document_title: The Young and the Restless characters (2013)

question_text: who is connor parents on young and the restless

text: Adriana Stone[edit]

text:
Adriana Stone

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Jhoanna Flores

Duration
2013

First appearance
January 7, 2013

Last appearance
April 9, 2013

Created by
Josh Griffith

Introduced by
Jill Farren Phelps

Classification
Former, recurring

[show]Family

Brothers
Alex Chavez[3]

text: Adriana Stone, portrayed by Jhoanna Flores, made her first appearance on January 7, 2013.[4] The news of her casting was confirmed in December 2012 by co-star Robert Adamson, who portrays Noah Newman, on Twitter. He welcomed her to the soap opera, saying that he'll "keep it under wraps for now who she’s playing. But she’s doing a great job."[5][6] CBS Soaps In Depth later announced that Flores would portray Noah's ex-girlfriend, Adriana.[4] Previously, Soap Opera Network's Errol Lewis reported that Flores "has joined the cast in an as yet to be determined role."[5] Flores described her character in an interview, saying "she's bad news" and a "feisty seductress who has her own ideas about what is legal and what isn't." According to the actress, "[Adriana]'s fun to play and I think her relationship with Noah will excite the viewers."[7] In April 2013, within four months of joining the cast, it was announced that Flores had been let go, and had already made her last appearance on April 9.[8][9][10] A spokesperson from the soap opera confirmed that the role would not be recast.[8]

text: Adriana showed up at Noah's doorstep and threw herself at him, despite the fact that she had cheated on him for someone else. However, she made it clear that she still had feelings for him. She learned that the half a million dollars in cash she sent him has been stolen. Later, Alex Chavez (Ignacio Serricchio), a New York detective who had been hassling Noah with questions about Adriana and the stolen money for months, finds Adriana at the Genoa City Athletic Club and confronts her. She denies knowing anything about the money. In reality, Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) and Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart) had stolen the stolen money from Noah's house. Alex and Adriana are then revealed to be siblings. After the stolen money mishap is resolved, Adriana is hired by Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper) as her personal assistant and restarts her relationship with Noah. However, Jill Abbott Fenmore (Jess Walton) believes Adriana is scamming Katherine, and later accuses her of stealing a piece of her jewelry. As a result, Adriana quits working for Katherine. She and Noah begin to discuss moving in together, but she abruptly disappears from Genoa City. Alex later mentions that Adriana is known to run away from serious relationships.

text: Marcus Wheeler[edit]

text:
Marcus Wheeler

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Mark Pinter

Duration
2013

First appearance
January 10, 2013

Last appearance
April 12, 2013

Created by
Josh Griffith

Introduced by
Jill Farren Phelps

Classification
Former, recurring

Profile

Occupation
Congressman

[show]Family

Wife
Ann Wheeler (divorced)[11]

Daughters
Stephanie Gayle

text: Marcus Wheeler, portrayed by Mark Pinter, first appeared on January 10, 2013.[12] Marcus, penned as "a powerful and sophisticated congressman who will go to any lengths to protect his image and career" and "another ruthless politico", would get into business with rivaling business tycoons Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman) and Victor Newman (Eric Braeden).[12] Pinter was previously famed for portraying "slimy senator-turned-mayor" Grant Harrison on the soap opera Another World.[12] Pinter, described by On-Air On-Soaps as playing "slimy bad guy so good that you want to throw something at the TV set", began taping scenes for the soap opera on December 6, 2012.[13] Jillian Bowe of Zap2it called the casting "juicy" and confirmed that Pinter would remain on the show beyond February sweeps.[14] Jill Farren Phelps, executive producer of the soap opera, was responsible for Pinter's hiring on both Another World and General Hospital.[15] It was later announced that Pinter had finished his four-month stint as the character, with his last airdate scheduled for April 12, 2013.[16] Speaking of Phelps hiring him Pinter told Soap Opera Digest that "You get jobs generally because of where you've been and if you're a director or producer, you want to work with people you've worked with before. I'm very appreciative of Jill. She's a woman who has a great allegiance to people and I don't know anybody who has worked with Jill who doesn't have great allegiance to her as well."[15]

text: In January 2013, Jack Abbott wakes up in his mansion to find a woman named Stephanie Gayle dead in his living room. His colleague Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) helps him realize that Stephanie, a hooker, was hired by Victor Newman to be with Jack so that she would be seen walking out of his house. Victor was scheming to get back his company, Newman Enterprises, which Jack took over. Adam disposes of the body, and Victor later investigates and finds out that Stephanie is Stephanie Wheeler, daughter of Senator Marcus Wheeler. Stephanie died due to overdosing on pills.[17] Victor becomes very concerned, as Marcus is a very powerful man. Wheeler is later revealed to have had an affair with Belinda Rogan, the mother of Leslie and Tyler Michaelson (Angell Conwell and Redaric Williams), who was believed to be murdered by her husband, Gus, as he was convicted for the crime. Victor kept looking to Wheeler's affairs and when he refused to stop, he hired an assassin named Bob to plant a bomb at the Newman ranch while Victor was remarrying Nikki Newman (Melody Thomas Scott). The bomb was defused but Adam was shot, leading Victor to much suspicion that Wheeler was behind the incident. Afterward, evidence surfaced that Wheeler was in fact the one who murdered Belinda and Gus was set free. Wheeler made bail, but Bob later turned on his employer and revealed that Wheeler was the one who hired him to bomb the Newman ranch. He was arrested and sent to prison.

text: Gus Rogan[edit]

text:
Gus Rogan

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Tony Todd

Duration
2013

First appearance
March 15, 2013

Last appearance
May 7, 2013

Created by
Josh Griffith

Introduced by
Jill Farren Phelps

Classification
Former, recurring

Profile

Home
Genoa City, Wisconsin

[show]Family

Wife
Belinda Rogan (divorced)

Sons
Tyler Michaelson

Daughters
Leslie Michaelson

text: Gus Rogan, portrayed by veteran actor Tony Todd, made his first appearance on March 15, 2013.[18] Todd had previously confirmed his casting in an interview on February 27.[19] Gus is the estranged father of Leslie and Tyler Michaelson. The casting news went relatively unnoticed until Jillian Bowe of Zap2it linked Todd's interview with Horror Society.[20] The initial casting call described Gus as a "small-time criminal after one of his own children testified against him."[18] Todd stated that the role was something he just couldn't refuse. At the time, Todd had only filmed 4 of the 20 episodes he was originally expected to appear in.[19] Later, Soaps In Depth reported that his run had been lengthened.[18] Todd made his last appearance on May 7, 2013, upon the character's death. Following Todd's departure, Leslie Stevens was cast in the role of Rose Turner, the women from Gus's past who would also shed some light on the blogger targeting Leslie's boyfriend, Neil Winters (Kristoff St. John).[21]

text: Gus is first mentioned as the incarcerated unnamed father of Leslie (Angell Conwell) and Tyler Michaelson (Redaric Williams). As of January 2013, Gus's case is taken on by the Innocence Foundation because he claims to have been falsely accused. Local attorney, Avery Bailey Clark (Jessica Collins) is assigned as Gus's attorney. Meanwhile, Congressman Marcus Wheeler (Mark Pinter) begins pressuring Tyler and Leslie about coming out of hiding and testifying against their father again to keep him in prison. Tyler and Leslie hate their father for killing their mother, Belinda, but Leslie is too terrified to come out of hiding. As Avery gets closer to getting Gus's conviction overturned, someone attempts to kill her and Leslie believes it is one of Gus's associates. However, thanks to Avery, Leslie begins to think Gus could be innocent. Later, DNA evidence turns up that reveals implicates Wheeler in Belinda's murder, exonerating Gus. He is released from prison and Leslie and Tyler attempt to repair their relationships with their father. Soon after, Gus suffers a heart attack and is hospitalized, while Leslie finds a box with Gus' possessions in it. She finds love letters written to him from a woman named Rose, and when Gus awakens she confronts him over them. He is later discharged from the hospital and returns to Leslie's apartment, where he reveals that Belinda knew about his affair with Rose. Moments later, Gus suffers another heart attack and is pronounced dead by paramedics. Gus is buried in Milwaukee next to Belinda.

text: Courtney Sloane[edit]

text:
Courtney Sloane

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Kelli Goss

Duration
2013–15

First appearance
April 10, 2013

Last appearance
August 12, 2015

Created by
Josh Griffith

Introduced by
Jill Farren Phelps

Classification
Former, recurring

Profile

Other names
Farrah

Occupation

Police detective
Jabot Cosmetics Intern

text: Courtney Sloane, portrayed by Kelli Goss, made her first appearance on April 10, 2013, as the best friend of Summer Newman (Hunter King). Speculation had first arose in September 2012 that Goss could be up for the role of Summer, but the role was given to King. Goss had previously appeared on Hollywood Heights as the friend of King's character.[22] Rumors of Goss's casting circulated in March 2013; CBS Sports listed her as a cast member.[23][24] The casting was later confirmed by Soap Opera Digest.[25] The character has been well received by critics.[26] In April 2015, the actress confirmed her departure from the series. Goss thanked the show for allowing her to portray a role for "the best two weeks that turned into two years." Goss last aired on April 6, 2015.[27][28] Goss temporarily returned in newly-created flashbacks on August 12, 2015.

