordinates by introducing a set of specific goals that both the employee and the company strive to achieve in the near future, and working to meet those goals accordingly.[1]

text: Five steps:

text:
Review organizational goal
Set worker objective
Monitor progress
Evaluation
Give reward

tag: ol

text: Features and advantages[edit]

text: The principle of MBO is for employees to have a clear understanding of their roles and the responsibilities expected of them, so they can understand how their activities relate to the achievement of the organization's goals. MBO also places importance on fulfilling the personal goals of each employee.

text: Proponents argue that benefits of MBO include:

text:
Motivation – Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing employee empowerment. This increases employee job satisfaction and commitment.
Better communication and coordination – Frequent reviews and interactions between superiors and subordinates help to maintain harmonious relationships within the organization and also to solve problems.
Clarity of goals.
Subordinates tend to have a higher commitment to objectives they set for themselves than those imposed on them by another person.
Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organization's objectives.
Common goal for whole organization means it is a unifying, directive principle of management.

text: Application in practice[edit]

text: There are endless ways to exercise management by objectives. One must simply find specific goals to aim for in an organization or business. Many noteworthy companies have used MBO. The management at the computer company Hewlett-Packard (HP), has said that it considers the policy a huge component of its success. Many other corporations praise the effectiveness of MBO, including Xerox, DuPont, Intel,[8] and countless others.[9] Companies that use MBO often report greater sales rates and productiveness within the organization. Objectives can be set in all domains of activities, such as production, marketing, services, sales, R&D, human resources, finance, and information systems. Some objectives are collective, and some can be goals for each individual worker. Both make the task at hand seem attainable and enable the workers to visualize what needs to be done and how.

text: In the MBO paradigm, managers determine the mission and the strategic goals of the enterprise. The goals set by top-level managers are based on an analysis of what can and should be accomplished by the organization within a specific period of time. The functions of these managers can be centralised by appointing a project manager who can monitor and control activities of the various departments.[10] If this cannot be done or is not desirable, each manager's contributions to the organizational goal should be clearly spelled out.[11]

text: Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information systems are needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their "reach ratio" in an objective way.[12] Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives.

text: The mnemonic S.M.A.R.T. is associated with the process of setting objectives in this paradigm. "SMART" objectives are:

text:
Specific - Target a specific area for improvement.
Measurable - Quantify or suggest an indicator of progress.
Assignable - Specify who will do it.
Realistic - State what results can realistically be achieved, given available resources.
Time-Related - Specify when the result(s) can be achieved.[13]

text: The aphorism "what gets measured gets done", is aligned with the MBO philosophy.

text: Arguments against[edit]

text: MBO has its detractors and attention notably among them W. Edwards Deming, who argued that a lack of understanding of systems commonly results in the misapplication of objectives.[14] Additionally, Deming stated that setting production targets will encourage workers to meet those targets through whatever means necessary, which usually results in poor quality.[15]

text: Point 7 of Deming's key principles encourages managers to abandon objectives in favour of leadership because he felt that a leader with an understanding of systems was more likely to guide workers to an appropriate solution than the incentive of an objective. Deming also pointed out that Drucker warned managers that a systemic view was required[16] and felt that Drucker's warning went largely unheeded by the practitioners of MBO.

text: There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by objectives,[citation needed] including:

text:
It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes.
It under-emphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set.

text: That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-in by leadership and stake-holders. As an example of the influence of management buy-in as a contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research on the impact of Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded that companies whose CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on average, a 56% gain in productivity. Companies with CEOs who showed low commitment only saw a 6% gain in productivity.[citation needed]

text: When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centered employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that were set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be counterproductive.

text: Recent research[edit]

text: Management by Objectives is still practiced today, with a focus on planning and development aiding various organizations.[17] The most recent research focuses on specific industries, specifying the practice of MBO for each.[18][19] In addition, following criticism of the original MBO approach, a new formula was introduced in 2016, aiming at revitalizing it, that is the OPTIMAL MBO, which stands for its components, namely: (O) Objectives, Outside-in; (P) Profitability (budget) related goals; (T) Target Setting; (I) Incentives & Influence; (M) Measurement; (A) Agreement, Accountability, Appraisal, Appreciation; and (L) Leadership Support.[20]

text: While the practice is used today, it may go by different names – the letters "MBO" have lost their formality, and future planning is a more standard practice.[5]