text: Initially introduced as Summer's "co-conspirator and confidant", Courtney soon becomes the voice of reason when Summer's life begins falling apart. She gives Summer "level headed advice," and is willing to risk their friendship to make sure Summer is safe. Courtney even impresses Summer's aunt, Abby Newman (Melissa Ordway), during an interview, which leads to her getting an internship at Jabot Cosmetics. In addition, Courtney has a crush on Summer's brother, Noah Newman (Robert Adamson), which eventually develops into a romance.[26] Though it seems Courtney and Noah's relationship is smooth sailing from the beginning, Goss admitted that Courtney is "treading lightly". Speaking of the character's relationship with Noah, the actress stated: "She is an 18-year-old who is freaking out inside."[29] Soap Opera Digest was unfavorable of the series' decision to kill Courtney off, writing: "True, she was a peripheral character but so was Sharon until she married Nick almost 20 years ago (...) The same potential could have been realized for Ms Sloane, a smart and compassionate cop".[30] The magazine also said that Courtney "didn't get the airtime she deserved".[30]

text: Courtney is Summer's close friend from high school. She helps Summer sneak into a bar by providing her with fake identification so she can impress Kyle Abbott (Hartley Sawyer). Courtney has a crush on Summer's brother, Noah and when Summer runs away, Noah charms Courtney into giving up Summer's location. In September 2013, Noah invites Courtney to a concert and they begin dating. Soon after, Courtney is seen receiving strange text messages and phone calls. Fenmore Baldwin (Max Ehrich) later tells Summer that Courtney does drugs. Summer confronts her friend and asks her why she is so hesitant to share anything about her personal life; Courtney firmly denies that she does drugs. It is eventually revealed that Courtney is actually a cop, who was undercover as a high schooler.

text: In February 2015, she, along with Noah, Summer, Austin Travers, Kevin Fisher, Mariah Copeland, Fenmore Baldwin and Abby Newman, head to the Abbott cabin for a Valentine's Day celebration. After Fen slips a party drug into the punch bowl, everyone is put to sleep. Everyone wakes up and does not remember anything that happened, and soon discover that Austin is nowhere to be seen. Courtney opens a closet in the cabin, only to find Austin's corpse. She declares him dead immediately, and realizes that he was in fact murdered, having his head smashed in with a bookend. Soon after, herself, along with the rest of the young crowd at the cabin, come up with a plan to cover up the murder, which goes against her duty as a cop. Two months later, Noah proposes to Courtney in Crimson Lights, saying that after all the events that happened to Summer and Austin, he does not want to live a second without her by his side. Courtney happily accepts, and the pair plan their wedding for the following day. After telling the group to meet her at the Abbott cabin, Courtney is found dead in a closet.

text: Melanie Daniels[edit]

text: Melanie Daniels, portrayed by Erin Chambers, appeared from June 6 to August 26, 2013.[31][32] Her casting in the role was announced in April, slated to be a paralegal who interacts with the Newman family.[33][34][35] In an interview with Soaps In Depth, Chambers compared Melanie to her previous role, Siobhan McKenna on ABC's General Hospital, stating that the differences between the two characters go "beyond hair color and vocal inflection". She stated: "Melanie's a professional. She's very ambitious. Siobhan was more of a wanderer. She didn't know what she wanted. Melanie is very sure, driven and ambitious."[35] Soaps In Depth also said of Chambers' character, "And seeing how so many characters on Y&R are often in trouble with the law, she should be kept pretty busy, even though the role is currently only recurring."[36] Zap2it told viewers to look for "paralegal Melanie to mix it up with the always-in-need-of-legal-assistance Newman clan".[33] The character and her storyline were critically panned.[37] Upon news of her departure, Jillian Bowe of Zap2it remarked that "prayers have been answered".[37]

text: Melanie first appears in June 2013 as a paralegal, hired by Avery Bailey Clark (Jessica Collins), to work with Adam and Victor Newman (Michael Muhney and Eric Braeden) at Newman Enterprises. Melanie began to pursue Adam romantically, however, in reality, Victor had ordered her to do so in order to spy on Adam and his business deals. When Adam discovered what Melanie was doing, he agreed to pay her extra to feed Victor false information. Victor saw through Melanie's lies and fired her, followed by Adam ending their romantic affair, despite her saying that she had begun to have genuine feelings for him. Melanie then decides to sue Adam for sexual harassment. Her decision generates much bad publicity for Adam and Newman Enterprises. Before the case can go to court, Adam's ex-wife Chelsea Lawson (Melissa Claire Egan) convinces Melanie that Adam is not worth the lawsuit; she then drops the charges and disappears from Genoa City.

text: Stitch Rayburn[edit]

text:
Stitch Rayburn

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Sean Carrigan

Duration
2013–17

First appearance
June 28, 2013

Last appearance
January 18, 2017

Created by
Josh Griffith

Introduced by
Jill Farren Phelps

Classification
Former, recurring

Profile

Other names
Benjamin Russell
Benjamin Rayburn

Occupation

Physician
Chemist

Home
Genoa City, Wisconsin

[show]Family

Father
Richard Russell

Mother
Maureen Russell

Sisters
Kelly Andrews

Wife
Jenna Kieran (divorced)
Abby Newman (2015–16)

Sons
Max Rayburn

Nephews
Sam Andrews

text: Stitch Rayburn portrayed by Sean Carrigan, made his first appearance on June 28, 2013. His casting in the recurring role was announced in May; he was slated to be an "old army buddy" of Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton).[38][39] Errol Lewis of Soap Opera Network wrote that the soap opera was "gaining another strong army man".[40] In November, it was announced that Carrigan had been put on contract with the series.[41][42]

text: Stitch arrives in Genoa City in June 2013 to visit his friend Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton). Stitch is a doctor and was a part of Dylan's troop when they were in Afghanistan; they were the only two to survive as Stitch had returned home on leave. He is later Dylan's best man when he marries Chelsea Lawson (Melissa Claire Egan), and returns months later to comfort his friend after it is revealed that the child Chelsea was carrying was never Dylan's. Stitch announces he has taken a job at Genoa City Memorial Hospital and moves to town. Stitch then begins to grow close with Victoria Newman (Amelia Heinle), who was having marital problems with Billy Abbott (David Tom) and at the same time, is revealed to know Kelly Andrews (Cynthia Watros) and that he is hiding something about his past; to the point of her calling him a "murderer". Stitch and his wife Jenna then are said to be divorcing and she takes full custody of their son, Max, and moves to Melbourne, Australia, upsetting Stitch. Victoria and Billy separate and she wants to pursue a relationship with him, and they later sleep together. Soon after, Victoria learns she is pregnant but is unsure whether the child is Stitch's or Billy's. On July 22, 2014, it is revealed that Stitch's real name is Ben Russell. In late 2016, Abby Newman (Melissa Ordway) and Stitch divorced after a short marriage. This brought upon Carrigan being bumped to recurring status for lack of storyline.

text: Rose Turner[edit]

text: Rose Turner, portrayed by Leslie Stevens, appeared from July 25 to August 8, 2013. Her casting was announced in June; Soaps In Depth wrote of the character: "The mystery woman involved with Leslie and Tyler's dad, Gus and who just may hold the answer to the mystery regarding the online blogger targeting Neil."[43][44] Kambra Clifford of Soap Opera Network wrote: "Fans have been chomping at the bit for more information regarding The Young and the Restless Rose, the mystery woman that Leslie (Angell Conwell) and Tyler’s (Redaric Williams) dad, Gus (Tony Todd), has been dating. Well good news: One more piece of the puzzle has been revealed!" She also told viewers to "watch the craziness begin to unfold when the actress first airs".[45]

text: Rose was first mentioned when her letters to Gus Rogan (Tony Todd) were found; his daughter Leslie Michaelson (Angell Conwell) was unable to ask for the truth as Gus died soon after. Leslie continued to look into who Rose was, and found out she died in April 2007 and Gus was unaware of her death. Rose then appeared in several flashbacks to Leslie's boyfriend Neil Winters (Kristoff St. John), revealing that he met her in a bar in Evanston. They got drunk and later went to a hotel room, where Rose passed out. Neil left a "do not disturb" sign on the door and left, assuming she would sleep it off. However, Rose in fact died that night, and her daughter Ann Turner is posing as Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan) and targeting the Winters family as she blames Neil for her mother's death.

text: Connor Newman[edit]

text:
Connor Newman

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Brady and Cooper Friedman
Nolan and Michael Webb
Owen and Henry Leark
Gunner and Ryder Gadbois

Duration
2013–18

First appearance
August 12, 2013

Last appearance
March 2, 2018

Created by
Josh Griffith

Introduced by
Jill Farren Phelps

Classification
Former, recurring

Profile

Other names
Connor Adam Newman
Terrence Connor McAvoy II

[show]Family

Family
Newman

Father
Adam Newman

Mother
Chelsea Lawson

Half-brothers
Johnny Abbott
Christian Newman

Grandfathers
Victor Newman
Jeffrey Bardwell

Grandmothers
Hope Wilson
Anita Lawson

Uncles
Nicholas Newman

Aunts
Victoria Newman
Abby Newman

First cousins
Eve Nicole Howard
Cassie Newman (adoptive)
Noah Newman
Summer Newman
Faith Newman
Reed Hellstrom
Johnny Abbott (adoptive)
Katie Newman

text: Connor Newman was born onscreen on August 12, 2013.[46] Connor is the son of Adam Newman (Justin Hartley) and Chelsea Lawson (Melissa Claire Egan). He was formerly believed to be the son of Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton).

text: Chelsea goes into labor just hours after marrying Dylan who delivers the child before mother and son are taken to the hospital. By the time of Connor's birth, Adam had given up on his belief that he is the child's father. However, Chelsea worried about Dylan asking questions. Connor is named after Dylan's late father, Terrence Connor McAvoy.[47] Adam realizes he is Connor's father after he overhears Dylan tell Billy Abbott (Billy Miller) that Connor may have a genetic eye disorder - Retinitis Pigmentosa. After being examined by an eye specialist, it is determined that Connor suffers from Peters Anomaly, and requires an immediate cornea transplant to save his sight. After Delia Abbott is killed in a hit and run by Adam, her corneas are harvested and transplanted to Connor. The surgery is a success and Connor's eyesight is saved.

text: Others[edit]

text:
Date(s)
Character
Actor
Information

January 1–11, 2013
Stephanie Gayle
Anne Leighton[48]
Stephanie first appears as a prostitute hired by Victor Newman (Eric Braeden) to seduce Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman) on New Year's Eve. Stephanie and Jack share a kiss at midnight and she accompanies him back to his mansion. The pill popping Jack wakes up to find Stephanie dead on his living room floor. With assistance from Victor's son, Adam Newman (Michael Muhney), Stephanie's body ends up in an ally An autopsy report reveals she died from a combination of ecstasy and alcohol. Stephanie turns out to be the daughter of congressman, Marcus Wheeler (Mark Pinter) and his wife, Anne. Though Jack eventually confesses, Marcus decides against pressing charges to avoid scandal.

March 5–11, 2013
Terry McAvoy
Steve Gagnon
Terrence Connor "Terry" McAvoy is the widowed father of Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton). Terry and his wife, initially raise Dylan in Darien, Connecticut and the family later relocates to Chicago. Terry starts his own construction company; but when Dylan is in college, Terry falls off a ladder and breaks his back forcing Dylan to drop out of college and run the business. Terry is expected to never walk again, but he eventually regains use of his limbs. However, an infection during a surgery leads to a decline in Terry's health forcing him to live with an around the clock nurse. Terry passes away on March 11, 2013 in Genoa City.

April 17–19, 2013
Barry
Bruce Weitz[49][50]
Barry first appeared at the local restaurant, The Boulevard, recognizing Billy Abbott (Billy Miller) from his gambling days. He offered Billy a game of poker and while he initially refused, some other men at the restaurant joined in and so he changed his mind. Barry was in fact the owner of The Boulevard and Billy ended up winning ownership of the restaurant in the poker game.

April 26–29, 2013
Quinn
Victoria Barabas[51]
Quinn appeared as a woman who Tyler Michaelson (Redaric Williams) met at a bar, and they later spent the night together.

May 2–October 23, 2013
Sheryl Gordon
Shi Ne Nielson[52]
Detective Sheryl Gordon debuted as the partner of Detective Alex Chavez (Ignacio Serricchio). Abby Newman (Melissa Ordway), who was dating Alex at the time, was jealous of their close relationship.

May 17–25, 2013
Madame Miranda
Ann Magnuson[53]
Madame Miranda is a psychic first appearing at a carnival while Chelsea Lawson (Melissa Claire Egan) and Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) are visiting. It is later revealed that Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) hired her to get information on the paternity of Chelsea's baby.

May 17–20, 2013
Angie
Jona Xiao[54]
Angie first appears as a close friend of Summer Newman (Hunter King) at a prom party thrown by the latter. She dares Fenmore Baldwin (Max Ehrich) to kiss Summer, resulting in Kyle Abbott (Hartley Sawyer) punching Fen, upon realizing he has feelings for Summer.

June 10, 2013 – January 17, 2014
Raven
Amanda Leighton[55]
Raven first appears as a classmate of Fenmore Baldwin (Max Ehrich), who invites him to a graduation party, where they do drugs and talk about their social struggles. She has since been established as a drug dealer, providing Fen and Courtney Sloane (Kelli Goss) with drugs when they want them.

November 8, 2013–February 19, 2014
Richard Womack
Myk Watford[56]
Womack first appears as a fellow prison inmate to Fenmore Baldwin (Max Ehrich). After Fen's father and former district attorney Michael Baldwin (Christian LeBlanc) is released from prison, Fen can no longer be protected from the other inmates' beatings. Womack gets them to back off before Fen is released, and promises him that Fen can pay him back from the outside. Michael and Fen's mother Lauren Fenmore (Tracey E. Bregman) later receive a cake with the words "Forget Me Not" written in icing, leading Fen to suspect Womack sent it. When Fen is sent back to prison, Womack continues to harass Fen. He robs the Valentine's Day Gala shortly after his prison release, and is shot dead by Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers) during a struggle.

December 12, 2013–May 29, 2014
Esmeralda
Briana Nicole Henry[57]
Esmeralda, a longtime model, interacts with Summer Newman (Hunter King) at a Jabot Cosmetics photo shoot, and afterward offers her the phone number of her drug dealer for energy pills. Esmeralda quickly comes forward when Summer ends up in the hospital from the pills and admits that she gave the energy pills to Summer. In 2014, Esmeralda hooks up with billionaire, Devon Hamilton (Bryton James) at the Valentine's Day gala. They later embark on a relationship, evidently for Devon to suppress his feelings for Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan). Devon keeps Esmeralda interested by buying her expensive things with his fortune. After being convinced that the relationship was going nowhere, Devon breaks up with her over the phone and she is not seen again afterward.

text: Notes[edit]


document_title: List of Washington Capitals seasons

question_text: when was the last time the washington capitals won a playoff series

root

text: List of Washington Capitals seasons

text: Table key[edit]

text:
Key of colors and symbols

Color/symbol
Explanation

Conference champions

Division champions

Led league in points

tag: table

text:
Key of terms and abbreviations

Term or abbreviation
Definition

Finish
Final position in division standings

GA
Goals against (goals scored by the Capitals' opponents)

GF
Goals for (goals scored by the Capitals)

GP
Number of games played

L
Number of losses

OT
Number of losses in overtime (since the 1999–2000 season)

Pts
Number of points

T
Number of ties

W
Number of wins

—
Does not apply

text: Year by year[edit]

text:
Year by year listing of all seasons played by the Washington Capitals

NHL season
Capitals season
Conference
Division
Regular season[4][5]
Postseason

Finish
GP
W
L
T
OT
Pts
GF
GA
GP
W
L
GF
GA
Result

1974–75
1974–75
Wales
Norris
5th
80
8
67
5
—
21
181
446
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1975–76
1975–76
Wales
Norris
5th
80
11
59
10
—
32
224
394
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1976–77
1976–77
Wales
Norris
4th
80
24
42
14
—
62
221
307
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1977–78
1977–78
Wales
Norris
5th
80
17
49
14
—
48
195
321
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1978–79
1978–79
Wales
Norris
4th
80
24
41
15
—
63
273
338
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1979–80
1979–80
Wales
Patrick
5th
80
27
40
13
—
67
261
293
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1980–81
1980–81
Wales
Patrick
5th
80
26
36
18
—
70
286
317
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1981–82
1981–82
Wales
Patrick
5th
80
26
41
13
—
65
319
338
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1982–83
1982–83
Wales
Patrick
3rd
80
39
25
16
—
94
306
283
4
1
3
11
19
Lost Division Semifinals to New York Islanders, 1–3[6]

1983–84
1983–84
Wales
Patrick
2nd
80
48
27
5
—
101
308
226
8
4
4
28
25
Won Division Semifinals vs. Philadelphia Flyers, 3–0
Lost Division Finals to New York Islanders, 1–4[7]

1984–85
1984–85
Wales
Patrick
2nd
80
46
25
9
—
101
322
240
5
2
3
12
14
Lost Division Semifinals to New York Islanders, 2–3[8]

1985–86
1985–86
Wales
Patrick
2nd
80
50
23
7
—
107
315
272
9
5
4
36
24
Won Division Semifinals vs. New York Islanders, 3–0
Lost Division Finals to New York Rangers, 2–4[9]

1986–87
1986–87
Wales
Patrick
2nd
80
38
32
10
—
86
285
278
7
3
4
19
19
Lost Division Semifinals to New York Islanders, 3–4[10]

1987–88
1987–88
Wales
Patrick
2nd
80
38
33
9
—
85
281
249
14
7
7
54
50
Won Division Semifinals vs. Philadelphia Flyers, 4–3
Lost Division Finals to New Jersey Devils, 3–4[11]

1988–89
1988–89
Wales
Patrick
1st
80
41
29
10
—
92
305
259
6
2
4
18
25
Lost Division Semifinals to Philadelphia Flyers, 2–4[12]

1989–90
1989–90
Wales
Patrick
3rd
80
36
38
6
—
78
284
275
15
8
7
49
48
Won Division Semifinals vs. New Jersey Devils, 4–2
Won Division Finals vs. New York Rangers, 4–1
Lost Conference Finals to Boston Bruins, 0–4[13]

1990–91
1990–91
Wales
Patrick
3rd
80
37
36
7
—
81
258
258
11
5
6
29
35
Won Division Semifinals vs. New York Rangers, 4–2
Lost Division Finals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 1–4[14]

1991–92
1991–92
Wales
Patrick
2nd
80
45
27
8
—
98
330
275
7
3
4
27
25
Lost Division Semifinals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 3–4[15]

1992–93
1992–93[a]
Wales
Patrick
2nd
84
43
34
7
—
93
325
286
6
4
2
15
23
Lost Division Semifinals to New York Islanders, 2–4[16]

1993–94
1993–94
Eastern[b]
Atlantic
3rd
84
39
35
10
—
88
277
263
11
5
6
32
32
Won Conference Quarterfinals vs. Pittsburgh Penguins, 4–2
Lost Conference Semifinals to New York Rangers, 1–4[17]

1994–95
1994–95[c]
Eastern
Atlantic
2nd
48
22
18
8
—
52
136
120
7
3
4
10
17
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 3–4[18]

1995–96
1995–96
Eastern
Atlantic
4th
82
39
32
11
—
89
234
204
6
2
4
17
21
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 2–4[19]

1996–97
1996–97
Eastern
Atlantic
5th
82
33
40
9
—
75
214
231
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1997–98
1997–98
Eastern
Atlantic
3rd
82
40
30
12
—
92
219
202
21
12
9
53
44
Won Conference Quarterfinals vs. Boston Bruins, 4–2
Won Conference Semifinals vs. Ottawa Senators, 4–1
Won Conference Finals vs. Buffalo Sabres, 4–2
Lost Stanley Cup Finals to Detroit Red Wings, 0–4[20]

1998–99
1998–99
Eastern
Southeast[g]
3rd
82
31
45
6
—
68
200
218
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

1999–2000
1999–2000
Eastern
Southeast
1st
82
44
24
12
2[d]
102
227
194
5
1
4
6
15
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 1–4[21]

2000–01
2000–01
Eastern
Southeast
1st
82
41
27
10
4
96
233
211
6
2
4
10
14
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 2–4[22]

2001–02
2001–02
Eastern
Southeast
2nd
82
36
33
11
2
85
228
240
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

2002–03
2002–03
Eastern
Southeast
2nd
82
39
29
8
6
92
224
220
6
2
4
15
14
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Tampa Bay Lightning, 2–4[23]

2003–04
2003–04
Eastern
Southeast
5th
82
23
46
10
3
59
186
253
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

2004–05[e]
2004–05
Eastern
Southeast
Season cancelled due to 2004–05 NHL lockout

2005–06
2005–06
Eastern
Southeast
5th
82
29
41
—[f]
12
70
237
306
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

2006–07
2006–07
Eastern
Southeast
5th
82
28
40
—
14
70
235
286
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

2007–08
2007–08
Eastern
Southeast
1st
82
43
31
—
8
94
242
231
7
3
4
20
23
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Philadelphia Flyers, 3–4[24]

2008–09
2008–09
Eastern
Southeast
1st
82
50
24
—
8
108
272
245
14
7
7
41
38
Won Conference Quarterfinals vs. New York Rangers, 4–3
Lost Conference Semifinals to Pittsburgh Penguins, 3–4[25]

2009–10
2009–10
Eastern
Southeast
1st
82
54
15
—
13
121
318
233
7
3
4
22
20
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to Montreal Canadiens, 3–4[26]

2010–11
2010–11
Eastern
Southeast
1st
82
48
23
—
11
107
224
197
9
4
5
23
24
Won Conference Quarterfinals vs. New York Rangers, 4–1
Lost Conference Semifinals to Tampa Bay Lightning, 0–4[27]

2011–12
2011–12
Eastern
Southeast
2nd
82
42
32
—
8
92
222
230
14
7
7
28
30
Won Conference Quarterfinals vs. Boston Bruins, 4-3
Lost Conference Semifinals to New York Rangers, 3–4[28]

2012–13[h]
2012–13
Eastern
Southeast
1st
48
27
18
—
3
57
149
130
7
3
4
13
15
Lost Conference Quarterfinals to New York Rangers, 3–4[29]

2013–14
2013–14
Eastern
Metropolitan[i]
5th
82
38
30
—
14
90
235
240
—
—
—
—
—
Did not qualify

2014–15
2014–15
Eastern
Metropolitan
2nd
82
45
26
—
11
101
242
203
14
7
7
28
28
Won First Round vs. New York Islanders, 4–3
Lost Second Round to New York Rangers, 3–4[30]

2015–16
2015–16
Eastern
Metropolitan
1st
82
56
18
—
8
120
252
193
12
6
6
29
22
Won First Round vs. Philadelphia Flyers, 4–2
Lost Second Round to Pittsburgh Penguins, 2–4[31]

2016–17
2016–17
Eastern
Metropolitan
1st
82
55
19
—
8
118
263
182
13
7
6
36
34
Won First Round vs. Toronto Maple Leafs, 4–2
Lost Second Round to Pittsburgh Penguins, 3–4

2017–18
2017–18
Eastern
Metropolitan
1st
82
49
26
—
7
105
259
239
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
Won First Round vs. Columbus Blue Jackets 4–2
Won Second Round vs. Pittsburgh Penguins 4–2
Won Conference Finals vs. Tampa Bay Lightning 4–3
Stanley Cup Finals vs. Vegas Golden Knights

Totals
3426
1575
1406
303
142
3595
10753
10862
251
116
135
681
698

text: Notes[edit]

text:
a In 1992, the NHL expanded the season to 84 games, and each team played two games at a neutral site. After the 1995 lockout, the neutral site games were eliminated, and the season was reduced to 82 games.[32]
b The NHL realigned into Eastern and Western conferences prior to the 1993–94 season.[33] Washington was placed in the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference.[34]
c The season was shortened to 48 games because of the 1994–95 NHL lockout.[35]
d Beginning with the 1999–00 season, teams received one point for losing a regular season game in overtime.[36]
e The season was canceled because of the 2004–05 NHL lockout.[37]
f Before the 2005–06 season, the NHL instituted a penalty shootout for regular season games that remained tied after a five-minute overtime period, which prevented ties.[38]
g The NHL added 4 expansion teams prior to the 1998–99 season and split the Eastern Conference into three divisions: Northeast, Atlantic, and Southeast. Washington was moved into the new Southeast division.[39]
h The season was shortened to 48 games because of the 2012–13 NHL lockout.[40]
i The NHL realigned prior to the 2013–14 season. Washington was placed in the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference.[41]

tag: ul


document_title: Maggie & Bianca: Fashion Friends

question_text: who plays bianca in maggie and bianca fashion friends

text: Maggie & Bianca: Fashion Friends

text: Plot[edit]

text: Maggie is an American girl from Portland who wins a scholarship to the Fashion Academy of Milan, a prestigious fashion school, on her sixteenth birthday. Bianca is the fashionable daughter of a powerful ltalian entrepreneur. The two girls meet and are thrown together as roommates at the Fashion Academy, but get off to a rocky start as they have very different personalities and conflicting points of view. But as they clash over time, they begin to understand one another better. Together with three of their classmates, they form a band on the side in order to pursue their musical dreams, while continuing their study of fashion at the Academy.[3][4]

tag: p

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Emanuela Rei as Maggie
Giorgia Boni as Bianca
Sergio Ruggeri as Jacques
Luca Murphy as Quinn
Federica Corti as Nausica
Federico Pedroni as Leonardo (season 1)
Tiffany Zhou as Yuki
Sergio Melone as Eduard
Simone Lijoi as Teacher Ferrari (season 1)
Elia Nichols as Teacher Tucker
Alvaro Gradella as President Maffei
Walter Leonardi as Uncle Max
Clelia Piscitello as Dolores
Jody Cecchetto as Andrew (guest, season 1; main, season 2)
Paolo Fantoni as Felipe (guest, season 1; main, season 2)
Simona Di Bella as Susan (guest, season 1; main, season 2)
Giovanni Bussi as Teacher Falques (season 2)
Paolo Romano as Alberto (guest, season 1; main, season 2)
Greta Bellusci as Rachel (guest, season 1; main, season 2)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date

1
1
"A Dream Come True"
August 29, 2016 (2016-08-29)

2
2
"Places to Call My Own"
August 30, 2016 (2016-08-30)

3
3
"A Start to Classes"
August 31, 2016 (2016-08-31)

4
4
"Fashion Photography"
September 1, 2016 (2016-09-01)

5
5
"The Most Beautiful Day"
September 2, 2016 (2016-09-02)

6
6
"Keep Your Lucky Charm"
September 3, 2016 (2016-09-03)

7
7
"Model for a Day"
September 4, 2016 (2016-09-04)

8
8
"No Escape from Love"
September 5, 2016 (2016-09-05)

9
9
"A Mile in Her Shoes"
September 6, 2016 (2016-09-06)

10
10
"Shock! Extortion!"
September 7, 2016 (2016-09-07)

11
11
"Raiders of the Lost Exam"
September 8, 2016 (2016-09-08)

12
12
"The Phantom of the Academy"
September 9, 2016 (2016-09-09)

13
13
"A Perfect Concert"
September 10, 2016 (2016-09-10)

14
14
"History Repeats Itself"
September 22, 2016 (2016-09-22)

15
15
"Miss Venice"
September 23, 2016 (2016-09-23)

16
16
"Our School Anniversary"
September 23, 2016 (2016-09-23)

17
17
"A Matter of Style"
September 24, 2016 (2016-09-24)

18
18
"Election Trouble"
September 24, 2016 (2016-09-24)

19
19
"The One I Trust"
September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)

20
20
"No Mask, No Party"
September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)

21
21
"Never Mention "CoolGhost""
September 26, 2016 (2016-09-26)

22
22
"Our First Challenge"
September 26, 2016 (2016-09-26)

23
23
"Facing Semifinals"
September 27, 2016 (2016-09-27)

24
24
"Do the Right Thing"
September 27, 2016 (2016-09-27)

25
25
"The Great Lockart"
September 28, 2016 (2016-09-28)

26
26
"Year-end Fashion Show"
September 28, 2016 (2016-09-28)

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text: The second season aired in Italy between January 11 and February 18, 2017, and consisted of 26 episodes. The second season has not been released internationally on Netflix.

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming on a third season of the series took place during summer 2017,[5] and is scheduled to premiere in mid-September on Rai Gulp in Italy.[6][7]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Maggie & Bianca Fashion Friends was originally televised on Rai Gulp in Italy, where the first season aired from August 29 to September 28, 2016. The second season aired in Italy between January 11 and February 18, 2017.

text: It also aired on Gulli in France; Disney Channel in Germany; Nickelodeon in Greece, Poland, Netherlands and Benelux; Sitel TV in Macedonia; Vizion Plus in Albania; TV Cultura in Brazil; Megamax in Hungary, Romania and Czech Republic; and Карусель in Russia.[8]

text: The series is also available on Netflix worldwide,[1] including in the countries listed above, as well as in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand; the first season was released on Netflix on March 31, 2017.


document_title: Supreme Court of California

question_text: who can appoint individuals to fill vacancies on california courts

text: Supreme Court of California

text: Composition[edit]

text: Under the original 1849 California Constitution, the Court started with a chief justice and two associate justices.[2] The Court was expanded to five justices in 1862. Under the current 1879 constitution, the Court expanded to six associate justices and one chief justice, for the current total of seven.[3] The justices are appointed by the Governor of California and are subject to retention elections.[4]

text: According to the California Constitution, to be considered for appointment, a person must be an attorney admitted to practice in California or have served as a judge of a California court for 10 years immediately preceding the appointment.[5]

text: To fill a vacant position, the Governor must first submit a candidate's name to the Commission on Judicial Nominees Evaluation of the State Bar of California, which prepares and returns a thorough, confidential evaluation of the candidate.[6] Next, the Governor officially nominates the candidate, who must then be evaluated by the Commission on Judicial Appointments, which consists of the Chief Justice of California, the Attorney General of California, and a senior presiding justice of the California Courts of Appeal.[7] The Commission holds a public hearing and if satisfied with the nominee's qualifications, confirms the nomination. The nominee can then immediately fill an existing vacancy, or replace a departing justice at the beginning of the next judicial term.

text: If a nominee is confirmed to fill a vacancy that arose partway through a judicial term, the justice must stand for retention during the next gubernatorial election. Voters then determine whether to retain the justice for the remainder of the judicial term. At the term's conclusion, justices must again undergo a statewide retention election for a full 12-year term.[8] If a majority votes "no," the seat becomes vacant and may be filled by the Governor.

text: The electorate has occasionally exercised the power not to retain justices.[9] Chief Justice Rose Bird and Associate Justices Cruz Reynoso and Joseph Grodin were staunchly opposed to capital punishment and were subsequently removed in the 1986 general election.[10] Newly reelected Governor George Deukmejian was then able to elevate Associate Justice Malcolm M. Lucas to Chief Justice and appoint three new associate justices (one to replace Lucas in his old post and two to replace Reynoso and Grodin).[11]

text: Current membership[edit]

text:
Position
Name
Born
Appt. by
Took office / Length of service
Term expires
Education, prior positions

Chief Justice

Cantil-Sakauye, TaniTani Cantil-Sakauye
000000001959-10-19-0000October 19, 1959
(age 7001580000000000000♠58)

Schwarzenegger, ArnoldArnold Schwarzenegger

000000002011-01-03-0000January 3, 2011
7 years, 3 months

000000002023-01-01-0000January 1, 2023

UC Davis, UC Davis; California Court of Appeal (Sacramento, 2005–2011); Sacramento County Superior Court (1997–2005); Sacramento Municipal Court (1990–1997); Deputy Legislative Secretary (1989–1990); Deputy Legal Affairs Secretary (1988–1989); Sacramento County Deputy District Attorney (1984–1988).

Associate Justice

Chin, MingMing Chin

000000001942-08-31-0000August 31, 1942
(age 7001750000000000000♠75)

Wilson, PetePete Wilson

000000001996-03-01-0000March 1, 1996
22 years, 1 month

000000002023-01-01-0000January 1, 2023

USF, USF; California Court of Appeal (San Francisco, 1990–1996); Alameda County Superior Court (1988-1990).

Associate Justice

Corrigan, CarolCarol Corrigan

000000001948-08-16-0000August 16, 1948
(age 7001690000000000000♠69)

Schwarzenegger, ArnoldArnold Schwarzenegger

000000002006-01-04-0000January 4, 2006
12 years, 2 months

000000002019-01-06-0000January 6, 2019

Holy Names, UC Hastings; California Court of Appeal (San Francisco, 1994–2006); Alameda County Superior Court (1990–1994).

Associate Justice

Liu, GoodwinGoodwin Liu

000000001970-10-19-0000October 19, 1970
(age 7001470000000000000♠47)

Brown, JerryJerry Brown

000000002011-09-01-0000September 1, 2011[12]
6 years, 7 months

000000002023-01-01-0000January 1, 2023

Stanford, Oxford, Yale; Associate Dean of UC Berkeley School of Law (2008–2011); Professor of Law, UC Berkeley School of Law (2003–2011).

Associate Justice

Cuéllar, Mariano-FlorentinoMariano-Florentino Cuéllar

000000001972-07-27-0000July 27, 1972
(age 7001450000000000000♠45)

Jerry Brown

000000002015-01-05-0000January 5, 2015
3 years, 2 months

000000002027-01-03-0000January 3, 2027

Harvard, Yale, Stanford; Special Assistant to the President, Justice and Regulatory Policy, White House Domestic Policy Council (2009-2010); Professor, Stanford Law School (2001-2014); Institute Director, Center Co-Director, and Program Director, Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies at Stanford University (2004-2015).

Associate Justice

Kruger, LeondraLeondra Kruger

000000001976-07-28-0000July 28, 1976
(age 7001410000000000000♠41)

Jerry Brown

000000002015-01-05-0000January 5, 2015
3 years, 2 months

000000002019-01-06-0000January 6, 2019

Harvard, Yale; Deputy Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, United States Department of Justice (2013-2014); Assistant to the Solicitor General and Acting Principal Deputy Solicitor General, Office of the Solicitor General, United States Department of Justice (2007-2013); Private practice (2004-2006).

text: Three current justices were appointed by Republicans (Cantil-Sakauye, Chin, and Corrigan) and three by a Democrat (Liu, Cuéllar, Kruger). There is one Filipino-American justice (Cantil-Sakauye), one Hispanic (Cuéllar), one African-American (Kruger), two East Asian-American justices (Chin and Liu), and one non-Hispanic white justice (Corrigan). The justices do not publicly discuss their religious views or affiliations.

text: One justice earned an undergraduate degree from a University of California school, three from private universities in California, and two from out-of-state private universities. Two justices earned their law degrees from a University of California law school, one from a law school at a California private university, and three from law schools at out-of-state private universities.

text: Werdegar retired on August 31, 2017, [13] and her seat is currently unfilled and awaiting a nomination from Governor Jerry Brown. Werdegar's seat has been vacant for 7 months and 3 days.

text: Structure[edit]

text: Between 1879 and 1966, the court was divided into two three-justice panels, Department One and Department Two.[14] The chief justice divided cases evenly between the panels and also decided which cases would be heard en banc by the Court sitting as a whole.

text: After a constitutional amendment in 1966, the Court currently sits as a whole (all seven together) when hearing all appeals. When there is an open seat on the court, or if a justice recuses himself or herself on a given case, justices from the California Courts of Appeal are assigned by the chief justice to join the court for individual cases on a rotational basis.

text: The procedure for when all justices recuse themselves from a case has varied over time.[15] For a 1992 case, the chief justice requested the presiding justice of a Court of Appeal district (different from the one where the case originated) to select six other Court of Appeal justices from his district, and they formed an acting Supreme Court for the purpose of deciding that one case.[16] However, in a more recent case where all members of the Court recused themselves when Governor Schwarzenegger sought a writ of mandate (Schwarzenegger v. Court of Appeal (Epstein)), seven justices of the Courts of Appeal were selected based on the regular rotational basis, not from the same district, with the most senior one serving as the acting chief justice, and that acting supreme court eventually denied the writ petition.[17]

text: Operation[edit]

text: Jurisdiction[edit]

text: The Constitution of California gives the Court mandatory and exclusive appellate jurisdiction in all cases imposing capital punishment in California, although the Court has sponsored a state constitutional amendment to allow it to assign death penalty appeals to the California Courts of Appeal.[18] The Court has discretionary appellate jurisdiction over all cases reviewed by the Courts of Appeal; the latter were created by a 1904 constitutional amendment to relieve the Supreme Court of most of its workload so the Court could then focus on dealing with non-frivolous appeals that involved important issues of law.[19]

text: According to research by Justice Goodwin Liu, each year the Court has averaged 5,200 petitions for writs of certiorari and 3,400 petitions for habeas corpus, plus 40 additional petitions from inmates already on death row.[20] In an average year the Court will decide to hear 83 cases and will be required to hear appeals from 20 new inmates joining death row.[20] Each week, the Court votes on 150 to 300 petitions, paying special attention to a staff recommended “A list” as well as to certified questions from the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.[20]

text: Operation[edit]

text: The Court is open for business year-round (as opposed to operating only during scheduled "terms" as is commonplace in jurisdictions that observe the legal year). The Court hears oral argument at least one week per month, 10 months each year (except July and August). Since 1878, it has regularly heard oral argument each year at San Francisco (four months), Los Angeles (four months), and Sacramento (two months).

text: According to Justice Liu, when a case is granted review, the Chief Justice assigns the case to a justice, who, after the parties finish briefing, then prepares a draft opinion.[20] Each justice writes a preliminary response to the draft opinion, and if the assigned justice is in the minority, she may ask the Chief Justice to reassign the case to someone in the majority.[20] The Court then hears oral arguments and, immediately afterwards, meet alone to vote.[20] The California Constitution requires suspension of the justices’ salaries if the Court fails to then file a decision within 90 days.[20][21] The Court issues unanimous opinions in 77% of cases, compared to 43% by the Supreme Court of the United States.[20]

text: Throughout the year (including July and August), the justices have a conference every Wednesday the Court is not hearing oral argument, with the exception of the last week, respectively, of November and December (Thanksgiving and New Year's). New opinions are published online on Monday and Thursday mornings at 10 a.m. Paper copies also become available through the clerk's office at that time.

text: The Court is one of the few U.S. courts apart from the U.S. Supreme Court that enjoys the privilege of having its opinions routinely published in three hardcover reporters. The Court's Reporter of Decisions contracts with a private publisher (currently LexisNexis) to publish the official reporter, California Reports, now in its fifth series; note that the series number changes whenever the publisher changes, although the most recent changeover to the fifth series did not involve a change in reporter. West publishes California decisions in both the California Reporter (in its second series) and the Pacific Reporter (in its third series). (The New York Court of Appeals opinions are similarly published in three reporters.)

text: Each justice has five assigned law clerks.[20] Since the late 1980s, the Court has turned away from the traditional use of law clerks, and has switched to permanent staff attorneys.[22] Justice Goodwin Liu, however, has returned to the traditional use of recent law school graduates as one-year clerks.[20] The Court has about 85 staff attorneys, some of whom are attached to particular justices; the rest are shared as a central staff.[23][24] The advantage to this system is that the reduced turnover of staff attorneys (versus the traditional system of rotating through new law clerks every year) has improved the efficiency of the court in dealing with complex cases, particularly death penalty cases.

text: During its first half-century of operation, the Court struggled to keep up with its soaring caseload and very frequently fell behind, until the California Courts of Appeal were created in 1904.[14] This resulted in provisions in the 1879 Constitution forcing the Court to decide all cases in writing with reasons given[25] (to get rid of minor cases, it had often given summary dispositions with no reasons given[14]) and requiring California judges to certify in writing every month that no matter submitted for consideration had been outstanding for more than 90 days, or else they will not be paid.[26][27] To comply with the latter provision, the Court does not schedule oral argument until the justices have already studied the briefs, formulated their respective positions, and circulated draft opinions. Then, after the matter is formally "argued and submitted", the justices can polish and release their opinions well before reaching the 90-day deadline.[clarification needed] This differs sharply from the practice in all other federal and state appellate courts, where judges can schedule oral argument not long after written briefing is finished, but then may take months (or even a year) after oral argument to release opinions.

text: Because the court was extremely overloaded with cases prior to 1904, its decisions in several hundred minor cases that should have been published were not published. A small group of lawyers eventually undertook the tedious task of plowing through the state archives to recover and compile those opinions, which were published in a separate seven-volume reporter called California Unreported Cases starting in 1913.[28] Despite its name, those cases are citable as precedent, since they would have been published but for the court's disorganized condition at the time they were issued.

text: Ancillary responsibilities[edit]

text: The Court supervises the lower courts (including the trial-level California superior courts) through the Judicial Council of California, and also supervises California's legal profession through the State Bar of California. All lawyer admissions and disbarments are done through recommendations of the State Bar, which then must be ratified by the Supreme Court. California's bar is the largest in the U.S. with 210,000 members, of whom 160,000 are practicing.[29][30]

text: Reputation[edit]

text: As the Wall Street Journal said in 1972:

text: The state's high court over the past 20 years has won a reputation as perhaps the most innovative of the state judiciaries, setting precedents in areas of criminal justice, civil liberties, racial integration, and consumer protection that heavily influence other states and the federal bench.[31]

text: Statistical analyses conducted by LexisNexis personnel at the Court's request indicate that the decisions of the Supreme Court of California are by far the most followed of any state supreme court in the United States.[32] Between 1940 and 2005, 1,260 decisions of the Court were expressly followed by out-of-state courts (meaning that those courts expressly found the Court's reasoning persuasive and applied it to the cases before them).

text: Many important legal concepts have been pioneered or developed by the Court, including strict liability for defective products, fair procedure, negligent infliction of emotional distress, palimony, insurance bad faith, wrongful life, and market-share liability.

text: The major film studios in and around Hollywood and the high-tech firms of Silicon Valley both fall under the Court's jurisdiction. Thus, the Court has decided a number of cases by, between, and against such companies, as well as several cases involving Hollywood celebrities[33] and high-tech executives.[34]

text: The California Supreme Court and all lower California state courts use a different writing style and citation system from the federal courts and many other state courts. California citations have the year between the names of the parties and the reference to the case reporter, as opposed to the national standard (the Bluebook) of putting the year at the end. For example, the famous case Marvin v. Marvin, which established the standard for non-marital partners' ability to sue for their contributions to the partnership, is rendered Marvin v. Marvin (1976) 18 Cal.3d 660 [134 Cal.Rptr. 815, 557 P.2d 106] in California style, while it would be Marvin v. Marvin, 18 Cal. 3d 660, 557 P.2d 106, 134 Cal. Rptr. 815 (1976), in Bluebook style. The California citation style, however, has always been the norm of common law jurisdictions outside the United States, including England, Canada and Australia.

text: While the U.S. Supreme Court justices indicate the author of an opinion and who has "joined" the opinion at the start of the opinion, California justices always sign a majority opinion at the end, followed by "WE CONCUR," and then the names of the joining justices. California judges are traditionally not supposed to use certain ungrammatical terms in their opinions, which has led to embarrassing fights between judges and the editor of the state's official reporters. California has traditionally avoided the use of certain French and Latin phrases like en banc, certiorari, and mandamus, so California judges and attorneys use "in bank," "review," and "mandate" instead (though "in bank" has become quite rare after 1974).

text: Finally, the Court has the power to "depublish" opinions by the Courts of Appeal (as opposed to the federal practice of not publishing certain "unpublished" opinions at all in the federal case reporters).[35] This means that even though the opinion has already been published in the official state reporters, it will be binding only upon the parties.[36] Stare decisis does not apply, and any new rules articulated will not be applied in future cases. Similarly, the California Supreme Court has the power to "publish" opinions by the California Courts of Appeal which were initially not published.[35]

text: Important cases[edit]

text: The California Supreme Court has handed down important and influential decisions since 1850. Some of the most significant of these important and influential Court decisions are listed below in date descending order. Most of the Court decisions that follow were landmark decisions that were the first such decisions in the United States or the world.

text: Houston v. Williams,[37] a leading case on the separation of powers[38] under the California Constitution.

text:
Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co.,[39] then-Associate Justice Roger Traynor suggested in a now-famous concurring opinion that the Court should dispose of legal fictions like warranties and impose strict liability for defective products as a matter of public policy.
Perez v. Sharp,[40] the Court overturned the statutory ban on interracial marriage as unconstitutional. Perez directly influenced the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision on this issue, Loving v. Virginia (1967).
Summers v. Tice,[41] the Court shifted the burden to the defense to disprove causation when it was clear that one of two defendants must have caused the plaintiff's injury, but it was not clear which one.
Dillon v. Legg,[42] the Court radically expanded the tort of negligent infliction of emotional distress (NIED) beyond its traditional form, which historically had been limited to plaintiffs standing in the same "zone of danger" as a relative who was killed.
Rowland v. Christian,[43] the Court abolished the old distinctions between different types of persons entering land and imposed a general duty of care in the context of the tort of negligence.
People v. Anderson,[44] the Court relied upon the state constitutional clause prohibiting "cruel or unusual punishment" (note the difference from the federal Constitution's "cruel and unusual punishment" clause) to abolish capital punishment in California. The state electorate promptly overruled Anderson that same year with a popular initiative, Proposition 17, that kept the "cruel or unusual" clause but declared the death penalty to be neither cruel nor unusual.
Pitchess v. Superior Court,[45] the Court held that criminal defendants have a right to access the arresting officer's personnel file when the defendant alleges in an affidavit that the officer used excessive force or lied about the circumstances of the arrest.
Li v. Yellow Cab Co.,[46] the Court embraced comparative negligence as part of California tort law and rejected strict contributory negligence.
Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California,[47] the Court held that mental health professionals have a duty to protect individuals who are being threatened with bodily harm by a patient. The original 1974 decision mandated warning the threatened individual, but a 1976 rehearing resulted in a decision calling for a "duty to protect" the intended victim, which did not necessarily require that a potential victim be informed of the threat.
Marvin v. Marvin,[48] the Court ruled in favor of the enforceability of non-marital relationship contracts, express or implied, to the extent that they are not founded purely upon meretricious sexual services. In other words, even though California does not recognize common law marriage, persons who cohabit for long periods of time and commingle their assets are allowed to plead and prove marriage-like contracts for support and division of property.
Robins v. Pruneyard Shopping Center,[49] the Court found that the broad right to freedom of speech in the state constitution included an implied right to freedom of speech in private shopping centers. The U.S. Supreme Court in turn held that the state supreme court's decision did not amount to a "taking" of the shopping center under federal constitutional law.
Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories,[50] the Court imposed market share liability on the makers of fungible hazardous products.
Thing v. La Chusa,[51] the Court withdrew from the expansive form of NIED set forth in Dillon and imposed a rigid bright-line test for recovery in bystander NIED cases. The Thing decision included extensive dicta hostile to plaintiffs which more generally limited the scope of recovery for both the tort of negligence and emotional distress damages in California.
Moore v. Regents of the University of California,[52] the Court held that patients do not have intellectual property rights in profits from medical discoveries made with their body parts.
Wendland v. Wendland,[53] the Court held that in the absence of a legally recognized method of determining who should make medical decisions on the behalf of an incompetent patient, the constitutional right to life and right to privacy granted special protection to the incompetent person.
Yount v. City of Sacramento,[54] the Court held that a criminal conviction does not limit an individual's right to bring civil action for deprivation of rights in cases of excessive use of force.
In re Marriage Cases,[55] the Court held that sexual orientation is a protected class which requires strict scrutiny and under such scrutiny, laws prohibiting same-sex marriage are unconstitutional under the state constitution. The state electorate overturned the marriage portion of the decision that same year by enacting a popular initiative, Proposition 8, but left in place the discrimination protections.
Silicon Valley Taxpayers’ Assn., Inc. v. Santa Clara County Open Space Authority,[56] the Court held in a Proposition 218 ("Right to Vote on Taxes Act") case that courts must exercise their independent judgment in reviewing local agency legislative decisions adopting special assessments. The highly deferential standard of review before Proposition 218 became law was grounded in separation of powers. Because the constitutional provisions of Proposition 218 were of equal dignity to the separation of powers doctrine, it no longer justified allowing a local agency to usurp the judicial function of interpreting and applying the constitutional provisions that governed assessments under Proposition 218.
People v. Diaz,[57] the Court held that the warrantless search of information in a cell phone was valid when incident to a lawful arrest. (The holding in Diaz was eventually repudiated by the United States Supreme Court in Riley v. California.)

text: Notable former justices[edit]

text:
Serranus Clinton Hastings, Chief Justice (1850–1852) (First Chief Justice, founded Hastings College of the Law)
Solomon Heydenfeldt, Associate Justice (1852–1857) (First Jewish justice to be elected by direct vote of the people)[58]
David S. Terry, Chief Justice (1857–1859) (Killed while attempting to assassinate his successor, Stephen Field)
Stephen J. Field, Chief Justice (1859–1863) (Appointed by President Lincoln to the U.S. Supreme Court)
Addison Niles, Associate Justice (1872–1880)
Curtis D. Wilbur, Chief Justice (1923–1924) (Appointed by President Coolidge as U.S. Secretary of the Navy)
Mathew Tobriner, Associate Justice (1962–1982)
Roger J. Traynor, Chief Justice (1964–1970), Associate Justice (1940–1964) (Well-respected legal scholar; generally regarded as the greatest justice in the history of the Court)
Stanley Mosk, Associate Justice (1964–2001) (Longest serving justice)
Wiley W. Manuel, Associate Justice (1977–1981) (First African-American on the Court; well known for his pro bono work)
Rose E. Bird, Chief Justice (1977–1987) (First woman appointed to the Court; only Chief Justice ever not to be retained by the electorate)
Otto Kaus, Associate Justice (1981-1985)
Allen Broussard, Associate Justice (1981–1991)
Cruz Reynoso, Associate Justice (1982–1987) (First Latino on the Court)
Janice Rogers Brown, Associate Justice (1996–2005) (Appointed by President G.W. Bush to the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals)
Ronald M. George, Chief Justice (1996–2011), Associate Justice (1991–1996)

text: List of chief justices[edit]

text:
#
Name
Term

1
Serranus Clinton Hastings
1850–1852

2
Henry A. Lyons
1852

3
Hugh C. Murray
1852–1857

4
David S. Terry
1857–1859

5
Stephen J. Field
1859–1863

6
W.W. Cope
1863–1864

7
Silas W. Sanderson
1864–1866

8
John Currey
1866–1868

9
Lorenzo Sawyer
1868–1870

10
Augustus L. Rhodes
1870–1872

11
Royal T. Sprague
1872

12
William T. Wallace
1872–1879

13
Robert F. Morrison
1879–1887

14
Niles Searls
1887–1889

15
William H. Beatty
1889–1914

16
Matt I. Sullivan
1914–1915

17
Frank M. Angellotti
1915–1921

18
Lucien Shaw
1921–1923

19
Curtis D. Wilbur
1923–1924

20
Louis W. Myers
1924–1926

21
William H. Waste
1926–1940

22
Phil S. Gibson
1940–1964

23
Roger J. Traynor
1964–1970

24
Donald R. Wright
1970–1977

25
Rose Elizabeth Bird
1977–1987

26
Malcolm M. Lucas
1987–1996

27
Ronald M. George
1996–2011

28
Tani Cantil-Sakauye
2011–present


document_title: Estates of the realm

question_text: the french population was split into 3 divisions called

text: Estates of the realm

text: Social immobility[edit]

text: During the Middle Ages, advancing to different social classes was uncommon and very difficult.

text: The medieval Church was an institution where social mobility was most likely up to a certain level (generally to that of vicar general or abbot/abbess for commoners). Typically, only nobility were appointed to the highest church positions (bishops, archbishops, heads of religious orders, etc.), although low nobility could aspire to the highest church positions. Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation. Nepotism was common in this period.

text: Another possible way to rise in social position was due to exceptional military or commercial success. Such families were rare and their rise to nobility required royal patronage at some point. However, because noble lines went extinct naturally, some ennoblements were necessary.

text: Dynamics[edit]

text: "Medieval political speculation is imbued to the marrow with the idea of a structure of society based upon distinct orders," Johan Huizinga observes.[1] The virtually synonymous terms estate and order designated a great variety of social realities, not at all limited to a class, Huizinga concluded applying to every social function, every trade, every recognisable grouping.

text: There are, first of all, the estates of the realm, but there are also the trades, the state of matrimony and that of virginity, the state of sin. At court there are the 'four estates of the body and mouth': bread-masters, cup-bearers, carvers, and cooks. In the Church there are sacerdotal orders and monastic orders. Finally there are the different orders of chivalry.[1]

text: This static view of society was predicated on inherited positions. Commoners were universally considered the lowest order. The higher estates' necessary dependency on the commoners' production, however, often further divided the otherwise equal common people into burghers (also known as bourgeoisie) of the realm's cities and towns, and the peasants and serfs of the realm's surrounding lands and villages. A person's estate and position within it were usually inherited from the father and his occupation, similar to a caste within that system. In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.

text: Legislative bodies or advisory bodies to a monarch were traditionally grouped along lines of these estates, with the monarch above all three estates. Meetings of the estates of the realm became early legislative and judicial parliaments. Monarchs often sought to legitimize their power by requiring oaths of fealty from the estates. Today, in most countries, the estates have lost all their legal privileges, and are mainly of historical interest. The nobility may be an exception, for instance due to legislation against false titles of nobility; similarly British government well maintains the distinction- witness its House of Lords, and the House of Commons.

text: One of the earliest political pamphlets to address these ideas was called "What Is the Third Estate?" (French: Qu'est-ce que le tiers-état?) It was written by Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès in January 1789, shortly before the start of the French Revolution.

text: Background[edit]

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, numerous geographic and ethnic kingdoms developed among the endemic peoples of Europe, affecting their day-to-day secular lives; along with those, the growing influence of the Catholic Church and its Papacy affected the ethical, moral and religious lives and decisions of all. This led to mutual dependency between the secular and religious powers for guidance and protection, but over time and with the growing power of the kingdoms, competing secular realities increasingly diverged from religious idealism and Church decisions.

text: The new lords of the land identified themselves primarily as warriors, but because new technologies of warfare were expensive, and the fighting men required substantial material resources and considerable leisure to train, these needs had to be filled. The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.

text: In his book The Three Orders: Feudal Society Imagined, the French medievalist Georges Duby has shown that in the period 1023-1025 the first theorist who justified the division of European society into the three estates of the realm was Gerard of Florennes, the bishop of Cambrai.[2]

text: As a result of the Investiture Controversy of the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the powerful office of Holy Roman Emperor lost much of its religious character and retained a more nominal universal preeminence over other rulers, though it varied. The struggle over investiture and the reform movement also legitimized all secular authorities, partly on the grounds of their obligation to enforce discipline.[3]

text: In the 11th and 12th centuries thinkers argued that human society consisted of three orders: those who pray, those who fight, and those who labour. The structure of the first order, the clergy, was in place by 1200 and remained singly intact until the religious reformations of the 16th century. The very general category of those who labour (specifically, those who were not knightly warriors or nobles) diversified rapidly after the 11th century into the lively and energetic worlds of peasants, skilled artisans, merchants, financiers, lay professionals, and entrepreneurs, which together drove the European economy to its greatest achievements. The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous. Kings took pains to ensure that it did not resist their authority.[4]

text: By the 12th century, most European political thinkers agreed that monarchy was the ideal form of governance. This was because it imitated on earth the model set by God for the universe; it was the form of government of the ancient Hebrews and the Christian Biblical basis, the later Roman Empire, and also the peoples who succeeded Rome after the 4th century.[3]

text: Kingdom of France[edit]

text: France under the Ancien Régime (before the French Revolution) divided society into three estates: the First Estate (clergy); the Second Estate (nobility); and the Third Estate (commoners). The king was considered part of no estate.

text: First Estate[edit]

text: The First Estate comprised the entire clergy, traditionally divided into "higher" and "lower" clergy. Although there was no formal demarcation between the two categories, the upper clergy were, effectively, clerical nobility, from the families of the Second Estate. In the time of Louis XVI, every bishop in France was a nobleman, a situation that had not existed before the 18th century.[5]

text: At the other extreme, the "lower clergy" (about equally divided between parish priests, monks, and nuns) constituted about 90 percent of the First Estate, which in 1789 numbered around 130,000 (about 0.5% of the population).[citation needed]

text: Second Estate[edit]

text: The Second Estate (Fr. deuxieme état) was the French nobility and (technically, though not in common use) royalty, other than the monarch himself, who stood outside of the system of estates.

text: The Second Estate is traditionally divided into noblesse d'épée ("nobility of the sword"), and noblesse de robe ("nobility of the robe"), the magisterial class that administered royal justice and civil government.

text: The Second Estate constituted approximately 1.5% of France's population.[citation needed] Under the ancien régime ("old rule/old government"), the Second Estate were exempt from the corvée royale (forced labour on the roads) and from most other forms of taxation such as the gabelle (salt tax) and most important, the taille (the oldest form of direct taxation). This exemption from paying taxes led to their reluctance to reform.

text: Third Estate[edit]

text:
Kingdom of France

Structure

Estates of the realm
Parlements
French nobility
Taille
Gabelle
Seigneurial system

v
t
e

text: The Third Estate comprised all of those who were not members of the above and can be divided into two groups, urban and rural, together making up 98% of France's population.[citation needed] The urban included wage-labourers. The rural included free peasants (who owned their own land) who could be prosperous and villeins (serfs, or peasants working on a noble's land). The free peasants paid disproportionately high taxes compared to the other Estates and were unhappy because they wanted more rights. In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's unequal status all the more glaring.

text: There were an estimated 27 million people in the Third Estate when the French Revolution started.

text: They had the hard life of physical labour and food shortages.[citation needed] Most were born within this group and died as a part of it, too. It was extremely rare for people of this ascribed status to make it out into another estate. Those who did so managed as a result of either being recognized for their extraordinary bravery in a battle or entering religious life.[6] A few commoners were able to marry into the second estate, but this was a rare occurrence.[6]

text: Estates General[edit]

text: The first Estates General (not to be confused with a "class of citizen") was actually a general citizen assembly that was called by Philip IV in 1302.

text: In the period leading up to the Estates General of 1789, France was in the grip of an unmanageable public debt (nearly 3.56 million livres).[7] In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms. The next year, Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed Comptroller-General of Finance. He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant.[8]), terrible inflation and widespread food scarcity (a huge famine in the winter of 1788-89). This led to widespread popular discontent and produced a group of Third Estate representatives (612 exactly) pressing a comparatively radical set of reforms, much of it in alignment with the goals of Finance Minister Jacques Necker, but very much against the wishes of Louis XVI's court and many of the hereditary nobles forming his Second Estate allies (at least allies against taking more taxes upon themselves and keeping the unequal taxation on the commoners).

text: When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation. The lower clergy (and some nobles and upper clergy) eventually sided with the Third Estate, and the King was forced to yield. Thus, the Estate-General meeting was an invitation to revolution.

text: By June, when continued impasses led to further deterioration in relations, the Estates-General was reconstituted first as the National Assembly (June 17, 1789) seeking a solution for the realm independent of the King's management of the meetings of the Estates General which occasionally continued to meet. These self-organized meetings are today defined as the epoch event beginning the historical epoch (era) of the French Revolution, during which – after several more weeks of civil unrest – the body assumed a new status as a revolutionary legislature, the National Constituent Assembly (July 9, 1789).[9]

text: This unitary body composed of the former representatives of the three estates stepping up to govern along with an emergency committee in the power vacuum existing after the Bourbon monarchy fled Paris. Among the Assembly was Maximilien de Robespierre, an influential member of the Jacobins who would years later become instrumental in the turbulent period of violence and political upheaval in France known as the Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 – 28 July 1794).[9]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Whilst the estates were never formulated in a way that prevented social mobility, the English (subsequently the British) parliament was long based along the classic estate lines being composed on the "Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons". The tradition where the Lords Spiritual and Temporal sat separately from the Commons began during the reign of Edward III in the 14th century.

text: Notwithstanding the House of Lords Act 1999, the British Parliament still recognises the existence of the three estates: the Commons in the House of Commons, the nobility (Lords Temporal) in the House of Lords, and the clergy in the form of the Church of England bishops also entitled to sit in the upper House as the Lords Spiritual.

text: Scotland[edit]

text: The members of the Parliament of Scotland were collectively referred to as the Three Estates (Older Scots: Thre Estaitis), also known as the community of the realm, and until 1690 composed of:

text:
the first estate of prelates (bishops and abbots)
the second estate of lairds (dukes, earls, parliamentary peers (after 1437) and lay tenants-in-chief)
the third estate of burgh commissioners (representatives chosen by the royal burghs)

text: The First Estate was overthrown during the Glorious Revolution and the accession of William III.[10] The Second Estate was then split into two to retain the division into three.

text: A Shire Commissioner was the closest equivalent of the English office of Member of Parliament, namely a commoner or member of the lower nobility. Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.

text: The Parliament also had University constituencies (see Ancient universities of Scotland). The system was also adopted by the Parliament of England when James VI ascended to the English throne. It was believed that the universities were affected by the decisions of Parliament and ought therefore to have representation in it. This continued in the Parliament of Great Britain after 1707 and the Parliament of the United Kingdom until 1950.[11]

text: Sweden and Finland[edit]

text: The Estates in Sweden (including Finland) and later also Russia's Grand Duchy of Finland were the two higher estates, nobility and clergy, and the two lower estates, burghers and land-owning peasants. Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates. The Riksdag, and later the Diet of Finland was tetracameral: at the Riksdag, each Estate voted as a single body. Since early 18th century, a bill needed the approval of at least three Estates to pass, and constitutional amendments required the approval of all Estates. Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.

text: After Russia's conquest of Finland in 1809, the estates in Finland swore an oath to the Emperor in the Diet of Porvoo. A Finnish House of Nobility was codified in 1818 in accordance with the old Swedish law of 1723. However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863. In the meantime, for a period of 54 years, the country was governed only administratively.

text: There was also a population outside the estates. Unlike in other areas, people had no "default" estate, and were not peasants unless they came from a land-owner's family. A summary of this division is:

text:
Nobility (see Finnish nobility and Swedish nobility) was exempt from tax, had an inherited rank and the right to keep a fief, and had a tradition of military service and government. Nobility was codified in 1280 with the Swedish king granting exemption from taxation (frälse) to land-owners that could equip a cavalryman (or be one themselves) for the king's army. Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land. Following Axel Oxenstierna's reform, higher government offices were open only to nobles. However, the nobility still owned only their own property, not the peasants or their land as in much of Europe. Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles. The Nobility is divided into titled nobility (counts and barons) and lower nobility. Until the 18th century the lower nobility was in turn was divided into Knights and Esquires such that each of the three classes would first vote internally, giving one vote per class in the assembly. This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.
Clergy, or priests, were exempt from tax, and collected tithes for the church. After the Swedish Reformation, the church became Lutheran. In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools. The estate was governed by the state church which consecrated its ministers and appointed them to positions with a vote in choosing diet representatives.
Burghers were city-dwellers, tradesmen and craftsmen. Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds. Entry to this Estate was controlled by the autonomy of the towns themselves. Peasants were allowed to sell their produce within the city limits, but any further trade, particularly foreign trade, was allowed only for burghers. In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights. After the annexation of Finland into Imperial Russia in 1809, mill-owners and other proto-industrialists would gradually be included in this estate.
Peasants were land-owners of land-taxed farms and their families, which represented the majority in medieval times. Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries. Entry was controlled by ownership of farmland, which was not generally for sale but a hereditary property. After 1809, Swedish tenants renting a large enough farm (ten times larger than what was required of peasants owning their own farm) were included as well as non-nobility owning tax-exempt land.
To no estate belonged propertyless cottagers, villeins, tenants of farms owned by others, farmhands, servants, some lower administrative workers, rural craftsmen, travelling salesmen, vagrants, and propertyless and unemployed people (who sometimes lived in strangers' houses). To reflect how the people belonging to the estates saw them, the Finnish word for "obscene", säädytön, has the literal meaning "estateless". Their mobility was severely limited by the policy of "legal protection" (Finnish: laillinen suojelu): every estateless person had to be employed by a taxed citizen from the estates, or they could be charged with vagrancy and sentenced to forced labor. In Finland, this policy lasted until 1883.[12]

text: In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property. Nevertheless, many of the leading politicians of the 19th century continued to be drawn from the old estates, in that they were either noblemen themselves, or represented agricultural and urban interests. Ennoblements continued even after the estates had lost their political importance, with the last ennoblement of explorer Sven Hedin taking place in 1902; this practice was formally abolished with the adoption of the new Constitution January 1, 1975, while the status of the House of Nobility continued to be regulated in law until 2003.

text: In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772. However, at the start of the 20th century most of the population did not belong to any Estate and had no political representation. A particularly large class were the rent farmers, who did not own the land they cultivated but had to work in the land-owner's farm to pay their rent (unlike Russia, there were no slaves or serfs.) Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.

text: The political system was reformed as a result of the Finnish general strike of 1905, with the last Diet instituting a new constitutional law to create the modern parliamentary system, ending the political privileges of the estates. The post-independence constitution of 1919 forbade ennoblement, and all tax privileges were abolished in 1920. The privileges of the estates were officially and finally abolished in 1995,[13] although in legal practice, the privileges had long been unenforceable. As in Sweden, the nobility has not been officially abolished and records of nobility are still voluntarily maintained by the Finnish House of Nobility.

text: In Finland, it is still illegal and punishable by jail time (up to one year) to defraud into marriage by declaring a false name or estate (Rikoslaki 18 luku § 1/Strafflagen 18 kap. § 1).

text: Low Countries[edit]

text: The Low Countries, which until the late sixteenth century consisted of several counties, prince bishoprics, duchies etc. in the area that is now modern Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, had no States General until 1464, when Duke Philip of Burgundy assembled the first States General in Bruges. Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled. On these occasions deputies from the States of the various provinces (as the counties, prince-bishoprics and duchies were called) asked for more liberties. For this reason, the States General were not assembled very often.

text: As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands. After the reconquest of the southern Netherlands (roughly Belgium and Luxemburg), the States General of the Dutch Republic first assembled permanently in Middelburg, and in The Hague from 1585 onward. Without a king to rule the country, the States General became the sovereign power. It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.

text: During that time the States General were formed by representatives of the States (i.e. provincial parliaments) of the seven provinces. In each States (a plurale tantum) sat representatives of the nobility and the cities (the clergy were no longer represented; in Friesland the peasants were indirectly represented by the Grietmannen).

text: In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.

text: As a government, the States General of the Dutch Republic were abolished in 1795. A new parliament was created, called Nationale Vergadering (National Assembly). It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution. Eventually, the Netherlands became part of the French Empire under Napoleon (1810: La Hollande est reunie à l'Empire).

text: After regaining independence in November 1813, the name "States General" was resurrected for a legislature constituted in 1814 and elected by the States-Provincial. In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber. The members of the First Chamber were appointed for life by the King, while the members of the Second Chamber were elected by the members of the States Provincial. The States General resided in The Hague and Brussels in alternate years until 1830, when, as a result of the Belgian Revolution, The Hague became once again the sole residence of the States General, Brussels instead hosting the newly founded Belgian Parliament.

text: From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial. As a result, the Second Chamber became the most important. The First Chamber is also called Senate. This however, is not a term used in the Constitution.

text: Occasionally the First and Second Chamber meet in a Verenigde Vergadering (Joint Session), for instance on Prinsjesdag, the annual opening of the parliamentary year, and when a new king is inaugurated.

text: Holy Roman Empire[edit]

text: The Holy Roman Empire had the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries. The nobility consisted of independent aristocratic rulers: secular prince-electors, kings, dukes, margraves, counts and others. Burghers consisted of representatives of the independent imperial cities. Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages. The power of the Imperial Diet was limited, despite efforts of centralization.

text: Large realms of the nobility or clergy had estates of their own that could wield great power in local affairs. Power struggles between ruler and estates were comparable to similar events in the history of the British and French parliaments.

text: The Swabian League, a significant regional power in its part of Germany during the 15th Century, also had its own kind of Estates, a governing Federal Council comprising three Colleges: those of Princes, Cities, and Knights.

text: Russian Empire[edit]

text: In the late Russian Empire the estates were called sosloviyes. The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein. The division in estates was of mixed nature: traditional, occupational, as well as formal: for example, voting in Duma was carried out by estates. Russian Empire Census recorded the reported estate of a person.

text: Catalonia[edit]

text: The Parliament of Catalonia was first established in 1283 as the Catalan Courts (Corts Catalanes), according to American historian Thomas Bisson, and it has been considered by several historians as a model of medieval parliament. For instance, English historian of constitutionalism Charles Howard McIlwain wrote that the General Courts of Catalonia, during the 14th century, had a more defined organization and met more regularly than the parliaments of England or France.[14]

text: The roots of the parliament institution in Catalonia are in the Sanctuary and Truce Assemblies (assemblees de pau i treva) that started in the 11th century. The members of the parliament of Catalonia were organized in the Three Estates (Catalan: Tres Estats):

text:
the "military estate" (polígons militars) with representatives of the feudal nobility
the "ecclesiastical estate" (eclesiàstica arrels) with representatives of the religious hierarchy
the "royal estate" (real estate) with representatives of the free municipalities under royal privilege

text: The parliament institution was abolished in 1716, together with the rest of institutions of Catalonia, after the War of the Spanish Succession.